United States General Accounting Office

GAO Report to the Ranking Minority Member,

Committee on National Security, House

of Representatives

August 1996 SCHOOL OF THE

AMERICAS

U.S. Military Training

for Latin American

Countries

G O A

years

1921 - 1996

GAO/NSIAD-96-178

GAO United States

General Accounting Office

Washington, D.C. 20548

National Security and

International Affairs Division

B-272054 

August 22, 1996

The Honorable Ronald V. Dellums

Ranking Minority Member

Committee on National Security

House of Representatives

Dear Mr. Dellums:

The U.S. Army School of the Americas has been training Latin American

military students for the last 50 years. In response to your request, we are

providing information on (1) how the Latin American political, military,

and economic environment in which the School operates has changed in

recent years; (2) who the School’s attendees are and how they are

selected; (3) how the School’s curriculum has evolved; and (4) who

provides the instruction. Additionally, we are providing information on a

recent Department of the Army study covering the School and on a

Department of Defense (DOD) initiative to strengthen civilian institutions

involved in defense and security in Latin America.

Background The U.S. Army School of the Americas, located at Fort Benning, Georgia, is

a military educational institution that has trained over 57,000 officers,

cadets, noncommissioned officers (NCO), and civilians from Latin America

and the United States over the past 50 years. According to the State

Department, the training provided by the School is intended to be a

long-term investment in a positive relationship with Latin America.

Today’s School is derived from several predecessor institutions, beginning

with a 1946 Army school established primarily to provide technical

instruction to U.S. personnel, with limited training for Latin Americans. In

1987, under Public Law 100-180 (10 U.S.C. 4415), Congress formally

authorized the Secretary of the Army to operate the School with the

purpose of providing military education and training to military personnel

of Central American, South American, and Caribbean countries. 

Appendix I provides a chronology of the School’s history.

The School is funded from two sources: (1) the Army’s operations and

maintenance account, which covers overhead costs such as civilians’ pay,

guest instructor programs, supplies and equipment, certain travel

expenses, and contracts, and (2) reimbursements from U.S. security

assistance provided to Latin American countries, which cover costs

associated with presenting the courses, including instructional supplies

Page 1 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
B-272054 

and materials; required travel for courses; and support for the School’s

library and publications. In fiscal year 1995, the School received

$2.6 million from the Army’s operations and maintenance account. In

addition, the School’s courses generated $1.2 million from foreign

militaries using U.S. security assistance grant funds.1

 The School retains

about 35 percent of this amount to defray its costs for course offerings.

Fort Benning uses another 37 percent to defray costs associated with

infrastructure maintenance, and the remainder is transferred to

Department of the Army headquarters.

Results in Brief The Latin American environment in which the School operates is

undergoing radical political and economic change. Virtually all of the

countries of the region have representative governments and are pursuing

market-based economic policies. In addition, the role of the military in

many of these societies is beginning to evolve from one of political

dominance to a more professional model subordinate to the civilian

authority. However, in some countries, civilian authority is weak and

fragmented, and problems such as corruption within the government and

human rights violations associated with government authorities,

particularly military and police forces, remain as threats to the gains made

over the past decade.

Although the School trains the majority of Latin American students that

come to the United States for Army training, primarily because the

curriculum is taught in Spanish, it provides a small percent of the training

that the Army provides to foreign students from around the world.

Virtually all of the 745 students attending the School in 1995 represented

their countries’ military or police forces, with few civilians attending the

School. Country representation in the student population typically reflects

the dominant U.S. interests at various points in time.

Many of the courses at the School provide instruction in military and

combat skills, such as patrolling, infantry tactics, tactical intelligence, and

battle planning. However, since 1990, the curriculum has been broadened

to include courses addressing post-Cold War needs of the region, such as

countermine training, defense resource management, and civil-military

relations. The length of the courses and attendance vary significantly, from

a 1-week course that provides an overview of basic military skills to 

162 Chilean cadets to a 47-week command and general staff officer course

1

Sources of grant funds include International Military Education and Training (IMET), Foreign Military

Financing, and International Narcotics and Law Enforcement programs.

Page 2 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
B-272054 

attended by 19 students from 9 Latin American countries and 19 officers

from the U.S. armed forces, in 1995. The courses offered at the School are

based on U.S. military doctrine, and foreign students from other regions

receive basically the same courses at other Army training locations, with

the exception of the School’s emphasis on human rights.

Courses are taught by U.S. and Latin American military personnel and

some civilian instructors. For fiscal year 1996, 83 instructors are assigned

to the School—50 U.S. military personnel and 33 military personnel from

Latin America. The Latin American instructors are nominated by their

governments and are subject to U.S. approval.

