SPEAKING EFFECTIVELY

A GUIDE FOR AIR FORCE

SPEAKERS

by

JOHN A. KLINE

Air University Press

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

December 1989
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kline, John A.

Speaking Effectively: A Guide for Air Force Speakers/by John A. Kline.

 p. cm.

“December 1989.”

1. Public speaking. I. Title.

PN4121.K67 1989

808.5’1 — dc20 89-78063

 CIP

First Printing January 1990

Second Printing September 1990

Third Printing June 1994

Fourth Printing June 1995

Fifth Printing June 1996

DISCLAIMER

This publication was produced in the Department of Defense school environment in the

interest of academic freedom and the advancement of national defense-related concepts.

The views expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not reflect the official

policy or position of the Department of Defense or the United States government.

This publication has been reviewed by security and policy review authorities and is cleared

for public release.

For Sale by the Superintendent of Documents

US Government Printing Office

Washington, DC 20402

ii
CONTENTS

Chapter Page

DISCLAIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

ABOUT THE AUTHOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

1 PREPARING TO TALK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Types of Speaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Teaching Lecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Audience Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Audience Attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Selecting the Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Narrowing the Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Choosing a Title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

General Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Specific Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Gathering Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Self . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Evaluating Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 ORGANIZING THE TALK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Cause/Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Problem/Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Pro/Con . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Topical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Combining Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Now that You Have Organized . . . . . . . . . . . 22

iii
Chapter Page

3 SUPPORTING THE TALK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Factors to Consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Teaching Lecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Logical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Slanted Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Irrational Appeals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Verbal Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Testimony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Humor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Visual Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Using a Chalkboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

After You Have Your Support . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4 BEGINNING AND ENDING THE TALK . . . . . . . . . . 41

Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Teaching Lecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Suggestions for Gaining Attention . . . . . . . . . 48

Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Quotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Joke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Startling Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Gimmick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Common Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Transitions and Interim Summaries . . . . . . . . 53

Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Interim Summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

After Preparation, Then What? . . . . . . . . . . . 54

iv
Chapter Page

5 PRESENTING A TALK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Methods of Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Memorizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Manuscript Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Impromptu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Extemporaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Keyword Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Nervousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Suggestions for Nervous Speakers . . . . . . . 64

Physical Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Eye Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Body Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Gestures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Use of Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Intelligibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Variety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Sincerity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

v
FOREWORD

Dr Kline’s book, Speaking Effectively, is an essential

resource for anyone faced with any kind of speaking

situation. It contains hints, anecdotal examples, and the

accumulated wisdom of decades of speaking experience.

John is highly regarded in government, religious, and

corporate circles and widely in demand because he is a

great speaker and because he can help anyone communicate

more effectively. He brings that expertise forward in a way

that both teaches and entertains.

First published in 1989 and currently in its fourth

printing, Speaking Effectively teaches speakers throughout

the Air Force and in other federal agencies the art of

captivating an audience. From preparation of your talk

through delivery, this straightforward book takes you

step-by-step through the stages of effectively developing

and presenting briefings, lectures, and speeches.

This book includes such essential principles of effective

delivery as speaking clearly, at the fight pace for your

audience and subject, and loud enough for all to hear, but

not too loud. Yet it also covers less obvious, but equally

essential, principles such as a speaker’s nonverbal signals,

which can make or break a presentation.

I strongly recommend Dr Kline’s book whether you are a

novice or an experienced speaker. It will help the novice

begin developing time-proven speaking techniques, and it

will help more experienced speakers continue perfecting

the skills needed to grab and hold an audience.

JAY W. KELLEY

Lieutenant General, USAF

Commander, Air University

vii
ABOUT THE

AUTHOR

Dr John A. Kline is a senior executive (SES) and

Academic Provost for Air University. He received his BS

from Iowa State University. He held an NDEA Fellowship

while earning MS and PhD degrees at the University of

Iowa.

Dr Kline was professor of communication at the

universities of New Mexico and Missouri–Columbia. He has

been at Air University since 1975 as professor, dean,

educational advisor, and finally as provost.

Dr Kline has written books, presented many papers, and

published widely in leading professional journals. He is an

accomplished speaker, he has lectured extensively

throughout the Air Force and he has presented many

speeches to a variety of military, professional, religious,

and corporate organizations worldwide.

Dr John A. Kline

ix
PREFACE

Speaking Effectively presents techniques on how to

speak successfully. It takes a “how-to” approach to effective

speaking in the Air Force and presents proven techniques

as concisely and completely as possible. Experienced

speakers will find little here that is new. Yet each speaker,

no matter how skilled, needs to keep these basic

techniques in mind.

The content is organized chronologically according to the

steps a speaker would normally follow: preparing,

organizing, choosing appropriate support material,

deciding how to begin and end, and finally presenting the

actual talk. Although these basic steps apply to any kind of

speaking, some important variations exist to accommodate

different types of Air Force speaking. Therefore, the book

consistently makes distinctions among the three types of

Air Force speaking: briefing, teaching lecture, and formal

speech.

The book should not become a straightjacket to thinking.

Nearly every principle, technique, and suggestion has

exceptions. In fact, the only principle that never changes is

that an effective speaker is always willing to adjust to the

audience. For this reason, the other principles can be

modified if the needs of the audience so dictate.

Speaking Effectively is written for the officers, enlisted

personnel, and civilians who must speak in the course of

performing their day-to-day Air Force business. However,

the principles and techniques do not apply only to Air

Force speaking. They work in all situations, and they are

as old as those in Aristotle’s Rhetoric or Cicero’s De Oratore.

I am indebted to former teachers, students, and

audiences for the content of this book. I apologize if I have

used their ideas or those of other textbooks without

acknowledging the source. Quite frankly, I have

assimilated these ideas into my own thinking and practice,

and no longer know where I learned them.

xi
Finally, I say a special thanks to my wife, Ann, who

endured my writing of this book. Even more, she has been

very patient with a demanding traveling and speaking

schedule that required not only time away but also time at

home preparing speeches—time that I could have devoted

to her.

JOHN A. KLINE

xii
CHAPTER 1

PREPARING TO TALK

Recent studies show that speaking in front of a group is by far

the greatest fear of most people. It ranks ahead of the fear of

dying, riding in an airplane, or failure in other areas of one’s

personal life.

Unless you are highly unusual, at some time in your life you

have talked to a group of people and your knees began shaking,

your voice quivered, your head ached, and the only dry place on

your body was the inside of your mouth. Then the strange muscle

spasms began. One eyelid began to twitch uncontrollably. Your

1
legs felt like soft rubber. And then it happened: Your memory, on

its own and for no apparent reason, left you. At this point you

promised yourself that you would never get yourself in this

situation again.

Although the fear of speaking is common, studies show that

one of the most admired qualities in others is their ability to speak

in front of a group. Furthermore, other things being equal, the

person who can communicate ideas clearly will be more

successful. The remainder of this book is directed toward helping

you be the kind of speaker others admire—the kind who gets the

job done in every speaking situation.

Types of Speaking

There are several types of speaking common in the Air Force.

Although most of the same general principles and techniques

apply to all types, there are some differences.

Briefing

The best military briefings are concise and factual. Their major

purpose is to inform—tell about a mission, operation, or concept.

At times they also direct—enable listeners to perform a procedure

or carry out instructions. At other times they advocate or

persuade—support a certain solution and lead listeners to accept

that solution. For example, a staff officer might want officers at a

higher echelon to accept a certain solution. Every good briefing

has the virtues of accuracy, brevity, and clarity. These are the

ABCs of the briefing. Accuracy and clarity characterize all good

speaking, but brevity distinguishes the briefing from other types

of speaking. By definition, a briefing is brief, concise, and direct.

Teaching Lecture

Much speaking in the Air Force is directed toward teaching.

2
The lecture is the method of instruction most often used. As the

name implies, the primary purpose of a teaching lecture is to teach

or to inform students about a given subject. For convenience,

teaching lectures can be divided into the following types: (1) formal

lectures, where the communication is generally one-sided with no

verbal participation by the students, and (2) informal lectures,

usually presented to smaller audiences and allowing for verbal

interaction between the instructor and students.

Speech

A speech generally has one of three basic purposes: to inform,

to persuade, or to entertain. The informative speech is a narration

concerning a specific topic but does not involve a sustained effort

to teach. Speeches to civic clubs, orientation talks, and

presentations at commanders’ calls are examples of speeches to

inform. The persuasive speech is designed to move an audience

to belief or action on some topic, product, or other matter.

Recruiting speeches to high school graduating classes, budget

defenses, and courts-martial summations are all primarily

speeches to persuade. The entertaining speech gives enjoyment

to the audience. The speaker often relies on humor and vivid

language as a primary means of entertaining the listeners. A

speech at a dining-out may be a speech to entertain.

Audience

Talking to hear one’s own voice may feed the ego and even

cause self-persuasion, but whatever type of speaking you are

doing, the goal should be to communicate with others. A basic

assumption, then, is that all speaking should be audiencecentered. Since speakers have a primary responsibility of adapting

the message to the audiences, they need to know as much about

their audiences as possible.

3
Audience Analysis

There are two reliable methods for gaining information about

audiences. Used together they can be extremely useful. The first is

to organize information you already have about the audience.

Knowing such variables as age, sex, rank, and experience can

help you relate to the audience. If one or more of these or similar

variables separates you from the audience, you may want to give

special attention to ways of emphasizing similarities and reducing

differences.

The second method, when you have not talked to a particular

group before, is to check with someone who has. Perhaps a friend

4
or colleague has already talked to the same group and can tell you

what to expect. A local civic club regularly interrupts and heckles

guest speakers. Imagine the chagrin of a speaker who is not

familiar with this practice and takes the interruption and heckling

personally. Granted, this audience behavior is a pretty extreme

case and may not be the proper way for an audience to react. Still,

it is better to know about such things before one speaks.

Audience Attitude

In the preceding instance, the uninforrned speaker might

assume wrongly that the audience was hostile. In some instances,

you may have to face a hostile audience. An extreme example of a

speaker facing a hostile audience is when the President must

confront a group of militants on the White House lawn. In such

circumstances, the emotions of the audience are so great that

effective communication becomes very difficult.

Most likely you will never have to speak to an overly hostile

audience, but you may have to speak to one that is mildly hostile

either to you or to your ideas. What can you do? Assuming that

you are determined to be heard and the audience is willing to give

you a chance, hostility can often be overcome. Clearly, your first

task as a speaker is to change the audience attitude—if not to

friendliness, then at least to a more neutral position. Your chances

for success are much greater if you somehow build rapport with

your listeners. Often this can be done by using one or more of the

following techniques:

1. Avoid behaving in a conceited or antagonistic manner.

2. Demonstrate a genuine concern for your listeners.

3. Exhibit friendliness and warmth toward your listeners

4. Emphasize similarities between your listeners and you.

5. Be honest and straightforward.

6. Use humor that is in good taste, especially if it is at your

own expense.

5
7. Indicate your association with people who are held in high

esteem by the audience.

8. Do not let negative, nonverbal aspects of your behavior

contradict what you are saying.

9. Demonstrate that you are an expert and have done your

homework on the subject.

10. Refrain from stating the main idea or conclusion at the

outset. Present your facts first that you and your listeners agree

upon, and then build toward your conclusion.

Most audiences will be friendly. They consist of people who

are, for the most part, favorably disposed toward you as a speaker.

Most people want you to do a good job. Furthermore, they usually

are not in violent disagreement with your point of view. An

informative briefing to other members of your organization, a

speech to a local civic club, and a teaching lecture in the

classroom are examples of speaking before friendly audiences.

