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UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460 

OFFICE OF CHEMICAL SAFETY AND POLLUTION 

PREVENTION

MEMORANDUM

DATE: March 8, 2013

SUBJECT: Crop Grouping – Part XIV: Analysis of the USDA IR-4 Petition to 

Amend the Crop Group Regulation 40 CFR § 180.41 (c) (29) and 

Commodity Definitions [40 CFR 180.1 (g)] Related to the Proposed Crop 

Group 24 Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel.

PC Code: NA DP Barcode: NA

Decision No.: NA Registration No.: NA

Petition No.: NA Regulatory Action: Crop Grouping 

Regulation: 40 CFR 180.41(c)(14)

Risk Assessment Type: None Case No.: NA

TXR No.: NA CAS No.: NA

MRID No.: MRID 482970-01 40 CFR: 180.41 (c) (29) and 180.1 (g)

FROM: Bernard A. Schneider, Ph.D., Senior Plant Physiologist

Chemistry and Exposure Branch 

Health Effects Division (7509P) 

THROUGH: Steve Funk, PhD., Chairperson

HED Chemistry Science Advisory Council (ChemSAC)

Health Effects Division (7509P) 

TO: Barbara Madden, Minor Use Officer

Risk Integration, Minor Use, and Emergency Response Branch 

(RIMUERB) 

Registration Division (7505P)

cc: IR-4 Project, Bill Barney, Jerry Baron, Dan Kunkel, Debbie Carpenter, Van -

Starner 
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ACTION REQUESTED:

William P. Barney, Crop Grouping Project Coordinator, and Kathryn Homa, 

Assistant Coordinator, USDA Interregional Research Project No. 4 (IR-4), State 

Agricultural Experiment Station, Rutgers University has submitted a petition (November 

15, 2010) on behalf of the IR-4 Project, and the Tropical Fruits Workgroup of the 

International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee (ICGCC) to establish a new Crop 

Group (40 CFR § 180.41) Crop Group 24, Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel 

Group, and propose addition of Commodity Definitions 40 CFR 180.1 (g). 

The above-mentioned Tropical and Subtropical fruit crop group petition requested 

the following five proposals:

1. Establish a new crop group in 40 CFR 180.41 (c) as “Tropical and Subtropical Fruit, 

Inedible Peel”.

2. Add the following 104 commodities in this new crop group:

1. Abiu, Pouteria caimito (Ruiz & Pav.) Radlk, (Sapotaceae)

2. Aisen, Boscia senegalensis (Pers.) Lam., (Capparaceae (also placed in Brassicaceae))

3. Akee apple, Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig, (Sapindaceae)

4. Atemoya, Annona cherimola Mill. X A. squamosa L., (Annonaceae)

5. Avocado, Persea americana Mill., (Lauraceae)

6. Avocado, Guatemalan, Persea americana Mill. var. guatemalensis, (Lauraceae)

7. Avocado, Mexican, Persea americana Mill. var. drymifolia (Schltdl. & Cham.) S. F. Blake, 

(Lauraceae)

8. Avocado, West Indian, Persea americana var. americana, (Lauraceae)

9. Bacury, Platonia insignis Mart., (Clusiaceae (alt. Guttiferae))

10.Bael fruit, Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa, (Rutaceae)

11.Banana, Musa spp. and hybrids, (Musaceae)

12.Banana, dwarf, Musa hybrids; Musa acuminata Colla, (Musaceae)

13.Binjai, Mangifera caesia Jack, (Anacardiaceae)

14.Biriba, Annona mucosa Jacq., (Annonaceae)

15.Breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg, (Moraceae)

16.Burmese grape, Baccaurea ramiflora Lour., (Phyllanthaceae (also placed in Euphorbiaceae))

17.Canistel, Pouteria campechiana (Kunth) Baehni, (Sapotaceae)

18.Cat's-eyes, Dimocarpus longan Lour. subsp. malesianus Leenh., (Sapindaceae)

19.Champedak, Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr., (Moraceae)

20.Cherimoya, Annona cherimola Mill., (Annonaceae)

21.Cupuacú, Theobroma grandiflorum (Willd. Ex Spreng.) K. Schum., (Malvaceae (also placed in 

Sterculiaceae))

22.Custard apple, Annona reticulata L., (Annonaceae)

23.Dragon fruit, Hylocereus undatus (Haw.) Britton & Rose, (Cactaceae)

24.Durian, Durio zibethinus L., (Malvaceae (also placed in Bombacaceae, Durionaceae))

25.Elephant-apple, Limonia acidissima L., (Rutaceae)

26.Etambe, Mangifera zeylanica (Blume) Hook. F., (Anacardiaceae)

27.Granadilla, Passiflora ligularis Juss., (Passifloraceae)
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28.Granadilla, Giant, Passiflora quadrangularis L., (Passifloraceae)

29.Ilama, Annona macroprophyllata Donn. Sm., (Annonaceae)

30.Ingá, Inga vera Willd. subsp. affinis (DC.) T. D. Penn., (Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae) (also 

placed in Mimosaceae))

31.Jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam., (Moraceae)

32.Jatobá, Hymenaea courbaril L., (Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae) (also placed in Caesalpiniaceae))

33.Karuka, Pandanus julianettii Martelli, (Pandanaceae)

34.Kei apple, Dovyalis caffra (Hook. F. & Harv.) Warb., (Salicaceae (also placed in 

Flacourtiaceae))

35.Langsat, Lansium domesticum Corrêa, (Meliaceae)

36.Lanjut, Mangifera lagenifera Griff., (Anacardiaceae)

37.Longan, Dimocarpus longan Lour., (Sapindaceae)

38.Lucuma, Pouteria lucuma (Ruiz & Pav.) Kuntze, (Sapotaceae)

39.Lychee, Litchi chinensis Sonn., (Sapindaceae)

40.Mabolo, Diospyros blancoi A. DC., (Ebenaceae)

41.Madras-thorn, Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth., (Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae); (also placed 

in Mimosaceae))

42.Mammy-apple, Mammea americana L. Clusiaceae (alt. Guttiferae))

43.Manduro, Balanites maughamii Sprague, (Zygophyllaceae (also placed in Balanitaceae))

44.Mango, Mangifera indica L., (Anacardiaceae)

45.Mango, horse, Mangifera foetida Lour., (Anacardiaceae)

46.Mango, Saipan, Mangifera odorata Griff., (Anacardiaceae)

47.Mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana L., (Clusiaceae (alt. Guttiferae))

48.Marang, Artocarpus odoratissimus Blanco, (Moraceae)

49.Marmaladebox, Genipa americana L., (Rubiaceae)

50.Matisia, Matisia cordata Humb. & Bonpl., (Malvaceae (also placed in Bombacaceae))

51.Mesquite, Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC., (Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae); (also placed in 

Mimosaceae))

52.Mongongo, Schinziophyton rautanenii (Schinz) Radcl.-Sm, (Euphorbiaceae)

53.Monkey-bread-tree, Adansonia digitata L., (Malvaceae (also placed in Bombacaceae))

54.Monstera, Monstera deliciosa Liebm., (Araceae)

55.Nicobar-breadfruit, Pandanus leram Jones ex Fontana, (Pandanaceae)

56.Paho, Mangifera altissima Blanco, (Anacardiaceae)

57.Pandanus, Pandanus utilis Bory, (Pandanaceae)

58.Papaya, Carica papaya L., (Caricaceae)

59.Passionflower, Winged-stem, Passiflora alata Curtis, (Passifloraceae)

60.Passionfruit, Passiflora edulis Sims, (Passifloraceae)

61.Passionfruit, Banana, Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima (Kunth) Holm-Niels. & P. Jorg., 

(Passifloraceae)

62.Passionfruit, Purple, Passiflora edulis Sims forma edulis, (Passifloraceae)

63.Passionfruit, Yellow, Passiflora edulis Sims forma flavicarpa O. Deg., (Passifloraceae)

64.Pawpaw, Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal, (Annonaceae)

65.Pawpaw, Small-flower, Asimina parviflora (Michx.) Dunal, (Annonaceae)

66.Pelipisan, Mangifera casturi Kosterm., (Anacardiaceae)

67.Pequi, Caryocar brasiliense Cambess, (Caryocaraceae)

68.Pequia, Caryocar villosum (Aubl.) Pers., (Caryocaraceae)

69.Persimmon, American, Diospyros virginiana L., (Ebenaceae)

70.Pineapple, Ananas comosus (L.) Merr., (Bromeliaceae)

71.Pitahaya, Hylocereus polyrhizus (F. A. C. Weber) Britton & Rose, (Cactaceae)
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72.Pitaya, Hylocereus spp. Including H. megalanthus, H. ocamponis and H. polychizus, (Cactaceae)

73.Pitaya Amarilla, Hylocereus triangularis (L.) Britton & Rose, (Cactaceae)

74.Pitaya Roja, Hylocereus ocamponis (Salm-Dyck) Britton & Rose, (Cactaceae)

75.Pitaya, Yellow, Hylocereus megalanthus (K. Schum. ex Vaupel) Ralf Bauer, (Cactaceae)

76.Plantain, Musa paradisiaca L. (Musaceae)

77.Pomegranate, Punica granatum L. (Lythraceae (also placed in Punicaceae))

78.Poshte, Annona liebmanniana Baill. (Annonaceae)

79.Prickly pear, Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. (Cactaceae)

80.Prickly pear, Texas, Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck ex Engelm. var. lindheimeri (Engelm.) B. 

D. Parfitt & Pinkava, (Cactaceae)

81.Pulasan, Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Leenh., (Sapindaceae)

82.Quandong, Santalum acuminatum (R. Br.) DC., (Santalaceae)

83.Rambutan, Nephelium lappaceum L., (Sapindaceae)

84.Saguaro, Carnegiea gigantea (Engelm.) Britton & Rose, (Cactaceae)

85.Sapodilla, Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen, (Sapotaceae)

86.Sapote, black, Diospyros digyna Jacq., (Ebenaceae)

87.Sapote, green, Pouteria viridis (Pittier) Cronquist, (Sapotaceae)

88.Sapote, mamey, Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H.E. Moore & Stearn, (Sapotaceae)

89.Sapote, white, Casimiroa edulis La Llave & Lex, (Rutaceae)

90.Sataw, Parkia speciosa Hassk., (Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae); also placed in Mimosaceae)

91.Satinleaf, Chrysophyllum oliviforme L., (Sapotaceae)

92.Screw-pine, Pandanus tectorius Parkinson, (Pandanaceae)

93.Sierra Leone-tamarind, Dialium guineense Willd., (Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae); (also placed in 

Caesalpiniaceae))

94.Soncoya, Annona purpurea Moc. & Sessé ex Dunal, (Annonaceae)

95.Soursop, Annona muricata L., (Annonaceae)

96. Spanish lime, Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq., (Sapindaceae)

97. Star apple, Chrysophyllum cainito L., (Sapotaceae)

98. Sugar apple, Annona squamosa L., (Annonaceae)

99. Sun Sapote, Licania platypus (Hemsl.) Fritsch, (Chrysobalanaceae)

100. Tamarind-of-the-Indies, Vangueria madagascariensis J. F. Gmel., (Rubiaceae)

101. Velvet Tamarind, Dialium indum L., (Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae); (also placed in 

Caesalpiniaceae))

102. Wampi, Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels, (Rutaceae)

103. White star apple, Chrysophyllum albidum G. Don, (Sapotaceae)

104. Wild loquat, Uapaca kirkiana Müll. Arg., (Phyllanthaceae; (also placed in Euphorbiaceae, 

Uapacaceae))

And cultivars, varieties and/or hybrids of these.”

3. Recommend the following eight commodities: Atemoya, avocado, dragon fruit, 

lychee, passionfruit, pineapple, pomegranate, and prickly pear to be representative 

commodities for the new crop group.

4. Propose the following five tropical and subtropical inedible peel crop subgroups.

Subgroup 24A. Tropical and Subtropical, Small Fruit, Inedible Peel Subgroup

Proposed Representative Crop: Lychee
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Subgroup 24B. Tropical and Subtropical, Medium to Large Fruit, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel Subgroup

Proposed Representative Crops: Avocado and Pomegranate

Subgroup 24C. Tropical and Subtropical, Medium to Large Fruit, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel Subgroup

Proposed Representative Crop: Atemoya and Pineapple

Subgroup 24D. Tropical and Subtropical, Inedible Peel, Cactus Subgroup

Proposed Representative Crop: Dragon fruit and Prickly pear

Subgroup 24E. Tropical and Subtropical, Inedible Peel, Vine Subgroup

Proposed Representative Crop: Passionfruit

5. Add Commodity Definitions [40 CFR 180.1 (g)] for Avocado, banana, and 

passionfruit.

A B

Avocado (Persea 

americana Mill.)

Avocado (Persea americana Mill.); Avocado, Guatemalan (Persea americana

Mill. var. guatemalensis); Avocado, Mexican (Persea americana Mill. var. 

drymifolia (Schltdl. & Cham.) S. F. Blake); Avocado, West Indian (Persea 

americana var. americana)

Banana (Musa spp.) Banana (Musa spp.); Banana, Dwarf (Musa hybrids; Musa acuminata Colla); 

Plantain (Musa x paradisiaca L. )

Passionfruit (Passiflora 

edulis Sims)

Passionfruit (Passiflora edulis Sims); Passionfruit, Purple (Passiflora edulis

Sims forma edulis); Passionfruit, Yellow (Passiflora edulis Sims forma 

flavicarpa O. Deg.)

BACKGROUND:

The Tropical and subtropical fruit, inedible peel proposal was initiated at the 

USDA/IR-4 Crop Grouping Symposium in Washington, DC, October 2002. This 

workgroup was Chaired by Michael Braverman (IR-4) and Co-Chaired by Jonathan 

Crane (University of Florida), Edith Lurvey (IR-4), Nancy Dodd (EPA), Will Donovan 

(EPA), and Maria Rodriguez (EPA). 

This new crop group was further discussed and developed within the Tropical 

Fruit, Inedible Peel Workgroup of the International Crop Grouping Consulting 

Committee (ICGCC), which consisted of 62 U.S. crop or regulatory experts from 

agriculture commodity groups, universities, agrichemical industry, IR-4 Project, USDA, 

and EPA, and also 33 international crop or regulatory experts representing over 30 

countries. 

An important aspect of developing this new crop group is the harmonization with 

the Codex Crop Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds. The Codex classification 
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system is currently under revision with many proposed tropical fruit additions. The 

USDA IR-4/EPA Crop Grouping Working Group and the ICGCC are making every

effort to collaborate with the revision of the Codex crop classification. In the current 

Codex Crop Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds, assorted tropical and sub-tropical 

fruits – inedible peel are included in Group 006 which is classified in Type 01 Fruits. 

The IR-4/ICGCC submission was forwarded to the Codex Electronic Working Group for 

the revision of the Codex Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds. This submission 

includes many of the recently proposed additions of tropical fruits, inedible peel to the 

Codex classification. 

Four proposed tropical fruits with an inedible peel from the palm family 

((Arecaceae (alt. Palmae)) were rejected from consideration to the inedible peel crop 

group either because none of the commodities met the criteria for a representative 

commodity and/or there was no production in the US. These rejected tropical fruits 

include: (1) Guriri (Allagoptera arenaria (Gomes) Kuntze); (2) Muriti (Mauritia flexuosa

L.f.); (3) Palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer L.); and (4) Salak (Salacca zalacca (Gaertn.) 

Voss). Other proposed tropical fruits with an inedible peel (ceibillo, Florida gooseberry, 

marolo, pindaiba, tucum palm and umari) were also rejected from consideration from the 

crop group because there was not enough information available to properly classify them 

into crop groups and subgroups or they are rarely cultivated.

Many publications have documented the relationship between surface area and 

mass of a commodity (D.J. Maclachlan and D. Hamilton, 2010; B.D. Ripley, G.M. 

Ritcey, R. Harris, M.A. Denomme, L. Lissemore, 2003; F. Matsumura, G.M. Boush, T. 

Misato, eds., 1972; and B. Schneider, 2002). In general, the smaller the fruit, the larger 

the ratio of surface area to weight becomes. For example, pesticide deposits on grapes 

can be expected to be about 3X the pesticide deposit on apples due to the higher surface 

area per unit weight (Bates, 1990). Nonbell peppers are also often cited as an example. 

Because of their size, they normally have a higher residue than bell peppers with the 

same good agricultural practices (GAP) and are likely to drive a tolerance or MRL for 

peppers. There is also indication that surface area/mass ratio plays a more important role 

on pesticide deposits than pubescence/serration present on surfaces (Sundaram, 1991). 

To classify Tropical and Subtropical fruits into groups (edible versus inedible 

peel) and subgroups, Excel spreadsheets were developed by IR-4 to be able to sort 

commodities with common characteristics. These spreadsheets include information 

regarding the common name, scientific name, taxonomic family name, production in the 

US, fruit shape, maximum radius (cm) and maximum height (cm) from the literature, 

calculated volume, calculated surface area, surface area to mass (volume) ratio, texture 

description and peel texture. These spreadsheets allowed the sorting of commodities into 

small versus medium to large fruit and smooth peel versus a rough or hairy peel. Fruits 

described in the literature as small fruit generally had a surface area/mass (volume) ratio 

of >1.5:1; so this criteria was used to separate small versus medium to large fruit (surface 

area/mass (volume) ratio of ≤1.5:1).
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Sorting the spreadsheets based on both fruit size (surface area/mass (volume) 

ratio) and additionally for peel texture (medium to large fruit) resulted in subgroups that 

were supported by appropriate representative commodities. In addition, subgroups were 

developed for unique groups of plants (cactus and vines). 

Based on the background and the input from the International Crop Grouping 

Consulting Committee (ICGCC), USDA IR-4 propose that the tropical and subtropical 

Fruits, Inedible Peel crop group be established as a new crop group, and five subgroups 

are proposed: (1) Subgroup 24A - Tropical and Subtropical, Small Fruit, Inedible Peel 

Subgroup; (2) Subgroup 24B - Tropical and Subtropical, Medium to Large Fruits, 

Smooth, Inedible Peel Subgroup; (3) Subgroup 24C - Tropical and Subtropical, Medium 

to Large Fruit, Rough or Hairy, Inedible Peel Subgroup; (4) Subgroup 24D - Tropical and 

Subtropical, Inedible Peel, Cactus Subgroup and (5) Subgroup 24E - Tropical and 

Subtropical, Inedible Peel, Vine Subgroup. 

Selection of representative commodities are based on a representative commodity

that is most likely to (1) contain the highest residues; (2) be major in terms of production 

and/or consumption and (3) similar in morphology, growth habit, pest problems and 

edible portion to the related commodities within a group or subgroup. Based on these 

criteria, one representative commodity is proposed (lychee) for Subgroup 24A; two 

representative commodities (avocado and pomegranate) are proposed for Subgroup 24B; 

two representative commodities (atemoya and pineapple) are proposed for Subgroup 

24C; two representative commodities (dragon fruit and prickly pear) are proposed for 

Subgroup 24D and one representative commodity (passionfruit) is proposed for Subgroup 

24E. 

HED RECOMMENDATIONS: 

Each of the proposals and recommendations will be discussed below, followed by

a series of other recommendations on terminology, database development, and 

harmonization with Codex. The EPA would like to commend the valuable and high 

quality input of the ICGCC, all its members, and the Committee Chairperson Bill Barney, 

USDA IR-4, and Kathryn Homa, Assistant Coordinator, USDA IR-4 for her research and 

high quality and comprehensive monographs that were used to develop the IR-4 proposal. 

We also want to commend Dr. Yuen-Shaung Ng, Biologist, HED, Andrew Ertman, 

Sidney Jackson, and Laura Nollen, Biologists, RD, EPA for their input and development 

of various databases in this report and Dr. Paul Schwartz, USDA, Office of Minor Use 

Pesticides for his advice, peer review, and research office location.

IR-4 Proposals 1 and 2:

1. Establish a new crop group in 40 CFR 180.41 (c) as “Tropical and Subtropical Fruit, 

Inedible Peel”.
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and 

2. “Add the following 104 commodities to this new crop group:

See the list of 104 proposed commodities for this crop group under the Action 

Requested Section Proposal 2.”

HED Recommendations for IR-4 Proposal 1 and 2:

We agree with the IR-4 scientific approach and logic used in developing this crop 

group and the five crop subgroups. Specifically the development of the proposed 

Tropical and Subtropical fruits, inedible peel, with the crop group consists of a diverse 

group of plants from twenty-eight plant families. Within this group, fruit size ranges 

from an approximate diameter of 1 centimeter (0.39 inches) for the fruit of satinleaf, 

Chrysophyllum oliviforme L.) to 50 centimeters (19.7 inches) for the fruit of jackfruit, 

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.). In addition to size, the peel texture of tropical and 

subtropical fruit varies from a smooth peel such as banana (Musa spp.); mango

(Mangifera indica L.), papaya (Carica papaya L.), and pomegranate (Punica granatum

L.) to a knobby peel texture on atemoya (Annona cherimola Mill. X A. squamosa L.), 

bumpy peel texture in breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg) or spiny peel 

texture in rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.).

I also agree that subgroups based on both fruit size (surface area/mass (volume) 

ratio) and additionally for peel texture (medium to large fruit) resulted in subgroups that 

were supported by appropriate representative commodities. In addition, one subgroup is 

developed for a unique groups of plants (cactus and vines). 

We also agree with IR-4 on rejecting four proposed tropical fruits with an inedible 

peel from the palm family ((Arecaceae (alt. Palmae)), because none of the commodities

met the criteria for a representative commodity in a crop subgroup or there was no 

production in the US. These rejected tropical fruits include: (1) Guriri (Allagoptera 

arenaria (Gomes) Kuntze); (2) Muriti (Mauritia flexuosa L.f.); (3) Palmyra palm 

(Borassus flabellifer L.); and (4) Salak (Salacca zalacca (Gaertn.) Voss). Other proposed 

tropical fruits with an inedible peel (ceibillo, Florida gooseberry, marolo, pindaiba, tucum 

palm and umari) were also rejected from consideration from the crop group because there 

was not enough information available to properly classify them into crop groups and 

subgroups or they are rarely cultivated. Most however, are discussed in the analysis of 

this petition. 

Therefore, based on similarities in fruit size and having an inedible peel, and 

cultural practices, geographical distribution, lack of animal feed items, comparison

of available established tolerances, and similarities of pest problems, and for 

international harmonization purposes, I recommend that ChemSAC concur to 

establish a new Tropical and Subtropical inedible peel crop group with 104

commodities and five crop subgroups.
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Adding these commodities into a group will benefit growers by enabling tools for 

crop protection. Some “minor orphan” tropical fruit commodities such as dragon fruit 

and pomegranate have become more popular in some countries and areas today than they

were ten years ago. Increased globalization of cooking in the United States has resulted 

in different fruits to be enjoyed worldwide. Some of these “minor” fruits have great 

potential to be grown on a larger scale in some areas in the future due to their unique 

nutritional and medicinal values. Being excluded from the crop groups, means that 

tolerances requested for these commodities would have to be established based on 

separate residue studies. The inclusion of tropical fruits with inedible peels will 

ultimately benefit US growers in exporting commodities that would have Codex MRL’s

established based on a harmonized tropical and subtropical fruits, inedible peel crop 

group. A new tropical and subtropical fruit inedible peel crop group would also benefit 

growers and consumers, save considerable taxpayer’s money on residue studies, save 

precious resource time for government agencies on review of residue data and also 

facilitate the establishment of import tolerances. Also, this crop group regulation will

facilitate the establishment of pesticide tolerances on numerous pesticides that are needed 

to control a wide diversity of tropical and subtropical fruit pests, as well as developing 

integrated pest control (IPM) programs to incorporate reduced risk pesticides, organic 

pesticides, and cultural practices to reduce the development of pesticide resistance.

The list of acceptable Tropical and Subtropical fruits – inedible fruit commodities 

and their scientific names for the 104 commodities were also updated and are listed in the 

Table below. 

“HED Corrected Proposed Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel 24.” 

Commodities

Abiu, Pouteria caimito (Ruiz & Pav.) Radlk 

Aisen, Boscia senegalensis (Pers.) Lam. 

Akee apple, Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig

Atemoya, Annona cherimola Mill. X A. squamosa L. 

Avocado, Persea americana Mill.

Avocado, Guatemalan, Persea americana Mill. var. guatemalensis

Avocado, Mexican, Persea americana Mill. var. drymifolia (Schltdl. & Cham.) S. F. Blak

Avocado, West Indian, Persea americana var. americana

Bacury, Platonia insignis Mart.

Bael fruit, Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa

Banana, Musa spp. and hybrids

Banana, dwarf, Musa hybrids; Musa acuminata Colla

Binjai, Mangifera caesia Jack

Biriba, Annona mucosa Jacq.

Breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg

Burmese grape, Baccaurea ramiflora Lour.

Canistel, Pouteria campechiana (Kunth) Baehni

Cat's-eyes, Dimocarpus longan Lour. subsp. malesianus Leenh.

Champedak, Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr. 

Cherimoya, Annona cherimola Mill.

Cupuacú, Theobroma grandiflorum (Willd. Ex Spreng.) K. Schum.

Custard apple, Annona reticulata L.

Dragon fruit, Hylocereus undatus (Haw.) Britton & Rose

Durian, Durio zibethinus L.
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Commodities

Elephant-apple, Limonia acidissima L.

Etambe, Mangifera zeylanica (Blume) Hook. F.

Granadilla, Passiflora ligularis Juss.

Granadilla, Giant, Passiflora quadrangularis L.

Ilama, Annona macroprophyllata Donn. Sm.

Ingá , Inga vera Willd. subsp. affinis (DC.) T. D. Penn.

Jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.

Jatobá, Hymenaea courbaril L.

Karuka, Pandanus julianettii Martelli

Kei apple, Dovyalis caffra (Hook. F. & Harv.) Warb.

Langsat, Lansium domesticum Corrêa

Lanjut, Mangifera lagenifera Griff.

Longan, Dimocarpus longan Lour.

Lucuma, Pouteria lucuma (Ruiz & Pav.) Kuntze

Lychee, Litchi chinensis Sonn.

Mabolo, Diospyros blancoi A. DC.

Madras-thorn, Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.

Mammy-apple, Mammea americana L. 

Manduro, Balanites maughamii Sprague

Mango, Mangifera indica L.

Mango, horse, Mangifera foetida Lour.

Mango, Saipan, Mangifera odorata Griff.

Mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana L.

Marang, Artocarpus odoratissimus Blanco

Marmaladebox, Genipa americana L.

Matisia, Matisia cordata Humb. & Bonpl.

Mesquite, Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.

Mongongo, fruit, Schinziophyton rautanenii (Schinz) Radcl.-Sm

Monkey-bread-tree, Adansonia digitata L.

Monstera, Monstera deliciosa Liebm.

Nicobar-breadfruit, Pandanus leram Jones ex Fontana

Paho, Mangifera altissima Blanco

Pandanus, Pandanus utilis Bory

Papaya, Carica papaya L.

Passionflower, Winged-stem, Passiflora alata Curtis

Passionfruit, Passiflora edulis Sims

Passionfruit, Banana, Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima (Kunth) Holm-Niels. & P. Jorg.

Passionfruit, Purple, Passiflora edulis Sims forma edulis

Passionfruit, Yellow, Passiflora edulis Sims forma flavicarpa O. Deg.

