United States 

Department of 

Agriculture 

Forest Service 

Intermountain 

Forest and Range 

Experiment Station 

Research Paper 

INT-282 

August 1981 

Rate of Woody 

Residue 

Incorporation into 

Northern Rocky 

Mountain Forest Soils 

A. E. Harvey, M.J. Larsen, and M.F. Jurgensen 

This file was created by scanning the printed publication.

Errors identified by the software have been corrected;

however, some errors may remain.
THE AUTHORS 

A.E. HARVEY, plant pathologist, is responsible for research 

investigations on disease and other microbiological problems 

of reforestation in the central and Northern Rocky Mountains. 

He is stationed at the Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Moscow, 

Idaho. Dr. Harvey received a B.S. degree in biology (1960), 

an M.S. degree in plant pathology (1962), and a Ph.D. degree 

in plant pathology (1968), and an academic year of postgraduate work in plant pathology (1972). He joined the Intermountain Station in 1965. 

M.J. LARSEN, mycologist, is presently investigating the taxonomy and ecology of forest fungi at the Center for Forest 

Mycology Research, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, 

Wis. Dr. Larsen received a B.S. degree in botany (1960), an 

M.S. degree in plant products pathology (1963), and a Ph.D. 

degree in forest mycology (1967). He held a position with the 

Canadian Forestry Service ( 1966-70) and joined the Center 

for Forest Mycology Research in 1971 . 

M.F. JURGENSEN is professor of forest soils; he teaches and 

conducts research in soil microbiology. Dr. Jurgensen received a B.S. degree in forestry (1961 ), an M.S. degree in 

silviculture (1965), and a Ph.D. degree in soil science (1967). 

He has held the positions of research associate ( 1966-67) 

and assistant professor (1966) at North Carolina State University. His present 'position is with the Department of Forestry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Mich. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

The authors gratefully acknowledge Robert E. Benson, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Mont., for providing the 

stand inventory data for site 2 and inventory data of the downed 

woody residues on all three experimental sites. 

RESEARCH SUMMARY 

Research has shown organic matter, particularly decayed 

wood, imparts important properties to forest soils of the Northern Rocky Mountains. In order to maintain or reconstitute high 

quality soils in managed forests, the production time for incorporation of soil organic materials must be considered in the 

long-term management process. 

The research contained in this report indicates lag periods of 

approximately 1 00 to 300 years between the time wood is 

produced on a forested site and the time it becomes incorporated into the soil organic mantle. Habitat type had a major 

influence on time period and on the tendency of an ecosystem 

to equilibrate with wood biomass concentrated as undecayed 

soil-surface residue or as extensively decayed materials incorporated into the soil profile. The cool-moist system accumulated residue. The warm-moist system accumulated decayed 

wood in the soil. Douglas-fir was the most common species of 

wood found in the soils of these experimental sites. 

In order to reconstitute adequate supplies of decayed wood in 

soils depleted in this resource, lag periods in the 100- to 300-

year range can be expected. Also, when managing harvest 

residue as parent materials for soil wood, Douglas-fir is a preferred species. 

CONTENTS 

Page 

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

MATERIALS AND METHODS................... 1 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 

APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 

PUBLICATIONS CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 
United States 

Department of 

Agriculture 

Forest Service 

Intermountain 

Forest and Range 

Experiment Station 

Research Paper 

INT-282 

August 1981 

Rate of Woody 

Residue 

Incorporation into 

Northern Rocky 

Mountain Forest Soils 

A. E. Harvey, M.J. Larsen, and M.F. Jurgensen 

INTRODUCTION 

Maintenance of high organic matter levels in cultivated soils 

has long been recognized as important to site quality. In forest 

soils the rapid accumulation of organic litter and frequent requirement of a mineral seedbed for regeneration obscures the 

importance of long-term organic matter requirements. 

Persistence of wood in forest soils has been recognized for 

some time (McFee and Stone 1966). Specific and quantitatively 

important contributions made by wood to forested ecosystems 

have been recognized only recently, however. 

During the transition from solid to decayed wood, large residues support substantial nitrogen-fixing activity (Larsen and 

others 1978; Bormann and others 1977; Cornaby and Waide 

1973). Once incorporated in the soil, decayed wood continues 

to support nitrogen-fixing activity (Jurgensen and others 1977). 