A recent study contracted for by the Army to determine whether the

School should be retained and why concluded that the School should

continue but recommended a number of changes. DOD agreed with many of

these recommendations in principle, and for those in its purview it is

considering how best to implement them.

In response to the emerging post-Cold War need to strengthen civilian

institutions in Latin America, DOD is considering establishing a separate

institution to focus on civil-military relations and the development of

greater civilian expertise in the region’s defense establishments.

The Changing

Environment in Latin

America

The last decade has seen remarkable change in Latin America as countries

throughout the region have embraced political and economic freedom.

Today, all Latin American nations, except Cuba, have democratically

elected leaders, increasingly open economies, and increased political

freedoms. It is within this changing political, military, and economic

environment that the School of the Americas has been operating.

Political Change The end of the Cold War and the spread of democratic government around

the world have accelerated dramatic change in Latin America. Over the

past 15 years, the region has seen a significant shift away from

dictatorships and military regimes. Today, virtually all Latin American

countries have representative governments, although the democratic

institutions in many of these countries are in their embryonic stage.2

Reflecting the fragile nature of democracy in some countries, the 1991

Santiago Resolution of the Organization of American States called for the

2

Abraham F. Lowenthal, and Peter Hakim, “Latin American Democracy in the 1990s: The Challenges

Ahead,” Evolving U.S. Strategy for Latin America and the Caribbean (Washington, D.C.: National

Defense University Press, 1992).

Page 3 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
B-272054 

preservation and strengthening of democratic systems and was reinforced

at the 1995 Defense Ministerial of the Americas in Williamsburg, Virginia.

However, it remains unclear whether the democratic gains of the 1980s

can be sustained. In some countries, civilian institutions are relatively

weak and fragmented and are vulnerable to economic and social

instability. Corruption within the governments, including military and law

enforcement agencies, also threatens the continued stability of democratic

governments.

Changes in the Military

Environment

The move toward democratically elected governments has caused the role

of the militaries in Latin America to undergo significant change. The

militaries were frequently political, and largely autonomous, actors in

regional affairs and often played a dominant role in their societies. In

recent years, however, the militaries appear to have become less prone to

political intervention. The concern exists, however, that this inclination is

not permanent, and that democratization is not irreversible. The recent

coup attempt in Paraguay, while rebuffed, demonstrates the fragile nature

of democracy in Latin America.

Further, human rights violations continue to be a concern in the region.

The 1995 State Department report on human rights states that even though

progress has been made, widespread abuses of human rights continue in

some Latin American countries. For example, although progress was made

in negotiations between the Guatemalan government and guerrillas and

human rights activists were elected to the country’s congress, serious

human rights abuses continued to occur in Guatemala in 1995. In Mexico,

serious problems also remain, such as extrajudicial killings by the police

and illegal arrests.

Colombia is another country in the region that continues to face major

human rights problems associated with its military, including killings,

torture, and disappearances. The State Department has expressed

concerns about human rights violators’ impunity from prosecution. The

State Department’s recent report on Colombia noted that the military has

usually failed to prosecute human rights abuse cases involving military

personnel. Several sources, including the Organization of American States,

have expressed concern about Colombia’s human rights record. In

response, during its 1996 session, the United Nations Commission on

Human Rights, of which Colombia is a member, authorized the High

Commissioner on Human Rights to establish an office in Colombia—an

Page 4 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
B-272054 

unusual step. The office is expected to monitor and assess the human

rights situation in Colombia, including Colombia’s progress in correcting

its human rights abuses; provide assistance to Colombia to correct those

abuses; and report its findings at next year’s convention.

Economic Change Economically, the region is shifting from protectionist and statist

economic models to free markets and export-oriented growth. Leaders

throughout the region recognize the need to achieve macroeconomic

stability, and many countries are enduring painful economic adjustments.

In some cases, economic reforms have further exacerbated the

concentration of income and wealth and thus widened the already large

disparity between the rich and the poor. Although the region’s total gross

domestic product increased between 1991 and 1993, an estimated

45 percent of the people are living in poverty.

Change in U.S. Interests The end of the Cold War presented the United States with a new foreign

policy opportunity in Latin America. The United States no longer needs to

bolster the militaries to stop communism and has begun focusing more

efforts on promoting economic and political freedom.