Pawpaw, Common, Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal

Pawpaw, Small-flower, Asimina parviflora (Michx.) Dunal

Pelipisan, Mangifera casturi Kosterm.

Pequi, Caryocar brasiliense Cambess

Pequia, Caryocar villosum (Aubl.) Pers.

Persimmon, American, Diospyros virginiana L.

Pineapple, Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.

Pitahaya, Hylocereus polyrhizus(F. A. C. Weber) Britton & Rose

Pitaya, Hylocereus sp. Including H. megalanthus, H. ocamponis and H. polychizus

Pitaya Amarilla, Hylocereus triangularis Britton & Rose

Pitaya Roja, Hylocereus ocamponis (Salm-Dyck) Britton & Rose

Pitaya, Yellow, Hylocereus megalanthus (K. Schum. ex Vaupel) Ralf Bauer

Plantain, Musa paradisiaca L.
11

Commodities

Pomegranate, Punica granatum L.

Poshte, Annona liebmanniana Baill.

Prickly pear, Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.

Prickly pear, Texas, Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck ex Engelm. var. lindheimeri (Engelm.) B. D. 

Parfitt & Pinkava

Pulasan, Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Leenh.

Quandong, Santalum acuminatum (R. Br.) DC.

Rambutan, Nephelium lappaceum L.

Saguaro, Carnegiea gigantea (Engelm.) Britton & Rose

Sapodilla, Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen

Sapote, black, Diospyros digyna Jacq.

Sapote, green, Pouteria viridis (Pittier) Cronquist

Sapote, mamey, Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H.E. Moore & Stearn

Sapote, white, Casimiroa edulis La Llave & Lex

Sataw, Parkia speciosa Hassk.

Satinleaf, Chrysophyllum oliviforme L.

Screw-pine, Pandanus tectorius Parkinson

Sierra Leone-tamarind, Dialium guineense Willd.

Soncoya, Annona purpurea Moc. & Sessé ex Dunal

Soursop, Annona muricata L.

Spanish lime, Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq.

Star apple, Chrysophyllum cainito L.

Sugar apple, Annona squamosa L.

Sun Sapote, Licania platypus (Hemsl.) Fritsch

Tamarind-of-the-Indies, Vangueria madagascariensis J. F. Gmel.

Velvet Tamarind, Dialium indum L.

Wampi, Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels

White star apple, Chrysophyllum albidum G. Don

Wild loquat, Uapaca kirkiana Müll. Arg.

Cultivars, varieties, and hybrids of these commodities.

Additional notes: 

 HED also recommends changing the preferred commodity name for Pawpaw to Pawpaw, common 

(Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal) or common pawpaw to distinguish it from the commodity papaya

(Carica papaya L.), which New Zealand calls papaw in commercial trade. 

 The commodity Mongongo will be changed to Mongongo, fruit to distinguish from the Mongongo, 

nut that is a member in the Tree nut crop group 14-12.

 HED also recommends that in the crop group table the term “varieties and/or hybrids of these” 

should be changed to, “Cultivars, varieties, and hybrids of these commodities” to avoid all 

confusion with terminology regarding whether they are cultivars, varieties, or hybrids of the 

tropical fruit inedible peel commodities. 

IR-4 Proposal 3:

3. “Recommend the following eight commodities: Atemoya, avocado, dragon fruit, 

lychee, passionfruit, pineapple, pomegranate and prickly pear to be representative 

commodities for the new crop group.”

HED Recommendations for IR-4 Proposal 3:

I recommend ChemSAC concur to add atemoya, avocado, dragon fruit, lychee, 
12

passionfruit, pineapple, and prickly pear as representative commodities for the new 

Tropical and subtropical fruit –inedible peel Crop Group 24. Also sugar apple should be 

added as an alternative commodity to atemoya since there are several tolerances already

established for sugar apple. I also recommend banana to be an alternative representative 

commodity to pomegranate based on its high consumption, production, large number of 

established tolerances. Pomegranate is increasing in popularity and acres in the U.S. and 

makes a good alternate representative commodity to banana based on more acreage in the 

U.S. and wider geographical representation. These representative commodities will 

account for > 99% of the harvested U.S. acres for the members of the new crop group. 

The representative commodities are based on similarities in fruit surface area, edible 

portions, and cultural practices and geographical locations, pest problems, as well as their 

high production (both acres and yield) and consumption. We expect that all proposed 

members of the proposed crop group will have similar residue levels based on similarities 

of the raw agricultural commodities (RAC’s), cultural practices, and pest problems, and a 

comparison of established tolerances on these commodities supports that residue levels 

will cover the wide number of commodities. 

IR-4 Proposal 4: “Propose establishing five tropical and subtropical inedible peel crop 

subgroups with their representative commodities and list of commodities in each crop 

subgroup are shown below:”

1) Subgroup 24A; Tropical and Subtropical, Small Fruit, Inedible Peel Subgroup

Proposed Representative Crop: Lychee

There are eighteen commodities proposed for this subgroup and include:

Aisen; Bael fruit; Burmese grape; Cat’s eyes; Ingá; Lychee; Madras-thorn; 

Manduro; Matisia; Mesquite; Mongongo, fruit; Pawpaw, small-flower; 

Satinleaf; Sierra Leone-tamarind; Spanish lime; Velvet tamarind; Wampi; 

White star apple

2) Subgroup 24B; Tropical and Subtropical, Medium to Large Fruit, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel Subgroup:

Proposed Representative Crops: Avocado and Pomegranate or 

Banana

There are forty-two commodities proposed for this subgroup and include:

Abiu; Akee apple; Avocado; Avocado, Guatemalan; Avocado, Mexican; 

Avocado, West Indian; Bacury; Banana; Banana, dwarf; Binjai; Canistel; 

Cupuacú; Etambe; Jatobá; Kei apple; Langstat; Lanjut; Lucuma; Mabolo; 

Mango; Mango, horse; Mango, Saipan; Mangosteen; Paho; Papaya; 

Pawpaw, common; Pelipisan; Pequi; Pequia; Persimmon, American; 

Plantain; Pomegranate; Poshte; Quandong; Sapote, black; Sapote, green; 
13

Sapote, white; Sataw; Screw-pine; Star apple; Tamarind-of-the-Indies; 

Wild loquat

3) Subgroup 24C; Tropical and Subtropical, Medium to Large Fruit, Rough 

or Hairy, Inedible Peel Subgroup

Proposed Representative Crop: Atemoya or Sugar apple and 

Pineapple

There are twenty-seven commodities proposed for this subgroup and include:

Atemoya; Biriba; Breadfruit; Champedak; Cherimoya; Custard apple; 

Durian; Elephant-apple; Ilama; Jackfruit; Karuka; Longan; Mammy-apple; 

Marmalade-box; Marang; Monkey-bread tree; Nicobar-breadfruit; 

Pandanus; Pineapple; Pulasan; Rambutan; Sapodilla; Sapote, mamey; 

Soncoya; Soursop; Sugar apple; Sun sapote

4) Subgroup 24D; Tropical and Subtropical, Inedible Peel, Cactus Subgroup 

Proposed Representative Crop: Dragon fruit and Prickly pear

There are nine commodities proposed for this subgroup and include:

Dragon fruit; Pitahaya; Pitaya; Pitaya Amarilla; Pitaya Roja; Pitaya, yellow; 

Prickly pear; Texas Prickly pear; Saguaro

5) Subgroup 24E; Tropical and Subtropical, Inedible Peel, Vine Subgroup

Proposed Representative Crop: Passionfruit

There are eight commodities proposed for this subgroup and include:

Granadilla; Granadilla, Giant; Monstera; Passionflower, Winged-stem; 

Passionfruit; Passionfruit, banana; Passionfruit, purple; Passionfruit, yellow

HED Recommendations for Proposal 4:

I recommend ChemSAC concur to approve the five proposed crop subgroups 

because of similarities between cultural practices, potential residue exposure due to fruit 

size area, and lack of animal feed items. The majority of tolerances established on 

avocado, lychee, papaya, and sugar apple are based on the proposed approved commodity

definitions by ChemSAC in 1998 and the established banana and sugar apple commodity

definitions in the Federal Register. Existing tolerances also support the proposed 

subgroups and representative commodities (Table 35) by covering a wide range of 

residues such as lychee (Rep 24A) tolerances are generally higher than avocado (Rep for 

24B) and atemoya (Rep for 24C), and passionfruit (Rep for 24E). Cactus the 

representative commodity for subgroup 24D has higher tolerances than lychee (Rep for 

24A) where direct comparisons are available. Detailed comparisons of established 
14

tropical fruit tolerances for these proposed representative are discussed in the 

“comparison of potential residue levels in the tropical and subtropical fruit-inedible peel” 

as well as comparisons of existing US and Codex tolerances (MRL’s) established on 

Tropical and Subtropical Fruits with an inedible peel (see Tables 35 – 44 in separate 

analysis). As stated previously, I recommend ChemSAC concur to add sugar apple as an 

alternative commodity to atemoya since there are several tolerances already established 

for sugar apple. The representative commodities for crop subgroup 24C would be 

“atemoya or sugar apple and pineapple. I also recommend banana to be an alternative 

representative commodity to pomegranate based on its high consumption, production, 

large number of established tolerances. Pomegranate is increasing in popularity and 

acres in the U.S. and makes a good alternate representative commodity to banana based 

on more acreage in the U.S. and wider geographical representation.”.

IR-4 Proposal 5: “Add Commodity Definitions [40 CFR 180.1 (g)] for Avocado, 

banana, and passionfruit.

A B

Avocado (Persea 

americana Mill.)

Avocado (Persea americana Mill.); Avocado, Guatemalan (Persea americana

Mill. var. guatemalensis); Avocado, Mexican (Persea americana Mill. var. 

drymifolia (Schltdl. & Cham.) S. F. Blake); Avocado, West Indian (Persea 

americana var. americana)

Banana (Musa spp.) Banana (Musa spp.); Banana, Dwarf (Musa hybrids; Musa acuminata Colla); 

Plantain (Musa x paradisiaca L. )

Passionfruit (Passiflora 

edulis Sims)

Passionfruit (Passiflora edulis Sims); Passionfruit, Purple (Passiflora edulis

Sims forma edulis); Passionfruit, Yellow (Passiflora edulis Sims forma 

flavicarpa O. Deg.)

“

HED Recommendations for IR-4 Proposal 5:

Currently there are two established commodity definitions [(40 CFR § 180.1(g)] which 

apply to the proposed for tropical and subtropical fruits – inedible peel group. They are 

banana and sugar apple (Table 65). The tropical fruits while having no crop group have 

had to set tolerances on a case by case basis for each commodity. Before the Tropical 

and subtropical fruit – inedible peel group proposal, to help the U.S. tropical fruit 

growers, and to facilitate residue data generation and tolerance establishment on tropical 

and subtropical fruits, USDA IR-4 requested commodity definitions for avocado, lychee, 

papaya, and an update to sugar apple and ChemSAC approved these commodity

definitions in 1998 (Schneider, B.A. 1998 b, c, d, and e). The six proposed new or 

revised commodity definitions will be discussed below in this analysis and is shown in 

Tables 66 and 67 in the Commodity Definition Section of this analysis. Except for the

case of the established commodity definition for banana and sugar apple, ChemSAC 

approved commodity definition for avocado and it has been successful in establishing 36 

tolerances for avocado, papaya, caimito (star apple), black sapote, mango, sapodilla,

canistel, and mamey sapote (See Tables 36, 38, and 39). The definition for lychee has 

been successful in establishing 16 tolerances for lychee, longan, Spanish lime, pulasan, 
15

and rambutan (Tables 37 and 43). The commodity definition for sugar apple has been 

successful in establishing ten tolerances for sugar apple, atemoya, custard apple, 

cherimoya, ilama, soursop, and biriba (Tables 41, 44, and 47). Banana has 22 established 

tolerances (Table 39). When the Tropical and subtropical fruit group - inedible peel is 

established the need for all the proposed tropical fruit commodity definitions except for 

banana and sugar apple will no longer be necessary. 

With the proposed established of the Tropical and subtropical fruit –

inedible peel group 24, I recommend ChemSAC approve deleting the previously 

ChemSAC approved avocado, lychee and papaya commodity definitions under 40 

CFR Part 180.1(g) because each of these commodities are listed separately as 

members of the new proposed Tropical and subtropical fruit – inedible peel crop 

group, as well as members of crop subgroups. Since these three commodity 

definitions were not published in the Federal Register there is no issue deleting 

them.

HED recommendations for revisions to commodity definitions both established 

and proposed as follows:

Commodity Definition Proposed Decision

Avocado Recommend not to establish this commodity definition 

since all of the commodities except mamey sapote will 

be a member of crop subgroup 24B - Tropical and 

subtropical, medium to large fruit, smooth inedible peel. 

Mamey sapote will become member of crop subgroup 

24C - Tropical and subtropical, medium to large fruit, 

rough or hairy, inedible peel. The other proposed 

avocado commodities listed in Table 66 will be listed as 

separate distinct members of the crop group and a 

definition will not be needed. 

Banana The proposed change to the banana commodity 

definition is to add dwarf banana and their scientific 

names. Because of the success of the current banana 

commodity definition we recommend not to add these 

two items because they are included in the current 

commodity definition or in the case of dwarf banana it is 

included as a distinct member of the Tropical and 

subtropical fruit – inedible peel. 

Lychee 

The commodity definition for lychee will no longer be 

needed, since lychee will be the representative 

commodity for crop subgroup 24A - Tropical and 

subtropical, small fruit, inedible peel subgroup. Several 

of the commodities including longan, rambutan, and 

pulusan will be in crop subgroup 24C - Tropical and 

subtropical, medium to large fruit, rough or hairy, 

inedible peel. 

Papaya

The commodity definition for papaya will also no longer 

be needed since it will become a member of crop 

subgroup 24B - Tropical and subtropical, medium to 
16

Commodity Definition Proposed Decision

large fruit, smooth inedible peel with avocado as the 

representative commodity.

Passionfruit

The proposed commodity definition for passionfruit is 

not necessary since crop subgroup 24E - Tropical and 

subtropical, vine subgroup with passionfruit as the 

representative commodity, and all the proposed 

commodities are in this subgroup.

Sugar Apple 

The addition of ilama and biriba to the established sugar 

apple definition is also not recommended since there are 

ten established tolerances based on the established 

definition and these two commodities are listed as 

members of the crop group and are in the same subgroup 

24C as sugar apple. Atemoya and sugar apple are 

proposed representative commodities to crop subgroup 

24C - Tropical and subtropical, medium to large fruit, 

rough or hairy, inedible peel subgroup. 

However the scientific names to the current 

commodity definition for sugar apple needs to be 

updated as follows:

Current sugar apple definition:

“Sugar apple = (Annona squamosa L. (sugar apple, 

sweetsop, anon), and its hybrid A. squamosa L. x A. 

cherimoya M. (atemoya). Also true custard apple.”

Revise Sugar apple definition to:

“Sugar apple = sugar apple (Annona squamosa L. and its 

hybrid atemoya (Annona cherimola Mill X A. squamosa 

L.) Also includes true custard apple (Annona reticulata

L.). Sweetsop and Anon are lookup terms for sugar 

apple and can be deleted from this revised definition”.

Additional HED Recommendations/Conclusions:

HED Conclusion 6:

Another important aspect of crop grouping is the harmonization effort with the 

Codex Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds. The proposed EPA crop group for 

Tropical and subtropical fruit group – inedible peel is very similar to the corresponding 

Codex Assorted tropical and sub-tropical fruits group – inedible peel. The Codex Group 

006, Assorted tropical and sub-tropical fruits group – inedible peel (Crop Group 006, 

letter code FI), consists of sixty-two commodities including matches to the proposed EPA 

commodities and crop group (Table 48). 
17

The differences are several of the Codex commodities refer to another commodity

such as “Egg, fruit see Canistel” whereas in the U.S crop grouping system canistel is a 

distinct commodity. The sixty-two Codex commodities really consist of forty-seven 

distinct commodities with the rest being multiple entries, or varieties of cultivar of other 

commodities listed. The U.S. is proposing to add several commodities such as abiu, 

aisen, binji, Burmese grape, and wampi that are not yet in the Codex system. Several 

Codex names are equivalent to lookup terms in the EPA Food and Feed Commodity

Vocabulary like Java apple is wax jambu. Some of the commodities like guava and 

tamarind are being placed in the tropical and subtropical fruit - edible peel group. Note 

that the current Codex crop group does not have representative commodities. A revision 

of the Codex Classification is underway with consideration to include adding new 

commodities, creating subgroups, and selecting representative commodities. The

expanded Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Group 24 and the representative 

commodities proposed in this petition would facilitate the harmonization of the U.S. and 

the Codex crop classification systems. 

Codex uses multiple commodity terms for the same commodity and refers to the 

preferred commodity, while EPA has the Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary website 

that has many lookup terms that link to the preferred commodity term used for 

establishing tolerances/MRL. 

HED Conclusion 7:

Guidance for HED SOP 99.6 - “Classification of Food Forms with Respect to Level 

of Blending” issued August 20, 1999, and HED SOP 2000.1 – “Guidance for Translation 

of Field Trial Data from Representative Commodities in the Crop Group Regulation to 

Other Commodities in Each Crop Group/Subgroup” issued September 12, 2000 can be 

updated to reflect the amendment to the Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Group 24. The 

updates are discussed in the HED SOP 2001.1 Section of this analysis.

HED Conclusion 8:

Guidance on expressing tolerance terminology for the new Tropical and 

subtropical fruit - inedible peel 24 are discussed under the “Tolerance expression 

guidance section of this analysis. New lookup and preferred EPA terms for the members 

of the Tropical and subtropical fruit group - inedible peel Crop Group are listed in the 

EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary section of this report and these terms will be 

added to the updated EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary website 

(http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/foodfeed).

DETAILED ANALYSIS OF THE USDA IR-4 PROPOSAL TO ESTABLISH A 

NEW CROP GROUP 24 FOR TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT -

INEDIBLE PEEL: 

BACKGROUND
18

A tropical fruit is a fruit produced by a tree, shrub or vine native to the tropics. 

The tropics are generally defined as the region of the globe between the Tropic of Cancer 

and the Tropic of Capricorn. The environment of the tropics is warm to hot and humid 

year round, creating a unique habitat that results in trees, shrubs, and vines that grow 

nowhere else in the world. The subtropics are geographically located immediately north 

and south of the tropical zone and have climates much milder than temperate, northern 

zones.

Some tropical fruits are well known throughout the world and have been 

consumed for centuries. Some of these fruits include bananas, pomegranates, mangoes, 

papaya, avocados, pineapple, guavas, passionfruit and dates. Many of these fruits are 

available in markets year-round from a steady supply of fruit produced in the tropics and 

sub-tropics. Other tropical fruit are less well known, but are popular in specific countries 

or regions of the world. Other previously less well known fruit have recently become 

popular in the U.S. For example, pomegranate and acai are now popular health drinks. 

Tropical fruits form a large and diverse commodity group ranging from perennial 

herbaceous and woody plants as well as trees, shrubs, and vines. Large numbers of 

tropical fruit produce edible fruits, but few have expanded into international use. 

Tropical and subtropical fruits have either an edible peel or an inedible peel. This 

analysis will discuss tropical and subtropical fruits which have an inedible peel and an 

edible internal pulp. Originally tropical fruits were produced near their original center of 

each species distribution. As storage and shipping techniques, pest problem controls, and

yield have increased so has the world-wide distribution of the tropical fruits. Limiting 

factors of further market growth includes capability of controlling pests. 

Despite the relatively low caloric values of tropical and subtropical fruits, they

play an important role in human diet mainly because of their high and diverse vitamin 

and mineral content. This has been of extreme importance in the tropics, where people 

have been consuming them since ancient times, either by collecting fruit from the wild or 

by cultivating plants in home or community gardens. They have become an important 

part of the diet of people in the developed countries of the world, especially among the 

health and fitness conscious. Nutritionists have long recommended a minimum of one 

hundred grams of fruit per day and that it is as varied as possible. Toward the end of the 

twentieth century market campaigns commonly recommended consumption of five fruits 

per day, which, while it may have more to do with commerce than with science, but it 

reinforces the value of fruit as a part of the human diet. 

A tropical fruit is a fruit produced by a tree, shrub or vine native to the tropics. 

The tropics are generally defined as the region of the globe between the Tropic of Cancer 

and the Tropic of Capricorn. The environment of the tropics is warm to hot and humid 

year round, creating a unique habitat that results in trees, shrubs, and vines that grow 

nowhere else in the world. The subtropics are geographically located immediately north 

and south of the tropical zone and have climates much milder than temperate, northern 

zones.
19

Some tropical fruits with inedible peels are well known throughout the world and 

have been consumed for centuries. Some of these fruits include avocado, banana, 

pomegranate, mango, papaya, passionfruit, and pineapple of these fruits are available in 

markets year-round from a steady supply of fruit produced in the tropics and sub-tropics. 

Other tropical fruit are less well known, but are popular in specific countries or regions of 

the world. Other previously less well known fruit have recently become more popular in 

the U.S. For example pomegranate juice is now considered a popular health food drinks

DEFINITION OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL REGIONS:

The tropic is a region of the earth by the equator. It is limited in latitude by the 

Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at approximately 23 26′ 16′′ (or 23.4378°) N 

and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere at 23 26′ 16′′ (or 23.4378°) S. 

The tropics include all the areas on the earth where the sun reaches a point directly

overhead and a point directly underneath at least once during the solar year. Outside the 

tropics, the sun never reaches a point directly overhead or a point directly underneath at 

any time during the year. (Figure 1).

Figure 1 . Map of the Tropical Climatic Region. 

SUBTROPICAL CLIMATIC REGION:

The subtropics are the geographical and climatically zone of the earth 

immediately north and south of the tropical zone, which is bounded by the Tropic of 

Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, at latitudes 23.5°N and 23.5°S. The term 
20

"subtropical" describes the climatic region found adjacent to the tropics, usually between 

20 and 40 degrees of latitude in both hemispheres.

In subtropical climates the winters are relatively warm, but not as hot as the 

summer season. These climates rarely see frost or snow, and plants such as palm, citrus 

and many broadleaf evergreens flourish, in contrast to the hardier deciduous and 

coniferous trees which dominate midlatitude climates. As one moves toward the tropical 

side the slight winter cool season disappears altogether, while at the pole ward threshold 

of the subtropics the winters become much cooler.

Rainfall patterns vary widely throughout the subtropics including hot deserts, 

savannas, monsoon forests, humid forests and the warmer parts of the Mediterranean 

climate zone. Subtropical regions include most of California and southern Europe 

(Mediterranean or dry-summer subtropical climate), the low deserts of the Southwest 

USA (hot arid type), the Gulf Coast and most of Florida (humid subtropical climate), 

northern India (monsoon), southeast China (humid), the middle part of South America 

(varied), much of Australia (varied) and coastal South Africa.

Figure 2 . Map of the Subtropical Climatic Region. 

DEFINITION OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT COMMODITIES:

Tropical and subtropical fruits, in contrast with temperate fruits, can be broadly

defined as those meeting the following criteria:

Crops that have their origin and commercial growing areas (when such exist) in 

the tropics or subtropics. Plants that are evergreen and perennial, crops with a limited 

degree of frost resistance, 
21

and

Plants whose growth is practically nonexistent below 50°F (10°C) (with some 

exceptions according to species and individual age). 

A distinction between tropical and subtropical is possible if one considers that 

tropical species are not only sensitive to temperatures below 68°F (20°C) but indeed 

require a climate with average mean temperatures higher than 50°F (10°C) for the coldest 

month. Most tropicals require humid environmental conditions. Examples of truly

tropical crops are traditional fruits native to Southeast Asia, like mangosteen, durian, and 

rambutan. A good example of a typical subtropical fruit crop is cherimoya, which when 

cultivated in cold subtropical areas may suffer some foliage loss during the winter with 

regrowth in spring. Also, some fruit crops can be cultivated equally well in either the 

tropics or the subtropics, of which the banana and the avocado are the most outstanding 

examples. 

Strictly speaking, the tropics extend between the Tropics of Cancer and 

Capricorn, at 23° north and south of the equator. But, agronomically, these boundaries 

are too rigid. Not only do they contain areas, especially at higher altitudes that do not 

conform to the climatic characteristics generally assigned to the tropics but regions 

outside this belt have coastal areas or insular climates that may exhibit climatic 

conditions fitting properly in the tropics. In any event the main feature associated with 

the tropics is not so much that of heat but rather steady warm temperatures throughout the 

year. Samson (1986) defined a tropical climate as having temperature averages around 

80.6°F (27°C), with the warmest month being only a few degrees higher than the coldest 

and temperature differences between night and day, at any given time, being greater than 

those between winter and summer, and, finally, little variation in daylength, with the 

longest day being less than thirteen hours long. In comparison, the subtropics have hotter 

summers and cooler winters and the humidity is also generally lower. Daylength 

differences become greater with increased latitude. The limit for the subtropics is the 

isotherm of 50°F (10°C) average for the coldest month. While hundreds of tropical and 

subtropical fruits exist, but only some fifty are well known throughout most of the world. 

Major tropical fruits include banana and plantain, mango, and pineapple, while minor 

tropical at present include for example abiu, atemoya, avocado, breadfruit, carambola, 

durian, guava, jaboticaba, jackfruit, langsat, lychee, longan, mangosteen, papaya, 

passionfruit, pulusan, rambutan, sapodilla, and soursop. Various wild fruits belonging to 

diverse botanical families, and at present are not yet cultivated commercially in any 

country and are much in need of characterization, conservation, selection, and further

breeding. 

Major-category fruits are cultivated in most tropical (and subtropical) countries 

and are well known in both local and export/import markets. Minor fruits are not so 

extensively cultivated, and consumption and trade tend to be more limited, both 

geographically and quantitatively. However, many are of considerable economic 
22

importance in their respective regional markets, as is the case with carambola, durian, and 

mangosteen, which are major fruits throughout Southeast Asia. 

BOTANICAL ASPECTS OF PROPOSED TROPICAL FRUIT – INEDIBLE PEEL

COMMODITIES:

The proposed tropical and subtropical fruit edible peels members are 

representative of twenty-eight plant families (Table 1). The most common plant family

with eleven members is the Annonaceae or custard apple or sugar apple family. 

Tropical and subtropical fruits include not only woody plants, such as the mango, 

but also herbaceous crops like the banana and vines like the passionfruit. Most botanical 

families can lay claim to at least one species of tropical or subtropical fruit, and list some 

137 families (Martin, 1987). Tropical fruits are a botanically divers groups of fruits 

native to tropical regions of the world. Tradionally tropical fruits were consumed and 

grown locally.

From the botanical point of view, a fruit is the structure developed from flowers 

or inflorescences. In most cases the fruit consists only of the developed ovary, but it may

include other parts of the flower, such as the pedicel, sepal, or receptacle, or even a 

portion of the seed stalk. As with temperate crops, many different fruit types appear 

among the tropicals and subtropicals, from single fruits, including berries, such as the 

avocado; drupes, such as the mango, pomes, such as the loquat; capsules, such as the 

durian; nutlets, such as the lychee and the longan; to compound fruits, as in the typical 

syncarpium of the pineapple; or even a bunch of individual berries, as in the banana. To 

differentiate fruit crops from perennial vegetables whose fruits are also eaten, it is 

necessary to keep in mind that in a horticultural sense a fruit is something that is normally

eaten fresh and out of hand, but a number of exceptions exist, like the breadfruit and the 

plantain, considered fruits by all but only palatable when cooked, as if they were 

vegetables. 