It becomes the primary site for nitrogen fixation during dry 

periods or on dry sites of the Northern Rocky Mountains (Harvey and others 1978b). 

As a component of Northern Rocky Mountain forest soils, 

decayed wood also provides an important substratum for 

ectomycorrhizal symbionts. In one mature ecosystem, over 90 

percent of the active ectomycorrhizal associations were supported by soil organic matter (Harvey and others 1976). As with 

nitrogen-fixing activity, decayed wood became the primary substratum for ectomycorrhizal activity during dry periods (Harvey 

and others 1978a) and on dry sites (Harvey and others 1978b, 

1979). 

The increasing importance of decayed wood in soils during 

dry seasons and on relatively dry sites is apparently related to 

the efficiency of the lignin matrix in highly decayed wood to 

retain moisture (Harvey and others 1978a, 1979). 

Soil wood must be considered a primary factor governing soil 

quality of many forests. It is critical to moisture relations and, by 

way of the micro-organisms it supports, to nutrient input and 

availability. Therefore, how much wood is required on a site to 

support full growth potential and how long it takes to produce it if 

it is depleted are major considerations in the management of 

forests in which these contributions are important. 

Requirements of decayed wood for high quality Northern 

Rocky Mountain soils are currently under study and will be 

reported separately. Here, we report a preliminary assessment 

of how long it may take to produce decayed wood in soils of 

three Northern Rocky Mountain ecosystems. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

This study was conducted on three sites within the boundaries of the Coram Experimental Forest located in Flathead 

County between Flathead Lake and Glacier National Park of 

northwestern Montana. The timber type is Douglas-fir/larch. 

Elevations range from 3,340 ft (1 018 m) to 6,370 ft (1 942 m) 

above sea level. Mean annual precipitation at the lower elevations averages 31 in (78.7 em) and the mean annual temperature, 42.5° F (5.3° C). Mean annual summer temperatures average 61 o F (16.1 o C), see Klages and others (1976). 

Three sites were chosen to represent a wide range of temperature-moisture conditions typical of Northern Rocky Mountain 

forests. Each supports a mature ecosystem approximately 250 

years of age with no history of disturbance by man and includes 

at least 1 ha of uniform conditions. 

These sites have been characterized in detail elsewhere 

(Harvey and others 1979). In summary, site 1 is a warm, dry 

south slope dominated by Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii 

[Mirb.] Franco). Site 2 is a cool, moist east slope dominated by 

Douglas-fir, western larch (Larix occidentalis Mirr.), subalpine 

fir (Abies /asiocarpa [Hook.] Nutt.), and Engelmann spruce 

(Picea eng/emanni Parry), and site 3 is a warm, moist north 

slope dominated by western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla 

[Raf.] Sarg.). These sites are representative of Pseudotsuga 

menziesii!Physocarpus malvaceus (PSME/PHMA), Abies 

lasiocarpa!Ciintonia uniflora (ABLS/CLUN), and Tsuga heterophylla!Ciintonia unit/ora (TSHE/CLUN) habitat types, respectively (Pfister and others 1977). 
All major organic materials on these sites were characterized 

and measured as follows: 

1. Soil organic components: Samples consisted of 4 x 12 

in (1 0 by 30 em) soil cores taken randomly from around 10 

permanent plot centers evenly dispersed throughout each 

study site. Each core was divided into litter (01 horizon), humus 

(02 horizon), decayed soil wood (03 horizon), and charcoal (04 

horizon) (Harvey and others 1979). The volume of each was 

determined by measuring its depth in the undisturbed core. 

These samples were derived from a series of studies on 

these sites May to November 1975 and 1976. They represent a 

total of 1 050 cores from site 2 and 160 each from sites 1 and 3. 

2. Down woody residues: Random line intersect samples 

from around each of the permanent plot centers were used as a 

basis for calculating volume as described by Brown (1974). 

Residues were further characterized with respect to the general 

stage of decay as sound (no visible deterioration), solid decay 

(extensively discolored, but resistant to crumbling and breakage), and crumbly decay (easily broken and crumbled). 

