Profile of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States: 1997 P23-195 Current Population Reports Special Studies

U S C E N S U S B U R E A U
1

Acknowledgments

This report was prepared by A. Dianne Schmidley and Campbell Gibson in

Population Division (POP). Joseph Costanzo (POP), Robert Callis, Housing and

Household Economic Statistics Division (HHES), and Herman Alvarado (POP)

made significant contributions to the development of the report. J. Gregory

Robinson (POP) contributed to earlier drafts of the report. General direction was

provided by Jorge del Pinal (POP), Assistant Division Chief for Special Populations. Statistical support was provided by Emily Lennon and Linda Chase (POP),

and Bonnie Damon (HHES), and clerical support was provided by Tiffanie

Newman (POP).

Tabulations were provided by A. Dianne Schmidley and Marie Pees (POP)

and Stacey Masano (HHES). Laura Yax, Mary Pontorno, and Janet Wysocki

(POP) prepared the report and the supporting statistical table package for presentation on the Census Bureau Internet site.

The report was reviewed by Kenneth Bryson (POP) and Larry Long (HHES).

One or more sections were reviewed by other staff members in Population Division

and in Housing and Household Economic Statistics Division: Robert Bennefield

(HHES), Claudette Bennett (POP), Jennifer Day (POP), Manuel de la Puente

(POP), Carmen DeNavas (HHES), Kristin Hansen (POP), Frederick Hollmann

(POP), Mary Kirk (HHES), Gordon Lester (HHES), Martin O’Connell (POP),

Thomas Palumbo (HHES), Randolph Sherrod (HHES), Linda Showalter

(POP), and Sharon Stern (HHES). Consultation was provided by Prithwis Das

Gupta (POP), Charles Nelson (HHES), Leonard Norry (HHES), Kathleen

Short (HHES), Victor Valdisera (HHES), and Edward Welniak (HHES).

The section on labor force was reviewed by Jay Meisenheimer, U.S. Bureau of

Labor Statistics. Linda Gordon, Office of Policy and Planning of the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, also reviewed the report.

Survey coordination was provided by Gregory Weyland, Demographic Surveys

Division. Sampling review was provided by Thomas Moore III, Marti Jones,

Marie Stetser, and Geneva Burns, Demographic Statistical Methods Division.

The staff of Administrative and Customer Services Division, Walter C. Odom,

Chief, performed planning, design, composition, editorial review, and printing planning and procurement for publications, Internet products, and report forms. Penny

Heiston provided publication coordination and editing. Design and graphics were

performed by Janet Sweeney.

Partial funding for the report was provided by the Immigration and Naturalization Service of the U.S. Department of Justice.
U.S. Department of Commerce

William M. Daley, Secretary

Robert L. Mallett, Deputy Secretary

Economics and Statistics Administration

Robert J. Shapiro, Under Secretary for

Economic Affairs

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

Kenneth Prewitt, Director

Profile of the

Foreign-Born

Population

in the United

States: 1997

Current Population Reports

Special Studies P23-195

Issued August 1999
U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

Kenneth Prewitt,

Director

William G. Barron,

Deputy Director

Paula J. Schneider,

Principal Associate Director

for Programs

Nancy M. Gordon,

Associate Director for

Demographic Programs

John F. Long,

Chief, Population Division

Daniel H. Weinberg,

Chief, Housing and Household

Economic Statistics Division

For sale by Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.

Suggested Citation

Schmidley, A. Dianne and

Campbell Gibson, U.S. Census

Bureau, Current Population

Reports, Series P23-195,

Profile of the Foreign-Born

Population in the United States:

1997. U.S. Government Printing

Office, Washington, DC, 1999.

ECONOMICS

AND STATISTICS

ADMINISTRATION

Robert J. Shapiro,

Under Secretary

for Economic Affairs

ECONOMICS

AND STATISTICS

ADMINISTRATION
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U.S. Census Bureau

Contents

Notes About This Report ................................................................................................................................................ 1

Highlights ........................................................................................................................................................................ 2

Sections

1. Trends in Immigration and the Foreign-Born Population ................................................................................ 8

2. Region of Birth ................................................................................................................................................ 10

3. Country of Birth .............................................................................................................................................. 12

4. Geographic Distribution.................................................................................................................................. 14

5. Metropolitan Areas ......................................................................................................................................... 16

6. Length of Residence ........................................................................................................................................ 18

7. Citizenship Status ............................................................................................................................................ 20

8. Nativity, Parentage, and Foreign Stock ........................................................................................................... 22

9. Race and Hispanic Origin ............................................................................................................................... 24

10. Age and Gender ............................................................................................................................................... 26

11. Household Size and Type ................................................................................................................................ 28

12. Families and Own Children ............................................................................................................................ 30

13. Educational Attainment .................................................................................................................................. 32

14. Labor Force Participation ................................................................................................................................ 34

15. Occupation ...................................................................................................................................................... 36

16. Money Income of Households and Families ................................................................................................... 38

17. Earnings of Full-Time, Year-Round Workers ................................................................................................. 40

18. Poverty Status .................................................................................................................................................. 42

19. Means-Tested Program Participation .............................................................................................................. 44

20. Health Insurance and Pension Plans .............................................................................................................. 46

21. Homeownership .............................................................................................................................................. 48

References ..................................................................................................................................................................... 51

Figures

1-1. Foreign-Born Population and Percent of Total Population for the United States: 1850 to 1997 .................... 9

1-2. Immigrants to the United States, by Decade: Fiscal Years, 1821 to 1997 ........................................................ 9

2-1. Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth: 1960 to 1997 ............................................................................11

2-2. Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth: Selected Years, 1850 to 1997 ...................................................11

3-1. Countries of Birth of the Foreign-Born Population, With

500,000 or More in 1997: 1990 and 1997 ..................................................................................................... 12

4-1. States With a Foreign-Born Population of 1 Million or More in 1997: 1990 and 1997 ................................. 15

4-2. Foreign Born Population for States: 1997 ....................................................................................................... 15

5-1. Metropolitan Areas With Foreign-Born Populations of 1 Million or

More in 1997: 1990 and 1997 ........................................................................................................................ 16

5-2. Population by Nativity and Metropolitan-Nonmetropolitan Residence: 1997 .............................................. 17
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6-1. Length of Residence in the United States for the Foreign-Born Population: 1970 to 1997 ........................... 18

6-2. Length of Residence in the United States for the Foreign-Born

Population by Region of Birth: 1997 ............................................................................................................... 19

7-1. Foreign-Born Population by Citizenship Status: 1970 to 1997 ....................................................................... 20

7-2. Naturalized Citizens by Length of Residence in the United States: 1970 to 1997......................................... 21

7-3. Naturalized Citizens by Region of Birth: 1997 ............................................................................................... 21

8-1. Foreign-Stock Population by Nativity and Parentage: Selected Years, 1890 to 1997 ..................................... 23

9-1. Nativity and Parentage for Selected Race and Hispanic Origin Groups: 1997 .............................................. 25

9-2. Length of Residence in the United States and Citizenship Status for Selected

Race and Hispanic Origin Groups of the Foreign-Born Population: 1997 ..................................................... 25

10-1. Age and Gender of the Population by Nativity, Length of Residence in the

United States, and Citizenship Status: 1997 ................................................................................................... 26

10-2. Age and Gender of the Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth: 1997 ................................................... 27

10-3. Age and Gender of the Foreign-Born Population: 1960 to 1997 .................................................................... 27

11-1. Households by Nativity, Length of Residence in the United States,

and Citizenship Status of the Householder: 1997 .......................................................................................... 28

11-2. Foreign-Born Households by Region of Birth of the Householder: 1997 ....................................................... 29

12-1. Families by Type, Nativity of Householder, and Number of Own Children: 1997 ....................................... 30

12-2. Married-Couple Families by Nativity of Spouses and

Age of Household Members: 1997 .................................................................................................................. 31

13-1. Educational Attainment of the Population 25 Years Old and Over by Nativity,

Length of Residence in the United States, and Citizenship Status: 1997....................................................... 33

13-2. Educational Attainment of the Foreign-Born Population

25 Years Old and Over by Region of Birth: 1997 ............................................................................................ 33

14-1. Labor Force Participation Rates of the Population 16 Years Old and Over

by Nativity and Gender for Selected Age Groups: 1997 ................................................................................ 35

14-2. Labor Force Participation Rates of the Population 25 to 54 Years Old by Nativity,

Length of Residence in the United States, Citizenship Status, and Gender: 1997 ........................................ 35

14-3. Labor Force Participation Rates of the Foreign-Born Population 25 to 54 Years

Old by Region of Birth and Gender: 1997 ...................................................................................................... 35

15-1. Major Occupation Group of Workers 16 Years Old and Over by Nativity,

Length of Residence in the United States, and Citizenship Status: 1997....................................................... 36

15-2. Major Occupation Group of Foreign-Born Workers 16 Years Old

and Over by Region of Birth: 1997 ................................................................................................................. 37

16-1. Median Household Income by Nativity, Length of Residence in the United States,

and Citizenship Status of the Householder: 1996 .......................................................................................... 39

16-2. Income of Foreign-Born Households by Region of Birth of the Householder: 1996 ..................................... 39

16-3. Median Family Income by Nativity of Householder, Type of Family, and

Presence of Related Children Under 18 Years: 1996 ...................................................................................... 39

17-1. Earnings of Full-Time, Year-Round Workers by Gender, Nativity, Length of

Residence in the United States, and Citizenship Status: 1996 ....................................................................... 41

17-2. Median Earnings of Foreign-Born Full-Time, Year-Round Workers by

Gender and Region of Birth: 1996 .................................................................................................................. 41
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U.S. Census Bureau

18-1. Poverty Rates for the Population by Nativity, Length of Residence in the

United States, and Citizenship Status: 1996 ................................................................................................... 43

18-2. Poverty Rates for the Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth: 1996...................................................... 43

18-3. Selected Poverty Rates for the Population by Nativity, for Families by Nativity of

the Householder, and for Related Children Under 18 Years by Nativity: 1996 ............................................. 43

19-1. Households Receiving Selected Means-Tested Noncash or Cash Benefits, by

Specified Benefit and Nativity of the Householder: 1996 .............................................................................. 45

19-2. Households Receiving Selected Means-Tested Noncash or Cash Benefits, by Nativity, Length

of Residence in the United States, and Citizenship Status of the Householder: 1996 .................................. 45

19-3. Foreign-Born Households Receiving Selected Means-Tested Noncash or

Cash Benefits by Region of Birth of the Householder: 1996 .......................................................................... 45

20-1. Health Insurance Coverage of the Population by Nativity, Length of Residence

in the United States, and Citizenship Status: 1996 ........................................................................................ 47

20-2. Health Insurance Coverage of the Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth: 1996 ................................. 47

20-3. Employment-Based Health Insurance and Employer-Offered Pension Plans for Workers

by Nativity, Length of Residence in the United States, and Citizenship Status: 1996................................... 47

20-4. Employment-Based Health Insurance and Employer-Offered Pension Plans

for Foreign-Born Workers by Region of Birth: 1996 ....................................................................................... 47

21-1. Homeownership Rates and Median Age of Householder by Nativity, Citizenship

Status, and Length of Residence in the United States: 1997 .......................................................................... 49

21-2. Homeownership Rates by Nativity of Householder and Type of Household: 1997...................................... 49

21-3. Homeownership Rates and Median Age of Householder for Foreign-Born

Householders by Region of Birth: 1997 .......................................................................................................... 49

Text Tables

3-1. Leading Countries of Birth of the Foreign-Born Population: Selected Years, 1850 to 1990 .......................... 13

4-1. Foreign-Born Population by Region of Residence and for Leading States:

Selected Years, 1900 to 1997 ........................................................................................................................... 14

5-1. Foreign-Born Population in the 10 Largest Metropolitan Areas: 1997 .......................................................... 17

8-1. Population by Nativity and Parentage: 1997................................................................................................... 22

9-1. Population by Nativity, Parentage, and Selected Race and Hispanic Origin Groups: 1997 ........................... 24

Appendixes

A. The Foreign-Born Population and Immigration: Definitions and Concepts .................................................. 52

B. Source and Accuracy of Estimates .................................................................................................................. 54

C. Comparison of Population Universes.............................................................................................................. 62

D. Nativity Questions on the Current Population Survey................................................................................... 63

E. Related Reports and Information .................................................................................................................... 64

Appendix Figures

A-1. Classification of the Population of the United States by Nativity and Place of Birth: 1997 .......................... 53
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Notes About This Report

Profile of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States: 1997, Current

Population Reports, P23-195, presents data on a wide range of geographic, demographic, social, economic, and housing characteristics for the foreign-born population

of the United States. Data for the native population are included for comparison.

The data in this report for 1997 are from the March 1997 Current Population Survey

(CPS). Data for 1990 and earlier years, which are included for historical comparison, are from the decennial censuses of population. Detailed tables showing data for

1997 are presented in Profile of the Foreign-Born Population of the United

States: 1997, PPL-115, issued in 1999. Detailed tables showing data on the foreignborn population from decennial censuses are presented in Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-Born Population of the United States: 1850 to 1990,

Population Division Working Paper, No. 29, issued in 1999.

The reference date for data from the 1990 census is April 1. For data from the

CPS, the reference dates vary depending on when the housing unit first came into

the survey and on the topic. Housing units (and their occupants) in the CPS are in

for 4 months, out for 8 months, and then in again for 4 months. Thus housing units

in the March 1997 CPS are about equally distributed among those that first came

into the survey from December 1995 to March 1996 and from December 1996 to

March 1997. While data on some characteristics, including age, are updated, data on

other characteristics, including length of residence in the United States and citizenship status of the foreign-born population, are not.

The core of this report is 21 two-page sections presenting information on various

topics for the foreign-born population. These sections are preceded by Highlights

and are followed by References and five appendixes: (A) The Foreign-Born Population and Immigration: Definitions and Concepts; (B) Source and Accuracy of Estimates; (C) Comparison of Population Universes; (D) Nativity Questions on the Current Population Survey; and (E) Related Reports and Information.

Numbers or percentages in the text, figures, and text tables may not sum to

totals due to rounding. In general, percentages in the text are rounded to whole

numbers for percentages of 10 and above and are shown to 1 decimal place for

percentages below 10 (i.e., to show 2 significant digits); however, percentages

above 10 are shown to 1 decimal place in cases where rounding to whole numbers would distort a comparison.

The Census Bureau uses 90-percent confidence intervals and 0.10 levels of significance to determine statistical validity (see Appendix B). Comparisons in the text

of this report that do not meet this standard are described as being not significant.

Copies of this report are available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S.

Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. General questions about the

report may be addressed to A. Dianne Schmidley, Population Division, U.S. Census

Bureau, Washington DC 20233, or to the E-mail address <pop@census.gov>.
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U.S. Census Bureau

Highlights

Trends in Immigration and the

Foreign-Born Population

• The estimated foreign-born population of the United States in

March 1997 was 25.8 million,

based on data collected in the

Current Population Survey. This

was the largest foreign-born

population in U.S. history and

represented an increase of 6.0

million, or 30 percent, over the

1990 census figure of 19.8 million.

• In 1997, an estimated 9.7 percent

of the U.S. population was foreign born, up from 7.9 percent in

1990. The 1997 proportion is

midway between the highest and

lowest proportions in this century: 14.7 percent in 1910 and

4.7 percent in 1970.

• The rapid increase in the foreignborn population from 9.6 million

in 1970 to 25.8 million in 1997

reflects the high level of immigration during the past generation,

primarily from Latin America

and Asia.

Region of Birth

• In 1997, 13.1 million, or 51 percent, of the foreign-born population was from Latin America,

compared with 8.4 million, or 44

percent in 1990. In 1970, 1.8

million, or 19 percent, of the foreign-born population was from

Latin America.

• The foreign-born population

from Asia was 6.8 million or 27

percent of the total foreign-born

population in 1997. In 1970, 0.8

million, or 9 percent, of the foreign-born population was from

Asia.

• The foreign-born population

from Europe dropped from 5.7

million in 1970 to 4.3 million in

1997 or from 62 percent to 17

percent of the total foreign-born

population. Previously, the proportion of the foreign-born population from Europe had dropped

from 86 percent in 1900 to 83

percent in 1930 and to 75 percent

in 1960.

Country of Birth

• Mexico accounted for 7.0 million

or 28 percent of the total foreignborn population in 1997. The

foreign-born population from

Mexico increased from 0.8 million in 1970 to 2.2 million in

1980 and to 4.3 million in 1990.

• The foreign-born population

from Mexico in 1997 was about 6

times as large as the foreign-born

population from the next highest

ranked country. Mexico’s proportion of the foreign-born

population was last exceeded in a

decennial census in 1890 when

The native population, as

defined by the Census Bureau,

includes U.S. residents who

were born in the United States

or an outlying area of the

United States (e.g., Puerto

Rico), and U.S. residents who

were born in a foreign country

but who had at least one parent who was a U.S. citizen.

All other residents of the

United States are classified as

foreign born.

Definitions of terms other

than native population and

foreign-born population are included in the main text of the

report.

30 percent of the foreign-born

population was from Germany.

• While Latin America and Asia

accounted for only 2 of the 10

leading countries of birth

(Mexico and Cuba) of the foreign-born population in 1970, by

1997 these two regions may have

accounted for 8 of the 10 top

countries (Mexico, the Philippines, China, Cuba, Vietnam, India, the Dominican Republic, and

El Salvador). The exact number

and the exact order after Mexico

are uncertain due to sampling

variability in the Current Population Survey.

Geographic Distribution

• Six states had estimated foreignborn populations of 1 million or

more in 1997: California (8.1 million), New York (3.6 million),

Florida (2.4 million), Texas (2.2

million), New Jersey (1.2 million), and Illinois (1.1 million).

Together, these states accounted

for 18.5 million or 72 percent of

the total foreign-born population.

The estimates do not differ significantly between Florida and

Texas and between New Jersey

and Illinois.

• In seven states, the foreign-born

proportion in the population in

1997 was estimated to be above

the national average of 9.7 percent: California (25 percent),

New York (20 percent), Hawaii

(18 percent), Florida (16 percent), New Jersey (15 percent),

Arizona (14 percent), and Texas

(11 percent). The estimates do

not differ significantly between

Florida and New Jersey.

• The foreign-born population in

California increased from 1.8
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U.S. Census Bureau

million in 1970 to 8.1 million in

1997 or from 18 percent to 31

percent of the total foreign-born

population. The foreign-born

population in New York increased from 2.1 million to 3.6

million but dropped from 22 percent to 14 percent of the national

total.

Metropolitan Areas

• Five metropolitan areas (each

identified here by the name of the

first city in its official metropolitan area title) had estimated foreign-born populations of 1 million or more in 1997: Los Angeles (4.8 million), New York (4.6

million), Miami (1.4 million),

San Francisco (1.4 million), and

Chicago (1.1 million). The estimates do not differ significantly

between Los Angeles and New

York or between Miami and San

Francisco.

• Among the 10 largest metropolitan areas in 1997 (those with total populations of 4 million or

more), the proportion foreign

born was highest in Los Angeles

(31 percent). Among metropolitan areas with 1 million to 4 million population, the proportion

foreign born was highest in Miami (39 percent).

• The proportion foreign born was

much higher in the metropolitan

population (11 percent) than in

the nonmetropolitan population

(3 percent) in 1997. Within the

metropolitan population, the proportion ranged from 18 percent

in metropolitan areas of 5 million

or more population down to 6

percent in metropolitan areas

with less than 1 million population.

accounted for primarily by a decline in each length-of-residence

category. For example, the proportion naturalized among the

foreign-born population with 10

to 14 years of residence in the

United States dropped from 58

percent in 1970 to 30 percent in

1997.

• In 1997, the proportion of naturalized citizens in the foreignborn population varied greatly by

region of birth: 53 percent from

Europe, 44 percent from Asia,

and 24 percent from Latin

America. The low proportion

from Latin America is attributable primarily to the low figure

for the population from Mexico

(15 percent).

Nativity, Parentage, and

Foreign Stock

• In 1997, 54.7 million or 21 percent of the population was of foreign stock. This number included 25.8 million foreign born,

15.0 million of foreign parentage

(native with both parents foreign

born), and 13.9 million of mixed

parentage (native with one parent foreign born). The remainder of the population (212 million) was native of native parentage (both parents native).

• The proportion of the population

of foreign stock has increased

since 1970 but is below historical

levels. The proportion increased

from 33 percent in 1890 to 35

percent in 1910 and then dropped

to 17 percent in 1970, the last

year for which data on foreign

stock are available from the decennial census.

Length of Residence

• The foreign-born population was

distributed by length of residence

in the United States in 1997 as

follows: 21 percent under 5 years,

20 percent 5 to 9 years, 14 percent 10 to 14 years, 15 percent 15

to 19 years, and 30 percent 20

years and over.

• The median length of residence

in the United States of the foreign-born population was 13

years in 1997 and 12 years in

1990. The median dropped from

20 years in 1970 to 14 years in

1980 with the attrition through

death of most of the immigrants

who came to the United States

during the period of large-scale

immigration that ended in the

1920s.

• Length of residence in the United

States of the foreign-born population varies greatly by region of

birth, reflecting large-scale immigration from Latin America and

Asia since 1970. In 1997, the

median length of residence was

25 years for the foreign-born

population from Europe and 12

years for the foreign-born population from Latin America and

Asia.

Citizenship Status

• In 1997, 9.0 million, or 35 percent, of the foreign-born population were naturalized citizens of

the United States. This represents a continued decline in the

proportion naturalized among the

foreign-born population from 64

percent in 1970 to 51 percent in

1980 and to 40 percent in 1990.

• The decline in the proportion of

naturalized citizens in the total

foreign-born population is
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U.S. Census Bureau

• With the large-scale immigration

of the past generation, the proportion of the population that is

native of foreign or mixed parentage is likely to increase, and thus

the proportion of foreign stock is

likely to increase. One indication

of this trend is the increase in the

proportion of births in the United

States occurring to foreign-born

women residing in the United

States: from 6 percent in 1970 to

18 percent in 1995.

Race and Hispanic Origin

• In 1997, Hispanics (of any race)

accounted for 11.4 million or 44

percent of the foreign-born population. Asians and Pacific Islanders accounted for 6.1 million or

24 percent. Together, these

groups accounted for 68 percent

of the foreign-born population

but for only 9 percent of the native population. (About 2 percent of Asians and Pacific Islanders were of Hispanic origin.)

• The proportion foreign born varies greatly by race and Hispanic

origin. In 1997, 3.4 percent of

White non-Hispanics were foreign born compared with 5.9 percent of Blacks, 61 percent of

Asians and Pacific Islanders, and

38 percent of Hispanics.

• Length of residence and citizenship status vary greatly by race

and Hispanic origin of the

foreign-born population. In

1997, the median length of residence in the United States was

20 years for foreign-born White

non-Hispanics (50 percent of

whom were citizens). For foreign-born Blacks, the median

length of residence was 13 years

(35 percent were citizens). For

foreign-born Asians and Pacific

Islanders, the median length of

residence was 12 years (44 percent were citizens). For foreignborn Hispanics, the median

length of residence was 12 years

(22 percent were citizens.)

Age and Gender

• In 1997, the median ages of the

foreign-born population (37) and

the native population (34) did

not differ greatly; however, their

age distributions differed considerably. In the foreign-born population, 10 percent were under 18

years old and 44 percent were 25

to 44 years old, whereas the corresponding proportions in the native population were 28 percent

and 30 percent. The sex ratio

(males per 100 females) of the

foreign-born population was 101

compared with 95 for the native

population.

• The age structure of the foreignborn population varies greatly by

region of birth, reflecting recent

trends in immigration. In 1997,

the median age of the foreignborn population was 51 from Europe, 38 from Asia, and 34 from

Latin America.

• During the past generation, the

age structure of the foreign-born

population has changed dramatically due to the attrition through

death of immigrants who entered

prior to 1930 and to large-scale

immigration since 1970. The

median age of the foreign-born

population dropped from 57 in

1960 to 37 in 1990 and has not

changed significantly since. The

proportion 65 years old and over

dropped from 33 percent in 1960

to 11 percent in 1997.

Household Size and Type

• In 1997, the average size of

households with a foreign-born

householder (foreign-born households) was 3.32, considerably

larger than the average size of

2.56 for households with a native

householder (native households).

Foreign-born households had

larger average numbers of both

adults (2.29 versus 1.89) and

children (1.03 versus 0.67).

• Whereas native households included an average of only 0.03

foreign-born members in 1997,

foreign-born households included

an average of 1.13 native members. Native members represented 34 percent of all members

of foreign-born households.

• In 1997, average household size

among foreign-born households

ranged from 3.84 with householders from Latin America to

2.41 with householders from Europe.

Families and Own Children

• The average size of families with

a foreign-born householder (foreign-born families) in 1997 was

3.84 compared with 3.11 for

families with a native householder (native families). Foreignborn families had larger average

numbers of both adults (2.51 versus 2.16) and children (1.33 versus 0.95).

• Among married-couple families

with a foreign-born householder

in 1997, the proportion with one

or more own children under 18

years old ranged from 69 percent

of those with householders from

Latin America to 38 percent of

those with householders from
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U.S. Census Bureau

Europe. Among foreign-born

households with householders

from Mexico, the proportion was

79 percent.

• Of the 53.6 million marriedcouple families in 1997, 7.7 million or 14 percent included at

least one foreign-born spouse. Of

these, 4.8 million had both

spouses foreign born, 1.7 million

had a foreign-born wife and a native husband, and 1.3 million had

a foreign-born husband and a native wife.

Educational Attainment

• In 1997, the proportion of the

population 25 years old and over

who had completed high school

or more education was lower

among the foreign-born population (65 percent) than among the

native population (84 percent).

However, the proportion with a

bachelor’s degree or more education was 24 percent for both the

foreign-born and native populations.

• Among the foreign-born population 25 years old and over in

1997, the proportion who had

completed high school or more

education was the same for men

and women: 65 percent. The

proportion who had a bachelor’s

degree or more education was 27

percent for men and 21 percent

for women.

• The proportion of the foreignborn population 25 years old and

over who had completed high

school or more education varies

by region of birth. In 1997, the

proportion was 84 percent of the

foreign-born population from

Asia, 79 percent from Europe,

and 47 percent from Latin

America. Within Latin America,

the proportion ranged greatly: 78

percent of those from South

America to 31 percent of those

from Mexico.

Labor Force Participation

• In March 1997, the foreign-born

population accounted for 15.6

million or 12 percent of the total

civilian labor force of 135 million. The labor force participation rate of the foreign-born

population was 66 percent, not

significantly different from 67

percent for the native population.

• Foreign-born men ages 25 to 54

in March 1997 had a labor force

participation rate (92 percent)

that did not differ significantly

from the rate for native men (91

percent) and that did not vary

greatly by citizenship status or region of birth. In contrast, foreign-born women ages 25 to 54

had a lower labor force participation rate (66 percent) than did

native women (78 percent).