The banana has a fairly unique growth and development (see also Table 2A). Bananas 

are perennial herbs with long, rolled leaves that emerge from the center of the plant and 

unfurl 6 - 8 days later. The bases of these leaves (petioles) remain tightly fused and form 

the trunk (pseudostem) of a plant 2 - 9 m (6 - 30 ft) in height. The banana is monocarpic, 

flowering and setting fruit once before it dies. The inflorescence (flower stalk) emerges 

from the center of the pseudostem, along with the true stem (apical meristem), both of 

which are surrounded by the protective flag leaf. The flower stalks of most banana 

varieties are positively geotropic (bend from the vertical until their tips points towards the 

ground). One exception is the Samoan variety Fe'i (Fa'i Soa'a), whose inflorescence 

remains vertical. Flower stalks are from 30 - 60 cm (1 - 2 ft) long, tapered and covered in 

a sheath of overlapping bracts. The flowers are parthenogenic (self-fertile) and occur in 

groups of 12 - 20 beneath the bracts. Individual fruits, called fingers, make up the groups 

(hands), which are arranged in a spiral around the flower stalk, forming a bunch. At fruit 

set, a healthy banana plant will have 8 - 12 leaves. New banana plants arise as suckers 
23

from an underground rhizome. As old plants die and new suckers are formed, the 

rhizome expands and is called a mat. Bananas are propagated by suckers, pieces of the 

rhizome or by tissue culture. 

The potential for development of tropical fruits does not rely only on 

consumption, since planting tropical fruits for agroforestry and for ornamentals urban 

uses also important factors. Tropical countries like Malaysia encourage and promote 

intercropping of suitable perennial fruits with compatible forest species (Anang and 

Chan, 1999). These considerations may involve new lines of research, particularly

searching for cultivars that can be oriented toward wood (or flower) production. 

Unlike most crop groups that are based on a family or fruit type such as the Pome 

fruits and Stone fruits that are members of the Rosaceae or Rose family, the proposed 

Tropical and subtropical fruit inedible peels are representative of twenty-eight plant 

families (Table 1). The most common plant tropical fruit family is the Annonaceae 

commonly called the custard-apple or annona family and contains atemoya; biriba; 

cherimoya; custard apple; ilama; pawpaw; small-flower pawpaw; poshte; soncoya; 

soursop; sugar apple, and others. 

Table 1. Botanical Families (28) of the Proposed Tropical and Subtropical Inedible Peel

Crop Group (Currently commodities in bold are the best known world-wide).

Botanical Family Commodity

Anacardiaceae Binjai; Etambe; Lanjut; Mango; Mango, horse; Mango, Saipan; 

Pelipisan

Annonaceae Atemoya; Biriba; Cherimoya; Custard apple; Ilama; Pawpaw,

common; Pawpaw, Small-flower; Poshte; Soncoya; Soursop; Sugar 

apple

Arecaceae Monstera 

Bromeliaceae Pineapple

Cactaceae Dragon fruit; Pitahaya; Pitaya; Pitaya Amarilla; Pitaya roja; Pitaya, 

yellow; Prickly pear; Prickly pear, Texas; Saguaro

Capparaceae Aisen 

Caricaceae Papaya

Caryocaraceae Pequi; Pequia

Chrysobalanaceae Sun Sapote

Clusiaceae Bacury; Mammy-apple; Mangosteen 

Ebenaceae Mabolo; Persimmon, American; Sapote, black

Euphorbiaceae Mongongo, fruit

Fabaceae Ingá; Jatobá; Madras-thorn; Mesquite; Sataw; Sierra Leone-tamarind; 

Velvet Tamarind

Lauraceae Avocado; Avocado, Guatemalan; Avocado, Mexican; Avocado, West 

Indian

Lythraceae Pomegranate

Malvaceae Cupuacú; Durian; Matisia; Monkey-bread-tree 

Meliaceae Langsat

Moraceae Breadfruit; Champedak; Jackfruit; Marang

Musaceae Banana; Banana, dwarf; Plantain

Pandanaceae Karuka; Kei apple; Nicobar-breadfruit; Paho; Screw-pine
24

Botanical Family Commodity

Passifloraceae Granadilla; Granadilla, Giant; Passionflower, Winged-stem; 

Passionfruit; Passionfruit, Banana; Passionfruit, purple; 

Passionfruit, yellow

Phyllanthaceae Burmese grape; Wild loquat

Rubiaceae Marmaladebox 

Rutaceae Bael fruit; Elephant-apple; Sapote, white; Tamarind-of-the-Indies; 

Wampi

Santlaceae Quandong

Sapindaceae Cat's-eyes; Longan; Pulasan; Rambutan; Sapodilla; Spanish lime

Sapotaceae Abiu; Akee apple; Canistel; Lucuma; Sapote, green; Sapote, mamey; 

Satinleaf; Star apple; White star apple

Zygophyllaceae Manduro 

ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT 

CULTIVATION

Areas of Origin and Spread

Many of the tropical fruits have been domesticated over 2,000 years ago. 

Although most of the continents, including the islands throughout the Pacific, have 

contributed tropical and subtropical fruits, most of the best-known ones came from the 

tropical and subtropical regions of America, for example, papaya, avocado, pineapple, 

guava and Asia (banana, and lychee). The only important tropical fruit native to the 

African continent is the date. Europe, with no tropical and limited subtropical areas, has 

none. 

Spreading of tropical fruits to the regions surrounding their areas of origin 

probably began early, as soon as humans realized their value in terms of nutrition and the 

variety they could add to the primitive diets of the time. The potential of some species to 

provide not only food but also shelter or clothing (some types of banana), wood, and 

medicine hastened their distribution. 

An example is the mango that was native to the Indo-Burma region, and by the 

end of the fourth century it had spread to all the tropical countries of Southeast Asia. 

Crops from the Americas are not as well documented, but archaeological findings have 

shown connections between the cultures of Mexico and Peru dating as far back as 1000 

BCE, giving a solid opportunity for some tropical and subtropical fruits to spread around 

the warmer American lands. 

Soon after the European discovery of America, the Old and New Worlds rapidly

exchanged crops. The banana was carried to Santo Domingo from the Canary Islands in 

1516 (the Canaries were a routine last port of call for European ships facing an Atlantic 

crossing). After Columbus's voyages, a veritable avalanche of expeditions explored all 

corners of the world, and where the ships went, food went also, to say nothing of tasty

fruits and easily propagated species. Between 1500 and 1650 Portuguese sailors 
25

connected Brazil and the Cape of Good Hope, touching Goa, Malacca, the Moluccas, 

Canton, and Macao, trading from there with Japan and Formosa. The Spanish Manila 

galleon route dominated shipping from 1565 to 1815, plying the seas between the 

Philippines and Mexico. Dutch, British, and French voyagers were also important in 

spreading tropical fruits around the world. 

No hard and fast rule explains why some fruits spread quickly throughout the 

world while others remain limited in scope even in the twenty-first century. Several 

factors may be involved, among them crop adaptability, shelf life, ease of propagation 

(including the capacity to survive long voyages), size of the plant, multiplicity of uses 

(that is, other than as fresh fruit such as medicinal), and taste acceptance. 

The excellent taste of the pineapple, the long-lasting viability of the plant's 

suckers as planting material, and the rapidity with which it produces fruit all account for 

its prompt appearance in Europe in glasshouses and India as early as 1548. Similar 

considerations apply to the banana and the papaya and even to woody perennial trees like 

the mango or the guava, which soon spread throughout the tropics and subtropics, even 

though their size precluded cultivation in greenhouses outside these areas. On the other 

hand true tropical trees are usually demanding in climate and in some cases are difficult 

to propagate. The mangosteen, rambutan, and durian have remained confined almost 

exclusively to their area of origin in Southeast Asia. The mangosteen is notable among 

tropical fruits in that it has proven particularly difficult in most attempts to establish it 

outside of its area of origin via the usual method, which is selection or breeding of 

cultivars capable of adapting to environments different in climate or soil conditions. 

The members of this proposed crop group have similar uses, and all are consumed 

fresh or consumed cooked or raw in various recipes including salads, jellies, and juices. 

They can also be used fresh or in a dehydrated form. Some of these tropical fruits also 

have medicinal properties. 

The fact that these stone fruits are in the same family with similar biological and 

cultural aspects suggests they should also encounter similar pest problems and hence 

have similar needs for pest control products in similar use patterns. 

Commercialization and Trade

In addition to banana, four other tropical and subtropical fruits with inedible peels 

including pineapple, mango, avocado, and papaya, dominate the fresh fruit export trade. 

Pineapple clearly leads the ranking in processed fruits with a wide range of products, 

although juice and rings in syrup are the best known. 

Many other tropical and subtropical fruits are no longer exotic products in world 

markets, having become firmly established with guaranteed supply and reasonable prices. 

Guava, starfruit, lychee, mangosteen, passionfruit, and rambutan have experienced 

notable development. The main importers of most of these tropical and subtropical fruits 

are the European Union, the United States, Japan, Canada, and China. 
26

Exports of fresh fruits are mainly by ship or surface transport. Postharvest 

techniques for extending the shelf life of most tropical and subtropical fruits have been 

mastered, and refrigerated boats (some even providing controlled atmosphere 

installations) move these commodities from production countries to their ultimate 

markets with ease. A small proportion of the tropical fruits, particularly pineapple, 

mango, and papaya, are transported by air, either destined specially for gourmet or niche

markets or for celebrations at certain times of the year, such as Christmas and New 

Year's, when they command higher prices. Some of the minor crops, still considered 

exotics, like the mangosteen and the rambutan, have a more difficult postharvest life and 

have to be exported by air. 

Many countries from virtually all the continents have designated specific areas for 

production of fruits destined purely for export. These countries include India, Malaysia, 

Thailand, and China in Asia; the Philippines and Australia in Oceania; South Africa and 

Ivory Coast in Africa; Mexico, Brazil, the United States, Peru, Costa Rica, and Chile in 

North and South America; Spain in Europe; and Israel. 

While banana and pineapple have a long history of international trade, the 

avocado trade burst upon the scene in the 1970s. The mango did not become a wellknown fruit (from a consumption point of view) until the 1990s, with Mexico as the 

leading exporter. Several of the tropical fruits could become very popular in the future 

with consumer demand such as atemoya, dragon fruit, and pomegranate.

There are several organizations and horticultural societies at national and 

international levels dedicated to particular tropical or subtropical fruits. Their members 

include amateurs, growers, researchers and academics, handlers, traders, and consumers. 

The Intergovernmental Group on Bananas and on Tropical Fruits, under the auspices of 

the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), meets every two 

years to discuss issues related to marketing and trade. 

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL 

FRUIT CROPS

Understanding how the tropical and subtropical fruit crops grow and develop is a 

key part of developing a pest control strategy for optimum fruit yield and quality and a 

helpful reference for analysis of residue field trials by EPA scientists. Proper timing of 

pesticide applications, based on crop growth stage and pest growth cycle can improve a 

product’s efficacy and prevent crop injury and yield losses. Pesticide labels often use 

crop growth stages and codes to identify when to apply a pesticide, and State Extension 

pest control recommendations and spray schedules are based on these distinct growth 

stages. Rarely, if ever, will a grower need to apply treatments at all of the key growth 

stages shown for a given fruit. The number, distribution, and content of needed 

treatments will vary between the major tropical fruit growing regions of the world and 
27

within any given region and are dependent on pest pressures which reduce the yield, 

quality, and marketability of the fruit. 

Some of the internationally recognized growth stages for the tropical and 

subtropical fruit inedible peel are represented by the banana (Table 2A) and cherimoya 

(Table 2B) and are listed as BBCH Codes (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt 

and Chemical industry) and shown in the following Tables. They are based on the 

principal growth stage such as leaf development and flowering and list a standard BBCH 

Code for each stage as well as a description of each code. The selected growth stages are 

also essential for identifying the propose timings to scout pest problems for control of 

these pests and for applications of pesticides as part of an integrated pest management 

program (IPM). 

Table 2A. Selected Principal Growth Stages for Banana and Plantain, (Musaceae) A

Representative Commodity Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Group. 

BBCH Identification Codes (Adapted from Meier, 1994, Feller et al., 1995, and 

Gonzales et al., 2002). 

BBCH 

Code 

Principal Growth Stage General Description

00 Sprouting or emergence Recently planted material (plants from tissue cultures

and corms) without visible growth

05 Sprouting or emergence Emergence of the first new leaf in plants from tissue 

cultures or of the foliar shoot of the corm

10 Leaf development Leaf 1 at candela stage 2

11 Leaf development One leaf completely open and the youngest leaf at 

candela stage 0

12 Leaf development Two leaves completely open and the youngest leaf at 

candela stage 4

13 Leaf development Three leaves completely open and the youngest leaf at 

candela stage 0

19 Leaf development Nine leaves completely open and the youngest leaf at 

candela stage 6

21 Sucker formation First sucker with visible sword leaf

22 Sucker formation Second sucker with visible sword leaf

29 Sucker formation Nine or more suckers with visible sword leaf

35 Pseudostem elongation The pseudostem reaches 50 % of its typical thickness 

and length according to the genome or clone

39 Pseudostem elongation The maximum length and thickness of the pseudostem 

are reached according to the genome or clone and the 

formation of new leaves of normal size has been 

terminated

40 Leaf development of the 

sucker (sword sucker)

Sub-phase of dependent growth: the sucker becomes 

visible and develops the leaf shoot

41 Leaf development of the 

sucker (sword sucker)

Development of the 1st lanceolate leaf

45 Leaf development of the Sub-phase of independent growth: leaves of approx. 
28

BBCH 

Code 

Principal Growth Stage General Description

sucker (sword sucker) 10 cm width are developed

49 Leaf development of the 

sucker (sword sucker)

Development of the 1st leaf of approx. 10 cm width

50 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

The development of new normal leaves has been 

terminated and the flower bract emergence

51 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Flower bract at candela stage 2

52 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Flower bract at candela stage 4

54 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Flower bract at candela stage 8

55 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Flower bract completely open

59 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Emergence of the last bract leaf or first sterile bract 

protecting the flower

60 Flowering The stage begins with the emergence of the flower 

protected by the last bract leaf (1st sterile bract)

61 Flowering A bract which does not protect any hand of flowers 

rises (2nd sterile bract) and the rachis or flower stalk 

takes a pendulum position

62 Flowering The bract rises which protects the first hand of female 

or pistillate flowers

63 Flowering The bract rises which protects the second hand of 

female or pistillate flowers

64 Flowering The bract rises which protects the third hand of female 

or pistillate flowers

65 Flowering Full bloom: at least 50 % of the hands of females 

flowers are developed

69 Flowering The bracts which protect the hands wither and fall off 

and the fingers are bent into a direction perpendicular 

to the rachis

70 Development of Fruit At least 50 % of the fingers show an upwards 

curvature and the fruits (fingers) begin to fill

71 Development of Fruit Total exposure of the fingers or female flowers 

(protective bracts fallen off or bent and withered 

above the hands)

72 Development of Fruit The fingers of the hands show the characteristic 

curvature of the fruit (upwards and almost parallel to 

the axis or rachis)

73 Development of fruit From the first two hands up to 30 % of the hands have 

reached the maximum thickness of the fruit

75 Development of fruit Up to 50 % of the hands have reached the maximum 

thickness of the fruit

78 Development of fruit Up to 80 % of the hands have reached the maximum 

thickness of the fruit

79 Development of fruit All hands have reached the maximum thickness of the 

fruit and no hand shows a loss of weight

80 Ripening of the fruit Ripening starts when the fruit has reached the 
29

BBCH 

Code 

Principal Growth Stage General Description

maximum thickness, begins to lose weight and shows 

changes of the color by which the degrees of maturity 

are defined

81 Ripening of the fruit Degree of maturity 1: green. Normal color of the fresh 

fruit

82 Ripening of the fruit Degree of maturity 2: tinge of yellow. First 

modification of color during the ripening cycle

83 Ripening of the fruit Degree of maturity 3: more green than yellow

85 Ripening of the fruit Degree of maturity 5: tinge of green

87 Ripening of the fruit Degree of maturity 7: yellow with brown specks. Fruit 

is completely ripe, has the best flavor and a high 

nutritive value

88 Ripening of the fruit Degree of maturity 8, 20-50 % of surface discolored 

brown or spoiled

89 Ripening of the fruit Degree of maturity 9: More than 50 % of the surface 

of the fruits is discolored brown and spoiled

90 Senescence and death More than 50 % of the surface of the fruits are 

discolored brown

91 Senescence and death The leaves the plant shows have died off acropetally 

and the male flowers have withered, are necrotic 

and/or have fallen off

93 Senescence and death Total rot and necrosis of the fruits

95 Senescence and death Degeneration (necrosis) of the flower

97

Senescence and death The sheaths enclosed in the pseudostem become brittle 

which indicates the beginning of necrosis of the 

pseudostem. The pseudostem turns to be brown

98 Senescence and death Total decomposition of the tissues and fall down of 

the pseudostem

Table 2B. Selected Principal Growth Stages for Cherimoya. A Tropical and 

Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Group Commodity and Crop Subgroup 24C 

Member. BBCH Identification Codes (Adapted from Cautin, 2005.

BBCH 

Code 

Principal Growth Stage General Description

00 Bud development Leaf buds are closed but covered by brown scales.

01 Bud development Beginning of leaf bud swelling, bud scales begin to 

separate early in the summer.

03 Bud development End of leaf bud swelling, brown scales slightly 

separated.

07 Bud development Beginning of bud burst: first green tips just visible.

09 Bud development Green leaf tips about 5 mm above bud scales.

10 Leaf development First leaves separating: brownish scales slightly 

opened, leaves emerging.

11 Leaf development Visible leaves unfolded.

12-18 Leaf development Two to eight or more leaves visible, but not yet at full 
30

BBCH 

Code 

Principal Growth Stage General Description

size.

19 Leaf development First leaves fully expanded.

31 Shoot development Beginning of shoot growth – axes of developing 

shoots visible.

32 Shoot development Shoots about 20% of final length.

35 Shoot development Shoots about 50% of final length.

39 Shoot development Shoots about 90% of final length.

50 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Flower buds are closed and covered by brown scales.

51 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Beginning of flower buds, bud scales begin to 

separate.

53 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Bud burst; first floral primordial just visible.

54 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Sepals visible; petals begin to elongate.

55 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Petals elongating.

57 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Flowers still closed; petals elongating.

59 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Most flowers close, with petals fully elongated 

forming a long corolla.

65 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Full flowering at least 50% of the flowers opens

completely – male state.

67 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

Flowers fading.

69 Emergence of the 

inflorescence

End of flowering.

71-72 Development of Fruit Fruit set – beginning of ovary growth; green ovary 

surrounded by dying petal crown. 

72 Development of Fruit Fruit about 20% of final size.

73 Development of Fruit Fruit about 30% of final size.

75 Development of fruit Fruit about half of final size.

78 Development of Fruit Fruit about 80% of final size.

79 Development of fruit Fruit ripe for consumption- fruit has typical taste and 

firmness; physiological maturity is complete; 

beginning of fruit senescence.

91 Senescence and beginning of 

the rest period

Shoot growth complete.

92 Senescence and beginning of 

the rest period

Beginning of the senescence of old leaves; leaves fall,

rot and necrosis of the fruits

95 Senescence and beginning of 

the rest period Leaves falling.

97 Senescence and beginning of 

the rest period All leaves fallen. Brief late spring rest period.

Crop development stages for the avocado in California are shown in Figure 1. 

Pollination begins from January to ends by fruit set at June. 
31

Figure 1. Crop Development Stages for the Avocado (Adapted from: CAC and 

CMCC. 2003, 2007. A Pest Management Strategic Plan for Avocado Production in 

California. Irvine, CA: California Avocado Commission and California Minor 

Crops Council, UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines: Avocado UC ANR 

Publication 3436).

TIME OF YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

CROP

DEVELOPMENT

STAGE

Older Fruit Development or Presence

Young Fruit Development

Pollination and Fruit Set

Pre-Bloom and Open Flower

Leaf Flush

CLIMATE AND SOILS AFFECT TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT 

ADAPTATION TO CERTAIN REGIONS:

As stated under the “Definition of Tropical and Subtropical Fruit” growing 

regions the tropic is a region of the earth by the equator. It is limited in latitude by the 

Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern 

hemisphere. The subtropics are the geographical and climatical zone of the earth 

immediately north and south of the tropical zone, which is bounded by the Tropic of 

Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, at latitudes 23.5°N and 23.5°S. The term 

"subtropical" describes the climatic region found adjacent to the tropics, usually between 

20 and 40 degrees of latitude in both hemispheres. 

In subtropical climates the winters are relatively warm, but not as hot as the 

summer season. These climates rarely see frost or snow, and plants such as palm, citrus 

and many broadleaf evergreens flourish, in contrast to the hardier deciduous and 

coniferous trees which dominate midlatitude climates. As one moves toward the tropical 

side the slight winter cool season disappears altogether, while at the pole ward threshold 

of the subtropics the winters become much cooler.

Abiu:
32

Abiu requires hot, wet tropical lowlands. Prefers well-drained, moist, and loamy to 

clay soil with organic matter and a slightly acidic to neutral pH. Grows best within 12 to 

25 degrees of the equator in warm areas with an elevation below 1,000 meters (3,281 

feet), and it can be grown up to an elevation of 1,900 meters (6,234 feet). Grows in areas 

with well-distributed rainfall of 170 to 300 centimeters (67 to 118 inches), and a mean 

annual temperature greater than 20 °C (68 °F). Found frequently on periodically flooded 

land in lowland tropical rainforests, seasonal evergreen rainforests, beach forests and wet 

montane forests. Tolerant of seasonal drought but not tolerant of extreme frost. In areas 

with hot, dry conditions, sun scorching may occur.

Aisen:

Aisen grows at an altitude of 60 to 1,450 meters (197 to 4,757 feet), a temperature 

of 22 to 30 °C (72 to 86 °F) and a mean annual rainfall of 10 to 30 centimeters (4 to 12 

inches). Soil types include sandy dunes, rocky soils, sandy clay-compacted soils, and 

termite mounds. 

Akee apple:

Akee apple rrequires hot tropical to subtropical lowlands and forests. Indigenous 

to the forests of the Ivory Coast and Gold Coast of West Africa. It is grown from sea 

level to 900 meters (2,953 feet) in Jamaica. Prefers full sun, well distributed rainfall, a 

seasonal dry period, elevations up to 600 meters (1,969 feet), and fertile, slightly alkaline, 

well-drained soils. Grown in zones 10 to 12. Tolerant of a variety of soils including 

fertile and infertile rocky soils, drought, and light frost, but it is not tolerant of high 

winds.

Atemoya:

Atemoya requires hot tropical to subtropical lowlands and forests, and it is 

indigenous to the forests of the Ivory Coast and Gold Coast of West Africa. It grows 

from sea level to 900 meters (2,953 feet) in Jamaica. Prefers full sun, well distributed 

rainfall, a seasonal dry period, elevations up to 600 meters (1,969 feet), and fertile, 

slightly alkaline, well-drained soils. Grown in plant hardiness zones 10 to 12. Tolerant 

of a variety of soils including fertile and infertile rocky soils, drought, and light frost, and 

is not tolerant of high winds. Requires warm, sunny, humid tropical conditions or cool 

subtropical lowlands and grows in areas with a dry season. Prefers moist, deep, rich, 

well-drained sandy to sandy loam soil with organic matter and a pH of 5 to 7. Does well 

near the coast where rainfall and humidity are high and winters are warm. Grows in the 

tropics at elevations above 1,000 meters (3,281 feet). Tolerant of a variety of climates, 

soil conditions including sandy loam, red basalt or heavy clay, and light frost, but does 

not tolerate extreme cold, wind, drought, and water logging; trees in the tropics do not 

tolerate lowland conditions. Young trees do not tolerate frost and die at -1 °C (30 °F). 

Mature trees do not tolerate temperatures below -3 °C (27 °F).

Avocado; Guatemala avocado; Mexican avocado; and West Indian avocado:
33

The West Indian race is native to the lowlands of Central America. The 

Guatemalan race grows up to 40 meters (131 feet) tall, and it is native to the highlands of 

Guatemala and adjacent areas. The Mexican race is grown in the higher elevations of 

Mexico. In general, avocados require humid, warm, sunny tropical or near tropical 

lowlands and medium to high rainfall or monsoon rains. Trees grow best with a welldistributed annual rainfall of 125 to 175 centimeters (49 to 69 inches) per year, 

temperatures of 25 to 28 °C (77 to 82 °F), and in coastal limestone soils. Prefers night 

temperatures of 15 to 20 °C (59 to 68 °F) and day temperatures of 20 °C (68 °F) during 

floral development, pollen tube growth and embryo development. High humidity aids 

flowering and early fruit set. It grows well in Indonesia at elevations of 200 to 1,000 

meters (656 to 3,281 feet). In Hawaii, trees grow well with an annual rainfall of 

approximately 310 centimeters (122 inches). Tolerant of a variety of ecological 

conditions from the tropics to latitudes of 30 °N and 30 °S, and a variety of well-drained 

soils including deep volcanic soils, sandy loam and calcareous soils with a pH of 5 to 7. 

Not tolerant of excessively high temperatures, frost, excess moisture and extended 

periods of dry conditions. Compared to others, the Mexican avocado is more tolerant to 

saline conditions. The Guatemala avocado is a subtropical to semitropical plant that 

grows well in the cool highlands in full sun. Adapted to cool tropical to warm humid 

climate and it grows in Guatemalan cloud forests at elevations of 1,500 to 3,000 meters 

(4,921 to 9,843 feet) and in mountain chains in Central America and Mexico. Prefers 

fertile, well-drained, acidic soil. Compared to the Mexican cultivar, the Guatemalan 

cultivar is less tolerant of low temperatures. Tolerates temperatures of -3 to 1 °C (26 to 

30 °F), but is not tolerant of high winds. The Mexican avocado is a cool, subtropical 

plant that is grown in dry plateaus and highlands in full sun, and prefers a Mediterranean

climate. It thrives in Mexico at an elevation of 152 meters (500 feet), and prefers welldrained, loose, decomposed, granite or sandy loam. Compared to other cultivars, the 

Mexican avocado tolerates water stress and lower humidity well. Mexican cultivars are 

also tolerant of temperatures as low as -5 °C (23 °F). 

Bacury

Bacury requires hot, humid tropical lowlands. A mid- to upper canopy tree in 

forests. It thrives along the forest-savannah transitional zone south of the Amazon forest, 

from the Atlantic to Paraguay, in the open forests of eastern Amazonia north of the 

Amazon River, and on Marajo Island. Approximately one to 100 trees per hectare can be 

found in these locations. Prefers upland soils, rainfall of 150 to 210 centimeters (59 to 83 

inches) per year and a pronounced dry season lasting 3 to 8 months. Trees also grow in 

the city of Belém where the rainfall is 250 centimeters (98 inches) per year and no dry

season occurs. Tolerant of many types of soils including poor soils with poor drainage 

and different environmental conditions, but it is not tolerant of strong winds and 

temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).

