NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

Statistical Analysis Report October 1997

Postsecondary Education Descriptive Analysis Reports

Access to Postsecondary Education for

the 1992 High School Graduates

Lutz Berkner

Lisa Chavez

MPR Associates, Inc.

2150 Shattuck Avenue, Suite 800

Berkeley, CA 94704-1321

C. Dennis Carroll

Project Officer

National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Education

Office of Educational Research and Improvement NCES 98-105
2

U.S. Department of Education

Richard W. Riley

Secretary

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

Ricky Takai

Acting Assistant Secretary

National Center for Education Statistics

Pascal D. Forgione, Jr.

Commissioner

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal entity for

collecting, analyzing, and reporting data related to education in the United States and

other nations. It fulfills a congressional mandate to collect, collate, analyze, and report full

and complete statistics on the condition of education in the United States; conduct and

publish reports and specialized analyses of the meaning and significance of such statistics;

assist state and local education agencies in improving their statistical systems; and review

and report on education activities in foreign countries.

NCES activities are designed to address high priority education data needs; provide

consistent, reliable, complete, and accurate indicators of education status and trends; and

report timely, useful, and high quality data to the U.S. Department of Education, the

Congress, the states, other education policymakers, practitioners, data users, and the

general public.

We strive to make our products available in a variety of formats and in language that is

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success in communicating information effectively. If you have any comments or

suggestions about this or any other NCES product or report, we would like to hear from

you. Please direct your comments to:

National Center for Education Statistics

Office of Educational Research and Improvement

U.S. Department of Education

555 New Jersey Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20208–5651

October 1997

Suggested Citation

U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. Access to

Postsecondary Education for the 1992 High School Graduates, NCES 98-105, by Lutz

Berkner and Lisa Chavez (MPR Associates), C. Dennis Carroll, project officer.

Washington DC: 1997.

Contact:

C. Dennis Carroll

(202) 219-1774
iii

HIGHLIGHTS

This report uses data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88)

to examine access to postsecondary education of 1992 high school graduates by 1994, two years

after high school graduation. After an overview of the postsecondary enrollment rates of the 1992

high school graduates by family income, race–ethnicity, and parental levels of education, the report focuses on the factors associated with the relatively low four-year college enrollment rates of

Hispanic, black, and low-income high school graduates. It examines college costs and financial

aid, the educational expectations and immediate college plans of the high school graduates, and

their academic preparation as measured by a four-year “college qualification index” developed for

this study. The index is used to identify those who would have met the minimum requirements to

be admitted to a four-year college, the group of high school graduates who are considered to be

“college-qualified.” The major findings are:

• Although there are differences by income and race–ethnicity in the four-year college enrollment rates of college-qualified high school graduates, the differences between college-qualified low-income and middle-income students, as well as the differences

among college-qualified black, Hispanic, Asian, and white students, are eliminated

among those students who have taken the college entrance examinations and completed

an application for admission, the two steps necessary to attend a four-year college.

• High school graduates whose parents have low levels of income and education are able

to attend four-year colleges at the same rates as students from middle-income families,

if they do what four-year colleges expect them to do. That is, if low-income students

have an academic record and aptitude test scores which demonstrate even the minimal

qualifications for admission to a four-year institution, if they take a college entrance examination, and if they submit an application for admission, the majority of low-income

students enroll in postsecondary education, and over 83 percent attend a four-year college or university.

• College-qualified low-income students who have been accepted for admission to public

four-year colleges and universities and those who have been accepted to private fouryear colleges and universities are just as likely to enroll in them as are middle- and highincome students. There is no measurable difference by family income in the proportion

of those accepted at private institutions who choose to enroll in a public four-year institution instead. There are also no differences in the enrollment rates of those collegequalified blacks, Hispanics, Asians, or whites who have been accepted for admission to

either public or private four-year colleges and universities.
HIGHLIGHTS

iv

• Low-income, black, and Hispanic high school graduates are less likely to be well prepared academically to attend a four-year college. Even among those who are collegequalified, low-income and Hispanic (but not black) students are less likely to take the

college entrance examinations and apply for admission to a four-year institution.

• Among all college-qualified seniors who enrolled in postsecondary education, Hispanics

were less likely than any other racial–ethnic group to attend a four-year institution. Instead, college-qualified Hispanics were more likely than any other racial–ethnic group

to attend a public two-year institution. College-qualified Hispanics were also less likely

to take college entrance examinations and submit an application for admission to a fouryear institution compared with Asian, white, and black college-qualified students.

• Three-quarters of all 1992 high school graduates enrolled in some type of postsecondary institution by 1994. Almost half (45 percent) enrolled in a four-year institution,

one-quarter (26 percent) enrolled in a public two-year college, and 4 percent enrolled in

other institutions offering less than four-year programs.

• The proportion of all students who enrolled in postsecondary education within two

years of high school graduation was directly related to family income: 64 percent of

low-income, 79 percent of middle-income, and 93 percent of high-income students attended postsecondary education by 1994.

• About 80 percent of the low-income high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary institutions received financial aid. Their average educational expenses after financial aid ranged from about $4,900 at public two- and four-year institutions to $5,700 at

private, not-for-profit, four-year institutions. To help meet these costs, two-thirds of

the low-income students worked while enrolled, for an average of 24 hours a week.

• When the 1992 high school graduates were in the eighth grade, 59 percent of lowincome, 76 percent of middle-income, and 92 percent of high-income students said that

they expected to finish college. There was no substantial change in these expectations

by family income or race–ethnicity when they were seniors in 1992.

• Nearly 80 percent of the 1992 high school graduates said that they expected to attend

postsecondary education immediately after high school. In October 1992, 65 percent

were actually enrolled. By 1994, 75 percent had been enrolled. Among those students

who had planned to attend immediately after high school, 89 percent had enrolled by

1994.
v

FOREWORD

This report examines the postsecondary enrollment patterns of 1992 high school graduates

by 1994, two years after they graduated from high school. Specifically, it focuses on the access of

low-income students and racial–ethnic minorities to postsecondary education and the degree to

which the access of students with the academic qualifications to attend a four-year institution is

limited by financial constraints. The analysis relies primarily on data from the second and third

follow-up files of the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), which began

with a nationally representative sample of 1988 eighth graders who were followed up in 1990,

1992, and again in 1994. (A more complete description of the NELS:88 sample can be found in

Appendix B of this report.) This was supplemented with information on college costs and financial aid for a comparable group of students in the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study,

1992–93 (NPSAS:93).

The NELS:88 surveys contain extensive information on student and parent attitudes about

college costs and financial aid, educational expectations, plans for postsecondary education, the

types of institutions to which they applied, and where they enrolled. In addition to information

about family income, parental levels of education, and racial–ethnic background, the surveys

contain many indicators of academic aptitude, achievement, and coursework in high school. This

makes it possible to study differences in postsecondary enrollment patterns from a variety of perspectives.

The estimates presented in this report were produced using the NELS:88/94 and NPSAS:93

Data Analysis Systems (DAS). The DAS is a microcomputer application that allows users to

specify and generate their own tables from the NELS and NPSAS data. The DAS produces design-adjusted standard errors necessary for statistical testing of differences shown in the tables.

Additional information about the DAS can found in appendix B of this report.
vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank all those who contributed to this report. At MPR Associates,

Laura Horn reviewed the analysis at various stages and provided helpful comments. Thanks also

go to Barbara Kridl, who supervised the production of the report; Andrea Livingston and Karyn

Madden, who edited it; Helen Jang, who prepared the graphics; and Mary Sukkestad and Don

Eike, who formatted the tables and assembled the final report.

We would also like to acknowledge the careful review and thoughtful comments of the following reviewers: Dennis Carroll, Robert Burton, Ellen Bradburn, Marilyn McMillen, and Andrew Kolstad at NCES; David Bergeron from the Department of Education’s Office of

Postsecondary Education; and Jacqueline King from the American Council of Education.
vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Highlights................................................................................................................................. iii

Foreword ................................................................................................................................... v

Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................... vi

List of Tables........................................................................................................................... vii

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ xiii

Introduction ..............................................................................................................................1

Characteristics and Postsecondary Attendance of 1992 High School Graduates...................3

Financial Aid and College Costs...............................................................................................9

Postsecondary Expectations, Plans, and Attendance Through 1994..................................... 15

Qualification for Admission to Four-Year Colleges............................................................... 21

Expectations, Plans, and Postsecondary Attendance of College-Qualified Students............ 33

Steps Toward Attending a Four-Year Institution ................................................................. 41

Choice of Institutions by College-Qualified Applicants Who Are Accepted

for Admission............................................................................................................... 49

Financial Concerns, Information, and Taking the Steps to Attend a Four-Year

College.......................................................................................................................... 53

Attendance Patterns of Seniors Marginally or Not Qualified for Regular Four-Year

College Admission ....................................................................................................... 63

A Multivariate Analysis of Two-Year Public and Four-Year College

Enrollment Rates......................................................................................................... 67

Summary ................................................................................................................................. 71

Appendix A—Glossary ........................................................................................................... 77

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology.................................................................. 95
viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates according to family income and

parent’s highest level of education, by race–ethnicity, family income, and parent’s

highest education level.....................................................................................................4

2 Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates, according to postsecondary

enrollment by 1994 and type of institution attended, by background

characteristics..................................................................................................................7

3 Percentage of low-income 1992 high school graduates who attended postsecondary

education by 1994 receiving types of financial aid and average amount of total aid as

reported by students in NELS:88, by type of postsecondary institution attended ............ 10

4 Percentage of low-income dependent 1992 high school graduates enrolled in

postsecondary education in 1992–93 receiving types of financial aid and

average amount of total aid as reported by the institutions in NPSAS:93,

by type of institution attended........................................................................................ 10

5 Average tuition, grant aid, and net tuition of low-income dependent 1992 high school

graduates enrolled in postsecondary education in 1992–93, by type of institution

attended ........................................................................................................................ 12

6 Average amounts of tuition, total costs of attendance, financial aid, and net cost after

aid for low-income 1992 high school graduates enrolled in postsecondary education in

1992–93, by type of institution attended ........................................................................ 13

7 Percentage of dependent low-income 1992 high school graduates enrolled in

postsecondary education in 1992–93 who lived with parents, received direct

contributions from parents, and worked while enrolled, by type of institution

attended ........................................................................................................................ 14

8 Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates according to their educational

expectations in 1988 and in 1992, by background characteristics ................................... 16
LIST OF TABLES

ix

Table Page

9 Percentage of 1992 high school graduates who planned to attend postsecondary

education after high school, percentage that enrolled in postsecondary education by

October 1992 and by 1994 and the percentage enrolled by 1994 of those who

planned to attend immediately after high school, by background characteristics.............. 17

10 Percentage distribution of all 1992 high school graduates who planned to attend a 4-year

institution immediately after high school, according to postsecondary enrollment

by 1994 and type of institution attended, by background characteristics ......................... 19

11 Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates according to the number

of sources available for classification as “college qualified,” by college

qualification index and enrollment status........................................................................ 23

12 Average scores for the criteria used to classify 1992 high school graduates’

qualifications for 4-year college work according to postsecondary enrollment,

by levels of college qualification and enrollment status................................................... 25

13 Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates according to the number

of sources available for classification as “college qualified,” by student

background characteristics and enrollment status ........................................................... 27

14 Percentage distribution of all 1992 high school graduates who enrolled in a 4-year

institution by 1994, according to 4-year college qualification, by background

characteristics ............................................................................................................... 28

15 Percentage of all 1992 high school graduates qualified to attend a 4-year postsecondary

institution and percentage distribution of their level of qualification, by background

characteristics ............................................................................................................... 29

16 Percentage distribution of all 1992 high school graduates, according to postsecondary

attendance by 1994, by the 4-year college qualification index ........................................ 30

17 Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates according to the highest

level of education expected in 1988 and in 1992, and 4-year college

qualification, by background characteristics.................................................................... 34

18 Percentage distribution of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates who

in 1992 expected to finish college, according to plans for postsecondary

attendance in 1992, by background characteristics ........................................................ 35

19 Percentage distribution of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates,

according to plans for postsecondary attendance in 1992, by background

characteristics ............................................................................................................... 36
LIST OF TABLES

x

Table Page

20 Percentage distribution of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates

according to postsecondary enrollment by 1994 and type of institution

attended, by background characteristics ........................................................................ 37

21 Percentage distribution of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates, according

to enrollment in postsecondary education by 1994 and percentage distribution

of those who enrolled according to type of institution attended, by

background characteristics............................................................................................. 39

22 Percentage distribution of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates and

those who planned to attend a 4-year institution immediately, according to the

steps taken toward admission to a 4-year institution, by background

characteristics ............................................................................................................... 42

23 Percentage distribution of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates who

took both steps toward admission to a 4-year college according to postsecondary

enrollment by 1994 and type of institution attended, by background

characteristics ............................................................................................................... 43

24 Percentage distribution of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates who

took both steps toward admission to a 4-year institution according to enrollment

in postsecondary education by 1994 and percentage distribution of those who

enrolled according to type of institution attended, by background

characteristics ............................................................................................................... 45

25 Percentage of college-qualified 1992 high school graduates who took both

steps toward admission to a 4-year institution according to their

application, acceptance, and attendance at private not-for-profit

and public 4-year institutions, by background characteristics.......................................... 50

26 Percentage distribution of postsecondary attendance of college-qualified 1992

high school graduates who took both steps toward admission to a 4-year

institution, and were accepted for admission to at least one private or at

least one public 4-year institution, by background characteristics.................................... 52

27 Percentage of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates and their parents

who were very concerned about college costs and availability of financial aid,

by background characteristics........................................................................................ 54

28 Percentage distribution of college-qualified 1992 high school graduates and

their parents, according to the number of sources of information read about

financial aid, by background characteristics.................................................................... 55
LIST OF TABLES

xi

Table Page

29 Percentage of college-qualified 1992 high school graduates and their parents

who spoke to others to learn about financial aid, according to the type of

person spoken to, by background characteristics............................................................ 56

30 Percentage distribution of college-qualified 1992 high school graduates according

to the number of steps taken toward attending a 4-year institution, by student

and parent concerns about costs and availability of financial aid in choosing

a college to attend, by elected categories of income and racial–ethnic

background ................................................................................................................... 58

31 Percentage distribution of college-qualified 1992 high school graduates according

to the number of steps taken toward attending a 4-year institution, by number

of sources of information on financial aid read by students and parents,

by selected categories of income and racial–ethnic background ..................................... 59

32 Percentage distribution of college-qualified 1992 high school graduates according

to the number of steps toward attending a 4-year institution, by number of people

spoken to about financial aid by students and parents, by selected categories

of income and racial–ethnic background ........................................................................ 61

33 Percentage distribution of all 1992 high school graduates who were marginally

or not college qualified, according to postsecondary enrollment by 1994 and

type of institution attended, by background characteristics ............................................ 63

34 Percentage of all 1992 high school graduates enrolled in a public 2-year or any

4-year institution by 1994, by background and college-related characteristics,

and the adjusted percentage after taking into account the covariation of the

variables listed in the table ............................................................................................ 70

35 Percentage of all 1992 high school graduates who expected to finish college in

1988 and in 1992, planned to attend a 4-year institution in 1992, took both

steps toward admission, were accepted to a 4-year institution, and enrolled

in a 4-year institution, by 4-year college qualification index and

background characteristics ............................................................................................ 73

36 Percentage of college-qualified 1992 high school graduates who expected to finish college

in 1988 and in 1992, planned to attend a 4-year institution in 1992,

took both steps toward admission, were accepted to a 4-year institution,

and enrolled in a 4-year institution, by 4-year college qualification index

and background characteristics ..................................................................................... 74
LIST OF TABLES

xii

Table Page

37 Percentage of college-qualified 1992 high school graduates who took both steps

toward admission to a 4-year institution who expected to finish college in 1988

and in 1992, planned to attend a 4-year institution in 1992, took both steps

toward admission, were accepted to a 4-year institution, and enrolled in a

4-year institution, by 4-year college qualification index and

background characteristics ............................................................................................ 75

B1 Example of standard errors. Standard errors for table 2: percentage distribution of all

college-qualified 1992 high school graduates according to postsecondary enrollment

by 1994 and type of institution attended, by background characteristics ......................... 97
xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates according to family income and

parents’ highest level of education, by race–ethnicity .......................................................6

2 Percentage of all 1992 high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education

by 1994 according to type of institution attended, by family income and

race–ethnicity .................................................................................................................8

3 Percentage of all 1992 high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education

by 1994 according to type of institution attended, by 4-year college qualification

index ............................................................................................................................ 31

4 Percentage of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates who enrolled in

postsecondary education by 1994 compared with those who took both steps toward

admission to a 4-year institution, according to the type of institution attended

by 1994, by family income ............................................................................................ 46

5 Percentage of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates who enrolled in

postsecondary education by 1994 compared with those who took both steps toward

admission to a 4-year institution, according to the type of institution attended

by 1994, by race–ethnicity ............................................................................................ 47
1

INTRODUCTION

This report uses data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88)

to examine access to postsecondary education of high school seniors who graduated in 1992. Access is measured by comparing the postsecondary enrollment rates of groups of students with

different background characteristics, with the implicit assumption that groups of students who

show similar rates of enrollment in similar types of institutions have had similar access to them.

The specific focus is on how differences in family income, parental education, and students’ race–

ethnicity are reflected in (1) enrollment in postsecondary education within two years of high

school graduation; (2) the type of institution attended; (3) academic preparedness for admission to

a four-year college; (4) taking the necessary steps toward admission to a four-year college; and

(5) obtaining information about financial aid. A central issue is to what extent concerns about

college costs and inadequate information about financial aid may deter low-income students from

applying to four-year colleges and universities. Supplemental data from the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93) is also used to examine the college costs and financial aid

reported for a comparable group of students who were enrolled in postsecondary education in

1992–93.

The descriptive reports of the second and third NELS:88 follow-up surveys have shown that

black and Hispanic students and students with low socioeconomic status (SES) are less likely to

take college preparatory courses, to apply to colleges and take college entrance exams, and to

enroll in four-year institutions than are other students. Most of the differences in postsecondary

enrollment by race–ethnicity and SES disappear among those students who were in the highest

quartile on the aptitude test administered in the NELS survey.1

This report will expand these previous analyses, with a particular focus on those 1992 high

school graduates who may be considered “college qualified” because they have adequate academic course preparation, grades, and aptitude test scores to meet the minimal entrance requirements of most four-year colleges. In addition, this report examines those students who had the

 

1U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, A Profile of the American High School

Senior in 1992 (Washington, D.C.: 1995); and U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Educational Longitudinal Study: 1988–1994, Descriptive Summary Report (Washington, D.C.:

1996).
INTRODUCTION

2

initiative to take a college entrance exam and submit an application for admission to a four-year

institution. If the financial aid system is providing equal educational opportunities and access to

postsecondary schooling, one would expect no substantial differences by family income in the

four-year college enrollment rates of students whose academic records show they are likely to be

admitted to a four-year college and who have taken the necessary steps to be considered for admission. The findings of this study indicate that this is indeed generally the case: there were no

substantial differences by family income in the four-year college enrollment rates of collegequalified high school graduates who apply to and are accepted for admission at four-year colleges.

The report begins by examining some of the important background characteristics of the

1992 high school graduates and their relationship to postsecondary enrollment and the types of

institutions attended within two years of high school graduation. This is followed by an examination of postsecondary costs and financial aid among low-income students enrolled in 1992–93.

Next is a comparison of the educational expectations of the high school graduates when they were

in eighth grade to their expectations in the senior year, as well as their plans for postsecondary

education as seniors. The college qualification index developed for this study will then be discussed, and used to focus on those students who appear to have been qualified for four-year college work. The focus then narrows to those among the college-qualified who take the college

entrance examinations and apply to four-year colleges. Then the enrollment patterns of those who

were accepted for admission to four-year colleges will be examined, including their choice of private and public institutions. This is followed by an examination of the relationship between taking

the steps toward admission to a four-year college, concerns about affordability, and information

acquired about financial aid. Finally, a multivariate analysis of two-year and four-year college enrollment rates is presented. The conclusion includes a series of tables (tables 35–37) that provide a

summary and overview of the information presented in more detail in the text.
3

CHARACTERISTICS AND POSTSECONDARY

ATTENDANCE OF 1992 HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES

It is well established that family income, race–ethnicity, and parental education levels are

related to postsecondary attendance patterns.2Information about these background characteristics

for the 1992 high school graduates is provided in table 1. In this report, students were considered

“low income” if the income reported by their parents was less than $25,000; “middle income” if it

was at least $25,000 and under $75,000; and “high income” if it was $75,000 or more. Using this

definition, about one-quarter (28 percent) of the 1992 high school graduates came from lowincome families, somewhat more than half (57 percent) from middle-income families, and 15 percent from high-income families. Table 1 also illustrates that family income was directly related to

the parents’ highest education level: half (51 percent) of the families in which both parents had no

more than a high school education also had incomes below $25,000, compared to 29 percent of

families in which a parent had taken some college courses and 8 percent in which a parent was a

college graduate. One-third (35 percent) of the families in which a parent held at least a bachelor’s

degree had incomes of $75,000 or more, compared to 6 percent or less of those in which no parent had completed four-year college.