Among foreign-born women, the

rate for noncitizens (60 percent)

was lower than for naturalized

citizens (77 percent), and the rate

for women from Mexico (52 percent) was lower than for other

foreign-born women (66 percent).

• In March 1997, the unemployment rate was higher for the foreign-born labor force as a whole

(6.9 percent) than for the native

labor force (5.4 percent). Among

women, the unemployment rate

was higher for the foreign-born

labor force (7.4 percent versus

4.9 percent); however, among

men, the unemployment rates

were not significantly different

(6.5 percent versus 5.9 percent).

Occupation

• In March 1997, managerial and

professional specialty occupations accounted for 24 percent of

foreign-born workers compared

with 30 percent of native workers. Technical, sales, and administrative support occupations accounted for 22 percent of foreignborn workers compared with 31

percent of native workers.

• The occupational distributions of

naturalized-citizen workers and

of native workers are similar.

For example, managerial and professional specialty occupations

accounted for 33 percent of naturalized-citizen workers and 30

percent of native workers in

March 1997. The corresponding

proportions were 28 percent and

31 percent in technical, sales, and

administrative support occupations and 15 percent and 13 percent in service occupations.

• The proportions of foreign-born

workers in managerial and professional specialty occupations

vary by region of birth. In March

1997, these occupations accounted for 38 percent of workers from Europe, 36 percent from

Asia (not significantly different

from each other), and 11 percent

from Latin America. Among foreign-born workers from Latin

America, these occupations accounted for 23 percent of workers from South America and 6

percent of workers from Mexico.

Money Income of

Households and Families

• In 1996, median income for

households with a foreign-born

householder was $30,000,

compared with $36,100 for
6

U.S. Census Bureau

households with a native householder. Among foreign-born

households, 43 percent had incomes below $25,000, and 29

percent had incomes of $50,000

and over. Among native households, 35 percent were in each of

these two income categories.

• Income by type of family is lower

for foreign-born families than for

native families. In 1996, median

income for married-couple families was $38,800 for those with a

foreign-born householder and

$50,800 for those with a native

householder. For families with a

female householder, no husband

present, and one or more related

children under 18 years old, median income was $13,400 for

foreign-born families and

$16,800 for native families.

• The income of foreign-born

households varies by region of

birth of the householder. In

1996, median household income

was $42,900 for those with

householders from Asia, $31,300

with householders from Europe,

and $24,100 with householders

from Latin America.

Earnings of Full-Time,

Year-Round Workers

• Among full-time, year-round

workers in 1996, median earnings were $25,000 for foreignborn males and $20,800 for foreign-born females. Median

earnings were higher for their

native counterparts: $33,200 for

native males and $24,100 for native females.

• Among foreign-born workers,

median earnings in 1996 were

much higher for naturalized citizens than for noncitizens:

$35,600 compared with $20,500

for males and $25,500 compared

with $17,200 for females.

• Median earnings among foreignborn workers vary by region and

country of birth as well as by

gender. For example, in 1996,

median earnings of foreign-born

workers from Asia were $35,300

for males and $24,600 for females, and median earnings of

foreign-born workers from

Mexico were $16,800 for males

and $13,700 for females.

Poverty Status

• In 1996, the official poverty rate

was 21.0 percent for the foreignborn population compared with

12.9 percent for the native population. Of the 36.5 million individuals below the poverty level,

5.4 million or 15 percent were

foreign born.

• Among the foreign-born population, the poverty rates in 1996

were relatively low (and not significantly different from each

other) for the populations from

Europe (13 percent) and from

Asia (15 percent). For the population from Latin America, the

poverty rate was 29 percent.

• Using an alternative definition of

poverty that includes the value of

means-tested noncash transfers

(e.g., food stamps, housing assistance, and medicaid), the poverty

rates in 1996 of the foreign-born

population and of the native

population were 16.1 percent and

9.6 percent, respectively.

Means-Tested Program

Participation

• In 1996, 24 percent of households with foreign-born householders and 17 percent of households with native householders

participated in one or more of the

following means-tested programs

providing noncash benefits: foods

stamps, housing assistance, or

medicaid. The highest participation rates were for medicaid: 21

percent for foreign-born households and 14 percent for native

households.
7

U.S. Census Bureau

• In 1996, 10.6 percent of households with a foreign-born householder and 7.5 percent of households with a native householder

participated in one or more of the

following means-tested programs

providing cash benefits: aid to

families with dependent children

(AFDC), general assistance, or

supplemental security income

(SSI). Nearly all (98 percent) of

the households receiving cash

benefits also received noncash

benefits.

• Among foreign-born households,

participation rates in meanstested programs are higher for

households with noncitizen

householders than for households

with naturalized-citizen householders. In 1996, the rates were

29 percent compared with 18

percent for noncash benefits and

12 percent compared with 8 percent for cash benefits.

Health Insurance and

Pension Plans

• In 1996, 66 percent of the

foreign-born population compared with 86 percent of the native population had health insurance for all or part of the year.

(Health insurance includes government insurance plans such as

medicare, medicaid, or military

health care and private insurance

plans.)

• Among workers in 1996, 44 percent of those who were foreign

born and 54 percent of those who

were native had employmentbased health insurance. Among

foreign-born workers, the proportions were 57 percent for naturalized citizens and 36 percent for

noncitizens.

• In 1996, 41 percent of foreignborn workers and 56 percent of

native workers had employers

who offered pension plans (other

than social security). Among foreign-born workers, the proportions were 53 percent for naturalized citizens and 33 percent for

noncitizens.

Homeownership

• In 1997, the homeownership rate

was higher for households with a

native householder than for

households with a foreign-born

householder: 68 percent compared with 47 percent. However,

the homeownership rate for foreign-born households with a

householder who was a naturalized citizen was 66 percent, not

significantly different from the

rate for native households.

• By type of family, the highest

homeownership rates in 1997

were for married-couple families:

59 percent for families with a foreign-born householder and 83

percent for families with a native

householder. For families with a

female householder, no husband

present, the homeownership

rates were 32 percent for foreignborn households and 47 percent

for native households.

• The homeownership rate among

foreign-born households varies by

region of birth of the householder. In 1997, the

homeownership rates were 63

percent of those with householders from Europe, 50 percent with

householders from Asia, and 38

percent with householders from

Latin America. Within Latin

America, the homeownership

rate of those with householders

from Mexico was the same as for

the region as a whole: 38 percent.
8

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 1.

Trends in Immigration and the

Foreign-Born Population

Foreign-born population

surpasses 25 million.

The estimated foreign-born population of the United States in March

1997 was 25.8 million, based on

data collected in the Current Population Survey. This is the largest

foreign-born population in U.S. history and represents an increase of

6.0 million, or 30 percent, over the

1990 census total (Figure 1-1).1

The rapid growth in the foreignborn population in the past generation has been due primarily to largescale immigration from Latin

America and Asia.2 The foreignborn population increased from

9.6 million in 1970, the lowest total

in this century, to 14.1 million in

1980, and to 19.8 million in 1990.

In 1997, an estimated 9.7 percent of the U.S. population was foreign born, the highest proportion

since 1930. The 1997 figure is

midway between the highest figures reached during the period of

large-scale immigration from Europe (14.4 percent in 1870, 14.8

percent in 1890, and 14.7 percent

in 1910) and the lowest figure of

4.7 percent in 1970. The proportion foreign born increased to 6.2

percent in 1980 and to 7.9 percent

in 1990.

Historically, the foreign-born

population increased during

each decade until 1930 and

then declined until 1970.

With the exception of the 1860s

(which included the Civil War) and

the 1890s (which included the “closing” of the agricultural frontier and

economic depression), the number of

immigrants increased in each decade

from the 1820s to the 1901-1910 decade (Figure 1-2).3

 The number increased from 0.1 million in the

1820s, the first full decade for

which data on immigrants were collected, to 8.8 million in the 1901-

1910 decade, the highest total on

record for a single decade.4 The

foreign-born population increased

rapidly from 2.2 million in 1850, the

first census year in which data on

place of birth were collected, to 13.5

million in 1910.5

The number of immigrants declined during the 1911-1920 decade

and the 1920s, due first to World

War I and then to restrictive immigration legislation enacted in 1921

and 1924. This legislation established national origin quota systems

that severely limited immigration,

but were most favorable to immigration from countries in the Western

Hemisphere and countries in Northern or Western Europe.6

 As a result

of decreased immigration, the

foreign-born population increased

slowly to 14.2 million in 1930.

However, the proportion foreign

born in the total population, which

had fluctuated in the 13 percent to

15 percent range from 1860 to 1920,

dropped from 14.7 percent in 1910 to

11.6 percent in 1930.

With the low level of immigration in the 1930s and 1940s (due

partly to economic depression and

then to World War II), the foreignborn population dropped to 10.3

Immigrants and immigration.

Immigrants, as defined by the Immigration and Naturalization

Service (INS), are aliens admitted to the United States for lawful

permanent residence. They may be issued immigrant visas overseas

by the Department of state or adjusted to permanent resident status

in the United States by INS.

Immigration is defined here as the number of immigrants during

a specified period of time, such as a year or a decade.

Native and foreign-born population.

The native population, as defined by the Census Bureau, includes

U.S. residents who were born in the United States or an outlying area

of the United States and U.S. residents who were born in a foreign

country but who had at least one parent who was a U.S. citizen. All

other residents of the United States are classified as foreign born.

(Residence in the United States is based on usual place of residence, not

legal residence; see Appendix A.)

The foreign-born population includes immigrants, as defined above,

legal nonimmigrants (e.g., refugees and persons on student or work visas), and persons residing in the United States illegally (undocumented

aliens).

The foreign-born population can be classified by citizenship status:

those who have become naturalized citizens and those who are not

U.S. citizens.

Further information.

For a detailed discussion, see Appendix A, “The Foreign-Born

Population and Immigration: Definitions and Concepts.”
9

U.S. Census Bureau

million in 1950 and to 6.9 percent of

the total population. The number of

immigrants increased in the 1950s

and 1960s, but was still low by historical standards. As a result, and

because of the relatively old age

structure of the foreign-born population (reflecting four decades of low

immigration), it dropped to 9.6

million in 1970 and to a record low

4.7 percent of the total population.

The national origins quota system, which was enacted in the 1920s

and reaffirmed in the Immigration

and Nationality Act of 1952, was

eliminated by the Immigration Act of

1965. This legislation and subsequent legislation, including the

Immigration Reform and Control Act

of 1986 (IRCA), which permitted

some undocumented aliens to obtain

lawful permanent residence, and the

Immigration Act of 1990, which increased the annual cap on immigration, have contributed to increased

immigration in the past generation,

as described in the beginning of this

section.

1

Data from the 1990 census, which are for

the total resident population, and from the

March 1997 Current Population Survey (CPS),

which are limited to the civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off

post or with their families on post, are not totally comparable due to differences in the

population universes. The data in this report

thus understate slightly the growth in the

foreign-born population in the 1990-97 period.

See Appendix C, “Comparison of Population

Universes.” 2

While immigration has been the primary

source of the growth in the foreign-born population since 1970, the growth in the number of

undocumented aliens, which is estimated at 5

million in 1996, has also contributed (Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1997, pp.

197-201). 3

For a detailed discussion of trends in immigration to the United States, see U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1991, special section on “Trends in Immigration,” pp.

13-34. See also U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1997, Appendix I, “Immigration and Naturalization Legislation.” 4

The highest number of immigrants recorded for a 10-year period was 10.1 million

for the years 1905-14 (ibid., p. 25). It should

be noted, however, that emigration was extremely high during this era. Warren and

Kraly’s estimates of emigration and net immigration for the 1905-14 period are 3.2 million

and 6.9 million, respectively (Warren and

Kraly, 1985, p. 5). For the 1901-10 decade,

when the number of immigrants was 8.8 million, their estimates of emigration and net immigration are 3.0 million and 5.8 million, respectively (U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1997, p. 196). 5

During this period, immigration greatly

exceeded the combination of emigration of

foreign-born population from the United States

and deaths to the foreign-born population. See

Appendix A, “The Foreign-Born Population

and Immigration: Definitions and Concepts.” 6

Ibid., Appendix I, “Immigration and

Naturalization Legislation.”

Foreign-born population (in millions)

Percent of total population

Figure 1-1.

Foreign-Born Population and Percent of Total Population 

for the United States: 1850 to 1997

1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1997

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999a, Table 1, and 1999b, Table 1-1.

9.7

13.2

14.4

13.3

14.8

13.6

14.7

13.2

11.6

8.8

6.9

5.4

4.7

6.2

7.9

9.7

2.2 4.1 5.6 6.7 9.2 10.3 13.5 13.9 14.2 11.6 10.3 9.7 9.6 14.1 19.8 25.8

Figure 1-2.

Immigrants to the United States, by Decade: 

Fiscal Years, 1821 to 1997

(Numbers in millions)

1991-

1997

1981-

1990

1971-

1980

1961-

1970

1951-

1960

1941-

1950

1931-

1940

1921-

1930

1911-

1920

1901-

1910

1891-

1900

1881-

1890

1871-

1880

1861-

1870

1851-

1860

1841-

1850

1831-

1840

1821-

1830

Source: U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1997, Table 1, and 1999, Table 2.

(For 1850-1990, resident population. For 1997, civilian noninstitutional population plus 

Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

0.1

0.6

1.7

2.6 2.3

2.8

5.2

3.7

8.8

5.7

4.1

0.5

1.0

2.5

3.3

4.5

7.3

6.9
10

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 2.

Region of Birth

One-half of the foreign-born

population is from Latin

America.

In 1997, 13.1 million of the

foreign-born population living in the

United States was born in Latin

America, up from 8.4 million in

1990 (Figure 2-1). This increase represented a continuation of the rapid

growth in the foreign-born population from Latin America since 1960

when the figure was 0.9 million.

From 1970, when the total foreignborn population started to increase

dramatically, to 1997, the increase in

the foreign-born population from

Latin America accounted for 11.3

million, or 70 percent, of the total increase of 16.2 million.

The foreign-born population from

Latin America accounted for 51 percent of the foreign-born population in

1997 (Figure 2-2).1

 This is the first

time that any region of the world other

than Europe has accounted for as

much as one-half of the foreign-born

population.2 The proportion of the

foreign-born population from Latin

America increased rapidly from 9 percent in 1960 to 19 percent in 1970, to

33 percent in 1980, and to 44 percent

in 1990.

Among the 13.1 million foreignborn population from Latin America

in 1997, 8.8 million were from Central America (including Mexico), 2.8

million were from the Caribbean,

and 1.5 million were from South

America.3

 In 1970, when the

foreign-born population from Latin

America was 1.8 million, 0.9 million

were from Central America, 0.7 million were from the Caribbean, and

0.3 million were from South America. From 1970 to 1997, the foreignborn population from Central

America increased more rapidly than

from the Caribbean or South America and rose from 48 percent to 67

percent of the foreign-born population from Latin America.

More than one-quarter of the

foreign-born population is

from Asia.

In 1997, 6.8 million of the foreignborn population was born in Asia compared with 5.0 million in 1990. This

increase represented a continuation of

the rapid growth since 1960 when the

figure was 0.5 million. The foreignborn population from Asia had tripled

in the 1970s and then had doubled in

the 1980s.

The foreign-born population

from Asia constituted 27 percent of

the foreign-born population in 1997,

not significantly different from 26

percent in 1990. Their share of the

foreign-born population increased

from 5 percent in 1960 to 9 percent

in 1970 and to 19 percent in 1980.

About 3 percent of the

foreign-born population is

from Africa or Oceania.

In 1997, the foreign-born population from Africa was 0.6 million, up

from 0.4 million in 1990. The

foreign-born population from

Oceania in 1997 was 0.2 million, up

from 0.1 million in 1990. In 1960,

the foreign-born population from Africa and Oceania each was only

35,000.4

Historically, Europe was the

primary source of the foreignborn population.

As suggested by the discussion of

historical trends in immigration in Section 1, Europe was the primary source

of the foreign-born population in the

United States until the past generation.

The proportion from Europe declined

relatively slowly from 92 percent in

1850 to 75 percent in 1960 and then

dropped more rapidly to 17 percent in

1997 (Figure 2-2).

In 1850, nearly all the foreignborn population from Europe was

from Northern and Western Europe.5

The proportion from Southern and

Eastern Europe was still less than

one-twentieth in 1880, but then increased steadily to one-half by 1930.

Since then, Southern and Eastern

Europe have accounted for more

than one-half of the foreign-born

population from Europe.

Through 1960, Northern America (essentially Canada) was the second largest source of the foreignborn population after Europe.6

 From

1960 to 1997, the proportion of the

foreign-born population from Northern America dropped from 10 percent to 2 percent.

1

Percentages of the “total” foreign-born population in this section exclude the foreign-born

population for whom region of birth was not reported. 2

The six regions of the world used in this report are those defined by the United Nations and

used in its annual Demographic Yearbook. These

regions are Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania, Latin

America, and Northern America (United Nations, 1996, pp. 30-31). 3

These three subregions of Latin America are

those defined by the United Nations. See footnote 2. 4

The decline in the foreign-born population

in the “Other” category from 1.3 million in 1990

to 1.0 million in 1997, as shown in Figure 2-1, is

due to a decline in the foreign-born population for

whom region of birth was not reported from 0.8

million in the 1990 census to 0.3 million in the

March 1997 Current Population Survey. See U.S.

Bureau of the Census, 1998b. The foreign-born

population for whom region of birth was not reported increased from 0.1 million in 1960 to 0.3

million in 1970 and to 0.9 million in 1980. The

large increase in the foreign-born population in

the “Other” category from 1970 to 1980, as

shown in Figure 2-1, thus is due primarily to the

increase in the foreign-born population for whom

region of birth was not reported. 5

As defined here, Northern and Western

Europe includes the British Isles, Scandinavia, the

Low Countries, France, Germany, Switzerland,

and Austria. Southern Europe and Eastern Europe comprise the remainder of Europe. These

subregions of Europe defined for use in this report reflect historical patterns of immigration to

the United States and differ slightly from the subregions defined by the United Nations. See footnote 2. 6

In addition to Canada, foreign countries in

Northern America include Bermuda, Greenland,

and St. Pierre and Miquelon. See footnote 2.
11

U.S. Census Bureau

Other

(regions not shown 

separately)

Asia

Northern America

Europe

Latin America

Figure 2-1.

Foreign-Born Population by 

Region of Birth: 1960 to 1997

Figure 2-2.

Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth: 

Selected Years, 1850 to 1997

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999a, Table 2,

and 1999b, Table 1-1.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999a, Table 2, and 1999b, Table 1-1.

1960 1970 1980 1990 1997 1850 1880 1900 1930 1960 1970 1980 1990 1997

Other

(Africa, Oceania,

and not reported)

Asia

Northern America

Europe

Latin America

7.3 5.7 5.1 4.4 4.3

0.5 0.8

0.9

0.8

1.0

0.9

0.5 0.1

9.7 9.6

14.1

19.8

25.8

1.0

6.8

13.1

1.3

5.0

8.4

1.2

2.5

4.4

0.4

0.8

1.8

92.2

6.7

1.0

86.2

10.7

3.1

86.0

11.4

2.6

83.0

9.2

5.6

2.2

75.0

9.8

9.4

5.1

0.7

61.7

8.7

19.4

8.9

1.3

39.0

6.5

33.1

19.3

2.1

22.9

4.0

44.3

26.3

2.5

16.9

2.2

51.3

26.8

2.9

(Numbers in millions. For 1960-90, resident 

population. For 1997, civilian noninstitutional 

population plus Armed Forces living off post 

or with their families on post)

(Percent distribution excluding region not reported. For 1960-90, resident 

population. For 1997, civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces 

living off post or with their families on post)
12

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 3.

Country of Birth

More than one-quarter of

the foreign-born population

is from Mexico.

In 1997, 7.0 million of the

foreign-born population living in the

United States was born in Mexico

(Figure 3-1). This was the largest

foreign-born population from a

single country in U.S. history and

represents an increase of 2.7 million,

or 63 percent, over the 1990 figure

for Mexico of 4.3 million. Previously, the foreign-born population

from Mexico rose from 0.8 million in

1970 to 2.2 million in 1980.

The foreign-born population

from Mexico accounted for 28 percent of the foreign-born population

in 1997, continuing the increase

from 8 percent in 1970 to 17 percent in 1980 and to 23 percent in

1990. Mexico’s proportion of the

foreign-born population in 1997

was last exceeded in a decennial

census in 1890 when 30 percent of

the foreign-born population was

from Germany.1

The foreign-born population

from Mexico in 1997 was about 6

times as large as the foreign-born

population from the next highest

ranked country. Since data on

country of birth were first collected

in 1850, the leading country of

birth of the foreign-born population had never had twice the total

of the second leading country until

1980 (2.2 million from Mexico and

0.8 million from Germany).

In addition to the large increase

in the foreign-born population from

Mexico in the 1990 to 1997 period,

there were statistically significant increases in the foreign-born population from several other countries

with 0.5 million or more foreign-born

population in 1997: the Philippines,

China,2

 Cuba, Vietnam, India, the

Soviet Union,3 the Dominican

Republic, and El Salvador. There

were statistically significant declines

for Germany and Canada.

Most of the 10 leading

countries of birth of the

foreign-born population are

in Latin America and Asia.

In 1960, Mexico was the only

Latin American or Asian country

among the 10 leading countries of

birth of the foreign-born population

(Table 3-1). The number increased

to two in 1970 (with the addition

of Cuba), to four in 1980 (the

Philippines and Korea), and to six in

1990 (Vietnam and China).

The sample size in the Current

Population Survey is not large

enough to rank reliably those countries for which the estimates are

similar in 1997, as suggested by the

90-percent confidence intervals

shown in Figure 3-1. Even so, the

number of Latin American and

Asian countries among the 10 leading countries of birth of the foreignborn population may have increased

to 8 in 1997 (with the addition of India, the Dominican Republic, and El

Salvador, and the subtraction of Korea).4

1997

1990

Figure 3-1.

Countries of Birth of the Foreign-Born Population,

With 500,000 or More in 1997: 1990 and 1997

(Numbers in thousands. 90-percent confidence intervals 

in parentheses for 1997 estimates. For 1990, resident population.

For 1997, civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces

living off post or with their families on post)

Canada*

Germany*

Korea

United Kingdom

El Salvador*

Dominican

Republic*

Soviet Union*1

India*

Vietnam*

Cuba*

China*1

Philippines*

Mexico* 7,017 (6,565-7,469)

4,298

1,132 (955-1,310)

913

1,107 (931-1,282)

677

913 (748-1,078)

737

770 (623-916)

543

748 (604-893)

450

734 (622-846)

334

632 (495-769)

348

607 (472-742)

465

606 (504-707)

640

591 (463-720)

568

578 (479-678)

712

542 (415-669)

745

*Change from 1990 to 1997 is statistically significant.

1See text footnotes 2 and 3, respectively, regarding China and the Soviet Union.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999a, Table 3, and 1999b, Tables 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, and 3-4.
13

U.S. Census Bureau

Historically, European

countries and Canada were

the leading countries of birth

of the foreign-born

population.

At each census from 1850

through 1960, the 10 leading countries of birth of the foreign-born

population were predominantly European countries and Canada. The

only exceptions were Mexico (1850-

60, 1920-60) and China (1860-80).

Prior to 1980, when Mexico became the leading country of birth

of the foreign-born population, the

leading countries were Ireland

(1850-70), Germany (1880-20),

and Italy (1930-1970). The 10

leading countries of birth of the

foreign-born population in selected

years are shown in Table 3-1.

1

Percentages of the “total” foreign-born

population in this section exclude the foreignborn population for whom country of birth

was not reported.

Table 3-1.

Leading Countries of Birth of the Foreign-Born Population: Selected Years, 1850 to 1990

(Resident population)

Subject 1850 1880 1900 1930 1960 1970 1980 1990

Number of 10 Leading

Countries by Region

 Total ..................... 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Europe ........................ 8 8 988753

Northern America .......... 1 1 111111

Latin America ............... 1 - - 11222

Asia ........................... - 1 - - - -24

10 Leading Countries by Rank1

(foreign-born population

in thousands)

1 ........................... Ireland Germany Germany Italy Italy Italy Mexico Mexico

........................... 962 1,967 2,663 1,790 1,257 1,009 2,199 4,298

2 ........................... Germany Ireland Ireland Germany Germany Germany Germany Philippines

........................... 584 1,855 1,615 1,609 990 833 849 913

3 ........................... Great Britain Great Britain Canada United Kingdom Canada Canada Canada Canada

........................... 379 918 1,180 1,403 953 812 843 745

4 ........................... Canada Canada Great Britain Canada United Kingdom Mexico Italy Cuba

........................... 148 717 1,168 1,310 833 760 832 737

5 ........................... France Sweden Sweden Poland Poland United Kingdom United Kingdom Germany

........................... 54 194 582 1,269 748 686 669 712

6 ........................... Switzerland Norway Italy Soviet Union Soviet Union Poland Cuba United Kingdom

........................... 13 182 484 1,154 691 548 608 640

7 ........................... Mexico France Russia Ireland Mexico Soviet Union Philippines Italy

........................... 13 107 424 745 576 463 501 581

8 ........................... Norway China Poland Mexico Ireland Cuba Poland Korea

........................... 13 104 383 641 339 439 418 568

9 ........................... Holland Switzerland Norway Sweden Austria Ireland Soviet Union Vietnam

........................... 10 89 336 595 305 251 406 543

10 ........................... Italy Bohemia Austria Czechoslovakia Hungary Austria Korea China

........................... 4 85 276 492 245 214 290 530

- Represents zero.

1

In general, countries as reported at each census. Data are not totally comparable over time due to changes in boundaries for some countries. Great Britain excludes Ireland. United Kingdom includes

Northern Ireland. China in 1990 excludes Hong Kong and Taiwan.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999a, Tables 3 and 4.

2

Including Hong Kong and excluding Taiwan. Data for Taiwan corresponding to the

format in Figure 3-1 are (in thousands) 244 for

1990 and 360 (260-461) for 1997. 3

The Soviet Union as defined prior to

January 1, 1992, when the United States formally recognized 12 independent republics

within the former Soviet Union. See Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1997, p. 10. 4

Given the uncertainty as to whether or

not the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, and

Korea are in the top 10 in 1997, the number

may be as low as 6 (if none of the 3 is among

the 10 leading countries) or as high as 9 (if all 3

are among the 10 leading countries).
14

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 4.

Geographic Distribution

The foreign-born population

is highly concentrated in a

few states.