Bael fruit
34

Bael fruit requires subtropical areas with full sun, altitudes of 1,200 meters (3,937 

feet) and fertile, well-drained soils with a pH of 5 to 8. It thrives in the dry, hilly forests 

of India, dry and humid lowland woodlands, and mixed deciduous forests of former 

French Indochina. For good production, a long dry season is preferred. It is tolerant of 

extreme temperatures (7 to 49 °C or 20 to 120 °F), drought, high and low pH, and various 

soil types including rocky soils, oolitic limestone, and poorly drained soils. 

Banana; Dwarf banana; and Plantain:

Banana, dwarf banana, and plantain are grown in the warm, humid, tropical 

lowlands and subtropics from sea level to altitudes of 1,000 to 2,100 meters (3,281 to 

6,890 feet). Some of the dwarf cultivars can tolerate elevations up to 1,616 meters (5,302 

feet). Bananas, dwarf bananas, and plantains prefer temperatures of 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 

°F), full sun, at least 100 millimeters (4 inches) of rainfall monthly, and flat, deep, noncompacted, well-drained loam, with high water-holding capacity, high fertility, high 

organic matter, a pH of 5.8 to 6.5, and low salinity. Alluvial soils, sands and clays are 

also ideal for growing bananas. Plants do not prefer temperatures below 10 °C (50 °F) 

and above 38 °C (100 °F), dry seasons lasting more than 3 months, and windy conditions. 

Cool weather and drought disrupt growth, and bananas, dwarf bananas and plantains are 

sensitive to frost.

Binjai:

Binjai requires hot tropical lowlands or gentle sloped land and a monsoon climate. 

Also grown in wet, evergreen, tropical lowland forests. It grows well up to an elevation 

of 400 meters (1,312 feet) and prefers sandy clay soils and evenly distributed rainfall. 

Tolerates temporary flooding. 

Biriba

Biriba requires hot, humid tropical lowlands, and the trees thrive where there is a 

short, dry season, an average rainfall above 6 centimeters (2 inches) during July and 

August and over 30 centimeters (12 inches) during January to March. Prefers full sun, an 

annual rainfall of 270 centimeters (106 inches), an annual average temperature of 26 °C 

(79 °F), deep, acidic soil with high organic matter and good drainage, and elevations up 

to 600 meters (2,000 feet). Its natural habitat is lowland, humid limestone forests, and it 

tolerates poor, heavy-textured soils, yellow oxisols, lowlands subject to flooding along 

the Amazon, and some shade. In its native environment, temperatures never go below 18 

°C (64 °F) during the coldest months, and it does not tolerate frost. 

Breadfruit:

Breadfruit requires hot, wet tropical lowlands, and grows on the Pacific Islands on 

shallow coral soils. It prefers 200 to 300 centimeters (79 to 118 inches) of rainfall per 

year, temperatures of 16 to 38 °C (60 to 100 °F), full sun, and high humidity, and can be 

cultivated from sea level to 1,555 meters (5,100 feet). Tolerates many types of deep, 
35

fertile, well-drained soils; also tolerates saline conditions, and does not tolerate 

temperatures below 5 °C (41 °F).

Burmese grape

The Burmese grape thrives in disturbed margins near streams, rain forests and 

humid evergreen forests in a deep moist soil with a wet climate and elevations of 50 to 

1,700 meters (164 to 5,577 feet), and it tolerates many types of soils. 

Canistel:

Canistel grows best in hot tropical lowlands with medium to high rainfall, and it 

prefers elevations below 1,400 meters (4,593 feet). Trees also grow in warm subtropical 

areas with a monsoon climate that consists of pronounced wet and dry periods. It

tolerates a seasonal dry period, light frosts of up to -5 °C (23 °F), part-shade or full sun, 

and a variety of deep, fertile, well-drained soils. 

Cat's-eyes

Cat’s eyes require hot, humid, wet tropical lowlands or at sea level. Trees are 

adapted to the unchanging heat, humidity, and day length of the equatorial zone and it 

thrives in the understory in primary or secondary forests. Some varieties grow near river 

banks of the Rajang River and Bareo valley.

Champedak

Champedak requires warm to hot, wet, tropical climate with mean temperatures of 

3 to 47 °C (37 to 117 °F), and grows at elevations of 0 to 1,200 meters (0 to 3,937 feet). 

Prefers full sun, areas with evenly distributed rainfall of 125 to 250 centimeters (49 to 98 

inches) and well-drained, uneroded soils with high silica and aluminum content. It grows 

as an understory tree in secondary and primary forests in lowland tropical rainforests, and 

tolerates temporary water logging and partial shade, but it does not tolerate frost and 

drought, and wind.

Cherimoya:

Cherimoya requires tropical highlands, a cool subtropical climate, or mildtemperate climate. Does not produce fruit well in hot, humid tropics and lowland 

conditions. Grows well at 18 to 25 °C (64 to 77 °F); prefers long days, full sun, and cool 

nights. Trees require chilling periods and do well in areas with dry periods or seasons. 

Prefers well-distributed medium rainfall of 125 to 250 centimeters (49 to 98 inches) and 

elevations of 1,200 to 2,000 meters (3,937 to 6,562 feet). Rainfall and high humidity

during peak flowering season can aid fruit production. Tolerates a number of soil types 

including sandy soil to clay loams; trees prefer rich, well-drained, uniformly moist, sandy

to sandy loam soils with a pH of 6.5 to 7.6. Young trees do not tolerate frost, while older 
36

trees show some tolerance to light frost. Tolerates drought, but does not tolerate wind or 

standing water.

Cupuacú:

Cupuacú prefers hot, wet tropical lowlands, and is distributed in high and lowland 

rainforests from the Amazon basin to Southern Mexico. It prefers mean annual 

temperatures of 21 to 28 °C (70 to 82 °F), relative humidity of 64 to 93%, annual rainfall 

of 190 to 310 centimeters (75 to 122 inches), and well drained fertile Amazon soils. Also 

grown on upland, semi-flooded soils and floodplains with heart-of-palm and açai, and is 

found at elevations of 0 to 1,000 meters (3,281 feet).

Custard apple

Custard apple requires hot tropical lowlands, coastal lowlands, or a subtropical 

climate with medium to high rainfall. It prefers cooler winters, elevations lower than 

1,524 meters (5,000 feet), and low-lying, deep, rich, moist, well-drained soil. Tolerant of 

light frost and various soil types, but not tolerant of drought. 

Dragon-fruit:

Dragon fruit requires warm to cool tropical lowlands or tropical to subtropical 

rainforests. Prefers low to high rainfall, a wide range of well-drained soils with high 

organic matter, and temperatures of 18 to 25 °C (65 to 77 °F). It is grown in full sun to 

very light shade, and is sensitive to high temperatures of 38 °C (100 °F) and above. 

Sunburn may occur in areas with low humidity and high altitudes. Long periods of 

freezing temperatures and high winds cause damage to the plant, and it is moderately 

tolerant of saline soil conditions. 

Elephant-apple

Elephanate apple is grown in the dry plains of northern, central, southern and 

eastern India in semi-arid and arid locations. It grows in coastal areas in Malaysia and 

Indonesia. Cultivated in villages and parks. Prefers a tropical monsoon climate with a 

dry season, elevations of up to 450 meters (1,476 feet), light soils, and temperatures of 0 

to 15 °C (32 to 59 °F) and up to 47.5 °C (118 °F), and It tolerates drought and a range of 

soil types. 

Granadilla:

Granadilla requires a cool tropical climate or sub-tropical climate and humid 

conditions, and is adapted to high rainforests. Prefers well-distributed medium to high 

rainfall and elevations of 914 to 2,697 meters (3,000 to 8,850 feet). Tolerates moist, 

well-drained volcanic soils and light frost but does not tolerate hot tropical lowlands.

Guirri:
37

Trees prefer seasonally dry habitats, sandy soils with good drainage and moisture 

and moderate to full sun. Grows on exposed areas including dunes, coastal tropical and 

subtropical moist broadleaf forests, and coastal strand above the high tide mark. Trees 

form large colonies in tropical and subtropical coastal areas. Prefers elevations of sea 

level to 10 meters (33 feet). Tolerant of some cold (-4 °C or 25 °F), poor soils, and wind. 

Extremely salt tolerant. 

Ilama:

Ilama requires hot tropical lowlands with low to medium rainfall of 100 to 140 

centimeters (39 to 55 inches), rich, loose loam to fertile volcanic soils, and elevations of 

up to 1,798 meters (5,900 feet) on the Pacific slope. It prefers a long dry season followed 

by adequate rainfall, and grows wild in the mountains and foothills of Central America, 

but it does not tolerate frost. 

Jackfruit:

Jackfruits requires a warm to hot, humid tropical climate with minimum 

temperatures of 16 to 22 °C (61 to 72 °F) and mean temperatures of 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 

°F). It is also grown in equatorial to subtropical maritime climates. Prefers lowland 

forests, moist tropical environments, semi-dry forests, full sun, elevations below 1,600 

meters (5,249 feet), 100 to 240 centimeters (39 to 95 inches) of evenly distributed 

rainfall, and fertile, well-drained sandy to clay loams. Tolerates a variety of well-drained 

soils with a pH of 5.0 to 7.5 and slightly saline conditions. Jackfruit will not tolerate 

frost, droughts, exposed locations, wind, infertile, dry soils, and flooding.

Jatobá:

Jatobá requires a hot tropical climate, full sun, annual rainfall of 150 to 300 

centimeters (59 to 118 inches), an annual temperature of 20 to 30 °C (68 to 86 °F), deep, 

fertile, moist well-drained sandy soil with a pH of 4.8 to 6.8, and elevations of sea level 

to 900 meters (2,953 feet). Trees grow best on ridges, hillsides, slopes, high river banks, 

stream banks, humid Pacific lowland forests, semi-deciduous forests of the Parana River 

basin and dry forests of the Amazon. Tolerates a variety of conditions including tropical 

dry to wet to subtropical dry to wet forest, poor fertility, water logging, and 4 months or 

more of drought, and does not tolerate shade.

Karuka:

Karuka requires a tropical or subtropical humid to sub humid climate, full sun, 

coastal or lowland forests, an annual rainfall of 150 to 400 centimeters (59 to 157.5 

inches), uniform warm temperatures of 24 to 28 °C (75 to 83 °F), and sandy to rocky 

seashore soils. Lowland and coastal species can tolerate high temperatures. Most species 

tolerate a number of soils including limestone, lava flows, saline soil, infertile soil, peaty
38

swamps, and light to heavy soil. Tolerates water logging, wind, salt, and partial shade, it 

is slightly tolerant of fire but does not tolerate frost.

Kei apple:

Kei apple prefers a semiarid tropical and subtropical climates, full sun or light 

shade, elevations of 200 to 2,450 meters (656 to 8,038 feet), rainfall of 150 to 300 

centimeters (59 to 118 inches), mean annual temperatures of 11 to 31 °C (52 to 88 °F), 

and deep, well-drained, loamy to sandy soil. Trees grow in open bush, wooded grassland 

associated with termite mounds, dry areas, valleys and forest edges. Tolerant of high 

rainfall, hot weather, drought, sea breezes, salt spray, and temperatures down to -8 °C (18 

°F), but they are not tolerant of soils with a high water table.

Langsat:

Langsat requires hot, humid (70 to 80% humidity), wet tropical lowlands, part 

shade, well-drained, deep, rich, mildly acid soil high in organic matter (sandy loam), 

elevations of less than 750 meters (2,461 feet), temperatures of 20 to 30 °C (68 to 86 °F), 

and a uniform distribution of 250 to 300 centimeters (98 to 118 inches) of rain. Grows in 

equatorial climates with no dry season. Prefers rainforests and humid river valleys. Does 

not tolerate frost, heat above 30 °C (86 °F), high wind, water logging, or drought. 

Lanjut:

The lanjut requires a wet evergreen tropical lowland forest, and is cultivated in 

western Malesia.

Longan:

Longan grows in the humid tropical and warm subtropical climates of the world, 

and also in the temperate areas that lack heavy frosts. Requirements are similar to that of 

lychee. Prefers a deep, well-drained, highly fertile, slightly acid clay loam or sand with a 

pH range of 5.0 to 6.5, sheltered, full sun, an elevation of 152 to 1,500 meters (500 to 

4,921 feet), high rainfall of 150 to 300 centimeters (59 to 118 inches) and high humidity. 

Grows well in humid mountain woodlands and warm tropical lowlands. Tolerates a 

variety of soils including limestone, and brief exposure to below freezing temperatures, 

but does not tolerate water logging for long periods of time, drought, or wind. Young 

trees do not tolerate low temperatures. Trees do not flower in lowland, equatorial areas 

with uniform hot, dry conditions, and greater flowering and fruiting occur in areas with 

cool winters.

Lucuma:

Lucuma requires a tropical, subtropical or temperate climate, medium rainfall of 

100 to 180 centimeters (39 to 71 inches), shade to part sun, slightly acidic fertile, welldrained soil, elevations of 2,700 to 3,000 meters (8,858 to 9,843 feet), and mean 
39

temperatures of 20 to 22 °C (68 to 72 °F), and grows in the inter-Andean valleys as well 

as forest stands in the highlands of South America. In Chile, fruit are grown in frost-free, 

100 meter (328 feet) altitude areas of the Aconcagua and Elqui river valleys. In Bolivia, 

fruit are grown in dry areas at 200 to 2,000 meters (656 to 6,562 feet) and up to 3,000 

meters (9,843 feet) in Peru. It tolerates periodic dry weather, but does not tolerate hot 

tropical lowlands or freezing temperatures.

Lychee:

The lychee grows in cool tropical and warm subtropical climate with, high 

humidity, full sun, elevations of up to 2,000 meters (6,562 feet), well-distributed medium 

to high rainfall of 125 to 200 centimeters (49 to 79 inches), and deep, moist, fertile, welldrained medium acid (pH 6 to 7) soil with high organic matter. In China, trees grow best 

on alluvial silty loams to clays or laterite soils. Grows in the lower plains where there are 

cool, dry winters and autumns and warm, wet summers. Other cultivars prefer hillsides 

or orchard systems. Trees are water-loving; grown along banks and dykes in the Pearl 

River delta in Guangdong. Temperature affects flowering and fruiting. Mature trees 

tolerate light frosts (-1 to -2 °C or 28 to 30 °F), floods, and a variety of soil types 

including neutral or slightly alkaline soils. Does not tolerate drought, wind, or hot, 

lowland tropics, and young trees are damaged or killed at -2 to -3 °C (27 to 28 °F). 

Mabolo:

The mabolo requires a hot, humid tropical lowlands and a monsoon climate. 

Prefers elevations of up to 800 meters (2,625 feet) and loam soils, and grows in primary

and secondary low and medium-altitude forests. It can tolerate many soil types and wind.

Madras-thorn:

The madras-thorn prefers a warm climate, full sun, an annual precipitation of 25 

to 165 centimeters (10 to 65 inches), a mean annual temperature of 0 to 48 °C (32 to 118 

°F), a low to medium altitude of up to 1,800 meters (5,906 feet), a pH of up to 8.3, and a 

well-drained, deep, fertile loamy soil. It also prefers clay, oolitic limestone, or sand, and 

can grow in dry, warm, semi-arid climates with dry seasons of 4 to 5 months, subtropical 

regions, or tropical regions. Tolerates tropical lowlands, tropical or subtropical deserts 

along water courses, severely eroded montane wastelands, dry thickets, wet sands with a 

brackish water table, grass ecosystems, plains, hilly areas, thorn forests, tropical 

deciduous forests of the native Pacific slope range, dry pine-oak forests, and forests on 

coasts, plains and hillsides. Trees will tolerate heavy animal feedings, disturbed areas, 

drought, heat, fire, poor soil, salt, sand, dry areas, wet areas, and shade, but do not 

tolerate extremely windy conditions and frost. 

Mammy-apple:

Mammy-apple requires a warm to hot tropical, near tropical, or subtropical moist 

to wet climates, elevations of sea level to 1,600 meters (5,249 feet), full sun to bright 
40

shade, deep, rich, moist, well-drained soil, and a mean annual temperature of 27 to 30 °C 

(81 to 86 °F), and a mean annual rainfall of 150 to 400 centimeters (59 to 158 inches). It 

grows in semi-cultivated or disturbed areas, and dry and moist, coastal forests. Tolerates 

a variety of soils including shallow, sandy and limestone soils, low to high rainfall, dry

conditions, and saline conditions, but does not tolerate frost. 

Manduro:

Manduro trees grow in small colonies in the bushveld (subtropical dry open 

woodland of South Africa), African savannah, arid regions, dry forest, sand forest, 

coastal forest, thorn thicket, sandstone outcrops, along river banks, near springs, on 

seasonally waterlogged floodplains, and around pans. Trees mainly grow on sandy soils 

or sandy- or clay-loam; trees tolerate many soil types. It grows at elevations of sea level 

to 1,000 meters (3,281 feet) and does not tolerate frost.

Mango:

Depending on the mango cultivar, the tree requires warm-temperate, warm 

subtropical or hot, humid, tropical lowlands or forests. In Southern California, trees are 

grown in the foothills, away from marine influence. Trees grow best in areas with a nonfreezing cool period (8 to 15 °C (46 to 59 °F)) night/ < 20 °C (< 68 °F) day) and/or an 

extended dry period that lasts at least 3 months prior to flowering, hot temperatures of 30 

to 33 °C (86 to 91 °F) during fruit development, optimum growing temperatures of 24 to 

30 °C (75 to 86 °F), full sun, rich, well-drained deep loam soil with a pH of 5.5 to 7.5, 

elevations of up to 914 meters (3,000 feet), rainfall of 76 to 254 centimeters (30 to 100 

inches) in June to September, and access to irrigation from flowering to harvest. Tolerant 

of drought, a variety of climates, periodic and repeated flooding, and soil conditions 

including sands, loams, clays, limestone, and rocky soils. The Indo-Chinese race is 

tolerant of excess moisture. Mangoes are moderately freeze tolerant, and young trees are 

damaged or killed at temperatures below -1.1 to -1.7 °C (29 to 30 °F); mature trees are 

damaged or killed at temperatures of -3.9 to -6.0 °C (21 to 25 °F). It is not tolerant of 

saline soil and water, and windy conditions, especially during flowering and fruit 

development, while the Indian race of mango is not tolerant of humidity. 

Mango, horse:

The horse mango requires hot tropical lowlands and a monsoon climate. Grown 

in wet, evergreen lowland forests and primary lowland forests in the wet tropics at 

elevations of 1,000 to 1,500 meters (3,281 to 4,921 feet). It is less tolerant of cold 

temperatures compared to mango, and does not tolerate a pronounced dry season

Mango, Saipan:

The Saipan mango thrive in wet tropical climates with elevations below 1,000 

meters (3,281 feet), and fairly heavy, equally-distributed rainfall. The fruit is not found 

in the wild; grown in tropical rain forests. In Borneo, fruit is grown in areas near coastal 
41

towns or along travel routes. Tolerates areas with no prolonged dry periods and moderate 

rainfall of 120 centimeters (47 inches), and compared to Mangifera indica, Mangifera 

odorata is more tolerant of humid to wet climates.

Mangosteen:

Mangosteen is mainly cultivated and is rarely found in the wild. Requires hot, 

wet, humid, tropical lowlands with deep, fertile soils (including sandy loam or laterite), 

full sun, and elevations of sea level to 1,500 meters (4,921 feet). It grows as a lower 

canopy tree in the humid tropics where there is a short dry season of 15 to 30 days 

followed by an uninterrupted water supply. Irrigation is required during dry conditions if 

the annual rainfall is less than 127 centimeters (50 inches). Some trees grow along the 

banks of streams, lakes, ponds and canals. Tolerant of a wide variety of soils (including 

poorly drained heavy soils), some water logging, and shade, but is not tolerant of strong 

winds, salt spray, drought, limestone soils, sandy alluvial soils, sandy soils low in humus, 

and temperatures below 5 °C (41 °F) or over 40 °C (104 °F). Leaves and fruit are 

susceptible to sunburn. 

Marang:

The marang requires hot, wet, tropical lowlands, shaded areas, rich, loamy, welldrained soils, elevations of up to 800 meters (2,625 feet), and abundant equallydistributed rainfall. Temperature requirements are similar to the jackfruit. In Sarawak, 

trees are grown at elevations of up to 1,300 meters (4,265 feet) in sandy clay soil. In the 

wild, trees grow in sandy to sandy clay soils in secondary forests at elevations up to 1,000 

meters (3,281 feet); can grow in some subtropical regions. It is not tolerant of frost; and 

not as hardy as the jackfruit.

Marmalade-box

Requires hot, humid, tropical lowlands, full sun, elevations of sea level to 1,500 

meters (4,921 feet), deep, rich, loamy, moist, acidic soil, medium to high rainfall of 120 

to 400 centimeters (47 to 157 inches) per year, and annual average temperatures of 18 to 

28 °C (64 to 82 °F). Grows in semi-deciduous rainforests in swampy areas, damp flood 

plains, and humid habitats. Trees grow along clear water and sediment-rich rivers in the 

Amazon Basin. Trees in some areas are adapted to dry seasons that last up to 5 months. 

In these areas, trees shed leaves to prevent drought stress. Tolerant of a seasonal dry

period and a variety of fertile soil types in the humid tropics with a pH of 4.6 to 6.5. Not 

tolerant of near freezing temperatures. 

Matisia:

Matisia requires a hot, humid, tropical or subtropical lowlands, lowland 

rainforests, seasonally flooded forests, or dry land forests, deep, fertile, well-drained, 

non-flooding clay soil with high organic matter content, or Amazonian dark earth soils 

(that contain high amounts of carbonized organic matter, phosphorous, calcium, and 
42

magnesium), full sun, elevations of sea level to 2,000 meters (6,562 feet), and a favorable 

rainfall distribution of over 250 centimeters (98 inches). Native to the foothills of the 

Andes in the region between the Amazon tropical rainforest and the sub-montane humid 

forest in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. It also grows throughout lowland rainforests and 

adjacent areas of Brazil, around the mouth of the Javari River, in the Cauca and 

Magdalena River valleys of Colombia, and near the sea in Colombia. Tolerates 

cultivation on the slopes of the Andes and dry, oolitic limestone, but does not tolerate 

near freezing temperatures, high winds, dry periods, or prolonged high water tables. 

Mesquite:

Trees grow in tropical thorn to dry through subtropical thorn to dry forest Life 

Zones. Prefers dry areas including grass and shrub-lands, and dry forests, elevations 

from sea level to 2,900 meters (9,514 feet), annual rainfall of 5 to 20 centimeters (2 to 8 

inches), an annual temperature of 14 to 34 °C (57 to 93 °F), protected areas from wind, 

and a pH of 7. Introduced into tropical areas. Tolerates drought, grazing, and a number 

of soil types including heavy soil, sand, rocky hills, and saline dry flats, seasonal water 

logging, saline conditions, mild frost and weeds. 

Mongongo fruit:

Mongongo prefers hot, dry climates with little rainfall and does well in sandy soil. 

It is highly drought-tolerant. Mainly grows on hills or sand dunes in and around the 

Kalahari, and often forms large stands.

Monkey-bread-tree:

It requires a hot climate, low to medium rainfall of 30 to 50 centimeters (12 to 20 

inches), full sun, a high water table, well-drained sandy loam soil, and an elevation of 

450 to 600 meters (1,476 to 1,969 feet). Widely distributed south of the Sahara; occurs 

as a single tree or clump of trees in the woodlands of semi-arid to sub-humid tropics in 

the African savannah. Also occurs in coastal woodlands, scrub, and hot, dry areas. 

Tolerates areas with a prolonged dry season of 4 to 10 months split into one or two 

periods per year, elevations of up to 1,250 meters (4,101 feet), and many types of soils 

including heavy, acid, or calcareous soils. Does not tolerate drought, water logging and 

frost, and the trunk can shrink during water stress. 

Monstera:

Monstera is a tropical species that requires hot, humid, wet tropical lowlands and 

forests, fertile, well-drained rich loam soil, a yearly rainfall above 100 centimeters (39 

inches), semi-shade, and elevations under 600 meters (1,969 feet). Native to the wet 

forests of southern Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Panama. Grows under the shade 

of large trees. Grown as an indoor plant in subtropical conditions. Tolerates almost any

well-drained, rich soil including limestone, but does not tolerate saline conditions and 

frost. 
43

Muriti:

Muriti requires a hot, humid, wet, tropical lowlands or damp forests by rivers, full 

sun, elevations of sea level to 970 meters (3,182 feet), and poorly drained or 

periodically/permanently or seasonally flooded soils. Thrives in river margins, flood 

plains, small groves along watercourses that wind through the non-flooded upland 

rainforests, and swamps. Trees form large stands called aguajales in the major 

Amazonian estuaries. Grown in the tropics and warm sub-tropics. Trees mainly occur 

throughout northern South America east of the Andes. Found from the Orinoco valley of 

Venezuela in the north, through French Guiana and the northern coast of the Brazilian 

state of Amapá, and west up to the Andean foothills in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and 

Bolivia. Does not tolerate freezing temperatures or dry areas. In areas that obtain less 

than 200 centimeters (79 inches) of annual rainfall and areas with dry seasons, water 

must be provided to the palm.

Nicobar-breadfruit:

Pandanus species (Nicobar-breadfruit) requires a tropical or subtropical humid to 

sub-humid climate, full sun, coastal or lowland forests, an annual rainfall of 150 to 400 

centimeters (59 to 157.5 inches), uniform warm temperatures of 24 to 28 °C (75 to 83 

°F), and sandy to rocky seashore soils. Lowland and coastal species can tolerate high 

temperatures. Most species tolerate a number of soils including limestone, lava flows, 

saline soil, infertile soil, peaty swamps, and light to heavy soil. It tolerates water logging, 

wind, salt, and partial shade, and is slightly tolerant of fire, and does not tolerate frost

Paho:

Thrives in primary, lowland, inland forest and sometimes in coastal forest. The 

tree also grows in wet, evergreen forest at low and medium altitudes. In the Philippines, 

trees grow in areas with a distinct wet and dry season. Tolerates a variety of soil types, 

and a low to medium altitude of up to 400 meters (1,312 feet). 

Palmyra palm:

Requires hot, sunny, tropical climate and well-drained sandy soils in coastal areas. 

Grown from the Persian Gulf to the Cambodian-Vietnamese border. Can be found in 

seasonally dry areas and drier open forests. Adapted to dry, tropical climates, but prefers 

regular irrigation. Tolerant of temperatures to -4 °C (25 °F) and drough, but is not 

tolerant of waterlogged soils.

Pandamus:
44

Pandanus utilis trees grow in full sun to part shade/part sun. Tolerates clay, loam, 

sand, acidic alkaline flooded or well-drained soils, salt, and some drought conditions; 

thrives in USDA plant hardiness zones 10 to 11.

Papaya:

Papaya requires warm tropical or subtropical climate, lowlands, full sun, fertile, 

well-drained loam, clay, or sandy loam soil with a pH of 5.5 to 6.5, well-distributed 

monthly precipitation of 10 centimeters (4 inches), a minimum relative humidity of 66%, 

temperatures of 21 to 33 °C (70 to 91 °F), and elevations below 900 meters (2,953 feet). 

In Hawaii, plants are grown at sea level to 300 meters (984 feet) on rocky, volcanic soil. 