3. Standing wood volume: Site 2 volume measurements 

were based on a 1 00 percent inventory (Bensen and Schlieter 

1980). Sites 1 and 3 were cruised according to Grosenbaugh 

(1952), and volume conversion factors were those provided in 

Faurot (1977). 

4. Radiocarbon dating: Brown, cubicle decayed wood 

samples for dating were collected randomly from throughout the 

study sites. All samples selected were of crumbly decayed logs 

located on, partially buried in, or completely buried in the soil 

profile. Duplicate or triplicate samples of each decay type were 

dated at Washington State University according to procedures 

described by Sheppard (1975). All three sample types were 

dated for site 2. Samples from partially buried logs only were 

dated from sites 1 and 3. All materials of recent origin, such as 

roots and fungal strands were removed, insofar as possible, as 

a part of the sample preparation procedure. Each sample consisted of material from throughout a representative cross section and each was microscopically identified as to tree species. 

5. Lignin-carbohydrate analysis: Samples for lignin and 

carbohydrate analysis were collected as above for radiocarbon 

dating. Ten to 15 samples from each sample type and site, as 

described above, were analyzed for content of lignin (Effland 

1977) and carbohydrate, primarily cellulose and associated 

materials. 1 The species of each sample was also determined. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Table 1 summarizes the results of the radiocarbon dating, 

lignin, and carbohydrate analyses of decayed wood residue 

samples from the three sites. The data for samples in various 

stages of incorporation into the soil show a progression in age 

from the position of lying on the surface of the soil (x145 yr) to 

one of being fully incorporated in the soil profile (x370 yr) of site 

2 and aiso from the subalpine fir (site 2 - x 145 yr) to the 

Douglas-fir (site 1 --x247 yr) to the hemlock (site 3 -x473 yr) 

sites. Measurements derived from cross-section samples provided a maximum age estimate because of the inclusion of 

wood produced early in the lifespan of the tree. All 12 wood 

samples were identified as Douglas-fir. Present stands contain 

other tree species (table 2) and the fire frequency for these sites 

would not eliminate other species from the previous stands. 

2 

Data in table 1 show a significant loss of carbohydrates and 

persistence of lignin with increasing age (incorporation into the 

soil profile). Again, species identification of 90 random samples 

indicated all were Douglas-fir. This suggests Douglas-fir is the 

most persistent species of wood in these soils. Previous 

observations (Jurgensen and others 1977) have also suggested that brown, cubicle-decayed Douglas-fir wood is prevalent in these soils. 

Table 1.-Radiocarbon age, lignin, and carbohydrate (percent dry 

weight) content of decayed soil wood from three undisturbed, mature forest stands in western Montana 

Position 

Site 1 

(PSME/PHMA)1 

Radiocarbon 

Species age Lignin Carbohydrate 

Years 

Partially buried Douglas-fir 250 ± 1 00 276.93(5.62) 2 15.1 0(5.50) 

280 ± 95 

Site 2 

(ABLA/CLUN)3 

Surface 

Partially buried 

Buried 

Surface 

Partially buried 

Buried 

Site 3 

(TSHE/CLUN)6 

210 ± 90 

Douglas-fir 130 ± 90 

102 ± 90 

190 ± 90 

100 ± 90 

450 ± 95 

290 ± 90 

Douglas-fir 

64.9 27.1 

73.3 18.8 

62.4 30.9 

84.4 7.6 

80.9 11.3 

78.8 11.9 267 .45(7 .42) 23.87(8.17) 

72.56(8.34) 18.57(9.16) 478.13(3.86) 512.64(4.44) 

Partially buried Douglas-fir 510 ± 100 275.13(3.35) 216.56(3.38) 

550 ± 120 

360 ± 90 

1 Pseudotsuga menziesii!Physocarpus malvaceus habitat type. 2Mean and standard deviation determined from 10 to 15 random samples. 3 Abies lasiocarpa!Ciintonia unit/ora habitat type. 4Significantly more lignin than surface sample, a = 0.01, t-test. 5

Significantly less carbohydrate than surface sample, a = 0.01, t-test. 6Tsuga heterophyl/a!Ciintonia uniflora habitat type. 