At the December 1994 Summit of the Americas hosted by the United

States, 34 democratically elected leaders from Latin America gathered to

commit their governments to open new markets, create a free trade area

throughout the hemisphere, strengthen the movement to democracy, and

improve the quality of life for all people of the region. The United States is

working through multilateral institutions to further the goals of the

Summit of the Americas. In recent testimony, for example, the State

Department described how the Inter-American Development Bank is

working for sustainable development and promoting specific Summit

mandates in the fields of health and education.3

Consistent with the changing political and economic environment, the

United States is approaching security issues in the region in terms of

mutual cooperation. Today, the U.S. policy reflects the retreat of the

Communist threat and the political transformation in the Latin American

region. It emphasizes support for democratically elected governments,

defense cooperation, confidence-building measures, and the mitigation of

transnational threats such as narcotrafficking and international terrorism.

3

U.S. Foreign Policy and the International Financial Institutions, statement by Joan E. Spero,

Department of State, before the Subcommittee on Domestic and International Monetary Policy, House

Committee on Banking and Financial Services (Apr.25, 1996).

Page 5 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
B-272054 

The United States considers educating and training foreign militaries and

civilians a critical part of its national security strategy to pursue the

specific goal of promoting democracy in the Latin American and

Caribbean region. Senior Army officials told us that international military

training programs4

 expose students to U.S. military doctrine and practices

and include instruction for foreign military members and civilians on

developing defense resource management systems, regard for democratic

values and civilian control of military, respect for human rights and the

rule of law, and counterdrug operations.

In the U.S. Security Strategy for the Americas, DOD identifies the School of

the Americas and two other military training institutions5

 as regional

assets through which the United States can engage its counterparts in the

region.

Attendees of the

School of the

Americas

Although the School of the Americas is one option among the many Army

schools and installations offering courses to foreign military students, it is

the predominant training choice for Latin Americans. While the number of

students at the School has decreased over the past few years because of

reduced U.S. funding for international military training, School officials

expect an increase this year due to increases in training funding for 1996.

Students at the School come primarily from their countries’ military or

police forces, with a significant proportion from military or police

academies. Although some countries have sent more students to the

School than others, the predominant countries represented at the School

typically reflect U.S. interests in the region at a particular time.

School of the Americas Is

Predominant Choice of

Latin Americans

Of the 5,895 foreign students that came to the United States to attend U.S.

Army training courses in fiscal year 1995, 842 (14 percent) were from

Spanish-speaking Latin American and Caribbean countries. Of the 842, 745

(88 percent) of those attended the School of the Americas. The 97 Latin

Americans that did not receive their Army training at the School attended

courses at 24 other Army installations. Some of these students took

4

Foreign militaries purchase training from the U.S. military using funds granted or appropriated

through three U.S. foreign assistance programs—Foreign Military Financing, International Narcotics

and Law Enforcement, and IMET. In 1995, over 18,000 students received training through these

programs; about 2,600 were from countries in Latin America and the Caribbean.

5

The other institutions are the Naval Small Craft and Technical Training School, located in Panama,

and the Inter-American Air Forces Academy, located at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas. The schools

are operated by the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Air Force, respectively, and provide training in Spanish to

students from Latin America and the Caribbean. Since 1963, about 4,500 personnel have attended the

Navy school, and almost 30,000 have attended the Air Force school since 1943.

Page 6 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
B-272054 

courses not offered at the School, while others took similar courses but

received their instruction in English.

The 745 students who attended the School in 1995 represented a reduction

in enrollment. Between 1984 and 1993, an average of 1,371 students

attended the School each year, with attendance ranging from 996 in 1985

to 1,763 in 1992.6

 According to School officials, a reduction in funding for

international military training contributed to the decrease in the number of

students. The IMET program funds allocated to the Latin American region

were reduced from the 1993 level of $11.3 million to about $5.1 million in

1994 and about $4.8 million in 1995. This reduced allocation reflects the

reduction in total IMET funding for those years—from $42.5 million in 1993

to about $22.3 million in 1994 and about $26.4 million in 1995. However,

officials at the School project an increase in the number of students for

1996 since IMET funding for the Latin American region for 1996 was

increased to $9.1 million.

School officials said that the effect of the reduction in international

training funds was further compounded by increases in the cost of the

courses. Inflation particularly affected certain cost components, such as

ammunition, flight support, course-related travel, and the publication of

training materials. According to School officials, the cost of some courses

has doubled over the past 5 or 6 years, in large measure because of

increases in the cost components. As a result, foreign militaries could not

afford to send higher numbers of students to the courses.