Grows from warm temperate dry to moist through tropical very dry to wet forest life 

zones. Trees are not found in the wild. Tolerates a variety of well-drained soil types. 

Does not tolerate frost, shade, water logging, very sandy or heavy clay soils, saline 

conditions, high temperatures, drought and wind.

Passionflower, Winged-stem:

The plants prefer warm climates, full sun and slightly acidic to neutral soil. Trees 

occur in the littoral levees and Atlantic Forest from Bahia to Rio Grande do Sul. Trees 

occur in the wild, and it tolerates temperatures of 4.5 to -1.1 °C (40 to 30 °F) and light 

frost. 

Passionfruit, Purple Passionfruit, and Yellow Passionfruit:

Passionfruit trees require a cool tropical or subtropical climate, full sun, welldistributed medium rainfall of at least 90 centimeters (35 inches), medium to high 

elevations, moderate temperatures of 20 to 25 °C (68 to 77 °F), a pH of 6.5 to 7.5, and 

well-drained, moist, light to heavy sandy loams of medium texture. Rainfall should be 

higher 2 months before flowering and minimal during flowering. Trees are established in 

the wild on the edges of forests, stream-bottom galleries, fencerows, and brushy areas. 

Tolerates a wide range of soil types and a pH range of 5.5 to 6.8. It is not tolerant of 

frost, salt, shade, low temperatures of 10 to 15 °C (50 to 59 °F), high temperatures of 25 

to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), extended dry periods, poor drainage, water-logging, and wind. 

Moisture stress can lead to a decline in leaf area, vegetative growth, flowering, and yield. 

Passionfruit, Banana:

The banana passionfruit prefers elevations between 1,829 to 2,195 meters (6,000 

and 7,200 feet) in the Andes, cool to warm, temperate, subtropical or tropical, moist to 

wet, foggy climate, rainfall of 50 to 200 centimeters (20 to 79 inches), and temperatures 

of 6 to 18 °C (43 to 64 °F). Grows wild in the Andean upper montaine forest at 

elevations above 2,000 meters (6,562 feet), and scrub-land regions in Central Brazil. 

Tolerates elevations of 1,219 to 1,829 meters (4,000 to 6,000 feet) in Hawaii and New 

Zealand, and brief drops in temperature to -5 °C (23 °F). 
45

Pawpaw and Small-flower Pawpaw:

It prefers temperate humid zones, warm to hot summers, mild to cold winters, full 

sun, deep, rich fertile slightly acid (pH 5.5 to 7.0) well-drained soils of river-bottom 

lands, a minimum of 400 hours of annual chill units, 160 frost-free days, 2,600 growing 

degree-days to ripen fruit, and 80 centimeters (31 inches) of annual precipitation (most in 

the spring and summer). Grown in the wild as an understory tree or thicket-shrub in 

mesic hardwood forests from northern Florida to southern Ontario, Canada and as far 

west as eastern Nebraska. Thrives near rivers, streams, coasts, and woodlots. Trees 

usually grow in patches due to root suckering. Hardy from zone 5 (-25 °C or 13 °F) to 8. 

Tolerates heavy soils and frost, but does not tolerate wind, low humidity, cool maritime 

summers, alkaline soils, and waterlogged soils. 

Pelipisan:

The pelipisan trees prefer wet climates. Fruit is only cultivated, since illegal 

logging activities have caused extinction of this tree in the wild. Due to its slow growing 

process, trees are not planted in large plantations in Indonesia (Kalimantan). Plantations 

are mainly found in the Mataraman area in the Banjar district, and the trees have to be 

climbed to harvest the fruit 

Pequi:

Pequi requires a tropical climate, with four or more months of a dry season, welldrained, fertile soil and full sun. Trees occur in groves in savannas (cerrado) on both 

plateaus and valleys in the states of Goias, Mato Grosso, Minas Gerais, Sao Paulo, and 

Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. It prefers dry areas, woodland savannahs, and dry forests, 

and tolerates nutrient poor, heavy clays rich in aluminum and iron. 

Persimmon, American:

The American persimmon requires full sun, humid climate, moist, well-drained, 

bottomland or light sandy soils, annual rainfall of 122 centimeters (48 inches), and 

temperatures of -12 to 35 °C (10 to 95 °F). Thrives in plant hardiness zones 4B through 

9. Best growth occurs in the bottom lands of the Mississippi River Valley, in its 

tributaries and in coastal river valleys. Tolerates many well-drained soil types including 

clay, loam, sand, acidic, and alkaline soils, extended flooding, drought, rocky conditions, 

shade, a variety of sites including urban areas and abandoned fields, high light, low water 

supply areas, and salt air. Trees do not grow in the main range of the Appalachian 

Mountains or in much of the oak-hickory forest on the Allegheny Plateau.

Pineapple:

The pineapple requires warm to hot tropical or near tropical climate, high 

humidity, coastal or island locations, low elevations, full sun, a day temperature of 25 to 
46

32 °C (77 to 90 °F), a night temperature of 15 to 20 °C (59 to 68 °F), medium rainfall of 

100 to 150 centimeters (39 to 59 inches), light, deep, loose, fertile, well-drained acidic, 

sand, sandy loam, or well-aggregated-clay soil, and a pH of 4.5 to 6.5. Grows from warm 

temperate moist to tropical very dry to wet forest life zones; USDA hardiness zones are 

10 through 11. Yields vary greatly and depend on technology, cultivar selection, and 

climate, and the elevation affects flavor. Tolerates subtropical conditions, drought, a 

wide range of well-drained soil types, elevations of sea level and higher, a wide range of 

rainfall of 60 to 350 centimeters (24 to 138 inches), annual temperatures of 16.2 to 27.4 

°C (61 to 81 °F), and a pH of 3.5 to 8.0. It does not tolerate water-logging, night 

temperatures of 7 to 10 °C (45 to 50 °F), or frost.

Pitaya:

The pitayas (Hylocereus spp.) prefers warm, shady habitats of subtropical and 

tropical America and dry areas; can grow in temperate climates. Trees are native to 

forests with natural shading. Tolerates temperatures of 4 to 0 °C (39 to 32 °F) (light 

frost) when mature, sunny areas away from strong wind, partial shade, and a range of 

well-drained soil types with high amounts of organic matter. Does not tolerate excessive 

humidity, excessive soil moisture and excessive high temperatures of 45 to 48 °C (113 to 

118 °F). Compared to other cacti, Hylocereus spp. is the most sensitive to low 

temperatures. High temperatures above 45 °C (113 °F) and excessive rainfall inhibit 

flower production. It is grown in USDA plant hardiness zones 10 to 11. Tolerates high 

temperatures compared to other vine cacti. 

Pomegranate:

Pomegranates prefers hot and arid to semi-arid subtropical, mild-temperate, semitemperate, and cool tropical climates, cool winters, hot dry summers, low humidity, full 

sun, and well-drained sandy loam to slightly acid soils. Native to high, desert regions 

with hot days, chilly nights, dry infertile soil, dry woodlands and open ground. Also 

grows at cool altitudes. In California, pomegranates prefer moderate heat. Grown in 

USDA zones 8 to 14. Tolerates hot temperatures during the summer, low temperatures to 

-8 °C (18 °F), dry conditions, extreme drought, part shade, and a variety of soil types 

including heavy clay, calcareous soils, slightly alkaline soils, acidic loam, rock strewn 

gravel, saline soils and poorly drained soils, elevations up to 1,600 meters (5,249 feet), 

and saline water. Does not tolerate high humidity, heavy frost (temperatures below -11 

°C (12 °F)), or water-logging. 

Poshte:

Requires a tropical climate and low to medium elevations of 300 to 1,000 meters 

(984 to 3,281 feet). Fruit is grown mainly in southwestern Guatemala on the Pacific 

slopes that contain fertile volcanic soils, a short dry season, and an annual rainfall of 

approximately 400 centimeters (157 inches). Grows on both the Atlantic and Pacific 

slopes and does not tolerate wind. 
47

Prickly pear:

The prickly pear requires subtropical, tropical, or cool, semiarid climate with 

mild, cool winters and hot summers (with temperatures above 40 °C (104 °F)), an annual 

rainfall of 25 to 60 centimeters (10 to 24 inches), full sun, and well-drained sandy soils, 

soils of low clay and sodium content, or calcareous soil. Naturalized in dry disturbed 

habitats. A higher pH is preferred in wetter areas. A lower pH is tolerated in drier areas. 

Thrives in USDA plant hardiness zones 8b to 10. Tolerates drought, high temperatures, 

wind, a wide range of climates, and rocky or sandy soils of low fertility. Does not 

tolerate freezing temperatures, very acid soils, wet conditions or excessive moisture. 

Pulasan:

Pulasan requires hot, wet, very humid ultra-tropical lowlands, elevations of 110 to 

350 meters (361 to 1,148 feet), moist, well-drained, rich sand or clay soil, and an annual 

rainfall of 300 centimeters (118 inches). Trees bear fruit more profusely after a long dry 

season. Similar to rambutan in climatic requirements. Grows best in lowland primary

forests and riverbanks and rarely grows in swamps. Tolerates brief periods of drought. 

Compared to rambutan, pulasan is not tolerant of high light levels during establishment, 

and does not tolerate frost.

Quandong:

Quandong requires nutrient poor, free draining sandy or loamy soils, semi-arid to 

arid climate, rainfall of 15 to 60 centimeters (6 to 24 inches), dry conditions, and full sun. 

Tolerates a wide variety of habitats including the dry interior, light woodlands, dune 

swales, gravely ridges, creek banks, plains and low rises, and hills. Tolerates drought, 

frost, limestone, semi-shade, a wide range of soils including sand, loam and clay, and 

saline conditions. Does not tolerate wind, water-logging, or heavy-textured soils.

Rambutan:

Requires hot, humid, wet tropical climates, full sun, elevations of sea level to 549 

meters (0 to 1,800 feet), evenly distributed high rainfall of 200 to 300 centimeters (79 to 

118 inches), low evaporation rates, minimum temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and 

average temperatures of 22 to 35 °C (72 to 95 °F). Prefers deep, well-drained, loam, rich 

sandy loam, or clay loam soils and a pH of 5.0 to 6.5. Grown in lowlands and 

primary/secondary forests (dryland or swamps) as a lower or middle story tree. Thrives 

in USDA zones 10 to 12. Tolerant of drier environments and climates with 2 to 3 dry

months when irrigation is available, and a wide range of well-drained soils including 

sands and sandy loams. It is not tolerant of frost, salt, high wind, high pH soils, and 

water logging. 

Saguaro
48

Prefers elevations of 0 to 1,400 meters (0 to 4,593 feet), low humidity, full sun, a 

warm desert, semiarid to arid continental or arid subtropical climate, bimodal 

precipitation that falls from December to February and July to August (ranging from 15 

to 38 centimeters (6 to 15 inches) per year), and light, coarse, gravelly to rocky, welldrained soils. Plants have sufficient water and energy reserves in the stems. Grown in 

desert upland communities, gently sloping alluvial flats of the lower bajadas, sandy flats, 

lowlands, foothills, canyons, steep, rocky, high-elevation volcanic slopes, and open east 

and west-facing slopes. Saguaro has the northernmost distribution of any large columnar 

cacti of the tropical and subtropical Americas. The northern limit of its distribution is the 

edge of the Hualapait Mountains in Arizona and along the Colorado River in southeastern 

California. The largest populations occur in Mexico. Thrives in USDA zones 9 to 11. 

Mature cacti tolerate a wide range of habitats. Mature cacti do not tolerate frost, saline 

conditions, water-logging, high winds, fire, temperatures below -5 °C (23 °F), and 

drought. Seedlings do not tolerate drought, frost, poor drainage, overwatering, full sun, 

and animal damage. 

Salak

Requires hot, wet, humid tropical climates, 170 to 310 centimeters (67 to 122 

inches) of uniformly distributed rainfall per year, a high water table, a short dry season, 

shade, a temperature range of 22 to 32 °C (72 to 90 °F), free-draining soil with high 

organic matter and a pH of 6-7, and elevations of sea level to 500 meters (1,640 feet). 

Grows as an understory palm in Java and southern Sumatra. Prefers lowlands and 

swampy rainforests. It does not prefer cooler areas and higher elevations which will 

lower fruit yield and quality and it does not tolerate flooding. 

Sapodilla:

Requires warm subtropical to moist, hot tropical lowlands, uniform rainfall of 

1,200 to 2,500 meters (3,937 to 8,202 feet), full sun, well-drained, deep, loose, fertile 

soils with an acid to neutral pH (clay loam is best), low to medium elevations of sea level 

to 2,800 meters (9,186 feet), and average annual temperatures of 14.9 to 36.7 °C (59 to 

98 °F). Grown in the lowland tropics including lowland forests, rainforests, and coastal 

forests. The best growth occurs within 12 to 25 degrees of the equator. Thrives in the 

poor, wind-swept, low-lying, coral islands of the West Indies. Grown in USDA zones 10 

to 12. Tolerates a variety of soil types including calcareous soils, alkaline conditions, 

sand, and clay, drier areas, arid desert regions, wetter humid areas, drought, strong winds, 

tropical rainfall, high temperatures up to 40 °C (104 °F), low temperatures of -2 to -3 °C 

(27 to 28 °F), and salt spray. Does not tolerate heavy clays with poor drainage, saline 

soil, extremely hot temperatures above 43 °C (109 °F), or frost. 

Sapote, black

Requires hot, humid tropical or subtropical climate, low to middle elevations up 

to 700 meters (2,297 feet), high rainfall, and light, deep soils rich in organic matter 

including sandy loam or sand. Grows in the tropical primary and secondary low and 
49

medium altitude dry forests of Mexico, Central America, and the Philippines; also grows 

on alluvial clay near streams or lagoons and coastal lowlands. Grown in USDA zone 

10b. Tolerant of a wide range of soils including calcareous soils and shallow soils, light, 

short frosts if protected (-1 to -2 °C (28 to 30 °F), sporadic flooding, salinity, and 

elevations up to 2,000 meters (6,562 feet). Does not tolerate strong winds, long periods 

of frost, or drought, and young trees do not tolerate frost. 

Sapote, green

Requires cool tropical climate, full sun, well-distributed medium rainfall, and 

higher altitudes of 900 to 2,100 meters (2,953 to 6,890 feet). Grows in the Central 

American highlands. Tolerates a wide range of well-drained soils. Compared to 

Pouteria sapota, trees are hardier. Does not tolerate frost (below -2.2 to -3.8 °C (25 to 28 

°F), flooding, or very hot tropical lowlands. 

Sapote, mamey

Requires hot, humid tropical or near-tropical lowlands, deep, heavy, fertile soils 

(clay and clay-loam), medium rainfall of 80 to 250 centimeters (31.5 to 98 inches) per 

year, temperatures of 25 to 33 °C (77 to 91 °F), elevations of sea level to 1,500 meters (0 

to 4,921 feet), light shade to full sun, and a seasonal dry period. Grown in humid forest 

habitats and USDA zones 10b to 12. Tolerates a variety of well-drained soil conditions 

(heavy clays, limestone and sand), and wind. Does not tolerate frost (0 °C (32 °F) for 

young trees and -2.0 °C (28 °F) for mature trees), excessively wet or flooded conditions, 

poor drainage, high water tables, impermeable subsoil, and prolonged drought. 

Sapote, white

Requires cool tropical or warm subtropical highland climates, a mean temperature 

of 20 °C (68 °F), full sun, fertile well-drained soil (sandy loam), a pH of 5.5 to 7.5, 

medium rainfall, and elevations of 600 to 3,000 meters (1,969 to 9,843 feet). Grown in 

the cool, central highlands and USDA plant hardiness zones 8 to 10. Tolerant of a variety 

of well-drained soil conditions including sands, calcareous soils, and clays, a high pH, 

drought, seasonal dry periods, and frost. Partially tolerant of saline conditions. Young 

trees tolerate temperatures up to -2 to -4 °C (25 to 28 °F) and mature trees tolerate 

temperatures up to -5 to -6 °C (21 to 23 °F). Does not tolerate lowland tropics, high 

humidity, and wind, extreme cold or extreme heat. 

Sataw:

Requires humid tropical climate, elevations of sea level to 1,000 meters (0 to 

3,281 feet), a mean annual temperature of 24 °C (75 °F), mean annual rainfall of 100 to 

200 centimeters (39 to 79 inches), and well-drained loamy or clay-loam soils. Grows 

wild in lowland rainforests, tall secondary forests, and waterlogged locations in 

freshwater swamp forests, alluvial sites, and hillsides, ridges with sandy to clay soils, 
50

plains, and riverbanks. Tolerates sandy, loamy, or podzolic soils, elevations up to 1,500 

meters (4,921 feet), and water logged conditions. 

Screwpine:

Pandanus tectorius is a tropical to subtropical coastal species of the Pacific that 

thrives at elevations of sea level to 20 meters (66 feet). Grows in strandline and nearcoastal forests, grassy or swampy woodlands, and scrub thickets developed on limestone 

terraces; occurs as an understory tree in plantations, forests, and islands. Seeds are 

dispersed by oceanic currents. Tolerates high temperatures, elevations over 600 meters 

(1,969 feet), a wide range of light to heavy soils, strong winds, salt spray, and very dry 

conditions. One of the few food crops that can be grown on the central Pacific atolls.

Satinleaf:

Requires part shade/part sun or full sun and fertile, moist, well-drained soils (sand 

or limestone). In order to fruit, trees require increased light in intermediate and 

codominant crown positions in forests. Grows on coastal sands and shallow clay over 

limestone in Puerto Rico, secondary thicket, pinelands and hammocks of the everglades 

and keys of Florida, remnant forests, and low-elevation moist, secondary forests and 

eucalyptus plantations in Florida. Grown in USDA zones 10B through 11. Tolerates a 

wide variety of well-drained soils (including clay, loam, sand, or wet soils), a pH from 5 

to 8, drought, and storm damage. Moderately tolerates salt. When young, trees tolerate 

shade and can grow in the understory of low-density forests, but it does not tolerate 

temperatures of 0 °C (32 °F) and below. 

Sierra Leone-tamarind 

Requires hot tropical savanna climate, moist to brackish soils, and 100 to 160 

centimeters (39 to 63 inches) of rain per year. Grows in the dense savanna forests, 

shadowy canyons, and gallery forests. Found from Senegal to Sudan along the southern 

border of the Sahel, along transition zones bordering high forest, in riverian forest of the 

savannah woodland, in coastal scrub, and in riparian vegetation. 

Soncoya

Requires hot tropical lowlands, a hot, humid, wet climate, elevations below 1,219 

meters (4,000 feet), and medium to high rainfall. Grown in coastal lowlands. Does not 

tolerate frost. 

Soursop:

Requires warm to hot humid tropical climates, tropical lowlands, full sun, 

elevations below 1,000 meters (3,281 feet), high rainfall, deep, rich, loose, well-drained, 

semi-dry, slightly acid soils (loam, sand, or sandy loam), and a pH of 5 to 6.5. Grown in 

coastal limestone habitats and lowland woodlands. Thrives in USDA zones 10 to 12. 
51

Tolerates many well-drained soil types (sandy to clay loams, and oolitic limestone), 

alkaline conditions, and short periods of drought up to 6 months, dry soil conditions, and 

elevations above 1,000 meters (3,281 feet). Trees have moderate salt tolerance. Does not 

tolerate extremely cold or hot temperatures, dry, cold winds, or water logging. Young 

trees are killed by frost, while mature trees exhibit some tolerance. 

Spanish-lime:

Requires hot subtropical to tropical lowlands, full sun, temperatures of 25 to 27 

°C (77 to 81 °F), deep, rich calcareous soils, rainfall of 90 to 260 centimeters (35 to 102 

inches) per year, a 3 to 5 month drought, and elevations up to 1,000 meters (3,281 feet). 

Thrives in USDA plant hardiness zone 10. Tolerant of long periods of drought, low 

rainfall, and poor soils. Young plants do not tolerate frost, while mature trees tolerate 

some frost. 

Star apple:

Requires hot, humid tropical to subtropical lowlands, full sun, elevations up to 

1,500 meters (4,921 feet), a distinct dry season, deep, fertile, well-drained, slightly acid 

soil (clay-loam or sand), and medium to high rainfall in the rainy season. Grown in 

humid woodlands. Thrives in USDA zones 10 to 12. Tolerates a variety of well-drained 

soil types, alkaline conditions up to a pH of 7.5, and short periods of dry conditions. 

Does not tolerate frost (-2 to 0 °C (28 to 32 °F)), strong winds, prolonged periods of 

drought, water logging, and cool climates. 

Sugar apple:

Requires hot, tropical lowlands or subtropical climate, full sun, elevations of sea 

level to 2,000 meters (0 to 6,562 feet), a mean temperature of up to 41 °C (106 °F), drier 

periods, well-drained, loose sand, sandy-loam, or rocky soils, a pH of 6.0 to 6.5, and 

medium rainfall above 70 centimeters (28 inches). Prefers drier areas, lowlands, and 

moisture during the growing season. Lower temperatures (25 °C or 77 °F) and higher 

humidity improves pollination. Tolerates light frost, a wide range of well-drained soils 

(sand, oolitic limestone, clay loams, and loam), and drought. Young trees do not tolerate 

frost and does not tolerate year-round high moisture, water logging, high salinity, and 

high winds. 

Sun sapote:

Requires hot, humid tropical climates, elevations below 1,000 meters (3,281 feet), 

and annual rainfall over 150 centimeters (59 inches), well-drained soils, and seasonally 

dry conditions. Grows semi-wild as a few isolated clumps of trees in tropical humid 

lowlands that are seasonally dry and seasonally dry, dense forests. Tolerates a wide 

range of well-drained soils, but does not tolerate frost. 

Tamarind-of-the-Indies:
52

Requires hot, wet tropical lowlands. Found growing in evergreen forests, lowland 

forests, wooded bush lands and grasslands, rocky outcrops and termite mounds 

throughout Africa, Asia and Australia. Grows best in open, cleared areas at elevations 

ranging from sea level to 2,400 meters (7,874 feet). Requires mean annual temperatures 

of 17 to 29 °C (63 to 84 °F), and mean annual rainfall of 93 to 124 centimeters (37 to 49 

inches). The tree has a high light demand. Grows best in rocky, sandy red clay or sandy 

clay soils. Tolerates, drought, a variety of soil conditions including volcanic ash soils, 

sandy clay loams, loamy sands, and red to dark red friable clays and a wide variety of 

sites including woodlands, bush, scrub, stony outcrops, and dunes. Not tolerant of frost 

and fire. 

Velvet Tamarind:

Requires hot, wet tropical climates, sandy to clay soils, and elevations up to 1,200 

meters (3,937 feet). Rain before flowering can accelerate fruiting. Adapted to welldrained monsoon areas, undisturbed mixed dipterocarp and sub-montane forests, 

secondary forests, hillsides, ridges, and swamp and peat-swamp forests. Grows well 

under rubber stands. Tolerates good and poor soil (including ultra basic and limestone 

soils), and shade. Does not tolerate dry conditions. 

Wampi:

Requires subtropical to humid tropical climate, full sun, elevations of sea level to 

2,450 meters (8,038 feet), and well-drained, rich loam to clay-loam soil. Grown in 

forests, forest edges, gallery forests, humid lowland woodlands, wooded grasslands, and 

secondary regrowth near villages. Thrives in USDA zones 10 to 12. Tolerates brief 

exposure to temperatures ranging from 1.1 to 2.2 °C (28 to 30 °F), and a wide range of 

soils (deep sand, oolitic limestone). Does not tolerate temperatures of 7 °C (20 °F) and 

lower and long dry periods. 

Wild loquat:

Requires tropical climate, elevations of 500 to 2,000 meters (1,640 to 6,562 feet), 

mean annual temperatures of 12 to 29 °C (54 to 84 °F), an annual rainfall of 50 to 200 

centimeters (20 to 79 inches), well-drained sandy loam or gravelly soils, a pH of 4 to 6, a 

hot, dry season (September to November), a hot, wet season (November to March), and a 

cool, dry season (April to August). Grown in the miombo ecological zone deciduous, 

non-spinescent woodland with a shrub layer of variable density and composition). Also 

grown in upland wooded grasslands, steep slopes, lowland forests, secondary woodlands, 

open woodlands, and along streams on stony soils or rocky slopes. Tolerates a wide 

variety of soils with low cation exchange capacity, low organic matter content, and low 

macronutrients in poor shallow soils. Does not tolerate hydromorphic soils with high 

organic matter content that overlie gravelly soils, frost, hot, dry season fires, and seasonal 

flooding.
53

U.S./NAFTA AND WORLD PRODUCTION AND GEOGRAPHICAL 

DISTRIBUTION OF THE TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT INEDIBLE 

PEEL COMMODITIES: 

Proposed members of the Tropical and subtropical fruit inedible peel crop group 

find widespread distribution throughout the world (Tables 3A and 3B) and the list of the 

hectares and production in metric tons from various countries that are members of the 

International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee (ICGCC) as countries that grow 

tropical fruits.

The world total hectares for avocado, banana, plantain, and mango are over 

15,901,968 hectares (ha) in 2010, and the total production of these fruits is over 

180,690,691 metric tons in 2010 (Table 3, FAO 2010). The world total hectares for 

pineapple, prickly pear, papaya, and persimmon are over 36,734,311 hectares (ha) in 

2010, and the total production of these fruits is over has to over 57,289,899 metric tons in 

2010 (Table 3, FAO 2010). Worldwide, the banana and plantain have the most hectares 

of the inedible peel tropical and subtropical fruits followed by pineapple (Tables 3A and 

3B). The U.S. produces 5.3 % of the avocado crop followed by Central America at 31 %, 

Mexico at 27% and South America at 24 %. Bananas on the other hand, the U.S. accounts 

for < 0.01 % of the crop, while Asia accounts for 46 %, Africa accounts for 25% and 

South America at 17.8 %. Asia and Africa account for most Asia produces about 80 % of 

the mango acres. For pineapple in 2010 the U.S. produced only 0.6 % of the fruit, while 

Asia and Africa account for 79 % and 4 % of the fruit, respectively. Approximately 98 % 

of the persimmons are from Asia, and papaya in Asia account for 44%, and prickly pear 

in Asia accounts for 79 % of the hectares. 

Table 3A. Tropical and Subtropical Fruit, Inedible Peel Production in 2010

Including Avocado, Banana, Plantain, and Mango. (Note: This table contains only 

the tropical fruits (inedible peel) available on the FAO website. Updated 2/21/12.

(http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor.

Countries/ 

Regions

Avocado Banana Plantain Mango, 

Guava, 

Mangosteen

U.S. 24,252 Ha

149,300 Mt

445 Ha

8,070 Mt

_______ 600 Ha

1,000 Mt 

 Canada _______ _______ _______ _______

Mexico 123,403 Ha

1,107,140 Mt

76,927 Ha

2,103,360 Mt

_______ 174,970 Ha

1,632,650 Mt

C. America 141,353 Ha

1,232,120 Mt

225,619 Ha

7,801,902 Mt

47,409 Ha

619,126 Mt

213,483 Ha

1,935,340 Mt 

S. America 109,025 Ha

991,260 Mt

856,694 Ha

17,905,738 Mt

704,508 Ha

6,331,351 Mt

151,133 Ha

2,194,794 Mt 
54

Table 3B. Tropical and Subtropical Fruit, Inedible Peel Production in 2010 Including 

Pineapple, Prickly Pear, Papaya, and Persimmon. (Note: This table contains only the 

tropical fruits (inedible peel) available on the FAO website. Updated 2/21/2012

(http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor.