1Moore, W.E., and D.B. Johnson. 1967. Procedures for the chemical analysis of 

wood and wood products (as used at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory). USDA 

For. Serv., Madison, Wis. (unpubl.). 
[ 

l 

J 

Table 2.-Mean stand volumes (m3 /ha) by tree species of three undisturbed, mature forests in western Montana; 

includes all stems 

Species 

Douglas- Western Alpine Engelmann Western Western Lodgepole Total 

fir larch fir spruce hemlock red cedar Birch pine volume 

Site 1 (PSME/PHMA) 1 

271.5 6.2 242.7 

Site 2 (ABLA/CLUN)2 

164.7 22.8 66.5 45.3 0.1 299.4 

Site 3 (TSHE/CLUN)3 

152.7 255.3 17.3 9.0 4.6 438.9 

1 Pseudotsuga menziesii!Physocarpus malvaceus habitat type. 2Abies lasiocarpa!Ciintonia unifloraa habitat type. 3 Tsuga heterophylla/Ciintonia uniflora. 

Table 3.-Mean volumes (m3 /ha) of wood residues 1 in three undisturbed, mature forest stands in western Montana 

Species 

Douglas- Western Alpine Engelmann 

Condition fir larch fir 

Site 1 (PSME/PHMA)2 

Sound 22.5 5.2 

Solid decay 45.4 7.2 

Crumbly decay 57.6 16.6 

Site 2 (ABLA/CLUN)3 

Sound 82.3 42.4 27.10 

Solid decay 54.2 34.8 21.92 

Crumbly decay 105.4 46.0 7.46 

Site 3 (TSHE/CLUN)4 

Sound 9.4 36.2 

Solid decay 6.6 54.0 

Crumbly decay 20.3 32.2 

1

Not considered as incorporated in the soil profile. 2Pseudotsuga menziesii!Physocarpua malvaceus habitat type. 3 Abies lasiocarpa!Ciintonia unit/ora habitat type. 4Tsuga heterophyl/a/C/intonia uniflora habitat type. 

spruce 

1.5 

5.1 

1.8 

A complete inventory of all woody materials on these sites is 

provided in tables 2, 3, and 4. Table 3 shows the greatest 

accumulation of downed woody residues, not incorporated in 

the soil profile, on the cool, moist site (site 2, ABLA/CLUN). 

Conversely, table 4 shows that the end products of the decay 

process (woody materials incorporated in the soil profile) are 

highest on the warm moist site (site 3, TSHE/CLUN). The 

greatest stand volumes occur on the warm moist site (table 2), 

but the tendency of the ecosystem to equilibrate with high wood 

residue volumes varies with site conditions. The apparent 

tendency to accumulate undecayed residue on the relatively 

productive growing site (site 2) with the coolest temperatures 

indicates decay is reduced by the cool temperatures. 

Selected data from tables 2, 3, and 4 were used to calculate 

relative rates of wood accumulation and dispersion on these 

sites (table 5). These calculations show a tendency for the cool 

3 

Western Western Total 

hemlock red cedar Birch Alder volume 

154.6 

0.1 430.3 

8.8 6.3 

43.5 5.4 4.7 

25.9 1.5 254.2 

moist ecosystem (site 2, ABLA/CLUN) to accumulate woody 

residue at a relatively high rate. The difference between wood 

production, as reported in Pfister and others (1977), and the soil 

wood return rate, which is based on the difference2 between 

total wood production over the 250-year stand age and total 

wood reserves measured on each site, was used to estimate 

the approximate time periods required to return wood reserves 

to the soil. A one-third loss of volume was estimated between 

the time fresh wood began the process of decay and disintegration and the time it began to function as soil. This estimate is 

based on field measurements by the authors. 

2This figure (column 8, table 5) represents the volume of wood that can no 

longer be visually accounted for in the samples as intact wood; that is, it has been 

incorporated into the humus and mineral soil components or released to the 

atmosphere as C02 . Microscopic observations by the authors indicate substantial 

quantities of this material have been incorporated into the humus components of 

these soils. 
APPLICATIONS 

Forest management actions should incorporate an awareness that depletion in site reserves of organic material, particularly decayed soil wood, can potentially reduce growth rates by 

reducing ectomycorrhizal and nitrogen-fixing activities. Replacement of the woody soil components lost due to harvesting 

or fire activity requires time periods from ca. 1 00 to 300 years. 