Subject

The problem of selecting a subject for a briefing or teaching

lecture does not often arise in the ordinary course of Air Force

business. You will seldom have to look around for something to

talk about. The subjects are implicit in the work of the

organization. A staff briefing, for example, arises from the need to

communicate certain subject matter. A teaching lecture is given to

satisfy a particular curriculum need. On the other hand, a formal

speech to persuade, inform, or entertain may provide you with

more latitude in selecting the subject.

Selecting the Subject

On some occasions, the subject of your speech will be

determined—at least partly—by the group. A local civic club, for

instance, may ask you to talk to them about a job, hobby, or

community project you are heading up. At other times. the choice

6
of the subject will be left entirely up to you. Almost always,

however, you will be free to choose the particular aspect or area

of your subject that you wish to emphasize. There are several

questions you can ask yourself about the subject or aspect of the

subject you choose to talk about:

1. Is this the best subject I can think of? Certainly this is a

tough question. But you can answer it more wisely if you consider

a number of subjects. As a rule, a carefully selected subject or

aspect of the subject chosen after some thought will be a better

choice than the “straw-clutching” effect that characterizes many

searches for suitable subjects.

2. Is this a subject that I already know something about and

can find more? If not, then perhaps you should search elsewhere.

There is no substitute for complete and authoritative knowledge

of the subject.

3. Am I interested in the subject? If you are not interested in

what you will be talking about, you will find preparation a dull

task, and you will have difficulty in capturing the interest of the

audience. Talking about a community service project on which

you have spent many hours or a new program that you have

helped implement on the job is probably much closer to your

heart than a subject that you found while searching through a list

of suggested topics.

4. Is the subject suitable for my audience? Does it fit their

intellectual capacity? Is it a subject that they will be interested in?

A subject may be suitable or interesting to an audience if it vitally

concerns their well-being, offers solutions to a problem they have,

is new or timely, or if there is a conflict of opinion about it.

5. Can the subject or aspect of the subject be discussed adequately in the time I have? One of the greatest problems many

speakers have is that they fail to narrow their subject. Because of

this problem, they generally do one of two things: (a) they don’t

adequately cover the subject, or (b) they talk too long. Both

results are bad.

7
Narrowing the Subject

Some subjects are so broad or complex that you cannot possibly do justice to them in a single speech. In ten minutes you

cannot tell much about “Soviet Industry,” but perhaps you can

adequately cover “The Iron Industry of the Soviet Union” or

“Steel Production in the Urals.” Speakers often tackle subjects

that are too broad. You can pare a big topic down to size by

moving from the general to the specific. The general and abstract

topic “Air Power,” for example, may be successfully narrowed to

the more concrete and specific “Combat Radius of the B-52.”

Here are the steps followed in limiting this subject:

• Air Power (much too abstract)

• Military Air Power (not much better)

• The Air Force (a beginning in the right direction)

• Strategic Air Command (a little more specific)

• The B-52 (something concrete)

• Combat Radius of the B-52 (a suitable topic)

Limit your subject in terms of your own interests and qualifications, your listeners’ needs and demands, and the time allotted to

your speech.

Choosing a Title

The title is a specific label given to the speech—an advertising

slogan or catchword that catches the spirit of the speech and

tantalizes the potential audience. Generally, the exact phrasing of

the title is not decided until the speech has been built. At other

times it may come to mind as you work on the speech. At still

other times it may come early and guide your planning. An

effective title should be relevant, provocative, and brief.

Listeners do not like to be misled. If the speech has to do with

communication, then some reference to communication should be

in the title. On the other hand, don’t include words in the title

merely to get attention if they have no relevance to the speech

8
itself. “The Eleventh Commandment” is a relevant title for a

speech that addresses the fact that the commandment of “Thou

shall not get caught” has seemed to replace some of the other

commandments. “A Pat on the Back, A Punch in the Mouth” is

certainly a more provocative title than “How Positive and

Negative Reinforcement Affects Our Children.” “You Cannot Not

Communicate” is briefer and more provocative than “The

Impossibility of Failing to Communicate.”

Although the preceding three titles are all rather catchy, sometimes the direct approach is very effective. Consider the very

descriptive title given earlier, “Combat Radius of the B-52.” A

speech or lecture on effective listening might simply be titled

“Effective Listening.” Both of these titles are relevant,

provocative (due to the subject matter itself), and brief.

Objectives

The purposes for speaking—informative, persuasive, entertaining—are important. But the general responses and specific

responses you expect from the talks you give are also significant.

General Responses

The purposes of speaking suggest the general kinds of

responses desired from the audience. An informative presentation

seeks audience understanding. A persuasive presentation seeks a

change in beliefs, attitudes, or behavior. An entertaining

presentation seeks to divert, amuse, or, in some other way, cause

listeners to enjoy themselves.

Specific Responses

In addition to the three broad purposes or aims, there are more

specific purposes, sometimes referred to as goals or objectives, of

speaking. An effective oral presentation has immediate and

9
specific objectives stated in terms of what is expected from the

listeners. These specific objectives fall within the broader

purposes of information, persuasion, or entertainment. The

objectives do not state what the speaker is to do. Rather they tell

what the speaker wishes the audience to understand, believe, feel,

do, or enjoy. The following examples illustrate the relationship

between subjects, general purposes, and specific objectives:

1. Subject: From Iowa to the Air Force

Purpose: To entertain

Objective: For listeners to enjoy the humor of a young man

from lowa making the transition from an lowa

farm to the Air Force

2. Subject: You cannot not communicate

Purpose: To inform

Objective: For listeners to understand that we are constantly

communicating verbally and nonverbally

3. Subject: Equality for all

Purpose: To persuade

Objective: For listeners to dedicate themselves anew to the

 principle of racial and social equality for all

Gathering Material

With the general purpose and specific objective in mind, you

are ready to gather material on the subject. The source for this

material should be your own experience or the experience of

others gained through conversation, interviews, and written or

observed material. You may often draw from all these sources in a

single presentation.

Self

The first step in researching an oral presentation is the assembly of all the personal knowledge you have about the subject. A

10
self-inventory may suggest a tentative organization; but, even

more important, it will point up gaps in knowledge where you

need to do further research.

Others

The second step in the research process is to draw on the

experience of others. People who are interested in the subject

provide many ideas during the course of conversation. The most

fruitful source, of course, is the expert. Experts help you clarify

your thinking, provide facts, and suggest good sources for further

research. Their suggestions for further sources can enable you to

narrow your search without having to investigate a large bulk of

material.

11
Library

The third step is library research. Modem libraries provide us

with an abundance of sources—books, newspapers, popular

magazines, scholarly journals, abstracts, subject files, microfilms.

You must constantly be concerned with the accuracy and

relevance of the material. Using material printed in 1950 to

understand television today would probably lead to inaccurate,

irrelevant conclusions.

Evaluating Material

The next step in the research process is to evaluate the material

gathered. You will probably find that you have enough material

for several presentations. If you haven’t already begun to organize

the presentation, you will want to do so. Next you will want to

select the best kinds of support for the points you wish to make.

Then you will want to prepare a good beginning and ending for

the talk.

12
CHAPTER 2

ORGANIZING THE TALK

Clear organization is vital to effective speaking. The most

prevalent weakness among speakers at all levels is the failure to

organize material for the audience. Speakers have the

responsibility to lead listeners mentally from where they are at the

beginning of a talk to where they are supposed to be at the end. The

message must be organized with the audience in mind; the

organization should conform to the thinking processes and

expectations of the listeners.

Each speech, lecture, and briefing needs an introduction, a

body, and a conclusion. In most instances the introduction and

conclusion should be prepared after the body of the talk, since the

material in the body is a guide for preparing the introduction and

conclusion.

13
The first consideration in planning the body is how to organize

the main points, but organization of subpoints is also important.

Arrangement of the main points and subpoints will help both the

speaker and the audience remember the material—the speaker

while speaking, and the audience while listening.

Most oral presentations, regardless of their length, can be

divided into two to five main points. Five is about the maximum

number of points from one talk that listeners can be expected to

remember.

The most typical ways of organizing main points or subpoints

of a talk are by the patterns: time, space, cause/effect, problem/

solution, pro/con, or topic. Furthermore, as illustrated throughout

this chapter, certain strategies can be used with each pattern.

How does a speaker decide which patterns and strategies to use?

The material will often organize more easily with one pattern and

strategy than with another. Consider how various patterns and

strategies can be used to organize the main points.

Time

Our vocabularies are filled with words that refer to time: now,

tomorrow, yesterday, today, sooner, later, earlier, next (last) week

(month, year, time). We work, play, sleep, and eat at certain

times. Major events in our lives are organized by time: births,

engagements, marriages, deaths. The time, or chronological

pattern of organization, then, is a natural way of arranging events

in the sequence or order in which they happened or in giving

directions on the order to be followed in carrying out those events.

This kind of organization is sometimes called sequential

organization. Certain processes, procedures, or historical

movements and developments can often be explained best with a

time-sequence organizational pattern.

The medical technician discussing the mouth-to-mouth system

of artificial respiration would probably use a time order for the

main points: (1) preliminary steps in preparing the body—proper

position, mouth open, tongue and jaw forward, (2) the

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mouth-to-mouth process, (3) caring for the patient once breathing

resumes. Time order is also a logical approach for talks dealing

with such subjects as “How to Pack a Parachute,” “Development

of the B-l Bomber,” or “How to Prepare a Speech. “Furthermore,

any talk on a subject with several phases lends itself well to the time

pattern. For example, a talk with an objective for the audience to

know that the common market was originally planned to develop in

three phases might have as main points: (1) phase one, a customs

union where nations agreed to reduce duties, (2) phase two, an

economic union allowing laborers and goods to move freely

across national borders, and (3) phase three, a political union with

national representatives as members of a common parliament and

using a common currency.

Of course, rather than looking forward in time from a given

moment, the strategy might be to look backward from a point in

time. In other words, the strategy might be to move from recent to

earlier time rather than from early to late. Regardless of which

strategy is used, the flow of the talk and the transitions from one

point to the next should make the chronological relationship

between main points clear to audience members.

Space

A spatial or geographical pattern is very effective in describing

relationships. When using this pattern, the talk is developed

according to some directional strategy such as east to west or

north to south. For instance, if the speaker were describing the

domino theory of Communist infiltration, the strategy would

probably be to arrange the main points according to the geographical locations of various nations and how they would be affected

by Communist infiltration within their geographical region.

With talks on certain objects, the strategy might be to arrange the

main points from top to bottom or bottom to top. A fire extinguisher

might be described from top to bottom, an organizational chart from

15
the highest ranking individuals to the lowest ones in the

organization, a library according to the services found on the first

floor, then the second, and finally those on the third.

Sometimes, the strategy is to organize the talk from the center

to the outside. For example, the control panel in an airplane might

be discussed by describing first those often used instruments in

the center, then by moving out toward the surrounding

instruments which are used least often.

In all talks arranged spatially, each aspect or main point needs

to be introduced according to the strategy used. Just as with a talk

organized by time, the subject matter and the transitions should

include elaboration and clarification of how the main points relate

to one another. A simple listing of the various objects or places without elaboration as to how they are related may confuse the listeners.

Cause/Effect

A causal pattern of arrangement is used in a talk where one set

of conditions is given as a cause for another set. In such talks, one

of two basic strategies may be used to arrange main points. With a

cause/effect strategy you begin with a given set of conditions and

contend that these will produce or have already produced certain

results or effects; with an effect/cause strategy you take a certain

set of conditions as the effects and allege that they resulted from

certain causes.