How Students Are Selected According to School officials, because the curriculum is taught in Spanish,

Latin American and Caribbean military forces can select students based on

their military training needs without considering their English language

skills. This allows the countries to save funds that might have to be spent

for preparatory English language courses. Candidates are identified by

foreign military officials and approved by U.S. officials at the U.S.

embassies in Latin America. Instructions issued by the Secretary of State

in January 1994, require U.S. officials to review records of prospective

students for all U.S. schools to identify any past actions or affiliations

considered undesirable, such as criminal activity, human rights abuses, or

corruption. According to School officials, all prospective foreign students

6

The School maintains attendance records based on the calendar year, and the Army Training and

Doctrine Command (TRADOC) maintains records on a fiscal year basis. We adjusted the 1995 calendar

year attendance to fiscal year attendance for comparison with the overall Army data but could not

adjust the attendance back to 1984. Therefore, we are comparing the fiscal year attendance in 1995 to

calendar year average attendance between 1984 and 1993.

Page 7 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
B-272054 

are subject to the same screening and selection criteria and procedures,

whether they will attend the School or other U.S. military training

institutions.

Virtually all of the students selected for the School of the Americas have

been members of their countries’ military or police forces, with less than

one percent civilian students. Officials at the School said that even though

courses intended for civilian participation are offered, increasing civilian

attendance is difficult for two reasons. First, government departments in

many countries tend to be understaffed, and it is difficult for key civilian

officials to leave their positions for several weeks to attend courses in the

United States. Second, some foreign militaries and defense ministries

prefer to spend available military training funds on members of the armed

forces rather than civilians, despite encouragement from U.S. officials to

select some civilians for relevant courses.

Between 1990 and 1995, about 41 percent of the students were cadets7

from Latin American military or police academies. Cadet-level courses are

not new; they have been offered at the School as far back as the 1950s.

According to School officials, instructing cadets is consistent with the

mission of the School, as these students represent the next generation of

military officers. Also, some countries have identified their military or

police cadets8

 as a top training priority. Since 1991, Chile has sent cadets

to the School for an 8-day course specifically developed for them.

According to School officials, Chile used a large proportion of its IMET

funds for this one course in 1995.

Which Countries Send the

Most Students to the

School

Students from 22 Latin American and Caribbean countries have attended

courses at the School of the Americas since its inception.9

 However, about

half of those students have come from five countries—Colombia

(17 percent), El Salvador (12 percent), Nicaragua (8 percent), Peru

(7 percent), and Panama (6 percent). The countries that send more

students to the School are generally the same countries receiving a higher

level of U.S. military assistance, which can be used for training. For

7

Cadets are typically in their early twenties and have completed their second or third year of their

national military or police academies. Their countries of origin have predominantly been Chile,

Colombia, Dominican Republic, and Honduras. The cadets have primarily been male, although some

female cadets have attended the school.

8

In Colombia, Honduras, and Chile, the national police are an arm of the Ministry of Defense.

9

U.S. military members attend some courses at the School, with 1,557 attending since 1946. In 1995, 

19 U.S. military personnel attended the command and general staff officer course, and were principally

foreign area officers or Spanish language specialists expecting future tours of duty in Latin America.

Page 8 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
B-272054 

example, when the United States was providing large amounts of foreign

assistance, including training, to El Salvador’s military to counter the

insurgent threat in the 1980s, about one-third of the students at the School

came from El Salvador. Between 1991 and 1995, most of the students at

the School came from Colombia, Honduras, and Chile.

Evolution of the

Curriculum at the

School of the

Americas

The curriculum of the School has changed from its early days, when

automotive and radio repair, artillery mechanics, and cooking were taught

along with infantry, artillery, and military police courses. By the 1970s, the

curriculum included courses on counterinsurgency operations to train

Latin American armed forces in their efforts to confront insurgencies in

the region. The current curriculum encompasses a variety of courses that

enhance combat and combat support skills, encourage the development of

appropriate civil-military relations, and strengthen defense resource

management techniques.

Since 1990, the School has added nine new courses that reflect current

U.S. interests in the region. Two of the new courses—democratic

sustainment10 and civil-military operations—along with the existing

resource management and command and general staff officer

courses—meet DOD’s criteria for the Expanded IMET program.11

Other new courses were developed to meet unique or urgent needs in the

region. For example, at the request of the Organization of American States,

the School developed a countermine course to train students to recognize,

detect, and neutralize minefields and to be able to train demining teams in

their countries. Since 1993, 25 students from nine countries have taken the

course, and DOD officials told us that this training is currently being used in

demining operations in Central America. According to DOD, the new Peace

Operations course was developed in response to the expanding presence

of peacekeeping operations around the world and to present U.S. doctrine

and policy for peacekeeping to the Latin American forces. In 1995, 21

students, including 5 civilians, from nine countries attended the course.

Other new training includes the executive and field grade logistics, border

observation, and computer literacy courses as well as cadet-level

intelligence and counterdrug courses.