In 1997, there were six states

with estimated foreign-born populations of 1 million or more: California (8.1 million), New York (3.6

million), Florida (2.4 million),

Texas (2.2 million), New Jersey

(1.2 million), and Illinois (1.1 million) (Table 4-1 and Figure 4-1).1

In five of these states, the proportion foreign born exceeded the national average of 9.7 percent: California (24.9 percent), New York

(19.6 percent), Florida (16.4 percent), New Jersey (15.4 percent)

and Texas (11.3 percent).2 The

proportion foreign born in Illinois

(9.3 percent) did not differ significantly from the national average.

Together, these 6 states accounted

for 18.5 million, or 72 percent, of

the total foreign-born population,

but only 39 percent of the total

population.

From 1960 to 1990, the concentration of the foreign-born population in these same six states increased. Their proportion of the

foreign-born population increased

from 57 percent in 1960 to 73 percent in 1990 while their proportion

of the total population increased

from 35 percent to 39 percent.

In 1997, the proportion foreign

born was significantly above the

national average in only seven

states: the five states noted earlier,

Hawaii at 18.1 percent, and Arizona at 14.4 percent (Figure 4-2).3

At the other extreme were 31 states

where the estimated proportion

foreign born was less than 5 percent in 1997. These include most

states in the Midwest and South.

The foreign-born

population has grown

most rapidly in California,

Florida, and Texas.

From 1960 to 1997, the foreignborn population increased from 1.3

million to 8.1 million in California,

from 0.3 million to 2.4 million in

Florida, and from 0.3 million to 2.2

million in Texas.4 The foreign-born

population in these 3 states combined rose from 1.9 million to 12.6

million, and the increase of 10.7 million represented 67 percent of the

growth in the foreign-born population in the United States. During

this period, these three states accounted for 41 percent of the growth

in total population.

The regional distribution of

the foreign-born population

has changed sharply

since 1960.

As suggested by the rapid growth

of the foreign-born population in

California, Florida, and Texas, the

foreign-born population increased

much more rapidly in the West and

South than in the Northeast and

Midwest from 1960 to 1997 (Table

4-1). For the West and South combined, the foreign-born population

grew from 2.9 million to 17.0 million and rose from 30 percent to 66

percent of the foreign-born population of the United States. During

the same period, the proportion of

the total population in the West

Table 4-1.

Foreign-Born Population by Region of Residence

and for Leading States: Selected Years, 1900 to 1997

(For 1900-90 resident population. For 1997, civilian noninstitutional population plus

Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Subject 1900 1930 1960 1970 1980 1990 1997

Foreign-Born Population by Region of Residence (in thousands)

United States ......... 10,341 14,204 9,738 9,619 14,080 19,767 25,779

Northeast .................... 4,763 7,202 4,575 4,120 4,506 5,231 6,129

Midwest ...................... 4,158 4,360 2,277 1,874 2,114 2,131 2,673

South ......................... 574 819 963 1,316 2,895 4,582 6,468

West ........................... 846 1,824 1,924 2,310 4,565 7,823 10,509

Percent Foreign Born in Total Population for Regions

United States ......... 13.6 11.6 5.4 4.7 6.2 7.9 9.7

Northeast .................... 22.6 20.9 10.2 8.4 9.2 10.3 11.9

Midwest ...................... 15.8 11.3 4.4 3.3 3.6 3.6 4.3

South ......................... 2.3 2.2 1.8 2.1 3.8 5.4 6.9

West ........................... 20.7 15.3 6.9 6.6 10.6 14.8 17.6

Six Leading States by Rank (foreign-born population in thousands)

1 ......................... NY NY NY NY CA CA CA

........................... 1,900 3,262 2,289 2,110 3,580 6,459 8,074

2 ......................... PA IL CA CA NY NY NY

........................... 985 1,242 1,344 1,758 2,389 2,852 3,602

3 ......................... IL PA IL NJ FL FL FL

........................... 967 1,240 686 635 1,059 1,663 2,351

4 ......................... MA CA NJ IL TX TX TX

........................... 846 1,074 615 629 856 1,524 2,169

5 ......................... MI MA PA FL IL NJ NJ

........................... 542 1,066 603 540 824 967 1,208

6 ......................... WI MI MA MA NJ IL IL

........................... 516 853 576 495 758 952 1,100

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999a, Table 13, and 1999b, Table 4-1A.
15

U.S. Census Bureau

and South combined rose from 46

percent to 57 percent.

The changes between 1960 and

1997 in the six states with the largest foreign-born populations reflect

these regional changes (Table 4-1).

Pennsylvania and Massachusetts

were replaced by Florida and

Texas.

Historically, the foreign-born

population was highly

concentrated in the Northeast

and Midwest.

In 1900 and 1930, over 80 percent of the foreign-born population

of the United States lived in the

Northeast and Midwest, and in

1930, 51 percent lived in the

Northeast alone. New York had a

foreign-born population of 3.3 million in 1930, more than twice the

foreign-born population of any

other state and the highest census

figure for any state until 1980,

when the foreign-born population

of California was 3.6 million.

1

The estimates do not differ significantly

between Florida and Texas and between New

Jersey and Illinois. For Illinois, the lower

bound on the 90-percent confidence interval is

less than 1 million (Figure 4-1). 2

The estimates do not differ significantly

between Florida and New Jersey. 3

The proportion foreign born appears to

be above the national figure in two additional

states (Nevada and Rhode Island); however,

the apparent differences are not statistically

significant. It should be noted that the sample

size is not large enough to identify many substantively important differences involving

states with relatively small populations. See

Appendix B. 4

The increase does not differ significantly

between Florida and Texas.

1997

1990

Figure 4-1.

States With a Foreign-Born Population of 1 Million 

or More in 1997: 1990 and 1997

(Numbers in thousands. 90-percent confidence intervals in parentheses for 

1997 estimates. For 1990, resident population. For 1997, civilian 

noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or 

with their families on post)

*Change from 1990 to 1997 is statistically significant.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990 census of population, and 1999b, Table 4-1A.

Illinois*

New Jersey*

Texas*

Florida*

New York*

California* 8,074 (7,646-8,502)

6,459

3,602 (3,362-3,842)

2,852

2,351 (2,146-2,556)

1,663

2,169 (1,951-2,387)

1,524

1,208 (1,074-1,341)

967

1,100 (959-1,242)

952

Figure 4-2.

Foreign-Born Population for States: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces 

living off post or with their families on post)

Percent foreign born

(number of states in parentheses)

Under 5.0 (31)

5.0 to 9.9 (10 plus DC)

10.0 to 14.9 (4)

15.0 to 19.9 (4)

20.0 or more (1)

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 4-1A.

CA

24.9

AZ

14.4 NM

6.9

TX

11.3

OK

2.0 AR

1.6

LA

2.5

MS

2.0

AL

1.3

GA

3.0

FL

16.4

KS

4.1

NE

3.5

SD

1.0

ND

0.8 MT

1.0

WY

1.6

CO

8.6

UT

5.9

NV

11.1

OR

9.2

WA

6.6 MN

4.6

IA

2.7

MO

2.2

IL

9.3

IN

2.3

OH

2.3

MI

4.5

WI

3.0

PA

3.2

WV

1.1

KY 1.2

TN 1.2

NC

3.6 SC

1.2

VA

6.6

NY

19.6

ME

2.3

NH

3.4 VT

3.0

MA

8.0

NJ

15.4

MD

8.6

CT

7.5

RI

11.1

HI

18.1

AK

3.8

ID

4.7

DE

4.9

DC

9.5

Northeast

11.9%

South

6.9%

United States

9.7%

West

17.6%

Midwest

4.3%
16

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 5.

Metropolitan Areas

The foreign-born population

is highly concentrated in a

few large metropolitan areas.

In 1997, the metropolitan areas

with the largest foreign-born populations were Los Angeles (4.8 million)

and New York (4.6 million), although these estimates are not significantly different from each other

(Figure 5-1).1 Together, these two

metropolitan areas included 9.4 million, or 36 percent, of the foreignborn population of 25.8 million. In

contrast, they included only 13 percent of the total population.

In three additional metropolitan

areas, the foreign-born population

was 1 million or more in 1997: Miami, San Francisco, and Chicago. 2

Together with Los Angeles and New

York, these five metropolitan areas

included 13.2 million, or 51 percent

of the foreign-born population, but

only 20 percent of the total population.

Among the 10 largest metropolitan areas in 1997 (those with total

populations of 4 million or more),

Los Angeles had the highest proportion foreign born at 31 percent

(Table 5-1). For metropolitan areas

with 1 million to 4 million population in 1997, Miami had the highest

proportion foreign born at 39 percent.

The foreign-born population

is more concentrated than the

native population in

metropolitan areas and in

their central cities.

The concentration of the foreignborn population in metropolitan

areas and in their central cities is

shown from two perspectives in Figure 5-2. The numbers on the left

side show the proportionate distributions of the total population, the native population, and the foreign-born

population by type of residence. The

bar chart on the right side shows the

proportion foreign born in each category of the population by type of

residence.

As shown in the left side of

Figure 5-2, 94 percent of the

foreign-born population lived in

metropolitan areas in 1997 compared with 79 percent of the native

population. The difference was accounted for entirely by the differences in the proportions in central

cities: 47 percent of the foreignborn population versus 28 percent

of the native population. The proportion living outside central cities

in metropolitan areas was slightly

lower among the foreign-born

population than among the native

population: 48 percent versus 51

percent.

The foreign-born population was

especially concentrated in the largest

metropolitan areas and in their central cities: 53 percent lived in the 8

metropolitan areas of 5 million or

more population in 1997 compared

with 25 percent of the native population. The central cities of these eight

largest metropolitan areas included

28 percent of the foreign-born population compared with only 8 percent

of the native population.

While a much higher proportion

of the foreign-born population than

of the native population lived in metropolitan areas of 5 million or more

population in 1997, the proportions

were not significantly different in

metropolitan areas of 1 million up to

5 million population (25 percent and

26 percent, respectively). The proportions were lower for the foreignborn population than for the native

population in metropolitan areas

with less than 1 million population

(16 percent versus 28 percent) and

in nonmetropolitan areas (6 percent

versus 21 percent).

Over one-quarter of the

central-city population of the

largest metropolitan areas is

foreign born.

As shown on the right side of

Figure 5-2, the proportion of the

1997

1990

4,778 (4,513-5,044)

1,073

Chicago-Gary-Kenosha,

IL-IN-WI CMSA*

San Francisco-OaklandSan Jose, CA CMSA

Miami-Ft. Lauderdale, FL CMSA*

New York-Northern New JerseyLong Island, NY-NJ-CT-PA CMSA*

Los Angeles-RiversideOrange County, CA CMSA* 3,945

4,582 (4,321-4,842)

3,657

1,356 (1,181-1,531)

*Change from 1990 to 1997 is statistically significant.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999a, Table 16, and 1999b, Table 5-2A.

915

1,251

1,440 (1,282-1,599)

1,062 (925-1,199)

Figure 5-1.

Metropolitan Areas With Foreign-Born Populations of 

1 Million or More in 1997: 1990 and 1997

(Numbers in thousands. 90-percent confidence intervals in parentheses for 1997 estimates. 

For 1990, resident population. For 1997, civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces 

living off post or with their families on post. Metropolitan areas as defined 

June 30, 1993; see text, footnote 1)
17

U.S. Census Bureau

population foreign born was much

higher in metropolitan areas (11 percent) than in nonmetropolitan areas

(3 percent) in 1997. The proportion

foreign born ranged from 18 percent

in metropolitan areas with 5 million

or more population to 6 percent in

metropolitan areas with less than 1

million population.

The proportion of the population

foreign born was higher in central

cities (15 percent) than outside central cities in metropolitan areas (9

percent). The foreign-born proportion of the population was highest in

central cities of metropolitan areas

with 5 million or more population

(26 percent).

1

Official names of metropolitan areas are

provided in Figure 5-1 and Table 5-1, but are

shortened in the text for readability.

The general concept of a metropolitan area

(MA) is one of a large population nucleus, together with adjacent communities that have a

high degree or economic and social integration

with that nucleus. Some MAs are defined

around two or more nuclei. The Office of

Management and Budget, with technical assistance from the Census Bureau, uses published

standards to define MAs for use by federal

agencies. The standards provide for the classification of an MA as a metropolitan statistical

area (MSA) or as a consolidated metropolitan

statistical area (CSMA) with component primary metropolitan statistical areas (PMSAs).

See Office of Management and Budget, 1990

and 1993. 2

For the Chicago metropolitan area, the

lower bound on the 90-percent confidence interval is less than 1 million.

Table 5-1.

Foreign-Born Population in the 10 Largest Metropolitan Areas: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post.

Metropolitan areas as defined June 30, 1993; see text, footnote 1)

Rank in total Percent

population Metropolitan area foreign born

1 New York-Northern New Jersey-Long Island, NY-NJ-CT-PA CMSA ............... 22.8

2 Los Angeles-Riverside-Orange County, CA CMSA ..................................... 30.5

3 Chicago-Gary-Kenosha, IL-IN-WI CMSA................................................ 13.0

4 Washington-Baltimore, DC-MD-VA-WV-CMSA ......................................... 11.0

5 San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose, CA CMSA ........................................... 20.8

6 Philadelphia-Wilmington-Atlantic City, PA-NJ-DE-MD CMSA ...................... 6.2

7 Boston-Worcester-Lawrence, MA-NH-ME-CT CMSA .................................. 8.1

8 Detroit-Ann Arbor-Flint, MI CMSA ...................................................... 6.7

9 Dallas-Ft. Worth, TX CMSA ................................................................ 9.6

10 Houston-Galveston-Brazoria, TX CMSA................................................. 15.0

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 5-2A.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 5-1A.

Figure 5-2.

Population by Nativity and MetropolitanNonmetropolitan Residence: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their 

families on post. Metropolitan areas as defined June 30, 1993; see text, footnote 1)

9.7

11.4

15.1

9.1

14.1

19.4

11.1

18.4

26.5

13.8

9.3

11.4

8.2

5.9

7.3

4.9

2.7

Total population

Metropolitan areas

In central cities

Outside central cities

1 million or more population

In central cities

Outside central cities

5 million or more population

In central cities

Outside central cities

1 million up to 5 million population

In central cities

Outside central cities

Less than 1 million population

In central cities

Outside central cities

Nonmetropolitan areas

Total Native Foreign born

100.0 100.0 100.0

80.4 78.9 94.4

30.0 28.2 46.7

50.4 50.7 47.7

53.9 51.2 78.3

19.3 17.2 38.6

34.6 34.1 39.7

28.1 25.4 53.5

10.2 8.3 27.9

17.9 17.1 25.6

25.8 25.9 24.9

9.1 8.9 10.8

16.7 17.0 14.1

26.5 27.6 16.1

10.7 11.0 8.1

15.8 16.6 8.0

19.6 21.1 5.6

Percent distribution by type of residence Percent foreign born by type of residence

Total

Metro areas

In central cities

Outside central cities

Nonmetro areas
18

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 6.

Length of Residence

The median length of

residence of the foreign-born

population is about 13 years.

 In 1997, the median length of

residence in the United States of

the foreign-born population was

13.3 years (Figure 6-1).1 This is

slightly higher than in 1990 (12.2

years) and slightly lower than in

1980 (14.1 years), but much lower

than in 1970 when the median was

20.3 years.2

In general, changes between

1970 and 1997 in the percent distribution of the foreign-born population by length of residence reflect

the relatively high level of immigration during this period and the attrition (through death) of nearly all

immigrants who came to the

United States before 1930 when

immigration previously had been at

relatively high levels, as discussed

in Section 1. The proportion of the

foreign-born population residing in

the United States for 20 years or

more dropped from 50 percent in

1970 to 30 percent in 1997. The

proportions residing in the United

States under 5 years, 5 to 9 years,

10 to 14 years, and 15 to 19 years

were all higher in 1997 than in

1970.

In 1997, the category of length

of residence in the United States of

20 years and over included the following subcategories up to 40 years

and over:

20 years and over 30.3%

20 to 24 years 8.6%

25 to 29 years 6.9%

30 to 34 years 4.5%

35 to 39 years 3.2%

40 years and over 7.2%

While data dividing the

category 20 years and over are

available from censuses of 1970,

1980, and 1990, the subcategories

are not directly comparable.3 However, the available data on these

subcategories permit the computation of quartiles of length of residence in the United States, which

are shown in Figure 6-1.4 The 2nd

quartile (the median) was discussed earlier. The 3rd quartile

shows the minimum length of residence of the one-quarter of the foreign-born population with the longest length of residence in the

United States.

In 1970, when pre-1930 immigrants still constituted a sizable

proportion of the foreign-born

population, the top one quarter of

the foreign-born population had resided in the United States for 50.8

years or more. The corresponding

3rd quartiles were 29.8 years in

1980, 24.1 years in 1990, and 23.1

years in 1997.5

Length of residence by region

of birth reflects historical

patterns of immigration.

In 1997, the median length of

residence in the United States of

the foreign-born population was

11.7 years for the population from

Asia and 12.4 years for the population from Latin America (Figure

6-2). These two medians are not

significantly different from each

other, nor is the median for the foreign-born population from Latin

America significantly different

from the median length of residence of 13.3 years for the total

foreign-born population. The median length of residence of the

population from Africa, 9.8 years,

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999a, Table 10, and 1999b, Table 6-1.

Figure 6-1.

Length of Residence in the United States for the Foreign-Born Population: 1970 to 1997

(Excludes population for whom length of residence was not reported. For 1970-90, resident population.

For 1997, civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Year

1970

1980

1990

1997

Percent distribution by length of residence (in years)

Under 5 15 to 19 5 to 9 20 and over 10 to 14 1st

quartile

6.0

5.1

5.4

7.7

13.3

12.2

14.1

20.3

23.1

24.1

29.8

50.8

2nd

quartile

(median)

21.0

24.7

23.7

18.5

19.6 14.1 15.0 30.3

19.2 13.9 10.7 31.5

15.8 12.8 9.4 38.2

12.2 10.5 8.5 50.4

3rd

quartile

Length of residence (in years)
19

U.S. Census Bureau

Figure 6-2.

Length of Residence in the United States for the Foreign-Born 

Population by Region of Birth: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Population

(in millions)

0.5

1.5

1.8

7.0

8.8

2.8

13.1

0.6

6.8

4.3

Total 25.8 1

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

Caribbean

Central America

Mexico

Other

South America

Northern America

Median

(in years)

13.3

24.6

11.7

9.8

12.4

16.3

11.3

11.1

11.7

12.1

28.4

1Total includes Oceania and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 6-1.

Under 5 15 to 19 5 to 9 10 to 14

Percent distribution by length of residence (in years)

20 or more

21.0 19.6 14.1 15.0 30.3

17.9 11.5 6.8 7.8 56.0

24.5 20.3 15.7 18.0 21.6

33.1 17.6 20.7 13.3 15.2

20.0 22.4 15.5 16.2 25.8

16.9 13.4 14.9 17.6 37.1

20.4 25.6 15.8 15.9 22.3

21.8 25.0 14.7 15.0 23.6

15.0 28.0 20.2 19.5 17.3

23.0 20.6 15.1 15.5 25.7

15.7 11.7 9.6 6.4 56.5

does not differ significantly from

the medians for the populations

from Asia and Latin America.

Among the foreign-born population from Latin America, the median

was highest for those from the Caribbean, 16.3 years, reflecting the relatively large number of immigrants

from Cuba in the 1960s and 1970s.

The median lengths of residence of

the population from Central America

(about four-fifths of whom are from

Mexico) and South America, 11.3

years and 12.1 years, respectively,

were not significantly different from

each other.

The median lengths of residence

in 1997 of the foreign-born population from Northern America (essentially Canada) and Europe were 28.4

years and 24.6 years, respectively, do

not differ significantly, but were both

about double the national median of

13.3 years. While 30 percent of the

foreign-born population had resided

in the United States for 20 years or

more, 56 percent of the foreign born

from Europe and 57 percent of the

foreign born from Northern America

were in this category (although the

last two proportions are not significantly different from each other).

1

The median is the value which divides

the ranked population into two groups of

equal size. 2

Because reporting on year of entry

(which is used to obtain data on length of

residence) is subject to misstatement, small

differences in length of residence do not warrant emphasis. For example, the specific

question, “When did you come to live in the

United States?,” may be interpreted by some

respondents to mean the year in which they

obtained permanent legal residence in the

United States. 3

For 1970, the subcategories of 50.4 percent are: 20 to 24 years, 6.3 percent; 25 to

34 years, 3.5 percent; 35 to 44 years, 8.2

percent; 45 to 54 years, 12.7 percent; 55

years and over, 19.7 percent. For 1980, the

subcategories of 38.2 percent are: 20 to 29

years, 13.6 percent; 30 years and over, 24.7

percent. For 1990, the subcategories of 31.5

percent are: 20 to 24 years, 8.0 percent; 25

to 29 years, 6.1 percent; 30 to 39 years, 8.1

percent; 40 years and over, 9.3 percent (U.S.

Bureau of the Census, 1999a, Table 10). 4

Quartiles are the values in a ranked distribution of a population that divide it into

four groups of equal size. In Figure 6-1, the

1st quartile divides the foreign-born population into 25 percent (one-quarter) with a

shorter length of residence and 75 percent

(three-quarters) with a longer length of residence. The 2nd quartile is the median. The

3rd quartile divides the foreign-born population into 75 percent (three-quarters) with a

shorter length of residence and 25 percent

(one-quarter) with a longer length of residence.

The 1st quartile can be viewed as the median of the lower half of a distribution, and

the 3rd quartile can be viewed as the median

of the upper half of a distribution. 5

The quartiles for 1990 and 1997 do not

differ significantly.
20

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 7.

Citizenship Status

The proportion of naturalized

citizens in the foreign-born

population has declined

since 1970.

While the total foreign-born

population increased by 165 percent

(from 9.7 million to 25.8 million) between 1970 and 1997, the numbers

of naturalized citizens and noncitizens in the foreign-born population

increased at very different rates (Figure 7-1).1 Naturalized citizens increased by 46 percent (from 6.2 million to 9.0 million), and noncitizens

rose by 373 percent (from 3.5 million

to 16.7 million).

 As a result of the more rapid

growth of noncitizens, the proportion of naturalized citizens in the

foreign-born population dropped

steadily from 64 percent in 1970 to

51 percent in 1980, to 40 percent in

1990, and to 35 percent in 1997.

The proportion for 1997 is the lowest for at least the past century.2

The proportion of naturalized

citizens has declined in each

length-of-residence category.

The proportion of naturalized

citizens in the foreign-born population declined from 1970 to 1997, not

only for the total foreign-born population, but for every category of

length of residence in the United

States (Figure 7-2). As measured by

percentage-point change, the declines

were most pronounced for the

foreign-born population residing in

the United States for 10 to 14 years

(58 percent to 30 percent), for 15 to

19 years (72 percent to 42 percent),

and for 20 years and over (90 percent to 67 percent).3

Most of the decline in the proportion of naturalized citizens in the

foreign-born population is attributable to the declines within each

length-of-residence category.

Changes in the distribution of the

foreign-born population by length of

residence in the United States are a

secondary factor. (The median

length of residence of the foreignborn population dropped from 20.3

years in 1970 to 13.3 years in 1997,

as discussed in Section 6.)

As noted above, the proportion of

naturalized citizens dropped from 64

percent in 1970 to 35 percent in

1997, or by 29 percentage points.

The declines in proportions of naturalized citizens in the length-ofresidence categories account for 20

percentage points of the drop, and

the changes in the distribution by

length of residence account for 9 percentage points of the drop.4

The proportion of naturalized

citizens varies greatly by

region of birth.

The proportion of naturalized

citizens among the foreign-born

population in 1997 was 53 percent

for the population from Europe, 44

percent for the population from

Asia, and 24 percent for the population from Latin America (Figure 7-

3). The low proportion for the population from Latin America is attributable primarily to the low figure for

the population from Mexico (15 percent).

Part of the differences in the proportions of naturalized citizens by

region of birth is attributable to differences in length of residence in the

United States. Most notably, the proportions of citizens in 1997 among

the population from Mexico whose

length of residence in the United

States was 10 to 14 years, 15 to 19

years, or 20 years or more were

much lower than for the total

foreign-born population: 11 percent

versus 30 percent, 14 percent versus

42 percent, and 34 percent versus 67

percent, respectively.5

Figure 7-1.

Foreign-Born Population by 

Citizenship Status: 1970 to 1997

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999a, Table 11, and 

1999b, Table 7-1.

1970 1980 1990 1997

25.8

19.8

14.1

9.7

16.7

11.8

7.0

3.5

6.2 7.1 8.0 9.0

Total

Noncitizens

Naturalized 

citizens

(In millions. For 1970-90, resident 

population. For 1997, civilian noninstitutional 

population plus Armed Forces living off post or 

with their families on post.)
21

U.S. Census Bureau

1

Some individuals who are foreign born

may report themselves erroneously as U.S. citizens. The naturalization process usually requires 5 years of residence in the United

States. See also Section 6, footnote 1, concerning limitations of data on length of residence in

the United States. 2

For censuses prior to 1970, data on citizenship of the foreign-born population are

available for 1890-1950. The proportion

naturalized (excluding the foreign born for

whom citizenship was not reported) was 49

percent in 1920, 58 percent in 1930, 68 percent in 1940, and 79 percent in 1950. The

proportion naturalized among foreign-born

males 21 years and over was 64 percent in

1890, 67 percent in 1900, 51 percent in

1910, and 50 percent in 1920 (U.S. Bureau of

the Census, 1999a, Table 11). 3

The percentage-point declines for the

categories of 10 to 14 years and 15 to 19

years do not differ significantly. 4

The 1970 distribution by length of residence combined with the 1997 proportions

of naturalized citizens would have produced

a decline in the proportion of naturalized

citizens from 63.6 percent to 43.4 percent.

The reverse combination (the 1997 distribution by length of residence combined with

the 1970 proportions of naturalized citizens)

would have produced a decline from 63.6

percent to 54.9 percent. 5

If the distribution of persons from

Mexico by length of residence in the United

States is adjusted (standardized) to the distribution of the total foreign-born population by

length of residence in the United States, the

proportion of citizens among the foreign-born

population from Mexico rises only slightly:

from 15 percent to 17 percent.

Figure 7-3.

Naturalized Citizens by Region of Birth: 1997

Foreign-born population

(in millions)

0.5

1.5

1.8

7.0

8.8

2.8

13.1

0.6

6.8

4.3

Total 25.8 1

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

Caribbean

Central America

Mexico

Other

South America

Northern America

1

Total includes Oceania and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 7-1.

35.1

53.3

44.3

34.8

23.6

41.3

16.6

14.9

23.7

31.5

43.8

(Percent of foreign-born population. Civilian noninstitutional population plus 

Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Figure 7-2.

Naturalized Citizens by Length of Residence

in the United States: 1970 to 1997

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1973, Table 17; 1985, Table 2; 1993a, Table 1; 1998 special tabulations,

and 1999b, Table 7-1.