The cause/effect strategy might be used in a talk concerning the

increasing number of women in the Air Force. The talk might first

discuss the fact that women are now assuming more responsible

leadership roles in the Air Force. One effect of women assuming

such roles might be that women are joining the Air Force in

increasing numbers.

The effect/cause strategy might be used in a talk on child abuse.

The first point might explain the effects of child abuse upon the

children themselves, the parents, and even on society. The second

16
point might allege that the causes are that parents themselves were

abused as children or that proper education on parenting was not

received.

Whichever strategy is used, two cautions must be observed.

(1) Beware of false causes. Just because one event or circumstance precedes another does not mean that the former causes the

latter. Many persons assume that “first A happened, then B took

place, so A must have caused B.” (2) Beware of single causes.

Few things result from a single cause. Many causes are more

common with one playing on another until it is hard to

disentangle them. Lack of safety features on automobiles is not

the only cause of most highway accidents; but this cause, plus

careless driving or unsafe highways, may account for many

highway accidents.

Problem/Solution

This pattern, sometimes called the disease/remedy pattern or

the need/satisfaction pattern, presents listeners with a problem and

then proposes a way to solve it. With this pattern, you must show

that a problem exists and then offer a corrective action that is

(1) practical, (2) desirable, (3) capable of being put into action,

and (4) able to relieve the problem. It must also be one that does

not introduce new and worse evils of its own. For example, the

issue of controlling nuclear weapons has long been debated.

Those against control argue that erosion of national sovereignty

from arms control is more dangerous than no control.

The problem/solution pattern is especially useful with briefings

whose purpose is to provide listeners with information on which

to base decisions. It can also be used effectively with persuasive

speeches and teaching lectures where the speaker wants to present

a need or a problem followed by a way or ways to satisfy the need

or solve the problem.

There are different strategies that might be employed when

using the problem/solution method. If the listeners are aware of

the problem and the possible solutions, you will probably discuss

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the problem briefly, mention the possible solutions, then spend

more time in showing why one solution is better than others. For

instance, if the objective is for listeners to comprehend that solar

energy is the best solution to the energy crisis, our main points

might be: (1) The world is caught in the grip of an energy crisis.

(2) Several solutions are possible. (3) Solar energy is the best

long-term solution.

If the listeners are not aware or are only slightly aware of the

problem or need, you may describe in detail the exact nature of

the problem. Sometimes, when listeners become aware of the

problem, the solution becomes evident and little time is needed to

develop the solution in the lesson. At other times, you may need

to spend time developing both the problem and the solution.

Still another strategy is to alternate or stagger portions of the

problem with portions of the solution. For example, the cost of a

project may be seen as one problem, workability another, time to

do the projects as a third. Taking up each portion and, in turn,

providing solutions to cost, workability, and time as you present

these aspects of the problem may be more satisfying to your

listeners than if you had discussed all of the problem and then its

total solution. The problem/solution pattern is a good one for

advocacy or persuasive briefings.

Pro/Con

The pro/con pattern, sometimes called the for/against pattern or

advantages/disadvantages pattern, is similar to a problem/ solution

pattern in that the talk is usually planned so as to lead to a

conclusion. A major difference, however, is that fairly even

attention is usually directed toward both sides of an issue with a

pro/con pattern.

There are various strategies to consider when using the pro/con

pattern. One consideration is whether to present pro or con first.

Another is whether to present both sides and let listeners draw

their own conclusions or to present the material in such a way that

listeners are led to accept the “school solution.” For instance, with

18
a talk on the effects of jogging, you must decide whether to

present the advantages or disadvantages first. Then you must

decide whether to let listeners make their own decision as to the

advantages or disadvantages.

When deciding the specific strategy to use with the pro/con

pattern and determining how much time to spend on each, the

following guidelines may be helpful: (1) Giving both sides fairly

even emphasis is most effective when the weight of evidence is

clearly on the favored side. (2) Presenting both sides is most effective

when listeners may be initially opposed to the school solution. (3)

Presenting only the favored side is most effective when listeners

already favor the school solution or conclusion. (4) Presenting the

favored side last makes its acceptance more likely, especially if

the other side is not shown in too favorable a light.

Topical

A topical division of the main points of a talk involves

determining categories of the subject. This type of categorizing or

classifying often springs directly from the subject itself. For

instance, a talk about a typical college population might be

divided into topical divisions of freshmen, sophomores, juniors,

and seniors, with each class division serving as a main point.

Housing might be discussed in terms of on-base and off-base

housing. A talk on the MX intercontinental ballistic missile might

be arranged according to the main points of warhead, guidance,

and propulsion systems.

At times the material itself suggests certain strategies for

ordering the main points. For instance, a talk on lesson planning

would most likely begin with knowledge-level planning as the

first main point since knowledge-level lessons are generally

simpler to understand. Then the lesson would move on through

the hierarchy to comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,

and, finally, evaluation levels. In other words your talk would

follow a simple-to-complex strategy in organizing the “topics’’ or

levels of lessons.

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Other talks might follow strategies of known to unknown,

general to specific, or specific to general arrangement of topical

main points. There are many strategies for arranging topical main

points. The important consideration, as with any pattern, is to give

thought to the strategy of arrangement in order to help the

listeners’ understanding.

Combining Patterns

If a single pattern is used to organize the main points, your

talks will make more sense. And as a speaker, you will be able to

remember more readily what your main points are when you

present the talk. Even more important, listeners will be able to

follow the talk more easily and remember what you said if a

single logical pattern of organization is used for the main points.

Although you may choose a certain organizational pattern for

the main points, you may decide to use different patterns for

subpoints. Consider the following tentative outline (fig. 1) of a

talk with an objective or goal for listeners to know the importance

of nonverbal factors of communication. Notice that the main

points (1. Performance Factors, and 2. Nonperformance Factors)

are arranged topically. The subpoints for main point 1 (upper,

middle, and lower body) are organized spatially. A pro/con

pattern is followed in discussing positive and negative effects

from each body performance factor. The subpoints of main point

2 (objects, space, and time) are organized topically. Subpoints

under 2a are organized by time. Subpoints under 2b are organized

topically.

The important thing to remember is that each set of main points

or subpoints should follow a logical pattern of organization. The

tentative outline reflects this fact. Of course, it may be that none

of the formal patterns of organization discussed in this chapter

adequately fits your content. For instance, with a speech to

entertain, you might simply string together a group of interesting

or humorous incidents that would hold the audience’s attention.

But whatever the case, you must strive to organize your talk in a

20
way that will help you present the information to your listeners in

the most meaningful fashion. As you construct a tentative outline,

you must do so with your listeners’ needs in mind. Quite often,

the experienced speaker revises the outline three or four times

before being satisfied and finally putting it into final form for the

talk.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

1. Performance Factors

a. Upper Body (head and face)

(1) Positive Effects

(2) Negative Effects

b. Middle Body (arms, hands, torso)

(1) Positive Effects

(2) Negative Effects

c. Lower Body (hips, legs, feet)

(1) Positive Effects

(2) Negative Effects

2. Nonperformance Factors

a. Objects

(1) Present

(2) Past

b, Space

(1) Personal

(2) Constructed

c. Time

Figure 1

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Now that You Have Organized

The organization patterns and strategies you choose provide

structure to the body of your talk. But structure without content is

not enough. Interesting and effective supporting material is

needed. To use an anatomical analogy, the organization provides

the skeleton and the supporting material supplies the flesh for the

body of the talk. The next chapter discusses how to choose

effective visual and verbal support for the talk. The following

chapter suggests how to begin and end various kinds of talks.

The final chapter tells how to present talks.

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CHAPTER 3

SUPPORTING THE TALK

Most listeners find it difficult to understand unsupported ideas

or assertions. Suppose, for instance, you decide to speak on “How

to Organize a Talk.” You tell your listeners that they can organize

a talk according to one of several possible patterns of presentation

You then tell them that the most common patterns are: time,

space, cause/effect, problem/solution, pro/con, and topic. Most

23
likely you will not have provided enough information for your

listeners to actually use these patterns of organization. You will

need to go on and explain each of these patterns as has been done

in the preceding chapter.

Factors to Consider

Consider all factors when choosing support. The subject of

your talk, the type of talk (briefing, lecture, or speech), and the

composition of your audience will help you determine the amount

and kinds of support to use.

Briefing

For a briefing, support is generally limited to factual data

carefully selected to accomplish the “need to know.” The requirement for brevity dictates that you not use extraneous or “nice to

know” support. Visual aids are often used to save time and

achieve accuracy. Humor is seldom used. If the purpose of the

briefing is persuasive, use logic rather than emotion to persuade.

Teaching Lecture

Factual material is also important in the teaching lecture, although

there may be a need to use support that also appeals strongly to the

emotions. Humor and other attention-commanding materials are

common throughout the lecture. Visual aids are often used, not only

to save time and improve accuracy but also to clarify ideas.

Speech

Informative speeches use much the same support as teaching

lectures. Entertaining speeches rely heavily on humor and other

attention-getting support. Persuasive speeches are characterized

24
by more appeal to emotions or motives than any other kind of talk

you will give. Appeal to such motives as fear, curiosity, loyalty,

adventure, pride, and sympathy is common in persuasion. The

distinction between logical and emotional support, however, is in

content rather than form. Any type of verbal and visual support

mentioned in this chapter may be primarily logical or emotional.

But just because support appeals to the emotions does not mean it

has to be illogical.

Logical Thinking

Both verbal and visual support, whether used primarily for

emotional or logical appeals, should be backed by logical

thinking. Here are some problems that commonly affect logical

thinking of persons preparing talks.

Slanted Reasoning

Slanted reasoning occurs when a speaker makes invalid

inferences or reaches false conclusions due to faulty reasoning.

Several common types of slanted reasoning follow:

1. The hasty generalization happens when a speaker judges a

whole class of objects from an insufficient sample. The person

who meets two persons from Alabama and dislikes them, and

based on a sample of two, concludes that all people from Alabama

are unlikable is guilty of making a hasty generalization.

2. The faulty dilemma stems from the fact that although some

objects or qualities can be divided into discrete categories, most

cannot. Deeds that are not evil are not necessarily good. A cup of

coffee may be neither hot nor cold; it may be lukewarm.

3. The faulty analogy happens when a speaker assumes that

two things alike in some way or ways are alike in all ways. The

human body and an automobile engine are alike in many respects:

both must operate within certain temperature limits, both last

longer if cared for, both consume fuel. But you would not argue

25
that since adding tetraethyl lead to gasoline makes an automobile

engine run better, people should put tetraethyl lead in their coffee.

4. Stacking the evidence occurs when speakers lift out of

context only the support that fits their talk while ignoring equally

important material that is detrimental to points they are trying to

make.

5. Faulty causal reasoning is seen when a speaker reasons that

if A is present, B occurs; further if A is absent, B does not occur;

therefore, the speaker reasons that A causes B. Of course it could

be that B causes A, or perhaps both are caused by a third

ingredient, C.

Irrational Appeals

Irrational appeals depend upon blind transfer of feelings from

one thing to another without logical thought. Consider the

following examples of irrational appeal.

1. Name calling refers to putting people or things in a bad light

by calling them uncomplimentary names such as fatso,

warmonger, Seward’s Icebox.

2. Glittering generalities are apparent when speakers wrap their

ideas in good, golden, glittering words such as peace, culture,

equality, and flag.

3. Bandwagon appeal operates on the principle that “everyone else

is doing it so you should too.” Some speakers use the bandwagon

appeal to promote the feeling that listeners would be presumptuous to

judge for themselves something that the group accepts.