In the U.S. there is per capita consumption data reported for 1970 – 2009 for 

avocado (Table 4), banana (Table 5), mango (Table 6), papaya (Table 7), and pineapple 

Europe 22,134 Ha

124,820 Mt

11,285 Ha

414,740 Mt

_______ _______

Africa 79,472 Ha

515,071 Mt

1,260,376 Ha

10,311,554 Mt

4,328,943 Ha

26,900,250 Mt

587,377 Ha

4,163,604 Mt 

Asia 45,383 Ha

435,387 Mt

2,214,173 Ha

62,076,919 Mt

122,180 Ha

1,357,520 Mt

4,176,480 Ha

29,581,262 

Mt

Australia 9,800 Ha

37,300 Mt

11,543 Ha

302,173 Mt

_______ 9,500 Ha 

44,342 Mt

New Zealand 4,000 Ha

19,900 Mt

_______ _______ _______

World Total

In 2010 

459,252 Ha

3,840,905 Mt

4,801,991 Ha

102,114,819Mt

5,395,408 Ha

36,561,851 Mt

5,245,317 Ha

38,673,116 

Mt

Countries/ 

Regions

Pineapple Prickly Pear Papaya Persimmon

U.S. 5,700 Ha 

70,000 Mt

23,067 Ha

732,642 Mt

546 Ha

13,650 Mt

_______

 Canada _______ 693 Ha

7,830 Mt

_______ _______

Mexico 16,604 Ha

701,746 Mt

3,986 Ha

24,986 Mt

14,180 Ha

616,215 Mt

50 Ha

410 Mt

C. America 79,296 Ha

3,146,471 Mt

3,986 Ha

24,986 Mt

25,735 Ha

962,121 Mt

50 Ha

410 Mt

S. America 116,130 Ha

3,396,657 Mt

39,751 Ha

956,310 Mt

69,181 Ha

2,518,284 Mt

8,644 Ha

164,495 Mt

Europe 265 Ha

3,600 Mt

186,659 Ha

2,874,697 Mt

_______ 2,746 Ha

49,805 Mt

Africa 277,137 Ha

2,541,899 Mt

59,559 Ha

716,615 Mt

138,278 Ha

1,362,480 Mt

_______

Asia 400,773 Ha

9,691,594 Mt

1,206,351 Ha

17,204,447 Mt

191,890 Ha

6,151,180 Mt

789,595 Ha

3,820,206 Mt 

Australia 4,600 Ha

153,000 Mt

6,500 Ha

95,111 Mt

310 Ha

6,900 Mt

90 Ha

670 Mt

New Zealand ______ 700 Ha

25,100 Mt

_______ 170 Ha

2,600 Mt

World Total

In 2010

906,541 Ha

19,418,306 Mt

1,527,356 Ha

22,638,098 Mt

438,239 Ha

11,195,309 Mt

801,295 Ha

4,038,186 Mt
55

(Table 8). The per capita consumption for avocado, banana, mango, and papaya are 

reported as all processed none as fresh. Pineapple has per capita data reported for fresh, 

and processed juice and canned. Avocado consumption is all from processed with per 

capita consumtion increasing 89% from 1970 to 2009. Per capita consumption for 

avocado in 1970 was 0.45 lb and in 2009 4.11 lb (Table 4). Fresh banana consumption 

has increased in 1970 from 17.38 lb to 24.73 lb in 2009 (Table 5). Mango consumption 

has increased by over 95 % from 1970 at 0.07 lb to 2009 at 2.02 lb (Table 6). The 

papaya has also seen an increase of 90 % in fresh fruit consumption from 0.07 lb in 1970 

to 1.19 lb/capita in 2009 (Table 7). Pineapple consumption has seen a shift from 7.12 lb 

per capita as canned to a great increse in fresh consumption of over 86 % from 0.70 lb in 

1970 to 5.09 lb in 2009, while processed juice has remained the same 4.01 to 4.05 

lb/capita over the last 39 years (Table 8). It is expected with the health benefits of these 

tropical fruits that per capita consumption will continue to increase in the future.

Table 4. Avocado U.S. Per Capita Consumption Fresh Weight Equivalent (lb/year) 

for 1970, and 2004 – 2009 (USDA ERS Food Availability, February 1, 2011).

Year Fresh Processed Total Avocado

2009 NA 4.11 4.11

2008 NA 3.81 3.81

2007 NA 3.50 3.50

2006 NA 3.59 3.59

2005 NA 3.48 3.48

2004 NA 3.06 3.06

1970 NA 0.45 0.45

Table 5. Banana U.S. Per Capita Consumption Fresh Weight Equivalent (lb/year) 

for 1970, and 2004 – 2009 (USDA ERS Food Availability, February 1, 2011).

Year Fresh Processed Total Banana

2009 24.73 NA 24.73

2008 25.04 NA 25.04

2007 23.95 NA 23.95

2006 25.11 NA 25.11

2005 25.18 NA 25.18

2004 25.78 NA 25.78

1970 17.38 NA 17.38

Table 6. Mango U.S. Per Capita Consumption Fresh Weight Equivalent (lb/year) 

for 1970, and 2004 – 2009 (USDA ERS Food Availability, February 1, 2010).

Year Fresh Processed Total Mango

2009 2.02 NA 2.02

2008 2.10 NA 2.10

2007 2.10 NA 2.10

2006 2.10 NA 2.10
56

Year Fresh Processed Total Mango

2005 1.88 NA 1.88

2004 2.02 NA 2.02

1970 0.07 NA 0.07

Table 7. Papaya U.S. Per Capita Consumption Fresh Weight Equivalent (lb/year) 

for 1970, and 2004 – 2008 (USDA ERS Food Availability, February 1, 2010).

Year Fresh Processed Total Papaya

2009 1.19 NA 1.19

2008 0.98 NA 0.98

2007 1.08 NA 1.08

2006 1.04 NA 1.04

2005 0.94 NA 0.94

2004 1.03 NA 1.03

1970 0.12 NA 0.12

Table 8. Pineapple U.S. Per Capita Consumption Fresh Weight Equivalent 

(lb/year) for 1970, and 2004 – 2009 (USDA ERS Food Availability, February 1, 

2010).

Year Fresh Processed 

Juice

Processed 

Canned

Total Pineapple 

(Fresh + Canned)

2009 5.09 4.05 4.14 13.28

2008 5.07 4.03 4.34 13.45

2007 5.02 3.24 4.35 12.60

2006 5.20 4.00 4.78 13.98

2005 4.90 3.85 4.76 13.51

2004 4.43 4.02 4.46 12.91

1970 0.70 4.01 7.12 11.83

Based on the USDA CSFII 1994 – 1996, 1998 survey, using two day individual 

consumption for determined tropical fruit- inedible peel consumption (g/day) is listed in 

Table 9, with the highest consumption is for banana fresh at 16.5 g/day, followed by

pineapple (fresh and juice) at 3.98 g/day, plantain at 0.84 g/day, and avocado at 0.751 

g/day. The proposed representative commodities account for over 91 % of the tropical 

fruit inedible peel consumption in this survey. Banana has over 70 % of the reported 

consumption followed by pineapple and pineapple juice at 21.2% for a combined 91.2 % 

of the total consumption from these two commodities. 
57

Table 9. Consumption of the Tropical Fruits – Inedible Peel Based on

USDA CSFII 1994 – 1996, 1998 survey.

COMMODITY CONSUMPTION (g/day) 

Avocado 0.751

Banana 16.5

Banana, babyfood 0.103

Banana, dried 0.0109

Banana, dried-babyfood 0.0175

Breadfruit 0.00553

Cactus 0.0796

Mango 0.513

Mango-babyfood 0.00281

Mango, dried 0.00407

Mango, juice 0.0863

Mango, juice-babyfood 0.00386

Papaya 0.198

Papaya, dried 0.00583

Papaya, juice 0.0334

Passionfruit 0.0104

Passionfruit, juice 0.0349

Pineapple 1.49

Pineapple-babyfood- 0.00473

Pineapple, dried 0.00812

Pineapple, juice 2.49

Pineapple, juice-babyfood 0.0205

Plantain 0.844

Plantain, dried 0.000202

Pomegranate 0.0288

Total Tropical and Subtropical 

Fruit Inedible Peel

23.655452

IMPORTS/EXPORTS OF THE TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT 

INEDIBLE PEEL COMMODITIES:

The U.S. is not a major producer of tropical fruits with inedible peels with the 

exception of avocado, so significant amounts of all the tropical fruits are imported (Table 

10). The amount of a commodity can vary widely from year to year based on differences 

in U.S. production, world weather patterns, and consumer demand. The most widely

imported tropical and subtropical fruits with inedible peels reported by USDA Foreign 

Agriculture Trade Statistics (FATUS) are avocado, banana, mango, and pineapple. In 

2011 over 415,416 MT of avocado were imported into the U.S. an increase from the total 

in 2007 which was 348,858 MT. Approximately 77 % of the avocados are imported from 
58

Mexico, 17 % from Chile, 4 % from the Dominican Republic, and 2 % from New 

Zealand (Table 11). 

Table 10. U.S. Tropical and Subtropical Inedible Peel Fruit Imports for 2007 and 

2011. (USDA NASS, 2011 Fr Nt 1-3, USDA ERS, FTS – 2010, USDA FATUS, 2012

Tropical Fruit –

Inedible Peel

2007 (MT) 2007 (KL) 2011 (MT) 2011 (KL)

Avocado 219,364 - 318,938 -

Banana/plantain, fresh 

and frozen

4,273,477 - 4,406,913 -

Banana/plantain, 

processed

 64,898 - 91,684 -

Mango 319,596 - 412,336 -

Pineapple fresh and 

frozen

 707,061 - 835,316 -

Pineapple canned or 

prepared

 351,463 - 331,841 -

Pineapple, juice -- 250,938 - 279,751

Table 11. U.S. Avocado Imports for 2007 – 2011. (USDA NASS, 2011 Fr Nt 1-3, USDA FATUS, 2012

http://faostat.fao.org/site

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Product Country UOM Qty Qty Qty Qty Qty

Avocado Mexico MT 219,364 234,507 300,607 266,645 318,938

Avocado Chile MT 111,734 64,628 116,709 63,408 69,834

Avocado Dominican Republic MT 15,362 15,683 14,129 14,820 16,731

Avocado Peru MT 0.0 0.0 11 137 9157

Grand Total MT 348,858 314,838 431,734 345,010 415,416

In 2011 over 4,406,913 MT of fresh/frozen bananas and plantains were imported 

into the U.S. an increase from the total in 2007 which was 4,273,477 MT (Table 10). 

Approximately 32 % are imported from Guatemala, 23 % from Ecuador, 19 % from 

Costa Rica, and about 10 % from both Honduras and Columbia (Table 12). In 2011 over 

91,684 MT of processed bananas and plantains were imported into the U.S. an increase 

from the total in 2007 which was 64,898 MT. Approximately 50 % are imported from 

Costa Rica, 28 % from Ecuador, and 11 % from the Phillipines (Table 13). 

Table 12. U.S. Fresh and Frozen Banana/Plantain Imports for 2007 – 2011. (USDA NASS, 2011 Fr Nt 

1-3, USDA FATUS, 2012 http://faostat.fao.org/site

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Product Country UOM Qty Qty Qty Qty Qty

Banana/Plantain Fr/frz Guatemala MT 1,144,0741,248,304 1,162,296 1,205,065 1,387,639

Bananas/Plantain Fr/frz Ecuador MT 1,036,181 948,542 1,090,891 1,094,102.1 1,028,057

Banana/Plantain Fr/frz Costa Rica MT 1,063,311 891,559 566,492 845,463.4 852,917

Banana/Plantain Fr/frz Honduras MT 484,022 507,461 389,611 437,424.9 446,817

Banana/Plantain Fr/frz Colombia MT 457,151 535,419 506,841 545,027.5 437,907
59

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Product Country UOM Qty Qty Qty Qty Qty

Banana/Plantain Fr/frz Mexico MT 31,679 66,888 107,191 148,474.2 152,43

Banana/Plantain Fr/frz Nicaragua MT 35,485 35,544 28,931 45,017.9 43,734

Banana/Plantain Fr/frz Panama MT 1,363 8,843 5,643 31,229.1 31,017

Banana/Plantain Fr/frz Peru MT 17,848 22,534 19,677 20,060.1 23,211

Grand Total MT 4,273,4774,266,681 3,879,258 4,373,343 4,406,913

Table 13. U.S. Processed Banana/Plantain Imports (MT) for 2007 – 2011. (USDA NASS, 2010 Fr Nt 

1-3, USDA FATUS, 2012 http://faostat.fao.org

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Product Country UOM Qty Qty Qty Qty Qty

Banana/plantain Processed Costa Rica MT 33,261 36,399 29,180 41,429 45,879

Banana/plantain Processed Ecuador MT 14,599 14,031 16,903 22,254 26,077

Banana/plantain Processed Philippines MT 7,883 8,713 8,592 9,071 10,027

Banana/plantain Processed Honduras MT 5,494 6,271 3,410 3,474 4,011

Banana/plantain ProcessedGuatemala MT 85 477 37 430 1,775

Banana/plantain Processed Colombia MT 665 1,045 1,459 1,523 1,188

Banana/plantain Processed Thailand MT 1,778 1,258 746 508 918

Banana/plantain Processed Brazil MT 643 1,012 818 834 498

Banana/plantain Processed Mexico MT 118 371 195 189 357

Banana/plantain Processed China MT 139 51 76 238 292

Grand Total MT 64,898 70,116 61,899 80,517 91,684

In 2011 over 412,336 MT of mangoes were imported into the U.S. an increase from 

the total in 2007 which was 319,596 MT (Table 10). Approximately 65 % are imported 

from Mexico, 13 % from Peru, 7 % from Ecuador, and 6 % from Brazil (Table 14). 

Table 14. U.S. Mango Imports for 2007 – 2011. (USDA NASS, 2011 Fr Nt 1-3, USDA FATUS, 2012 

http://faostat.fao.org/site

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Product Country UOM Qty Qty Qty Qty Qty

Mango Mexico MT 202,742 195,935 194,515 239,747 268,298

Mango Peru MT 32,318 45,433 20,362 40,806 54,965

Mango Ecuador MT 32,518 25,486 35,954 26,197 30,630

Mango Brazil MT 24,678 25,746 23,225 24,372 24,825

Mango Guatemala MT 12,999 14,946 14,821 12,748 17,889

Mango Haiti MT 8,680 8,273 9,013 6,501 9,546

Mango Nicaragua MT 2,520 2,161 2,352 2,051 3,252

Mango Costa Rica MT 1,884 1,741 998 1,198 1,663

Mango Thailand MT 133 856 1,267 442 395

Mango Dominican Republic MT 170 173 273 185 317

Grand Total MT 319,596 321,810 303,860 355,253 412,336
60

In 2011 over 835,316 MT of fresh and frozen pineapples were imported into the 

U.S. an increase from the total in 2007 which was 707,061 MT (Table 10). 

Approximately 84 % are imported from Costa Rica, 4 % from Mexico, and 3 % from 

both Honduras and Ecuador (Table 15). 

Table 15. U.S. Fresh or Frozen Pineapple Imports for 2007 – 2011. (USDA NASS, 2010 Fr Nt 1-3, 

USDA FATUS, 2012 http://faostat.fao.org

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Product Country UOM Qty Qty Qty Qty Qty

Pineapple, Fresh or Frz Costa Rica MT 580,720 590,889 595,554 684,060 705,468

Pineapple, Fresh or Frz Mexico MT 29,400 39,093 46,236 50,609 36,713

Pineapple, Fresh or Frz Honduras MT 20,160 22,620 22,067 21,858 27,241

Pineapple, Fresh or Frz Ecuador MT 33,990 28,9075 28,803 24,878 21,687

Pineapple, Fresh or FrzGuatemala MT 27,470 25,798 18,158 12,735 14,652

Pineapple, Fresh or Frz Panama MT 7,754 9,275 11,557 16,203 14,113

Pineapple, Fresh or Frz Philippines MT 3,283 3,387 5,087 5,654 9,580

Pineapple, Fresh or Frz Thailand MT 3,361 4,151 3,898 4,367 3,714

Grand Total MT 707,061 725,163 732,514 822,279 835,316

In 2011 over 331,841 MT of canned and prepared pineapples were imported into 

the U.S. a decrease from the total in 2007 which was 351,463 MT (Table 10). 

Approximately 46 % are imported from Thailand, 29 % from Phillipines, 18% from 

Indonesia, and about 6 % from China (Table 16). 

Table 16. U.S. Pineapple Canned or Prepared Imports for 2007 – 2011. (USDA NASS, 2010 Fr Nt 1-

3, USDA FATUS, 2011 http://faostat.fao.org

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Product Country UOM Qty Qty Qty Qty Qty

Pineapple, Can or Prep Thailand MT 129,815 143,054 158,0158 140,3239 151,913

Pineapple, Can or PrepPhilippines MT 125,431 114,416 98,017 98,388 95,354

Pineapple, Can or Prep Indonesia MT 46,727 54,114 49,799 50,074 59,822

Pineapple, Can or Prep China MT 34,864 34,037 29,601 23,924 18,405

Pineapple, Can or Prep Malaysia MT 11,107 5,016 4,088 4,115 2,752

Pineapple, Can or Prep Vietnam MT 1,214 3,177 515 605 2,427

Grand Total MT 351,463 356,441 341,899 318,821 331,842

In 2011 over 279,751 KL of pineapple juice was imported into the U.S. an increase 

from the total in 2007 which was 250,938m KL (Table 10). Approximately 50 % are 

imported from the Philippines, 26 % from Thailand, 13 % from Indonesia, and about 10

% from Costa Rica (Table 17). 

Table 17. U.S. Pineapple Juice Imports for 2007 – 2010. (USDA NASS, 2010 Fr Nt 1-3, USDA 

FATUS, 2011 http://faostat.fao.org

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Product Country UOM Qty Qty Qty Qty Qty

Pineapple JuicePhilippines KL 134,243 134,796 141,855 129,108 138,886
61

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Product Country UOM Qty Qty Qty Qty Qty

Pineapple Juice Thailand KL 73,815 100,086 104,185 72,627 71,416

Pineapple Juice Indonesia KL 13,397 34,825 35,799 24,042 37,256

Pineapple JuiceCosta Rica KL 17,950 27,036 18,355 18,301 27,714

Pineapple Juice Brazil KL 1,795 1,989 1,732 1,424 907

Pineapple Juice Kenya KL 992 7,821 12,000 6,015 873

Pineapple Juice Vietnam KL 2,164 2,418 1,272 1,546 707

Pineapple Juice Mexico KL 3,259 2,774 1,033 135 616

Grand Total KL 250,938 314,468 318,984 254,987 279,751

The U.S. is not a major exporter of tropical fruit inedible peel commodities, except 

for avocado, pineapple, and mango (Table 18). In 2009, there were over 23.8 million lb 

of fresh pineapple exported, 13.2 million lb of mangoes (USDA FATUS). Canned 

pineapple exports declined from 68 million lb in 1970 to 7.0 in 2009 while pineapple 

juice increased from 1.3 million lb in 1970 to 4.0 million lb in 2009.

Table 18. Tropical Fruits – Inedible Peel Exports 1970 - 2009 for Avocado, Fresh 

Banana, Fresh Mango, Fresh Papaya, Fresh, Canned, and Juice of Pineapple. 

(USDA ERS Fruits and Tree Nuts. 2011.

Year Commodity Exports 

(million 

pounds)

Exports (million 

gallons, single 

strength

2009 Avocado 23.4 -

1970 Avocado 1.0 -

1989 Banana, fresh 1.1 -

1974 Banana, fresh 1.4 -

2009 Mango, fresh 13.2

1981 Mango, fresh 9.4 -

2009 Papaya, fresh 7.5 -

1981 Papaya, fresh 9.8 -

2009 Pineapple, fresh 23.8 -

1970 Pineapple, fresh 2.7 -

2009 Pineapple, 

canned

 7.0 -

1970 Pineapple, 

canned

68.0 -

2009 Pineapple, juice - 4.0

1970 Pineapple, juice - 1.3
62

U.S. TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL INEDIBLE PEEL FRUIT PRODUCTION 

AND GEOGRAPHICAL PRODUCTION:

Production in the U.S. is based on the USDA 2007 Agricultural Statistics, FAO 

Statistics, 2007, USDA ERS 2007, 2010, 2011 Noncitrus Fruits Summary, USDA NASS 

Crop Production, 2007, and the USDA Census of Agriculture, 2007. 

The planted acreages for the tropical and subtropical fruit inedible peel in the 

United States are listed in Table 19 and according to the 2007 AGCensus the tropical 

fruit inedible peel crops (avocado, banana, papaya, passionfruit, and pomegranate) were 

grown on over 110,805 A, an increase of 21,670 A from 2002. Banana and papaya acres 

declined by 1,072 compared to the 2002 data. The largest increased in acreage of the 

tropical fruit inedible peel is for pomegranate which increased from 9,535 to 24,517 

acres in 2007, and 29,000 acres reported by the Western Farm Press, May 14, 2009 issue 

that acres has doubled in three years, and that’s a lot of young pomegranate trees

(http://westernfarmpress.com/pomegranate-acreage-increases-california pomegranate acres).

Table 19. U.S. Production of Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel 

Commodities Including Avocado, Banana, Papaya, Passionfruit, and Pomegranate 

for 2002 and 2007 (USDA AG Census, 2002, 2007 (USDA NASS, 2011, USDA 

Agricultural Statistics, 2009, 2011).

Commodity 2002 Acreage 

U.S.

2007 

Acreage 

U.S.

Change in 

Acreage

(2002 -

2007)

Avocado 75,570 82,147 + 6,577

Banana 1,975 2,547 - 572

Papaya 3,001 2,501 - 500

Passionfruit 54 93 + 39

Pomegranate 9,535 24,517 + 23,562

Total U.S. Acres Tropical Fruit –

Inedible Peel

90,135 111,805 + 21,670

The top producing States (Table 20) for avocado is California (89 % of the acres) 

and Florida (8.3 %). Since 2007 Florida has increased its avocado acres by 3.7 %. 

Hawaii has < 1.0 % of the acres. The yields/A of avocado ranged from 1.59 to 4.50 tons 

fresh equivalents in 2010. 

Table 20. Top U.S. States in Production of Avocado. 2002, 2007 (USDA AGCensus, 2002, 

2007; USDA NASS, 2010; USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2010).

State 2002 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S.

2007 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S.

State percent 

of total US 

bearing 

acreage (%) 

2007

2008 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S.

2009 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S.

2010 Bearing 

Acreage U.S.

Arizona - NR* - - -
63

State 2002 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S.

2007 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S.

State percent 

of total US 

bearing 

acreage (%) 

2007

2008 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S.

2009 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S.

2010 Bearing 

Acreage U.S.

California 67,553 74,767 90.4 65,000 58,500 52,200

Florida 839 6,861 8.3 7,500 7,400 7,400

Hawaii 601 974 1.2 330 370 330 

Texas 10 NR* 0 - - -

Total U.S. 

Bearing 

Acreage 75,570 82,647

72,830 66,270 59,930

* NR – Not Reported.

The top producing states for bananas is Hawaii at 87 % and Florida at 11 % but 

bearing acres declined in Hawaii by 50 % during 2008 – 2010 (Table 21). Hawaii acres 

have been decreasing rapidly since 2002 due to foreign trade competition and 

competition for acre use within the state. Yields/A of bananas range from 7.9 tons fresh 

equivalents to 2.10 tons fresh equivalents in 2010. 

Table 21. Top U.S. States in Production of Banana. (USDA AG Census, 2002, 2007 (USDA 

NASS, 2010, USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2010).

State 2002 

Bearing 

Acreage U.S.

2007 Bearing 

Acreage U.S.

State percent 

of total US 

bearing 

acreage (%) 

2007

2008 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S. (A)

2009 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S. (A)

2010 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S. (A)

California NR* 44 1.7 - - -

Florida 7,254 280 11.0 - - -

Hawaii 628 2,217 87.0 1,110 1,110 1,110

Texas NR* 6 0.2 - - -

Total U.S. 

Bearing 

Acreage 1,975 2,547

- - -

*NR – Not Reported.

Yields/A of papaya from Hawaii range from 11.20 tons to 12.20 tons fresh 

equivalents (Table 22). The top producing state for papaya is Hawaii and the acres for 

Florida and Texas are no longer reported at 87 % and Florida at 11 %. Bearing acres in 

Hawaii have decreased from 602 acres in 2002 to 135 acres in 2009 (Table 23).

Table 22. Average Yields/A of Inedible Peel Tropical Fruits Including Avocado, 

Banana, and Papaya USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2010).

Commodity 2008 yield/A (ton fresh 

equivalent)

2009 yield/A (ton fresh 

equivalent)

2010 yield/A (ton fresh 

equivalent)

Avocado 1.59 4.50 2.49

Banana (HI) 7.90 8.40 8.10

Papaya (HI) 12.20 11.90 11.20
64

Table 23. Top U.S. States in Production of Papaya. (USDA AG Census, 2002, 2007 (USDA 

NASS, 2010, USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2010).

State 2002 Bearing 

Acreage U.S.

2007 Bearing 

Acreage U.S.

State percent 

of total US 

bearing 

acreage (%) 

2007

2008 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S. (A)

2009 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S. (A)

Hawaii 602 417 47.2 160 135

Florida 186 193 21.9 *NR *NR

Texas - 3 0.3 *NR *NR

Total U.S. 

Bearing 

Acreage 959 883

*NR – Not Reported.

Table 24. Top U.S. States in Production of Passionfruit. (USDA AG Census, 2002, 2007 

(USDA NASS, 2010, USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2010).

State 2002 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S.

2007 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S.

State percent 

of total US 

bearing 

acreage (%) 

2007

2008 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S. (A)

2009 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S. (A)

2010 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S. (A)

California 36,526 38,142 96.8 30,100 31,000 33,000

Oregon - 13 < 0.1 *NR *NR *NR

Total U.S. 

Bearing 

Acreage 36,526 39,540

 *NR *NR *NR

*NR – Not Reported.

California produces essentially all of the passionfruit in the U.S. There are 33,000 

bearing acres in CA reported for 2010 (Table 24). Since 2002 bearing acres have 

declined by over 3,000 A. 

Table 25. Top U.S. States in Production of Pomegranate. (USDA AG Census, 2002, 2007 

(USDA NASS, 2010, USDA Agricultural Statistics, 2010).

State 2002 Bearing 

Acreage U.S.

State percent 

of total US 

bearing 

acreage (%) 

2002

2007 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S.

State 

percent of 

total US 

bearing 

acreage (%) 

2007
65

State 2002 Bearing 

Acreage U.S.

State percent 

of total US 

bearing 

acreage (%) 

2002

2007 

Bearing 

Acreage 

U.S.

State 

percent of 

total US 

bearing 

acreage (%) 

2007

Arizona - - 24 <0.1

California 9,529 >99 24,468 99.8

Florida - *NR -

Georgia - - 4 <0.1

Hawaii *NR - *NR -

Louisiana - - 4 <0.1

Nevada - - 9 <0.1

North Carolina - - 2 0.1

Texas 5 <1 12 <0.1

Utah - - 4 <0.1

Total U.S. 