(For 1970-90, resident population. For 1997, civilian noninstitutional 

population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Total Under 5 years 5 to9 years 10 to 14 years 15 to 19 years 20 years and over

Percent of

foreign-born

population

1970

1980

1990

1997

63.6

50.5

40.5

35.1

12.210.5

7.6 4.9

31.4

28.2

23.3

16.0

57.5

44.1

40.7

30.2

72.5

57.6

49.4

42.3

89.6

84.9

73.5

67.0
22

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 8.

Nativity, Parentage, and Foreign Stock

One-fifth of the population

is of foreign stock.

In 1997, 54.7 million, or 21 percent, of the population was of foreign

stock (Table 8-1). In addition to a

foreign-born population of 25.8 million, the population of foreign or

mixed parentage (which is defined as

native) was 28.9 million. The population of foreign or mixed parentage

included 15.0 million of foreign parentage and 13.9 million of mixed

parentage. Among the population of

mixed parentage, 7.5 million had a

foreign-born father, and 6.4 million

had a foreign-born mother.1

The proportion of the

population of foreign stock

has increased since 1970.

In 1960, 34.1 million, or 19 percent of the population was of foreign

stock (Figure 8-1). The population

of foreign stock dropped to 33.6 million, or 17 percent of the population

mortality) of descendants of immigrants who came to the United

States early in the twentieth century

and with the high level of immigration during the past generation, the

population of foreign or mixed parentage will undoubtedly grow more

rapidly in the future.4

From 1960 to 1997, the population of mixed parentage increased by

3.7 million (from 10.2 million to

13.9 million).5 The portion with

foreign-born fathers increased by 1.0

million (from 6.5 million to 7.5 million) while the portion with foreignborn mothers increased by 2.7 million (from 3.8 million to 6.4 million).

The proportion of the

population of foreign stock is

below historical levels.

While the proportion of the

population of foreign stock rose

from 17 percent in 1970 to 21 percent in 1997, it is well below the

level of the 1890 to 1930 period

(Figure 8-1). The proportion increased from 33 percent in 1890 to

35 percent in 1910 and then

The terms native population and foreign-born population, which

were defined in Section 1, concern the nativity of the population.

Information on the birthplace of parents may be used to classify the

native population by parentage: native of native parentage (both

parents native), native of foreign parentage (both parents foreign

born), and native of mixed parentage (one parent native and one

parent foreign born).

The term foreign stock includes the foreign-born population and

the native population of foreign or mixed parentage. The foreign stock

may thus be thought of as first and second generation U.S. residents

combined. Just as the native population and foreign-born population

comprise the total population, the native population of native parentage

and the foreign-stock population also comprise the total population.

in 1970, the last year in which data

on parentage were collected in the

decennial census.2 By 1997, the

population of foreign stock had risen

to 54.7 million, or 21 percent of the

population, reflecting the high level

of immigration since 1970.

The growth in the population of

foreign stock since 1970 is due

mostly to the growth in the foreignborn population. From

1970 to 1997, the foreignborn population increased by 16.2 million

(from 9.6 million to 25.8

million) while the population of foreign or mixed

parentage rose by only

5.0 million (from 24.0

million to 28.9 million).

The slower growth in the

population of foreign or

mixed parentage reflects

the relatively old age

structure of this population in 1970, which in

turn reflects the preceding decades of relatively

low immigration.3

 With

the attrition (through

Table 8-1.

Population by Nativity and Parentage: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces

living off post or with their families on post)

Number

Nativity and parentage (in millions) Percent

Total population ....................... 266.8 100.0

Native ........................................ 241.0 90.3

Native parentage ...................... 212.1 79.5

Foreign or mixed parentage ........ 28.9 10.8

Foreign parentage ................ 15.0 5.6

Mixed parentage .................. 13.9 5.2

... Father foreign born .......... 7.5 2.8

... Mother foreign born ......... 6.4 2.4

Foreign born ............................... 25.8 9.7

Native of native parentage ............. 212.1 79.5

Foreign stock .............................. 54.7 20.5

Foreign or mixed parentage ........ 28.9 10.8

Foreign born ........................... 25.8 9.7

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 4-1A.
23

U.S. Census Bureau

dropped back to 33 percent in

1930.

The relative sizes of the population of foreign or mixed parentage

and the foreign-born population

have fluctuated, reflecting the timing of periods of large-scale immigration and subsequent childbearing of the foreign-born population,

as shown below. In 1890, when

1890 1960 1970 1997

Foreign or mixed

 parentage 18.4% 13.6% 11.8% 10.8%

Foreign born 14.8% 5.4% 4.7% 9.7%

Ratio 1.2 2.5 2.5 1.1

to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1

18.4 percent of the population was

native of foreign or mixed parentage

and 14.8 percent of the population

was foreign born, the ratio was 1.2 to

1. By 1960, the ratio had increased

to 2.5 to 1. From 2.5 to 1 again in

1970, the ratio fell sharply to 1.1 to 1

in 1997, slightly lower than the ratio

in 1890.

1

Among the foreign-born population, 24.2

million had parents born in the same country,

and only 1.6 million had parents born in different countries. Among the population of foreign parentage, 12.8 million had parents born

in the same country, and only 2.2 million had

parents born in different countries. 2

The question on nativity or birthplace of

parents, which was included in censuses from

1870 to 1970, was replaced in 1980 with a

question on ancestry that was based on selfidentification, with no restrictions on how

many generations removed from their ancestors’ country or countries of origin. 3

In 1970, the native population of foreign

or mixed parentage had a median age of 47.3,

and 16.3 percent was 65 years old and over

(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1973, Table 1). 4

One indication of future growth is the

rapid increase in the number of births in the

United States to foreign-born women residing

in the United States, from 223,000 (6.0 percent

of total births) in 1970 to 696,000 (17.8 percent of total births) in 1995 (U.S. National

Center for Health Statistics, 1975, Table 1-61,

and unpublished data, 1998). These children

have U.S. citizenship at birth and are part of

the native population. 5

Data published from the 1970 census did

not distinguish between the native populations

of foreign parentage and mixed parentage.

Figure 8-1.

Foreign-Stock Population by Nativity and Parentage: 

Selected Years, 1890 to 1997

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1960 19701 1997

1Data not available separately for foreign parentage and mixed parentage.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999a, Table 12, and 1999b, Table 4-1A.

(For 1890-1970, resident population. For 1997, civilian noninstitutional population plus 

Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

9.2 10.3 13.5 13.9 14.2 9.7 9.6 25.8

8.1 10.7

12.9 15.8 17.5

14.1

24.0

15.0

3.4

5.0

6.0

7.0 8.5

10.2

13.9

20.8

26.0

32.5

36.7

40.3

34.1 33.6

54.7 Number (in millions)

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1960 19701 1997

14.8 13.6 14.7 13.2 11.6 5.4 4.7 9.7

13.0 14.0 14.1 14.9 14.3

7.9 11.8

5.6

5.5 6.6 6.5 6.7 7.0

5.7 5.2

33.2 34.3 35.3 34.7 32.8

19.0

16.5

20.5

Percent of total population

Mixed parentage

Foreign parentage

Foreign born

Foreign stock

Mixed parentage

Foreign parentage

Foreign born

Foreign stock
24

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 9.

Race and Hispanic Origin

Two-thirds of the foreignborn population is Hispanic

or Asian and Pacific Islander.

In 1997, Hispanics accounted for

29.7 million, or 11 percent, of the total population, and Asians and Pacific Islanders accounted for 10.1

million, or 4 percent of the total

population (Table 9-1). Among the

foreign-born population, 11.4 million, or 44 percent, were Hispanic,

and 6.1 million, or 24 percent, were

Asian and Pacific Islander. Among

the native population, 18.3 million,

or 8 percent, were Hispanic, and 4.0

million, or 2 percent, were Asian

and Pacific Islander. Hispanics and

Asians and Pacific Islanders, who together accounted for 15 percent of

the total population, thus accounted

for 68 percent of the foreign-born

population, but for only 9 percent of

the native population.

In contrast, the proportions of

White non-Hispanics and of Blacks

were lower in the foreign-born population than in the native population.

White non-Hispanics, who represented 72 percent of the total population, accounted for 26 percent of the

foreign-born population and for 77

percent of the native population.

Blacks, who represented 12.8 percent of the total population, accounted for 8 percent of the 

foreign-born population and for 13.4

percent of the native population.

Race and Hispanic groups

differ sharply in their

distributions by nativity

and parentage.

In 1997, 9.7 percent of the population was foreign born (Figure 9-1).

The proportion was much higher

among Asians and Pacific Islanders

(61 percent) and Hispanics (38 percent) and was below the national figure for Blacks (5.9 percent) and for

White non-Hispanics (3.4).

The opposite situation exists

with regard to the native population

of native parentage. While this category included 79 percent of the total

population in 1997, it included 90

percent of Blacks and 88 percent of

White non-Hispanics. In contrast,

32 percent of Hispanics and only 11

percent of Asians and Pacific Islanders were native of native parentage.

The foreign-born population

by region of birth is not

always homogeneous by race

or Hispanic origin.

The foreign-born populations

from Europe and Northern

America are the most homogeneous by race and Hispanic origin.

In 1997, 97 percent and 92 percent,

respectively, were White nonHispanic. (These percentages do

not differ significantly.) Of the

foreign-born population from Asia,

83 percent were Asian and Pacific

Islander and 15 percent were

White non-Hispanic. Of the

foreign-born population from Africa, 60 percent were Black, and 30

percent were White non-Hispanic.

Of the foreign-born population

from Latin America in 1997, 86

percent were Hispanic, and 12 percent were Black. About 3 percent

were both Black and Hispanic. The

Table 9-1.

Population by Nativity, Parentage, and Selected Race and Hispanic Origin Groups: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Native

Total Foreign or

population Total Native parentage mixed parentage Foreign born Foreign stock

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

Total1 ............................. 266.8 100.0 241.0 100.0 212.1 100.0 28.9 100.0 25.8 100.0 54.7 100.0

Black .................................. 34.2 12.8 32.2 13.4 30.8 14.5 1.4 4.7 2.0 7.9 3.4 6.2

Asian and Pacific Islander ....... 10.1 3.8 4.0 1.6 1.1 0.5 2.8 9.8 6.1 23.7 8.9 16.3

Hispanic origin (of any race) ... 29.7 11.1 18.3 7.6 9.6 4.5 8.7 30.2 11.4 44.2 20.1 36.8

White, not of Hispanic origin ... 191.8 71.9 185.2 76.8 169.0 79.7 16.2 55.8 6.6 25.6 22.8 41.6

1

The four race and Hispanic groups shown are not a mutually exclusive and exhaustive set of categories adding to the total. See footnote 1 in text.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 9-1A.

The racial categories used for

data from the March 1997 Current Population Survey include

the following: White; Black;

American Indian, Eskimo, and

Aleut; and Asian and Pacific Islander. The ethnic categories include Hispanic origin and not of

Hispanic origin. The population

in a race category may be Hispanic or not Hispanic, and the

population of Hispanic origin

may be of any race. There are

four race or Hispanic groups that

are identified for discussion in

this section: Blacks, Asians and

Pacific Islanders, Hispanics, and

White non-Hispanics.1
25

U.S. Census Bureau

Black population from Latin

America was primarily from the

Caribbean. Of the foreign-born

population from the Caribbean, 54

percent were Hispanic, and 46 percent were Black. About 5 percent

were both Hispanic and Black.

The foreign-born Asian and

Pacific Islander population

has a low median length of

residence in the United States

and a high proportion of

naturalized citizens.

In 1997, the median length of

residence in the United States of

the foreign-born population was

13.3 years, and 35 percent were

naturalized citizens (Figure 9-2).

As would be expected given

patterns of immigration by region

of birth (discussed in Section 2),

the figures were highest for

foreign-born White non-Hispanics:

a median of 19.6 years and 50 percent naturalized citizens.

Foreign-born Asians and Pacific

Islanders had a median length of

residence of 11.6 years, and 44 percent were naturalized citizens.

Foreign-born Hispanics had a median length of residence of 12.2 years

(not significantly different from the

median for Asians and Pacific Islanders), and only 22 percent were

naturalized citizens.

1

The four race and Hispanic groups discussed in this section do not represent a mutually exclusive and exhaustive set of categories

adding to the total population. The populations in these four categories add to 99.6 percent of the total population. The non-Hispanic

American Indian and Alaska Native population (0.8 percent of the total population) is not

included, and individuals who are both Black

and Hispanic, or both Asian and Pacific Islander and Hispanic (0.4 percent of the total

population) are each included in two of the

four categories shown. (In brief, 99.6 percent

plus 0.8 percent minus 0.4 percent equals 100.0

percent.)

1The four race and Hispanic groups shown are not a mutually exclusive and exhaustive set of categories adding to the total. See footnote 1 in text. 2Includes the foreign-born population and the native population of foreign or mixed parentage. See Section 8.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 9-1A.

Figure 9-1.

Nativity and Parentage for Selected Race and Hispanic Origin Groups: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

191.8

29.7

10.1

34.2

266.8

Percent distribution by nativity and parentage

Native parentage Foreign born Foreign or mixed parentage

20.5

9.9

88.8

67.7

11.9

Percent 

of foreign 

stock2

Total1

Black

Asian and Pacific Islander

Hispanic origin (of any race)

White, not of Hispanic origin

79.5

90.1

11.2

32.3

88.1

10.8

4.0

28.2

29.4

8.4

9.7

5.9

60.6

38.4

3.4

Native

Population

(in millions)

1The four race and Hispanic groups shown are not a mutually exclusive and exhaustive set of categories adding to the total. See footnote 1 in text.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 9-1B.

Figure 9-2.

Length of Residence in the United States and Citizenship Status for Selected 

Race and Hispanic Origin Groups of the Foreign-Born Population: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

6.6

11.4

6.1

2.0

25.8

Percent distribution by length of residence

13.3

12.8

11.6

12.2

19.6

Median

length of

residence

(in years)

35.1

35.3

44.1

21.6

49.8

Percent

naturalized

citizens

Total1

Black

Asian and Pacific Islander

Hispanic origin (of any race)

White, not of Hispanic origin

Population

(in millions) Under 5 15-19 5-9 20+ 10-14

21.0

20.5

24.1

19.9

20.4

19.6

17.3

20.6

23.5

12.3

14.1

22.0

16.7

14.9

8.1 9.8

16.0

18.1 20.6

15.0

16.4

30.3

23.9

25.7

49.2
26

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 10.

Age and Gender

Two-thirds of the foreignborn population is in the

25 to 64 age span.

In 1997, the median ages of the

foreign-born population (37 years)

and the native population (34 years)

did not differ greatly; however, there

were major differences in age distributions between the two groups (Figure 10-1). Only 10 percent of the

foreign-born population was under

age 18 compared with 28 percent of

the native population. In contrast,

the proportions in the foreign-born

population were higher than in the

native population in the 25 to 44 age

group (44 percent versus 30 percent)

and in the 45 to 64 age group (24

percent versus 20 percent). As a result, the 25 to 64 age span includes

about two-thirds of the foreign-born

population compared with about

one-half of the native population.

Among the foreign-born population in 1997, naturalized citizens

were older (median age 47) than

the noncitizen population (median

age 33). The proportion 65 years

old and over among naturalized

citizens (20 percent) was much

higher than among the noncitizen

population (6 percent).

As would be expected, the age

structure of the foreign-born population differed greatly by length of residence in the United States. The median age ranged from 28 years old for

those resident in the United States

less than 10 years to 54 years old for

those resident in the United States

20 years and over. The proportions

65 years old and over for these two

groups were 3 percent and 27 percent, respectively.

The sex ratio (males per 100 females) in 1997 was higher in the

foreign-born population (101) than

in the native population (95).

Among the foreign-born population, the sex ratio was higher

among those whose length of residence in the United States was less

than 10 years (109) than among

those whose length of residence

was 20 years and over (87).1

 This

difference is due in part to the fact

that age-specific mortality rates are

generally higher for males than for

females, especially in the older

ages.

The age structure of

the foreign-born population

varies greatly by region

of birth.

In 1997, the median age of the

foreign-born population ranged from

51 for those from Europe to 34 for

those from Latin America (Figure

10-2). Among those from Latin

America, the median age was 31 for

the population born in Mexico. The

proportion in the 25 to 44 age group

was 47 percent for the population

born in Asia or Latin America compared with 27 percent for the population born in Europe. In contrast, the

proportion 65 years old and over was

7 or 8 percent for the foreign-born

population from Latin America or

Asia compared with 26 percent for

the foreign-born population from Europe.2

 The differences in age structure by region of birth reflect

differences in patterns of immigraFigure 10-1.

Age and Gender of the Population by Nativity, Length of Residence in 

the United States, and Citizenship Status: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Population

(in millions)

Percent distribution by age

16.7

9.0

7.8

7.5

10.5

25.8

241.0

Total 266.8

Native

Foreign born

Length of residence in U.S.

Less than 10 years

10 to 19 years

20 years and over

Citizenship status

Naturalized citizen

Not a citizen

Under 18 45-64 18-24 65+ 25-44

Median

age

(years)

34.3

33.7

37.4

28.2

37.2

53.8

47.1

33.1

95.9

95.4

100.9

108.8

105.7

87.2

94.4

104.6

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 10-1A, 10-1B, and 10-1C.

Sex ratio

(males 

per 100

females)

26.7 9.4 31.6 20.4 11.9

28.5 9.1 30.3 20.0 12.1

10.2 11.4 43.5 24.1 10.8

21.4 18.3 47.0 10.2 3.1

5.1 11.8 55.7 22.3 5.2

1.8

27.2 44.4 26.6

3.7 5.4 36.7 34.6 19.6

13.6 14.7 47.2 18.4 6.1
27

U.S. Census Bureau

tion and in length of residence in the

United States, as discussed in Section 1 and Section 6, respectively.

The age structure of the

foreign-born population

has changed dramatically

since 1960.

The median age of the foreignborn population dropped from 57 to

37 between 1960 and 1990 and has

not changed significantly since 1990

(Figure 10-3).3 The proportion of

the foreign-born population 25 to 44

years old rose from 19 percent in

1960 to 44 percent in 1997, and the

proportion 65 years old and over

dropped from 33 percent in 1960 to

11 percent in 1997. The sex ratio of

the foreign-born population dropped

from 96 in 1960 to 84 in 1970 and

then rose to 101 in 1997. These

changes reflect the long-term trends

in immigration, as discussed in

Section 1, and the higher age-specific

mortality rates for males than for females in the older ages.

1

The apparent difference in sex ratios between noncitizens (105) and naturalized citizens (94) was not statistically significant.

Data from the 1990 census show a higher sex

ratio for noncitizens (102) than for naturalized

citizens (87) (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1993,

Table 1). 2

The proportions of 7.0 percent for Latin

America and 7.8 percent for Asia do not differ

significantly. 3

The age groups in Figure 10-3 include under age 15 and 15 to 24 years old rather than

under age 18 and 18 to 24 years old because

data on the latter two groups are not available

for all censuses back to 1960.

Figure 10-2.

Age and Gender of the Foreign-Born Population by Region of Birth: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Population

(in millions)

0.5

1.5

1.8

7.0

8.8

2.8

13.1

0.6

6.8

4.3

Total 25.8 1

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

Caribbean

Central America

Mexico

Other

South America

Northern America

1Total includes Oceania and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 10-1D.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999a, Table 7, and 1999b, Tables 10-1A and 10-2A.

Percent distribution by age

Under 18 45-64 18-24 65+ 25-44

Median

age

(years)

37.4

50.8

37.7

35.6

34.2

41.7

31.9

31.5

33.6

37.4

47.0

100.9

78.9

99.1

162.0

110.7

92.8

120.1

126.9

96.7

95.7

65.2

Sex ratio

(males 

per 100

females)

10.2 11.4 43.5 24.1 10.8

6.3 6.4 27.0 33.8 26.5

9.6 10.4 46.5 25.8 7.8

8.1 12.0 53.4 22.9 3.5

11.9 14.0 47.3 19.8 7.0

8.9 9.4 39.8 27.1 14.8

13.0 16.3 49.8 16.4 4.6

13.8 16.5 49.1 16.3 4.3

9.7 15.2 52.7 16.7 5.7

10.7 9.2 46.9 26.2 7.0

5.6 4.0 37.3 29.5 23.8

Figure 10-3.

Age and Gender of the Foreign-Born Population: 1960 to 1997

(For 1960-90, resident population. For 1997, civilian noninstitutional population plus 

Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Population

(in millions)

9.7

9.6

14.1

19.8

1997 25.8

1990

1980

1970

1960

Percent distribution by age

Under 15 45-64 15-24 65+ 25-44

Median

age

(years)

37.4

37.3

39.9

52.0

57.2

100.9

95.8

87.8

84.4

95.6

Sex ratio

(males 

per 100

females)

7.5

7.5

14.1 43.5 24.1 10.8

15.0 41.9 22.0 13.6

8.8 14.7 33.6 21.6 21.2

6.3 8.8 25.9 27.0 32.0

5.2 5.2 19.5 37.5 32.6
28

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 11.

Household Size and Type

On average, foreign-born

households are larger than

native households.

In 1997, 10.4 million, or 10.3 percent, of the 101 million households

in the United States had a foreignborn householder (Figure 11-1). The

average household size of foreignborn households (3.32) was considerably larger than of native households (2.56). Foreign-born households had larger average numbers

both of adults (18 years old and

over), 2.29 versus 1.89, and of children (under age 18 years), 1.03 versus 0.67.

Among households with a

foreign-born householder, average

household size was smallest where

length of residence in the United

States was 20 years and over

(2.94).1

Average household size was

larger where the householder was

not a citizen than where the

householder was a citizen. This

was the case overall (3.57 versus

3.01) and for each of several

categories of length of residence:

5 to 9 years, 10 to 19 years, and

20 years and over.2

The foreign-born proportion of

households (10.3 percent) exceeds

the foreign-born proportion of the

population (9.7 percent), even

though average household size is

substantially larger among foreignborn households than among native

households. This anomaly reflects

the definition of household nativity

based on the nativity of the householder and the fact that a substantial proportion of members of

foreign-born households, especially

children, are native (with U.S. citizenship at birth) rather than

foreign born.

One-third of the

members of foreign-born

households are native.

The average size of native

households (2.56) in 1997 included

2.53 native members and only 0.03

foreign-born members. The average size of foreign-born households

(3.32) included 2.19 foreign-born

members and 1.13 native members.

Native members thus represented 34

A household is a person or

group of people who occupy a

housing unit. The householder

is usually the household member, or one of the household

members, in whose name the

housing unit is owned or rented.

A family is made up of two or

more people living together who

are related by blood, marriage, or

adoption, one of whom is the

householder.

Households are classified as

foreign born or native based on

the nativity of the householder,

regardless of the nativity of other

household members. For simplicity, a household with a native

householder is referred to also as

a native household, and a household with a foreign-born householder is referred to also as a

foreign-born household.

Figure 11-1.

Households by Nativity, Length of Residence in the United States, and 

Citizenship Status of the Householder: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post 

or with their families on post)

Households

(in millions)

Percent distribution of households by type

5.8

4.6

4.3

3.1

3.0

10.4

90.6

Total 101.0

Native

Foreign born

Length of residence in U.S.

Less than 10 years

10 to 19 years

20 years and over

Citizenship status

Naturalized citizen

Not a citizen

Married couple Male 

householder

Male 

householder1

Female 

householder

Female 

householder2

Family households Nonfamily households Average

household 

size

2.64

2.56

3.32

3.43

3.73

2.94

3.01

3.57

1

Male householder, no wife present. 2Female householder, no husband present.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 11-1A, 11-1B, and 11-1C.

53.1

52.6

57.4

56.2

59.6

56.6

58.4

56.6

3.8 12.7 13.6 16.9

3.6 12.6 13.8 17.5

5.7 13.1 11.8 12.0

7.6 12.9 15.6 7.7

6.8 15.0 11.3 7.3

3.6 11.7 9.6 18.5

4.8 11.4 10.2 15.2

6.4 14.4 13.1 9.4
29

U.S. Census Bureau

percent of all members of foreignborn households. In absolute numbers, there were 11.8 million native

members of the 10.4 million foreignborn households in 1997 compared

with only 2.9 million foreign-born

members of the 90.6 million native

households.

The distribution of households by

size differs sharply between foreignborn and native households. Among

foreign-born households, about the

same proportion had 1 member (19

percent) as had 5 or more members

(21 percent). Among native households, 26 percent had 1 member and

only 9 percent had 5 or more members.

Family households, which include married-couple families, malehouseholder families (no wife

present), and female-householder

families (no husband present), represented 76 percent of foreign-born

households versus 69 percent of native households in 1997. Marriedcouple families, which generally

have the highest average number of

members among the different household types, represented 57 percent of

foreign-born households versus 53

percent of native households.

Household size varies

by region of birth of

the householder.

Of the 10.4 million households

in 1997 with a foreign-born householder, 4.9 million, or 47 percent,

of the householders were from

Latin America (Figure 11-2). An

additional 2.7 million householders

were from Asia, and 2.2 million

were from Europe. Average household size among these foreign-born

households ranged from 3.84 with

householders from Latin America

to 2.41 with householders from

Europe.

Average household size among

foreign-born households with

householders from Mexico was

4.38 compared with 3.32 for all

foreign-born households. The

higher figure for households with a

householder from Mexico reflects a

higher proportion of marriedcouple families (65 percent versus

57 percent) and a lower proportion

of householders 65 years and over

(6 percent versus 15 percent).3

1

The apparent differences in average

household size when length of residence was

less than 10 years (3.43) compared to 10 to

19 years (3.73) are not statistically significant.2

Under 5 years is excluded because very

few individuals in this category have become

naturalized citizens. 3

Elderly householders are less likely to

have children still living at home. Data on

fertility from the 1990 census show that

among women 35 to 44 years old, the average numbers of children ever born were 2.3

for all foreign-born women and 3.3 for

foreign-born women from Mexico (U.S.

Bureau of the Census, 1993a, Table 1).

Figure 11-2.

Foreign-Born Households by Region of Birth of the Householder: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post 

or with their families on post)

Households

(in millions)

Percent distribution of households by type

0.3

0.6

0.6

2.4

3.0

1.2

4.9

0.3

2.7

2.2

Total 10.4 3

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

Caribbean

Central America

Mexico

Other

South America

Northern America

Married couple Male 

householder

Male 

householder1

Female 

householder

Female 

householder2

Family households Nonfamily households Average

household 

size

3.32

2.41

3.26

2.91

3.84

3.16

4.26

4.38

3.81

3.17

2.26

1

Male householder, no wife present. 2Female householder, no husband present. 3Total includes Oceania and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 11-1D.