4. “Plain folks” strategy is used when speakers attempt to

identify with the simple (and presumably desired) things of life. A

speaker who says in front of a farm audience, “I know how you

feel, I was born and raised on a farm, and I want to keep the big

city politicians’ hands off your property tax money,” is using

plain-folks strategy. Identifying with your audience is a sound

practice, but identification alone is not rational support.

5. Prestige or transfer is used by those who drop names or use

26
other strategies to appear important. They believe that simply

associating themselves with certain personalities will cause

listeners to associate desired traits of those personalities with them

as the speakers.

Verbal Support

Verbal support is used either to clarify the points you wish to

make or to prove your assertions. Definitions, examples, and

comparisons are used primarily for clarification. Statistics and

testimony of experts can be used either for clarification or proof.

Humor can be used with any of the preceding five types of verbal

support and will be treated separately in this chapter.

Definitions

Definitions are often needed to clarify or explain the meaning of a

term, concept, or principle. But like so many words, definition can

mean different things and can function in different ways.

 In some talks you may need to use words that are technical,

complex, or strange to your listeners. With increasing

specialization in the Air Force in both theoretical and applied

subjects, the development of new words or terms races ahead of

dictionaries. Words such as pneudraulics (military aircraft brake

systems), taxonomy (scientific classification), détente (military

strategy) or groupthink (a problem of groups) might require literal

definitions or restatement in simpler language.

At other times there is a need to define words that are

frequently loosely employed. Some words simply have different

meanings for different people. Words such as democracy, equal

rights, security needs, and loyalty can usually be defined easily.

For instance, disseminate can be defined very simply as “spread

widely.” Sometimes a speaker may seek novel and memorable

ways to define such terms. Pragmatism might be defined as “a

fancy word to mean that the proof of the pudding is in the eating.”

27
Sometimes it takes a little longer to fully define what is meant by

a certain term. A former POW might define the sacrifice of one

prisoner for another:

When you see an American prisoner giving up his meager ration of fish, just so

another American who is sick can have a little more to eat, that is sacrifice. Because

when you don’t have anything, and you give it up, or you have very little and you

give it up, then you’re hurting yourself, and that is true sacrifice. That’s what I saw

in the prison camp.

Definitions should also be used to explain the meaning of

acronyms—words or other combinations of letters formed from

the initial letter of each of the successive parts of a compound

term. In the preceding paragraph, with some audiences, it might

have been necessary to explain that POW stands for prisoner of

war. If you were discussing PME at AU, you might have to

explain that PME at AU means professional military education

that is taught at Air University. Furthermore, you might go on to

mention that PME includes AWC, ACSC, SOS, and SNCOA—

that is, Air War College, Air Command and Staff College,

Squadron Officer School, and the Senior Noncommissioned

Officer Academy.

Finally, at times an entire talk may be needed to define or

otherwise introduce students to a new concept or principle—for

example, a speaker discussing the concept of communication as

transaction. Perhaps an entire lecture would be needed to explain

that the transactional approach means to consider the total

communication process and the interaction of the various parts of

the process on each other. Other forms of support material such as

examples and comparisons would be needed to fully define what

was meant.

Examples

Any time other persons ask you to “give a for instance,” they

are asking for an example to clarify the point you are trying to

make. Sometimes the examples may be reasonably long. The

parables of Jesus, the stories of Homer, Aesop’s Fables, and

28
many of the stories that appeared in the speeches of Abraham

Lincoln are detailed examples.

At other times a short example is sufficient. In some cases

short examples are similar to definitions. The earlier definition

of sacrifice given by the former POW might be considered a

short example. The fact that some support materials might be

classed either as definitions or examples should not be a major

concern to you. As a speaker, you are more interested in using

effective support material than in classifying it.

Often short examples can be clustered together in order to

help listeners gain a more complete understanding of the point.

In a talk on barriers to effective communication, a speaker

might cluster examples of spoonerisms: “Is the bean dizzy?”

(“Is the dean busy?”); “I’ll have a coff of cuppee” (“I’ll have a

cup of coffee”); “A half-warmed fish within us” (“A half-formed

wish within us”).

You should ask yourself several questions about examples you

plan to use:

• Do they accurately represent the point?

• Will listeners clearly understand their meaning?

• Do they fit the content? (Avoid those that may confuse.)

• Will humorous ones add or detract from the lesson? (Some

guidelines for using humor are presented later in this

chapter.)

• Do they come from personal experience or can other

examples be personalized in such a way as to seem real?

• Can anything be gained from clustering more than three or

four examples? Usually not.

• Do long ones take too much time? (At times, attentiongetting value of long examples may justify their use.)

• Are they interesting?

The appropriate answers to these questions should be obvious.

29
Comparisons

Description often becomes more graphic when we place an

unknown or little understood item beside a similar but better

known item. You might want to compare things that are unlike or

things that are very much alike.

Metaphors such as Winston Churchill’s “iron curtain” or similes

(using the words “like” or “as” such as Robert Burns’s “My love is

like a red, red rose” or saying “strong as an ox”) are comparisons of

things that are unlike in most ways. Speakers may compare unlike

things. For instance, one might say, “The flow of knowledge is like

the relentless and uncompromising flow of a river after the spring

thaw as it imposes on us the requirement that we not only adjust to,

but anticipate, the future.” Or a speaker might show that being a

member of a branch in an Air Force organization is like living in a

family where we have intimate contact with each other. The analogy

or comparison might be carried further by pointing out that in a

branch, as in a family, members can protect one another, help one

another, and irritate each other.

Although analogies that compare dissimilar things serve as an

excellent means of clarification, they have limited utility as proof.

If you wish to support an assertion, you must compare similar

things. Comparison of Soviet air power with US air power or the

relationship between the mayor and city council with the

relationship between the base commander and his staff are like

comparisons. Arguing that a longer orientation session for

students in a certain NCO academy would improve academic

performance because it did at another NCO academy would be

comparing like phenomena—in this case, two NCO academies.

Contrast is a special form of comparison. For instance, showing

how Air Force training differs from Army training or how today’s

standard of living differs from that of a generation ago clarifies

and explains a point by showing contrast or differences.

Obviously, comparisons may be very brief such as those given

here or they may be quite long. You need to decide what will work

30
best in a given situation. But whether long or short, comparisons

are a valuable and generally underused method of verbal support.

Testimony

Words and thoughts of others are particularly useful when you

wish to add strong proof support for assertions or points that you

make. No one is expected to be an expert on all subjects; speakers

often must rely on what others have said. At times testimony of

others is used simply to clarify or explain an idea; often it is

intended to provide proof for a claim.

If you are presenting a talk on managerial effectiveness in an

organization, one of your main points might be the importance of

effective downward communication. In other words, you want to

stress how important it is for supervisors to keep their subordinates

informed. You might quote from an Air Force Policy Letter for

Commanders, which comes from the Office of the Secretary of the

Air Force. It says, “Commanders and supervisors have an increased

responsibility to keep Air Force military and civilian members

informed.” You might also report the findings from a study by the

International Association of Business Communicators which show

that “face-to-face communication, including group meetings and

one-on-one dialogue,” proved the most effective means of

communicating with employees. Sometimes, you will want to use

direct quotations as we have done here. At other times you will

paraphrase what another has said. Whatever the case, there are two

tests of testimony: (1) Are the sources competent—do they know

what they are talking about? and (2) Can they be trusted—are they

free from bias? Other considerations are: Is the testimony relevant,

clear, and interesting? Are the quotations longer than necessary?

Statistics

Statistics are probably the most misused and misunderstood

type of verbal support. When properly collected and wisely used,

31
statistics can help speakers clarify their ideas. Statistics are also

the most powerful proof support we can use. However, not all

figures are statistics, some are simply numbers. Statistics show

relationships, largeness or smallness, increases or decreases, or

summarize large collections of facts or data. When you choose

statistics, there are some questions to ask.

32
1. Are the statistics recent? Figures concerning the cost of

living in 1960 would have limited usefulness for today’s family

planning its budget. When selecting statistics to use, be on guard

if no date is given or if the statistics are outdated.

2. Do the statistics indicate what they purport to? A single test

score may not be a true measure of a student’s ability. The

number of planes may not indicate the strength of the Air Force.

3. Do the statistics cover a long enough time or enough

samples to be reliable? The results of how one class responded to

a new curriculum change would be less meaningful than how

three or four classes responded to the change.

4. If the statistics are drawn from a sample, does the sample

accurately represent the group to which we are generalizing?

Public opinion surveys and experimental researchers are generally

sensitive to the importance of obtaining a representative sample.

Speakers also need to be sensitive to this need.

5. When statistics report differences, are the differences

significant? Minor variations can often be attributed to chance. In

other words, if you were to collect your statistics again, the results

might differ.

6. When comparing things, are the units of measure compared

the same? Failure in one course might have a different meaning

than failure in another. If more students fail one course than

another, you cannot necessarily conclude that the content of one

course is more difficult. Perhaps the grading scale rather than the

content was more difficult.

7. Do the statistics come from a good, reliable source? And is

the source clearly indicated? It is more effective to state the

source of the information than to say “recent surveys show.”

8. Are the statistics presented to their best advantage to aid

listener understanding? Could visual aids be used to present the

statistics in graphic or tabular form for easier understanding?

Have figures been rounded off where possible? Listeners are more

likely to remember “nearly $45,000” than “$44,871.24.” Are the

number of statistics limited so that listeners are not overwhelmed

by them? Could the significance of statistics be made more clear

33
with meaningful comparisons? To say that World War II cost the

United States $200 billion would not be as clearly perceived as if

the figures were converted to today’s dollars or if they were

compared to the cost of a war today using a standard measure.

Humor

Most listeners admire a speaker who can use humor effectively.

Yet few speakers are able to do so. Moreover, when humor is used, it

is generally only at the beginning to gain audience attention. Humor

can be used with good results in the body of a talk.

There are two reasons to use humor in the body of a talk. One

is to recapture the attention of the audience. The attention span of

most people is only a few minutes; so unless the material is

terribly engaging, a speaker can recall instances when an

audience’s attention wandered. Humor regains attention. The

second reason to use humor in the body of a talk is to emphasize

an important point. Although a story or anecdote is seldom real proof,

it may reinforce your audience’s ability to remember the point.

Humor must be used properly if it is to be effective. There are

six essentials to using humor.

1. Know the item thoroughly. We have all heard speakers

stumble through a potentially humorous item or make it through

in fine shape only to forget the punch line. But if speakers know

the story and have told it before, they will be able to tell it again

and know the kind of response to expect. It is generally a good rule

for speakers not to use a story or humorous item of any kind in a

speech unless they have told it several times in informal situations so

they can both practice and gauge the reactions of others.

2. Don’t use inappropriate humor. Some speakers consider

off-color stories or ethnic humor as a cheap way to get a laugh

from an audience. But even people who laugh at such stories in

private often lose respect for the speaker who uses them in public.

Deciding if a joke is inappropriate is not always easy. If there is

doubt, the story probably isn’t appropriate.

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3. Vitalize humor. Stories should be personalized so they are

believable, so they sound as if they really happened. Rather than

talk about “this guy I heard about,” or “this truck driver,” the

speaker should give the characters in the stories names.

Successful raconteurs and speakers nearly always vitalize their

humor.

4. Don’t laugh before the audience laughs. Some comedians

get away with laughing first, but good speakers never laugh

before the audience. If a speaker fails to get the story across,

laughing alone on a platform is disaster. If the joke fails, the

speaker is best advised to leave it and go on.