Nearly three-fourths (73 percent) of all the 1992 high school graduates were white, 11 percent were black, 10 percent were Hispanic, 5 percent were Asian/Pacific Islanders, and 1 percent

were American Indian/Alaskan Native.3 More than half of the black and Hispanic students came

from low-income families, compared to one-third of the Asian students and one-fifth of the white

students. Although the income distribution of black and Hispanic families was similar, the

 

2C. Manski and D. Wise, College Choice in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), remains

a basic source. For a survey of the more recent literature, see T. Baker and W. Velez, “Access to and Opportunity

in Postsecondary Education in the United States: A Review,” Sociology of Education, extra issue (1996): 82–101.

Many studies use SES instead of income and education; both are factored into the derivation of SES. Since this

study focuses on college costs and financial aid, it was more appropriate to use income as a separate variable.

3U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Educational Longitudinal

Study: 1988–1994 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System. Because of the small sample size, American Indians were

not included as a separate category of analysis in this study. Since Hispanics can be of any race, when the terms

“white” and “black” are used in the text they should always be assumed to include the qualifier “not of Hispanic

origin.” Similarly, the term “Asian” should always be assumed to include Pacific Islanders. These qualifiers are

always indicated in the tables, but their repeated inclusion in the text would have made the report awkward and

difficult to read.
CHARACTERISTICS OF 1992 HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES

4

Table 1—Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates according to family income and parents’ 

Table 1—highest level of education, by race–ethnicity, family income, and parents’ highest education level

Family income Parents’ highest education level

High

Low Middle High school

 (Less than ($25,000– ($75,000 graduate Some College

 $25,000) $74,999) or more) or less college graduate

 Total 28.1 57.3 14.6 26.5 41.0 32.5

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 33.5 47.0 19.4 21.9 29.2 48.9

 Hispanic regardless of race 52.0 42.8 b5.1 45.8 39.1 15.0

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 53.8 41.5 b4.7 35.4 47.6 16.9

 White, not of Hispanic origin 21.2 61.8 16.9 23.2 40.7 36.2

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) * * * 47.4 43.0 b9.7

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) * * * 20.7 46.7 32.6

 High ($75,000 or more) * * * b5.3 16.5 78.3

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 51.3 45.8 b3.0 * * *

 Some college 29.2 64.9 b5.8 * * *

 College graduate b8.3 56.9 34.8 * * *

*Not applicable.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

parental education levels of Hispanics were lower than those of black students: nearly half (46

percent) of the Hispanic students came from families in which the parents had a high school education or less compared with 35 percent of black students.4

 Unlike black and Hispanic students,

Asians were as likely as white students to come from high-income families, but their parents had

achieved higher levels of education than whites. In fact, nearly half (49 percent) of the Asian students came from families in which a parent was a college graduate,5

 compared with about onethird (36 percent) of the white students. When comparing the students from minority backgrounds

then, these broad differences in family income and educational levels should be kept in mind:

 

4The parents of Hispanic high school graduates were also the most likely not to have finished high school (29 percent compared with 11 percent of Asian, 12 percent of black, and 4 percent of white students). U.S. Department of

Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Educational Longitudinal Study: 1988–1994

(NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

5The parents of Asian high school graduates were also more likely to hold graduate degrees than were parents of

white graduates. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Educational

Longitudinal Study: 1988–1994 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
CHARACTERISTICS OF 1992 HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES

5

Asian high school seniors are more likely to come from families with relatively high incomes and

high levels of education, Hispanics from families with relatively low incomes and low educational

levels, and blacks from families with relatively low incomes but higher levels of education than

Hispanics (figure 1).

The postsecondary attendance patterns of the 1992 high school graduates by 1994 are displayed in table 2. One-quarter did not enroll in any postsecondary institution (25 percent), onequarter enrolled in two-year public community colleges (26 percent), almost half enrolled in fouryear colleges and universities (45 percent), and a small percentage enrolled in other institutions

offering less than four-year programs (4 percent).6

The proportion of students who enrolled in postsecondary education within two years of

high school graduation was related to both family income and parental education. More than 40

percent of the students whose parents had not gone beyond high school and 37 percent of those

from low-income families did not enter postsecondary education. Among black and Hispanic students, the majority of whom came from low-income families, almost 30 percent did not pursue

postsecondary education. Hispanics were more likely not to enter postsecondary education than

either whites (24 percent) or Asians (14 percent); the difference between blacks and whites was

not statistically significant. Among high-income students and those whose parents had a college

degree, about 7 percent had not entered postsecondary education within two years of graduating

from high school.

The proportions of low- and middle-income students attending two-year public colleges

were similar (25 to 28 percent), but high-income students were less likely to attend this type of

institution (14 percent). The two-year public college enrollment rates of students whose parents

had less than a four-year college degree were also similar (27 to 30 percent), while students who

had a parent with a four-year college degree were less likely to enroll in two-year public institutions. One third of Hispanics (34 percent) attended two-year public colleges, compared to about

one-quarter of whites (25 percent) and blacks (23 percent) (figure 2).7

 

6Private, for-profit vocational institutions 3.1 percent; private, not-for-profit 2-year institutions 1.0 percent; and

public less-than-2-year institutions 0.2 percent. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Educational Longitudinal Study: 1988–1994 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

7There was no statistically significant difference between Hispanics and Asians.
CHARACTERISTICS OF 1992 HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES

6

Figure 1—Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates according to family income and parents’ highest level of education, by race–ethnicity

49

36

17 15

29

41

48

39

22 23

35

46

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Asian/Pacific

Islander

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanicHispanic

Race–ethnicity

High school or less

Some college

College graduate

19 17

5 5

47

62

41 43

34

21

54 52

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Asian/Pacific

Islander

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanicHispanic

Race–ethnicity

Under $25,000

$25-$75,000

Over $75,000

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study:

1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
CHARACTERISTICS OF 1992 HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES

7

Table 2—Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates, according to postsecondary enrollment

Table 2—by 1994 and type of institution attended, by background characteristics

Other,

 No less than Public Any

 postsecondary 4-year 2-year 4-year

 education institution* institution institution

 Total 24.8 4.4 25.7 45.1

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 13.8 3.6 28.4 54.2

 Hispanic regardless of race 29.4 5.7 34.3 30.5

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 28.7 6.2 22.7 42.4

 White, not of Hispanic origin 24.1 4.0 24.8 47.1

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 36.5 5.6 25.4 32.5

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 20.7 4.2 27.9 47.2

 High ($75,000 or more) b6.9 2.4 14.1 76.5

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 41.0 5.8 27.3 25.8

 Some college 25.3 4.2 29.5 41.0

 College graduate b7.5 3.1 18.0 71.4

*Primarily private, for-profit vocational and private, not-for-profit 2-year institutions.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

Unlike the community college enrollment pattern,8 enrollment rates in four-year colleges and

universities were directly related to students’ family income and the level of their parents’ education. The proportion of students enrolled in four-year institutions increased at every income level,

with one-third of low-income students (33 percent), almost half of middle-income students (47

percent), and about three-fourths of high-income students (77 percent) attending such institutions.

Similarly, the proportions of students enrolled in four-year institutions increased with the level of

their parents’ education. Four-year college enrollments represented 54 percent of Asian, 47 percent of white, 42 percent of black, and 31 percent of Hispanic high school graduates. (figure 2).

 

8The terms “two-year public institution” and “community college” are used interchangeably in this report.
CHARACTERISTICS OF 1992 HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES

8

Figure 2—Percentage of all 1992 high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 1994 according to type of institution attended, by family income and race–ethnicity

25 28

14

33

47 77

6

4

2

0

20

40

60

80

100

Low Middle High

Public 2-year Other 4-year institution

64

79

93

Family Income

28 25 23

34

6

54

47 42

31

4

4 6

0

20

40

60

80

100

Asian/Pacific

Islander

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanicHispanic

86

76

71 71

Race–Ethnicity

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study:

1988–94 (NELS: 88), Data Analysis System.
9

FINANCIAL AID AND COLLEGE COSTS

The distinct differences in enrollment patterns by family income are consistent with a common perception that high costs deter low-income students from attending postsecondary education at all, and if they do attend, deter them from enrolling in four-year institutions where the

tuition is higher. This section of the report will provide a brief examination of college costs in

1992–93 and the financial aid received by low-income students to help them meet those costs.

The NELS:88 high school graduates who attended postsecondary education were asked

whether they received financial aid, and if they received aid, to report the type of aid and the estimated total dollar amount. The responses of the low-income students are shown in table 3. The

majority of low-income students reported receiving financial aid, with 66 percent of those at public two-year institutions, 90 percent at public four-year institutions, and 96 percent at private, notfor-profit,9

 four-year institutions reporting that they received aid. The average dollar amount of

aid that was reported ranged from about $1,700 at public two-year to about $8,400 at private

four-year institutions. While 10 percent of the low-income students at public two-year colleges

reported having taken out student loans, over half at public four-year institutions had such loans

and three-quarters at private four-year institutions had loans. Half the low-income students at private four-year institutions reported holding work-study jobs while enrolled.10

The amount of detail about college costs and financial aid collected in the NELS:88 interviews is limited and is based only on student-reported information. The National Postsecondary

Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), which is based primarily on financial aid transcripts from the institutions, provides a more complete picture of the educational finances of a comparable group of

low-income high school seniors who started postsecondary education in 1992–93. Table 4 shows

the types and total amount of financial aid received in 1992–93 by low-income first-year

 

9Although there are private, for-profit, four-year institutions, none of the NELS:88 high school graduates had enrolled in one by 1994. Henceforth the term “private” institution should be assumed to include only not-for-profit

institutions.

10Private four-year institutions are able to provide a larger proportion of students with Federal College Work-Study

jobs because the funds in this program are allocated to institutions according to a formula. However, institutions

receive a guaranteed base amount which reflects participation in the program in the early 1970s.
FINANCIAL AID AND COLLEGE COSTS

10

Table 3—Percentage of low-income1 1992 high school graduates who attended postsecondary 

Table 3—education by 1994 receiving types of financial aid and average amount of total aid as reported 

Table 3—by students in NELS:88, by type of postsecondary institution attended

Amount of

 Total Grants and Student Work-study financial

 aided scholarships loans jobs aid2

 

 Total 81.0 72.8 39.0 17.4 $3,980

Type of institution

 Public 2-year 65.8 57.7 b9.9 b6.4 1,696

 Public 4-year 89.9 83.6 51.3 19.3 3,788

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 96.1 88.4 75.4 51.6 8,429

 Other less-than-4-year 87.7 70.6 60.7 b4.3 4,198

1

Family income less than $25,000.

2Average for those who received aid.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

Table 4—Percentage of low-income1 dependent 1992 high school graduates enrolled in postsecondary 

Table 4—education in 1992–93 receiving types of financial aid and average amount of total aid as

Table 4—reported by the institutions in NPSAS:93, by type of institution attended

Amount of

Total Grants and Student Work-study financial

aided scholarships loans jobs aid2

 Total 79.3 76.3 38.9 15.7 $5,060

Type of institution

 Public 2-year 64.2 62.1 b9.8 b3.7 2,083

 Public 4-year 83.8 81.8 44.8 16.7 4,537

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 93.3 90.7 65.4 44.6 9,547

 Other less-than-4-year 88.5 80.5 63.6 b2.8 5,031

1

Family income less than $25,000.

2Average for those who received aid.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 National Postsecondary

Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Data Analysis System.
FINANCIAL AID AND COLLEGE COSTS

11

dependent students who graduated from high school in 1992 as reported in NPSAS:93. The percentage of low-income students receiving financial aid at public two-year (64 percent) and private

four-year institutions (93 percent) is similar to that reported by the students in the NELS:88 survey, but is slightly lower at public four-year institutions (84 percent). The average dollar amounts

of total aid reported by the public two-year and public four-year institutions for students in

NPSAS:93 were somewhat higher than the totals recalled by the NELS students in the 1994 interviews.11 Such differences are to be expected in comparing institution-reported financial aid

dollar amounts to student responses in a telephone survey. Moreover, although the two groups

have similar characteristics, they are not identical.12

The amounts of financial aid that the students received are arguably meaningful only in relation to tuition and other educational costs, which vary by type of institution. As shown in table 5,

the average yearly tuition at the institutions attended by the low-income students in 1992–93

ranged from about $900 at two-year public colleges to almost $9,000 at four-year private institutions. To help cover their costs, three-quarters of the low-income students received grant aid,

such as the federal Pell grants and a variety of grant and scholarship programs funded by states,

the institutions, or other organizations.

One useful measure of how well financial aid reduces costs is “net tuition,” the amount of

tuition minus grant aid, which is the remaining amount that the student must pay to the institution

for instruction.13 As shown in table 5, more than half of the low-income students attending public

institutions had their entire tuition charges covered by the grant and scholarship aid, compared to

about one-quarter of the low-income students attending private four-year institutions.14 The proportion of low-income students who owed any tuition after grant aid, and the average amount remaining to be paid from other sources, is also shown in table 5. For example, those low-income

students whose private four-year tuition costs were not fully covered by grants (72 percent) had

an average of $4,200 in tuition remaining to be paid from other sources and other types of aid,

such as loans and work study.

 

11The NELS:88 survey asked students to estimate only a total aid amount, not amounts by type of aid. There was

no difference in the average amount of aid reported by students in the two surveys who attended private four-year

or other less-than-four-year institutions.

12The 6 percent of 1992 high school graduates in NPSAS:93 who were independent students were excluded from

the comparison because their parents’ income is not known. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for

Education Statistics, 1992–93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Data Analysis System.

13This approach is used by M. McPherson and M. Shapiro, Keeping College Affordable (Washington, D.C.:

1991): 60–63.

14If the grant and scholarship aid is greater than tuition, the additional amount is applied to other, non-tuition,

educational costs.
FINANCIAL AID AND COLLEGE COSTS

12

Table 5—Average tuition, grant aid, and net tuition of low-income1 dependent 1992 high school 

Table 5—graduates enrolled in postsecondary education in 1992–93, by type of institution attended

Average Percent Percent Average

tuition Percent Average with zero with positive

and fees with grant grant net positive net

amount aid amount2

tuition3net tuition3tuition4

 Total $3,440 76.3 $3,455 44.2 55.8 $2,526 

Type of institution

 Public 2-year b878 62.1 1,776 50.9 49.2 721 

 Public 4-year 2,373 81.8 2,996 57.6 42.4 1,892 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 8,778 90.7 6,906 28.3 71.7 4,209 

 Other less-than-4-year 5,052 80.5 2,289 17.7 82.3 4,067 

1

Family income less than $25,000.

2Average for those who received grants.

3Tuition and fees minus grant aid; zero includes negative values when grant aid covered more than tuition costs.

4Average includes those who received no grant aid.

NOTE: Details may not add to 100 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 National Postsecondary 

Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Data Analysis System.

In addition to tuition, however, students have other expenses related to attendance, such as

books and supplies, room and board, transportation, and other personal living expenses. The total

cost of attendance, which includes these expenses as well as tuition, is estimated in student budgets used by the institutions in awarding financial aid. In 1992–93, these average costs of attendance, shown in table 6, ranged from about $6,000 to attend a two-year public college to almost

$15,000 to attend a four-year private institution. By subtracting the total amount of financial aid

(including loans) received from the total cost of attendance, the “net cost” to the student after aid

can be calculated. Although the average net cost to the low-income 1992 high school graduates

ranged from about $4,900 at public two-year and four-year institutions to about $5,700 at private

four-year institutions, the difference was not statistically significant.15 For example, despite the

difference in tuition between public two-year and four-year institutions, the average net costs of

education for low-income students were similar at these types of institutions. One of the impor-

 

15U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, How Low-Income Undergraduates Financed Postsecondary Education: 1992–93 (Washington, D.C.: 1996): 34, also reports net costs for dependent

low-income students, but the definitions are not the same. In that report, low income is defined as 125 percent of

poverty level (using income and family size); undergraduates in all class levels are included (rather than only firstyear students who had just graduated from high school); and educational costs are based on student-reported estimates of monthly expenses (rather than institutional student budgets). The average net costs reported are $4,900 at

public less-than-4 year, $5,400 at public 4-year, and $6,900 at private 4-year institutions.
FINANCIAL AID AND COLLEGE COSTS

13

tant effects of financial aid, therefore, is to reduce the differences in net costs between various institutions for low-income students, which may give them a greater choice of institutions to attend.

Table 6—Average amounts of tuition, total costs of attendance, financial aid, and net cost after aid for

Table 6—low-income1 1992 high school graduates enrolled in postsecondary education in 1992–93, by type 

Table 6—of institution attended

Total Net

Tuition cost of Total Total Total Total cost

and attend- aid grant loan work-study after

fees ance

2

amount3amount4amount4amount4aid5

 Total $3,440 $9,119 $5,060 $3,455 $2,559 $1,143 $5,156

Type of institution

 Public 2-year 878 6,145 2,083 1,776 — — 4,864 

 Public 4-year 2,373 8,657 4,537 2,996 2,244 1,220 4,922 

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 8,778 14,561 9,547 6,906 2,830 1,123 5,704 

 Other less-than-4-year 5,052 10,057 5,031 2,289 3,060 — 5,668 

—Too few cases for a reliable estimate.

1

Family income less than $25,000.

2Average student budget reported by institutions, including tuition and fees.

3Average amount for those who received any aid.

4Average amount for those who received this type of aid.

5Cost of attendance minus total aid, including those who received no aid.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 National Postsecondary 

Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Data Analysis System.

Since low-income students and their parents still had to pay an average of about $5,000 to

cover expenses related to postsecondary education, the effect of financial aid on access is not as

clear as the potential effect on college choice. Where did the additional $5,000 or more come

from? Some of the sources of funds reported by low-income students are shown in table 7. Half

the low-income students reported that they were living at home with their parents, which reduced

their living expenses. In addition, about half reported direct contributions from their parents, averaging about $2,000, while nearly two-thirds (65 percent) reported working while enrolled, for an

average of 24 hours per week. At the two-year public colleges, 70 percent of the students lived at

home, and 80 percent worked an average of 27 hours per week while enrolled. Thus, through

some combination of financial aid, parental contributions, work, and other strategies, these lowincome students were able to meet their tuition and living expenses while enrolled.
FINANCIAL AID AND COLLEGE COSTS

14

There is little doubt that the cost of attending postsecondary education posed difficulties for

low-income 1992 high school graduates, and while financial aid reduced the differences in the

amounts required to attend different types of institutions, on average, several thousand dollars

remained to be paid. Nevertheless, as shown earlier in table 2, nearly two-thirds of the lowincome 1992 high school graduates were enrolled in postsecondary education within two years of

high school graduation despite the financial burden.

Table 7—Percentage of dependent low-income1 1992 high school graduates enrolled in postsecondary 

Table 7—education in 1992–93 who lived with parents, received direct contributions from parents, and 

Table 7—worked while enrolled, by type of institution attended

Percent

Percent receiving Average

living contribu- contribu- Percent Average

at home tion tion working hours

with from from while worked

parents parents parents2enrolled per week3

 Total 49.2 53.2 $2,001 65.3 23.8

Type of institution

 Public 2-year 69.6 43.0 771 79.5 27.0

 Public 4-year 33.2 59.6 2,538 52.4 20.2

 Private, not-for-profit 4-year 28.6 72.1 3,076 58.8 17.1

 Other less-than-4-year 62.4 44.2 1,621 62.4 26.8

1

Family income less than $25,000.

2Average for those who received parental contributions.

3Average for those who worked while enrolled.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 National Postsecondary 

Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), Data Analysis System.
15

POSTSECONDARY EXPECTATIONS, PLANS, AND

ATTENDANCE THROUGH 1994

Although the importance of costs and financial aid should not be understated, postsecondary

enrollment patterns reflect much more than financing issues. First, a high school student must

want or expect to continue his or her education. Next, the student must make some plans about

when and where to enroll. Those planning to attend four-year colleges and universities must also

complete two appropriate steps: taking a college entrance examination such as the SAT or ACT,

and applying for admission. In addition, if financial aid is needed, the student and his or her parents must get information about and file an application for financial aid. Finally, the student must

actually be offered admission to an institution. All of this happens before enrollment, and all of

these factors, from expectations to plans to college applications, may be influenced by the income,

educational level, and racial–ethnic background of the family.

Educational aspirations and expectations have often been found to be related to postsecondary attendance.16 In the NELS:88 survey, students were asked in both the eighth grade (1988)

and in their senior year (1992) about the level of education they expected to achieve. Their responses to the question “As things stand now, how far in school do you think you will get?” in

1988 and in 1992 are displayed in table 8. As early as the eighth grade, the expectation of finishing college was directly related to family income and parental levels of education.17 Among eighth

graders from low-income families 59 percent expected to finish college, compared with 76 percent from middle-income and 92 percent from high-income families. Hispanic eighth graders were

less likely to expect to finish college than either whites or Asians.

When the students were asked this question again in 1992 during their senior year, there

was a small increase in the proportion saying that they expected some postsecondary education

(from 20 percent to 25 percent) and a small decrease in those who expected to finish college

(from 73 percent to 71 percent). However, there were no measurable changes among low-income

students, blacks, or Hispanics in the proportion expecting to finish college. Over the period of

 

16M. Paulsen, College Choice: Understanding Student Enrollment Behavior (ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 6, Washington, D.C.: 1990).

17Students who expected to attain at least a bachelor’s degree were considered to have expected to “finish college.”

Those who expected to complete trade or vocational school or “some college” were considered to have expected to

complete “some postsecondary.” See appendix A for a description of the expectation variable.
POSTSECONDARY EXPECTATIONS, PLANS, AND ATTENDANCE

16

four years there had been no lowering of expectations on average among those groups of students

whose families would have the greatest concerns and difficulties in financing a college education,

although as high school seniors they were presumably much more aware of college costs and financial aid than they had been in the eighth grade.