57.4 5.7 13.1 11.8 12.0

52.1 3.1 8.5 12.4 23.9

62.4 6.2 8.1 14.1 9.2

49.6 6.8 10.3 23.9 9.4

57.8 6.9 18.3 9.1 8.0

47.9 4.7 25.2 10.0 12.2

62.7 8.1 15.1 8.4 5.7

65.4 8.0 13.0 8.5 5.1

52.1 8.5 22.9 8.3 8.2

53.6 5.6 20.2 10.3 10.4

46.5

1.5

10.0 22.5 19.5
30

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 12.

Families and Own Children

Family size and type differ

between foreign-born and

native families.

In 1997, 7.9 million, or 11 percent, of the 70.2 million families in

the United States had a foreign-born

householder (Figure 12-1). The average size of foreign-born families

was 3.84 compared with 3.11 for native families. Foreign-born families

had larger average numbers both of

adults (18 years old and over), 2.51

versus 2.16, and of children (under

age 18 years), 1.33 versus 0.95.

Of the 7.9 million families in

1997 with a foreign-born householder, 6.0 million were marriedcouple families, 1.4 million were

families with a female householder

(no husband present), and 0.6 million were families with a male

householder (no wife present). Of

the 62.3 million families with native

householders, 47.6 million were

married-couple families, 11.4 million

were female-householder families,

and 3.3 million were male-householder families. Married-couple

families thus represented 75 percent

of all foreign-born families and 76

percent of all native families, not significantly different from each other.

Average family size was 3.99 for

married-couple families with a

foreign-born householder and 3.16

for their native counterparts.

Three-fifths of marriedcouple families with a

foreign-born householder

have one or more

own children.

Among married-couple families

in 1997, 60 percent of those with a

foreign-born householder had one

or more own children under 18

years old compared with 45 percent

of those with a native householder

(Figure 12-1). The proportions

among foreign-born families were

higher than among native families

for one or two children (44 percent

versus 36 percent), and for three or

more children (16 percent versus 9

percent).

A family is made up of two

or more people living together

who are related by birth, marriage, or adoption, one of whom

is the householder.

Own children under age 18

are never-married sons and

daughters of the householder, including step- and adopted children.

Families are classified as foreign born or native based on the

nativity of the householder, regardless of the nativity of other

family members. For simplicity,

a family with a native householder is referred to also as a native family, and a family with a

foreign-born householder is referred to also as a foreign-born

family.

Figure 12-1.

Families by Type, Nativity of Householder, and Number of Own Children: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post 

or with their families on post)

Households

(in millions)

Percent distribution of families by number of own children under 18 years old

1.4

11.4

12.8

0.6

3.3

3.8

6.0

47.6

53.6

7.9

62.3

Total families 70.2

Native householder

Foreign-born householder

Married-couple families

Native householder

Foreign-born householder

Male householder, no wife present

Native householder

Foreign-born householder

Female householder, no husband present

Native householder

Foreign-born householder

None 3 or more 1 2

Average

family

size

3.19

3.11

3.84

3.25

3.16

3.99

3.02

2.98

3.36

2.85

2.74

3.42

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 12-1A.

50.6

51.8

42.0

53.2

54.9

39.5

55.6

52.8

70.9

38.4

38.3

39.9

20.4

20.1

22.5

17.7 18.9 10.1

18.9 10.0

18.7 9.4

20.9 14.7

17.3 18.5 9.3

21.5 22.6 16.4

26.1

27.5

18.3

13.3

14.3

8.2

5.0

5.4

2.6

29.9

30.0

28.6

20.6

20.8

18.8

11.1

11.0

12.6
31

U.S. Census Bureau

Among the 1.4 million foreignborn families with a female householder (no husband present), 13

percent had three or more own

children, not significantly different

from 11 percent among the 11.4

million native families with a female householder.

One-seventh of marriedcouples families include at

least one foreign-born spouse.

Of the 53.6 million marriedcouple families in 1997, 7.7 million,

or 14 percent, included at least one

foreign-born spouse (Figure 12-2).

Average size of these families varied

by nativity of the husband.1 The 4.8

million families with both husband

and wife foreign born had an average

family size of 4.12. In contrast the

1.7 million families with husband

native and wife foreign born had an

average size of 3.07. The 1.3 million

families with husband foreign born

and wife native had an average size

of 3.66. In contrast, the 45.9 million

families with both husband and wife

native had an average size of 3.16.

The average size of marriedcouple families with both spouses

foreign born (4.12) included 2.85

foreign-born members and 1.27 native members. Native members thus

represented 31 percent of all members of these families. For marriedcouple families with husband foreign

born and wife native, 67 percent of

family members were native, not significantly different from the 66 percent of family members who were

native in married-couple families

with spouses’ nativities reversed

(husband native and wife foreign

born). In married-couple families

with both spouses native, virtually

all members were native: only 0.1

percent were foreign born.

One quarter of married-couple

families with a householder

from Latin America had three

or more own children.

In 1997, 60 percent of marriedcouple families with a foreign-born

householder had one or more own

children under 18 years old. The

proportion ranged from 38 percent

with householders from Europe to

69 percent with householders from

Latin America. Among marriedcouple families with householders

from Mexico, the proportion was

79 percent.

In comparison to the 16 percent

of married-couple families with a

foreign-born householder who had

three or more own children, the

proportion ranged from 6 percent

with householders from Europe to

24 percent with householders from

Latin America. Among marriedcouple families with householders

from Mexico, 32 percent had three

or more own children.

1

The apparent differences in average family size when the nativity of the wife varies are

not statistically significant.

Figure 12-2.

Married-Couple Families by Nativity of Spouses and Age of Household Members: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post 

or with their families on post)

Families

(in millions)

Average number of family members

45.9

1.7

1.3

4.8

Total married-couple families 53.6

Foreign born Foreign born

Foreign born Native

Native Foreign born

Native Native

Under age 18 Age 18 and over Age 18 and over Under age 18

1

Includes an average of 0.04 foreign-born family members. 

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 12-4.

Native Foreign born

4.12

3.66

3.07

3.161

3.25

0.87

0.74

1.19

1.08

0.89 2.04

0.04

0.28

0.19

2.28

1.27

0.02

1.04

0.38 2.47

1.26

0.07

1.14

Husband Wife
32

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 13.

Educational Attainment

Educational levels among

the foreign-born and native

populations differ only

below the college level.

In 1997, the proportion of the

population 25 years old and over

who had completed high school or

more education was lower among

the foreign-born population (65 percent) than among the native population (84 percent) (Figure 13-1). The

difference was confined to the proportions who were high school

graduates only or who had some college but less than a bachelor’s degree.

The proportion who had a bachelor’s

degree or more education was 24

percent for both the foreign-born and

native populations. The similarity

between college educational levels

extended to the graduate level as

well. The proportion with a graduate degree was 9 percent for the foreign-born population and 8 percent

for the native population.

For the foreign-born population

25 years old and over, the proportion who had completed high

school or more education was 78

percent for naturalized citizens

compared with 56 percent for those

who were not citizens. The difference by citizenship status was

greater than by length of residence

in the United States.

Among individuals with less

than a high school education (35 percent for the foreign-born population

and 16 percent for the native population), the distributions by educational attainment differed sharply.

Among the foreign-born population,

the proportions of the population 25

years old and over with less than 5

years of school, with 5 to 8 years,

and with 9 to 12 years (but not high

school graduates), were 8 percent, 16

percent, and 11 percent, respectively.

The corresponding figures for the native population were 1 percent,

5 percent, and 10 percent. Among

individuals with less than a high

school education, those with less

than 5 years of school represented

about 1 in 4 of the foreign-born

population, but only about 1 in 20

of the native population.

Differences in graduate level

education between males and

females are greater for the

foreign-born population than

for the native population.

Educational distributions by gender differ somewhat among the

foreign-born population. In 1997,

the proportion of the foreign-born

population 25 years old and over

who had completed high school or

more education was 65 percent for

males and for females; however, the

proportion with a bachelor’s degree

or more education was higher for

males (27 percent) than for females

(22 percent). This difference was

entirely among the proportions with

a graduate degree or higher: 12 percent for males and 6 percent for females.

For the native population 25

years old and over in 1997, 84 percent of males and of females had

completed high school or more education. The proportion with a

bachelor’s degree or more education

was higher for males (26 percent)

than for females (22 percent).1

 The

proportion with a graduate degree

was also higher for males (9 percent)

than for females (6 percent).

Educational differences exist

also among the population

ages 25 to 34 years.

Because educational levels among

adults differ by age (with lower educational levels among the population

65 years old and over than among

younger adults) and because the age

structures of the foreign-born and

native populations differ (as discussed in Section 10), it is of interest

to compare educational levels among

the population 25 to 34 years old, the

youngest age span in which the large

majority of individuals have completed their formal education.2

In 1997, the proportion of the

population 25 to 34 years old who

had completed high school or more

education was lower among the

foreign-born population (67 percent)

than among the native population

(91 percent). The proportion who

had a bachelor’s degree or more education was 25 percent for the

foreign-born population 25 to 34

years old, not significantly different

from 27 percent for the native population. At the lower end of the educational spectrum, the proportions of

the population 25 to 34 years old

with less than 5 years of school were

5 percent for the foreign-born population and only 0.2 percent for the

native population.

Educational levels of the

foreign-born population

differ by region of birth.

Among the foreign-born population 25 years old and over in 1997,

the proportion who had completed

high school or more education was

65 percent. The proportion was

well above 65 percent for the

foreign-born population from Europe, Asia, Africa, and Northern

America (Figure 13-2). The proportion was only 47 percent for the

foreign-born population from Latin

America; however, there was considerable variation among the subregions of Latin America, ranging

from 78 percent for the foreignborn population from South

America to 31 percent for the

foreign-born population from

Mexico.
33

U.S. Census Bureau

Of the foreign-born population

25 years old and over from Mexico,

the 69 percent who had less than a

high school education included 18

percent with less than 5 years of

school, 34 percent with 5 to 8 years,

and 17 percent with 9 to 12 years

(not significantly different from 18

percent). The median educational

level of the foreign-born population

from Mexico was thus about 8 years.

1

The apparent gender differential between

the foreign-born and native populations in the

proportions with bachelor’s degrees is not statistically significant. 2

The discussion of educational levels for

the population 25 to 34 years old is limited to a

comparison of foreign-born and native populations. The sample is not large enough to identify small, but substantively important, differences between foreign-born males and females

in the 25 to 34 years age group.

Figure 13-1.

Educational Attainment of the Population 25 Years Old and Over by Nativity,

Length of Residence in the United States, and Citizenship Status: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post 

or with their families on post)

Population

(in millions)

12.0

8.2

7.7

6.2

6.3

20.2

150.4

Total 170.6

Native

Foreign born

Length of residence in U.S.

Less than 10 years

10 to 19 years

20 years and over

Citizenship status

Naturalized citizen

Not a citizen

Less than high 

school graduate

Bachelor's degree

or more

High school

graduate

Some college, less 

than bachelor's degree

Percent 

high school

graduate

or more

82.1

84.4

65.3

63.8

63.6

68.0

78.2

56.5

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 13-1A, 13-1B, and 13-1C.

17.9

15.6

34.7

33.8 24.5 23.9

35.1 25.5 23.8

23.6 17.2 24.5

36.2 22.1 14.0 27.7

36.4 22.4 16.8 24.5

32.0 25.8 20.3 21.8

21.8 31.3 21.7 25.2

43.5 22.5 14.2 19.8

Percent of total

Figure 13-2.

Educational Attainment of the Foreign-Born Population 

25 Years Old and Over by Region of Birth: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post 

or with their families on post)

Population

(in millions)

0.5

1.2

1.3

4.9

6.2

2.3

9.7

0.4

5.5

3.7

Total 20.2 1

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

Caribbean

Central America

Mexico

Other

South America

Northern America

Percent

high school

graduate

or more

65.3

79.0

83.9

88.1

47.0

62.4

35.4

31.3

50.7

77.6

84.3

1Total includes Oceania and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 13-1D.

Less than high 

school graduate

Bachelor's degree

or more

High school

graduate

Some college, less 

than bachelor's degree

Percent of total

34.7

21.0

16.1

11.9

53.0

37.6

64.6

68.7

49.3

22.4

15.7

23.6 17.2 24.5

30.6 19.7 28.7

21.1 18.3 44.6

17.4 21.8 48.9

22.3 14.7 10.1

27.4 19.9 15.1

19.1 10.7 5.6

17.2 9.5 4.6

26.4 15.1 9.3

28.9 25.2 23.5

28.7 28.3 27.3
34

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 14.

Labor Force Participation

The foreign-born population

accounts for 12 percent of

the civilian labor force.

In March 1997, the foreign-born

population accounted for 15.6 million, or 12 percent, of the total civilian labor force of 135 million.1

 The

labor force participation rate of the

foreign-born population was 66 percent, not significantly different from

67 percent for the native population.

The patterns of labor force

participation rates by gender

differ between the foreignborn and native populations.

The labor force participation

rate in 1997 was higher for foreignborn males (79 percent) than for

native males (74 percent), as

shown in Figure 14-1. The difference is due primarily to differences

in age structure and not to differences in age-specific labor force

participation rates. Males 25 to 54

years old, who had the highest participation rates, represented 65 percent of foreign-born males 16 years

old and over, compared with 58

percent of native males 16 years

old and over. Males 65 years old

and over, who had the lowest participation rates, represented 10 percent of foreign-born males 16 years

old and over, compared with 14

percent of native males 16 years

old and over. In each case — for

males 25 to 54 years old and for

males 65 years old and over — the

labor force participation rates by

nativity were about the same.

For females, the labor force participation rate was lower among

the foreign-born population (53

percent) than among the native

population (61 percent). In contrast to the situation for males, the

difference for females is due to differences in age-specific labor force

participation rates and not to differences in age structure. In the 25

to 54 age span, which accounts for

most of the labor force, the participation rates were 66 percent for

foreign-born females and 78 percent for native females.

Labor force participation

rates for foreign-born

females differ sharply by

citizenship status.

Among foreign-born males, labor

force participation rates in the 25 to

54 age span did not differ greatly by

length of residence in the United

States or by citizenship status (Figure 14-2). Among foreign-born females, the labor force participation

rate was lowest for those with length

of residence less than 10 years (57

percent), and it was lower among

those who were not citizens (60 percent) than among those who were

naturalized citizens (77 percent).

For foreign-born males in 1997,

labor force participation rates for the

25 to 54 age span did not vary

greatly by region of birth (Figure 14-

3); however, there was more variation among females. For females

born in Mexico, the labor force participation rate was 52 percent compared with 66 percent for all foreignborn females.

The unemployment rate is

higher for the foreign-born

labor force than for the native

labor force.

In March 1997, the overall unemployment rate was 5.6 percent.2

The unemployment rate was higher

among the foreign-born labor force

(6.9 percent) than among the native labor force (5.4 percent).3

Among males, the apparent difference in unemployment rates (6.5

percent for the foreign-born labor

force and 5.9 percent for the native

labor force) is not statistically significant. Among females, the unemployment rate was higher for the

foreign-born labor force (7.4 percent) than for the native labor

force (4.9 percent).

The unemployment rate for the

foreign-born labor force in March

1997 varied by region of birth. It

was 8.8 percent for the foreign-born

labor force from Latin America and

4.4 percent for the foreign-born labor

force from Asia.

1

Labor force data for March 1997 in this

section differ slightly from data for March

1997 published by the U.S. Bureau of Labor

Statistics (BLS) due to the use by BLS of a

composite estimation procedure that reduces

sampling error, especially in estimates of

month-to-month change. In addition, the data

in this section differ from annual-average data

and from seasonally adjusted data published by

BLS (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1997, especially pp. 164-165 and 188-189). 2

Unemployment rates may fluctuate significantly from month to month, due partly to

seasonal patterns. See U.S. Bureau of Labor

Statistics, 1997, pp. 188-189. 3

There is no statistical difference between

unemployment rates for the total labor force

and the native labor force.

The civilian labor force is the

civilian noninstitutional population 16 years old and over

who are employed (have a job),

or who are unemployed (without a job, available for work,

and actively seeking work).

The labor force participation

rate is the proportion of the civilian population 16 years old

and over in the labor force. The

unemployment rate is the proportion of the civilian labor

force that is unemployed.
35

U.S. Census Bureau

0.2

2.1

0.9

6.1

7.0

45.3

1.0

6.0

0.3

3.6

9.3

63.1

0.1

1.5

0.7

5.1

4.8

40.7

0.5

5.8

0.2

3.5

6.3

56.6

Figure 14-1.

Labor Force Participation Rates of the Population 16 Years Old 

and Over by Nativity and Gender for Selected Age Groups: 1997

(Percent of the civilian noninstitutional population)

Figure 14-2.

Labor Force Participation Rates of the Population 25 to 54 Years Old by Nativity,

Length of Residence in the United States, Citizenship Status, and Gender: 1997

(Percent of civilian noninstitutional population)

16 years old and over

16 to 19 years

20 to 24 years

25 to 54 years

55 to 64 years

65 years and over

Males Females

Males Females

Labor force

(in millions)

Labor force

(in millions)

Labor force

(in millions)

Labor force

(in millions)

78.8

73.6

42.4

49.6

78.7

80.9

91.5

91.3

75.6

66.8

17.2

17.1

Foreign born

Native

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 14-1A.

53.4

60.6

39.7

49.9

52.5

75.3

66.0

78.3

47.7

52.3

7.9

8.9

0.4

0.5

2.2

2.7

0.6

3.8

0.3

1.9

0.8

7.0

0.3

0.4

0.9

1.3

0.6

2.3

1.5

0.7

4.8

Figure 14-3.

Labor Force Participation Rates of the Foreign-Born Population 

25 to 54 Years Old by Region of Birth and Gender: 1997

(Percent of the civilian noninstitutional population)

Total1

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

 Caribbean

 Central America

 Mexico

 Other

 South America

Males Females

Labor force

(in millions)

Labor force

(in millions)

1Total includes Africa (females), Oceania, Northern America, and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 14-3D.

7.0

45.3

52.3

1.8

2.5

2.6

4.6

2.4

4.8

40.7

45.5

1.4

1.8

1.6

2.8

1.9

Total

Native 

Foreign born

Length of residence in 

the United States

Less than 10 years

10 to 19 years

20 years and over

Citizenship status

Naturalized citizen

Not a citizen

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 14-3A, 14-3B, and 14-3C.

76.7

78.3

66.0

57.3

69.9

72.9

76.7

60.2

91.3

91.3

91.5

89.5

93.2

92.3

93.9

90.4

91.5

92.8

89.0

85.2

92.6

85.9

94.1

95.8

93.7

93.4

(See footnote 1)

66.0

71.9

69.4

61.6

73.8

55.6

51.5

68.9

70.3
36

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 15.

Occupation

Occupational distribution

of foreign-born workers

differs sharply from that

of native workers.

In March 1997, managerial and

professional specialty occupations

accounted for 24 percent of

foreign-born workers compared

with 30 percent of native workers

(Figure 15-1).1 Technical, sales,

and administrative support occupations accounted for an additional

22 percent of foreign-born workers

compared with an additional 31

percent of native workers.2 As a

result, these two occupational

groups together accounted for 46

percent of foreign-born workers

compared with 61 percent of native

workers.

Higher proportions of foreignborn workers than of native

workers were in the following

three occupational groups: service

occupations (19 percent versus 13

percent);3 operators, fabricators,

and laborers (also 19 percent

versus 13 percent); and farming,

forestry, and fishing occupations

(4.7 percent versus 2.2 percent).

Precision production, craft, and

repair occupations accounted for

11 percent of both foreign-born

and native workers.

Naturalized citizen workers

and native workers have

similar occupational

distributions.

The differences in occupational

distributions between foreign-born

and native workers described above

are reflected in differences among

foreign-born workers by length of

residence in the United States and by

citizenship status (Figure 15-1). In

1997, managerial and professional

specialty occupations accounted for

31 percent of foreign-born workers

who had lived in the United States

for 20 years and over compared with

19 percent for those who had lived in

the United States less than 10 years.

In contrast, operators, fabricators,

and laborers accounted for 13 percent of foreign-born workers who

had lived in the United States 20

years and over compared with 23

percent for those who had lived in

the United States less than 10 years.

The occupational classification system used here and

by the Bureau of Labor Statistics is the one used in the

1990 census and is based

largely on the 1980 Standard

Occupational Classification

(SOC). This system includes

501 detailed occupational categories which can be combined into the 6 summary occupational groups discussed

in this section. The data on

occupation are for the employed civilian population 16

years old and over (as discussed in Section 14 on labor

force) who are referred to in

this section as workers.

Figure 15-1.

Major Occupation Group of Workers 16 Years Old and Over by 

Nativity, Length of Residence in the United States, 

and Citizenship Status: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population)

Workers

(in millions)

9.0

5.5

4.3

5.0

5.1

14.5

113.2

Total 127.7

Native

Foreign born

Length of residence in U.S.

Less than 10 years

10 to 19 years

20 years and over

Citizenship status

Naturalized citizen

Not a citizen

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 15-1A, 15-1B, and 15-1C.

Managerial and professional specialty

Technical, sales, and administrative support

Service occupations

Precision production, craft, and repair

Operators, fabricators, and laborers

Farming, forestry, and fishing

29.4 29.8 13.6 10.8 14.0 2.5

30.1 30.8 12.9 10.7 13.4 2.2

23.7 22.3 19.1 11.3 18.9 4.7

18.9 18.1 22.4 11.4 22.9 6.4

22.5 24.4 17.7 11.2 19.6 4.5

30.8 24.9 16.7 11.2 13.5 2.9

33.0 28.4 14.7 9.7 12.6

1.6

18.0 18.6 21.8 12.2 22.8 6.5

Percent distribution by major occupation group
37

U.S. Census Bureau

Among foreign-born workers in

1997, managerial and professional

specialty occupations accounted for

33 percent of workers who were

naturalized citizens versus 18 percent of workers who were not citizens. In contrast, operators, fabricators, and laborers accounted for 13

percent of naturalized-citizen workers versus 23 percent of workers

who were not citizens.

While the occupational distribution of naturalized-citizen workers

differs greatly from that of workers

who are not citizens, it is closer to

the occupational distribution of native workers. In 1997, the proportions in each of the six summary occupational groups for naturalizedcitizen workers and native workers

were significantly different from

each other but were relatively small.

Occupational distributions of

foreign-born workers differ

greatly by region of birth.

As would be expected given differences in length of residence,

citizenship status, and educational

attainment by region of birth of the

foreign-born population, there are

major differences in occupational

distributions (Figure 15-2). In

1997, professional and managerial

specialty occupations accounted for

38 percent of workers from Europe

and 36 percent of workers from

Asia compared with 11 percent of

workers from Latin America.4

(The proportions of the foreignborn population 25 years old and

over with a bachelor’s degree or

more education were 29 percent

from Europe, 45 percent from Asia,

and 10 percent from Latin

America.) Among foreign-born

workers from Latin America, the

proportions in professional and

managerial specialty occupations

ranged from 23 percent for workers

from South America and 19 percent for workers from the Caribbean to 6 percent of workers from

Mexico.5

In 1997, operators, fabricators,

and laborers , who accounted for 19

percent of foreign-born workers,

accounted for 26 percent of workers

from Latin America and for 11 percent of all other foreign-born workers. Farming, forestry, and fishing

occupations, which accounted for 4.7

percent of foreign-born workers, accounted for 8.1 percent of workers

from Latin America and for 1.1 percent of all other foreign-born workers. Among foreign-born workers

from Mexico, 31 percent were in the

operators, fabricators, and laborers

occupational group, and 13 percent

were in the farming, forestry, and

fishing occupational group.

1

See Section 14, footnote 1, concerning

labor force data for March 1997. 2

There was no significant difference in the

percentages between the two occupational

groups for foreign-born workers or for native

workers. 3

Service occupations exclude professional

specialty occupations (e.g., engineers, scientists, physicians, nurses, teachers, lawyers, and

judges). 4

The proportions for Europe and Asia are

not significantly different from each other. 5

The proportions for South America and

the Caribbean are not significantly different

from each other.

Figure 15-2.

Major Occupation Group of Foreign-Born Workers

16 Years Old and Over by Region of Birth: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population)

Workers

(in millions)

0.3

0.9

1.1

3.8

5.0

1.5

7.4

0.4

4.1

2.1

Total 14.5 1

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

Caribbean

Central America

Mexico

Other

South America

Northern America

1Total includes Oceania and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 15-1D.

Managerial and professional specialty

Technical, sales, and administrative support

Service occupations

Precision production, craft, and repair

Operators, fabricators, and laborers

Farming, forestry, and fishing

23.7 22.3 19.1 11.3 18.9 4.7

37.8 25.7 16.4 10.4 8.7 0.9

35.8 29.5 13.0 7.0 13.4 1.3

26.1 32.3 25.1 5.4 10.5 0.7

11.4 16.5 23.6 14.2 26.2 8.1

19.0 25.4 24.5 9.5 19.3 2.4

7.0 12.2 23.4 16.6 29.8 11.1

5.8 10.9 21.9 17.5 30.7 13.2

11.0 16.7 28.3 13.3 26.7 3.9

23.3 25.8 23.4 8.8 17.4 1.3

46.5 28.5 10.5 10.4 3.8 0.3

Percent distribution by major occupation group
38

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 16.

Money Income of Households and Families

Income is lower among

foreign-born households than

among native households.

In 1996, median income for all

households was $35,500. (Income

estimates in this report are rounded

to hundreds of dollars.) Median income for households with a foreignborn householder was $30,000 compared with $36,100 for households

with a native householder (Figure

16-1). Among foreign-born households, 43 percent had incomes below

$25,000, and 29 percent had incomes

of $50,000 and over. Among native

households, the proportion was 35

percent for each category.

The lower income of foreignborn households is not accounted for

by differences in age of householder

or household size. For example, for

households with householder 45 to

54 years—when household income

peaks—median income in 1996 was

$41,900 for foreign-born households

and $51,400 for native households.

For households with householders

65 years old and over, the corresponding medians were $16,100 and

$19,700, respectively. For two-person households, median income was

$28,500 for foreign-born households

and $38,000 for native households.

For four-person households, the corresponding medians were $38,100

and $52,800, respectively.

As discussed in Section 11, the

average size of foreign-born households in 1997 was considerably

larger than that of native households: 3.32 versus 2.56. The average number of earners in 1996 per

foreign-born household was 1.60

versus 1.39 for native households.1

The lower proportion of earners

among members of foreign-born

households (48 percent) than

among native households (54 percent) reflects the higher proportion

of household members under age

18 in foreign-born households.

Among foreign-born households,

median income in 1996 ranged from

$33,100 when the householder’s

length of residence in the United

States was 20 years or more to

$25,900 when the householder’s

length of residence was less than 10

years (Figure 16-1). Median income

was considerably higher when the

householder was a naturalized citizen than when the householder was

not a citizen: $37,400 versus

$25,700.

Asian households have the

highest income among

foreign-born households.