Therefore, harvesting plans, particularly those for dry sites, 

should be directed toward maintaining modest levels of organic 

matter, including large woody materials. Even where excessive 

depletion of woody residue has occurred (for example, sites that 

have been subjected to repeated and hot wildfires), the potential for soil improvement is considerable. Forest management 

should encourage the building of organic reserves and the rapid 

decay of available wood residues. 

Table 4.-Mean volumes (m3 /ha/30 em depth) of soil organic material in three undisturbed, mature forest stands in western Montana 

Type of material 

01 02 03 04 

(litter) (humus) (decayed wood)1 (charcoal) 

Site 1 (PSME/PHMA)2 

60.9 304.8 365.8 7.6 

Site 2 (ABLA/CLUN)3 

60.9 335.3 365.8 9.1 

Site 3 (TSHE/CLUN)4 

152.4 457.2 426.7 2.9 

Total soil 

(wood materials 

only) 

373.4 

374.9 

429.7 

1

Considered incorporated in and functioning as soil. 2Pseudotsuga menziesii!Physocarpus malvaceus habitat type. 3 Abies /asiocarpa!Ciintonia uniflora habitat type. 4 Tsuga heterophylla!Ciintonia uniflora habitat type. 

Table 5.-Derivation of woody residue dispersal rate (calculated by dividing wood production potential by persistent woody reserves) from 

three undisturbed forest stands in western Montana (m3 /ha) 

Wood Wood 

Nonsoil Yield production Wood Dispersion accumulation 

wood Stand Wood Stand capacity1 potential dispersed2 (decay) rate3 potential4 Soil wood 

Soil wood residue volume reserves age per year (250 yr) (250 yr) per year per year production time5 

Years Years 

Site 1 (PSME/PHMA)6 

373.4 154.6 242.7 700.8 250 4.9 1224.5 523 2.1 2.8 192 

Site 2 (ABLA/CLUNf 

374.9 430.3 299.4 1104.6 250 6.3 1574.4 469.7 1.9 4.4 274 

Site 3 (TSHE/CLUN)8 

429.7 254.2 9

311.2 955.1 250 7.7 1924.2 929.1 3.7 4.0 172 

1 Pfister and others 1977. 2Dispersal of wood in soil to a point where it is classified as mixed in mineral soil or lost from the system as C02 (production potential minus reserves). 3

Wood dispersed divided by stand age. 4

Yield capacity minus dispersion rate. 5Wood production potential divided by dispersation rate (column 2) times 0.33. 6Pseudotsuga menziesii!Physocarpus malvaceus habitat type. 7 Abies lasiocarpa!Ciintonia uniflora habitat type. 8 Tsuga heterophylla!Ciintonia uniflora habitat type. 9 1ncludes a 50 percent volume loss to live stem decay in hemlock stems. 

4 
PUBLICATIONS CITED 

Benson, R.E., and J.A. Schlieter. 

1980. Volume and weight characteristics of a typical Douglas-fir/western larch stand, Coram Experimental Forest, 

Montana. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-92, 28 p. 

lntermt. For. and Range Exp. Stn., Ogden, Utah. 

Bormann, F.H., G.E. Likens, and J.M. Melilo. 

1977. Nitrogen budget for an aggrading northern hardwood 

forest ecosystem. Science 196:981-983. 

Brown, James K. 

197 4. Handbook for inventorying downed woody material. 

USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-16, 24 p. lntermt. 

For. and Range Exp. Stn., Ogden, Utah. 

Cornaby, B.W., and J.B. Waide. 

1973. Nitrogen fixation in decaying chestnut logs. Plant and 

Soil 39:445-448. 

Effland, J.J. 

1977. Modified procedure to determine acid-insoluble lignin 

in wood and pulp. TAPPI 60:143-144. 

Faurot, J.L. 

1977. Estimation of merchantable volume and stem residue 

in four timber species. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT-196, 

55 p. lntermt. For. and Range Exp. Stn., Ogden, Utah. 

Grosenbaugh, L.R. 

1952. Plotless timber estimates- new, fast, easy. J. For. 

50:32-37. 

Harvey, A.E., M.J. Larsen, and M.F. Jurgensen. 

1976. Distribution of ectomycorrhizae in a mature Douglasfir/larch forest soil in western Montana. For. Sci. 22:393-

398. 