Table 8—Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates according to their educational 

Table 8—expectations in 1988 and in 1992, by background characteristics

 Expectations (1988) Expectations (1992)

No Some Finish No Some Finish

PSE* PSE* college PSE* PSE* college

 Total 7.3 19.9 72.8 4.5 24.8 70.8

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 5.3 18.0 76.8 2.8 18.4 78.8

 Hispanic regardless of race 9.3 26.6 64.2 4.7 29.6 65.7

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 5.9 23.4 70.7 3.1 23.8 73.1

 White, not of Hispanic origin 7.2 18.6 74.2 4.7 24.6 70.7

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 11.8b 29.4 58.8 7.0 33.6 59.4

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 5.8 18.5 75.7 3.6 23.3 73.2

 High ($75,000 or more) 1.4 b6.9 91.8 0.8 b7.1 92.1

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 15.6b 29.6 54.9 8.3 38.4 53.3

 Some college 6.2 23.1 70.7 4.5 27.2 68.3

 College graduate 1.4 b7.6 91.0 1.0 b9.5 89.5

*Postsecondary education.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

In addition to the question about their educational expectations, the seniors were also asked

a more concrete question: whether they planned to continue their education immediately after

high school.18 Their plans are compared to their actual enrollment patterns in table 9. More than

three-quarters (79 percent) indicated that they planned to enroll in postsecondary education immediately after high school. When those who said that they did not plan to continue immediately

 

18Although the terms are similar, in this report “expectations” refers to one specific question in the NELS survey

(“How far in school do you think you will get?”) which was asked in 1988 and again in 1992, while “plans” refers

to another question (asked only in 1992) about their plans immediately after high school.
POSTSECONDARY EXPECTATIONS, PLANS, AND ATTENDANCE

17

were asked if they ever intended to continue, virtually all (97 percent) of the high school graduates said that they planned to continue their education at some time after high school. More than

94 percent of students from all racial–ethnic groups, all family income levels, and all parental education levels said that they planned to attend postsecondary education at some time.

Table 9—Percentage of 1992 high school graduates who planned to attend postsecondary education after 

Table 9—high school, percentage that enrolled in postsecondary education by October 1992 and by 1994 

Table 9—and the percentage enrolled by 1994 of those who planned to attend immediately after high 

Table 9—school, by background characteristics

Planned to Total Planned to

Planned attend PSE* enrolled in Total attend PSE*

ever immediately PSE* in enrolled in immediately

to attend after high October, PSE* by after high school:

PSE* school 1992 1994 enrolled by 1994

 Total 96.8 79.4 65.3 75.2 88.6

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 98.1 84.1 78.1 86.2 93.8

 Hispanic regardless of race 97.2 76.4 57.6 70.6 84.3

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 96.4 78.1 59.5 71.3 83.6

 White, not of Hispanic origin 96.7 79.7 66.5 75.9 89.6

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 94.3 70.4 53.0 63.5 83.0

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 97.4 81.8 69.3 79.3 89.8

 High ($75,000 or more) 99.3 92.4 86.9 93.1 96.2

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 94.1 67.7 47.2 59.0 78.1

 Some college 96.4 78.4 64.3 74.7 88.1

 College graduate 99.3 90.6 85.3 92.5 95.9

*Postsecondary education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study: 

1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

Differences by family income and education levels emerge, however, when the seniors were

asked if they intended to enroll immediately after high school (table 9). The proportion planning

to attend postsecondary education immediately after high school was directly related to family

income and parental education. For example, 70 percent of low-income students, compared with
POSTSECONDARY EXPECTATIONS, PLANS, AND ATTENDANCE

18

82 percent of middle-income and 92 percent of high-income students, said that they planned to

attend postsecondary education immediately after high school.

The proportion of high school graduates who actually enrolled in postsecondary education

in the fall term (October 1992) was 65 percent.19 By 1994, two years after graduating from high

school, three-quarters (75 percent) of the 1992 high school graduates had enrolled in postsecondary education.

Enrollment in postsecondary education within two years of high school graduation was directly related to both the family income and the education levels of the students’ parents. By

1994, 64 percent of low-income students, compared to 79 percent of middle-income and 93 percent of high-income students, had enrolled in postsecondary education. Those who said that they

planned to attend immediately after high school, however, had high enrollment rates: 89 percent

actually enrolled in postsecondary education within two years. Enrollment rates were also high

(83 to 84 percent) for those low-income, black, and Hispanic students who had planned to attend

postsecondary education immediately after high school, although the enrollment rates were even

higher for the middle-income (90 percent), white and Asian (90 to 92 percent), and high-income

(96 percent) students who had also planned to do so.

Table 10 focuses on those seniors who said that they planned to attend a four-year college

or university immediately after high school.20 Nearly all of these seniors attended some postsecondary institution (94 percent); over three-quarters (78 percent) enrolled in four-year institutions. Among those who planned to attend a four-year college, low- and middle-income students

were less likely to actually enroll in a four-year institution than high-income students (72 and 77

percent compared to 89 percent, respectively). Black and Hispanic students were also less likely

to enroll in four-year institutions than white and Asian students. About 15 percent of those who

planned to attend a four-year college immediately after high school enrolled in a two-year public

college instead. The public two-year college enrollment rate of those who planned to attend fouryear institutions was similar for both low- and middle-income students and for all racial–ethnic

 

19This is comparable to the October college-going rate (62 percent) reported in the Current Population Survey

(CPS), because the CPS rate does not include enrollments in less-than-2-year institutions (about 3 percent of the

NELS students). For the annual CPS college-going rates by income and race–ethnicity see U.S. Department of

Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 1996 (Washington, D.C.: 1996):

52–53.

20This constituted 71 percent of all 1992 high school graduates. National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988–94

(NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
POSTSECONDARY EXPECTATIONS, PLANS, AND ATTENDANCE

19

groups (about 15 to 17 percent) except for Hispanics (22 percent), who were more likely to attend community colleges than whites.21

Table 10—Percentage distribution of all 1992 high school graduates who planned to attend a 4-year 

Table 10—institution immediately after high school, according to postsecondary enrollment by 1994 

Table 10—and type of institution attended, by background characteristics

Other

 No less-than- Public Any

 postsecondary 4-year 2-year 4-year

 education institution* institution institution

 Total 6.0 1.1 15.1 77.8

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 4.0 0.6 14.7 80.6

 Hispanic regardless of race 11.3b 1.6 21.8 65.3

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 10.0b 1.9 15.2 72.9

 White, not of Hispanic origin 4.9 1.0 14.5 79.6

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 10.0b 1.2 16.8 72.1

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 4.8 1.3 16.7 77.2

 High ($75,000 or more) 2.8 0.5 b7.5 89.2

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 13.3b 1.6 19.8 65.3

 Some college 6.6 1.2 18.5 73.7

 College graduate 2.5 0.8 b9.4 87.3

*Primarily private, for-profit vocational and private, not-for-profit 2-year institutions.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

 

21V. Lee and K. Frank found that 1980 Hispanic high school graduates were twice as likely to have enrolled in a

community college than a four-year institution within two years after high school graduation. “Students’ Characteristics That Facilitate the Transfer from Two-Year to Four-Year Colleges,” Sociology of Education 63 (1990):

178–193.
21

QUALIFICATION FOR ADMISSION TO FOUR-YEAR

COLLEGES

Regardless of how motivated students are to attend a four-year college or university, they

must meet admission standards measured by criteria such as grade point average (GPA), class

rank, standardized test scores, and academic coursework. Furthermore, prospective students must

take a college entrance examination and submit an application for admission. In attempting to explain the gap in four-year college enrollment rates among income levels and racial–ethnic groups,

two major factors will be examined: academic aptitude and achievement22 and taking the necessary steps toward admission to a four-year institution, which include taking a college entrance

exam (SAT or ACT) and submitting an application.

College admissions decisions are based on both objective and subjective criteria. In assessing applicants’ qualifications, admissions officers try to look at as much information as possible,

taking into account the strengths and weaknesses of students in relation to their situation. For example, an applicant from a poor urban school district who has very low SAT scores may be admitted on the basis of a high class rank. For this study, a composite measure of academic

qualification for four-year college work was developed that attempts to approximate the college

admissions process. This “college qualification index” is based on cumulative academic course

GPAs, senior class rank, the 1992 NELS aptitude test scores, and the SAT and ACT college entrance examination scores, with an adjustment for academic coursework. Since admission standards and requirements vary widely among four-year colleges and universities, the approach used

was empirical. It was based on an examination of the actual distribution of these five measures of

academic aptitude and achievement among those graduating NELS seniors who did attend a fouryear college or university by 1994.

Data sources were available for approximately half (45 percent) of the NELS graduating

seniors for four or five of the criteria: class rank, GPA, the NELS test, and ACT or SAT scores or

both (table 11). For about one-third (36 percent) of the seniors there were only three data sources

available because they had no ACT or SAT scores; most of these had NELS test scores, however.

 

22These are often included in studies examining educational inequality. See, for example, K. Alexander et al.,

“Consistency and Change in Educational Stratification: Recent Trends Regarding Social Background and College

Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 6 (1987): 161–185.
QUALIFICATION FOR ADMISSION TO FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES

22

In order to identify as many students as possible who were potentially academically qualified for

four-year college work, even if data were missing for these students on some of the criteria, the

seniors were classified according to the highest level they had achieved on any of the five criteria

for which data were present. That is, the college qualification index approximates an admissions

process which would only take into consideration the applicants’ strongest measure of academic

performance.

The initial classification of the graduating seniors was determined as follows:

• Very highly qualified: those whose highest value on any of the five criteria would put

them among the top 10 percent of four-year college students (specifically the NELS

1992 graduating seniors who enrolled in four-year colleges and universities) for that

criterion. Minimum values were GPA=3.7, class rank percentile=96, NELS test percentile=97, combined SAT=1250, composite ACT=28.

• Highly qualified: those whose highest value on any of the five criteria would put them

among the top 25 percent of four-year college students for that criterion. Minimum values were GPA=3.6, class rank percentile=89, NELS test percentile=90, combined

SAT=1110, composite ACT=25.

• Somewhat qualified: those whose highest value on any of the five criteria would put

them among the top 50 percent (i.e., in the second quartile) of four-year college students for that criterion. Minimum values were GPA=3.2, class rank percentile=75,

NELS test percentile=76, combined SAT=960, composite ACT=22.

• Minimally qualified: those whose highest value on any of the five criteria would put

them among the top 75 percent (i.e., in the third quartile) of four-year college students

for that criterion. Minimum values were GPA=2.7, class rank percentile=54, NELS test

percentile=56, combined SAT=820, composite ACT=19.

• Marginally or not qualified: those who had no value on any criterion that would put

them among the top 75 percent of four-year college students (i.e., all values were in the

lowest quartile). Those in vocational programs (according to their high school transcripts) were also classified as not college qualified.23

 

23This affected the classification of less than 1 percent. Very few students whose transcripts indicated that they

were in vocational programs met any of the other criteria for college qualification.
QUALIFICATION FOR ADMISSION TO FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES

23

Table 11—Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates according to the number of sources 

Table 11—available for classification as “college qualified,” by college qualification index and

Table 11—enrollment status

 Sources available for college qualification index1

 One Two Three2Four or five3

All 1992 high school graduates

 Total 9.0 9.8 36.0 45.1 

College qualification index

 Marginally or not qualified 13.6 17.9 48.8 19.7 

 Minimally qualified 9.4 8.2 39.8 42.6 

 Somewhat qualified 9.1 6.2 29.4 55.3 

 Highly qualified 4.6 3.8 22.3 69.2 

 Very highly qualified 2.9 3.4 24.2 69.5 

All 1992 high school graduates who attended four-year colleges

 Total 9.1 4.5 21.8 64.6 

College qualification index

 Marginally or not qualified 20.4 9.5 26.0 44.1 

 Minimally qualified 15.1 4.6 23.9 56.5 

 Somewhat qualified 11.8 5.0 21.3 61.9 

 Highly qualified 5.7 3.3 19.1 71.9 

 Very highly qualified 3.3 3.2 22.4 71.1 

All 1992 high school graduates who did not enroll in a four-year college

 Total 9.4 19.2 54.1 17.4 

College qualification index

 Marginally or not qualified 11.2 22.5 56.3 10.0 

 Minimally qualified 6.9 15.3 53.4 24.4 

 Somewhat qualified 6.4 11.5 49.3 32.8 

 Highly qualified 2.1 9.2 33.6 55.0 

 Very highly qualified 0.0 0.3 54.7 44.9 

1High school GPA, rank in class, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT test scores.

2Those with three sources always include at least one standardized test score (NELS, SAT, or ACT).

3Those with four or more sources always include either the SAT or the ACT scores.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
QUALIFICATION FOR ADMISSION TO FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES

24

Then some adjustments were made for programs of rigorous academic coursework, defined

as including at least 4 years of English; 3 years each of science, mathematics, and social studies;

and 2 years of a foreign language.

• Those who had taken a program of rigorous academic courses were moved up into one

higher level of qualification; and

• Those in the “very highly qualified” category were moved down into the “highly qualified” category if they had not taken rigorous academic coursework.24

The average scores for each of the levels of the four-year college qualification index, both

for those who did and did not actually enroll in a four-year institution and for all of the high

school graduates, are shown in table 12. Since the college qualification index was based on the

highest score on any of the five criteria and then adjusted (usually upward) to reflect academic

coursework, the averages for the individual categories are lower than the interval values used to

classify the students initially. Those who enrolled and were classified as minimally college qualified, for example, had an average academic course GPA of 2.3, an average combined SAT score

of 758, an average class rank (42nd percentile) below the median, and NELS aptitude test scores

(51st percentile) which put them near the median of their senior class. Except for a lower average

NELS aptitude test score (43rd percentile), the average scores for the marginally or not qualified

who enrolled in a four-year college were similar to those who enrolled and were classified as

minimally qualified. However, the total group of those classified as marginally or not qualified for

four-year college work had an average class rank and NELS aptitude test scores which put them

in the bottom third of their senior class, an average GPA of 2.1, and an average combined SAT

score of 700.

One reason that there is very little difference in the average scores between the minimally

and the marginally or not qualified students who enrolled in a four-year college is the problem of

missing data. As shown in table 11 above, the proportion of students in these groups with only

one source available for the qualification index was about twice as high among those who attended a four-year college as among those who did not (20 percent compared to 11 percent of

those marginally or not qualified; 15 percent compared to 7 percent of those minimally qualified).

The methodology used to construct the qualification index has a bias, since the probability of

scoring high on at least one criterion increases with the number of data sources available for the

student. Among all high school graduates, the students classified as marginally or not

 

24This was done to assure that the very highly qualified had both rigorous coursework and high scores.
QUALIFICATION FOR ADMISSION TO FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES

25

Table 12—Average scores for the criteria used to classify 1992 high school graduates’ qualifications for 

Table 12—4-year college work according to postsecondary enrollment, by levels of college qualification

Table 12—and enrollment status

 GPA calculated

 Combined Class from 1992 Composite

 SAT rank academic NELS test ACT

 score (percentile) courses percentile score

All 1992 high school graduates

 Total 927 53 2.6 55 21

College qualification index*

 Marginally or not qualified 700 29 2.1 32 17

 Minimally qualified 740 42 2.3 47 18

 Somewhat qualified 841 57 2.7 62 20

 Highly qualified 983 73 3.1 76 23

 Very highly qualified 1,109 85 3.4 86 26

All 1992 high school graduates who attended four-year colleges

 Total 980 67 2.9 71 22

College qualification index*

 Marginally or not qualified 758 41 2.3 43 18

 Minimally qualified 758 42 2.3 51 18

 Somewhat qualified 853 57 2.7 64 20

 Highly qualified 1,006 74 3.1 78 23

 Very highly qualified 1,121 86 3.4 87 26

All 1992 high school graduates who did not enroll in a four-year college

 Total 772 35 2.2 37 18

College qualification index*

 Marginally or not qualified 642 26 2.0 28 16

 Minimally qualified 705 43 2.3 45 17

 Somewhat qualified 782 55 2.6 60 19

 Highly qualified 866 72 2.8 65 23

 Very highly qualified — 81 3.2 79 —

—Sample size too small for a reliable estimate.

*4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT 

and ACT scores, and academic coursework.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

qualified were more likely than any qualified group to have data for only one or two criteria, so

they were more likely to be misclassified than those with more sources of data.25

 

25The majority of those who had only one source available had only the NELS aptitude test scores.
QUALIFICATION FOR ADMISSION TO FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES

Table 13 shows the number of sources available for the college qualifi

dent background characteristics for all high school graduates and for those w

year colleges. Those with three sources available always had at least one sta

(usually NELS) and those with four or five sources always had either SA

Among all high school graduates, Hispanics, blacks, and low-income student

have four or five sources available, which means they were less likely to take 

examinations than were whites, Asians, or higher income students. Among 

four-year colleges, black students were more likely than whites to have only 

available.26

The distribution of the 1992 high school graduates who enrolled in fou

universities according to the categories of this college qualification index are 

Over half were classified as highly or very highly qualified (30 percent and 

tively). Thirteen percent were minimally qualified and 11 percent were classif

not qualified for regular admission to a four-year college according to this 

above, the average scores of the latter two groups were similar, and 15 to 

one source available for the qualification index, so the differences in the acad

the minimally and the marginally qualified who enrolled may be relatively sma

In addition to the problem of missing data, the qualification index has o

predictor of college admissions. At most four-year institutions, college admi

not based solely on grades, class rank, and test scores. 27 Other criteria may 

such as letters of recommendation, musical and artistic talents, ability in sp

are alumni. Many colleges have policies which set aside a certain percentag

students in educational opportunity programs. These programs are designed 

low-income students who do not meet regular admission standards, and to 

special tutoring and other support services. Table 14 shows, for example, that 

who were marginally or not college qualified according to the index were m

from families with low income and low educational levels, and were m

 

26The combined percentage for one and two sources was 12 percent for whites and 25 perc

ference between blacks and the other minorities was not statistically significant. U.S. De

National Center for Education Statistics, 1992–93 National Postsecondary Student Aid S

Analysis System.

27J. Owings, M. McMillen, and J. Burkett, in “Making the Cut: Who Meets Highly Sele

Criteria?”, Statistics in Brief (Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics, 

the other criteria and the effect of using several criteria jointly as opposed to using a singl

limited to very highly qualified applicants.
QUALIFICATION FOR ADMISSION TO FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES

27

Table 13—Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates according to the number of sources 

Table 15—available for classification as “college qualified,” by student background characteristics

Table 15—and enrollment status

 Sources available for college qualification index1

 One Two Three2Four or five3

All 1992 high school graduates

 Total 9.0 9.8 36.0 45.1

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 11.3 10.0 32.7 45.9

 Hispanic regardless of race 12.7 11.2 43.0 33.2

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 11.8 14.5 39.7 34.0

 White, not of Hispanic origin 8.0 8.9 34.7 48.4

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 10.0 9.3 43.9 36.8

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 7.5 8.7 32.6 51.2

 High ($75,000 or more) 10.7 6.6 27.1 55.7

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 8.4 11.6 46.7 33.4

 Some college 8.6 9.1 35.1 47.2

 College graduate 10.0 6.0 26.6 57.4

 All 1992 high school graduates who attended four-year colleges

 Total 9.1 4.5 21.8 64.6

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 10.1 7.1 22.3 60.5

 Hispanic regardless of race 13.9 1.7 24.5 59.9

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 12.5 12.7 22.1 52.7

 White, not of Hispanic origin 8.1 3.5 21.5 66.8

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 9.1 3.8 22.0 65.1

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 8.4 3.3 18.8 69.6

 High ($75,000 or more) 9.2 4.2 25.0 61.6

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 7.4 4.4 22.3 66.0

 Some college 8.4 4.2 19.3 68.1

 College graduate 9.8 3.7 21.9 64.6

1High school GPA, rank in class, NELS 1992 aptitude test, and SAT and ACT test scores.

2Those with three sources always include at least one standardized test score (NELS, SAT, or ACT).

3Those with four or more sources always include either the SAT or the ACT scores.

4The estimates for the family income subgroups are all lower than that for the total because of missing values for family income.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4
QUALIFICATION FOR ADMISSION TO FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES

28

Table 14—Percentage distribution of all 1992 high school graduates who enrolled in a 4-year institution 

Table 14—by 1994, according to 4-year college qualification,* by background characteristics

Marginally 

 or not Minimally Somewhat Highly Very highly

 qualified qualified qualified qualified qualified

 

 Total 11.3 12.6 19.5 29.6 26.9 

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 6.0 12.8 15.9 27.2 38.1 

 Hispanic regardless of race 17.7 18.2 19.8 23.2 21.1 

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 28.5 19.3 23.6 18.0 10.6 

 White, not of Hispanic origin 8.9 11.3 19.2 31.8 28.8 

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 16.0 17.0 20.0 28.8 18.3 

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 11.1 11.9 19.5 31.0 26.5 

 High ($75,000 or more) 6.1 9.2 17.7 29.9 37.0 

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 17.3 17.8 20.0 26.2 18.7 

 Some college 11.5 15.5 21.8 29.4 21.8 

 College graduate 8.6 8.8 17.3 31.9 33.4 

*4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

from Hispanic or black families,28 which both tend to have lower incomes and educational levels

than white and Asian families.