10First offered in 1996.

11In 1990, Congress expanded the focus of the IMET program to include training foreign civilian and

military officials in managing and administering military establishments and budgets, creating and

maintaining effective military judicial systems, and fostering respect for civilian control of the military.

Page 9 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
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Current Curriculum In 1996, the School at Fort Benning is offering 32 courses, 23 of which are

targeted toward noncommissioned and junior to mid-level officers. The

remaining nine courses are targeted toward cadets—eight for military

cadets and one for police cadets. While none of the courses are intended

solely for civilians, 10 courses include civilians in the targeted audience.

The Helicopter School Battalion at Fort Rucker, Alabama, is offering 

20 courses in helicopter flight operations and maintenance. Table 1

provides a brief description of the courses offered in 1996 and the number

of students that attended these courses in 1995.

Table 1: School of the Americas 1996 Curriculum and Fiscal Year 1995 Attendance by Course

Course title

Duration

(weeks)

FY 1995

students Brief course description

Officer, NCO, and civilian courses

Battle staff operations 8 6 Battalion- and brigade-level staff planning and low-intensity conflict exercises

Border observationa 3 b Joint border observation mission planning, information gathering, and area analysis

Civil-military operationsa 5 13 Planning and conducting civil-military operations, including civil defense, disaster

relief, and proper role of the military in support of civilian authority

Combat arms officer

advanced

17 0 Study and planning of company- and battalion-level infantry tactics, including

mechanized, airborne, and special operations

Command and general

staff officer

47 19c University- and postgraduate-level combat service support tactics and doctrine,

including strategic studies, military history, and joint operations

Commando 9 17 Combat and leadership training in difficult terrain and combat conditions, including

demolition, patrolling, waterborne, airborne, and air assault operations

Computer literacya 2 9 Familiarization with IBM-compatible database, graphics, word processing, and

spreadsheet software

Counterdrug operations 11 50 Field operations in planning, leading, and executing drug interdiction operations,

including weapons, infiltration, and surveillance techniques; patrolling; demolition;

and close-quarters combat

Countermine operations 4 10 Recognition, detection, and neutralization of minefields and booby trap areas

Democratic

sustainmenta

6 b Theory and practice of military and civilian leadership in a constitutional democracy

Executive and field

grade logisticsa

4 0d Army logistics functions, including contracting, acquisition regulations, material

readiness, and inventory and financial management

Infantry officer basic 16 17 Basic military skills, including infantry tactics and principles, weapons, mortar

employment, fire support, leadership, and internal defense and development

Instructor training 2 31 Training for prospective instructors to develop, prepare, present, and evaluate

military instruction

Joint operationsa 4 0e Decision-making and planning for multinational and joint services operations

Medical assistancea 6 25 Life-saving measures, field medical care, and civic medical services, including

water purification, emergency childbirth, and minor surgical procedures

Military intelligence

officer

10 24 Tactical and combat intelligence operations, counterintelligence, and enemy threat

analysis

(continued)

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Course title

Duration

(weeks)

FY 1995

students Brief course description

NCO training

management

5 17 Planning, execution, and evaluation of small unit and individual training programs

for NCOs

NCO professional

development

11 15 NCO leadership training in weapons, training management, counterdrug

operations, infantry tactics, engineer operations, fire support, communications, and

battle staff operations

Officer training

management

5 26 Planning, execution, and administration of small unit and individual training

programs for officers

Peace operationsa 5 21 Peace operation tactics, techniques, and procedures related to operations other

than war, including civil affairs, psychological operations, rules of engagement,

medicine, engineering, and logistics

Psychological

operationsa

8 15 Psychological operations doctrine, techniques, planning, analysis, and research

methodology

Resource managementa 4 12 Resource management techniques, concepts, and procedures, including

quantitative decision-making, organizational dynamics, personnel management,

and logistics

Sapper 8 9 Battlefield engineering, including demolition, minefield operations, obstacle

placement, and breaching techniques

Cadet courses

Artillery 4 0 Basic artillery skills, including fire support, battery operations, and fire direction

Branch qualification 8 43 Basic combat and leadership training and branch-specific training (artillery,

infantry/cavalry, combat engineer, logistics, or intelligence)

Cavalry 4 0 Introduction to basic cavalry tactics, including reconnaissance techniques,

scouting operations, troop-leading procedures, and assault operations

Chilean cadet 1 162 Basic military training for Chilean cadets

Counterdrug 4 50 Introduction to tactics and techniques used in counterdrug operations