Bearing Acreage 9,535 24,517

*NR – Not Reported

California grows over 99% of the pomegranate bearing acres (Table 25) with 

minor acreage in Arizona, Georgia, Texas, and Utah. Florida is also looking into 

develop some orchards. Pomegranate acres have been rapidly increasing since 1997 

when only 4,737 A were produced and in 2007 over 24,517 A are in bearing production. 

Due to popularity of pomegranate as a health food, we expect acres to continue to 

increase.

The percent of the total produce sales for the tropical and subtropical fruit –

inedible peel sold in U.S. grocery stores for the years 2007 – 2011 is shown in Table 26

(The Packer, Fairchild, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012). In 2011 bananas account for 

6.6 % of the total produce inedible peel tropical fruit sales followed by avocado and 

pineapple at 2.6 and 1.2 %, respectively. It appears that avocado and papaya are 

increasing in popularity from 2007 to 2011. Pomegranate pounds sold are also increasing 

from 18,110,002 lb in 2007 to 25,071,966 lb in 2011. The tropical and subtropical 

inedible peel group accounts for > 11.4 % of the total produce sold in the U.S. with 

banana having 57 % of the group sales, followed by avocado at 21 %, and pineapple at 

10.5%.

Table 26. The Packer (Fairchild, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011) List the Percent of 

the Total Grocery Store Produce Sales for the Tropical and Subtropical Fruit -

Inedible Peel Sold for the Years 2007, 2008, and 2009, 2010, 2011. 

Commodity Percent of Total 

Produce Sales –

2007 and Pounds 

Sold in 2007 

Percent of Total 

Produce Sales – 2008 

and Pounds Sold in 

2008

Percent of Total 

Produce Sales –

2009 and Pounds 

Sold in 2009

Percent of Total 

Produce Sales –

2010 and Pounds 

Sold in 2010

Percent of Total 

Produce Sales –

2011 and Pounds 

Sold in 2011

Avocado 1.9 % and 

276,414,810 lb

2.0 % and 

278,062, 281 lb

2.5 % and 

322,454,062 lb

2.5 % and 

378,426,192 lb

2.6 % and 

316,329,938 lb

Banana 6.0 % and 

3,777,709,158 lb

6.8 % and 

3,796,045,289 lb

7.0 % and 

3,888,805, 971 lb

6.5 % and 

3,949,629,582 lb

6.6 % and 

3,857,295,162 lb

Mango 0.5 % and 

104,695, 965 lb

0.4 % and

104,693,682 lb

0.4 % and 

101,684,541 lb

0.5 % and 

123,309,716 lb

0.5 % and 

135,052,550 lb

Papaya 0.2 % and 

47,360,923 lb

0.1 % and 

37,520,084 lb

0.1 % and 

44,772,176 lb

0.2 % and 

51,686,488 lb

0.2 % and 

42,536,452 lb
66

Commodity Percent of Total 

Produce Sales –

2007 and Pounds 

Sold in 2007 

Percent of Total 

Produce Sales – 2008 

and Pounds Sold in 

2008

Percent of Total 

Produce Sales –

2009 and Pounds 

Sold in 2009

Percent of Total 

Produce Sales –

2010 and Pounds 

Sold in 2010

Percent of Total 

Produce Sales –

2011 and Pounds 

Sold in 2011

Pineapple 1.1 % and 

256,688,358 lb

1.1 % and 

254,692,020 lb

1.1 % and 

308,748,776 lb

1.2 % and 

334194,215 lb

1.2 % and 

337,431,363 lb

Plantain 0.1 % and 

93,950,760 lb

0.2 % and

107,879,732 lb 

0.2 % and 

112,466,813 lb

0.2 % and 

81,002,444 lb

0.2 % and 

71,825,109 lb

Pomegranate 0.1 % and 

18,110,002 lb

0.1 % and

20,084,988 lb

0.2 % and 

23,622,274 lb

0.1 % and 

25,071,966 lb

0.1 % and 

20,090,765 lb

SPECIFIC CROP PRODUCTION AREAS OF THE TROPICAL AND 

SUBTROPICAL FRUIT – INEDIBLE PEEL: 

There are no crop production data in the U.S. for the following commodities: 

aisen; bacury; binjai; Burmese grape; cat's-eyes; cupuacú; etambe; green sapote; horse 

mango; Ingá; lanjut; longan; manduro; Mongongo fruit; Monkey-bread-tree; muriti; 

Paho; passionflower, winged-stem; pelipisan; pequi; Quandong; Saipan mango; sataw; 

Tamarind-of-the-Indies; velvet tamarind; white star apple; and the wild loquat.

Abiu:

Abiu is being grown in Florida. Adapted to EPA crop production region 13. 

Other production regions include Central America, Peru, northern and western South 

America, Amazonia, the Tropics, Trinidad, and Australia. The tree grows wild on the 

eastern slopes of the Andes. A mature tree can yield up to 500 fruit per year. 100 to 125 

kilograms (220 to 276 pounds) of fruit can be produced per tree. A 6-year-old tree can 

produce a yield of 60 to 85 kilograms (132 to 187 pounds) per tree.

Aisen:

Production regions include northern Africa, northeast tropical Africa, west-central 

tropical Africa, west tropical Africa; no yield data is available.

Akee apple:

Production in U.S. includes Florida but no yield data is available with EPA Crop 

Production Region 13. Cultivated in Africa, India, and Tropical America. Jamaica is the 

main producer of the fruit. Fruit is beginning to be produced on a commercial scale. 

Other commercial production regions: India, tropical America, Mexico, Central 

America, South America, West Africa, the tropics, and the Caribbean including Jamaica. 

According to the 2001 Jamaican External Trade Statistics, 1.74 million kilograms (3.84 

million pounds) of canned fruit was exported mainly to Canada, the UK and the U.S. 

Small amounts of this fruit were exported to the Caribbean, Europe and Japan. In 2001, 

13,140 kilograms (28,969 pounds) of frozen fruit was exported. In 1999, there were 

approximately 130 hectares (321 acres) of orchards in production.
67

Atemoya:

Production in U.S. includes Florida, Hawaii, Southern California; a commercial 

fruit in southern Florida. In 1994, there were 18 hectares (45 acres) grown in Florida. 

During the late 1990s, Florida produced 200 tonnes (220 tons) of fruit. A report prepared 

in 2002 and revised in 2009 reported an annual production of approximately 22,680 

kilograms (50,000 pounds). In 1989-1990, 49 hectares (120 acres) of atemoya were 

produced and the current acreage is less than 10 hectares (25 acres). In 1992, there were 

24 hectares (60 acres) in Hawaii with about 15 tonnes (16 tons) produced. During the 

late 1990s, Hawaii produced 50 tonnes (55 tons) of fruit. EPA Crop Production Region 

3, 10 and 13. Other commercial production regions include the tropics and subtropics, 

Venezuela, Israel, Philippines, Australia. Cherimoya is native to the tropical highlands of 

Peru and Ecuador. Sugar apple is native to tropical South America. During the late 

1990s, atemoya production was important in Australia, Israel, Florida, and Hawaii. 

During this time, Australia produced 3,000 tonnes (3,307 tons) of fruit and Israel 

produced 500 tonnes (551 tons) of fruit. The annual production of atemoya is expected to 

double over the next 10 years due to new higher yielding cultivars. Approximately 150 

to 180 kilograms (331 to 397 pounds) of fruit per hectare can be harvested. There are 

currently commercial plantings around the world. In good conditions, mature trees can 

produce approximately 23 to 34 kilograms (51 to 75 pounds) per tree or 5 to 20 tonnes 

(5.5 to 22 tons) per hectare per year. In Australia, commercial groves produce 5 bushels 

of fruit per tree and 67 bushels) per acre (165.5 bushels per hectare. 

Avocado

Avocado includes the Guatemalan, Mexican, and West Indian types. Production 

in the U.S.: Persea americana: California, Florida, Hawaii, And Puerto Rico. P.

americana var. guatemalensis: Coastal California; P. americana var. drymifolia: 

California to southern Florida, Puerto Rico or other areas of similar climate. According 

to the USDA, during the 2009/2010 season in California, 222 260 tonnes (245,000 tons) 

of avocados were produced. During the 2009/2010 season in Florida, 2,046 tonnes 

(23,200 tons) of avocados were produced. According to NASS, Hawaii produced 

approximately 471 tonnes (520 tons) of avocados during the 2008/2009 season. Total 

avocado acreage in Hawaii in the 2008/2009 season was 162 hectares (400 acres). 

According to the USDA, harvest of avocados in Puerto Rico was 52,837 hundreds in 

2007. According to the USDA, total production in the United States in the 2009/2010 

season was 24,778 tonnes (268,720 tons). There was minor production in Guam and 

Texas. ‘Hass’ avocadoes are the dominant cultivar in California. Florida cultivates 

early-, mid-, and late- season West Indian cultivars. EPA Crop Production Regions 3, 10 

and 13 with some in Region 6. Other production regions include: Persea americana: 

Mexico, Central America including Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, 

South America including Chile, Peru, Brazil and Colombia, the Caribbean including 

Jamaica and the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, Indonesia, Israel, South Africa, 

Ethiopia, Spain, Asian tropics, India, Australia, New Zealand, Madagascar, Mauritius, 

Madeira, the Canary Islands, France, Sicily, Crete, Egypt; widely cultivated in the tropics 

and subtropics; origin Mesoamerica. P. americana var. americana: widely cultivated in 
68

the tropics and subtropics; P. americana var. guatemalensis: Mexico, Costa Rica, El 

Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Venezuela; P. americana var. 

drymifolia: Mexico; cultivated elsewhere. According to FAOSTAT, in 2007, the top 

five avocado production countries were Chile (approximately 250,000 tonnes (275,578 

tons)), Indonesia (201,635 tonnes (222,265 tons)), United States of America (188,100 

tonnes (207,345 tons)), Dominican Republic (183,535 tonnes (202 313 tons)), and 

Colombia (157,552 tonnes (173,671 tons)). Total world avocado production in 2007 was 

approximately 3,569,256 tonnes (3,934,431 tons). The top five exporting countries in 

2001 were Mexico, Chile, Israel, Spain and South Africa. European and U.S. markets are 

the main markets for avocado exports. 

Bacury:

Commercial production regions include South America including Guyana, 

Surinam, Brazil (especially the city of Belém, Pará, and Brazil), Colombia, Paraguay, 

Marajo Island. Although there is no collected data, it was estimated in 2002 that 7 

million fruit were commercialized yearly in Belém, Brazil at the end of the 1990s. Yields 

vary each year; a mature tree that is 15 to 20 years old can produce 500 to 1,000 fruit per 

season. For bacury 115 plants per hectare have yielded 11 to 20 tonnes (12 to 22 tons) of 

fruit.

Bael fruit:

Production in U.S. is in Florida, but no yield data is available (EPA Crop 

Production Region 13). Other commercial production regions: India, Burma, Nepal, Sri 

Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Java, Thailand, Egypt, Surinam, Trinidad, Myanmar; 

cultivated in Malesia region (includes Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, 

Philippines). 

Banana:

Production in U.S. commercially grown in Hawaii, Guam, the Virgin Islands, and 

Puerto Rico, with some small plantings in south Florida, Texas and California. 

According to FAOSTAT, the United States produced 7,890 tonnes (8,697 tons) of 

bananas in 2008. According to NASS, in 2008, Hawaii produced 7,893 tonnes (17.4 

million pounds) of bananas for the fresh market. In 2008, Hawaii grew approximately

526 hectares (1,300 acres) of bananas. According to the USDA, in 2007, Florida grew 

113 hectares (280 acres) of bananas, California grew 18 hectares (44 acres) of bananas, 

and Texas grew 2.5 hectares (6 acres) of bananas. According to the USDA, in 2007 in 

Puerto Rico, there were 5,505,051 total banana trees and 373,667,000 bananas were 

harvested. According to the USDA, in Guam in 2007, there were 108 tonnes (238,246 

pounds) of bananas (all types) harvested and there were 13,673 trees of bearing age. 

According to the USDA, in the Virgin Islands in 2007, there were 44 tonnes (95,924 

pounds) of bananas harvested and there were 5,291 trees of bearing age. Plantains are 

produced in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands; some production occurs in Florida.

According to the USDA, in 2007 in Puerto Rico, there were 16,524,666 total plantain 
69

trees and 249,948,000 plantains were harvested. According to the USDA, in the Virgin 

Islands in 2007, there were 13 tonnes (27,763 pounds) of plantains harvested and there 

were 1,738 trees of bearing age. EPA Crop Production Regions 3, 10 and 13 (primarily

13). Other commercial production regions include: Latin America; major producing 

countries include Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Mexico, Honduras, Panama and 

Costa Rica; Africa; major producing countries include: Uganda, Rwanda, Democratic 

Republic of Congo, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Côte d’Ivoire; Egypt, India, China, 

Australia, Israel, the Canary Islands, Taiwan, Indonesia, South Asia, the Middle East, the 

Pacific islands including the Philippines, the Caribbean, Martinique, Guadeloupe and 

Western Samoa. Ornamental plants and plants grown for fiber are grown in Pakistan, 

Burma, the Philippines, and Ethiopia. Dwarf bananas are produced in Colombia, Brazil, 

east tropical Africa (Tanzania), China, India, Sri Lanka, Indochina, Myanmar, Burma, 

Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Australia, the West Indies; widely cultivated. 

Plantains are widely cultivated in Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Dominican Republic 

and Ghana. According to FAOSTAT, world production of bananas in 2008 was 

approximately 90,705,922 tonnes (99,705,922 tons)). According to FAOSTAT, the top 

five production countries for banana in 2007 were India (21,766,400 tonnes (23,993,348 

tons)), China (8,038,729 tonnes (8,861,182 tons)), the Philippines (7,484,073 tonnes 

(8,249,778 tons)), Brazil (7,098,350 tonnes (7,824,591 tons)), and Ecuador (6,002,302 

tonnes (6,616,405 tons)). World plantain production in 2008 was 34,343,343 tonnes 

(37,857,055 tons). Trees can produce 150 to 200 fruit per year. Superior cultivars can 

produce 400 to 1,000 fruit per year.

Binjai:

Widely cultivated in Southeast Asia including Thailand, region of Malesia 

(Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, and Singapore); 

naturally grown in Sumatra, Borneo, and Malaysia; cultivated in Bali, Thailand and Java. 

A single tree can produce thousands of fruits, but no yield data is available.

Biriba:

Production in U.S. includes Puerto Rico, South Florida, but no yield data is 

available. Other production regions are South America including Northeastern Brazil, 

Peru, Northern Argentina, Paraguay, Guyana, Venezuela and Colombia; Central 

America, Southern Mexico, the Caribbean, the Lesser Antilles, Trinidad and Hispaniola. 

Fifteen-year-old trees produce approximately 150 fruit per year. The first three harvests 

of trees produced approximately 45 fruit per tree.

Breadfruit:

Major production occurs on the Pacific and Caribbean islands. Production in U.S.

includes scattered dooryard trees in Hawaii and South Florida. Guam and the US Virgin 

Islands harvested 1.7 to 2.5 tonnes (3,720 and 5,535 lbs) in 1992, respectively. EPA 

Crop Production Region 13. Other commercial production regions include: the 

Caribbean including Jamaica and tropical Pacific areas including the Philippines, 
70

Tropical Asia (Indonesia; Papua New Guinea), India, the lowlands of Central America 

and Northern South America, Mexico, Africa, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, northern Australia 

Yield varies from 50 to 700 fruit per tree. Estimates range from 16 to 50 tonnes (18 to 55 

tons) of fruit per hectare based on a density of 100 trees per hectare.

Burmese grape:

Production regions include: Southeast Asia, Vietnam, Laos, Bangladesh, Bhutan, 

Cambodia, Malacca, and northern Malaya. Cultivated in Nepal, India, Myanmar, South 

China, Indochina, Thailand, the Andaman Islands, and peninsular Malaysia. The tree is 

most commonly cultivated in India, Malaysia and home gardens. Fruit yield varies 

between 20 to 25 kg (44 to 55 pounds) per tree.

Canistel:

Grown on a small commercial scale in some countries including Florida, Central 

America from Mexico to Panama, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Cuba, northern Australia and the 

Philippines Production in U.S.: Very minor production in South Florida. In 1994, 0.4 

hectare (1 acre) was grown; Puerto Rico; Hawaii; Southern California. Other regions: 

Southern Mexico, Central America including Belize, Costa Rica, Panama, Guatemala, 

Nicaragua, and El Salvador, Northern South America, the West Indies including Cuba, 

Jamaica, and the Bahamas, some Southeast Asian countries including the Philippines; 

Eastern Africa; Northern Australia; but no yield data is available.

Cat’s eyes

Fruit is cultivated mainly in Asia; has potential for becoming a major commercial 

fruit. Other commercial production regions: Malaysia, Indo-China, Borneo, Southeast 

Asia.

Champedak:

Production in U.S. is in Hawaii. Fruit is important in the native area; widely

grown in Southern Thailand and peninsular Malysia; cultivated in Indonesia, including 

Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi, the Moluccas and Irian Jaya as well as in Western Java. 

Extensive small planting occurs in Jamaica, Kenya, and Zanzibar. Commercial yields 

average 70 to 100 kilograms (154 to 220 pounds) per tree per year; champedak yields are 

similar to jackfruit yields. 

Cherimoya:

In the U.S. there is a production California coastal area, Florida and to a limited 

extent in Hawaii; less than 40 hectares (100 acres) are grown in California. EPA Crop 

Production Regions 3, 10 and 13. Other commercial production regions include: South 

America, Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean Islands, the African coast, the 

Mediterranean including Spain and Italy, Israel, Philippines, India, Sri Lanka, Australia, 
71

Singapore; cultivated elsewhere in the tropics and subtropics. Most commercial 

production occurs in Spain, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, and New Zealand. World production in 

1998 was approximately 100,000 tonnes (110,231 tons). Spain grew 3,600 hectares 

(8,896 acres) that yielded 35,000 tonnes (38,581 tons); Peru grew 1,800 hectares (4,448 

acres) that yielded 15,000 tonnes (16,535 tons); Chile grew 1,200 hectares (2,965 acres) 

that yielded 12,000 tonnes (13228 tons). 

Cupuacú:

An important crop in northern Brazil; common in the Amazon; small scale 

production occurs in Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Mexico, and Bolivia; 

cultivated elsewhere in the tropics; grown experimentally in Trinidad, Ecuador, French 

Guyana, Martinique, São Tome, Ghana, Costa Rica, Malaysia, and Australia. More than 

30,000 hectares (74,132 acres) are cultivated in the Amazon region. Of this, 14,000 

hectares (34,595 acres) are located in Pará, Brazil. Over 8,000 hectares (19,768 acres) 

have been established since 1998 in Pará, Brazil. In 2002, fruit production was 30,000 

tonnes (33,069 tons) in 7,700 hectares (19,027 acres). Fruit yields are highly variable, 

but an average annual yield of 15 kilograms (33 pounds) of fruit/plant/year occurs in 

well-maintained orchards.

Custard apple:

Production in U.S. shows occasionally grown in South Florida. Other production 

regions include the West Indies including the Bahamas and Bermuda, Central America 

including Guatemala and Belize, southern Mexico, tropical South America including 

Peru, Ecuador and Brazil, tropical Africa, including South Africa, Malaya, Southeast 

Asia, the Philippines, Polynesia, Australia, Guam, Sri Lanka, and India. EPA Crop 

Production Region 13. A mature tree can produce 34 to 45 kilograms (75 to 100 pounds) 

of fruit per year.

Dragon fruit

Fruit is grown commercially in the U.S. including Florida, California, Hawaii and 

tropical American lowlands (EPA Crop Production Region 3, 10 and 13). There are 

approximately 10 to 15 hectares (25 to 37 acres) of dragon fruit in commercial production 

in Southern California. There is some commercial production in Hawaii. Other 

commercial production regions: Origin neotropics, particularly Mexico, the Caribbean 

including the Bahamas and Bermuda, northern South America and Central America; 

raised commercially for fruit in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Nicaragua, 

Guatemala, Mexico, the U.S., Spain, Israel, Northern Australia, New Zealand, Indonesia, 

Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, the Philippines, Japan and Taiwan. 6,000 hectares 

(14,826 acres) of dragon fruit are cultivated in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam and 

2,000 hectares (4,942 acres) are cultivated in Mexico. Vietnam is the major producer of 

the fruit. Annual production varies from 4 to 20 tonnes (4.4 to 22 tons) fresh mass per 

hectare, and 4 year old plants can produce 100 kilograms (220 pounds) of fruit per plant.
72

Durian

Production in U.S. includes small plantings under development in Hawaii 

(approximately 4 hectares (10 acres) and Puerto Rico. Other commercial production 

regions: Southeast and Tropical Asia including Sumatra, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Burma, 

Indochina, India, New Guinea,; cultivated elsewhere in the Tropics. Most commercial 

production occurs in Australia, Borneo, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand 

and Vietnam. Thailand grows and exports the most fruit. Most exported fruit from 

Thailand is imported by Hong Kong. Production in Thailand was 711,371 tonnes 

(784,152 tons) in 1992 from 97,238 hectares (240,280 acres). Malaysia produced 

384,500 tonnes (423,839 tons) from 61,294 hectares (151,461 acres). Indonesia produced 

228,668 tonnes (252,063 tons) from 44,016 hectares (108,766 acres). Individual trees 

produce approximately 50 to 100 fruit (4 to 18 tonnes (4.4 to 19.8 tons) per hectare) per 

year.

Elephant-apple

Production in U.S. has it being grown in California and Florida for experimental 

purposes (EPA Crop Production Region 3 and 10). Other commercial production regions

include: grown throughout southeast Asia; China, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, IndoChina, Myanmar, northern Malaysia, Penang Island, Indonesia, Burma, Thailand, 

Dominican Republic; cultivated in home gardens, along roads, edges of fields, and 

orchards. Mature trees can produce 200 to 250 fruit per tree. 

Etambe:

Trees are not cultivated extensively but grown in Tropical Asia includes Sri 

Lanka.

Grandilla:

Production in U.S. is in Hawaii. Other production regions include Central 

Mexico, Central America, and South America including the Andes, Venezuela, Bolivia, 

Colombia, Ecuador, Peru; Jamaica; Haiti.

Grandilla, giant:

Production in U.S. includes Hawaii; and it is grown occasionally in South Florida

(EPA Production Region 13). Other commercial production regions: Java, Mexico, 

Brazil, Peru, Malaya, Vietnam, India, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, tropical Africa, 

Australia; widely cultivated in the tropics including Barbados, Bermuda and Caribbean 

Islands. Annual yields in Indonesia and Queensland, Australia may reach 25 to 35 large 

fruit and 70 to 120 small to medium fruit. In younger vines, 16 to 50 fruits are produced 

per year. 

Guirri:
73

Produced in Brazil.

Ilama:

It can be grown in California, Florida, Puerto Rico and Hawaii. Ilama production 

is rare in the U.S (EPA Production Regions 10 and 13). Other production regions are 

South America including Chile, Mexico, Central America including Guatemala and El 

Salvador. Yield is low. In Mexico, 3 to 10 fruit are produced per tree. Some trees can 

bear 85 to 100 fruit in one season. 

Ingá:

Commercial production regions include Central America, northern South 

America, Brazil, the Guiana’s, Western South America, and southern South America.

Jatobá:

Production in U.S. includes Puerto Rico, Southern Florida (EPA Crop Production 

Region 13. Other production regions include: Mexico, Central America including 

Panama, El Salvador and Costa Rica); the Caribbean including Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad 

and Tobago; South America including Brazil, Peru, French Guiana, Bolivia and 

Colombia.

Jackfruit

In 1994, 2 hectares (5 acres) was grown in Florida. The plant is likely to be 

grown in south Florida, Puerto Rico and Hawaii (EPA Crop Production Region 13). 

Other production regions include Thailand, Brazil, Surinam, Guam, Jamaica, tropical 

Asia, Malaysia, Malay Peninsula, Sri Lanka, Burma, Fiji, Java, southern China; Southeast 

Asia, tropical Africa including Kenya, Uganda and former Zanzibar; Pacific Islands 

including the Philippines; the Caribbean, Queensland, Mauritius; widely cultivated in the 

tropics. Trees can produce 20 to 500 fruit per tree per year. Commercial yields average

70 to 100 kilograms (154 to 220 pounds) per tree per year. Important food source in 

several tropical areas, including India, where there are over 5,666 hectares (14,000 acres); 

In Malaysia, orchards produce an average of 17,000 kilograms (37,479 pounds) per 

hectare. In 2000, the Philippines produced 11,735 hectares (28,998 acres) of jackfruit 

and yields were 4.08 tonnes (4.50 tons) per hectare. 

Karuka

Pandanus julianettii grows mainly in a narrow altitudinal band in the central and 

fringe highlands and on the Huon Peninsula at elevations of 1,450 to 2,800 meters (4,757 

to 9,186 feet). Production in U.S. includes Florida and Southern California.

Kei apple:
74

Productions in U.S. include Florida, Southern California, Puerto Rico (EPA 

Regions 10 and 13). Widely cultivated in the Transvaal. Also cultivated along the shores 

of the Mediterranean. Other production regions include: Costa Rica, England, Australia, 

Egypt, Albania, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Greece, Israel, Kenya, Tanzania, Malta, 

Portugal, Spain, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, United Kingdom, Algeria, southern France, 

Italy, the Philippines, Jamaica, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, 

Namibia, Swaziland, South Africa; cultivated elsewhere in tropical and subtropical areas. 

Langsat

Production in U.S. includes Puerto Rico, Hawaii (EPA Crop Production Region 

13). Other commercial production regions: Southeast Asia, Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka, 

Australia, China, Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar, India, Surinam, Borneo, Indonesia, 

Malaysia, the Archipelago, Cuba, Honduras, Tobago, Trinidad, the Philippines; the 

Tropics. Langsat and duku are grown most in Malaysia; longkong and langsat are grown 

most in Thailand. Fruit yield varies depending on the type of fruit. Langsat and duku 

yields are highly variable. Ten year old longkong trees can produce 40 to 50 kilograms 

(88 to 110 pounds) of fruit per tree and 80 to 150 kilograms (176 to 331 pounds) of fruit 

after 30 years. In the Philippines, approximately 25 tonnes (28 tons) per hectare per year 

of duku fruit is produced and in Thailand, approximately 5.6 tonnes (6.2 tons) per hectare 

per year of duku is produced.

Lanjut:

Production regions include: Malesia including Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, 

Malay Peninsula, and Singapore.

Longan 

Production in U.S. is in home gardens in Hawaii, Florida, and California; and in 

1994, Florida reported 81 hectares (200 acres). Other production regions include West

Indies; longan is commercialized in China, Taiwan, India, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Australia, 

Malaysia, Myanmar, Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Thailand; cultivated 

elsewhere. China is the largest producer of longan; 444,400 hectares (1,098,136 acres) 

were grown and 495,800 tonnes (546,526 tons) in 1997 were produced.