Table 15 describes the proportions of all the students from the senior class of 1992 who

were qualified to be admitted to a four-year institution according to this index. Among all 1992

high school graduates, nearly two-thirds (65 percent) appear to have been at least minimally

qualified for admission to a four-year college or university (hereafter referred to as “college qualified”). There was a direct relationship between students’ family income and their likelihood of

being qualified for admission to a four-year institution: 53 percent of low-income students were

college qualified compared to 68 percent of middle- and 86 percent of high-income students. The

proportion of college-qualified students was also directly related to their parents’ educational attainment.

 

28The difference between blacks (28.5 percent) and Hispanics (17.7 percent) is not statistically significant.
QUALIFICATION FOR ADMISSION TO FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES

29

Table 15—Percentage of all 1992 high school graduates qualified to attend a 4-year postsecondary 

Table 15—institution and percentage distribution of their level of qualification, by background 

Table 15—characteristics

Total College qualification index*

 “college Minimally Somewhat Highly Very highly

 qualified” qualified qualified qualified qualified

 Total 64.5 25.7 24.7 28.2 21.4

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 72.7 20.0 20.6 27.8 31.6

 Hispanic regardless of race 53.0 39.0 25.6 20.4 15.0

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 46.9 35.7 29.8 21.0 13.5

 White, not of Hispanic origin 68.2 23.7 24.3 29.7 22.3

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 52.5 35.6 24.4 25.9 14.0

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 67.6 23.9 25.1 29.4 21.7

 High ($75,000 or more) 85.9 13.4 21.4 31.4 33.8

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 47.1 40.3 24.2 22.2 13.4

 Some college 64.3 28.2 27.7 27.4 16.7

 College graduate 81.9 14.5 21.6 32.9 31.0

*4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

Reflecting their higher income and parental education levels, Asians and whites were more

likely than blacks and Hispanics to be qualified to attend a four-year postsecondary institution according to this index. Hispanics were more likely than Asians and whites to be no more than

minimally qualified. The proportion of very highly qualified students was largest among Asians:

32 percent of Asians were in this category, compared to 22 percent of whites, 15 percent of Hispanics, and 14 percent of blacks.

The relationship between the four-year college qualification index levels and four-year college enrollment rates, as well as postsecondary enrollment rates in general, is displayed in table

16. Among those seniors classified as marginally or not qualified for regular four-year college admission, half entered postsecondary education, but only 15 percent enrolled in a four-year college

or university. Among those seniors who were minimally qualified, three-fourths enrolled in some

postsecondary education and 35 percent attended a four-year institution. With each higher level of
QUALIFICATION FOR ADMISSION TO FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES

30

academic qualification, the total proportion of students enrolled in postsecondary education increases,29 largely because the proportion of students enrolled in four-year colleges and universities

increases and the proportions enrolled in public two-year colleges decreases:30 56 percent of the

somewhat qualified, 73 percent of the highly qualified, and 87 percent of the very highly qualified

high school graduates enrolled in four-year institutions. The enrollment patterns by levels of the

college qualification index are also illustrated in figure 3.

Table 16—Percentage distribution of all 1992 high school graduates, according to postsecondary 

Table 16—attendance by 1994, by the 4-year college qualification index1

Other

 No less than Public Any

 postsecondary 4-year 2-year 4-year

 education institution2institution institution

 Total 24.8 4.4 25.7 45.1

College qualification index1

 Marginally or not qualified 47.9 7.0 30.3 14.7

 Minimally qualified 24.8 5.8 34.4 35.0

 Somewhat qualified 14.0 2.6 27.8 55.6

 Highly qualified b6.4 2.2 18.9 72.6

 Very highly qualified b3.9 0.9 b8.3 86.9

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2

Primarily private, for-profit vocational and private, not-for-profit 2-year institutions.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

Figure 3—Percentage of all 1992 high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 1994 according to type of institution attended, by 4-year college qualification index*

 

29With the exception of no difference between the “very highly” and “highly qualified.”

30With the exception of no differences in public two-year enrollments between the “minimally” and “somewhat
QUALIFICATION FOR ADMISSION TO FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES

31

Figure 3—Percentage of all 1992 high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 1994 according

Figure 2—to type of institution attended, by 4-year college qualification index*

30 34 28

19

8

7

6

15

35 56 73

87

1

2

3

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Marginally or not qualified Somewhat qualified Very highly qualified

Public 2-year Other 4-year institution

Qualification for 4-year college*

52

75

86

94 96

*4-year college qualification index based on GPA, rank in class, NELS aptitude test, SAT and ACT scores, and academic

coursework.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study:

1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
33

EXPECTATIONS, PLANS, AND POSTSECONDARY

ATTENDANCE OF COLLEGE-QUALIFIED STUDENTS

Had the educational expectations of the high school graduates who were college qualified in

their senior year changed since the eighth grade? Recall that the overall proportion of high school

graduates who expected to finish college declined slightly between the eighth grade and the senior

year, from 73 percent to 71 percent (table 8). Table 17 compares the students’ postsecondary expectations in these years again, but separates those students who were qualified to attend a fouryear college in 1992 from those who were marginally or not qualified. Among those who were

college qualified in their senior year, there had been no decline in the proportion who expected to

finish college (83 percent in both years). Among those who were marginally or not qualified during their senior year, however, the proportion that expected to finish college had dropped from 52

percent during the eighth grade to 44 percent in the senior year. Instead, the expectations of these

seniors had shifted toward achieving some postsecondary education (32 percent compared to 46

percent) rather than finishing college. This decline in college completion expectations was true

only for white students, however (51 percent to 39 percent). Among the black, Hispanic, and

Asian students who appear to have been marginally or not college qualified during their senior

year, expectations were not significantly different between 1988 and 1992.

Expectations for finishing college did not decline from eighth to twelfth grade among any

group of students who were college qualified as seniors. This was true regardless of students’

family income, educational level, or racial–ethnic background. Therefore, the decline in expectations for the entire class was largely driven by a decline in expectations for those, primarily white,

students who demonstrated a low level of academic aptitude and achievement in their senior year.

Among four-year college-qualified students, on the other hand, expectations had been set by the

eighth grade and did not change; in fact, the expectations of college-qualified low-income students appears to have increased slightly (69 to 74 percent), but there is not enough statistical evidence to conclude that they changed.

As shown in table 18, among all four-year college-qualified seniors who (in 1992) expected

to finish college, 88 percent said that they planned to attend a four-year college. Long-term expectations and short-term plans for postsecondary education are based on different questions in
Table 17—Percentage distribution of 1992 high school graduates according to the highest level of education expected in 1988 and in 1992, and 4-year

college qualification, by background characteristics

Marginally or not college qualifiedl in 1992 College qualifiedl in 1992

Expectations in 1988 Expectations in 1992 Expectations in 1988 Expectations in 1992

No Some Finish No Some Finish No Some Finish No Some Finish

PSE2 PSE2 college PSE2 PSE2 college PSE2 PSE2 college PSE2 PSE2 college

Total

Race-ethnicity

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic regardless of race

Black, not of Hispanic origin

White, not of Hispanic origin

Family income

Low (less than $25,000)

Middle ($25,000-$74,999)

High ($75,000 or more)

Parents’ highest education level

High school graduate or less

Some college

College graduate

16.0 32.0 51.9 10.4

15.9 30.8 53.3 4.8

18.1 31.0 50.9 7.0

8.7 33.2 58.1 5.0

17.1 31.9 50.9 12.5

18.9 37.0 44.2 12.5

14.2 30.5 55.3 9.0

7.6 17.7 74.6 5.2

23.2 36.5 40.4 13.2

12.7 34.0 53.4 9.8

5.3 16.2 78.5 4.9

45.6 44.0

48.6 46.7

42.3 50.7

35.5 59.6

48.4 39.1

48.3 39.2

45.3 45.7

27.6 67.3

53.1 33.7

47.3 42.9

23.6 71.5

3.0

1.5

3.4

3.8

3.0

6.8

2.1

0.4

7.9

2.9

0.7

13.9

14.8

21.1

14.5

12.9

23.4

13.2

4.8

23.8

16.8

6.2

83.1 1.7

83.7 2.3

75.5 2.8

81.7 1.8

84.1 1.5

69.8 2.9

84.8 1.2

94.7 0.2

68.3 3.5

80.3 1.8

93.2 0.3

15.0

7.8

18.9

15.5

15.1

23.0

14.3

4.2

24.8

17.7

6.8

83.3

89.9

78.3

82.7 ) 83.4

74.2

84.4

95.5

71.7

80.4

92.9

‘4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT scores, and academic coursework.

2Postsecondary education.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
POSTSECONDARY ATTENDANCE OF COLLEGE-QUALIFIED STUDENTS

35

Table 18—Percentage distribution of all college-qualified1 1992 high school graduates who in 1992 expected 

Table 18—to finish college, according to plans for postsecondary attendance in 1992, by background 

Table 18—characteristics

 No plans 2-year college 4-year

 for PSE2or trade school college

 Total 0.1 11.5 88.4

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 0.0 9.2 90.8

 Hispanic regardless of race 0.0 18.8 81.2

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 0.0 7.7 92.3

 White, not of Hispanic origin 0.2 11.1 88.7

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 0.1 12.2 87.7

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 0.2 12.3 87.5

 High ($75,000 or more) 0.0 6.8 93.2

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 0.1 14.1 85.8

 Some college 0.2 14.5 85.3

 College graduate 0.1 7.3 92.6

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2

Postsecondary education.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

the survey.31 There were no differences in plans to attend a four-year college between low- and

middle-income college-qualified students who expected to finish college, and both were less likely

than their high-income counterparts to plan to do so. Hispanic students were also less likely to

plan to attend a four-year college; instead, they were more likely to plan to attend a two-year

college or trade school.

The postsecondary plans of all the college-qualified seniors are shown in table 19. Nearly 9

out of 10 (88 percent) of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates indicated during their

 

31Although the terms are similar, in this report “expectations” refers to one specific question in the NELS survey

(“How far in school do you think you will get?”) which was asked in 1988 and again in 1992, while “plans” refers

to another question (asked only in 1992) about their plans immediately after high school.
POSTSECONDARY ATTENDANCE OF COLLEGE-QUALIFIED STUDENTS

36

Table 19—Percentage distribution of all college-qualified1 1992 high school graduates, according to plans 

Table 19—for postsecondary attendance in 1992, by background characteristics

 Plans to continue education Type of postsecondary

 immediately after high school institution planned to attend2

 4-year 2-year college

 Yes No Don’t know college or trade school

 Total 88.3 8.7 3.1 81.9 18.1

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 90.9 6.9 2.2 86.4 13.6

 Hispanic regardless of race 86.0 8.0 6.0 76.5 23.5

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 84.3 10.9b 4.8 87.2 12.8

 White, not of Hispanic origin 88.7 8.6 2.7 81.8 18.2

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 80.1 14.3b 5.6 78.6 21.4

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 89.9 7.7 2.3 80.4 19.6

 High ($75,000 or more) 95.6 3.3 1.0 92.5 b7.5

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 80.6 14.3b 5.0 75.5 24.5

 Some college 86.8 9.5 3.6 76.3 23.7

 College graduate 94.0 4.6 1.4 90.5 b9.5

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2Among those college-qualified students who planned to continue their educations immediately after high school.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

senior year that they planned to continue their education immediately after high school, with no

differences existing among racial–ethnic groups. Although 80 percent of college-qualified students

from low-income families indicated that they planned to continue their education immediately after high school, they were less likely to plan to do so than middle-income (90 percent) and highincome (96 percent) students.

Among all college-qualified students who indicated that they did plan to continue their education after high school, 82 percent said they planned to attend a four-year institution. Among

these, Hispanic students were less likely than black students to have planned to attend a four-year

college (77 percent compared to 87 percent). There was no difference in the proportions of college-qualified students from low-income and middle-income families who planned to attend a
POSTSECONDARY ATTENDANCE OF COLLEGE-QUALIFIED STUDENTS

37

four-year institution (79 and 80 percent), compared to over 90 percent of the high-income students.

The postsecondary enrollment patterns of the college-qualified students are shown in table

20. Among all students qualified for admission to some four-year institutions, 12 percent did not

attend any postsecondary institution by 1994. Almost one-quarter attended a two-year public institution, and 62 percent attended a four-year institution. Among the college-qualified, lowincome students were more likely not to enroll in postsecondary education than middle- and highincome students (22 percent compared to 10 and 4 percent), and Hispanic students were more

likely not to enroll than whites and Asians (18 percent compared to 11 and 8 percent, respectively).32

Table 20—Percentage distribution of all college-qualified1 1992 high school graduates according to

Table 20—postsecondary enrollment by 1994 and type of institution attended, by background 

Table 20—characteristics

Other

 No less than Public Any

 postsecondary 4-year 2-year 4-year

 education institution2

institution institution

 Total 12.3 2.9 22.7 62.0

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander b7.8 1.7 22.3 68.1

 Hispanic regardless of race 17.8 3.4 29.7 49.2

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 18.0 3.2 14.5 64.2

 White, not of Hispanic origin 11.4 3.0 22.8 62.8

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 22.3 4.3 21.2 52.2

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 10.1 3.1 25.2 61.6

 High ($75,000 or more) b3.6 1.4 11.9 83.1

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 23.2 4.1 27.0 45.7

 Some college 14.0 2.9 26.9 56.1

 College graduate b4.1 2.5 14.6 78.8

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2

Primarily private, for-profit vocational and private, not-for-profit 2-year institutions.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

 

32While there appear to be large differences between black students compared with whites, only the difference between blacks and Asians is statistically significant.
POSTSECONDARY ATTENDANCE OF COLLEGE-QUALIFIED STUDENTS

38

The four-year college enrollment patterns of students who were qualified to attend four-year

colleges were still directly related to family income and parental education levels. Even though

they were at least minimally qualified to attend a four-year college, just over half (52 percent) of

the low-income students enrolled in a four-year college, compared to 62 percent of middleincome and 83 percent of high-income students. The four-year college enrollment rates of collegequalified black students were similar to those of whites (64 and 63 percent), but college-qualified

Hispanics were less likely to enroll in a four-year college (49 percent) than any other racial–ethnic

group of college-qualified high school graduates.

Table 21 displays the postsecondary enrollment patterns of the college-qualified seniors in a

somewhat different way by focusing only on the distribution of those who enrolled by type of institution. Among those college-qualified students who did pursue postsecondary education, there

were no differences between the proportions of low- and middle-income students who attended

either a public two-year (27 and 28 percent) or any four-year college (67 and 69 percent). Similarly, among those who enrolled in postsecondary institutions, the proportion of black students

attending four-year colleges was just as high as that of whites and Asians. Hispanic students who

enrolled, however, were still more likely to attend a public two-year and were less likely to attend

a four-year college than students from any other racial–ethnic group.33

 

33K. Alexander et al. (1987) found that while holding academic qualification constant decreased differences in

probabilities of four-year attendance between Hispanic, white, and black 1980 high school graduates who went to

college, Hispanics were still slightly less likely to enroll in four-year institutions at all SES levels. K. Alexander et

al., “Social Background and Academic Determinants of Two-Year Versus Four-Year College Attendance: Evidence From Two Cohorts a Decade Apart,” American Journal of Education 96 (1987): 56–80.
POSTSECONDARY ATTENDANCE OF COLLEGE-QUALIFIED STUDENTS

39

Table 21—Percentage distribution of all college-qualified1 1992 high school graduates, according to

Table 21—enrollment in postsecondary education by 1994 and percentage distribution of those who 

Table 21—enrolled according to type of institution attended, by background characteristics

Total Enrolled by 19943

Other

 No Enrolled less than Public Any

 postsecondary by 4-year 2-year 4-year

 education 1994 institution2

institution institution

 Total 12.3 87.7 3.4 25.9 70.8

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander b7.8 92.2 1.8 24.2 73.9

 Hispanic regardless of race 17.8 82.2 4.1 36.1 59.8

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 18.0 82.0 4.0 17.7 78.4

 White, not of Hispanic origin 11.4 88.6 3.3 25.7 71.0

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 22.3 77.7 5.6 27.3 67.2

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 10.1 89.9 3.4 28.0 68.6

 High ($75,000 or more) b3.6 96.4 1.5 12.4 86.2

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 23.2 76.8 5.4 35.2 59.5

 Some college 14.0 86.0 3.4 31.4 65.3

 College graduate b4.1 95.9 2.6 15.2 82.2

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2

Primarily private for-profit vocational and private not-for-profit 2-year institutions.

3

Percentage distribution of the 87.7 percent who enrolled.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study: 

1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
41

STEPS TOWARD ATTENDING A FOUR-YEAR

INSTITUTION

In order to attend a four-year college or university, students must, in addition to having the

necessary academic preparation and levels of achievement to be admitted to a four-year institution, complete two steps: they must take a college entrance examination (usually the SAT or

ACT) and submit an admissions application. The left panel of table 22 describes the proportions

of college-qualified students who took either both steps, only one step, or neither step toward attending a four-year institution.

Among all college-qualified students, nearly three-quarters (73 percent) took both a college

entrance exam and submitted an application to a four-year institution. The proportion of collegequalified students taking both of these steps was directly related to their family income: 62 percent

of low-income students did so compared to 73 percent of middle-income and 91 percent of highincome students. College-qualified Hispanics, however, were less likely to take a college entrance

examination and submit an application than students from any other racial–ethnic group.34

The right panel of table 22 focuses on those high school graduates who were both college

qualified and planned to attend a four-year institution immediately after high school. Among this

group, nearly 93 percent took both steps toward meeting their educational goals. There were still

some income and racial–ethnic differences in the proportions of those who took both steps. The

proportions of college-qualified seniors taking both steps toward four-year college admission was

still directly related to income. Hispanics were still less likely to take both steps than Asians and

whites, but among those who were both college qualified and planned to attend a four-year institution immediately after high school there was no longer any measurable difference between Hispanics and blacks.

 

34There were no differences among Asians, whites, and blacks with the exception of Asians, who were slightly

more likely than whites to take both steps.
Table 22-Percentage distribution of all college-qualifiedl 1992 high school graduates and those who planned to attend a 4-year institution

immediately, according to the steps2 taken toward admission to a 4-year institution, by background characteristics

All college qualiiled who planned to

All college qualit3ed attend a 4-year institution immediately

Took exam, Did not Took exam, Did not

Took exam, did not take exam, Did Took exam, did not take exam, Did

applied apply applied neither applied apply applied neither

Total 72.6 14.9 1.1 11.4 93.2 5.2 0.8 0.9

Race–ethnicity

Asian/Pacitlc Islauder 80.1 11.6 0.6 7.8 94.4 4.6 0.4 0.6

Hispanic regardless of race 61.4 15.8 2.2 20.5 88.8 7.4 1.5 2.3

Black, not of Hispanic ongin ‘74.4 8.0 3.4 14.1 92.3 3.9 2.5 1.4

White, not of Hispanic origin 73.2 15.5 0.8 10.5 93.5 5.1 0.6 0,8

Family income

Low (less thau $25,000) 61.5 17.2 2.2 19.2 87.9 7.7 2.4 2.1

Middle ($25,000-$74,999) 73.3 15.9 1.1 9.8 93.2 5.4 0.5 1.0

High ($75,000 or more) 90.7 6.5 0.1 2.7 97.6 2.2 0.1 0.1

Parents’ highest education level

High school graduate or less 58.1 18.3 2.1 21.5 88.8 7.1 2.2 1.8

Some college 67.2 18.7 1.4 12.7 91.0 7.0 1.0 1.0

College graduate 87.0 8.5 0.5 4.1 96.6 2.8 0.1 0.5

14-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT scores, and academic coursework.

‘Taking a college entrance examination (SAT or ACT), and applying for admission to a 4-year college or university.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis S ystem.
STEPS TOWARD ATTENDING A FOUR-YEAR INSTITUTION

43

Table 23—Percentage distribution of all college-qualified1 1992 high school graduates who took both 

Table 23—steps2 toward admission to a 4-year college according to postsecondary enrollment by 1994 and

Table 23—type of institution attended, by background characteristics

Other

 No less than Public Any

 postsecondary 4-year 2-year 4-year

 education institution3institution institution

 Total 4.0 1.3 11.1 83.7

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 4.2 0.2 11.1 84.4

 Hispanic regardless of race 8.9 1.0 13.0 77.2

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 7.4 2.6 b8.5 81.5

 White, not of Hispanic origin 3.2 1.2 11.2 84.4

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 4.6 1.7 11.2 82.5

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 4.1 1.4 12.5 82.0

 High ($75,000 or more) 2.1 0.7 b5.6 91.5

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 7.8 1.4 15.3 75.5

 Some college 3.9 1.4 13.3 81.4

 College graduate 2.4 1.1 b6.9 89.6

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2Taking a college entrance examination (SAT or ACT), and applying for admission to a 4-year college or university.

3

Primarily private, for-profit vocational and private, not-for-profit 2-year institutions.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study:

1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

The postsecondary enrollment rates of those 1992 high school graduates who were collegequalified and took both steps toward attending a four-year institution are displayed in table 23.

Only 4 percent of these students did not attend any postsecondary institution, 11 percent attended

public two-year colleges, and 84 percent attended a four-year college or university. There was no

difference in the four-year college enrollment rate of low-income and middle-income students (82

percent) who were college qualified and took both steps toward admission, and there was no

measurable difference in the four-year college enrollment rates among students from various racial–ethnic groups.35

 

35While there appear to be large racial–ethnic differences in the total proportions not enrolled, the differences are

not statistically significant.
STEPS TOWARD ATTENDING A FOUR-YEAR INSTITUTION

44

The small percentage of college-qualified seniors who took both steps toward attending a

four-year institution and did not enroll in a postsecondary institution are excluded in the right

panel of table 24. Among the 96 percent who did enroll, there were no differences in the proportion of low- and middle-income students who attended a four-year college or university (about 86

percent) as well as no differences among students from various racial–ethnic groups. If they enrolled in postsecondary education, between 85 and 88 percent of all college-qualified blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and whites who had taken both steps toward attending a four-year institution

enrolled in a four-year institution within two years of high school graduation.