Harvey, A.E., M.F. Jurgensen, and M.J. Larsen. 

1978a. Seasonal distribution of ectomycorrhizae in a mature 

Douglas-fir/larch forest soil in western Montana. For. Sci. 

24:203-208. 

Harvey, A.E., M.F. Jurgensen, and M.J. Larsen. 

1978b. Role of residue in and impacts of its management on 

forest soil biology. FAO Spec. Pap. Proc. 8th World For. 

Congr. Oct. 1978, FQL 29-8. 

Harvey, A.E., M.J. Larsen, and M.F. Jurgensen. 

1979. Comparative distribution of ectomycorrhizae in soils of 

three western Montana forest habitat types. For. Sci. 

25:350-358. 

Jurgensen, M.J., M.J. Larsen, and A.E. Harvey. 

1977. Effects of timber harvesting on soil biology. Proc. Annu. 

Meet. Soc. Amer. For. p. 244-250. 

Klages, M.D., R.C. McConnell, and G.A. Nielson. 

1976. Soils of the Coram Experimental Forest. Mont. Agric. 

Exp. Stn., Res. Rep. 91, 43 p. 

Larsen, M.J., M.F. Jurgensen, and A.E. Harvey. 

1978. N2 fixation associated with wood decayed by some 

common fungi in western Montana. Can. J. For. Res. 

8:341-345. 

McFee, W.W., and E.L. Stone. 

1966. The persistence of decaying wood in the humus layers 

of northern forests. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 30:513-516. 

Pfister, R.D., B.L. Kovalchik, S.F. Arno, and R.C. Presby. 

1977. Forest habitat types of Montana. USDA For. Serv. Gen. 

Tech. Rep. INT-34, 172 p. lntermt. For. and Range Exp. 

Stn., Ogden, Utah. 

Sheppard, J.C. 

1975. A radiocarbon dating primer. Wash. State Univ. Bull. 

338. Pullman, Washington. 75 p. 

Harvey, A.E., M.J. Larsen, and M.F. Jurgensen. 

1981. Rate of woody residue incorporation into Northern Rocky Mountain forest 

soils. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT-282, 5 p. lntermt. For. and Range Exp. 

Stn., Ogden, Utah 84401. 

The important properties contributed to forest soils by decayed wood in the 

Northern Rocky Mountains make it desirable to determine the time required to 

reconstitute such materials in depleted soils. The ratio of fiber production potential 

(growth) to total quantity of wood in a steady state ecosystem provides estimates 

varying from approximately 1 00 to 300 years, depending on habitat type, for replacement of decayed soil wood. Radiocarbon dating of decayed wood in various 

stages of incorporation into the soil ranged from 100 to 550 years, depending on site 

and depth in soil. Species identification of decayed wood indicated that Douglas-fir 

residue is the most persistent woody material in these Northern Rocky Mountain 

soils. 

KEYWORDS: decay, disintegration, decomposition, recycling, nutrients, fuels, 

wood residues, soils, ectomycorrhizae, nitrogen fixation, site quality, forest fire, organic reserves 

5 
The Intermountain Station, headquartered in Ogden, 

Utah, is one of eight regional experiment stations charged 

with providing scientific knowledge to help resource 

managers meet human needs and protect forest and range 

ecosystems. 

The Intermountain Station includes the States of 

Montana, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, and western Wyoming. 

About 273 million acres, or 85 percent, of the land area in the 

Station. territory are classified as forest and rangeland. These 

lands include grasslands, deserts, shrublands, alpine areas, 

and well-stocked forests. They supply fiber for forest industries; minerals for energy and industrial development; and 

water for domestic and industrial consumption. They also 

provide recreation opportunities for millions of visitors each 

year. 

Field programs and research work units of the Station 

are maintained in: 

Boise, Idaho 

Bozeman, Montana (in cooperation with Montana 

State University) 

Logan, Utah (in cooperation with Utah State 

University) 

Missoula, Montana (in cooperation with the 

·university of Montana) 

Moscow, Idaho (in cooperation with the University of Idaho) 

Provo, Utah (in cooperation with Brigham Young 

University) 

Reno, Nevada (in cooperation with the University 

of Nevada) 

~ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981 - 777-028/122 Region No.8