In 1996, households with a

householder born in Asia had a median income of $42,900 (Figure 16-

2). This was well above the median

income of households with foreignborn householders from Europe, and

was also well above the median income of native households.2

The high income of households

with a foreign-born householder

from Asia appears to reflect two factors. The first factor is the relatively

high proportion of foreign-born

workers in managerial and professional specialty occupations among

foreign-born workers from Asia, a

characteristic which is shared with

foreign-born workers from Europe,

as shown in Section 15.3 The second

factor is the relatively low proportion

of householders from Asia who are

65 years old and over, a characteristic not shared with householders

from Europe.4

The average numbers of earners

and of full-time, year-round earners

in households with householders

from Asia (1.64 and 1.10, respectively) were not significantly different from the corresponding averages

for all households with a foreignborn householder (1.60 and 1.02, respectively). (Earnings of full-time,

year-round workers are discussed in

Section 17.)

The median income in 1996 of

households with a householder born

in Latin America was $24,100. The

median income of households with a

householder born in South America

($31,800) was higher than for households with the householder born

elsewhere in Latin America.

Married-couple families have

the highest income among

foreign-born families.

In 1996, the median income of

the 6.0 million married-couple families with a foreign-born householder

was $38,800 (Figure 16-3). This is

over twice the median income of the

1.4 million families maintained by a

foreign-born female with no husband

present ($16,800). Among these female-householder families, median

income was lower for families with

one or more related children under

18 years old ($13,400) than for families with no related children

($28,900).5

Data on income are based

on money income received

(excluding capital gains) before deductions for income

taxes, social security, union

dues, medicare deductions,

etc. Money income does not

include the value of noncash

benefits such as food stamps,

medicare, medicaid, public

housing, and employerprovided fringe benefits.

Noncash benefits are discussed in Sections 19 and 20.

For definitions of households

and families, see Sections 11

and 12. Data on income are

for the 1996 calendar year

and are based on the composition of households and families as of March 1997.
39

U.S. Census Bureau

In general, the income of native

families by type and presence or absence of related children was higher

than for foreign-born families. The

median income of married-couple

families with a native householder

was $50,800 compared with $38,800

for those with a foreign-born householder. For both foreign-born and

native families, the lowest median

income was for female-householder

families with one or more related

children: $13,400 and $16,800, respectively.

1

Earners include wage and salary workers

and nonfarm and farm self-employed workers. 2

The sample size of households with

householders from Africa or Northern

America is too small to identify substantively

important differences in income involving

these regions. 3

Among full-time, year-round workers,

median earnings for both males and females

were higher in 1996 for workers in managerial

and professional specialty occupations than for

workers in other occupations (U.S. Bureau of

the Census, 1997a, Table 7).

4

Median household income in 1996 for

both native households and foreign-born

households was much lower when householders were 65 years old and over (and thus more

likely to be retired) than when householders

were in the 25 to 64 age span (U.S. Bureau of

the Census, 1999b). 5

In contrast to own children, as defined in

Section 12, related children include grandchildren and other relatives of the householder as

well as children of the householder. In March

1997, there were 69.4 million related children

under 18 years old in the United States, including 63.9 million own children under age 18

(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1998a, Table 16).

Figure 16-1.

Median Household Income by Nativity, Length of 

Residence in the United States, and Citizenship 

Status of the Householder: 1996

(Households as of March 1997. Civilian noninstitutional population plus 

Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Households

(in millions)

5.8

4.6

4.3

3.1

3.0

10.4

90.6

Total 101.0

Native

Foreign born

Length of residence in U.S.

Less than 10 years

10 to 19 years

20 years and over

Citizenship status

Naturalized citizen

Not a citizen

$30,000

$33,100

$37,400

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 16-1A, 16-1B, and 16-1C.

$24,100

Figure 16-2.

Income of Foreign-Born Households by Region 

of Birth of the Householder: 1996

(Households as of March 1997. Civilian noninstitutional population 

plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Households

(in millions)

0.3

0.6

0.6

2.4

3.0

1.2

4.9

0.3

2.7

2.2

Total 10.4 1

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

Caribbean

Central America

Mexico

Other

South America

Northern America

1

Total includes Oceania and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 16-1D.

$25,700

$30,200

$25,900

$35,500

$36,100

$30,000

$31,300

$42,900

$31,300

$23,900

$23,000

$22,400

$25,400

$31,800

$35,000

Figure 16-3.

Median Family Income by Nativity of Householder, Type of Family, and 

Presence of Related Children Under 18 Years: 1996

(Families as of March 1997. Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces 

living off post or with their families on post)

Families with foreign-born householder Families with native householder

Families

(in millions)

Families

(in millions)

0.9

0.4

1.4

3.8

2.2

6.0

5.0

3.0

7.9

8.0

3.4

11.4

22.4

25.2

47.6

32.2

30.1

62.3

1

Includes male householder, no wife present.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 16-7.

Total families1

No related children1

One or more related children1

Married-couple families

No related children

One or more related children

Female householder, no husband present

No related children

One or more related children

$43,400

$44,700

$42,200

$50,800

$47,400

$53,800

$20,200

$30,700

$16,800

$33,000

$36,400

$31,300

$38,800

$40,300

$38,000

$16,800

$28,900

$13,400

Foreign-born householder

Native householder
40

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 17.

Earnings of Full-Time, Year-Round Workers

Earnings of full-time, yearround workers are lower for

foreign-born workers than for

their native counterparts.

In 1996, median earnings for all

full-time, year-round workers

(shortened to “workers” in the remainder of the text of this section)

were $32,100 for males and

$23,700 for females. (Earnings estimates in this report are rounded

to hundreds of dollars.) Median

earnings for foreign-born male and

female workers were $25,000 and

$20,800, respectively, compared

with $33,200 and $24,100, respectively, for native male and female

workers (Figure 17-1). The female-to-male earnings ratio was

higher for foreign-born workers

(.83) than for native workers (.73).

Among foreign-born male workers, 50 percent had earnings less

than $25,000, and 19 percent had

earnings of $50,000 and over.

Among their native counterparts, the

corresponding proportions were 31

percent and 26 percent, respectively.

Among foreign-born female

workers, 62 percent had earnings

less than $25,000, and 10 percent

had earnings of $50,000 and over.

Among their native counterparts, the

corresponding proportions were 52

percent and 9 percent, respectively.

Thus, even though the median earnings of foreign-born female workers

were lower than those of native female workers, the proportions with

earnings of $50,000 or more were

not significantly different.

Earnings of foreign-born

workers who are naturalized

citizens are slightly higher

than the earnings of other

foreign-born workers.

The median earnings of foreignborn male workers in 1996 ranged

from $19,900 for those living in the

United States less than 10 years to

$35,200 for those living in the

United States 20 years and over. The

corresponding figures for foreignborn female workers were $16,800

and $24,200.

For foreign-born male workers,

median earnings in 1996 were

$35,600 for naturalized citizens

and $20,500 for workers who were

not citizens. The corresponding

figures for foreign-born female

workers were $25,500 and

$17,200, respectively.

For males, median earnings of

foreign-born workers who had

lived in the United States for 20

years and over, or who were naturalized citizens, were slightly

higher than the median earnings of

their native counterparts.

Median earnings of workers

from Europe and Asia exceed

the median earnings of all

foreign-born workers.

Among workers from the regions

shown in Figure 17-2, those from

Europe and Asia generally had the

highest earnings. For males, median

earnings were $40,500 and $35,300,

respectively, and for females, median

earnings were $23,400 and $24,600,

respectively.1

The median earnings of workers

from Latin America were below the

median earnings of all foreign-born

workers. The median for male

workers from Latin America was

$18,600 (compared with $25,000),

and the median for female workers

from Latin America was $16,700

(compared with $20,800). The

female-to-male earnings ratio was

higher for foreign-born workers from

Latin America (.90) than for foreignborn workers from Asia (.70) or

from Europe (.58).

Median earnings for workers

from the Caribbean ($23,900 for

males and $20,200 for females) and

from South America ($25,200 for

males and $21,100 for females) were

not significantly different from each

other or from the medians for all

foreign-born workers. Among workers from Mexico, the median earnings of both males ($16,800) and females ($13,700) were below the respective medians for workers from

the Caribbean or South America.

1

The apparent differences in median earnings between workers from Europe and Asia

were not statistically significant for males or

for females. The median earnings of females

from Europe alone were not significantly different from the median earnings of all foreignborn females.

Earnings include money

wage or salary income from

work performed as an employee, net income from nonfarm self-employment, and

net income from farm selfemployment before deductions, including taxes. A fulltime, year-round worker is

one who worked 35 or more

hours per week for 50 or

more weeks during the previous calendar year.
41

U.S. Census Bureau

Figure 17-1.

Earnings of Full-Time, Year-Round Workers by Gender, Nativity, Length of 

Residence in the United States, and Citizenship Status: 1996

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post 

or with their families on post)

Workers

(in millions)

4.0

2.6

2.0

2.3

2.3

6.6

47.2

Total 53.8

Native

Foreign born

Length of residence in U.S.

Less than 10 years

10 to 19 years

20 years and over

Citizenship status

Naturalized citizen

Not a citizen

Less than 

$10,000

$50,000-

$74,999

$10,000-

$24,999

$25,000-

$49,999

Median

earnings

$32,100

$33,200

$25,000

$19,900

$23,600

$35,200

$35,600

$20,500

Percent distribution of workers by earnings

$75,000

and over

4.1

3.7

7.2

10.4

7.5

3.3

4.5

8.9

29.1

27.2

42.8

52.3

46.6

28.1

26.0

53.6

42.0 15.5 9.3

43.5 16.1 9.5

31.1 11.1 7.8

24.2 6.9 6.2

30.0 10.4 5.5

39.8 16.5 12.2

39.7 17.7 12.1

25.6 6.8 5.1

Males

2.1

1.7

1.3

1.4

1.1

3.7

32.7

Total 36.4

Native

Foreign born

Length of residence in U.S.

Less than 10 years

10 to 19 years

20 years and over

Citizenship status

Naturalized citizen

Not a citizen

Median

earnings

$23,700

$24,100

$20,800

$16,800

$20,500

$24,200

$25,500

$17,200

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 17-1A, 17-1B, and 17-1C.

6.6

6.1

10.4

16.5

10.0

6.0

5.6

14.4

46.6

46.0

51.9

56.6

54.0

45.9

42.7

59.3

37.4 7.0 2.4

38.4 7.0 2.4

28.0 7.2 2.5

19.2 5.3 2.2

26.0 7.3 2.8

37.2 8.7 2.4

38.3 9.5 3.9

19.7 5.4 1.3

Females

0.4

0.5

2.0

2.5

0.6

3.5

1.8

0.9

6.6

0.3

0.3

0.6

0.9

0.5

1.7

1.2

0.6

3.7

Figure 17-2.

Median Earnings of Foreign-Born Full-Time, Year-Round Workers 

by Gender and Region of Birth: 1996

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post 

or with their families on post)

Total1

Europe

Asia

Latin America

Caribbean

Central America

Mexico

Other

South America

Males Females

Workers

(in millions)

Workers

(in millions)

1

Total includes Africa, Oceania, Northern America, and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 17-1D.

$25,000

$40,500

$35,300

$18,600

$23,900

$16,800

$16,800

$25,200

$16,700

$20,800

$23,400

$24,600

$16,700

$20,200

$14,200

$13,700

$16,400

$21,100

Males

Females

Femaleto-male

earnings

ratio

.83

.58

.70

.90

.85

.85

.81

.98

.84
42

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 18.

Poverty Status

The poverty rate is higher

among the foreign-born

population than among the

native population.

In 1996, the poverty rate, which

was 13.7 percent for the total population, was 21.0 percent for the

foreign-born population and 12.9

percent for the native population

(Figure 18-1). Of the 36.5 million

individuals below the poverty level,

5.4 million, or 15 percent, were

foreign born.

Among the foreign-born population, the poverty rate ranged from

11 percent for those who had lived

in the United States for 20 years

and over to 29 percent for those

who had lived in the United States

for less than 10 years. The poverty

rate was 10 percent for naturalized

citizens compared with 27 percent

for noncitizens.

Poverty rates of the foreignborn population differ by

region of birth.

In 1996, the poverty rates for the

population born in Europe (13 percent) and in Asia (15 percent),

which were not significantly different from each other, were

one-half as high as the poverty rate

for the population born in Latin

America (28 percent) (Figure 18-2).

Among the foreign-born population

from Latin America, the poverty rate

ranged from 15 percent for the population from South America to 34 percent for the population from Mexico.

While the poverty rate is

higher for the foreign-born

population than for the native

population, the patterns by

characteristics such as gender,

age, and family type are

similar.

Among both males and females,

the poverty rate in 1996 was higher

for the foreign-born population

than for the native population (Figure 18-3). For the population under 18 years old, the poverty rate

for the foreign born (39 percent)

was twice as high as the poverty

rate for their native counterparts

(20 percent). For the 65 years old

and over age group, poverty rates

were much lower: 16 percent for

the foreign-born population compared with 10 percent for the native population.

In 1996, when the overall poverty rate for families was

11 percent, the poverty

rate was 20 percent for

families with foreign-born

householders, twice the

poverty rate of 10 percent

for families with native

householders. For families with a foreign-born

householder, poverty rates

in 1996 ranged from 10

percent for families with

no related children under

18 years old to 41 percent

for families with three or

more related children under 18 years old. The

corresponding range for families

with native householders was 4 percent to 24 percent.

Poverty rates are high for

children living in families with

foreign-born householders,

regardless of the children’s

nativity.

In 1996, the poverty rate for related children under 18 years old in

families with foreign-born householders was 32 percent (3.4 million

of 10.5 million). For the children

who were foreign born, the poverty

rate was 39 percent (0.9 million of

2.3 million). For the children who

were native, the poverty rate was 30

percent (2.5 million of 8.2 million).1

Native children accounted for about

three-quarters (2.5 million of 3.4

million) of the related children under

18 years old living below the poverty

level in families with foreign-born

householders.

Poverty rates would be lower

under an alternative

definition of income that

includes the value of meanstested noncash benefits.

Using an alternative definition of

income that adds the value of meanstested noncash transfers (e.g., food

stamps, housing assistance, and medicaid) to post-tax cash income from

the private and government sectors

would result in lower poverty rates.2

In 1996, the poverty rate under this

alternative definition would have

been 16.1 percent for the foreignborn population and 9.6 percent for

the native population.

1

The poverty rates of 32 percent and 30

percent are not significantly different from

each other. 2

For a discussion of alternative definitions

of poverty, see U.S. Bureau of the Census,

1997b.

The poverty definition used by the

federal government for statistical purposes is based on a set of money income thresholds that vary by family

size and composition and do not take

into account noncash benefits or taxes.

The average poverty threshold in 1996

for a four-person family was $16,036.

The poverty status (in poverty or not in

poverty) of a family is assigned to each

member of the family. Poverty status is

not defined for individuals under 15

years old who are not related to the

householder (e.g., foster children).
43

U.S. Census Bureau

Figure 18-1.

Poverty Rates for the Population by Nativity, 

Length of Residence in the United States, 

and Citizenship Status: 1996

(Populations as of March 1997. Civilian noninstitutional population 

plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post 

and excluding unrelated individuals under 15 years old)

Population

(in millions)

16.7

9.0

7.8

7.5

10.4

25.8

240.5

Total 266.2

Native

Foreign born

Length of residence in U.S.

Less than 10 years

10 to 19 years

20 years and over

Citizenship status

Naturalized citizen

Not a citizen

21.0

11.1

10.3

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 18-1A, 18-1B, and 18-1C.

28.0

Figure 18-2.

Poverty Rates for the Foreign-Born Population 

by Region of Birth: 1996

(Population as of March 1997. Civilian noninstitutional population 

plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post and 

excluding unrelated individuals under 15 years old)

Population

(in millions)

0.6

1.5

1.8

7.0

8.8

2.8

13.1

0.6

6.8

4.3

Total 25.8 1

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

Caribbean

Central America

Mexico

Other

South America

Northern America

1Total includes Oceania and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 18-1D.

26.8

19.7

29.3

13.7

12.9

21.0

12.7

14.7

17.1

23.7

31.6

33.9

22.3

15.1

7.9

Figure 18-3.

Selected Poverty Rates for the Population by Nativity, for Families by Nativity of the 

Householder, and for Related Children Under 18 Years Old by Nativity: 1996

(Population as of March 1997. Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post 

or with their families on post and excluding unrelated individuals under 15 years old)

Foreign born Native Millions Millions

4.0

1.6

1.1

2.8

2.6

12.8

12.9

25.8

36.7

16.8

12.3

29.1

68.1

123.0

117.4

240.5

1Individuals who live alone, or who are unrelated to the householder in households with two or more members.

2Data not shown separately for the small number of foreign-born related children in households with native householders.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 18-1A, 18-2A, 18-3A, and 18-4A.

Population

Total

Males

Females

Under 18 years old

65 years old and over

Males 65 years old and over

Females 65 years old and over

Unrelated individuals1

12.9

11.1

14.7

19.8

10.3

6.3

13.2

19.8

21.0

19.8

22.2

38.9

15.9

12.7

18.2

29.5

1.4

6.0

1.3

1.7

1.9

3.0

7.9

11.4

47.6

6.5

12.2

13.6

30.1

62.3

Families

Total

With no related children under 18 years old

With one related child under 18 years old

With two related children under 18 years old

With three or more related children under 18 years old

Married-couple families

Female-householder families, no husband present

2.3

8.2

10.5

58.7

58.9

Related Children Under 18 Years Old 

by Nativity of Householder

Total

Native related children under 18 years old

Foreign-born related children under 18 years old

9.9

4.2

12.6

13.2

23.9

4.4

31.7

19.8

10.1

17.0

23.0

41.2

15.7

39.7

32.0

30.0

38.8

17.6

17.7

(See footnote 2)
44

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 19.

Means-Tested Program Participation

The participation rate in

means-tested programs is

higher among foreign-born

households than among

native households.

In 1996, 2.5 million, or 24 percent, of households with foreignborn householders participated in

one more of the following meanstested programs providing noncash

benefits: food stamps, housing assistance, or medicaid. The corresponding figures for households with native householders were 15.4 million,

or 17 percent (Figure 19-1). For participation in one or more meanstested programs providing cash benefits - aid to families with dependent

children (AFDC),1

 general assistance, or supplemental security income (SSI) - the corresponding figures were 1.1 million, or 10.6 percent, for foreign-born households,

and 6.8 million, or 7.5 percent, for

native households. The 17.9 million

households receiving noncash benefits in 1996 included nearly all (98

percent) of the 7.9 million households receiving cash benefits. Thus

households receiving cash benefits

are essentially a subset of households

receiving noncash benefits.

Participation rates in 1996 for

food stamps, medicaid, and AFDC

were higher for foreign-born households than for native households.

The highest participation rates were

for medicaid: 21 percent of foreignborn households and 14 percent of

native households.

Among foreign-born

households, participation

rates were higher when the

householder was a noncitizen

than when the householder was

a naturalized citizen.

The participation rate in noncash

programs in 1996 was 29 percent for

noncitizen households compared

with 18 percent for naturalized-citizen households (Figure 19-2). For

cash programs, the rates were 12 percent for noncitizen households compared with 8 percent for naturalizedcitizen households.

Among foreign-born households,

the participation rate in 1996 in noncash programs was lowest when the

householder’s length of residence in

the United States was 20 years and

over (20 percent). There were no

statistically significant differences in

participation rates in cash programs

by length of residence.

Participation rates among

foreign-born households vary

sharply by region of birth of

the householder.

In 1996, the participation rates in

means-tested noncash programs for

households with householders from

Europe (14 percent) and from Asia

(17 percent) were not significantly

different from each other but were

one-half the rate for households with

householders from Latin America

(33 percent) (Figure 19-3). There

was a similar pattern for cash programs. The participation rates in

cash programs for households with

householders from Europe (6.4 percent) and from Asia (7.9 percent),

which were not significantly different from each other, were one-half

the rate for households with householders from Latin America (14 percent).

Among family households,

those with a female

householder, no husband

present, have the highest

participation rates in meanstested programs.2

In 1996, the participation rates in

noncash programs for family households with female householders, no

husband present, were not significantly different for foreign-born

households (48 percent) and native

households (45 percent). Likewise,

the participation rates in cash programs for family households with female householders, no husband

present, were not significantly different for foreign-born households (29

percent) and native households (26

percent).

Participation rates in 1996 were

lowest for married-couple family

households. For noncash programs,

they were 21 percent for foreignborn households versus 10 percent

for native households. For cash programs, the rates were 7.0 percent for

foreign-born households compared to

3.4 percent for native households.

1

Data for the AFDC program for 1996 include the Temporary Assistance for Needy

Families (TANF) program.

 2In contrast to data on poverty for families, which do not include any nonfamily members living with families (i.e., individuals not

related to the householder by birth, marriage,

or adoption), data on means-tested programs

for families include nonfamily members, and

thus the data are for family households. In

March 1997, the 70.2 million family households in the United States included 224.0 million family members and 4.3 million

nonfamily members (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1998a, Tables 1 and 18).

Means-tested programs are

those that require the income

and/or assets of an individual or

family to be below specified

thresholds in order to qualify for

benefits. These programs provide

cash and noncash assistance to

portions of the low-income population. The noncash programs included here are food stamps,

housing assistance, and medicaid.

The cash programs included here

are aid to families with dependent children, general assistance,

and supplemental security income.
45

U.S. Census Bureau

Figure 19-1.

Households Receiving Selected Means-Tested Noncash or Cash Benefits, 

by Specified Benefit and Nativity of the Householder: 1996

(Households as of March 1997. Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces 

living off post or with their families on post)

Percent receiving benefits Percent receiving benefits Number

(in millions)

Number

(in millions)

1

Includes households receiving benefits from one or more of the three programs listed.

2

Includes households receiving benefits from AFDC or general assistance and/or from Supplemental Security Income.

3

Aid to families with dependent children.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 19-1A and 19-1B.

2.1

0.6

1.1

2.5

12.3

4.3

7.2

15.4

Selected Noncash Benefits

Total1

Food stamps

Housing assistance

Medicaid

0.6

0.6

1.1

3.9

3.6

6.8

Selected Cash Benefits

Total2

AFDC3 or general assistance

Supplemental security income

17.0

8.0

4.8

13.5

24.1

10.1

6.1

20.5

7.5

3.9

4.3

Foreign-born households (10.4 million) Native households (90.6 million)

Percentage of households receiving 

specified benefits

Foreign-born households

Native households

10.6

5.7

5.6

Figure 19-2.

Households Receiving Selected Means-Tested 

Noncash or Cash Benefits, by Nativity, Length 

of Residence in the United States, and Citizenship 

Status of the Householder: 1996

(Households as of March 1997. Civilian noninstitutional population 

plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Households

(in millions)

5.8

4.6

4.3

3.1

3.0

10.4

90.6

101.0

Total

Native

Foreign born

Length of residence in U.S.

Less than 10 years

10 to 19 years

20 years and over

Citizenship status

Naturalized citizen

Not a citizen

17.0

10.6

26.0

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 19-1A, 19-1B, 19-1C, 19-2A, 19-2B, and 19-2C.

Figure 19-3.

Foreign-Born Households Receiving Selected

Means-Tested Noncash or Cash Benefits by Region of 

Birth of the Householder: 1996

(Households as of March 1997. Civilian noninstitutional population 

plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Households

(in millions)

0.3

0.6

0.6

2.4

3.0

1.2

4.9

0.3

2.7

2.2

10.4 Total1

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

Caribbean

Central America

Mexico

Other

South America

Northern America

1

Total includes Oceania and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 19-1D and 19-2D.

9.7

24.1

7.5

17.7

7.8

Percentage of households receiving 

Selected noncash benefits

Selected cash benefits

Percentage of households receiving 

Selected noncash benefits

Selected cash benefits

28.2

12.7

19.6

9.6

17.8

8.3

29.1

12.4

24.1

10.6

13.9

6.4

17.5

7.9

25.5

11.7

32.9

14.1

35.8

20.8

34.1

12.4

35.4

12.6

29.0

11.8

21.4

9.0

15.6

5.3
46

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 20.

Health Insurance and Pension Plans

One-fifth of the population

with no health insurance is

foreign born.

In 1996, 84 percent of the total

population had health insurance

for all or at least part of the year.

The proportion was lower among

the foreign-born population than

among the native population: 66

percent versus 86 percent (Figure

20-1).1 Of the 41.7 million

individuals with no health insurance during 1996, 8.6 million, or

21 percent, were foreign born.

Among the foreign-born population, the proportion with health insurance in 1996 ranged from 54 percent for those resident in the United

States less than 10 years to 83 percent among those resident 20 years

and over. The proportion with

health insurance was 83 percent for

naturalized citizens compared with

58 percent for noncitizens.

The proportion of the foreignborn population with health insurance varied by region of birth (Figure 20-2). For the populations

from Europe and Asia, the proportions in 1996 were 85 percent and

75 percent, respectively. For the

population from Latin America, the

proportion was 54 percent and

ranged from 69 percent and 66 percent, respectively, for the populations from Caribbean and South

America (not significantly different from each other) to 46 percent

for the population from Mexico.

The proportion of

foreign-born workers with

employment-based health

insurance is lower than for

native workers.

In 1996, 44 percent of foreignborn workers and 54 percent of native workers had employment-based

health insurance (Figure 20-3).

Among foreign-born workers, the

proportion ranged from 34 percent

for those resident in the United

States less than 10 years to 56 percent for those resident 20 years and

over. The proportion was 57 percent

for naturalized citizens compared

with 36 percent for noncitizens. By

region of birth, the proportions were

54 percent of workers from Europe,

52 percent for workers from Asia

(not significantly different from each

other), and 36 percent for workers

from Latin America (Figure 20-4).

For workers from Mexico, the proportion with employment-based

health insurance was 31 percent.

Employer-offered pension

plans are available to a lower

proportion of foreign-born

workers than of native

workers.

In 1996, 41 percent of foreignborn workers and 56 percent of native workers had employers who offered pension plans (Figure 20-3).5

Among foreign-born workers, the

proportion ranged from 32 percent

for those resident in the United

States less than 10 years to 50 percent for those resident 20 years and

over. The proportion was 53 percent

for naturalized citizens compared

with 33 percent for noncitizens. By

region of birth, the proportions were

51 percent of workers from Europe,

49 percent for workers from Asia

(not significantly different from each

other), and 31 percent for workers

from Latin America (Figure 20-4).

For workers from Mexico, the proportion with employer-offered pension plans was 26 percent.

1

The proportions with health insurance

under private insurance plans were 52 percent

for the foreign-born population and 72 percent

for the native population. 2

The major types of military health care

are CHAMPUS (Comprehensive Health and

Medical Plan for Uniformed Services) and

CHAMPVA (Civilian Health and Medical Program of the Department of Veteran’s Affairs). 3

U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1998c, pp. 6-7.