Engineer 4 0 Familiarization with engineer combat operations, equipment, construction, and

maintenance management

Infantry 4 0 Introduction to light infantry tactics and principles, including weapons, land

navigation, and air assault operations planning

Intelligence 4 0 Introduction to tactical and battlefield intelligence, including operations other than

war, electronic warfare, enemy threat, internal defense and development, and

counterinsurgency operations

Logistics 4 30 Unit management tasks, quartermaster functions, logistics, and supply

management

Helicopter school

battalion

Varied 124 Helicopter flight operations and maintenance (20 courses)

Total 745

(Table notes on next page)

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aIncludes civilians in targeted students.

bFirst offered in 1996.

cDoes not include the 19 U.S. military personnel attending the course.

dSixteen students attended this course in the first quarter of fiscal year 1996.

eFifteen students attended this course in the first quarter of fiscal year 1996.

Source: U.S. Army School of the Americas.

Curriculum Based on U.S.

Doctrine

The School of the Americas’ curriculum is based on U.S. military doctrine

and practices and uses materials from courses presented to U.S. military

personnel. School officials told us that it is like other U.S. military

institutions’ curricula, except that it is presented in Spanish. For example,

the military intelligence officer course at the School uses doctrine and

materials developed by the U.S. Army Intelligence Center and School at

Fort Huachuca, Arizona, and the executive logistics course uses material

from the Defense Logistics Command and the U.S. Army Logistics

Management College at Fort Lee, Virginia. Further, U.S. military students

who attend the command and general staff officer course at the School

receive the same professional military education credit as the U.S. military

personnel who attend the course at Fort Leavenworth.

Officials at the School pointed out that because all international training

courses are based on U.S. doctrine, foreign students from other regions

receive training in similar subjects as the students at the School. For

example, in 1995, the U.S. Army Ranger course was provided to 43 foreign

students from 17 countries, which exposed those students to similar

training and exercises as the 17 students that attended the School’s

commando course. Similarly, the Army’s infantry officer basic course was

taught to 44 students from 21 countries, and similar training was provided

to 17 students from Latin America at the School. (See app. II.)

Instructional staff at the School can customize segments of the courses to

incorporate case studies and practical exercises relevant to Latin America.

For example, officials at the School said that civic action exercises

conducted in Central America by U.S. and Latin American armed forces

are discussed in the civil affairs segment of the command and general staff

officer course.12 The course also includes 24 hours of instruction on the

12These exercises have been conducted in several countries to provide a realistic training environment

for U.S. armed forces and to assist local populations improve their public facilities and services.

Page 12 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
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historical perspective of the roles of the family, church, government, and

military in Latin America—instruction not included in the U.S. course.

Reflecting the history of the region, School officials emphasized that the

School provides instruction on human rights principles to all students.

This human rights instruction is not presented at any other Army school.

All of the School’s courses, except the computer literacy course, include a

mandatory 4-hour block of instruction on human rights issues in military

operations, including law of land warfare, military law and ethics, civilian

control of the military, and democratization. This instruction is expanded

in some courses. For example, the command and general staff officer

course devotes 3 days of instruction to the subject, and uses the My Lai

massacre in Vietnam as a case study. School officials told us that they

consider this case study an excellent illustration of issues related to

professional military behavior, command and control, and changes in U.S.

military attitudes and acceptance of the principles of human rights. They

said that incidents in which Latin American militaries have been involved,

such as the El Mozote massacre of hundreds of peasants in El Salvador in

1981, are also discussed.

Instructors at the

School

Courses at the School are taught by U.S. and Latin American military

members as well as some civilian instructors. The School requires that

instructors possess the appropriate skills and military background in such

areas as logistics, infantry, engineering or helicopter operations. All

instructors must also pass a special human rights instructor program

before teaching any course.

Instructors from Latin America are involved with all of the courses in the

curriculum and work with U.S. instructors to develop and prepare

instructional materials and teach segments of the courses. The School

identifies the requirements for each foreign instructor position, including

rank; branch qualifications, such as combat arms or airborne; and other

prerequisites, such as graduation from a command and general staff

officer college. The School sends these requirements to the U.S. embassies

in Latin America to solicit nominations of foreign military members that

meet the requirements. Like the process used to nominate students, the

foreign militaries identify prospective instructors, who are subject to

approval by U.S. officials at the embassies.

Officials at the School said that the Latin American instructors have

become increasingly important over the past several years. These

Page 13 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
B-272054 

instructors provide additional opportunities for the students and other

instructors at the School to establish valuable military to military contacts.

Salaries of the Latin American instructors are paid by their home country.

While the School’s staff levels fluctuate throughout the year, as of

October 1995, a total of 239 staff were assigned to the School at Fort

Benning, including 50 U.S. instructors and 33 instructors from Latin

America.