5. Capitalize on the unexpected. One of the primary elements

of humor is that people laugh when they are surprised. A few

years ago, streaking was a fad on college campuses. Most

firsthand observers laughed when confronted by a streaker. Some

of the laughter was no doubt due to embarrassment; most of it was

due to the element of surprise. The following are all types of

humor that depend on the unexpected: quips (of course, men

aren’t what they used to be—they used to be boys), puns (try our

bread, we knead the dough), exaggeration (the heat was so terrific

last week that I saw a hound dog chasing a rabbit; they were both

walking), understatement (if at first you don’t succeed, well, so

much for skydiving).

6. See humor in the situation. The best opportunity for adding

humor may come in those minutes just before you speak. It may

come from things said by those preceding you on the program. It

may come from malfunction of your visual aids, getting tangled

up in the microphone cord, or from a person sneezing in your

audience. And although much of this situational humor may not

directly support the point you are making, it can nevertheless help

win your audience.

Being witty and humorous is not easy. It helps to have an agile

and sophisticated mind—one that adapts skillfully to the audience.

Yet many more speakers could use humor effectively if they were

willing to try and willing to practice.

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Visual Support

Verbal support is certainly at the heart of any good talk, but visual

aids can function to dramatize, amplify, or clarify the points you are

trying to get across to your audience. AU-1, volume 8, Easy Visual

Aids, emphasizes easy to construct and inexpensive visual aids for

various kinds of speaking situations. However, in this book the

emphasis is solely on how to use visual aids.

Suggestions

Some basic suggestions apply to visual aids that might be used

with any type of talk you give.

1. Use only materials that are relevant. Avoid using materials

solely for aesthetic or interest value. Certainly, visual materials

should be interesting, but the primary purpose of any visual aid is

to portray or support an idea graphically for your listeners.

Irrelevant materials distract from the idea you are presenting.

2. Use visual materials that are large enough to be seen by all

the audience. Nothing is so disturbing as to be seated in the back

of the room unable to see the visual aids. In preparing for your

talk, display the visual aids, then move yourself to the location of

your most distant listener. If you can’t readily see the material,

consider replacing it with something more appropriate.

3. Use visual materials only at the proper time. Do not expose the

visual material until the proper point in the talk. Clearly mark your

notes or outline so you will know when to use each piece of visual

support. Materials that are visible too soon or that remain in view

after the point has been made distract from and interrupt the

continuity of the talk. You may want to use the “striptease” or

buildup method for revealing a series of points. Don’t list ten main

points for the audience and then discuss each one. Instead, uncover

the points one at a time to keep the audience’s attention focused.

4. Keep visual materials as simple and as clear as possible.

Emphasize only the most important information. Omit unnecessary

36
details. A series of simple charts is preferable to a single complicated

one.

5. Talk to the audience, not to the visual aid. If you are explaining

a chart, look at your audience as much as possible. By the time you

make your talk, you should be so familiar with your visual aids that it

will be unnecessary for you to look at them closely. When possible,

paraphrase the visual material instead of reading it, or pause and let

the audience read it silently.

6. Place visual aids away from obstructions. Don’t allow other

projects or persons—including yourself—to obstruct the view of your

audience. You decided to use visual materials to support and clarify

your talk. Don’t hinder their effectiveness by obstructing the

audience’s view.

7. If you plan to use equipment such as an overhead projector,

a slide projector, or a film projector, make certain beforehand that

you know how to use the equipment and that it is set up and ready

to go. Also, know whether or not you have a spare bulb, how to

change it, or how to improvise and do without the equipment. In

other words, be ready for any contingencies that may develop.

Many potentially sound presentations fail because the speaker

fails to plan for equipment that malfunctions.

8. When using flipcharts, consider flipping from back to front

rather than from front to back. There are at least three advantages.

First, flipping back to front is easier—try it if you don’t think so.

Second, flipping from back to front can be done from the side of

the charts rather than from the front—between the charts and the

audience—as you generally have to do when flipping from front

to back. Third, if the paper you use for the charts is relatively thin,

the back to front procedure prevents your audience from reading

through the paper to a chart you haven’t yet discussed.

9. Finally, before you construct a visual aid, ask yourself if the

effort and expense required to prepare or procure the aid are

justified and add significantly to the overall value of the talk. If

not, forget it. Often the time spent preparing visual aids could be

better spent preparing and practicing the talk.

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Using a Chalkboard

If you use a chalkboard, consider the following additional

suggestions:

1. Pare the chalk to desired thickness so that the lines you draw

are 1/4 to 3/8 inches wide. Have spare pieces of chalk ready for

use.

2. Use a No. 2 soft pencil and yardstick to make erasable

guidelines on the board before your audience enters the room.

Later when writing on the board during your talk you can ensure

straight and even lettering by following lines invisible to your

audience.

3. Cramping your letters and diagrams cramps your speaking.

To be seen easily at 30 feet, letters should be about three inches

high.

4. Avoid using the bottom half of the board if you are speaking

from the same floor level as your audience since some listeners

may be unable to see.

5. Determine where glare on the board is a distraction. Before

the audience enters the room adjust window shades or avoid these

areas of the board.

6. If the room is equipped with a magnetic chalkboard, or if

some other metal surface such as a file cabinet is nearby, consider

preconstructed visual aids with magnets glued to the back.

Reusable magnetic material one-inch wide can be purchased in

long lengths and cut easily to the desired length. Two magnets

one-inch square will support one square foot of lightweight

illustration board.

After You Have Your Support

By this time you have considered the unique factors of your

talk. You have decided whether to present a briefing, a lecture, or

some type of speech. You have considered your audience, your

subject, your objectives and have gathered your material. You

have organized the body of the talk and have selected the kinds of

38
verbal and visual support you will use with careful thought toward

being logical in your use of support. Two important ingredients

must be supplied before you are ready to work on presenting your

talk. You need to plan a good introduction and a good conclusion.

39
CHAPTER 4

BEGINNING AND ENDING THE TALK

Once you have organized and supported the body of the talk

with appropriate verbal and visual materials, you must decide how

to begin and end. For many persons, beginning (or providing an

introduction to the body of the talk) and ending (providing a

conclusion) is most troublesome. Introductions and conclusions

should fit the audience, the speaker, and the type of talk you are

giving.

Briefing

Since briefings are to be brief, lengthy introductions and

conclusions are inappropriate.

41
Introduction

Your listeners need and want to know about your subject;

therefore, you will not need to spend time getting their attention.

If, as often happens, another speaker introduces you and your

subject, you need only give a quick overview of the subject and

proceed immediately to the main points. Your listeners’

familiarity with the subject will determine the length of the

overview. In most cases simply mentioning the main points is

sufficient. If you are not introduced, you might simply say, “Good

morning, I’m _______________ briefing on _______________.”

Conclusion

This part of a briefing should be short but positive. If your

briefing is to stop with a listing of possible solutions or courses of

action, a brief listing or summary of your points can give a sense

of completion. If your briefing ends with a conclusion, as in a

staff study report, you may end with a brief, clear restatement of

the possible solution you judge best. No new material or

commentary should be presented here. Or you may conclude by

making a short statement recommending the action that would put

your solution into effect.

Although many briefings are subject to interruption for

questions from listeners, many times a good concluding sentence

might be: “Ladies and Gentlemen, are there any (further)

questions?” If a question period is not to follow, or once the

questions have ended, you might simply say, “Ladies and

Gentlemen, that concludes my briefing.” At other times, the

ranking person listening to the briefing may conclude the question

period for you by declaring, “We have no further questions.”

Teaching Lecture

Introductions and conclusions to teaching lectures are very

important. Much care should be given to their development and use.

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Introduction

The introduction to a teaching lecture should serve several

purposes: to establish a common ground between the instructor

and students, to capture and hold attention, to outline the lecture

and relate it to the overall course, to point out benefits to the

students, and to lead the students into the lecture content.

Although humor may be appropriate, the introduction should be

free of irrelevant stories, jokes, or incidents that distract from the

lesson objective, and it should not contain long or apologetic

remarks that are likely to dampen student interest in the lesson.

Educators often speak of three necessary elements in the

introduction of a lecture: gain attention, motivate, and provide an

overview of material to be covered in the lecture.

Attention. To gain attention, the instructor may tell a story

that relates to the subject and provides a background for the

lecture. Another approach may be to make an unexpected or

surprising statement or ask a question that relates the lecture to

group needs. A rhetorical question (Have you ever. . . ? or, Can

you imagine . . . ?) might be effective. At other times, nothing

more than a clear indication that the lecture has begun is

sufficient. In all instances, the primary concern is to focus student

attention on the subject. Later in this chapter, general suggestions

for getting audience attention are discussed.

Motivation. You should use the introduction to discuss specific

reasons why the students need to learn whatever you want them to

learn. In this motivational discussion, you should make a personal

appeal to students and reinforce their desire to learn. The appeal

may relate the learning to career advancement, financial gain,

service to the community, use at home, or to some other need, but

in every instance, you should cite a specific application for

student learning experiences. In many cases, the need for this

lecture as a foundation for future lessons is strong motivation.

This motivational appeal should continue throughout the lecture.

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If you briefly mention student needs only in the introduction, you

are square-filling, not motivating.

Overview. For most instructional methods, the introduction

should provide an overview of what is to be covered during the class

period. A clear, concise presentation of the objective and key

ideas serves as a road map for the learning route. Effective visual

aids can be helpful at this point. A clear overview can contribute

greatly to a lecture by removing doubts in the minds of the

learners about where the lesson is going and how they are going

to get there. Students can be told what will be covered or left out

and why. They can be informed about how the ideas have been

organized. Research shows that students understand better and

retain more when they know what to expect. The purpose of the

overview is to prepare students to listen to the body of the lecture.

Conclusion

The conclusion of a lecture may stick with the students longer

than anything else said. For this reason you should give much care to

its preparation. The conclusion of most lectures should accomplish

three things: summarize, remotivate, and provide closure.

Final Summary. Mini- or interim summaries may be

appropriate at various places in a lecture—for example, after each

main point has been made. But final summaries come after all

main points of the lecture have been made. An effective final

summary retraces the important elements discussed in the body.

As the term suggests, a final summary reviews the main points of

the lecture in a concise manner. By reviewing the main points, it

can aid students’ retention of information and give them a chance

to fill in missing information in their notes.

Remotivation. The purpose of the remotivation is to instill in

students a desire to retain and use what they have learned.

Effective instructors provide motivation throughout the lecture.

But the remotivation step is the instructor’s last chance to let

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students know why the information presented in the lecture is so

important to the student as an individual. Perhaps it is important

because it provides the groundwork for future lessons or because

it will help them do their jobs more effectively. But whatever the

reasons given, they should be ones that appeal directly to the

students and show the importance to them of what was learned.

Closure. For many instructors the closure presents a difficult

challenge. The students need to be released from listening.

Sometimes instructors at a loss on how to close say, “Well that’s

about all I have to say,” or “I guess I don’t have anything else.”

This type of closure is not very satisfying. There are much more

effective ways of closing. Sometimes vocal inflection can signal

that the lecture is ending. Quotations, stories, or humorous

incidents can also provide effective closure. Sometimes when the

lecture is to be followed by other lessons in the same block of

instruction, you might say something such as “Next time, then, we

will continue with our discussion of _______________ . Between

now and then if you have any questions, come to my office and

I’ll see if I can answer them for you.”

Speech

All speeches need introductions and conclusions. But the types

of introductions and conclusions needed may differ greatly from

speech to speech.

Introduction

For many speeches you will most likely want to use the same

three steps of attention, motivation, and overview that you would

use for a teaching lecture. There are times, however, when such

an introduction might not be appropriate.