4

Information collected in the March 1997

CPS on pension plan coverage was not detailed

and coverage may have been underreported.

See U.S. Department of Labor et al., 1994. 5

The proportions of workers participating

in employer-offered pension plans were 30 percent for foreign-born workers and 43 percent

for native workers.

Health insurance includes

private insurance plans and

government insurance plans.

Private insurance plans include

those offered through employment (either one’s own and or

a relative’s) and those purchased privately. Government

insurance plans include medicare, medicaid, and military

health care.2

 Individuals may

be covered by more than one

insurance plan during a year.

There is some evidence that

health insurance coverage is

underreported.3

Data on employment-based

health insurance and employeroffered pension plans (other

than social security) are shown

for workers. In this section,

workers are defined as individuals who were employed at

any time during the year. Employment-based health insurance includes private insurance

obtained through a current or

former employer or union. If a

worker’s employer offers a pension plan, a worker may not

participate because he or she is

ineligible (e.g., due to length of

service or part-time employment) or chooses not to participate.4
47

U.S. Census Bureau

Figure 20-3.

Employment-Based Health Insurance and EmployerOffered Pension Plans for Workers by Nativity,

Length of Residence in the United States, 

and Citizenship Status: 1996

(Workers as of March 1997. Civilian noninstitutional population 

plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Workers

(in millions)

9.8

6.0

4.8

5.5

5.6

15.8

127.1

Total 142.9

Native

Foreign born

Length of residence in U.S.

Less than 10 years

10 to 19 years

20 years and over

Citizenship status

Naturalized citizen

Not a citizen

54.1

40.5

33.8

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 20-3A, 20-3B, and 20-3C.

Figure 20-4.

Employment-Based Health Insurance and 

Employer-Offered Pension Plans for Foreign-Born 

Workers by Region of Birth: 1996

(Workers as of March 1997. Civilian noninstitutional population 

plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Workers

(in millions)

0.4

1.0

1.2

4.2

5.4

1.7

8.1

0.4

4.4

2.3

15.8 Total1

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

Caribbean

Central America

Mexico

Other

South America

Northern America

1

Total includes Oceania and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 20-3D.

32.2

44.0

56.5

53.0

54.7

Percent of workers with

Employment-based health insurance

Employer-offered pension plans

Percent of workers with

Employment-based health insurance

Employer-offered pension plans

44.2

40.6

55.8

50.2

56.5

52.9

36.4

33.0

44.0

40.5

53.6

51.4

51.5

49.3

48.8

57.5

35.9

30.6

44.3

36.7

31.9

26.5

30.6

25.8

36.5

29.0

44.0

42.6

63.9

59.2

Figure 20-1.

Health Insurance Coverage of the Population by

Nativity, Length of Residence in the United States,

and Citizenship Status: 1996

(Percent of population. Population as of March 1997. Civilian 

noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or 

with their families on post)

Population

(in millions)

16.7

9.0

7.8

7.5

10.5

25.8

241.0

Total 266.8

Native

Foreign born

Length of residence in U.S.

Less than 10 years

10 to 19 years

20 years and over

Citizenship status

Naturalized citizen

Not a citizen

66.4

82.9

82.8

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 20-1A, 20-1B, and 20-1C.

54.5

Figure 20-2.

Health Insurance Coverage of the Foreign-Born

Population by Region of Birth: 1996

(Percent of population. Population as of March 1997. Civilian 

noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or 

with their families on post)

Population

(in millions)

0.6

1.5

1.8

7.0

8.8

2.8

13.1

0.6

6.8

4.3

Total 25.8 1

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

Caribbean

Central America

Mexico

Other

South America

Northern America

1

Total includes Oceania and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 20-1D.

57.6

66.7

54.0

84.4

86.3

66.4

84.7

75.4

66.5

68.7

47.9

46.4

53.8

66.1

88.8
48

U.S. Census Bureau

Section 21.

Homeownership

Homeownership rates

are similar for naturalizedcitizen households and

native households.

In 1997, the overall homeownership rate was 66 percent (Figure 21-

1). The rate was much higher for

native households (68 percent) than

for households with a foreign-born

householder (47 percent). Among

foreign-born households, the

homeownership rate was much

higher when the householder was a

naturalized citizen (66 percent) than

when the householder was not a citizen (32 percent). The homeownership rate for naturalized-citizen

households (66 percent) was not significantly different from the homeownership rates for native households (68 percent).

householders and noncitizen householders.1

 In 1997, among householders who were naturalized citizens,

65 percent had lived in the United

States 20 years and over whereas the

corresponding proportion for householders who were not citizens was

only 22 percent.

Within specific categories of

length of residence, the homeownership rate is significantly

higher for householders who are

naturalized citizens than for householders who are noncitizens (Figure

21-1). Where length of residence in

the United States was 5 to 9 years,

the rates in 1997 were 40 percent for

naturalized citizen-householders versus 25 percent for noncitizenhouseholders. Corresponding rates

were 51 percent versus 30 percent

for length of residence of 10 to 14

years, 61 percent versus 38 percent

for length of residence of 15 to 19

years, and 73 percent versus 53 percent for length of residence of 20

years and over.

Married-couple families

have the highest

homeownership rates.

While the homeownership rate in

1997 was lower among households

with foreign-born householders (47

percent) than with native householders (68 percent), the patterns of

ownership rates by type of household

were similar (Figure 21-2).2

 The

highest homeownership rates were

for married-couple families: 59 percent for families with a foreign-born

householder and 83 percent for families with a native householder. For

families with a female householder,

no husband present, the homeownership rates were 32 percent for

foreign-born households and 47 percent for native households.

For married-couple families,

homeownership rates can be calculated based on the nativity of each

spouse (regardless of which one is reported as the householder). For the

45.9 million married-couple families

with both husband and wife native,

the ownership rate was 84 percent.

For married-couple families with

husband native and wife foreign

born (1.7 million) and with wife native and husband foreign born (1.3

million), the ownership rates were

both 73 percent. For the 4.8 million

married-couple families with both

husband and wife foreign born, the

ownership rate was 55 percent.

Homeownership rates vary

greatly by region of birth.

Among the three regions of birth

with 1 million or more householders

in 1997, the homeownership rate

ranged from 63 percent for householders from Europe to 38 percent

for householders from Latin

America (Figure 21-3). The ownership rates for householders from

Asia was 50 percent, not significantly different from the overall

ownership rate of 47 percent for all

households with a foreign-born

householder. Within Latin America,

the ownership rate for householders

from Mexico was 38 percent, the

same as for the region as a whole.

1

Of the 33 percentage-point difference in

homeownership rates between naturalizedcitizen households (65.6 percent) and noncitizen households (32.3 percent), 18 percentage

points are attributable to differences in

homeownership rates within specific categories of length of residence, and 15 percentage

points are attributable to differences in distributions of the foreign-born population by

length of residence. (Regarding standardization, see U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1993b, especially Chapter 5.) As shown in Section 7,

age of the foreign-born population is positively

correlated with length of residence in the

United States. Data on median age of foreignborn householders by citizenship status and

length of residence in the United States are

shown in Figure 21-1. 2

For a general discussion of households by

type, see Section 11.

The members of a household,

as defined in Section 11, live in

an occupied housing unit (e.g., a

house, condominium, or mobile

home). The homeownership

rate is the percentage of households in which the owner or a

co-owner is a member of the

household, whether or not the

housing unit is mortgaged or not

otherwise fully paid for. Households are classified as foreign

born or native based on the nativity of the householder, regardless of the nativity of other

household members.

 The higher rate of homeownership among naturalized-citizen

households than among noncitizen

households reflects two factors. The

first is differences by homeownership rates within specific categories

of length of residence. The second is

differences in distributions by length

of residence in the United States

between naturalized-citizen
49

U.S. Census Bureau

0.3

0.6

0.6

2.4

3.0

1.2

4.9

0.3

2.7

2.2

10.4

1.3

0.9

1.0

1.4

1.3

5.8

3.0

0.8

0.5

0.3

4.6

10.4

90.6

101.0

Figure 21-1.

Homeownership Rates and Median Age of Householder by Nativity, Citizenship Status, 

and Length of Residence in the United States: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Figure 21-2.

Homeownership Rates by Nativity of Householder and Type of Household: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Homeownership rate Median age of householder

Foreign-born householder Native householder

Households

(in millions)

Households

(in millions)

Households

(in millions)

1

Includes naturalized citizen less than 5 years, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 21-1A, 21-1B, 21-1C, 21-2A, 21-2B, and 21-2C.

Figure 21-3.

Homeownership Rates and Median Age of Householder for 

Foreign-Born Householders by Region of Birth: 1997

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post or with their families on post)

Total1

Europe

Asia

Africa

Latin America

 Caribbean

 Central America

 Mexico

 Other

 South America

North America

Homeownership rate Median age of householder

Households

(in millions)

1

Total includes Oceania and region not reported, not shown separately.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Tables 21-1D and 21-2D.

1.3

1.2

2.5

1.4

0.6

6.0

7.9

10.4

15.8

12.5

28.3

11.4

3.3

47.6

62.3

90.6

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 21-1A.

47.1

62.6

50.5

33.2

38.0

41.0

36.1

38.5

27.2

41.5

63.3

43.0

55.1

41.5

38.6

40.0

46.5

37.2

36.8

42.5

51.3

38.6

Total

Native

Foreign born

Naturalized citizen1

5 to 9 years

10 to 14 years

15 to 19 years

20 years and over

Not a citizen

Less than 5 years

5 to 9 years

10 to 14 years

15 to 19 years

20 years and over

Total

Family households

Married-couple family

Male householder, no wife present

Female householder, no husband present

Nonfamily households

Male householder

Female householder

65.7

67.8

47.1

65.6

40.0

50.6

61.1

72.6

32.3

16.8

24.7

30.2

38.4

53.0

46.1

46.5

43.0

50.0

38.6

38.9

41.3

56.1

38.2

33.0

33.3

36.8

40.7

51.3

47.1

52.2

58.7

31.8

32.4

31.0

23.4

38.6

67.8

75.6

83.5

58.1

47.4

50.8

44.8

55.6

Foreign-born householder

Native householder
50

U.S. Census Bureau
51

U.S. Census Bureau

References

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

1997. Employment and Earnings,

Vol. 44, No. 4 (April).

U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1973.

National Origin and Language. 1970

Census of Population. PC(2)-1A.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office.

_____. 1980. The Methods and Materials of Demography. By Henry S.

Shryock, Jacob S. Siegel, and Associates. Fourth printing (rev.). Two

volumes. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

_____. 1985. Foreign-Born Population in the United States Microfiche.

1980 Census of Population.

_____. 1993a. The Foreign-Born

Population in the United States. 1990

Census of Population. 1990 CP-3-1.

Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office.

_____. 1993b. Standardization and

Decomposition of Rates: A User’s

Manual. By Prithwis Das Gupta.

Current Population Reports, Series

P23-186. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

_____. 1997a. Money Income in the

United States: 1996. Current Population Reports, Series P60-197. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

_____. 1997b. Poverty in the United

States: 1996. By Leatha LamisonWhite. Current Population Reports,

Series P60-198. Washington, DC:

U.S. Government Printing Office.

_____. 1998a. Household and Family Characteristics: March 1997. PPL93. Detailed tables. Population Division.

_____. 1998b. How Well Does the

Current Population Survey Measure

the Foreign-Born Population in the

United States? By A. Dianne

Schmidley and J. Gregory Robinson.

Population Division Working Paper

No. 22.

_____. 1998c. Health Insurance Coverage: 1997. By Robert L. Bennefield.

Current Population Reports, Series

P60-202. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

_____. 1999a. Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-Born Population

of the United States: 1850 to 1990. By

Campbell Gibson and Emily Lennon.

Population Division Working Paper

No. 29.

_____. 1999b. The Foreign-Born

Population of the United States: March

1997. PPL-115. Detailed tables.

Population Division.

U.S. Department of Labor, Social Security Administration, U.S. Small

Business Administration, and Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation.

1994. Pension and Health Benefits of

American Workers: New Findings

from the April 1993 Current Population Survey.

U.S. Immigration and Naturalization

Service. 1991. Statistical Yearbook of

the Immigration and Naturalization

Service, 1990. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

_____. 1997. Statistical Yearbook of

the Immigration and Naturalization

Service, 1996. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

_____. 1999. Legal Immigration,

Fiscal Year 1997. Office of Policy

and Planning, Annual Report,

No. 1.

U.S. National Center for Health Statistics. 1975. Volume I, Natality,

1970. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

_____. 1998. Unpublished tabulations for 1995.

U.S. Office of Management and Budget. 1977. Race and Ethnic Standards for Federal Statistics and Administrative Reporting. Directive No.

15. Washington, DC.

_____. 1990. Revised Standards for

Defining Metropolitan Areas in the

1990’s. Federal Register, Vol. 55,

No. 62 (March 30), pp. 12154-12160.

_____. 1993. Revised Statistical

Definitions for Metropolitan Areas

(MAs). OMB Bulletin No. 93-17.

_____. 1997. Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal

Data on Race and Ethnicity. Federal

Register, Vol. 62, No. 210 (October

30), pp. 58782-58790.

United Nations. 1996. 1995 Demographic Yearbook. Department for

Economic and Social Information

and Policy Analysis, Statistics Division. New York, NY.

Warren, Robert J. and Ellen Percy

Kraly. 1985. The Elusive Exodus:

Emigration from the United States.

Population Trends and Public Policy

Occasional Paper No. 8, Population

Reference Bureau. Washington, DC.
52

U.S. Census Bureau

Appendix A.

The Foreign-Born Population and Immigration:

Definitions and Concepts

The terms “foreign-born population” and “immigration” are related,

but they are not interchangeable.

There is more than one way to define each term for purposes of collecting and tabulating statistical information.1

 In addition, there are

conceptual differences between the

two terms.

Because of these important differences, the foreign-born population, immigration, and some related

terms are defined for use in this report and are discussed here. Since

migration from foreign countries to

the United States is the source (and

the only source) of the foreign-born

population residing in the United

States, terms related to migration are

discussed first.

Immigration and

related terms

Before defining immigration, it is

helpful to provide a few other terms

first, starting with the most general.

Each term appears in bold print in

the sentence in which it is defined.

An international migrant is a

person who changes his or her

usual place of residence from one

country to another.2 An international migrant is an international

in-migrant to the country of destination and an international outmigrant from the country of origin. These are demographic terms

(rather than legal terms) that include

all in-migrants or out-migrants, regardless of country of citizenship or

legal status.

The subcategories of international in-migrants defined here are

shown in the diagram below. Corresponding terms for the act, or

process, or statistical aggregate

(number of individuals) are provided also (e.g., immigrant and the

corresponding term, immigration).

An international in-migrant is

either a citizen in-migrant (i.e., a

person who has citizenship in the

country of destination) or an alien

in-migrant (i.e., a person who does

not have citizenship in the country

of destination). For the United

States, citizen in-migrants include

individuals who were born in outlying areas of the United States

(e.g., Puerto Rico or Guam), individuals born abroad with at least

one parent who was a U.S. citizen,

and U.S. citizens returning from

residence abroad (including members of the Armed Forces).

Alien in-migrants may be divided

into three broad categories: immigrants, long-term nonimmigrants,

and undocumented aliens.

Immigrants, as defined by the

Immigration and Naturalization

Service (INS), are aliens admitted

to the United States for lawful permanent residence.

“Immigrants are those individuals lawfully accorded the privilege of

residing permanently in the United

States. They may be issued immigrant visas by the Department of

State overseas or adjusted to permanent resident status by the Immigration and Naturalization Service in

the United States.” 3

It is important to note that the

year of lawful permanent residence

of an immigrant may differ from

the year in which he or she became

a resident of the United States. For

example, in 1990 and 1991, when

the numbers of immigrants were

the highest on record (1.5 million

and 1.8 million, respectively), more

than one-half of the immigrants

had resided in the United States

since 1986 or earlier and were adjusted to permanent resident status

under provisions of the Immigration Reform and Control Act of

1986 (IRCA).4

Immigration is thus the act or

process of becoming an immigrant or

is the number of immigrants during

a specified period of time.

Long-term nonimmigrants are

aliens admitted by INS on “longterm” visas (i.e., excluding tourists

and temporary visitors for business).

Long-term nonimmigrants include,

for example, students, representatives of foreign governments, and

their dependents.

Undocumented aliens are individuals residing illegally in the

United States, including individuals

who entered illegally and individuals

whose nonimmigrant terms of admission have expired. INS estimated

the undocumented alien population

of the United States in October 1996

at 5 million.5

Foreign-born population

It is simpler to define the native population before defining the

foreign-born population. As defined by the Census Bureau, the

native population includes individuals born in the United States or

an outlying area of the United States,

and individuals who were born in a

foreign country, but who had at least

one parent who was a U.S. citizen.

All other residents of the United

States are classified as foreign born.

The foreign-born population is

thus all individuals born in a foreign

country except those who had at

least one parent who was an U.S.

citizen. The foreign-born population includes all foreign-born individuals residing in the United

States, regardless of their legal status.

The classification of the resident population of the United

Person Act, or process, or statistical aggregate

International in-migrant International in-migration

Citizen in-migrant Citizen in-migration

Alien in-migrant Alien in-migration

Immigrant Immigration

Long-term nonimmigrant Legal in-migration other than immigration

Undocumented alien Undocumented alien in-migration
53

U.S. Census Bureau

States by place of birth and nativity

(native and foreign born) is shown

in Figure A-1 and reflects the definitions presented above. The foreignborn population is composed of individuals who, at the time of their migration to the United States, were in

one of the three broad categories of

alien in-migrants: immigrants, longterm nonimmigrants, and undocumented aliens.

After migration to the United

States, some foreign-born residents

become naturalized citizens. This

process usually requires 5 years of

residence in the United States.

Those who have not become U.S.

citizens may have changes in their

“immigration status,” which corresponds to their alien in-migrant category. For example, a person who

entered the United States as a longterm nonimmigrant may have overstayed his or her visa and become an

undocumented alien, or a person

who entered the United States as an

undocumented alien may have been

able to adjust his or her status and

become an immigrant. In any case,

there is no change in the person’s

classification as foreign born.

Conceptual differences:

flow data and stock data

Reflecting the preceding definitions of terms, the conceptual differences between immigration and the

foreign-born population are discussed here. Data on immigration

(and on other categories of migration) are flow data. Flow data cover

a period of time such as one year or

one decade (e.g., annual data on immigration). Data on the foreign-born

population are stock data. Stock

data are for one point in time such

as data from a census or survey (e.g.,

data from the 1990 census of population or the March 1997 Current

Population Survey).

The change over time (which is a

flow concept) in the size of the foreignborn population is the result of three

processes of population change: alien

in-migration, emigration (i.e.,

international out-migration) of the

foreign-born population,6 and mortality to the foreign-born population.7

 Thus if the number of alien

in-migrants to the United States

(additions to the foreign-born

population) exceeds the combined

number of foreign-born emigrants

from the United States and deaths

to the foreign-born population residing in the United States (subtractions from the foreign-born

population), the foreign-born population will increase, and vice-versa.

1

 For example, the term immigration can

refer most broadly to all migration to the

United States (a demographic approach) or

more narrowly to the legal migration of nonU.S. citizens (aliens) to the United States (a legal approach). The legal approach is used here,

with the demographic approach represented by

the term “international in-migration.” For a

comprehensive discussion of demographic concepts and definitions, see U.S. Bureau of the

Census, 1980. 2

 The basic rule for where to enumerate a

person in U.S. censuses is his or her usual

place of residence. This is the place where the

person lives or sleeps most of the time or the

place the person considers to be his or her

usual home. This includes citizens of foreign

countries who have established regular living

arrangements (such as living in a house, apartment, or dormitory) while working or studying

in the United States. 3

 U.S. Immigration and Naturalization

Service, 1997, p. A.3-5. 4

 Ibid., pp. 34, A.3-6, and A.3-10.

5

 Ibid., pp. 182-186.

6

 Whereas immigrant (a legal term) differs

from international in-migrant (a demographic

term), as defined earlier in this section, there is

not a corresponding need to identify the legal

status of international out-migrants. Thus the

term “international out-migration” and the

shorter term “emigration” can be used interchangeably. 7

 These processes correspond to three

of the four general demographic components

of population change: in-migration, outmigration, and mortality. The fourth demographic component of population change –

fertility – is not relevant for the foreign-born

population because, as discussed earlier, all

individuals born in the United States are defined as native, regardless of the birthplace

or citizenship status of their parents.

Figure A-1.

Classification of the Population of the United States 

by Nativity and Place of Birth: 1997

Born in the United States (50 states and DC)

88.9%

Born in outlying areas of the United States 

(Puerto Rico, Guam, etc.),or born abroad with at

least one parent who was a U.S. citizen

1.4%

Foreign born

9.7%

Native population (residents with U.S. citizenship at birth)

Foreign-born population (residents without U.S. citizenship at birth)

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999b, Table 1-1.

(Civilian noninstitutional population plus Armed Forces living off post 

or with their families on post)
54

U.S. Census Bureau

Appendix B.

Source and Accuracy of Estimates

Source of Data

Estimates in this report come

from data obtained from the Current

Population Survey (CPS) conducted

in March of 1997. The Bureau of the

Census conducts the survey every

month, although this report uses

only March data for its estimates.

Also, some estimates come from decennial census data for years 1850

through 1990, and from the administrative records of the Immigration

and Naturalization Service. The

March survey uses two sets of questions, the basic CPS and the supplements.

Basic CPS. The basic CPS collects primarily labor force data about

the civilian noninstitutional population. Interviewers ask questions

concerning labor force participation

about each member 15 years old and

over in every sample household. The

basic CPS also includes questions on

country of birth, citizenship, and

year of entry into the United States.

The CPS sample used in this report was selected from the 1990 decennial census files with coverage in

all 50 states and the District of Columbia. The sample is continually

updated to account for new residential construction. The United States

was divided into 2,007 geographic areas. In most states, a geographic area

consisted of a county or several contiguous counties. In some areas of

New England and Hawaii, minor

civil divisions are used instead of

counties. A total of 754 geographic

areas was selected for sample. About

50,000 occupied households are eligible for interview every month.

Field representatives are unable to

obtain interviews at about 3,200 of

these units. This occurs when the

occupants are not found at home after repeated calls or are unavailable

for some other reason.

Since the introduction of the

CPS, the Bureau of the Census has

redesigned the CPS sample several

times. These redesigns have improved the quality and accuracy of

the data and have satisfied changing

data needs. The most recent changes

were completely implemented in

July 1995.

March 1997 supplement. In addition to the basic CPS questions,

field representatives asked supplementary questions in March about

poverty status, money income received in the previous calender year,

educational attainment, household

and family characteristics, marital

status, and geographic mobility.

To obtain more reliable data for

the Hispanic population, the March

CPS sample was increased by about

2,500 eligible housing units. These

housing units were interviewed the

previous November and contained at

least one sample person of Hispanic

origin. In addition, the sample

included persons in the Armed

Forces living off post or with their

families on post.

Estimation procedure. The

survey’s estimation procedure inflates weighted sample results to independent estimates of the civilian

noninstitutional population of the

United States by age, sex, race, and

Hispanic/non-Hispanic origin, and

state of residence. The adjusted estimate is called the post-stratification

ratio estimate. The independent estimates were calculated based on information from four primary

sources:

• The 1990 Decennial Census of

Population and Housing.

• An adjustment for undercoverage

in the 1990 census.

• Statistics on births, deaths, immigration, and emigration.

• Statistics on the size of the

Armed Forces.

The independent population estimates used for 1994 to present were

based on updates to controls established by the 1990 decennial census.

Before 1994, independent population

estimates from the latest available

decennial census data were used.

For more details on the change in independent estimates, see the section

entitled “Introduction of 1990 Census Population Controls” in an earlier report (Series P60, No. 188).

The estimation procedure for the

March supplement included a further adjustment so husband and wife

of a household received the same

weight. The independent population

estimates include some, but not all,

undocumented immigrants.

Accuracy of the Estimates

Since the CPS estimates come

from a sample, they may differ from

figures from a complete census using

the same questionnaires, instructions, and enumerators. A sample

survey estimate has two possible

types of error: sampling and

nonsampling. The accuracy of an estimate depends on both types of error, but the full extent of the

nonsampling error is unknown.

Consequently, one should be particularly careful when interpreting results based on a relatively small

number of cases or on small differences between estimates. The standard errors for CPS estimates primarily indicate the magnitude of sampling error. They also partially measure the effect of some nonsampling

errors in responses and enumeration, but do not measure systematic

biases in the data. (Bias is the average over all possible samples of the

differences between the sample estimates and the desired value.)

Nonsampling variability. Several sources of nonsampling errors

include the following:

• Inability to get information about

all sample cases.
55

U.S. Census Bureau

• Definitional difficulties.

• Differences in the interpretation

of questions.

• Respondents’ inability or unwillingness to provide correct information.

• Respondents’ inability to recall

information.

• Errors made in data collection

such as recording and coding

data.

• Errors made in processing the

data.

• Errors made in estimating values

for missing data.

• Failure to represent all units with

the sample (undercoverage).

CPS undercoverage results from

missed housing units and missed

persons within sample households.

Overall CPS undercoverage is estimated at 8 percent. CPS undercoverage varies with age, sex, and

race. Generally, undercoverage is

larger for males than for females and

larger for Blacks and other races

combined than for Whites. As described previously, ratio estimation

to independent age-sex-race-Hispanic

population controls partially corrects

for bias due to undercoverage. However, biases exist in the estimates to

the extent that missed persons in

missed households or missed persons

in interviewed households have different characteristics from those of

interviewed persons in the same agesex-race-Hispanic origin group.

A common measure of survey

coverage is the coverage ratio, the estimated population before post-stratification divided by the independent

population control. Table A shows

CPS coverage ratios for age-sex-race

groups for a typical month. The CPS

coverage ratios can exhibit some

variability from month to month.

Other Census Bureau household surveys experience similar coverage.

Comparability of data. Data obtained from the CPS and other

sources are not entirely comparable.

This results from differences in interviewer training and experience

and in differing survey processes.

This is an example of nonsampling

variability not reflected in the standard errors. Use caution when comparing results from different sources.

A number of changes were made

in data collection and estimation procedures beginning with the January

1994 CPS. The major change was

the use of a new questionnaire. The

questionnaire was redesigned to

measure the official labor force concepts more precisely, to expand the

amount of data available, to implement several definitional changes,

and to adapt to a computer-assisted

interviewing environment. The

March supplemental income questions were also modified for adaptation to computer-assisted interviewing, although there were no changes

in definition and concepts. Due to

these and other changes, one should

use caution when comparing estimates from data collected in 1994

and later years with estimates from

earlier years. See Appendix C, P60-

188 on “Conversion to a Computer

Assisted Questionnaire” for a description of these changes and the effect they had on the data.