Recent Army Study of

the School

In 1995, TRADOC contracted for a study to analyze and develop

recommendations concerning the future need for the School of the

Americas and what purposes the School should serve. The study examined

the issue of whether providing Spanish-language instruction to Latin

Americans is still a valid requirement of the School. In addition, the study

examined the appropriateness of organizationally placing the School

under TRADOC, given the School’s role as a foreign policy tool and different

focus compared to other TRADOC installations.

The report, issued in October 1995, concluded that the School is

strategically important to the United States and supports short- and

long-term U.S. economic, political, and military interests in Latin America.

The report acknowledged that Spanish language instruction was an

important factor allowing the School to contribute effectively to

implementing U.S. foreign policy in Latin America and said that the Army

should reaffirm Spanish as the language of instruction. However, it noted

that concerns about the continued need for the School in the post-Cold

War period have surfaced, driven in part by adverse publicity over human

rights violations associated with past students of the School.

The study recommended that responsibility for the School be transferred

from TRADOC to the U.S. Southern Command because the School’s role as a

foreign policy tool makes it significantly different from other TRADOC

installations. The study also acknowledged that negative publicity about

the School would probably continue and that a new name for the School

may be an appropriate way to break with the past. It suggested that the

Department of Army provide additional opportunities for lower- and

mid-grade civil servants from Latin America and make this an important

thrust of the School. It also suggested that the Departments of Army and

State study the desirability of establishing a Western Hemisphere Center

for research, study, and instruction. This center would incorporate the

Page 14 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
B-272054 

School and other Spanish language military training schools and would be

affiliated with the Inter-American Defense College.

DOD officials told us they agree in principle with many of the

recommendations in the study and are considering how best to implement

some of them. For example, TRADOC has acted on the recommendation to

establish a board of visitors, which met for the first time in May 1996, and

the Office of the Secretary of Defense is considering establishing a

security studies center for the region. For some of the recommendations

on which DOD has agreed in principle, (1) the conditions prompting the

recommendation have changed, (2) DOD is not the cognizant authority for

action, or (3) organizational or legal hurdles impede action.

DOD Considering an

Inter-American Center

for Defense Studies

DOD officials have recognized that the dearth of civilian experts in military

and security affairs is a serious barrier to further democratization of Latin

American defense establishments. In response, DOD is pursuing plans to

open an Inter-American Center for Defense Studies in fiscal year 199813 to

attract a new generation of civilians to careers in ministries of defense and

foreign affairs as well as parliamentary committee staff. The Center

intends to provide practical courses for promising civilians with university

degrees, although military officers may attend. The curriculum would

include courses on the development of threat assessments, strategic plans,

budgets and acquisition plans, civil-military relations, and methods of

legislative oversight. The Center would have features similar to the already

established DOD centers for the study of regional security issues at the

Marshall Center in Garmisch, Germany, and at the Asia-Pacific Center in

Honolulu, Hawaii.

The Center is not intended as a replacement or substitute for the School of

the Americas. DOD officials contend that the School will continue to

provide important training and links to Latin American militaries, which

remain influential forces even as their roles in their societies evolve from

dominance to integration.

Agency Comments DOD concurred with our findings. Where appropriate, we have

incorporated technical changes provided by DOD. DOD’s comments are

presented in appendix III.

13Five seminars will be offered as a pilot program in fiscal year 1997.

Page 15 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
B-272054 

Scope and

Methodology

We developed information on the political, military, and economic

characteristics in Latin America by talking to Latin American experts from

both inside and outside the federal government, reviewing literature on the

region, and using findings from other GAO reports. We discussed issues

related to the School and the political, social, and economic environment

with representatives from the Organization of American States, the

Washington Office on Latin America, Demilitarization for Democracy

Project, Latin American Working Group, North-South Center (affiliated

with the University of Miami), Latin American Program of the Woodrow

Wilson Center, Institute for National Strategic Studies, the Latin American

Center of Stanford University, and area experts at the University of

California, Irvine; American University; and the University of Colorado.

To obtain information on the operations of the School of the Americas, we

met with officials at the School, including instructional and administrative

staff. These officials provided us with documentation on the history and

current operations of the School, including attendance, curriculum, and

budget information. We performed a detailed review of course contents in

order to understand instructional objectives. We also compared the course

curriculum and attendance at the school with the student attendance of

Army security assistance-funded training used by all other countries in the

world. To develop the data on students attending the School, the courses

they took, and the countries they came from, we relied on documentation

provided by School officials. To develop similar data on the courses and

students at other Army schools in fiscal 1995, we relied on automated data

prepared by TRADOC in Hampton, Virginia.