At times an attention step may not be needed. A well-known

general addressing students at an Air Force school, a war hero

talking to a local veterans organization, a prominent family

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counselor speaking to a group of married couples who chose to

attend the talk all have their audiences’ attention at the beginning.

Still, attention of the audiences is not something that can be taken

for granted.

One of America’s better known ministers confides that he

spends more time on what he refers to as his opening “hook’’ than

any other part of the talk. He explains that if he can hook the

audiences’ attention at the beginning, he then only needs to keep

their attention. Although keeping attention is not always an easy

task, it is not as difficult as initially gaining the attention. This

minister will sometimes devote three to five minutes of a

twenty-minute talk to his ”hook" or attention step. At times he

uses humor; at times an engaging human interest story or

example, but in all cases he sets the stage for the rest of his talk by

using attention-getting material that relates directly to the body of

his talk.

If you can’t decide whether or not you need an attention step in

your speech, then you probably do. Most talks will be improved

with the addition of an effective attention step.

Although some sort of attention device is usually needed in a

speech, at times a motivation step may be unnecessary. For

instance, if your listeners are highly motivated to listen, then a

motivation step establishing their need to listen would be out of

place or redundant at best.

A short time ago, a world-class runner was conducting a clinic

on running. Each participant had paid a substantial fee to attend.

This well-known runner did not need to tell the audience why it

was important for them to listen. The commitment to listen was

already present. The listeners would not have paid their money to

listen if they had not believed that this expert had some valuable

information for them. Much like the military briefer, the speaker

was able to launch immediately into the body of the speech and

present hints and techniques helpful to runners.

Every good speaker, of course, attempts to motivate listeners

throughout the speech. No matter how much credibility you have

on the subject or how willing your audience is to listen to you,

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you have a responsibility to provide continuing motivation for

them to listen throughout the talk.

The overview step needed in most teaching lectures is unnecessary

in many speeches. In fact, with speeches to persuade it may be

advantageous if you do not preview what is to follow—especially if

the audience does not initially share your point of view. If speakers

tell their audiences what they want to persuade them to believe or do,

they may turn audiences against them before they even begin. Also,

the material in some speeches—such as some speeches to

entertain—may not lend itself to an overview. Generally, in an

informative speech, some type of overview is helpful, even if the

overview consists only of mentioning the main points or telling them

what you are going to tell them. The best advice is to consider the

audience, occasion, and objectives of your speech, then decide if an

overview is appropriate.

Conclusion

In some speeches you may choose to use the same three steps

of summary, remotivation, and closure appropriate for teaching

lectures. As with the introduction, however, the speaking situation

will help determine what kind of conclusion is best.

Most speeches will not require an extensive conclusion. With

informative speeches you may want to summarize briefly the

main points you covered. With persuasive speeches, your

conclusion may be a motivating statement of what you want your

listeners to believe or how you want them to act. With an

entertaining speech there may be little to actually summarize or

motivate about.

All kinds of speeches, however, need some type of closure to

provide completeness. Most speakers seem to give little thought

to how to conclude. You can be assured that the time you spend

attending to this detail will be time well spent since it is the last

impression that the audience often carries with them when you

have finished.

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Suggestions for Gaining Attention

Although different types of talks require different kinds of

introductions, some general suggestions may be helpful. Many of

the following suggestions will be useful for gaining attention in

lectures and speeches. Some of them are definitely not appropriate

for military briefings. You will have to decide which ones apply

to the talk you are giving.

Question

You will want your audience to respond in one of two ways. If

you begin with a question—“What has been the most significant

48
event in your life?”—you will not expect an audible answer, for the

question is a rhetorical one. But you do expect your audience to think

of an answer. The other type of question is one in which you expect

an answer. The purpose is to get a unified audience reaction. “Do you

want to keep on paying high taxes?” The politician using this

question may want the audience to respond in unison, “No!”

Questions are easy to design. Good questions are a little more

difficult. “Have you ever wondered how many people drive

Chevrolets?” is not a good question. Many people in your

audience reply mentally, “No, and I don’t care.” A question such

as “Would you like to earn a million dollars next week?” is also

ineffective since it is pretty far from reality. You should also

avoid confusing questions: “How much fuel was used by the US

Air Force, the air forces of other Western nations, and all

commercial airlines from these countries during the past five

years?”; and questions that may embarrass: “How many of you

are deeply in debt?” Good questions are clear and direct and

invite involvement from the audience: “What job do you want in

5 years?” “If you had one wish, what would it be?”

Quotation

Usually without looking too hard, you can find someone both

authoritative and popular who is enthusiastic and supports your

point of view. Practically every library has a copy of Bartlett’s

Familiar Quotations. Or if you speak often, you may wish to

invest in one of the many specialized paperback versions on the

market. There are quotation books especially for teachers,

salesmen, speakers, ministers, and others. Also, if you keep your

eyes open, you will come across quotations in your day-to-day

reading that you can use later on. Make it a practice to write them

down and file them away for future use. When you do use a

quotation to open a talk, remember to keep it brief and

understandable. You want to gain the audience’s attention, not

lose it.

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Joke

Many speakers would be well advised not to open with a joke.

When you buy a joke book from the local bookstore or check one

out from the library, you find nothing but old gags about in-laws,

drunks, and talking horses. A comedian or skilled raconteur can

make the jokes funny with appropriate lead-in lines, timing, and

putting the story into a believable context.

If you do wish to use a joke or humorous story, read again the

suggestions for using humor given in the previous chapter.

Especially attend to the suggestion to tell the story several times

before using it in the talk so that you know it well and know the

kind of response to expect. Also remember to make sure the story

adds rather than detracts from your talk by making certain it is

relevant, humorous, and not offensive to your audience. Many

speakers have put themselves at serious disadvantage at the

beginning of their talk by failing to consider these things.

Startling Statement

“Tonight more people will watch a typical situation comedy on

TV than have seen all of the stage performances of all of

Shakespeare’s plays in the last 400 years.” (This happens to be a

true statement.) “When I was 14 years old I fell in love with a

woman 37 feet tall.” This statement would be a novel way to start

a talk about a 37-foot statue in one’s hometown. Remember to

make your statement not only startling, but relevant.

Gimmick

Novelty openings are distinctive, creative, and usually visual. A

CMSgt opened his talk on creative visual aids by quickly drawing

an attractive picture on the chalkboard and saying, “When we

have completed this two-hour block of instruction, I guarantee

that you will be able to draw this well.” Then he went on to

50
explain that he had predrawn the picture on the board with a

pencil and traced it with chalk, and in fact he was going to show

the audience how to use techniques like this to improve their use

of visual aids.

 Gimmicks such as tearing a five-dollar bill in half, blowing a

loud whistle, or taking off one’s coat and hurling it across the

room may be illegal, dangerous, or simply not relevant. Think

through any gimmick that you plan to use. Try it on a few friends

first to get their reaction. Then make certain it is legal, safe, and

relevant to your talk.

Common Ground

A speaker establishes common ground by mentioning a

common interest relevant to the subject at hand. This technique

should be distinguished from the “plain-folks” appeal

mentioned in the previous chapter. Unlike the politician who

reminds his audience that he too was born and raised on a

farm—a claim that may be true but is probably unrelated to his

topic—common ground is established on a point relevant to

the talk. And it is sincere. When visiting a university at which

he once was a student, a professor might begin: “It is a real

pleasure to be in Iowa City, to visit again this university where

I received two degrees, and to have the opportunity to renew

so many happy and precious friendships. It was here that many

of my ideas about communication theory and public speaking

were formed.”

Reference

Many times you can gain the audience’s attention simply by

referring to the occasion, significance of the subject, special

interest of the audience, or what a previous speaker has said.

Occasion. Several years ago, during our country’s bicentennial,

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a speaker began: “We are assembled to celebrate the

two-hundredth birthday of the United States.” A speech

commemorating the world’s first night flight in Montgomery,

Alabama, began: “Today we are gathered on a very historic spot.

It was here at the Wright Flying School that the first successful

night flight was completed.”

Subject. The method of referring to the subject is closely

related to the earlier comments concerning the motivation step

appropriate for the lecture. The method is simple. Develop the

attention around the implied theme: My subject is important to

you now. In other words, tell the listeners why they should listen

to you. This approach is most successful when you do not actually

tell the listeners why the subject is important, since actually

telling them often results in a colorless, trite statement. You

simply think of the two or three reasons why the subject is

significant, then state and amplify them until the audience reacts

favorably. A slight variation is to start something like this: “I am

not afraid that you will underestimate the importance of what I

have to say today, for the subject of _______________ concerns

everybody.”

Special Interests. A speaker addressing a local Lions Club

known for its support of the Blue-Gray football game each

year to raise money for the eye bank program might start: “The

Blue-Gray football game is enjoyed annually through

nationwide TV. But how many of its viewers know that it is

more than a game with some of this country’s finest

professional prospects? All of us in this room know that this

game helps people see.”

Previous Speaker. When several speakers appear on one

occasion, an alert speaker can often shape an opening based on

what someone else has already said. This means is particularly

effective since the reference is fresh in the listeners’ minds and

gives a sense of spontaneity to the talk. If you use this

approach you can either explain how your subject fits with the

previous talk or show a plausible relation between the two. For

52
example: “Sergeant Henry just told you how important it is to use

effective support in your talks. I am going to speak on something

even more basic. I want to suggest how important it is to provide

a good organizational framework in which to use the kinds of

support Sergeant Henry talked about.”

Transitions and Interim Summaries

Transitions and interim summaries can be used to help the

audience understand the continuity of thought and focus on main

ideas.

Transitions

Transitions are statements used by the speaker to move from

the introduction to the body of the talk, between main points,

between subpoints within each main point, and from the body to

the conclusion of the talk. Transitions signal to the audience that

you are progressing to a new point, but they are also important in

maintaining the continuity of the information being given.

Consider this transition:

We have discussed the precedents for a mandatory physical fitness program

in the military. Next we will consider the benefits of such a program.

This transition indicates a change in direction, but it does not

indicate the reason for or importance of the change.

For transitions to be effective, they should (1) mention the

point just discussed, (2) relate that point to the objective of the

talk, and (3) introduce the next point. All three steps are

incorporated in the following transition:

We have discussed the precedents for a mandatory physical fitness program in the

military, but these precedents alone will not prove a need for such a program. To

more fully understand that need, we must next examine in several practical

situations the benefits of mandatory physical fitness.

When planned and used correctly, transitions act as

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“mini-summaries” and contribute substantially to the continuity of

the total talk.

Interim Summaries

Summaries after main points or key ideas are useful tools for

maintaining continuity within a talk and for highlighting areas of

particular importance. Interim summaries are not always

necessary in a talk. In fact, if the point is very clear, a summary

may be unnecessarily redundant and boring. You should use

them, however, when main points are unusually long or contain

complex or unfamiliar information. With interim summaries you

repeat information concisely and reinforce audience

understanding before new information is presented. Interim

summaries should not take the place of transitions; they should

provide a means for you to progress logically from one main

point, through the transition, and into the next point.

After Preparation, Then What?

The first four chapters of this book have provided suggestions

on preparing, organizing, supporting, and finally on beginning

and ending the talk. What comes next is the most frightening part

for many people—the actual presentation of the talk. The next

chapter provides some suggestions for speaking more effectively.

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CHAPTER 5

PRESENTING A TALK

Although preparing a talk can be laborious, for many persons

the hardest part is the actual presentation of the talk. Questions

speakers most often ask are: How many notes should I use? How

can I overcome nervousness? What kind of physical behavior is

appropriate for me to use when I speak? What if my voice isn’t

suited to speaking before a group? How can I project sincerity and

enthusiasm? Answers to these questions will provide the content

for this chapter.