Although many of the differences in four-year college enrollment rates disappear among

those students who are both college qualified and take both steps toward attending a four-year

college, students whose parents have high incomes or college degrees are still the most likely to

attend four-year institutions. Nevertheless, high school graduates whose parents have low levels

of income and education are able to attend four-year colleges at the same rates as students from

middle-income families, if they do what four-year colleges expect them to do. That is, if lowincome students have an academic record and aptitude test scores which demonstrate even the

minimal qualifications for admission to a four-year institution, and if they take a college entrance

examination and if they submit an application for admission, the majority of low-income students

do enroll in postsecondary education, and over 83 percent attend a four-year institution (figure 4).

Similarly, those black and Hispanic students who are college qualified, take a college entrance examination, and apply for admission to a four-year college are just as likely to attend a four-year

college or university as their white and Asian counterparts (figure 5).
STEPS TOWARD ATTENDING A FOUR-YEAR INSTITUTION

45

Table 24—Percentage distribution of all college-qualified1 1992 high school graduates who took both 

Table 24—steps2 toward admission to a 4-year institution according to enrollment in postsecondary 

Table 24—education by 1994 and percentage distribution of those who enrolled according to type of 

Table 24—institution attended, by background characteristics

Total Enrolled by 19944

Other

 No Enrolled less than Public Any

 postsecondary as of 4-year 2-year 4-year

 education 1994 institution3

institution institution

 Total 4.0 96.0 1.3 11.5 87.2

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 4.2 95.8 0.3 11.6 88.1

 Hispanic regardless of race 8.9 91.1 1.0 14.3 84.7

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 7.4 92.6 2.8 b9.2 88.0

 White, not of Hispanic origin 3.2 96.8 1.3 11.6 87.2

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 4.6 95.4 1.8 11.7 86.5

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 4.1 95.9 1.5 13.0 85.5

 High ($75,000 or more) 2.1 97.9 0.7 b5.7 93.5

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 7.8 92.2 1.5 16.6 81.9

 Some college 3.9 96.1 1.4 13.8 84.8

 College graduate 2.4 97.6 1.1 b7.0 91.8

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2Took college entrance examinations and applied for admission to a 4-year college.

3

Primarily private, for-profit vocational and private, not-for-profit 2-year institutions.

4

Excludes those who did not enter postsecondary education.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
STEPS TOWARD ATTENDING A FOUR-YEAR INSTITUTION

46

Figure 4—Percentage of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 1994 compared with those who took both steps toward admission to a 4-year institution,

according to the type of institution attended by 1994, by family income

College qualified1

21 25

12

52

62

83

1

3

4

0

20

40

60

80

100

Low Middle High

Public 2-year Other 4-year institution

77

90

96

College qualified and took both steps toward admission2

11 13 6

83 82 92

1

2 1

0

20

40

60

80

100

Low Middle High

96 96 99

1

4-year college qualification index based on GPA, rank in class, NELS aptitude test, SAT and ACT scores, and academic

coursework.

2Taking college entrance exam and applying for admission to a 4-year institution.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study:

1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

Family income

Family income
STEPS TOWARD ATTENDING A FOUR-YEAR INSTITUTION

47

Figure 5—Percentage of all college-qualified 1992 high school graduates who enrolled in postsecondary education by 1994 compared with those who took both steps toward admission to a 4-year institution,

according to the type of institution attended by 1994, by race–ethnicity

College qualified

1

22 23

15

30

68 63

64

49

3

3

3 2

0

20

40

60

80

100

Asian/Pacific

Islander

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanicHispanic

Public 2-year Other 4-year institution

92 89

82 82

Race–ethnicity

College qualified and took both steps toward admission2

11 11 9

13

84 84 82 77

1 0 1 3

0

20

40

60

80

100

Asian/Pacific

Islander

White, nonHispanicBlack, nonHispanicHispanic

95 96 94 91

1

4-year college qualification index based on GPA, rank in class, NELS aptitude test, SAT and ACT scores, and academic

coursework.

2Taking college entrance exam and applying for admission to a 4-year institution.

3This estimate is less than 0.5.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study:

1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
49

CHOICE OF INSTITUTIONS BY COLLEGE-QUALIFIED

APPLICANTS WHO ARE ACCEPTED FOR ADMISSION

College-qualified students who take the college entrance examinations have a choice of

where to apply, but they have a choice of where to enroll only if they are accepted for admission

by a four-year institution. In the NELS:88 survey, students were asked to name two of the institutions to which they applied and whether they were accepted. Table 25 compares the percentage

of college-qualified students who applied to, were accepted by, and enrolled in private and public

four-year institutions.36 Almost half (45 percent) of the college-qualified students who took both

steps toward admission applied to at least one private four-year institution, and three-quarters (77

percent) applied to at least one public four-year institution. Eventually 29 percent enrolled in a

private and 55 percent enrolled in a public four-year institution.

Application rates of college-qualified students to private four-year institutions were directly

related to family income: nearly 60 percent of students from high-income families applied to at

least one private four-year institution, compared to 43 percent of middle-income and 38 percent

of low-income students. Private college application rates were highest for the children of college

graduates (55 percent), but were about the same for both groups of those whose parents had no

4-year degree (38 and 39 percent). Over half of the college-qualified Asian students (52 percent)

had applied to at least one private four-year institution, compared with 37 percent of the collegequalified Hispanics.

Reflecting the differences in application rates, enrollment in private four-year colleges and

universities was also directly related to family income, with 41 percent of high-income students

enrolling, compared to 27 percent of middle-income and 22 percent of low-income collegequalified students who had taken both steps toward admission. Also reflecting the application

rates, students whose parents were college graduates had higher private college enrollment rates

(37 percent), but there was no difference in the private college enrollment rates of those whose

parents had some college education compared to those who had no more than a high school edu-

 

36Applications to public 2-year colleges and other less-than-4-year institutions were not considered relevant for this

analysis. Nearly one quarter (22 percent) applied to both public and private 4-year institutions. U.S. Department of

Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Educational Longitudinal Study: 1988–1994

(NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
CHOICE OF INSTITUTIONS BY COLLEGE-QUALIFIED APPLICANTS

50

cation (22 and 23 percent). Private four-year college application and enrollment rates represent

one of the few instances in this study where a direct relationship to family income levels is not also

reflected in a direct relationship to parental education levels.

Table 25—Percentage of college-qualified1 1992 high school graduates who took both steps2 toward 

Table 25—admission to a 4-year institution according to their application, acceptance, and attendance at 

Table 25—private not-for-profit and public 4-year institutions, by background characteristics

Accepted Accepted

Applied to to a Attended Applied to to a Attended

 a private private a private a public public a public

4-year34-year34-year 4-year34-year34-year

 Total 45.3 37.9 28.8 76.6 67.5 54.9

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 52.4 43.8 36.6 72.0 61.9 47.8

 Hispanic regardless of race 37.3 30.7 20.8 84.0 73.0 56.3

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 48.1 35.8 26.0 82.7 70.1 55.5

 White, not of Hispanic origin 45.1 38.3 29.2 75.7 67.3 55.2

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 37.5 30.5 22.1 82.1 73.5 60.4

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 43.1 35.9 27.2 77.7 68.2 54.9

 High ($75,000 or more) 59.2 51.4 40.9 66.8 60.4 50.6

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 37.5 31.0 22.1 80.6 69.2 53.4

 Some college 38.8 32.0 22.9 80.8 70.7 58.6

 College graduate 54.5 46.7 37.4 70.7 64.0 52.2

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2Taking college entrance examinations and applying for admission to a 4-year college.

3

Students who applied to both public and private institutions are included in both categories.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

Given the large difference in the average tuition between public and private four-year colleges, it is not surprising that the application rates at private four-year institutions are directly related to family income. Low-income students and parents are undoubtedly aware that private

college tuition is much higher. However, they may not be aware that financial aid can substantially

reduce the difference in the actual net cost to the family unless the student has applied and been
CHOICE OF INSTITUTIONS BY COLLEGE-QUALIFIED APPLICANTS

51

accepted, since the financial aid award offers are typically sent at the same time as the letters of

acceptance. That is, the real effect of financial aid on college choice can be appropriately evaluated only by examining the behavior of those students who have been accepted for admission at

four-year colleges, because they are the only ones who know how much financial aid has been

awarded and can therefore actually compare the net costs at various institutions.

Table 26 shows where the students who were accepted to four-year colleges chose to enroll. Among the students who were accepted to any four-year institution, 89 percent enrolled in

one. There were no differences in the four-year college enrollment rates of those who had been

accepted among racial–ethnic groups or between low- and middle-income students. High-income

students, however, were somewhat more likely to enroll in a four-year institution compared with

low- and middle-income students (93 percent compared to 88 percent). Among students who

were accepted to private four-year institutions, over three-quarters (76 percent) enrolled in one,

16 percent enrolled in a public four-year institution, and 6 percent in a less-than-four-year institution. For these students, there were no measurable differences in the choice of attending either a

less-than-4-year, private four-year, or public four-year institution by family income, parental education, or race–ethnicity. Similarly, among students who were accepted to a public four-year institution, 81 percent enrolled in one, 8 percent enrolled in a private four-year institution, and 9

percent attended a less-than-four-year institution. There were also no differences in these enrollment choices by family income, parental education, or race–ethnicity.

In summary, low-income students who have been accepted to public four-year colleges and

universities or those who have been accepted to private four-year colleges and universities are just

as likely to enroll in them as were middle- and high-income students. There is also no difference in

the enrollment rates of blacks, Hispanics, Asians, or whites who have been accepted to four-year

public or private colleges and universities.
Table 26-Percentage distribution of postsecondary attendance of college-qualifiedl 1992 high school graduates who took both stepsz toward

admission to a 4-year institution, and were accepted for admission to at least one private or at least one public 4-year institution, by

background characteristics

Accepted to any 4-year Accepted to private 4-year Accepted to public 4-year

Attended Attended Attended Attended Attended Attended Attended Attended

a less-than- N o private public less-than- N o public private less-than- No

4-year 4-year PSE3 4-year 4-year 4-year PSE3 4-year 4-year 4-year PSE3

16.34

10.2

21.5

15.7

16.4

14.24

16.24

15.44

13.2

18.2

15.5

Total 89.4 8.3 2.3 76.4 5.8 1.6 80.9 7.6 9.0 2.5

Race+thnicity

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic regardless of race

Black, not of Hispanic origin

White, not of Hispanic origin

89.6

84.6

90.5

89.7

6.7

9.9

8.0

8.3

3.6

5.6

1.5

2.0

82.9

71.1

73.4

76.6

2.8

6.1

9.6

5.6

4.1

1.2

1.2

1.4

77.8

77.6

79.6

81.4

9.3 9.5

4.9 11.1

10.6 8.1

7.5 9.0

3.4

6.5

1.7

2.1

3,2

2.3

2.0

Family income

Low (less than $25,000)

Middle ($25,000–$74,999)

High ($75,000 or more)

88.1

88.2

93.3

8.9

9.5

4.9

3.0

2.2

1.8

74.1

75.7

80.3

9.9

6.4

2.8

1.8

1.6

1.6

82.2

80.2

82.3

5.5 9.1

7.4 10.1

9.8 5.9

Parents’ highest education level

High school graduate or less

Some college

College graduate

84.3

87.9

92.5

12.4

9.7

5.8

3.3

2.4

1.7

73.1

71.5

80.5

12.3

8.0

2.8

1.4

2.3

1.2

77.5

82.5

80.7

6.0 12.8

5.5 9.6

10.2 7.1

3.7

2.4

-- 1.9

‘4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT scores, and academic coursework.

2Taking college entrance examinations and applying for admission to a 4-year college.

3Postsecondary education.

4The estimates for the family income subgroups are all lower than that for the total because of missing values for family income.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Nationrd Education Longitudinal Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
53

FINANCIAL CONCERNS, INFORMATION, AND TAKING

THE STEPS TO ATTEND A FOUR-YEAR COLLEGE

A major finding of this study is that the differences in the four-year college enrollment rates

between college-qualified low-income and middle-income students, as well as those among the

college-qualified students in the various racial–ethnic groups, are eliminated among those who

take both steps toward four-year college admission. The NELS survey includes some data which

may help explain why some students are less likely to take the necessary steps. These include the

responses of the students and their parents to questions about college affordability and to questions about the financial aid information they had available.

In the spring of 1992, the graduating high school seniors who indicated they were planning

to continue their education and their parents were asked a number of questions about the importance of college costs and financial aid in choosing a college and about their sources of financial

aid information.37 Tables 27 through 29 compare the responses to some of these questions by the

college-qualified seniors and their parents.

Table 27 shows the percentage of 1992 college-qualified seniors and their parents who

demonstrated that they were very concerned about college affordability by indicating that both the

availability of financial aid and total college costs were “very important” in choosing an institution

to attend, or that one was “very important” and the other “somewhat important.” Low-income

students and their parents were more likely to be very concerned about financial aid and college

costs in choosing a college to attend than their middle-income counterparts, and middle-income

students and parents were more concerned than those from high-income families. In low-income

families, the parents were more likely to be concerned about college affordability than their children (79 percent compared to 69 percent). Both black and Hispanic students and parents were

more likely to be concerned about affordability than their Asian and white counterparts. In Hispanic families, the parents were also more likely to be concerned about college affordability than

their children (71 percent compared to 56 percent), in contrast to black families, where the parents and the students were equally concerned about meeting college costs (70 percent of parents

 

37Most of the students who planned to attend college would have already applied and taken the entrance exams at

this point.
FINANCIAL CONCERNS

54

and 74 percent of students). One important difference between Hispanic and black high school

seniors is that black students are much more concerned about college affordability.

Table 27—Percentage of all college-qualified1 1992 high school graduates and their parents who were

Table 27—very concerned2 about college costs and availability of financial aid, by background 

Table 27—characteristics

Students3Parents

 Total 45.4 50.0

Race–ethnicity

 Asian or Pacific Islander 44.1 48.4

 Hispanic regardless of race 55.9 71.3

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 74.0 69.8

 White, not of Hispanic origin 41.9 46.5

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 68.7 78.6

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 47.1 52.7

 High ($75,000 or more) 19.7 16.2

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 60.3 72.1

 Some college 51.5 56.6

 College graduate 34.3 36.2

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2Rated both the availability of financial aid and total college costs as "very important" in choosing an institution to attend,

or rated one as "very important" and the other "somewhat important."

3

Includes only those students whose parents were also interviewed.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

Table 28 shows the proportions of 1992 high school graduates and their parents who had

read financial aid information from the U.S. Department of Education or from postsecondary institutions by their senior year of high school. Parents were much more likely to have read information from both sources than the students. Low-income parents were just as likely to have read

information from two sources as middle-income parents (54 and 56 percent), but low-income students were more likely to have obtained financial aid information from both sources than their

middle-income counterparts.
FINANCIAL CONCERNS

55

Table 28—Percentage distribution of college-qualified1 1992 high school graduates and their parents, 

Table 28—according to the number of sources of information read about financial aid2, by 

Table 28—background characteristics

Students Parents

None One Two None One Two

 

 Total 43.0 34.6 22.3 12.9 33.6 53.5

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 43.6 34.7 21.7 23.4 33.4 43.1

 Hispanic regardless of race 39.8 33.9 26.2 20.3 27.2 52.5

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 32.6 34.2 33.2 11.6 33.3 55.1

 White, not of Hispanic origin 44.2 34.8 21.0 12.0 34.1 53.8

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 34.8 35.5 29.7 15.7 30.6 53.7

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 41.0 36.0 23.0 11.6 32.1 56.3

 High ($75,000 or more) 53.9 32.6 13.5 15.3 41.0 43.7

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 37.4 37.7 25.0 17.9 29.2 52.8

 Some college 41.2 35.4 23.5 11.8 32.4 55.8

 College graduate 45.7 33.8 20.5 12.2 36.4 51.4

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2

Information from the U.S. Department of Education or from postsecondary institutions.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

Table 29 shows the proportion of college-qualified students and their parents who obtained

information about financial aid from teachers and guidance counselors, college representatives,

loan officers, and other knowledgeable people. Low-income students were more likely to have

discussed financial aid with a high school teacher or guidance counselor (72 percent) and with

college representatives (49 percent) than middle- or high-income students. Black students were

also more likely to have discussed financial aid with teachers and counselors (77 percent) or college representatives (57 percent) than students from other racial–ethnic groups. There were no

differences in the proportions of low-, middle-, and high-income parents who spoke to teachers

and counselors, but a larger proportion of low- and middle-income parents spoke with college

representatives about financial aid, while a larger percentage of middle-income parents had spoken to a loan officer at a bank.
Table 29—Percentage of college-qualified* 1992 high school graduates and their parents who spoke to others to learn about financial aid, 

Table 29—according to the type of person spoken to, by background characteristics

Students Parents

Teacher or A Teacher or

high school Loan know- high school Loan

guidance College officer ledgeable guidance College officer Another

 counselor rep. at a bank adult counselor rep. at a bank person

 

 Total 61.1 43.1 4.7 66.7 55.0 57.3 25.7 64.2

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 59.3 39.2 3.0 57.9 52.2 36.1 17.5 61.1

 Hispanic regardless of race 63.8 46.6 2.2 69.4 48.1 53.7 18.0 59.1

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 77.3 56.9 8.1 79.4 60.1 59.0 21.5 72.6

 White, not of Hispanic origin 59.6 41.8 4.8 66.0 55.1 58.4 27.1 63.8

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 72.1 49.0 4.7 72.2 55.3 56.9 18.0 64.3

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 62.7 45.1 4.8 69.1 55.0 59.8 29.3 64.3

 High ($75,000 or more) 46.9 34.0 3.4 55.1 53.3 48.1 21.5 61.3

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 67.2 47.7 4.7 66.0 51.3 52.6 22.3 58.2

 Some college 65.4 44.6 4.8 68.4 55.2 59.6 25.3 64.8

 College graduate 55.0 40.8 4.1 65.3 56.4 57.0 27.2 65.9

*4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT scores, and academic coursework.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
FINANCIAL CONCERNS

57

In summary, low-income, black, and Hispanic parents of college-qualified seniors were very

concerned about costs and the availability of financial aid in choosing a college; however, among

these three groups only the black students were as concerned as their parents. College-qualified

low-income students were more likely than their middle-income counterparts to read information

and speak to teachers, guidance counselors, and college representatives about financial aid. Lowincome parents, however, apparently did not have any more information about financial aid than

middle-income parents. College-qualified black students were not only more concerned about

college affordability than Hispanic students, they were also more likely to have discussed financial

aid with teachers, guidance counselors, and college representatives.

Whether taking the steps toward attending a four-year institution is related to concerns

about college affordability and information about financial aid is examined in tables 30 through 32.

These tables focus on the college-qualified seniors from low-income, middle-income, Hispanic,

and black backgrounds, which are the groups that are most concerned about college affordability

as discussed above.

Table 30 examines the relationship between concerns about college affordability and taking

both steps toward attending a four-year college. It shows the percentage of college-qualified students who took both steps, comparing those students and parents who were very concerned about

affordability to those who were less than very concerned. The difference in the degree of concern

expressed about college affordability by students and parents from low- and middle-income and

black and Hispanic families was not related to differences in the proportions of students taking

both steps towards attending a four-year institution. However, because the affordability questions

were asked only of those who planned to attend postsecondary education, this result does not address the issue of whether cost concerns had discouraged students from planning to go to college

in the first place.

Table 31 examines the relationship of taking both steps to the number of sources of information read about financial aid. All low-and middle-income, black, and Hispanic students who

read information about financial aid from one or more sources were more likely to take both steps

toward attending a four-year institution than those who did not read any information.38 For example, 48 percent of college-qualified low-income students who did not read any information on financial aid took both steps, compared to over 70 percent who obtained information from one or

two sources.

 

38The exception to this is no difference between black students who read nothing compared with those who read

two sources. Although the difference appears large, the estimates are not significantly different.
FINANCIAL CONCERNS

58

Table 30—Percentage distribution of college-qualified1 1992 high school graduates according to the 

Table 30—number of steps2 taken toward attending a 4-year institution, by student and parent concerns 

Table 30—about costs and availability of financial aid in choosing a college to attend, by selected 

Table 30—categories of income and racial–ethnic background 

Took exam One

and applied step Did neither

 Total381.1 13.4 5.5 

Student concerns3

 Low income

 Very concerned472.5 18.4 9.1 

 Less than very concerned577.5 12.7 9.8 

 Middle income

 Very concerned 81.8 14.5 3.6 

 Less than very concerned 81.0 14.0 5.0 

 Black, non-Hispanic

 Very concerned 84.5 9.1 6.4 

 Less than very concerned 84.8 12.6 2.6 

 Hispanic 

 Very concerned 72.0 15.0 13.0 

 Less than very concerned 79.4 12.6 8.0 

Parent concerns

 Low income

 Very concerned 72.5 16.3 11.2 

 Less than very concerned 76.7 16.0 7.3 

 Middle income

 Very concerned 80.6 14.9 4.5 

 Less than very concerned 81.3 13.9 4.8 

 Black, non-Hispanic

 Very concerned 80.9 11.2 7.9 

 Less than very concerned 84.6 10.4 5.1 

 Hispanic

 Very concerned 75.0 13.0 12.0 

 Less than very concerned 73.0 17.5 9.5 

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2Takes college entrance examinations and applying for admission to a 4-year college.