Caution should also be used

when comparing estimates in this report (which reflects 1990 censusbased population controls) with estimates from the March 1993 CPS and

earlier years (which reflect 1980 census-based population controls).1

This change in population controls

had relatively little impact on summary measures such as means, medians, and percent distributions. It did

have a significant impact on levels.

For example, use of 1990-based

population controls results in about a

1-percent increase in the civilian

Table A.

CPS Coverage Ratios

Non-Black Black All persons

Age Male Female Male Female Male Female Total

0-14 0.929 0.964 0.850 0.838 0.916 0.943 0.929

15 0.933 0.895 0.763 0.824 0.905 0.883 0.895

16-19 0.881 0.891 0.711 0.802 0.855 0.877 0.866

20-29 0.847 0.897 0.660 0.811 0.823 0.884 0.854

30-39 0.904 0.931 0.680 0.845 0.877 0.920 0.899

40-49 0.928 0.966 0.816 0.911 0.917 0.959 0.938

50-59 0.953 0.974 0.896 0.927 0.948 0.969 0.959

60-64 0.961 0.941 0.954 0.953 0.960 0.942 0.950

65-69 0.919 0.972 0.982 0.984 0.924 0.973 0.951

70+ 0.993 1.004 0.996 0.979 0.993 1.002 0.998

15+ 0.914 0.945 0.767 0.874 0.898 0.927 0.918

0+ 0.918 0.949 0.793 0.864 0.902 0.931 0.921

For additional information on nonsampling error including the possible impact on CPS nativity data when known, refer to Statistical Policy Working Paper 3, An Error Profile: Employment as

Measured by the Current Population Survey, Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, U.S.

Department of Commerce, 1978, Technical Paper 40, The Current Population Survey: Design and

Methodology, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce, and Population Division

Working Paper No. 22, “How Well Does the Current Population Survey Measure the Foreign-Born

Population in the United States?” by Dianne Schmidley and J. Gregory Robinson.

1

 CPS began collecting nativity data in

1994.
56

U.S. Census Bureau

noninstitutional population and in

the number of families and households. Thus, estimates of levels for

data collected in 1994 and later years

will differ from those for earlier

years by more than what could be

attributed to actual changes in the

population. These differences could

be disproportionately greater for certain subpopulation groups than for

the total population.

During the period April 1994

through June 1995, the U.S. Census

Bureau systematically introduced a

new sample design for the CPS based

on the results of the 1990 decennial

census. During this phase-in period,

CPS estimates were being made from

two distinct sample designs: the old

1980 sample design and the new

1990 sample design. The March

1995 CPS consisted of 55 percent

new (1990) sample and 45 percent

old (1980) sample.1

 The data based

on the March 1996 CPS were the

first estimates based entirely on

households selected from the 1990

census-based sample design.

One of the effects of the introduction of the 1990 census sample design is the change in the definition of

metropolitan and nonmetropolitan

areas. The 1990 census sample design incorporates the geographic definitions officially released in 19932

;

the 1980 census sample design incorporates the geographic definitions released in 1983. While most CPS estimates have been unaffected by this

mixed sample, geographic estimates

are subject to greater error and variability. Users should exercise caution when comparing estimates

across years for metropolitan and

nonmetropolitan categories.

Note when using small estimates. Summary measures (such as

medians and percent distributions)

are shown only when the base is

100,000 or greater. Because of the

large standard errors involved, summary measures would probably not

reveal useful information when computed on a smaller base. However,

estimated numbers are shown even

though the relative standard errors of

these numbers are larger than those

for corresponding percentages.

These smaller estimates permit combinations of the categories to suit

data users’ needs.

Take care in the interpretation

of small differences. For instance,

even a small amount of nonsampling error can cause a borderline difference to appear significant or not, thus distorting a seemingly valid hypothesis test.

Sampling variability. Sampling

variability is variation that occurred

by chance because a sample was surveyed rather than the entire population. Standard errors, as calculated

by methods described in Standard

errors and their use, are primarily

measures of sampling variability, but

they may include some nonsampling

error.

Standard errors and their use.

A number of approximations are required to derive, at a moderate cost,

standard errors applicable to the estimates in this report. Instead of providing an individual standard error

for each estimate, two parameters,

“a” and “b,” are provided to calculate

standard errors for each estimate.

Table B provides standard error

parameters for native and foreignborn persons. Multiply the parameters in Table B by the factors in

Tables C and D to get region, state,

and nonmetropolitan parameters.

The sample estimate and its standard error enable one to construct a

confidence interval. A confidence

interval is a range that would include

the average result of all possible

samples with a known probability.

For example, if all possible samples

were surveyed under essentially the

same general conditions and using

the same sample design and if an estimate and its standard error were

calculated from each sample, then

approximately 90 percent of the intervals from 1.645 standard errors

below the estimate to 1.645 standard

errors above the estimate would include the average result of all possible samples.

A particular confidence interval

may or may not contain the average

estimate derived from all possible

samples. However, one can say with

specified confidence that the interval

includes the average estimate calculated from all possible samples.

Standard errors may also be used

to perform hypothesis testing. This is

a procedure for distinguishing between population parameters using

sample estimates. One common type

of hypothesis appearing in this report is that two population parameters are different. An example of

this would be comparing the median

age of natives to the median age of

foreign-born persons.

Tests may be performed at various levels of significance. The significance level of a test is the probability of concluding that the characteristics are different when, in fact,

they are the same. All statements of

comparison in the text were tested at

the 0.10 level of significance. Thus,

if the absolute value of the estimated

difference between characteristics

was greater than or equal to 1.645

times the standard error of the difference, then the conclusion was that

the characteristics were different.

The Census Bureau uses 90-percent confidence intervals and 0.10

levels of significance to determine

statistical validity. Consult standard

statistical textbooks for alternative

criteria.
57

U.S. Census Bureau

Standard errors of estimated

numbers. The approximate standard error, sx

, of an estimated

number shown in this report can be

obtained using the formula:

sx ax2  bx (1)

Here x is the size of the estimate,

and a and b are the parameters in

Table B associated with the particular type of characteristic. When

calculating standard errors from

cross-tabulations involving different

characteristics, use the set of parameters for the characteristic which

will give the largest standard error.

Illustration

Suppose there are 913,000 persons living in the United States who

were born in Cuba. Use the appropriate parameters from Table B and

formula (1) to get

Number, x 913,000

a parameter -0.000042

b parameter 11,054

Standard error 100,000

90% conf. int. 740,000 to 1,078,000

The standard error is calculated

as

sx = √−0.000042x913,0002 + 11,054x913,000

= 100,000

The 90-percent confidence

interval is calculated as

913,000 ± 1.645×100,000.

A conclusion that the average estimate derived from all possible

samples lies within a range computed in this way would be correct

for roughly 90 percent of all possible

samples.

Standard errors of estimated

percentages. The reliability of an estimated percentage, computed using

sample data from both numerator

and denominator, depends on both

the size of the percentage and its

base. Estimated percentages are relatively more reliable than the corresponding estimates of the numerators of the percentages, particularly

if the percentages are 50 percent or

more. When the numerator and denominator of the percentage are in

different categories, use the parameter from Table B indicated by the

numerator.

The approximate standard error,

sx,p, of an estimated percentage can

be obtained by using the formula

sx,p  b

x p 100  p (2)

Here x is the total number of persons, families, households, or unrelated individuals in the base of the

percentage, p is the percentage (0 ≤ p

≤ 100), and b is the parameter in

Table B associated with the characteristic in the numerator of the percentage.

Illustration

Suppose 9.9 percent, or about

478,000, of the 4,806,000 foreign

born who came to the United States

before 1970 are in poverty. Use the

appropriate parameter from Table B

and formula (2) to get

Percentage, p 9.9

Base, x 4,806,000

b parameter 13,494

Standard error 1.6

90% conf. int. 7.3 to 12.5

The standard error is calculated

as

sx,p   13,494

4,806,000 x 9.9 x 100  9.9  1.6

The 90-percent confidence interval is calculated as 9.9 ± 1.645×1.6.

Standard error of a difference.

The standard error of the difference

between two sample estimates is approximately equal to

sxy sx

2  sy2 (3)

where sx and sy are the standard

errors of the estimates, x and y. The

estimates can be numbers, proportions, ratios, etc. This will represent

the actual standard error quite accurately for the difference between estimates of the same characteristic in

two different areas or for the difference between separate and

uncorrelated characteristics in the

same area. However, if there is a

high positive (negative) correlation

between the two characteristics, the

formula will overestimate (underestimate) the true standard error.

Illustration

Suppose from the March 1996

CPS, 4.6 percent of the 178,343,000

natives who are 16+ years old in the

United States receive public assistance income. Also, suppose that 5.8

percent of the 22,378,000 foreign

born who are 16+ years old in the

United States receive public assistance income. Use the appropriate

parameters from Table B and formulas (2) and (3) to get
58

U.S. Census Bureau

The standard error of the difference

is calculated as

sx  y 0.22  0.62  0.6

The 90-percent confidence interval around the difference is calculated as 1.2 ± 1.645×0.6. Since this

interval does not include zero, we

can conclude with 90-percent confidence that the percentage of foreign

born in the United States who receive public assistance income is

higher than the percentage of natives

who receive public assistance income.

Standard Error of a Median.

The sampling variability of an estimated median depends on the form

of the distribution and the size of the

base. One can approximate the reliability of an estimated median by determining a confidence interval

about it. (See the section on standard

errors and their use for a general discussion of confidence intervals.)

Estimate the 68-percent confidence limits of a median based on

sample data using the following procedure.

1. Determine, using formula (2),

the standard error of the estimate

of 50 percent from the distribution.

2. Add to and subtract from 50 percent the standard error determined in step 1.

3. Using the distribution of the

characteristic, determine upper

and lower limits of the 68-

percent confidence interval by

calculating values corresponding

to the two points established in

step 2.

Use the following formula to calculate the upper and lower limits.

XpN pN  N1

N2  N1

A2  A1  A1 (4)

where

XpN = estimated upper and lower

bounds for the confidence

interval (0 ≤ p ≤ 1). For

purposes of calculating the

confidence interval, p takes

on the values determined

in step 2. Note that XpN estimates the median when p

= 0.50.

N = for distribution of numbers: the total number of

units (persons, households,

etc.) for the characteristic

in the distribution.

 = for distribution of percentages: the value 1.0.

p = the values obtained in step

2.

A1, A2 = the lower and upper

bounds, respectively, of the

interval containing XpN.

N1, N2 = for distribution of numbers: the estimated

number of units (persons,

households, etc.) with values of the characteristic

greater than or equal to A1

and A2, respectively.

 = for distribution of percentages: the estimated percentage of units (persons,

households, etc.) having

values of the characteristic

greater than or equal to A1

and A2, respectively.

4. Divide the difference between

the two points determined in step

3 by two to obtain the standard

error of the median.

Illustration

Use the following distribution

and median income for United States

naturalized citizens 16+ years old

who are receiving income.

Naturalized

Income levels citizens 16+

Total 7,177,000

Under $10,000 or loss 2,060,000

$10,000 to $19,999 1,795,000

$20,000 to $34,999 1,565,000

$35,000 to $49,999 828,000

$50,000 or more 929,000

Median income $18,515

(1) Using b = 2,913 from Table B

and formula (2), the standard error of 50 percent on a base of

7,177,000 is about 1.0 percent.

(2) To obtain a 68 percent confidence interval for an estimated

median, add to and subtract

from 50 percent, the standard error found in step 1. This yields

limits of 49.0 and 51.0 percent.

(3) The lower and upper limits for

the interval in which the median

x y difference

Percentage, p 4.6 5.8 1.2

Base, x 178,343,000 22,378,000 -

b parameter 10,380 13,494 -

Standard error 0.2 0.6 0.6

90% conf. int. 4.3 to 4.9 4.8 to 6.8 0.2 to 2.2
59

U.S. Census Bureau

falls are $10,000 and $19,999,

respectively.

Then, by addition, the estimated

number of naturalized citizens

16+ receiving income with an

income greater than or equal to

$10,000 and $19,999 are

5,117,000 and 3,322,000, respectively.

Using formula (4), the upper

limit for the confidence interval

of the median is about

0.490x7,177,000  5,117,000

3,322,000  5,117,000 x 20,000

 10,000  10,000  18,900

Similarly, the lower limit is

about

0.510x7,177,000  5,117,000

3,322,000  5,117,000 x 20,000

 10,000  10,000  18,100

Thus, a 68-percent confidence

interval for the median income

is from $18,100 to $18,900.

(4) The standard error of the median is, therefore

18,900  18,100

2  400

Standard Error of a Ratio. Certain estimates may be calculated as

the ratio of two numbers. The standard error of a ratio, x/y, may be

computed using

sxy  x

y

(

sx

x

)

2

 (

sy

y

)

2

 2r

sxsy

xy

Formula (5)

The standard error of the numerator,

sx, and that of the denominator, sy ,

may be calculated using formulas described earlier. In formula (5), r represents the correlation between the

numerator and the denominator of

the estimate.

For one type of ratio, the denominator is a count of families or households and the numerator is a count

of persons in those families or households with a certain characteristic. If

there is at least one person with the

characteristic in every family or

household, use 0.7 as an estimate of

r. An example of this type is the

mean number of children per family

with children.

For all other types of ratios, r is

assumed to be zero. If r is actually

positive (negative), then this procedure will provide an overestimate

(underestimate) of the standard error of the ratio. Examples of this

type are the mean number of children per family and the poverty rate.

NOTE: For estimates expressed

as the ratio of x per 100 y or x per

1,000 y, multiply formula (5) by 100

or 1,000, respectively, to obtain the

standard error.

Illustration

Suppose there are 8,000,000 foreign-born residents in California and

3,600,000 foreign-born residents in

New York. The ratio of the number

of foreign-born residents in California, x, to the number of foreign-born

residents in New York, y, is 2.20.

Using the parameters in Table B and

the state factors for California and

New York in Table C, the standard

error of this ratio is calculated as follows:

Using formula (5) with r = 0,

the estimate of the standard error is

sxy  8,000,000

3,600,000 [ 260,0008,000,000]

2

 [ 146,000

3,600,000]

2

 0.12

The 90-percent confidence

interval is calculated as 2.50 ±

1.645×0.12.

1

For detailed information on the 1990

sample redesign, see the Department of Labor,

Bureau of Labor Statistics report, Employment

and Earnings, Volume 41, Number 5, May

1994.2

For additional information on the new

metropolitan area definitions, see Revised Statistical Definitions for Metropolitan Areas

(MAs), Office of Management and Budget,

Bulletin No. 93-17, June 30, 1993.

x y ratio

Estimate 8,000,000 3,600,000 2.22

a parameter (national) -0.000025 -0.000025 -

b parameter (national) 6,774 6,774 -

State factors 1.29 0.89 -

a parameter (state) -0.000032 -0.000022 -

b parameter (state) 8,738 6,029 -

Standard error 268,000 146,000 0.12

90% conf. int. 2.02 to 2.42
60

U.S. Census Bureau

Table B.

Standard Error Parameters for Native and Foreign-Born Characteristics: March 1997

Natives Foreign born

Characteristic a b a b

Age

Total ................................................... -0.000020 5,211 -0.000025 6,774

Under 15 years...................................... -0.000088 5,211 -0.000114 6,774

15 years and over .................................. -0.000025 5,211 -0.000033 6,774

15 to 24 years .................................. -0.000142 5,211 -0.000185 6,774

25 to 34 years .................................. -0.000131 5,211 -0.000170 6,774

35 to 44 years .................................. -0.000119 5,211 -0.000155 6,774

45 to 64 years .................................. -0.000096 5,211 -0.000125 6,774

65 years and over .............................. -0.000163 5,211 -0.000212 6,774

Median age (years) ................................ (NA) 5,211 (NA) 6,774

Sex

Male.................................................... -0.000040 5,211 -0.000052 6,774

Female ................................................ -0.000038 5,211 -0.000050 6,774

Race and Hispanic Origin

Some Household Members

Total/White ...................................... -0.000020 5,211 -0.000025 6,774

Black .............................................. -0.000220 7,486 -0.000220 7,486

Asian or Pacific Islander ..................... -0.000602 7,486 -0.000602 7,486

Hispanic origin ................................. -0.000253 7,486 -0.000253 7,486

All Household Members

Total/White ...................................... -0.000024 6,332 -0.000031 8,232

Black .................................................. -0.000324 11,039 -0.000324 11,039

Asian or Pacific Islander.......................... -0.000887 11,039 -0.000887 11,039

Hispanic origin ..................................... -0.000373 11,039 -0.000373 11,039

Educational Attainment............................... -0.000011 2,369 -0.000014 3,080

Labor Force Status

In the civilian labor force ....................... -0.000018 2,985 -0.000023 3,881

Employed ......................................... -0.000018 2,985 -0.000023 3,881

Unemployed ..................................... -0.000018 2,957 -0.000023 3,844

Not in the labor force ............................. 0.000006 829 0.000008 1,078

Income in 1996 ......................................... -0.000013 2,241 -0.000017 2,913

Received Public Assistance ........................... -0.000039 10,380 -0.000051 13,494

Received AFDC ...................................... -0.000039 10,380 -0.000051 13,494

Poverty Status ........................................... -0.000039 10,380 -0.000051 13,494

Tenure ..................................................... -0.000030 7,791 -0.000039 10,128

Country of Birth

Mexico, North/Central America ................. (NA) (NA) -0.000042 11,054

Europe................................................. (NA) (NA) -0.000024 6,351

Asia, Africa, Oceania .............................. (NA) (NA) -0.000039 10,351

United States ....................................... -0.000021 5,556 (NA) (NA)

NA Not applicable.
61

U.S. Census Bureau

Table C.

State Factors

State Factor

Alabama ............................ 1.01

Alaska ............................... 0.15

Arizona ............................. 0.97

Arkansas............................ 0.59

California .......................... 1.29

Colorado ............................ 0.93

Connecticut ....................... 1.00

Delaware ........................... 0.22

Dist. of Col. ....................... 0.16

Florida .............................. 0.97

Georgia ............................. 1.40

Hawaii .............................. 0.35

Idaho ............................... 0.27

Illinois .............................. 1.00

Indiana ............................. 1.38

Iowa................................. 0.71

Kansas .............................. 0.65

Kentucky ........................... 0.92

Louisiana ........................... 0.95

Maine ............................... 0.37

Maryland ........................... 1.38

Massachusetts .................... 0.81

Michigan ........................... 0.93

Minnesota ......................... 1.11

Mississippi ......................... 0.64

Missouri ............................ 1.37

State Factor

Montana ............................ 0.20

Nebraska ........................... 0.42

Nevada .............................. 0.44

New Hampshire ................... 0.38

New Jersey ........................ 0.82

New Mexico........................ 0.40

New York ........................... 0.89

North Carolina .................... 0.94

North Dakota ..................... 0.16

Ohio ................................. 1.02

Oklahoma .......................... 0.73

Oregon .............................. 0.86

Pennsylvania ...................... 0.96

Rhode Island ...................... 0.30

South Carolina .................... 1.01

South Dakota ..................... 0.17

Tennessee .......................... 1.34

Texas ................................ 1.21

Utah ................................. 0.43

Vermont ............................ 0.18

Virginia ............................. 1.48

Washington ........................ 1.47

West Virginia ...................... 0.39

Wisconsin .......................... 1.23

Wyoming ........................... 0.12

Table D.

Region and Nonmetropolitan Factors

Characteristic Factor

Region .............................

Northeast .................. 0.85

Midwest .................... 1.03

South ....................... 1.08

West ......................... 1.09

Nonmetropolitan

 characteristics ................. 1.5
62

U.S. Census Bureau

Appendix C.

Comparison of Population Universes

The population universes in the

March Current Population Survey

(CPS) and in the decennial census of

population are not totally comparable. While the universe for the

census of population is the entire

resident population of the United

States, the universe for the March

CPS is the civilian noninstitutional

population plus Armed Forces living

off post or with their families on

post.1 The coverage of the noninstitutional group quarters population in

the CPS is limited primarily to individuals living in college dormitories

who generally are reported with

their parental households and not in

group quarters; however, relatively

few foreign-born students would be

reported in this way. As a result, the

foreign-born population in the 1990

census corresponding to the CPS universe is essentially the foreign-born

population of 19.3 million living in

households, which is about 0.5 million less than the total foreign-born

population of 19.8 million in the

1990 census.

Foreign-Born Population in the CPS and in the Census of Population

 (Numbers in thousands)

 Foreign-born population

...................................................... Total population Number Percent of total

March 1997 CPS

Civilian noninstitutional population

plus Armed Forces living off post

or with their families on post .................. 266,800 25,779 9.7

1990 Census of Population

Total population ................................ 248,710 19,767 7.9

In households ........................................ 242,050 19,279 8.0

In group quarters .................................... 6,660 489 7.3

In institutions ..................................... 3,312 242 7.3

In other group quarters .......................... 3,348 247 7.4

College dormitories............................. 1,971 123 6.2

Military quarters ................................ 595 24 4.1

Other ............................................... 783 100 12.8

1

In addition, data from the 1990 census and the March 1997 CPS are not totally comparable

because the CPS data are inflated to independent population controls reflecting an adjustment for

undercoverage in the 1990 census. See Appendix B, Source and Accuracy of the Estimates, and

U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1998b.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, special tabulations from the 1990 census and the March

1997 Current Population Survey.
63

U.S. Census Bureau

Appendix D.

Nativity Questions on the Current Population Survey

(The following questions are asked about every member of every household in the CPS sample.

Information is also collected for persons joining the household at a later date.)

The next few questions ask about each household member’s country of birth.

NATVTY In what country (were/was) ................. born? (Enter Code) ________

MNTVTY In what country was .................’s mother born? __________

FNTVTY In what country was .................’s father born? __________

(screens with country codes not shown)

______________________________________________________________________________

AUTOMATED SKIP PATTERN:

If NATVTY = US (1) --> END sequence for this person

If NATVTY = PR* (2) or OA* (3) --> go to INUSYR

If MNTVTY and FNTVTY = US (1), PR* (2) or OA* (3) --> go to INUSYR

ALL OTHERS --> go to CITIZN

______________________________________________________________________________

CITIZN (Are/Is) . . . a CITIZEN of the United States?

(1) YES --> go to CITTYPA

(2) NO --> go to INUSYR

(3) DK* --> go to INUSYR

(4) R* --> go to INUSYR

______________________________________________________________________________

CITTYPA (Were/Was) . . . born a citizen of the United States?

(1) Yes --> go to INUSYR

(2) No --> go to CITTYPB

(3) DK* --> go to CITTYPB

(4) R* --> go to INUSYR

CITTYPB Did . . . become a citizen of the United States through naturalization?

(1) Yes --> go to INUSYR

(2) No --> go to INUSYR

(3) DK* --> go to INUSYR

(4) R* --> go to INUSYR

_____________________________________________________________________________

 INUSYR When did . . . come to live in the United States?

(1) YEAR 19_____

(2) DK*

(3) R*

______________________________________________________________________________

 * PR= Puerto Rico; OA= Outlying Area; DK= Don’t Know; R= Refused.
64

U.S. Census Bureau

Appendix E.

Related Reports and Information

From the U.S. Immigration

and Naturalization Service

(INS)

Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service:

1996 (1997) is the most recent annual yearbook providing comprehensive data on immigration, naturalization, and other topics for fiscal year

1996. The publication includes historical data on immigration.

Legal Immigration, Fiscal Year

1997 (1999), Office of Policy and

Planning, Annual Report No. 1,

makes available selected data on immigration for fiscal year 1997 prior

to the publication of the annual Statistical Yearbook.

For additional information, including data from the reports cited

above, see INS’s Internet site

<http://www.ins.usdoj.gov>.

From the U.S. Census Bureau

Recent population estimates

Profile of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States: 1997, PPL115 (1999) is a comprehensive set of

detailed statistical tables and is the

source of all the data from the March

1997 Current Population Survey included in Profile of the Foreign-Born

Population in the United States: 1997,

P23-195 (this report).

Previous sets of detailed statistical tables on the foreign-born population, which are less comprehensive

than PPL-115, include The ForeignBorn Population: 1994, PPL-31

(1995); The Foreign-Born Population:

1995, PPL-58 (1997); and The

Foreign-Born Population: 1996, 

PPL-59 (1997).

Previous printed reports (6 pages

each) on the foreign-born population

published in Current Population Reports include The Foreign-Born Population: 1994, P20-486 (Kristin A.

Hansen and Amara Bachu, 1995),

and The Foreign-Born Population:

1996, P20-494 (Kristin A. Hansen

and Carol S. Faber, 1997).

The data on the foreign-born

population in the reports noted

above are based on national survey

data for the 1994 to 1997 period.

For a detailed evaluation of these

data, see How Well Does the Current

Population Survey Measure the

Foreign-Born Population in the United

States?, Population Division Working

Paper No. 22 (A. Dianne Schmidley

and J. Gregory Robinson, 1998).

The Census Bureau produces annual estimates of population change

and of the components of population

change (births, deaths, net international migration, and net domestic

migration) since the 1990 census for

the United States, regions and divisions of the United States, states, and

counties. These estimates are available only on the Census Bureau’s

Internet site (http://www.census.

gov). On this Internet site, go to

People, select Estimates, and then

select State (which includes data for

the United States, regions, and divisions) or County. Estimates of the

component of population change are

currently available for 4/1/90 to 7/1/

98 and for 7/1/97 to 7/1/98.

Decennial census data

Historical Census Statistics on the

Foreign-Born Population of the United

States: 1850 to 1990, Population Division Working Paper No. 29 (1999), is

the source of all the decennial census

data included in Profile of the ForeignBorn Population in the United States:

1997, P23-195 (this report).

The Foreign-Born Population in the

United States, 1990 Census of Population, 1990 CP-3-1 (1993) presents

data on the demographic, social, economic, and housing characteristics of

the foreign-born population of the

United States as a whole by region

and country of birth of the foreignborn population. These data are

shown down to the state level in Subject Summary Tape File (SSTF) 1, The

Foreign-Born Population in the United

States, which is available also on CDROM.

Social and Economic Characteristics, 1990 Census of Population, 1990

CP-2 (1993) presents data on the citizenship status, year of entry, and region and country of birth of the

foreign-born population. 1990 CP-2-

1 includes data for the United States,

regions and divisions of the United

States, and states. 1990 CP-2-2

through 1990 CP-2-52 (one report

for each state and for the District of

Columbia) include data for states,

counties, and places of 10,000 or

more population (with less detail for

places of 2,500 to 9,999 population).

1990 CP-2-1B and CP-2-1C include

data for metropolitan areas and urbanized areas, respectively.

On the Internet

A wide range of information

from the Census Bureau, including

data on some of the topics included

in this report, is available on the

Census Bureau’s Internet site

<http://www.census.gov>.
Profile of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States: 1997 P23-195 Current Population Reports Special Studies

U S C E N S U S B U R E A U