Methods of Presentation

Speakers can use one of four common methods for presentation:

(1) speaking from memory, (2) reading from manuscript,

55
(3) speaking impromptu with no specific preparation, and (4) speaking

extemporaneously with, ideally, a great deal of preparation and a

limited number of notes. The fourth method usually allows us the

most freedom in adjusting to an audience as we speak and is best

suited for almost all speaking in the Air Force.

Memorizing

Speaking from memory is the poorest method of delivering

talks, and it should be used very sparingly or not at all. While this

method may seem to be helpful for persons who cannot think on

their feet, the memorized talk is a straitjacket. Such a talk cannot

be adapted to the immediate situation or audience reactions. In

other words, it does not allow the speaker to adjust to the

particular situation. Moreover, the method is almost sure to

destroy spontaneity and a sense of communication. The method

also requires an inordinate amount of preparation, and the danger

of forgetting is ever present.

Manuscript Reading

Reading a talk from a manuscript allows for planning the exact

words and phrases to use. But the disadvantages of this method of

presentation far outweigh the advantages. Many speakers use the

manuscript as a crutch instead of fully thinking through the ideas

in the talk. All too often the written talk is regarded simply as an

essay to be read aloud. Therefore, the talk is too broad and has

language that is too abstract to be understood when presented orally.

If you must read from a manuscript, consider the following

suggestions:

Prepare the manuscript.

• Spoken words should be simpler, clearer, and more vivid

than writing.

• Sentences should be shorter and ideas less complex than in

writing.

56
• Transitions between thoughts and ideas need to be clear.

Provide signposts to keep the audience from getting lost.

• Use repetition to emphasize main ideas and key points.

• Use direct address when speaking about people. Personal

pronouns such as I, we, our, us, you, are better than they, people,

a person, the reader, the hearer.

• Use concrete language where possible. Follow abstract or

complicated reasoning with specific examples, comparisons,

and definitions.

Prepare a reading draft.

• Use as large a type as possible. Special type two or three

times larger than ordinary will greatly enhance visibility.

• Double or triple space to make the words stand out more clearly

and reduce chance for confusion or misreading of the text.

• Type on only one side of the paper to facilitate handling.

• Mark your manuscript, perhaps using vertical lines between

words where you wish to pause. Underscore words you want

to emphasize. Some speakers use double and triple vertical

lines or underlining for added emphasis.

• Mark places in the manuscript where you plan to use visual

aids.

• Use short paragraphs to reduce the chance of losing your place.

• Some speakers vary the length of line according to meaning.

Practice the talk.

• Read the talk aloud to see how it sounds. Recording yourself

on a cassette recorder and listening to the playback will help

you to discover places where you may not be communicating

effectively.

• Read and reread the talk several times, perhaps once a day

for several days if you have time.

• Try to make your talk sound like conversation, as if you

were thinking the words for the first time as you read them.

57
• Avoid combinations of words that are difficult to say. Make

necessary changes on the manuscript.

• Practice looking at your audience most of the time as the

manuscript becomes more familiar to you.

• Provide the punctuation with vocal inflection, variety, and pauses.

Presenting the talk.

Use one of two methods for handling the manuscript. (1) Hold

the manuscript in front of you with one hand high enough so that

you can see it without bending your head, but not high enough to

hide your face. The other hand will be free to turn pages and

gesture. (2) Place the manuscript on a speaker’s stand or table so

that both hands are free to gesture. Make sure, however, that the

manuscript is placed high enough to read from without bending

over. Sometimes books or other objects may be used to raise the

manuscript to the desired height. Whichever method is used,

remember to let the eyes, not the head, drop to the paper.

• Don’t explain why you choose to read the talk. If you have

prepared well, you should do a good job and no apologies will

be necessary.

• Be willing to change the wording here and there as you go

along if it will help you communicate ideas to your hearers.

These changes will make delivery more conversational.

• Insert comments of up to a sentence or two in length to add

variety, but be careful not to deviate so far from the manuscript

that your train of thought is interrupted. You should have

carefully thought through and prepared the manuscript. Last

minute changes and impromptu asides can be confusing both for

you and your hearers.

• Be flexible enough so that you can shorten the talk if necessary.

• Let pauses be dictated by ideas. Pause wherever there would

normally be a pause in the same language in informal

conversation. You will need to pause often, even when the

written punctuation does not dictate a pause.

• Concentrate on the meaning and ideas rather than on

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individual words. If you have written your own talk, you are

intimate with the ideas and the words you chose to express

them. You built the talk, you should understand it. Therefore,

the most helpful aid to good delivery is to recreate the

feeling that helped you put the words on paper. Speak no

passage until its meaning hits your mind.

• Construct the next idea in your mind before uttering it.

• Read with all the sincerity, enthusiasm, directness, and force

that is proper to the occasion.

• Use gestures and look directly at the audience when

executing them.

A manuscript talk, then, is not, as someone once said, merely

“an essay on its hind legs.” The manuscript should be written in a

conversational tone rather than formal English. It is meant to be

heard, not read. If you prepare well, practice diligently, and attend

to factors of delivery, you can usually read very acceptably and

spontaneously.

Impromptu

Speaking impromptu requires a tremendous amount of skill and

knowledge. You may find it necessary at times to talk on the spur

of the moment without any preparation. But this method should

be used only by experienced speakers who are saturated with their

subjects and who have the ability to organize their thoughts for

learning as they speak. Even these experienced speakers fall back

upon thoughts and phrases they have used before. They have

spent years, so to speak, in preparing to give an unprepared talk.

Extemporaneous

The technique effective speakers use most widely, extemporaneous speaking, produces the most fruitful results when it is

based upon full preparation and adequate practice. The talk is

carefully planned and outlined in detail. The speaker’s only guide

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is usually a well-constructed outline. It is a lesson planned idea by

idea rather than word by word.

The advantages of speaking from a well-planned outline are

many. The method compels speakers to organize ideas and

puts pressure on them to weigh materials in advance. It gives

freedom to adapt a talk to the occasion and to adjust to

audience reactions. It enables speakers to change what they

plan to say right up to the moment of utterance. In short, the

extemporaneous method will permit the speaker to adhere to

the two vital needs of effective speaking: adequate preparation

and a lively sense of communication.

You may want to prepare two versions of the outline. One

version will be very complete—almost in manuscript form—so

you can return to it several weeks or months later if you are called

upon to give a similar talk. Another version will be much

briefer—perhaps only one page long, or written on cards so you

can use it when you actually give your talk. This brief outline may

be thought of as a keyword outline with keywords and key phrases

to remind you of main points, subpoints, support material you

plan to use, questions you might ask, and the things you want to

mention in the introduction and conclusion.

Keyword Outline

The keyword outline should be divided into three main parts:

introduction, body, and conclusion. As discussed previously, the

introduction may have three subparts: attention, motivation, and

overview. The body will have the main points of the talk as major

subdivisions. The conclusion may have three subdivisions: final

summary, remotivation, and closure.

Symbol System. To show the relative importance of lesson

materials in the body of the lesson, you might use a number or

letter symbol before each entry. Figure 2 gives an example. But

some rules of outlining to remember are:

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1. Only one symbol should be used per point or idea.

2. Subordinate points should be indented.

3. The principle of subpoints or subordination means that a

point follows logically or supports the point above it.

A tentative outline for a talk on nonverbal communication was

presented in chapter 2. Consider how that outline might be revised

once you have collected all of your material. As you can see from

the keyword outline, the speaker plans to seek the audience’s

attention by using a familiar quotation—“actions speak louder

than words”—and then use an example about a “dinner jacket.”

The speaker plans to provide motivation by giving testimony from

an expert concerning the amount of the message that is

communicated nonverbally. Then the speaker plans to use a visual

aid—an overview chart—that outlines the main points of the talk.

The two main points—know the performance factors of nonverbal

communication and know the nonperformance factors of nonverbal

communication—are arranged topically. The subpoints under the first

main point (upper body, middle body, and lower body) are arranged

spatially—from top to bottom. Each of the subsubpoints

(head-eyes-facial expression; arms-hands-torso; hips-legs-feet) are

also arranged spatially—from top to bottom.

The subpoints under main point 2 (objects, space, and time) are

arranged topically. The subsubpoints under objects are arranged

according to time, and subsubpoints under space seem to be

arranged topically.

Notice also that the speaker has written keywords not only for

main points, subpoints, and subsubpoints but also has written

enough down to remember the support that will be used. Some

speakers also like to write in their suggested transitions. While

writing of the transitions may inhibit spontaneity, the practice is

often preferable to having weak or no transitions.

Obviously, when preparing your notes for your talk you will

want to use what works best for you. This sample outline is only

intended as a possible way of preparing your notes.

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Sample Keyword Outline

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

 INTRODUCTION

Attention: “Actions speak louder than words” (dinner jacket example).

Motivation: Dr Ray Birdwhistle (65 percent of message communicated nonverbally).

Importance—jobs, family, church, clubs.

Overview: Chart listing main points and first-level subpoints.

Define “performance factors”and “nonperformance factors.”

 BODY

1. Know the performance factors of nonverbal communication.

a. Upper Body (importance capitalized on by F.D.R.).

(1) Head.

(a) Theory of origin of head guesture.

(b) Cultural differences.

(2) Eyes (very important).

(a) Show interest in others (Blind student example).

(b) Nonverbal feedback (cultural differences).

(c) Increase credibility (describe University of Missouri studies).

(3) Facial Expression.

(a) Affect displays (read quote on expression).

(b) Affect recognition (use everyday examples).

b. Middle Body.

(1) Arms (demonstrate how we use them).

(2) Hands (primary means of gesturing).

(a) Compare meanings from different cultures (okay and victory signs).

(b) Demonstrate use of hands.

(3) Torso (demonstrate shoulder, chest, stomach—belly dancer example).

c. Lower Body.

(1) Hips (Elvis example).

(2) Legs (compare with foundation of building).

(3) Feet (show different angles).

Figure 2

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Nervousness

If you suffer from stage fright, nervousness, or fear of

speaking, your audience may also become uneasy or anxious. Yet

some nervousness is both natural and desirable. Even skilled

speakers often experience the queasy feeling of “butterflies in the

stomach” as they prepare to speak. The secret is to get the

butterflies “flying in formation,” through practice. Just as a

visiting athletic team practices on a field before game time to

accustom themselves to differences in terrain and environment, so

you may need to dry run or practice your talk several times,

preferably in the room where the talk will be given, before

actually presenting it. Practice reminds us to look up the

pronunciation of a word that is new or check an additional piece

of information on an important point.

2. Know the nonperformance factors of nonverbal communication.

a. Objects.

(1) Present (clothes, home, office).

(2) Past (things we have constructed—former home example).

b. Space.

(1) Personal.

(a) Stress cultural differences (contrast US with Korea, Turkey, etc.).

(b) Space bubble (example of waiting for a bus or in a line).

(c) Acceptable distance (cite statistics by Hall).

(2) Constructed (office arrangement, fences, etc.).

c. Time (humorous definition from Esquire, Wetumpka example).

 CONCLUSION

Final Summary: Mention main points.

Remotivation: Stress importance of nonverbal to each person.

Closure: Tell humorous story of how deaf man solved problems; challenge listeners

to do likewise.

Figure 2 — Continued

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Suggestions for Nervous Speakers

Consider the following suggestions for coping with nervousness.