3

Includes only those students whose parents were also asked these questions.

4Rated both the availability of financial aid and total college costs as “very important” in choosing an institution to attend,

“or one as very important” and the other as “somewhat important.”

5Other combination of responses.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
FINANCIAL CONCERNS

59

Table 31—Percentage distribution of college-qualified1 1992 high school graduates according to the 

Table 31—number of steps2 taken toward attending a 4-year institution, by number of sources of 

Table 31—information on financial aid read by students and parents, by selected categories of income 

Table 31—and racial–ethnic background

Took exam One

and applied step Did neither

 Total372.6 16.1 11.4 

Number of sources read by students3

 Low income

 None 47.8 25.4 26.8 

 One 71.2 15.8 13.0 

 Two 73.4 17.4 9.3 

 Middle income

 None 64.6 21.6 13.8 

 One 81.4 13.8 4.8 

 Two 86.6 10.8 2.7 

 Black, non-Hispanic 

 None 67.0 12.4 20.5 

 One 84.1 7.6 8.3 

 Two 80.7 12.4 6.8 

 Hispanic

 None 53.6 18.1 28.4 

 One 68.8 16.4 14.8 

 Two 76.9 15.1 8.0 

Number of sources read by parents

 Low income

 None 65.3 21.5 13.2 

 One 61.7 17.8 20.5 

 Two 76.4 15.4 8.2 

 Middle income

 None 69.2 18.4 12.4 

 One 74.8 16.8 8.5 

 Two 85.3 11.9 2.8 

 Black, non-Hispanic 

 None 78.3 9.6 12.1 

 One 71.2 13.5 15.4 

 Two 82.6 11.2 6.2 

 Hispanic 

 None 67.9 19.1 13.0 

 One 58.8 24.6 16.6 

 Two 81.3 12.3 6.4 

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2Taking college entrance examinations and applying for admission to a 4-year college.

3

Includes students whose parents were not interviewed.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
FINANCIAL CONCERNS

60

Similarly, as shown in table 32, low- and middle-income students who spoke with at least

one person about financial aid were more likely to have taken both steps toward attending a fouryear institution than those who did not speak with anyone. For example, 35 percent of lowincome students who did not talk with anyone about financial aid applied to a four-year college

and took a college entrance examination, compared to 52 percent who talked with one person, 67

percent who talked with two, and 75 percent who talked with three or more people. Among Hispanic and black students, those who spoke with two or more people were also more likely to take

both steps toward attending a four-year institution than those who had spoken with no one.

39

In summary, the more sources of information they had obtained, and the more people with

whom they had discussed financial aid, the more likely that college-qualified low- and middleincome, black, and Hispanic students would have taken the college entrance exams and applied

for admission to a four-year college.40 Although there is a positive relationship between getting

information about financial aid and taking the steps toward attending college, it cannot be concluded that there is a causal relationship. That is, it may be that students who have already decided to go to college seek out more information about financial aid, or it may be that those who

get more information are more likely to take the steps toward going to college.

 

39Although the difference in this proportion between Hispanic students who spoke with no one and those who

spoke with one person appears large, these estimates are associated with large standard errors and the difference is

not statistically significant.

40The importance of information for low-income students has recently been shown in J. King, The Decision to Go

to College (Washington, D.C.: The College Board, 1996).
FINANCIAL CONCERNS

61

Table 32—Percentage distribution of college-qualified1 1992 high school graduates according to the numTable 32—ber of steps2

 toward attending a 4-year institution, by number of people spoken to about financial

Table 32—aid by students and parents, by selected categories of income and racial–ethnic background

Took exam One

and applied step Did neither

 Total3

72.6 16.1 11.4 

Number of people spoken to by students3

 Low income

 None 34.7 24.1 41.2 

 One 51.8 25.7 22.5 

 Two 67.3 19.8 12.9 

 Three–four 75.2 15.1 9.7 

 Middle-income

 None 53.6 27.8 18.7 

 One 73.6 16.4 10.0 

 Two 78.0 16.1 5.9 

 Three–four 86.1 10.7 3.2 

 Black, non-Hispanic

 None 48.2 11.8 40.0 

 One 75.2 13.1 11.7 

 Two 82.8 10.2 7.0 

 Three–four 79.6 10.0 10.4 

 Hispanic

 None 34.0 23.4 42.6 

 One 52.1 23.3 24.6 

 Two 71.7 13.3 15.0 

 Three–four 80.7 12.8 6.4 

Number of people spoken to by parents

 Low income

 None 58.2 22.8 19.0 

 One 62.7 17.8 19.4 

 Two 71.0 16.7 12.3 

 Three–four 77.4 15.9 6.7 

 Middle-income

 None 60.8 19.0 20.2 

 One 74.6 18.9 6.5 

 Two 79.9 15.1 5.0 

 Three–four 87.9 10.0 2.1 

 Black, non-Hispanic

 None — — —

 One 69.5 11.7 18.8 

 Two 78.7 13.4 7.9 

 Three–four 84.6 11.8 3.7 

 Hispanic

 None 63.7 26.3 10.0 

 One 67.1 18.8 14.1 

 Two 67.0 20.5 12.5 

 Three–four 85.9 8.4 5.7 

—Sample size too small for a reliable estimate.

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2

Taking college entrance examinations and applying for admission to a 4-year college.

3

Includes students whose parents were not interviewed.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
63

ATTENDANCE PATTERNS OF SENIORS MARGINALLY

OR NOT QUALIFIED FOR REGULAR FOUR-YEAR

COLLEGE ADMISSION

According to the college qualification index used in this analysis, approximately one-third of

the 1992 high school graduates were not academically prepared to attend a four-year college, and

they were not included in most of the analyses above. The postsecondary attendance patterns of

the graduating seniors who appear to have been only marginally or not qualified to attend fouryear colleges are shown in table 33.

Table 33—Percentage distribution of all 1992 high school graduates who were marginally or not college 

Table 33—qualified,1according to postsecondary enrollment by 1994 and type of institution attended, by 

Table 33—background characteristics

Other

 No less than Public Any

 postsecondary 4-year 2-year 4-year

 education institution2

institution institution

 Total 47.9 7.0 30.3 14.7

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 30.6 10.2b 46.4 12.7

 Hispanic regardless of race 42.2 7.2 38.5 12.1

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 40.3 8.1 28.8 22.7

 White, not of Hispanic origin 51.4 6.7 28.4 13.5

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 53.4 6.8 28.5 11.3

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 43.2 6.6 33.8 16.5

 High ($75,000 or more) 30.1 9.1 27.5 33.3

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 58.8 7.5 25.1 b8.6

 Some college 44.5 6.7 35.3 13.5

 College graduate 23.1 5.9 36.3 34.8

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT 

scores, and academic coursework.

2

Primarily private for-profit vocational and private not-for-profit two-year institutions.

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal 

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
ATTENDANCE PATTERNS OF SENIORS MARGINALLY OR NOT QUALIFIED

64

Half (48 percent) of all the marginally or unqualified seniors did not attend any postsecondary institution within two years of high school graduation. Not enrolling was directly related to

family income and parental education levels. Over half (53 percent) of the low-income seniors did

not enroll anywhere, compared with 43 percent of the middle- and 30 percent of the high-income

unqualified seniors. Marginally and unqualified white seniors were more likely not to attend postsecondary education within two years of high school graduation than any of the marginally or unqualified seniors from minority groups. This is consistent with the earlier finding that the

educational expectations of minority students, qualified or not, had not declined between the

eighth grade and their senior year, but they had declined for marginally or unqualified white seniors.

Among those who were marginally or not college qualified, 30 percent enrolled in two-year

public institutions; 7 percent enrolled in private for-profit or not-for-profit institutions offering

programs of less than four years; and 15 percent enrolled in four-year institutions. For this group,

four-year college enrollment rates were directly related to family income and parental education, a

typical pattern observed throughout this report. The marginally qualified seniors whose parents

had high incomes or college degrees were three times as likely to have been enrolled in four-year

colleges than those whose parents had low incomes or no more than a high school education. The

proportions of marginally qualified Asians, whites, and Hispanics enrolled in four-year colleges

were similar (about 13 percent). The proportion of black seniors who did not meet the minimum

criteria of the college qualification index who were enrolled in four-year colleges (23 percent) was

greater than the proportion of comparable whites and Hispanics. Again, it is important to note

that among the students who appear to be only marginally qualified, those who did enroll in fouryear colleges were more likely to have data missing for the college qualification index than those

who did not enroll in a four-year college, and most of the average scores for the marginally qualified who did enroll were about the same as the minimally qualified students.41 In particular, black

students who enrolled had fewer sources available for the qualification index than whites.42

Nearly one-third of the seniors who were marginally or not academically qualified for fouryear colleges did attend two-year public community colleges. The pattern seen frequently

throughout this report, that Hispanics had higher public two-year college enrollment rates than

whites (39 percent compared to 28 percent), is repeated. What is not typical is that Asians also

had much higher public two-year college enrollment rates than whites. Nearly half (46 percent) of

the Asian seniors who were marginally or not qualified for four-year colleges attended public two-

 

41See table 11 and table 12.

42See table 13.
ATTENDANCE PATTERNS OF SENIORS MARGINALLY OR NOT QUALIFIED

65

year colleges, which is consistent with the high postsecondary enrollment rates of collegequalified Asians.

In summary, even among those high school seniors who are not adequately prepared for

regular admission to a four-year college, many of the same patterns which were observed among

the college-qualified seniors are evident. Postsecondary enrollment in general, and four-year college enrollment in particular, is directly related to family income and education. Hispanics are

more likely to go to community colleges, in contrast to blacks, who are more likely to go to fouryear colleges than Hispanics.
67

A MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF TWO-YEAR PUBLIC

AND FOUR-YEAR COLLEGE ENROLLMENT RATES

In examining access to postsecondary education, this report has focused primarily on the

factors associated with the relatively low four-year college enrollment rates of Hispanic, black,

and low-income graduating high school seniors. Two of the most important factors were found to

be that these groups were less likely to be well prepared academically, and among those who were

qualified to attend a four-year college, low-income and Hispanic (but not black) students were

less likely to take the college entrance examinations and apply for admission, which are the two

steps required for acceptance to and enrollment in a four-year college or university. The analysis

has therefore been focused on exploring the relationship of family income, parental education, and

race–ethnicity to four-year college qualification and taking the steps toward four-year college admission, and the relationship of these two intervening variables to enrollment patterns.

To estimate the effect of a single one of these variables, the effects of the other related variables must be controlled, which requires a multivariate analysis. Two weighted least squares regression models were used to estimate how much each of the student background characteristics

variables affected postsecondary enrollment, while controlling for college qualification and taking

both steps toward four-year college admission, as well as the other background characteristics.

One model examines community college enrollments; the dependent variable is the proportion of 1992 high school graduates who first enrolled in a two-year public institution. A second

model focuses on four-year college and university enrollments; the dependent variable is the proportion of 1992 high school graduates who first enrolled in a either a private or a public four-year

institution.43 In each model the dependent variable is the dichotomous enrollment variable for

each subject. The independent variables in both models include whether the student was college

qualified (yes/no) and whether the student took both steps toward attending a four-year institution

(yes/no) as well as the background characteristics displayed throughout this report: race–ethnicity,

family income, and parental education.44 The regression coefficients in the model were then used

to adjust the original estimates of proportions of students enrolled in public two-year or any fouryear institution (see appendix B for the details of the methodology). These adjusted estimates,

 

43See appendix B for a discussion of regression models appropriate for categorical dependent variables.

44Financial aid was not included as a variable because the amounts are known only for those who enrolled.
A MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF COLLEGE ENROLLMENT RATES

68

which take into account the joint effects of all the independent variables in the model, may then be

compared to the original unadjusted proportion of all seniors who enrolled in a two-year public

(26 percent) or any four-year institution (45 percent) as displayed earlier in table 2.

The results in the first column of table 34 show the original (unadjusted) estimates of the

proportion of students who enrolled in a two-year public institution by background characteristics

(the original estimates are in tables 2 and 16), college qualification, and steps toward four-year

college admission. Column two contains the adjusted percentages after controlling for all other

independent variables. Asterisks indicate that the estimates are significantly different from the reference group, which is italicized.

For example, the unadjusted percentages indicate that only Hispanics had two-year public

college enrollment rates that were significantly higher than whites, who are the reference group

(34 percent compared to 25 percent). Controlling for all other characteristics, however, both

Asians and Hispanics had higher community college enrollment rates than whites (32 percent of

both Asians and Hispanics compared with 25 percent of whites, adjusted). This change may be

due to the fact that Asians who were unqualified for four-year institutions had very high two-year

public enrollment rates, as was shown in table 33.

Students from low-income families had unadjusted community college enrollment rates,

similar to those of students from middle-income families (25 to 28 percent, unadjusted). Controlling for all other characteristics, however, the adjusted rates indicate that low-income students

were less likely to enroll in community colleges than middle-income students (22 compared with

29 percent, adjusted). The unadjusted estimates also suggest that the community college enrollment rates of students whose parents were college graduates were lower than those whose parents had less education. Controlling for all other variables, however, indicates that students whose

parents are college graduates are only less likely to enroll in community colleges than those whose

parents have some college education (25 compared to 29 percent, adjusted).

A major change from the unadjusted to adjusted estimates concerns the effect of college

qualification. The unadjusted estimates indicate that students who are qualified to attend four-year

colleges are less likely to attend public two-year colleges than those who are marginally or not

qualified (23 percent compared to 30 percent, unadjusted). The regression model, however, results in adjusted estimates that reverse the relationship. Controlling for all other variables, it is the

college-qualified students who are more likely to attend community colleges than those who are

not qualified (29 percent compared to 21 percent, adjusted).
A MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF COLLEGE ENROLLMENT RATES

69

In summary, the regression model indicates that, after controlling for the effect of all other

variables, the community college enrollment rates of Asians and Hispanics were higher than the

community college enrollment rates of white seniors. It also suggests that it is the students from

families with middle incomes who were the most likely to enroll in community colleges (29 percent, adjusted) when other factors are controlled. Moreover, seniors who were qualified to attend

four-year colleges were more likely to enroll in public two-year colleges than those who were not

academically qualified after controlling for other factors. However, about 1 out of 10 of those

who had applied to four-year colleges enrolled in a community college, while over 40 percent

(unadjusted and adjusted) of those who did not take both steps toward 4-year college admission

enrolled in community college.

The second regression model defines four-year institution enrollment rates as the dependent

variable (private and public colleges and universities combined), and the same independent variables as in the two-year public model discussed above. The unadjusted estimates (also shown in

tables 2 and 16) are compared to the adjusted regression model estimates in the right panel of table 34. Since much of the analysis in this report focused on four-year college enrollment rates,

which included tables showing the effect of controlling for college qualification and taking the two

steps toward admission, the results of the regression model confirm most of the previous findings.45

The adjusted estimates confirm that there was no significant difference in the four-year college enrollment rates of whites compared to Asians, blacks, and Hispanics when controlling for

the variation of all the other variables. A statistically significant difference (of 3 percentage points)

remains between low-income and middle-income four-year college enrollment rates (42 percent

compared to 45 percent, adjusted). The differences between the highest level of parental education (college graduate) and the lower levels also remained. Finally, the strong effect of taking the

two steps toward four-year college admission remains in the regression model: (80 percent adjusted, 76 percent adjusted). Similarly, the effect of being college qualified also remained.

 

45No other table, however, reports “Steps taken toward a four-year” as a row variable.
Table 34—Percentage of all 1992 high school graduates enrolled in a public 2-year or any 4-year institution by 1994, by background and

college-related characteristics, and the adjusted percentage after taking into account the covariation of the variables listed in the tablel

Attended public 2-year Attended any 4-year

Unadjusted Adjusted WLs Standard Unadjusted Adjusted WLS Standard

percentage~ percentage’ coefficient error’ percentage percentage’ coefficient+ error’

Total

Race-ethnicity

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic regardless of race

Black, not of Hispanic origin

White, not of Hispanic origin

25.7 25.9 38.6 32.7 45.1 44.9

45.0

44.0

46.3

44.8

42.2*

44.7

52.3*

41 .O*

42.8*

50.6

48.1*

38.9

76.4*

7.6

6.7 25.7

28.4

34.3*

22.7

24.8

32.4*

31.5*

24.9

24.9

7.5

6.7

0.0

t

1.8

1.8

1.7

t

54.2*

30,5*

42.4*

47.1

-0.7

-0.2

2.0

t

1.3

1.4

1.3

t

Family income

Low (less than $25,000)

Middle ($25,00&$74,999)

High ($75,000 or more)

25.4

27.9

14.1*

21.9*

28.6

22.9*

-6.6

t

-5.7

0,9

t

1,2

1.1

0.8

-t

32.5*

47.2

76.5*

-0.2

t

4.8

0.7

t

0.9

Parents’ highest education level

High school graduate or less

Some college

College graduate

27.3*

29.5*

18.0

23.0

28.5*

24.9

-1,9

3.6

t

25.8*

41.0*

71.4

9.6

-7.8

t

0.8

0.6

t

College qualification index

Qualified

Not qualified

22.7*

30.3

28.7*

20.6

8.1

1 -

0.8

t

62.0*

14.7

9.2

-t

Steps toward 4-year college

Took both steps 13.1* 1 1.2* -31,9 0.9 79.8* 0.7

Did not take both stem 41.3 43.1 + t 2.8 -t

*p ~ .05.

j-Not applicable for the reference group.

‘The italicized group in each category is the reference group being compared.

he estimates are from NCES:88 Data Analysis System.

%he percentages are adjusted for differences associated with other variables in the table (see appendix B).

4Weighted least squares (WLS) coefficient (see appendix B) multiplied by 100 to reflect percentage.

5Standard error of WLS coefficient, adjusted for design effect (see appendix B) multiplied by 100 to reflect percentage.

SOURCE U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System
71

SUMMARY

Financing the cost of postsecondary education was not easy for the low-income students

who graduated from high school in 1992. The majority depended on financial aid and, except for

those attending community colleges, this often meant taking out student loans. Even with financial

aid, low-income students had to find approximately $5,000 in additional funds from other sources

to meet their postsecondary expenses. Some received contributions from their parents; some lived

at home to reduce expenses; most held jobs while they were enrolled. Nearly two-thirds of the

1992 high school graduates whose families had annual incomes under $25,000 managed to attend

postsecondary education within two years of completing high school.

There is no question that financial aid is an important component in financing low-income

students’ postsecondary education, and that it is necessary in providing access to postsecondary

education. Differences in the amount of aid available, however, appear to have had a greater effect on equalizing net educational costs among different types of institutions than on access. No

matter what type of institution they attended, the average net cost after aid for low-income students was approximately the same.

The question posed in this study is whether the available amounts of financial aid and the

actual net college costs (as opposed to perceptions of high costs) are sufficient to account for the

lower postsecondary enrollment rates of low-income high school graduates. The evidence presented here suggests that other factors also are associated with this result, especially educational

expectations and plans, levels of academic aptitude and achievement, and taking the steps required

to be admitted to a four-year college.46 Tables 35 through 37 provide an overview of these factors, first for all 1992 high school graduates (table 35), then for those who were college qualified

(table 36), and finally for those who were college qualified and took both steps (table 37).

Barriers to a four-year college education for low-income high school graduates appear to

include low educational expectations and poor academic preparation, both of which are associated

with low rates of taking the college entrance examinations and applying to four-year colleges.

 

46This confirms previous research which has found academic aptitude and achievement to be the biggest predictors

of four-year college enrollment. See, for example, C. Manski and D. Wise, College Choice in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), and Y. Ozden, “Have Efforts to Improve Higher Education Opportunities for Low-Income Youth Succeeded?” Journal of Student Financial Aid 26 (1996): 19–39.
SUMMARY

72

However, even those low-income students who were academically college qualified were less

likely to take the two steps toward four-year college admission than were middle-income students. The perception that four-year college costs are too high and that the financial aid will be

inadequate may have contributed to this. The more information that college-qualified low-income

students obtained about financial aid (either by speaking with people or through written materials), the more likely these students were to have taken the necessary steps toward attending a

four-year institution. Moreover, among those low-income students who were accepted to a fouryear institution, almost 90 percent enrolled. That is, the majority of low-income high school

graduates who took the college entrance examinations, applied to a four-year college, and were

accepted for admission were not deterred from enrolling for financial (or other) reasons.