We did not independently verify the accuracy of the data provided to us.

We conducted our review from November 1995 to June 1996 in accordance

with generally accepted government auditing standards.

We plan no further distribution of this report until 15 days after its issue

date. At that time, we will send copies of this report to the Secretaries of

Defense and State and appropriate congressional committees. We will also

send copies to other interested parties upon request.

Page 16 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
B-272054 

Please contact me at (202) 512-4128 if you or your staff have any questions

concerning this report. Major contributors to this report are listed in

appendix IV.

Sincerely yours,

Benjamin F. Nelson, Director

International Affairs and Trade Issues

Page 17 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
Contents

Letter 1

Appendix I 

Chronology of Key

Events in the History

of the U.S. Army

School of the

Americas

20

Appendix II 

Attendees at Two

School of the

Americas Courses and

Similar Courses at the

Army Infantry School

(Fiscal Year 1995)

21

Appendix III 

Comments From the

Department of

Defense

23

Appendix IV 

Major Contributors to

This Report

24

Table Table 1: School of the Americas 1996 Curriculum and Fiscal Year

1995 Attendance by Course

10

Abbreviations

DOD Department of Defense

IMET International Military Education and Training

NCO noncommissioned officer

TRADOC Training and Doctrine Command

Page 18 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
Page 19 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
Appendix I 

Chronology of Key Events in the History of

the U.S. Army School of the Americas

1946 The U.S. Army established the Latin America Center-Ground Division in

the Panama Canal Zone to provide instruction to U.S. Army personnel in

garrison technical skills such as food preparation, maintenance, and other

support functions, with limited training for Latin Americans.

1949 U.S. Army renamed the institution the U.S. Army Caribbean

School-Spanish Instruction and identified a secondary mission of

instructing Latin American military personnel.

1956 Increased Latin American interest in U.S. military training led to the

elimination of English language instruction to focus on instructing Latin

American personnel.

1963 The institution became the U.S. Army School of the Americas, with

Spanish declared the official language of the School.

1984 The School relocated to its current location at Fort Benning, Georgia, due

to a conflict between U.S. and Panamanian officials regarding the

operation and command of the School. The Army reassigned operational

control of the School from the U.S. Southern Command to the U.S. Army

Training and Doctrine Command.

1987 Under Public Law 100-180, Congress formally authorized the Secretary of

the Army to operate the School with the purpose of providing military

education and training to military personnel of Central American, South

American, and Caribbean countries.

1991 A Helicopter School Battalion at the U.S Army Aviation Center, Fort

Rucker, Alabama, was activated as part of the School to provide Spanish

language instruction for helicopter pilots and technicians.

Page 20 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
Appendix II 

Attendees at Two School of the Americas

Courses and Similar Courses at the Army

Infantry School (Fiscal Year 1995)

School of the Americas Army Infantry School, Fort Benning

Commando

course

Number of

students

Ranger

course

Number of

students

Bolivia 2 Canada 10

Colombia 8 Czech Republic 3

Ecuador 4 Georgia 1

Mexico 3 Hungary 1

Italy 3

Total 17 Jordan 1

Lithuania 1

Malawi 1

Mexico 2

Nepal 2

Philippines 1

Poland 2

Singapore 4

Slovenia 1

Taiwan 3

Turkey 2

United Arab Emirates 5

Total 43

Page 21 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
Appendix II 

Attendees at Two School of the Americas

Courses and Similar Courses at the Army

Infantry School (Fiscal Year 1995)

School of the Americas Army Infantry School, Fort Benning

Infantry officer

basic

Number of

students Infantry officer basic course

Number of

students

Colombia 8 Central African Republic 1

Ecuador 9 Colombia 2

Egypt 3

Total 17 Guyana 1

Hungary 1

Jordan 1

Latvia 3

Lebanon 8

Maldives 1

Malta 6

Niger 1

Papua New Guiena 1

Saudi Arabia 1

Singapore 2

Slovenia 1

Solomon Islands 1

St Kitts and Nevis 1

St. Lucia 1

Taiwan 4

Thailand 1

Untied Arab Emirates 3

Total 44

Source: U.S. Army School of the Americas and U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command.

Page 22 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
Appendix III 

Comments From the Department of Defense

Page 23 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
Appendix IV 

Major Contributors to This Report

National Security and

International Affairs

Division, Washington,

D.C.

Nancy T. Toolan

Muriel J. Forster

Kevin C. Handley

F. James Shafer

Nancy Ragsdale

(711162) Page 24 GAO/NSIAD-96-178 School of the Americas
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