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1. Enthusiasm is the key when practice is over and you are

ready to deliver the talk. At times you may talk on subjects that

you find dull, but as you get more involved, the subject becomes

more interesting. There is no such thing as a dull subject, only

dull speakers. It is important to be enthusiastic about your subject,

because enthusiasm can replace fear. And the more enthusiastic

you are about the subject, the more involved the audience will be

both with you and what you are saying.

2. Hold good thoughts toward your audience. The listeners in

the audience are the same ones that you enjoy speaking with in a

less structured environment. Most audiences are made up of warm

human beings with an interest in what you have to say. They

rarely boo or throw vegetables. Most listeners have great empathy

for speakers and want them to do a good job.

3. Do not rush as you begin to speak. Many speakers are so

anxious to get started that they begin before they are really ready.

The little extra time taken to arrange your notes will generally pay

big dividends. When you are ready to begin, look at various parts

of the audience, take a deep breath, and begin to speak.

Physical Behavior

Communication experts tell us that over half of our meaning

may be communicated nonverbally. Although nonverbal meaning

is communicated through vocal cues, much meaning is carried by

the physical behaviors of eye contact, bodily movement, and

gestures. You need to know how these physical behaviors can

improve your speaking skill.

Eye Contact

Eye contact is one of the most important factors of nonverbal

communication. Nothing will enhance your delivery more than

effective eye contact with your audience. Eye contact is important

for three reasons. First, it lets the listeners know that you are

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interested in them. Most people like others to look at them when

talking. Second, effective eye contact allows you to receive nonverbal

feedback from your audience. With good eye contact, you can gauge

the effect of your remarks. You can determine if you are being

understood and which points are making an impact and which are

not. You will be able to detect signs of poor understanding and signs

that the listeners are losing interest. Then you can adjust your rate of

delivery or emphasis. You can rephrase or summarize certain points

or add more supporting data. Third, effective eye contact enhances

your credibility. Speakers with the greatest eye contact are judged by

listeners as being more competent.

To achieve genuine eye contact, you must do more than merely

look in the direction of your listeners. You must have an earnest

desire to communicate with them. The old advice of looking over

the tops of your listeners’ heads or attempting to look at all parts

of the audience systematically simply does not describe effective

eye contact. Furthermore, looking at only one part of the audience

or directing attention only to those listeners who seem to give you

reinforcing feedback may cause you to ignore large parts of the

audience. Make it evident to each person in a small group and

each part of the audience in larger auditoriums that you are

interested in them as individuals and eager to have them

understand the ideas you are presenting. In this way you will

establish mental as well as sensory contact with your listeners.

Effective eye contact can be described as direct and impartial.

You look directly into the eyes of your listeners, and you look

impartially at all parts of the audience, not just at a chosen few.

Body Movement

Body movement is one of the important factors of dynamic and

meaningful physical behavior. Good body movement is important

because it catches the eye of the listener. It helps to hold the

attention needed for good communication. But movement can

also represent a marked departure or change in your delivery

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pattern—a convenient way of punctuating and paragraphing your

message. Listeners will know that you are finished with one idea

or line of thought and ready to transition to the next. Finally, aside

from its effects on the listeners, movement helps you as a lecturer.

It helps you work off excess energy that can promote nervousness.

Movement puts you at ease.

How much movement is desirable? Some speakers never move

yet are quite effective. However unless the formality of the

situation or the need to use a fixed microphone keeps you in one

position, then you probably should move frequently. Movement

from behind the lectern can reduce the psychological distance

between you and your listeners and place them more at ease.

Some speakers feel that they need the lectern to hold their notes.

But in most cases it is actually more effective if you carry your

notes with you rather than looking down at the lectern to see

them. But whenever you look at your notes, remember to drop

your eyes not your head. In other words, have your notes high

enough that you can see them.

Of course, some speakers move too much. Perhaps out of

nervousness they pace back and forth in front of the audience. Still

others have awkward movement that does not aid communication.

Some leave their notes on the lectern then move in and out from

behind it like a hula dancer. Others plant their feet firmly in one place

then rock from one side to the other in regular cadence.

 Effective body movement can be described as free and

purposeful. You should be free to move around in front of the

listeners. You should not feel restrained to stay behind the lectern

but should move with reason and purpose. Use your movement to

punctuate, direct attention, and otherwise aid communication.

Gestures

Gestures may be used to clarify or emphasize ideas. By gestures

we mean the purposeful use of the hands, arms, shoulders, and head

to reinforce what is being said. Fidgeting with a paper clip,

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rearranging and shuffling papers, and scratching your ear are not

gestures. They are not purposeful and they distract from the

verbal message. Placing both hands in your pockets, or behind

your back, or in front of you in a fig leaf position severely limits

their use for gesturing. Holding your shoulders and head in one

position during the talk will also rob you of an effective means of

strengthening your communication.

Although gestures can be perfected through practice, they will

be most effective if you make a conscious effort to relax your

muscles before you speak, perhaps by taking a few short steps or

unobtrusively arranging your notes. Effective gestures are

complete and vigorous. Many speakers begin to gesture, but

perhaps out of fear, they do not carry through and their gestures

abort. Comedians get laughs from the audience by timing gestures

improperly. A gesture that comes after the word or phrase is

spoken appears ludicrous. Good gestures should come exactly at

the time or slightly before the point is made verbally. Poor timing

results from attempting to “can” or preplan gestures. Finally, good

gestures are versatile. A stereotyped gesture will not fit all

subjects and situations. Furthermore, the larger the audience, the

more pronounced the gestures will need to be. As with all aspects

of communication, gestures must fit the situation.

You should not adopt a dynamic, forceful mode of delivery if

by nature you are quiet and reserved. As with movement, gestures

should spring from within. Effective gestures are both natural and

spontaneous. Observe persons talking with each other in a small

group. You should try to approximate the same naturalness and

spontaneity of gestures when you are speaking.

Use of Voice

A good voice has three important characteristics. It is reasonably

pleasant, it is easily understood, and it expresses differences in

meaning. Technically we might label these three properties as quality,

intelligibility, and variety.

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Quality

Quality refers to the overall impression a voice makes on others.

Certainly a pleasing quality or tone is a basic component of a good

speaking voice. Some persons have a full rich quality, others one that

is shrill and nasal, and still others may have a breathy and muffled

tone or quality. Although basic aspects of quality may be difficult to

change, your voice may become more breathy when you are excited,

tense when suspense is involved, and resonant when reading solemn

language. Listeners can often tell from the voice if the speaker is

happy, angry, sad, fearful, or confident. Similarly vocal quality can

convey sincerity and enthusiasm. Some speakers are overly

concerned about the basic quality of their voices, but at the same time

they pay too little attention to the effect of attitude and emotion on the

voice. Most people have reasonably pleasant voices that are suitable

for speaking.

Intelligibility

Intelligibility or understandability of your speech depends on

several factors.

1. Articulation refers to the precision and clarity with which

sounds of speech are uttered. A synonym of articulation is

enunciation. Good articulation is chiefly the job of the jaw,

tongue, and lips. Most articulation problems result from laziness

of the tongue and lips or failure to open the mouth wide enough.

You should overarticulate rather than underarticulate your speech

sounds. What sounds like overarticulation to you will come out as

crisp, understandable words and phrases to your listeners.

2. Pronunciation refers to the traditional or customary

utterance of words. Standards of pronunciation differ, making it

difficult at times to know what is acceptable. Dictionaries are

useful, but as they become outdated, they should not be adhered

to excessively. Generally, educated people in your community as

well as national radio and television announcers provide a good

standard for pronunciation. Common faults of pronunciation are

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to misplace the accent (saying de-vice instead of de-vice), to omit

sounds (guh/mnt for government), to add sounds (athalete for

athlete), and to sound silent letters (mortgage or often). Do not

overcompensate to the point that you call attention to your speech,

but remember that pronunciation acceptable in informal conversation

may be substandard when speaking in front of a group.

3. Vocalized pause is the name we give to syllables “a,” “uh,”

“um,” and “ah” often at the beginning of a sentence. While a few

vocalized pauses are natural and do not distract, too many impede

the communication process.

4. Overuse of stock expressions such as “OK,” “like,” and

“you know” should be avoided. These expressions serve no

positive communicative function and only convey a lack of

originality by the speaker.

5. Substandard grammar has no place in speaking. It will only

serve to reduce your credibility with some listeners. Research

shows that even persons who have been using substandard

grammar all of their lives can, with diligent practice, make

significant gains in this area in a relatively short time.

Variety

Variety is the spice of speaking. Listeners tire rapidly when

listening to a speaker who doesn’t vary delivery style or a speaker

who has a monotonous voice. A speaker’s voice that is intelligible

and of good quality may still not appeal to listeners. You may

vary your voice and at the same time improve the communication

by considering the vocal fundamentals of rate, volume, force,

pitch, and emphasis.

l. Most people speak at a rate of from 100 to 180 words a

minute when presenting a talk. In normal speech, however, we

vary the rate often so that even within the 100- to 180-word

constraints there is much change. The temperamentally excitable

person may speak at a rapid rate all the time, and the stolid person

generally talks in a slow drawl. The enthusiastic but confident

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individual, however, will vary the rate of delivery to emphasize

ideas and feelings. A slower rate may be appropriate for

presenting main points, while a more rapid rate may lend itself to

support material. The experienced speaker also knows that an

occasional pause punctuates thought and emphasizes ideas. A

dramatic pause at the proper time may express feelings and ideas

even more effectively than words.

2. Volume is important to the speaker. Always be certain that

all the audience can hear you. Nothing hinders the effect of a talk

more than to have some listeners unable to hear. On the other

hand, the talk should not be too loud for a small room. A

bombastic or overly loud speaker tires listeners out very quickly.

3. Force is needed at times to emphasize and dramatize ideas. A

drowsy audience will come to attention quickly if the speaker uses

force effectively. At times a sudden reduction in force may be as

effective as a rapid increase. By learning to control the force of your

voice, you can help to add emphasis and improve communication.

4. Pitch is the highness or lowness of the voice. All things being

equal, a higher pitched voice carries better than a low pitched one. On

the other hand, listeners will tend to tire faster when listening to the

higher pitched voice. If your voice is within normal limits—neither

too high nor too low—work for variety as you speak.

5. Emphasis obviously stems from all forms of vocal variety,

and any change in rate, force, or pitch will influence the emphasis.

The greater or more sudden the change, the greater the emphasis

will be. As a speaker you will want to use emphasis wisely. Two

things should be avoided: overemphasis and continual emphasis.

Be judicious. Emphasizing a point beyond its real value may

cause you to lose credibility with your listeners.

Sincerity

Ironically, one of the most important points to be discussed in

this chapter can be covered with just a few words. A speaker

certainly needs to prepare well and possess strong delivery skills

to do an effective job in front of a group. But something more is

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needed. To be really effective, a speaker must be sincere. So long

as you obviously try to generate light and not merely heat,

listeners will be amazingly tolerant of weaknesses in both

preparation and delivery. But give them a chance to suspect your

sincerity, and you lose effectiveness. And once lost, effectiveness

is nearly impossible to regain. What is sincerity? Sincerity may be

defined as a state of appearing to be without deceit, pretense, or

hypocrisy—a state of honesty, truthfulness, and faithfulness.

Sincerity toward your listeners is reflected in your eye contact,

enthusiasm, and concern about audience members as individuals.

Sincerity toward the subject is judged by whether or not you seem

involved and interested in the subject or topic of the talk.

Sincerity toward self is displayed in the confidence and concern

you have that you are doing the best job possible. Lack of

sincerity in any of these areas will, almost certainly, directly

hinder communication.

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