The difference in the four-year college enrollment rates between Hispanic and black high

school graduates also suggests that college access is more than a financial issue. The majority of

both Hispanic and black high school graduates came from low-income families. Both groups experienced some of the same obstacles: they were less likely to be college qualified and less likely

to expect to finish college as eighth graders. Black students, however, were more likely than Hispanics to attend a four-year college. Those black students who were prepared academically were

just as likely to apply and take a college entrance examination as college-qualified Asian and white

students, and the four-year college enrollment rates of college-qualified black students also were

just as high. College-qualified Hispanic students, on the other hand, were less likely than blacks to

take the necessary two steps for admission to a four-year college, and less likely than any other

racial–ethnic group to enroll in four-year colleges. Factors relating to college costs or financial aid

availability examined in this study do not appear to account for these persistent differences between the two groups.
Table 35—Percentage of all 1992 high school graduates who expected to finish college in 1988 and in 1992, planned to attend a 4-year institution in

1992, took both steps toward admission, were accepted to a 4-year institution, and enrolled in a 4-year institution, by 4-year college

qualification index and background characteristics

Plan to attend

Expect to finish Expect to finish a 4-year Accepted Attended

college college institution Took to a 4-year

(1988) (1992)

a 4-year

(1992) both steps’ institution institution

Total 72.8 70.8 63.4 54,3 50.6 45.1

College qualification index’

Marginally or not quaiitied 51.9 44.0 34.9 21.5 18.8 14.7

Minimaliy quaiified 66.4 64.7 57.4 47.6 42.3 35.0

Somewhat qualified 81.9 80.2 71.0 67.6 62.6 55.6

Highly quaiified 89.4 91.1 85.8 83.3 80.4 72.6

Very highly qualified 95,6 97.5 95,1 94.3 91.4 86.9

Race-ethnicity

Asian/Pacific Islander 76.8 78.8 73.0 65.3 59.6 54.2

Hispanic regardless of race 64.2 65.7 54.1 38.3 36.2 30.5

Black, not of Hispanic origin 70.7 73.1 63.1 52.9 48.5 42.4

White, not of Hispanic origin 74.2 70.7 64.1 56.2 52.6 47.1

Family income

Low (less than $25,000) 58.8 59.4 53.2 41,0 37.8 32.5

Middle ($25,000-$74,999) 75.7 73.2 64.5 56.9 53.1 47.2

High ($75,000 or more) 91.8 92.1 87.4 84.5 81.1 76.5

Parents’ highest education level

High school graduate or less 54.9 53.3 46.4 34.3 30.9 25.8

Some college 70.7 68.3 60.5 51.2 47.2 41.0

College graduate 91.0 89.5 82.8 79,4 76.3 71.4

‘4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude tes~ SAT and ACT scores, and academic coursework.

%iking a college entrance examination (SAT or ACT), and applying for admission to a 4-year college or university.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
Table 36-Percentage of college-qualified’ 1992 high school graduates who expected to finish college in 1988 and in 1992, planned to attend a 4-year

institution in 1992, took both steps toward admission, were accepted to a 4-year institution, and enrolled in a 4-year institution, by 4-year

college qualification index and background characteristics

Plan to attend

Expect to finish Expect to finish a 4-year Accepted Attended

college college institution Took to a 4-year a 4-year

(1988) (1992) (1992) both steps’ institution institution

Total 83.1 83.3 77.1 72.6 68.6 62.0

College qualification index’

Minimally qualified 66.4 64.7 57.4 47.6 42.3 35.0

Somewhat qualified 81.9 80.2 71.0 67.6 62.6 55.6

Highly qualified 89.4 91.1 85.8 83.3 80.4 72.6

Very highly qualified 95.6 97.5 95.1 94.3 91.4 86,9

Race-ethnicity

AsianlPacific Islander 83.7 89.9 84.7 80.1 75.1 68.1

Hispanic regardless of race 75.5 78.3 70.4 61.4 57.6 49.2

Black, not of Hispanic origin 81.7 82.7 81.4 74.4 70.0 64.2

White, not of Hispanic origin 84.1 83.4 77.0 73.2 69.3 62.8

Family income

Low (less than $25,000) 69.8 74.2

Middle ($25,000-$74,999)

70.5 61.5 59.0 52.2

84.8 84.4 76.9 73.3 68.8 61.6

High ($75,000 or more) 94.7 95.5 91.4 90.7 88.5 83.1

Parents’ highest education level

High school graduate or less 68.3 71.7 66.2 58.1 53.4 45.7

Some college 80.3 80.4 72.6 67.2 63.0 56.1

College graduate 93.2 92.9 88.4 87.0 84.4 78,8

‘4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT scores. and academic coursework.

kaking a college entrance examination (SAT or ACT), and applying for admission to a 4-year college or university.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.
Table 37—Percentage of college-qualitiedl 1992 high school graduates who took both stepsz toward admission to a 4-year institution who expected to

finish college in 1988 and in 1992, planned to attend a 4-year institution in 1992, took both steps toward admission, were accepted to a

4-year institution, and enrolled in a 4-year institution, by 4-year college qualification index and background characteristics

Plan to attend

Expect to finish Expect to finish a 4-year Accepted Attended

college college institution Took to a 4-year

(1988)

a 4-year

(1992) (1992) both steps institution institution

Total 90.7 94.3 93.4 100.0 93.3 83.7

College qualification index’

Minimally qualified 79.9 86.2 86.3 100.0 84.6 68.5

Somewhat qualified 88.8 91.2 90.5 100.0 91.5 80.8

Highly qualified 92.4 96.6 95.6 100.0 96.2 86.6

Very highly qualified 96.4 98.9 97.5 100,0 96.7 91.8

Race-ethnicity

Asiarrfpacific Islander 88.3 96.7 95.8 100.0 93.6 84.4

Hispanic regardless of race 83.0 90.6 92.9 100.0 90.9 77.2

Black, not of Hispanic origin 87.6 91.6 92.9 100.0 90.3 81.5

White, not of Hispanic origin 91.7 94.7 93.4 100.0 93,8 84.4

Family income

Low (less than $25,000) 81.1 90.4 91.2 100.0 93.5 82.5

Middle ($25,000-$74,999) 91.2 94.9 93.3 100.0 92.7 82.0

High ($75,000 or more) 96.1 97.3 96.8 100.0 97.5 91.5

Parents’ highest education level

High school graduate or less 81.6 92.2 92.9 100.0 89.7 75.5

Some college 87.5 93.0 90.8 100.0 92.2 81.4

College graduate 96.0 96.6 96,2 100.0 96.6 89.6

14-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT scores, and academic coursework,

%king a college entrance examination (SAT or ACT), and applying for admission to a 4-year college or university.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988-94 (NELS :88), Data Analysis System.
77

APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

This glossary describes the variables used in this report. The items were taken directly from

the National Education Longitudinal Study: 1988–1994 and NPSAS:93 Data Analysis System

(DAS) (see appendix B for a description of the DAS). These variables were either items taken

directly from the NPSAS or NELS surveys or they were derived by combining one or more items

in these surveys. Unless otherwise noted, the variable labels are those appearing in the DAS.

The NELS:88 variables and definitions are divided into six categories: individual characteristics, academic characteristics, plans and expectations for postsecondary education, postsecondary education, and financial aid issues. Variables from NPSAS:93 are listed separately.

Glossary Index

Individual Characteristics

Race–ethnicity.......................................... 78

Family income.......................................... 79

Parents’ highest education level................ 79

Weight for 1992 high school graduates..... 79

Academic Characteristics

GPA calculated from academic courses.... 80

Combined SAT score ............................... 80

Composite ACT score.............................. 80

1992 NELS test percentile........................ 80

Class rank percentile................................. 80

College qualification index........................ 80

Sources available for college qualification

 index...................................................... 82

Plans and Expectations for Postsecondary

Education

Plans to attend PSE immediately after

 high school............................................. 83

Type of institution planned to attend......... 83

Educational expectations in 1988.............. 83

Educational expectations in 1992.............. 83

Postsecondary Education

Postsecondary enrollment and type of

 institution attended ................................. 84

Postsecondary enrollment in October

 of 1992................................................... 85

Applied to a 4-year institution................... 85

Applied to a private 4-year institution ....... 86

Applied to a public 4-year institution ........ 86

Accepted to a 4-year institution ................ 86

Accepted to a private 4-year institution..... 87

Accepted to a public 4-year institution...... 87

Steps toward attending a 4-year

 institution .............................................. 87

Financial Aid Issues

Students

Grants and scholarships ........................... 88

Student loans............................................ 88

Work-study jobs....................................... 88

Received financial aid ............................... 88

Amount of financial aid............................. 89

Number of sources of information

 read by students about financial aid......... 89
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

78

Number of people students spoke with

 to learn more about financial aid ............ 89

Students’ concern about college costs

 and availability of financial aid ............... 89

Talked with a teacher or high

 school guidance counselor ..................... 90

Talked with a college representative ........ 90

Talked with a loan officer at a bank ......... 90

Talked to another knowledgeable adult..... 90

Parents

Number of sources of information

 read by parents about financial aid ......... 90

Number of people parents spoke with

 to learn more about financial aid ............ 91

Parents’ concern about college costs

 and availability of financial aid ............... 91

Talked with a teacher or high

 school guidance counselor ..................... 91

Talked with a college representative ........ 91

Talked with a loan officer at a bank ......... 91

Talked to another person ......................... 91

NPSAS:93 variables

Type of institution ................................... 92

Average amount of financial aid ............... 92

Grant amount .......................................... 92

Student loan amount ................................ 93

Work-study amount ................................. 93

Net tuition................................................ 93

Net cost after aid ..................................... 93

Tuition and fees ....................................... 93

Contribution from parents ........................ 93

Total cost of attendance .......................... 94

Average hours worked per week

 while enrolled 1992–1993, revised ......... 94

Housing arrangements ............................. 94

Individual Characteristics

Race–ethnicity F3RACE

Asian or Pacific Islander A person having origins in any of the original 

peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, the Indian 

subcontinent, or Pacific Islands. This includes people

from China, Japan, Korea, the Philippine Islands, 

Samoa, India, and Vietnam.

Hispanic, regardless of race A person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central 

or South American, or other Spanish culture or 

origin, regardless of race.

Black, not of Hispanic origin A person having origins in any of the black racial 

groups of Africa, except those of Hispanic origin.

White, not of Hispanic origin A person having origins of any of the original 

peoples of Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East

(except those of Hispanic origin).
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

79

Family income F2P74

In 1992, parents were asked, “What was your total gross family income from all sources before

taxes in 1991 (If you are not sure of the amount, please estimate)?” For purposes of this report,

the original 13 income categories were collapsed into three.

Low (less than $25,000) Family income was less than $25,000.

Middle ($25,000–$74,999) Family income was between $25,000 and $74,999.

High ($75,000 or higher) Family income was $75,000 or higher.

Parents’ highest education level F2PARED

This composite characterizes the level of education attained by the parent with the highest reported education level. It was constructed using second follow-up parent questionnaire data; data

from earlier survey waves were used if data were missing. For purposes of this report, levels of

education were collapsed to create three categories.

High school graduate or less Highest level of parental education was either high

school graduation or less than high school graduation.

Some college Highest level of parental education was greater than

high school and less than 4-year degree.

College graduate Highest level of parental education was college

graduate, M.A. or equivalent, or Ph.D., M.D., or

other professional degree.

Weight for 1992 high school graduates F3QWT92G

F3QWT92G includes F3QWT for respondents who received a high school diploma between

September 1, 1991 and August 31, 1992 or respondents whose diploma receipt date is not known

but began their postsecondary education during the period of June 1992 through October 1992. It

allows projections to the population of persons who received a high school diploma during those

time periods and were eligible to complete questionnaires in 1992 and 1994.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

80

Academic Characteristics

GPA calculated from academic courses AGPA

This variable is the grade point average for all academic courses that were reported in the student

transcripts, multiplied by 10.

Combined SAT score SAT

The combined scores of the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) verbal and math scores. The valid

range is 400 to 1600.

Composite ACT score F2RACTC

Composite score on the ACT test.

The valid range for this test score is 1 to 36.

1992 NELS test percentile F22XCEN

The source for this variable was the composite variable consisting of math and reading NELS

Second Follow-Up test scores. To create the derived variable, a ranking was created by first calculating a weighted frequency distribution of test composite variables. Next, cutoff points were

determined and numbered sequentially from 1 to 99.

Class rank percentile F3RANK_C

F3RANK_C is a measure of a student’s class rank during the last year he or she attended high

school. It draws on F2RRANK (class rank for last year attended) and F2RCSIZE (class size for

last year attended) from the 1992 transcript data. It is calculated by dividing the class rank by the

class size and subtracting the result from 1.

College qualification index CQCOMV2

For this study, a composite measure of 4-year college readiness or qualification index was developed that uses cumulative academic coursework GPAs, senior class rank, the NELS 1992 test

scores, and the SAT and ACT college entrance examination scores. Since admission standards

and requirements vary widely among 4-year colleges and universities, the approach used here was

to examine the actual distribution of these five measures of academic aptitude and achievement

among those graduating seniors who did attend a 4-year college or university. Data sources were

available for approximately half (45 percent) of the NELS graduating seniors for four or five of
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

81

the criteria: class rank, GPA, the NELS test, and ACT or SAT scores or both. For about onethird of the seniors there were only three data sources available because they had no ACT or SAT

scores. All of these had NELS test scores, however. In order to identify as many students as possible who were potentially academically qualified for a 4-year college, even if data were missing

for these students on some of the criteria, the seniors were classified according to the highest level

they had achieved on any of the five criteria for which data were present.

The initial classification of the graduating seniors was determined as follows:

• Very highly qualified: those whose highest value on any of the five criteria would put

them among the top 10 percent of four-year college students (specifically the NELS

1992 graduating seniors who enrolled in four-year colleges and universities) for that

criterion. Minimum values were GPA=3.7, class rank percentile=96, NELS test percentile=97, combined SAT=1250, composite ACT=28.

• Highly qualified: those whose highest value on any of the five criteria would put them

among the top 25 percent of four-year college students for that criterion. Minimum values were GPA=3.6, class rank percentile=89, NELS test percentile=90, combined

SAT=1110, composite ACT=25.

• Somewhat qualified: those whose highest value on any of the five criteria would put

them among the top 50 percent (i.e., in the second quartile) of four-year college students for that criterion. Minimum values were GPA=3.2, class rank percentile=75,

NELS test percentile=76, combined SAT=960, composite ACT=22.

• Minimally qualified: those whose highest value on any of the five criteria would put

them among the top 75 percent (i.e., in the third quartile) of four-year college students

for that criterion. Minimum values were GPA=2.7, class rank percentile=54, NELS test

percentile=56, combined SAT=820, composite ACT=19. [Those in vocational programs (according to their high school transcript) were classified as not college qualified.]

• Marginally or not qualified: those who had no value on any criterion that would put

them among the top 75 percent of four-year college students (i.e., all values were in the

lowest quartile).

Then some adjustments were made for programs of rigorous academic coursework, defined as

including at least 4 years of English; 3 years each of science, mathematics, and social studies; and

2 years of a foreign language.

Those who had taken a program of rigorous academic courses were moved up into one higher

level of qualification; and

Those in the “very highly qualified” category were moved down into the “highly qualified” category if they had not taken the rigorous academic coursework;
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

Marginally or not qualified Student was marginally or not qualified to 

4-year college.

Minimally qualified Student was minimally qualified to attend 

year college.

Somewhat qualified Student was somewhat qualified to attend 

year college.

Highly qualified Student was highly qualified to attend a 4

college.

Very highly qualified Student was very highly qualified to atten

college.

For some tables, students were identified as “college qualified” if they were other than “

or not qualified” for the variable CQCOMV2.

Sources available for college qualification index CQ

As originally coded, this variable describes which sources of information were available 

mining how qualified a student was for admission to a 4-year university or college. Five 

of information were used to determine how qualified a student was for admission to a 4

stitution: cumulative academic GPAs, senior class rank, the NELS 1992 test scores, and 

and ACT college entrance examination scores (see CQCOMV2). For purposes of this re

categories were collapsed into four categories to reflect the number of sources of inform

were available to determine individual students’ qualifications.

One One source of information was available.

Two Two sources of information were availabl

Three Three sources of information were availab

Four–five Four or five sources of information were a
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

83

Plans and Expectations for Postsecondary Education (PSE)

Plans to attend PSE immediately after high school F2S49

Yes Student planned to attend PSE immediately 

after high school.

No Student did not plan to attend PSE right after 

high school.

Don’t know Student did not know if he or she was going on to 

attend PSE right after high school.

Type of institution planned to attend PLANS92

Planned ever to attend PSE

In 1992 students who planned to continue their education at some point after high school were

asked what type of school they were most likely to attend.

4-year college Student planned to attend a 4-year college.

2-year college or trade school Student planned to attend either a 2-year academic

or technical college, or a trade school

No postsecondary Student did not plan to continue his or her

education education.

Educational expectations in 1988 BYS4

Educational expectations in 1992 F2ASPIRE

The question was “As things stand now, how far in school do you think you will get?”

The categories for the preceding two variables were:

High school or less Student expected to finish high school or less.

Trade/vocational Student expected to complete trade or vocational school.

Some college Student expected to complete some college.

Finish college Student expected to attain a bachelor’s degree.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

84

Graduate degree Student expected to attain a graduate degree.

Do not know Student was unsure of expectations.

However, for purposes of this report, the categories were recoded as follows:

No postsecondary education Student expected to complete high school or less.

Some PSE Student expected to complete trade or vocational

school or some college.

Finish college Student expected to attain at least a bachelor’s 

degree.

Postsecondary Education

Postsecondary enrollment and type of institution attended F3SEC2A1

No postsecondary enrollment Student had not enrolled in any postsecondary 

institution as of 1994.

Private, not-for-profit A private, not-for-profit institution offering a lessless-than-4-year than-4-year degree and controlled by an independent

governing board and incorporated under section

501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code.

Public less-than-2-year A public less-than-2-year (vocational–technical) 

postsecondary institution is supported primarily by 

public funds and operated by publicly elected or 

appointed officials who control the school’s program

and activities.

Public 2-year A public institution offering a two- or three-year 

degree (i.e., associate’s degree).

Private, not-for-profit 4-year A private, not-for-profit college or university

offering a bachelor’s degree or higher.

Public 4-year A public college or university offering a bachelor’s 

degree or higher.

For some tables, students were identified as “enrolled in a postsecondary institution” if they fell

into any category other than “no secondary enrollment” on the variable F3SEC2A1.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

85

For purposes of this report, the categories above were collapsed into three categories for most of

the tables.

Other less-than-4-year Private, for-profit, private, not-for-profit less-than4-year, public less-than-2-year.

Public 2-year Public 2-year institution.

Any 4-year Private, not-for-profit 4-year or public 4-year

institution.

Table 29 of the report collapsed two categories even further:

Less-than-4-year Private, for-profit, private, not-for-profit less-than4-year, public less-than-2-year, public 2-year.

Postsecondary enrollment in October of 1992 ENST1092

This variable describes the postsecondary enrollment status of all respondents in October of 1992.

For purposes of this report, categories were collapsed into two in order to indicate enrollment

status.

Yes Respondent was enrolled in a postsecondary

institution in October of 1992.

No Respondent was not enrolled in a postsecondary

institution in October of 1992.

Applied to a 4-year institution EVR4YRA

This derived variable describes whether or not a respondent ever applied to a 4-year institution. It

is based primarily on student-reported data. However, if respondents reported enrollment in a 4-

year institution, they were also considered to have applied.

Yes Respondent applied to a 4-year 

postsecondary institution.

No Respondent did not apply to a 4-year 

postsecondary institution.

Applied to a private 4-year institution EVRNFP4A
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

86

This derived variable describes whether or not a respondent ever applied to a private, not-forprofit 4-year institution. It is based primarily on student-reported data. However, if respondents

reported enrollment in a private, not-for-profit 4-year institution, they were also considered to

have applied.

Yes Respondent applied to a private, not-for-profit 

4-year postsecondary institution.

No Respondent did not apply to a private, not-forprofit 4-year postsecondary institution.

Applied to a public 4-year institution EVRPUB4A

This derived variable describes whether or not a respondent ever applied to a public 4-year institution. It is based primarily on student-reported data. However, if respondents reported enrollment in a public 4-year institution, they were also considered to have applied.

Yes Respondent applied to a public 4-year 

postsecondary institution.

No Respondent did not apply to a public 4-year 

postsecondary institution.

Accepted to a 4-year institution ACPT4YR

This variable describes whether or not the respondent was ever accepted for admission to a 4-year

postsecondary institution. Respondents were asked various questions about admission and acceptance to up to two postsecondary institutions. If at least one of the institutions to which a respondent had been accepted was a 4-year institution, then the respondent was considered to have

been accepted to a 4-year institution. If the respondent did not report being admitted to a 4-year

institution but the first institution attended was a 4-year institution, then the respondent was considered to have been accepted to a 4-year institution.

Yes Student was accepted for admission to at least one 

4-year institution.

No Student was not accepted for admission to any 

4-year institution.

Accepted to a private 4-year institution ACPTPRIV
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

87

This variable describes whether or not the respondent was ever accepted for admission to a private, not-for-profit 4-year postsecondary institution. Respondents were asked various questions

about admission and acceptance to up to two postsecondary institutions. If at least one of the institutions to which a respondent had been accepted was a private, not-for-profit 4-year institution,

then the respondent was considered to have been accepted to a private, not-for-profit 4-year institution. If the respondent did not report being admitted to a private, not-for-profit 4-year institution yet the first institution attended was a private, not-for-profit 4-year institution, then the

respondent was considered to have been accepted to a private, not-for-profit 4-year institution.

Yes Student was accepted for admission to at least one 

private, not-for-profit 4-year institution.

No Student was not accepted for admission to any

private, not-for-profit 4-year institution.

Accepted to a public 4-year institution ACPTPUB

This variable describes whether or not the respondent was ever accepted for admission to a public

4-year postsecondary institution. Respondents were asked various questions about admission and

acceptance to up to two postsecondary institutions. If at least one of the institutions to which a

respondent had been accepted was a public 4-year institution, then the respondent was considered

to have been accepted to a public 4-year institution. If the respondent did not report being admitted to a public 4-year institution but the first institution attended was a public 4-year institution,

then the respondent was considered to have been accepted to a public 4-year institution.

Yes Student was accepted for admission to at least one 

public 4-year institution.

No Student was not accepted for admission to any 

public 4-year institution.

Steps toward attending a 4-year institution EXMAPLY2

The purpose of this derived variable is to describe whether students ever took a college entrance

examination (either the SAT or ACT) and applied for admission to a 4-year institution. It is primarily based on student-reported data. However, if a students reported attending a 4-year institution, they were considered to have applied to a 4-year institution.

Took both steps Student took an exam and applied to a 4-year
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

88

institution.

Took exam, did not apply Student took an exam but did not apply to any

4-year institution.

Did not take exam, did apply Student did not take an exam but did apply to a 

4-year institution.

Did neither Student did not take an exam and did not apply to

a 4-year institution.

For some tables, the second and third categories above were collapsed into one: “one step.”

Financial Aid Issues

Students

Grants and scholarships GRANTS1

Student loans LOANS1

Work-study jobs WORKSTD1

Respondents were asked whether they had received these types of financial aid while at the first

institution they attended.

Yes Respondents indicated that they had received this

type of aid.

No Respondents indicated that they had not received 

type of aid.

Received financial aid NOFINA1

1994 students were asked if they had received various types of financial aid while attending their

first institution. “None” was an option. Students were considered to have received financial aid if

they answered “no” to the option of “None received.”

Amount of financial aid AMTFINA1
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

89

This variable describes the total amount of financial aid students reported receiving yearly during

their most recent period of enrollment at first institution they attended.

Number of sources of information read by students about financial aid AIDINFO1

In 1992, students were asked if they had ever read any information from the Department of Education or a postsecondary institution in order to learn more about financial aid (F2S58D and

F2S58E). This variable combines the students’ answers to these two questions.

None Student reported not having read information from 

either source.

One Student reported having read information from only

one source.

Two Student reported having read information from both 

Number of people students spoke with to learn more about financial aid AIDTALK1

Students were asked what they had done to learn more about applying for financial aid (F2S58AC and F2S58G). Students were asked if they had spoken with the following people: a counselor

or a teacher, a representative from a postsecondary institution, a loan officer from a bank, or another knowledgeable adult. This variable counts the number of positive responses.

None Student did not speak with anyone.

One Student spoke with one person.

Two Student spoke with two people.

Three–Four Student spoke with three to four people.

Students’ concern about college costs and availability of financial aid COLLAFF1

In 1992, students were asked to rate the importance of low expenses and financial aid in choosing

a college to attend as “very,” “somewhat,” or “not” important. (F2S59A and F2S59B). This variable combines students’ answers on both to measure general concern about affordability in

choosing a college to attend. Response category “very concerned” describes those who either: (1)

rated both characteristics as “very important,” or (2) rated at least one as “very important” and
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

90

Very concerned Student rated both low expenses and financial aid as

“very important” or at least one as “very important”

and the other as “somewhat important.”

Less than very concerned Other combinations of responses.

Talked with a teacher or high school guidance counselor F2S58A

Talked with a college representative F2S58B

Talked with a loan officer at a bank F2S58C

Talked to another knowledgeable adult F2S58G

For the preceding four variables, students were asked if they had done any of the above to learn

about applying for financial aid for further education. Response categories were “yes” and “no.”

Yes Student responded that they had talked with this 

person.

No Student responded that they had not talked with this

person.

Parents

Number of sources of information read by parents about financial aid AIDINFO2

In 1992, parents were asked if they had ever read any information from the Department of Education or a postsecondary institution in order to learn more about financial aid (F2P84E and

F2P84F). This variable combines the parents’ answers to these two questions.

None Parent reported not having read information from either

source.

One Parent reported having read information from only 

one source.

Two Parent reported having read information from both 

sources.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

91

Number of people parents spoke with to learn more about financial aid AIDTALK2

Parents were asked what they had done to learn more about applying for financial aid for their

children’s education after high school (F2P84A-C and F2P84G). Parents were asked if they had

spoken with the following people: a counselor or a teacher, a representative from a postsecondary

institution, a loan officer from a bank, or another person. This variable counts the number of

positive responses.

None Parent did not speak with anyone.

One Parent spoke with one person.

Two Parent spoke with two people.

Three–Four Parent spoke with three to four people.

Parents’ concern about college costs and availability of financial aid COLLAFF2

In 1992, parents were asked to rate how important low expenses (F2P66A) and the availability of

financial aid (F2P66B) were to them as their children chose colleges to attend. This variable combines parents’ answers on both to reflect general concern about affordability in choosing a college

to attend.

Very concerned Parent rated low expenses and financial aid as “very

important” or at least one as “very important” and

the other as “somewhat important.”

Less than very concerned Other combinations of responses.

Talked with a teacher or high school guidance counselor F2P84A

Talked with a college representative F2P84B

Talked with a loan officer at a bank F2P84C

Talked to another person F2P84G
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

92

For the preceding four variables, parents were asked if they or their spouses/partners had done

any of the above to learn about applying for financial aid for further education for their teenagers.

Response categories were “yes” and “no.”

Yes Parents responded that they had talked with this 

person.

No Parents responded that they had not talked with this 

person.

NPSAS:93 VARIABLES

Type of institution SECTOR_B

Institution level concerns the institution’s highest offering (length of program and type of certificate, degree, or award), and control concerns the source of revenue and control of operations.

Definitions are the same as those for F3SEC2A1 in NELS:88.

Public 2-year Public 2-year institution.

Public 4-year Public 4-year institution.

Private, not-for-profit 4-year Private, not-for-profit 4-year institution.

Other less-than-4-year Public less-than-2-year institution, private,

not-for-profit less-than-4-year institution, or private,

for-profit institution.

Average amount of financial aid TOTAID

The amount of financial aid received by a student in 1992–93 from any source (federal, state, institution, other). Includes grants, loans, and work-study, as well as loans under the PLUS program. Students receiving aid were identified by the TOTAID variable having a positive value.

Grant amount TOTGRT

Total amount of grant or scholarship aid received by a student in 1992–93 from any source (federal, state, institution, other). Grants are a type of student financial aid that does not require repayment or employment. They are usually (but not always) awarded on the basis of need. When

grants are awarded on the basis of some skills or characteristics the student possesses, they are
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

93

often called scholarships. The percentage of students with grants is the percentage with positive

amounts recorded for this variable.

Student loan amount TOTLOAN

Total amount of loan aid received by a student in 1992–93. This includes all loans through federal, state, or institutional programs except PLUS loans (which are made to parents). Loans are a

type of student financial aid that advances funds and that are evidenced by a promissory note requiring the recipient to repay the specified amounts under prescribed conditions. The percentage

of students with loans is the percentage with positive amounts recorded by this variable.

Work-study amount TOTWKST

Total amount of work-study aid received by students in 1992–93. Work-study programs provide

partial reimbursement of wages paid to students. They may be sponsored by the federal or state

governments or by the institution. The percentage of students with work study is the percentage

with positive amounts recorded for this variable.

Net tuition NETCST7

The tuition and fees for 1992–93 charged by the institution minus grants and scholarships. Negative values are set to zero.

Net cost after aid NETCST3

The cost of attendance minus all financial aid. Equal to the attendance adjusted total student

budget (BUDGETAJ), minus the total amount of financial aid (TOTAID).

Tuition and fees TUITION

Actual amount of tuition and fees charged the student for the terms attended, as reported by the

institution.

Contribution from parents SPARSPRT

Student-reported amount of direct monetary contribution from both parents for academic year

1992–93 school expenses, not including loans or in-kind support.
APPENDIX A—GLOSSARY

94

Total cost of attendance BUDGETAJ

Equal to the sum of tuition actually charged and total non-tuition budget components, adjusted

for attendance status (full-time or part-time) and number of months enrolled.

Average hours work per week while enrolled 1992–1993, revised EMWKHR4

The average number of hours worked per week while enrolled (including work study). If a student reported being employed during the month, the average number of hours worked per week

was derived based on the starting and ending dates and the hours reported for each job during the

survey interview. Note that this variable only represents the average hours a student worked while

working and enrolled. Thus, if a student worked an average of 20 hours per week while enrolled

for 6 months and then did not work for the remaining 3 months of enrollment, the average hours

would still be 20 hours per week. The percentage of students working while enrolled is the percentage with positive amounts recorded for this variable.

Housing Arrangements LOCRES2

Student’s residence in school-owned housing, off-campus, or with parents.

Campus housing Student lived in institution-owned living

quarters for students. These are typically institutionowned dormitories, residence halls, or other facilities.

Off campus Student lived off campus in noninstitution-owned 

housing, but not with his or her parents.

With parents Student lived at home with parents.
95

APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF 1988

The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) is a survey that began with

a nationally representative sample of 1988 eighth graders and followed them every two years. The

most recent follow-up survey occurred in 1994. Respondents’ teachers and schools were also surveyed in 1988, 1990, and 1992, while parents were surveyed in 1988 and 1992. In contrast to

previous longitudinal studies, NELS:88 began with eighth graders in order to collect data regarding the transition from elementary to secondary education. The first follow-up in 1990 provided

the data necessary to understand the transition. Dropouts were administered a special survey to

understand the dropout process more thoroughly. For the purpose of providing a comparison

group to 1980 sophomores surveyed in High School and Beyond, the NELS:88 sample was also

“freshened” with new participants who were tenth graders in 1990.

In spring of 1992, when most of the NELS:88 sample were twelfth graders, the second follow-up took place. This survey focused on the transition from high school to the labor force and

postsecondary education. The sample was also “freshened” in order to create a representative

sample of 1992 seniors for the purpose of conducting trend analyses with the 1972 and 1982

senior classes (NLS-72 and HS&B). Students identified as dropouts in the first follow-up were

also resurveyed in 1992. In spring of 1994, the third follow-up was administered. Sample members were questioned about their labor force and postsecondary experiences, and family formation. For more information about the NELS:88 survey, consult the NELS:88/94 Methodology

Report.47

ACCURACY OF ESTIMATES

The statistics in this report are estimates derived from a sample. Two broad categories of error occur in such estimates: sampling and nonsampling errors. Sampling errors occur because observations are made only on samples of students, not on entire populations. Nonsampling errors

 

47U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study

(NELS:88/94) Methodology Report, NCES 96-174 (Washington D.C.: 1996).
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

96

occur not only in sample surveys but also in complete censuses of entire populations. Nonsampling errors can be attributed to a number of sources: inability to obtain complete information

about all students in all institutions in the sample (some students or institutions refused to participate, or students participated but answered only certain items); ambiguous definitions; differences

in interpreting questions; inability or unwillingness to give correct information; mistakes in recording or coding data; and other errors of collecting, processing, sampling, and imputing missing

data.

DATA ANALYSIS SYSTEM

The estimates presented in this report were produced using the NELS:88 and NPSAS:93

Data Analysis Systems (DAS). The DAS software makes it possible for users to specify and generate their own tables from the NELS:88 data. With the DAS, users can replicate or expand upon

the tables presented in this report. In addition to the table estimates, the DAS calculates proper

standard errors48 and weighted sample sizes for these estimates. For example, table B1 contains

standard errors that correspond to table 2 in the text, and was generated by the DAS. If the number of valid cases is too small to produce a reliable estimate (less than 30 cases), the DAS prints

the message “low-N” instead of the estimate.

In addition to tables, the DAS will also produce a correlation matrix of selected variables to

be used for linear regression models. Included in the output with the correlation matrix are the

design effects (DEFTs) for each variable in the matrix. Since statistical procedures generally compute regression coefficients based on simple random sample assumptions, the standard errors must

be adjusted with the design effects to take into account the NELS:88 and NPSAS:93 stratified

sampling method. (See discussion under “Statistical Procedures” below for the adjustment procedure.)

 

48The NELS:88/94 and NPSAS:93 samples are not simple random samples and, therefore, simple random sample

techniques for estimating sampling error cannot be applied to these data. The DAS takes into account the complexity of the sampling procedures and calculates standard errors appropriate for such samples. The method for

computing sampling errors used by the DAS involves approximating the estimator by the linear terms of a Taylor

series expansion. The procedure is typically referred to as the Taylor series method.
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

97

Table B1—Standard errors for table 2: percentage distribution of all college-qualified1 1992 high school 

Table B1—graduates according to postsecondary enrollment by 1994 and type of institution attended, by 

Table B1—background characteristics

Other

 No less than Public Any

 postsecondary 4-year 2-year 4-year

 education institution2institution institution

 Total 0.58 0.31 0.91 1.03

Race–ethnicity

 Asian/Pacific Islander 1.58 0.60 2.61 2.84

 Hispanic regardless of race 2.08 0.70 2.60 2.99

 Black, not of Hispanic origin 2.74 0.77 2.26 3.26

 White, not of Hispanic origin 0.62 0.37 1.06 1.17

Family income

 Low (less than $25,000) 1.61 0.74 1.52 1.78

 Middle ($25,000–$74,999) 0.66 0.51 1.19 1.30

 High ($75,000 or more) 0.57 0.40 1.40 1.48

Parents’ highest education level

 High school graduate or less 1.61 0.64 1.97 1.78

 Some college 1.00 0.38 1.37 1.40

 College graduate 0.46 0.66 1.04 1.24

1

4-year college qualification index based on high school GPA, senior class rank, NELS 1992 aptitude test, SAT and ACT

scores, and academic coursework.

2

Primarily private for-profit vocational and private not-for-profit 2-year institutions.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal

Study: 1988–94 (NELS:88), Data Analysis System.

For more information about the NELS:88 and NPSAS:93 Data Analysis Systems, consult

the NCES DAS Website (WWW.PEDAR-DAS.org) or contact:

Aurora D’Amico

NCES Data Development and Longitudinal Studies Group

555 New Jersey Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20208-5652

(202) 219-1365

Internet address: Admico@inet.ed.gov
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

STATISTICAL PROCEDURES

Two types of statistical procedures were employed in this report: testing differences b

tween means, and adjustment of means after controlling for covariation among a group of var

ables. Each procedure is described below.

Differences Between Means

The descriptive comparisons were tested in this report using Student’s t statistic. Diffe

ences between estimates are tested against the probability of a Type I error, or significance leve

The significance levels were determined by calculating the Student’s t values for the differenc

between each pair of means or proportions and comparing these with published tables of signif

cance levels for two-tailed hypothesis testing.

Student’s t values may be computed to test the difference between estimates with the fo

lowing formula:

t =

E - E

se +se

1 2

1

2

2

2

(

where E1 and E2 are the estimates to be compared and se1 and se2 are their corresponding sta

dard errors. This formula is valid only for independent estimates. When estimates are not ind

pendent a covariance term must be added to the formula. If the comparison is between the mea

of a subgroup and the mean of the total group, the following formula is used:

Esub − Etot

sesub

2 + setot2 − 2p sesub2

(

where p is the proportion of the total group contained in the subgroup.49

When comparing two percentages from a distribution that adds to 100 percent, the follow

ing formula is used:

E E

Se Se rSe Se

1 2

1

2

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

−

+ −

 (3

 

49U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, A Note from the Chief Statistician, No. 2, 1993.
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

99

where r is the correlation between the two estimates.50 The estimates, standard errors, and correlations can all be obtained from the DAS.

There are hazards in reporting statistical tests for each comparison. First, comparisons

based on large t statistics may appear to merit special attention. This can be misleading, since the

magnitude of the t statistic is related not only to the observed differences in means or percentages

but also to the number of students in the specific categories used for comparison. Hence, a small

difference compared across a large number of students would produce a large t statistic.

A second hazard in reporting statistical tests for each comparison occurs when making

multiple comparisons among categories of an independent variable. For example, when making

paired comparisons among different levels of income, the probability of a Type I error for these

comparisons taken as a group is larger than the probability for a single comparison. When more

than one difference between groups of related characteristics or “families” are tested for statistical significance, one must apply a standard that assures a level of significance for all of those

comparisons taken together.

Comparisons were made in this report only when p< .05/k for a particular pairwise comparison, where that comparison was one of k tests within a family. This guarantees both that the

individual comparison would have p< .05 and that for k comparisons within a family of possible

comparisons, the significance level for all the comparisons will sum to p< .05.51

For example, in a comparison of the percentages of males and females who enrolled in

postsecondary education only one comparison is possible (males versus females). In this family,

k=1, and the comparison can be evaluated without adjusting the significance level. When students are divided into five racial–ethnic groups and all possible comparisons are made, then k=10

and the significance level of each test must be p< .05/10, or p< .005. The formula for calculating

family size (k) is as follows:

k = j(j -1)

2 (4)

 

50Ibid.

51The standard that p<.05/k for each comparison is more stringent than the criterion that the significance level of the comparisons should sum to p<.05. For tables showing the t statistic required to ensure that p<.05/k for a particular family size and degrees of freedom, see Olive Jean Dunn, “Multiple Comparisons Among Means,” Journal of the American Statistical Association

56 (1961): 52–64.
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

100

where j is the number of categories for the variable being tested. In the case of race–ethnicity, there are five racial–ethnic groups (American Indian, Asian/Pacific Islander, black nonHispanic, Hispanic, and white non-Hispanic), so substituting 5 for j in equation 2,

k = 5(5 -1)

2 =10

Adjustment of Means to Control for Background Variation

Tabular results are limited by sample size when attempting to control for additional factors

that may account for the variation observed between two variables. For example, when examining

the percentages of those who completed a degree, it is impossible to know to what extent the observed variation is due to socioeconomic status (SES) differences and to what extent it is due to

differences in other factors related to SES, such as type of institution attended, intensity of enrollment, and so on. However, if a nested table were produced showing SES within type of institution attended, within enrollment intensity, the cell sizes would be too small to identify the

patterns. When the sample size becomes too small to support controls for another level of variation, one must use other methods to take such variation into account.

To overcome this difficulty, multiple linear regression was used to obtain means that were

adjusted for covariation among a list of control variables.52 Adjusted means for subgroups were

obtained by regressing the dependent variable on a set of descriptive variables such as race–ethnicity, family income, etc. Substituting ones or zeros for the subgroup characteristic(s) of interest

and the mean proportions for the other variables results in an estimate of the adjusted proportion

for the specified subgroup, holding all other variables constant. For example, consider a hypothetical case in which two variables, race–ethnicity and income, are used to describe an outcome,

Y (such as attending a four-year college). The variables race–ethnicity and family income are recoded into a dummy variable representing race–ethnicity and a dummy variable representing family income:

Race–ethnicity R

Black students 1

 

52For more information about regression, see Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Applied Regression: An Introduction, Vol. 22 (Beverly

Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 1980); W.D. Berry and S. Feldman, Multiple Regression in Practice, Vol. 50 (Beverly Hills,

CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 1987).
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

101

Non-black students 0

and

Family income F

Low income 1

Not low-income 0

The following regression equation is then estimated from the correlation matrix output from the

DAS:

∧

Y = a+ b1R+ b2F (5)

To estimate the adjusted mean for any subgroup evaluated at the mean of all other variables, one

substitutes the appropriate values for that subgroup’s dummy variables (1 or 0) and the mean for

the dummy variable(s) representing all other subgroups. For example, suppose we had a case

where Y was being described by race–ethnicity (R) and family income (F), coded as shown above,

and the means for R and F are as follows:

Variable Mean

R 0.109

F 0.282

Suppose the regression equation results in:

∧

Y = 0.51 + (0.03)R + (-0.21)F (6)

To estimate the adjusted value for black students, one substitutes the appropriate parameter values into equation 4.

Variable Parameter Value

a 0.51 —

R 0.32 1.000

F -0.21 0.282

This results in:

∧
APPENDIX B—TECHNICAL NOTES AND METHODOLOGY

102

Y = 0.51 + (0.032)(1) + (-0.21)(0.282) = 0.48 (7)

In this case the adjusted mean for black students is 0.48 and represents the expected outcome for

black students who look like the average student across the other variables (in this example, family income). In other words, the adjusted percentage who enrolled in a four-year college is 48 percent (0.48 x 100 for conversion to a percentage).

It is relatively straightforward to produce a multivariate model using the DAS, since one of

the DAS output options is a correlation matrix, computed using pair-wise missing values.53 This

matrix can be used by most statistical software packages as the input data for least-squares regression. That is the approach used for this report, with an additional adjustment to incorporate

the complex sample design into the statistical significance tests of the parameter estimates (described below). For tabular presentation, parameter estimates and standard errors were multiplied

by 100 to match the scale used for reporting unadjusted and adjusted percentages.

Most statistical software packages assume simple random sampling when computing standard errors of parameter estimates. Because of the complex sampling design used for the

NELS:88/94 and NPSAS:93 surveys, this assumption is incorrect. A better approximation of their

standard errors is to multiply each standard error by the average design effect of the independent

variable (DEFT),54 where the DEFT is the ratio of the true standard error to the standard error

computed under the assumption of simple random sampling. It is calculated by the DAS and produced with the correlation matrix.

 

53Although the DAS simplifies the process of making regression models, it also limits the range of models. Analysts who wish

to use other than pairwise treatment of missing values or to estimate probit/logit models (which are the most appropriate for

models with categorical dependent variables) can apply for a restricted data license from NCES. See John H. D. Aldrich and

Forrest D. Nelson, 1984. Linear Probability, Logit and Probit Models (Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, Vol.

45) Beverly Hills, CA: Sage University Press.

54The adjustment procedure and its limitations are described in C.J. Skinner, D. Holt, and T.M.F. Smith, eds., Analysis of

Complex Surveys (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1989).