Lucuma

Production in U.S. includes Florida, Hawaii, Southern California (EPA Crop 

Production Region 10 and 13). Other commercial production regions: South America 

including the Andes, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile; Mexico, Costa Rica; 

grown for processing on a commercial scale in Chile, Peru and Ecuador. Peru has 

approximately 600 hectares (1,483 acres) under cultivation; in 1997, 3,010 tonnes (3,318 

tons) of pulp was produced; in 1998, 2,624 tonnes (2,892 tons) of pulp was produced. In 
75

other areas, 181 to 227 kilograms (400 to 500 pounds) of fruit are produced during good 

years.

Lychee:

Production in U.S. is in Florida, Hawaii, California, and Texas. Florida is the 

largest producer of lychee (EPA Crop Production Region 6, 10 and 13). In the 1980s, 59 

to 81 hectares (146 to 200 acres) were grown in Florida; after 1992, 207 hectares (512 

acres) were grown. Approximately 620 tonnes (683 tons) were harvested from 206 

hectares (509 acres). Mature trees bared 9,802 kilograms (21 610 pounds) per hectare. 

In Hawaii, 91 hectares (225 acres) were grown in 1996 and 123 hectares (304 acres) were 

grown in 2002. One-third of the trees bore fruit and yielded 52 tonnes (57 tons) of fruit. 

Other commercial production regions include: China (Guangdong, Fujian, Guangxi, 

Hainan, and Xichuan provinces), India, South Africa, Thailand, Bangladesh, Japan, 

Burma, Taiwan, Malaysia, Africa, Madagascar, Réunion, Pakistan, Australia, Mexico, 

most countries in Latin America including Brazil, the Caribbean, Cuba, Honduras, 

Guatemala, the Canary Islands, Madeira Islands, Mauritius, Trinidad, Israel, Cambodia, 

Vietnam, Philippines; cultivated elsewhere. The major exporters of lychee fruit are 

China, Taiwan, Madagascar, Pakistan, Thailand, South Africa and Israel. In 2002, 

Madagascar shipped 18,079 tonnes (19 929 tons) of fruit to France. In 7 to 8 year old 

trees can produce 45 kilograms (99 pounds) per tree. Ten year old trees can yield 50 to 

70 kilograms (110 to 154 pounds); 15 year old trees can yield 100 kilograms (220

pounds) and 20-24 year old trees can yield 150 to 180 kilograms (331 to 397 pounds) of 

fruit; yields can be 500 kilograms (1,102 pounds) in older trees. 

Mabolo: 

Production in U.S. is in experimental gardens in Florida, Hawaii, and the 

Caribbean (EPA Crop Production Region 13). Other commercial production regions

include: Taiwan, Indonesia, the Philippines, peninsular Malaysia, and India; cultivated in 

domestic orchards in Brazil; widely cultivated in the tropics.

Madras-thorn: 

Production in U.S. includes southern Florida (weedy), Puerto Rico (weedy), 

Hawaii (weedy), coasts of California, U.S. Virgin Islands, Southwest U.S. (EPA Crop 

Production Regions 10 and 13). Other commercial production regions include: Northern 

and Central Mexico, Central America, South America including Venezuela, Argentina, 

Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Uruguay and 

Colombia; weedy on the Caribbean Islands including Cuba, Jamaica and St. Croix; Asia 

including Thailand; the Philippines, Guam, India, Pakistan; tropical Africa; naturalized 

elsewhere in the tropics. 

Mammy-apple:
76

Production in U.S. as a minor crop production in South Florida, Hawaii, Puerto 

Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In Puerto Rico, trees can yield 150 to 200 fruits per 

crop and 300 to 400 fruit per year. EPA Crop Production Region 13. Cultivated in many

tropical areas such as the West Indies including the Bahama Islands, the Greater and 

Lesser Antilles, Bermuda, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, and St. Croix; 

northern South America including Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French 

Guiana, Ecuador and northern Brazil; cultivated in the Amazon region; Central America; 

southern Mexico; West Africa; Southeast Asia; Java; the Philippines; widely cultivated in 

the tropics; grown as an ornamental in the lowlands of Costa Rica, El Salvador and 

Guatemala. 

Manduro:

Commercial production regions include Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, Malawi, 

Mozambique, and Zambia, and Zimbabwe, province of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, 

East Africa, West Africa, Nigeria, and Arabia, Swaziland. Trees can produce 125 

kilograms (276 pounds) of fruit per year. It is estimated that there are a million trees 

grow in the Blue Nile province that can produce approximately 100,000 tonnes (110,231 

tons) of fruit and 14,000 tonnes (15,432 tons) of oil annually.

Mango:

Production in U.S. includes Florida, southern California, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. 

In 1995, 761 hectares (1,880 acres) was grown in south Florida and 1,012 hectares (2,500 

acres) was grown in Puerto Rico. There was minor production in Hawaii with 20 

hectares (50 acres) in 1994 and 16 hectares (40 acres) in South California. EPA Crop 

Production Region 13 with some production in Region 10. Mango is grown on a 

commercial scale throughout warm to cool subtropical and tropical areas of the world. 

Other commercial production regions include: a major fruit in all tropical countries 

including tropical and subtropical Asia, India, Burma, Malaysia, the Andaman Islands, 

the East Indies, the West Indies, the Malay Archipelago, Africa, China, Thailand, 

Malaya, Indonesia, Australia, Egypt, the Philippines, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Mexico, 

Central America and South America including Brazil. The top ten mango-producing 

countries include India, China, Thailand, Vietnam, Mexico, Indonesia, the Philippines, 

Nigeria, Pakistan, Guinea and Brazil. India is the world’s leading producer of mango. 

The top five mango-exporting countries include Mexico, India, Brazil, Peru and the 

Philippines. The top five mango importing countries include the U.S., the Netherlands, 

the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Bangladesh. Approximately 3.7 million 

hectares (9.2 million acres) of mangos are produced worldwide. In 2004, mango 

production was approximately 26.6 million tonnes (29.3 million tons). Average yields 

are 2 to 30 tonnes (2.2 to 33 tons) per hectare. Productive orchards can produce 22 to 25 

tonnes (24.2 to 28 tons) per hectare. Mango is ranked 7th in worldwide fruit production. 

Mango, horse:
77

Other production regions include Southeast Asia; Thailand, Indonesia, Sumatra, 

Java, Borneo, the Moluccas, Sulawesi, Malay Peninsula, Malaysia, Cambodia, Vietnam, 

Burma (Myanmar), Indochina, the Lesser Sunda Islands. Widely cultivated in its area of 

origin.

Mango, Saipan:

Other commercial production regions for fruit include Malesia, Malay peninsula, 

southern Vietnam, Christmas Island, Guam Islands, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, peninsular 

Thailand, Indochina, South Sulawesi, the Philippines on the south coast of Mindanao, the 

Sulu Archipelago and neighboring islands; Southeast Asia.

Mangosteen:

There are a few small plantings in Puerto Rico, South Florida, and Hawaii (5 

hectares or 12 acres in 1996). Adapted to EPA Crop Production Region 13. Other 

commercial production regions include: Central America including Honduras, 

Guatemala, and Panama; South America including Brazil and Ecuador; the Caribbean; 

Southeast Asia including Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Singapore, China, Myanmar, the 

Philippines, and Indonesia; Sri Lanka, southern India, northern Australia; Madagascar; 

warm subtropical regions; widely cultivated in the tropics. Mature trees can produce 200 

to 2,000 fruit per tree or 4 to 8 tonnes (4.4 to 8.8 tons) per hectare. Trees around 45 years 

of age can yield approximately 3,000 fruit per tree. Very old trees do not yield as well. 

The average yield in Thailand is 4.5 tonnes (5 tons) per hectare. 

Marang:

Production in U.S. is in Hawaii. (EPA Crop Production Region 13). Other 

production regions include: Southeast Asia including Indonesia, Borneo, Malaysia, 

Thailand and the Philippines; Australia; Brazil; introduced into neighboring countries; 

grown in the Tropics. Fruit is mostly cultivated in the Philippines and Malaysia for local 

markets in neighboring countries. A mature tree can produce an average of 180 fruit per 

year.

Marmalade-box:

Production in U.S. is in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Southern Florida. 

EPA Crop Production Region 13. Other production regions include: South America 

including northern Argentina, Colombia, Venezuela, Paraguay, Peru, Bolivia, and 

southeast Brazil; Central America, including Panama; Mexico; the West Indies including 

Cuba, Hispaniola, Guadeloupe, and Trinidad. 

Matisia:

Production in U.S. is in Florida. Other production regions include: Costa Rica, 

Panama; South America including the foothills of the Andes, the Amazon region, 
78

Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil and Southwestern Venezuela; Australia; a mature tree 

can produce 300 to 3,000 fruit. Trees can produce yields of 100 tonnes (110 tons) per 

hectare per year.

Mesquite:

Production in U.S. is in Hawaii, Southern U.S., Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin 

Islands. EPA Crop Production Region 13. Other production regions include: Northern 

and central Mexico, Central America including Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, 

Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama; South America including Venezuela, 

Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Argentina, Brazil and Peru; cultivated and naturalized 

in tropical Africa including Kenya, Senegal, South Africa, Uganda, Sudan, and Tanzania; 

Iraq, Iran, Southeast Asia including Brunei, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Laos, 

Malaysia, Vietnam, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Cambodia and Indonesia; Australia, 

the Indian subcontinent including India and Pakistan; the West Indies including the 

Dominican Republic, Trinidad, Tobago, Jamaica, the Bahamas, Cuba, Dominica, 

Grenada, Haiti and Barbados; Mascarenes. Unmanaged mesquite trees produce 2,000 

kilograms per hectare (4,409 pounds) of pods. For trees in savannas, 4,000 to 20,000 

kilograms per hectare (8,818 to 44,092 pounds) of pods are produced.

Mongongo fruit:

Production regions include: Southern Tanzania, southern DRC, Angola, Namibia, 

Botswana, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and northern South Africa.

Monkey-bread-tree:

Production regions include: Cape Verde, east and northeast tropical Africa, west 

and west-central tropical Africa, south tropical Africa, southern Africa, Madagascar, 

Oman, Egypt, Yemen, India, Sri Lanka; Java; Southeast Asia, Taiwan, the Caribbean, 

South America; Australia; widely naturalized in the tropics.

Monstera:

Production in U.S. is in Hawaii, California, and South Florida. EPA Crop 

Production Region 3, 10 and 13. Other commercial production regions include: Mexico; 

tropical South America including Brazil; Central America including Guatemala, Costa 

Rica and Panama; Portugal, Algeria; Australia; widely cultivated in the tropics.

Muriti:

Production regions include the Caribbean (Trinidad and Tobago), South America 

including Amazonia, Brazil, Venezuela, French Guiana, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and 

Bolivia. An individual palm can yield 200 kilograms (441 pounds) of fruit per year. 

From this quantity, 24 kilograms (53 pounds) of oil can be extracted. In Peru, harvests 

have reached 19 tonnes (21 tons) of fruit per hectare per year from plantations of 100 
79

palms per hectare, and a net of 190 kilograms (419 pounds) fruit / plant. Large stands of 

this palm occupy at least 1,000 square kilometers (247,104 acres) in the Amazon areas.

Paho:

Commercial production regions include Malesia, Indonesia, the Solomon Islands, 

New Britain, New Guinea (west and north), Moluccas, Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, 

and the Philippines (Luzon to Mindoro). 

Palmyra palm:

Production in U.S. is in southern Florida and Hawaii, but no yield data is 

available. EPA Crop Production Region 13. Other commercial production regions: 

Southeast Asia, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Cambodia, tropical Africa, Indochina, 

Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea. Each palm produces 6 to 12 bunches 

of approximately 50 fruit per year. An average crop in Sri Lanka is 350 fruit. 

Populations of palms cover thousands of hectares. 

Papaya:

Production in U.S. is in Florida, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin 

Islands; Florida produces fruits for the local market; Hawaii is the main producer for the 

U.S. A domestic production of 985 hectares (2,435 acres) was produced in 1995. Hawaii 

reported production of 14,288 tonnes (15,750 tons) in 2009. Florida had 121 hectares 

(300 acres) in 1995. Guam, US Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico reported production of 

2.4 tonnes (5,220 lbs), 5.4 tonnes (11,825 lbs), and 1,151 tonnes (25,383 cwt), 

respectively in 1992. EPA Crop Production Region 13. FAOSTAT reported that 15,200 

tonnes (16,755 tons) of papayas were produced in the US in 2008. Other commercial 

production regions include: the Caribbean including the Dominican Republic and 

Jamaica; Mexico, Central America including Nicaragua and Panama; and the 

northern/western/southern South America including Brazil; Asia including Thailand and 

Malaysia; Malacca, India, Sri Lanka, the Philippines; the South Pacific; Australia; 

tropical Africa; grown in all tropical countries and many subtropical regions of the world. 

Annual yields can range from 60 to 100 tonnes (66 to 110 tons) per hectare. Global 

production of papaya in 2002 was approximately 6 million tonnes (6,613,868 tons). 

Approximately 25% was produced by Brazil. Nigeria, India, and Mexico produced 11 to 

12% of the world’s production. Mexico was the most important exporter in 2001, 

exporting 74,033 tonnes (81,607 tons) (37.4% of world export). Other major exporters 

were Malaysia, Brazil, and Hawaii. World production of papayas in 2008 was 9,095,875 

tonnes (10,026,485 tons). 

Passionflower, Winged-stem:

Commercial production regions include the Amazon region including Brazil, 

Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, and is naturalized elsewhere.
80

Passionfruit:

Production in U.S. includes: Hawaii, Florida, California, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin 

Islands, Guam, and Western Samoa. In 1992, Florida reported 15 hectares (37 acres), 

Hawaii reported 6 hectares (15 acres) and California reported 5 hectares (12 acres). The 

U.S. harvested 117 tonnes (256,972 pounds) with about half from California. Passiflora 

edulis forma flavicarpa yields are between 44.8 tonnes (49.4 tons) per hectare per year in 

Hawaii. Passiflora edulis forma edulis is widely grown in California as far north as San 

Jose, the Monterey Bay Area and the San Francisco Bay Area. EPA Crop Production 

Region 10 and 13. Other commercial production regions: South Africa, Kenya, 

Zimbabwe, India, Sri Lanka, Australia, Israel, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, the 

Philippines, Guam; South America including Brazil, Venezuela, Surinam, Colombia, 

Paraguay, Argentina, Peru and Ecuador; Mexico; the Caribbean; Asia including Thailand, 

Taiwan; Java, Sumatra, Malaya; widely cultivated, naturalized in Macaronesia, and 

Galapagos; Commercial production is about 45,000 hectares (111,197 acres). Brazil 

grows 40,000 hectares (98,842 acres) and half of the production goes to pulp processing. 

Most fruit is converted into juice and about half of which (equivalent to 25,000 tonnes 

(27,558 tons) fresh fruit) enters world trade. About 1,000 tonnes (1,102 tons) of fresh 

fruit are exported. Ecuador exported 3,000 tonnes (3,307 tons) of concentrate in 1995. 

Sri Lanka produces 800 hectares (1,977 acres) and is the most important producer in 

Asia. Australia in the Pacific region produces approximately 550 hectares (1,359 acres). 

In 1998, Australia produced 2,900 tonnes (3,197 tons) of fruit and of this 900 tonnes (992 

tons) was used for processing. Papua New Guinea (80 hectares or 198 acres), Fiji (70 

hectares or 173 acres), and the Philippines (200 hectares or 494 acres) also produce 

passionfruit. Passiflora edulis forma flavicarpa is mainly grown in South America 

including Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Ecuador; widely cultivated; fruit is grown mainly in 

South America with approximately 3,000 hectares (7,413 acres) and annual exports of 

12,000 tonnes (13,228 tons), and 41.8 to 61.9 tonnes (46 to 68.2 tons) per hectare per 

year was produced in Malaysia. In most commercial orchards, yields are from 20 to 30 

tonnes (22 to 33 tons) per hectare per year. Yellow passionfruit has a yield of juice per 

fruit of 30 to 33 percent. Passiflora edulis forma edulis is grown in Brazil and southern 

South America; widely cultivated and naturalized in the tropics and subtropics. Yields 

are less vigorous compared to other types of passionfruit and range from 5 to 10 tonnes 

(5.5 to 11 tons) per hectare per year in Australia. Hybrids have yields up to 25 tonnes (28 

tons) per hectare per year. Purple passionfruit has a yield of juice per fruit of 45 to 50 %. 

Passionfruit, Banana

Production in U.S. is in Hawaii and California (EPA Crop Production Region 10 

and 13.). Other production regions include the Andes of South America including

Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, Bolivia; Central America; widely cultivated; 

naturalized in tropical & south Africa, tropical Asia, the Pacific, Australia, New Zealand, 

and India. There are 200 to 300 fruit per vine and 500,000 to 750,000 fruit per hectare 

(200,000 to 303,000 fruit per acre) can be produced. This is 14 to 21 tonnes (31,000 to 

47,000 pounds) per acre. 
81

Pawpaw, common:

Production in U.S. is in the Northeastern U.S. including Indiana, Michigan, New 

Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia; north-central U.S. including 

Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma; Southeastern U.S. including 

Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, 

Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia; South-Central U.S 

including Texas; California (San Jose), the Pacific Northwest. Yields are often low. 

Mature grafted trees can produce 2 to 23 kilograms (4 to 51 pounds) per tree. Across the 

U.S., small one hectare sized orchards exist. Most fruit is collected from wild stands in 

the forest. Asimina parviflora is grown in southeastern U.S. including North Carolina, 

Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, Tennessee, 

Virginia; South-Central U.S. including Texas. EPA Crop Production Regions 1, 2, 4, and 

5.Other commercial production regions include: Japan, Italy, China, Israel, Romania, 

Belgium, Portugal; and Canada. 

Pelipisan

Commercial production regions are in Indonesia including Borneo.

Pequi

Production regions include: Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, and Guyana. 

Trees can produce up to 2,000 fruit. Caryocar villosum: French Guiana, Brazil 

(Brazilian Amazonia), Ecuador, Peru; Tropical Asia; trees produce 300 to 6,000 fruit per 

year 

Persimmon, American:

Production in U.S. is in the Northeastern U.S. including Connecticut, Indiana, 

New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia; north central U.S. 

including Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma; southeastern U.S. 

including Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, 

Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia; SouthCentral U.S. including Texas. EPA Crop Production Regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.

Pineapple:

Production in U.S. is in Hawaii and Puerto Rico. Domestic production in Hawaii 

(8,417 hectares (20,800 acres), 1995), Guam (45 tonnes (50 tons), Virgin Islands (0.65 

tonnes (1,437 lbs), and Puerto Rico (53,310 tonnes (58,764 tons); U.S. production in 

1995 was 312,979 tonnes (345,000 tons). In 2008, U.S. production was 172,500 tonnes 

(190,149 tons). Hawaii produces about 90 percent of the world’s canned pineapple. EPA 

Crop Production Region 13. Other commercial production regions include: Central 

America including Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras; Mexico, South America including 

Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina; the Caribbean including the Bahamas, Cuba, Trinidad, 
82

Martinique, the Dominican Republic; the Philippines, Guam, Taiwan, Thailand,

Malaysia, China, Java, Africa including Guinea, Ghana, South Africa and the Ivory

Coast; India, Australia; cultivated in 79 countries in the tropics and subtropics. Yields 

vary and range from 37,143 tonnes (40,943 tons) in Sudan to 466,667 tonnes (514,412 

tons) in Australia. Thailand is the world’s largest producer of pineapple followed by the 

Philippines, Brazil, China, and India. World production of pineapple in 2008 was 

19,166,560 tonnes (21,127,516 tons).

Pitaya:

Production in U.S. of Hylocereus ocamponis (Roja pitaya) is in Puerto Rico. EPA 

Crop Production Region 13. Other commercial production regions include Hylocereus 

megalanthus (yellow pitaya): Western South America including Colombia, Ecuador, 

Bolivia, and Peru; Israel. Hylocereus polyrhizus (pitahaya): Central America including 

Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Panama; South America including Brazil, Colombia, 

Ecuador, and Peru; Mexico; Israel. Hylocereus ocamponis (Roja pitaya): Northern 

Mexico; Guatemala, Colombia, Bolivia. Hylocereus triangularis (amarilla pitaya): the 

Caribbean including Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Jamaica. 

Plantain (See banana):

Pomegranate:

Production in the U.S. is in Hawaii, California, Arizona, and Florida. In 1994, 

California reported 1,169 hectares (2,889 acres) with 11,428 tonnes (12,597 tons). EPA 

Crop Production Region 10 and 13. Commercial production regions include: the Middle 

East including Iran, Israel, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, the Himalayas, and 

India; Indonesia; southeastern Europe; the Mediterranean region including northern 

Africa, Egypt, Greece, Spain, Portugal; Mexico; Brazil; western Asia, Southeast Asia 

including China, Malaya, Bangladesh, Burma and Japan; Caucasus, Soviet Middle Asia; 

the West Indies including Bermuda; tropical Africa; occasionally grown in the Bahamas, 

warm areas of Central (Honduras) and South America; cultivated and naturalized 

elsewhere. A good crop produces approximately 10 tonnes per hectare or 100 to 200 fruit 

per tree. 

Poshte:

Production in U.S. is in some experimental areas in Florida. Other commercial 

production regions include: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico; introduced into 

Australia; fruit are high-yielding.

Prickly pear:

Production in U.S. for Opuntia ficus-indica (California, Arizona, Texas, Hawaii; 

grown widely in home gardens and widely cultivated and naturalized in small 

commercial plantings in southwestern and southern U.S.; Opuntia engelmannii var. 
83

lindheimeri: distributional range includes Oklahoma, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, 

New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, California, Arizona, and Texas. EPA Crop Production 

Region 13. Other commercial production regions include: Opuntia ficus-indica: Chile 

and Mexico supply most of the US imports; widely cultivated and naturalized in South 

America including Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia; Central America; 

S. Europe, the Mediterranean including Italy, Sicily, North Africa, Spain, Greece; 

Turkey, Jordan, Israel, Egypt; Africa including South Africa, Ethiopia, Algeria, Morocco 

and Tunisia; Asia, Australia, New Zealand, the West Indies, and Macaronesia. 

Approximately 100,000 hectares (247,105 acres) are used for fruit production in 

commercial plantations worldwide. Mexico, which is the greatest consumer of the fruit, 

produces approximately 400,000 tonnes (440,925 tons) fresh mass of fruit per year on 

more than 70,000 hectares (172,974 acres). Mexico exports more than 2,000 tonnes 

(2,205 tons) of fruit annually, mostly to the U.S. Italy (Sicily) is the second most 

important country for producing the fruit. Italy contains 3,500 hectares (8,649 acres) of 

intensively managed plantations that produce approximately 70,000 tonnes (77,162 tons) 

of fruit annually. An additional 10,000 plus hectares (24,711 acres) produce some fruit. 

Other countries including Argentina, Chile, South Africa, and Tunisia grow over 1,000 

hectares (2,471 acres) for fruit production. Major production also occurs in Brazil, 

Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Spain, Greece, Turkey, Jordan, Israel, Egypt, Ethiopia, Algeria, 

Morocco, and the U.S. The plant is cultivated on over 1.6 million hectares (3,953,686 

acres) for forage and fodder. Fruit yields vary and range from 4 tonnes (4.4 tons) of fruit 

fresh mass/year/hectare (non-irrigated, marginal regions) to 30 tonnes (33 tons) 

/year/hectare (intensive management). Opuntia engelmannii var. lindheimeri: 

naturalized in South Africa and Mexico including the Mojave, Sonoran and Chihuahuan 

deserts. 

Pulasan:

Mostly cultivated in Malaysia and Thailand. The plant requires ultra-tropical 

conditions, which limits its production to extreme South Florida, Hawaii, and Puerto 

Rico. Other production regions include: Costa Rica, Honduras; Southeast Asia including 

Malaya, Thailand, Singapore, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Moluccas, India, Myanmar, Assam, 

Indonesia, Malaysia, Burma, Philippines; Northern Australia; also cultivated. Mostly

cultivated in Malaysia and Thailand.

Quandong:

Commercial production regions include: Australia including southwestern and 

central Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, the Northern Territory, and Victoria. A 

mature tree can produce approximately 10 to 23 kilograms (22 to 51 pounds) of fruit.

Rambutan:

Production in U.S. is in Hawaii. In Hawaii, 24 hectares (60 acres) of rambutan 

were grown in 1993. Hawaii produced 120 tonnes (132 tons) of fruit that was consumed 

locally and shipped to the U.S. and Canada. EPA Crop Production Region 13. Other 
84

commercial production regions include: Tropical Southeast Asia, Seychelles, China, 

Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Cameroon, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Papua New 

Guinea, the Philippines, India, Surinam, New Guinea, tropical Africa, Zanzibar, 

Madagascar, Liberia, Tanzania, northern Australia, Central & South America, Honduras, 

Panama, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico; Trinidad, Cuba. 

Major and smaller centers of production do not regularly update production data. Total 

world production is about 1.5 to 2.0 million tonnes (1,653,467 to 2,204,623 tons) per year 

and varies widely. Over 200,000 hectares (494,211 acres) are grown. Thailand, 

Indonesia, and Malaysia produce 80% of the total world production. Australia produces 

1,000 tonnes (1,102 tons) of fruit and 100 tonnes (110 tons) of this fruit is exported to 

Japan. Approximately 1,000 to 6,000 fruit are produced per tree per year. Yields are 

approximately 2 to 20 tonnes (2.2 to 22 tons) per hectare. 

Saguaro

Plants do not thrive in cultivation and are mostly collected in the wild. 

Production in the U.S. is in Southwestern United States (Arizona, California). Grown 

from extreme southeastern California east to south central Arizona and south into 

northern Sonora. Other production region is northern Mexico, and each plant can 

produce over 100 fruit.

Salak:

Production regions: Southeast Asia; Indonesia including Java, Sumatra, and the 

Moluccas; Malaysia, Thailand, New Guinea, the Philippines, Australia (Queensland); 

Ponape Island (Caroline Archipelago); Fiji Islands; cultivated and naturalized elsewhere 

in tropical Australasia. Data on production and cultivated area is variable. In Java, 

production ranged from 7,000 to 50,000 tonnes (7,716 to 55,116 tons) in the 1980s. A 

mature palm bears 20 kilograms (44 pounds) of fruit per year or 5 to 15 tonnes (5.5 to

16.5 tons) per hectare.

Sapodilla:

Production in U.S. is in Florida (12 hectares (30 acres)-1995), Guam, Hawaii (2 

growers, 11 trees and 0.4 hectares (1 acre)), southern California, the U.S. Virgin Islands, 

and Puerto Rico. Florida produces annual yields of 20 to 30 tonnes (22 to 33 tons) per 

hectare. (EPA Crop Production Region 13). Other commercial production regions: 

Mexico (Yucatan region), Central America including Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, 

Nicaragua, Panama, Costa Rica, El Salvador; South America including Guyana, Surinam, 

Uruguay, Paraguay, Peru, Venezuela, Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, 

Ecuador; southern and Southeast Asia including India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Vietnam, 

Singapore, Malaysia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Brunei, Cambodia, the Philippines; the 

Caribbean Islands (Bermuda, Cuba, Barbados, Grenada, Cayman Islands, Jamaica, the 

Bahamas); French Guiana; Israel, Australia; widely cultivated in the tropics. Cultivation 

is greatest in India (24,000 hectares (59,305 acres)), and Mexico. 20 to 25 tonnes (22 to 
85

28 tons) per hectare are produced in the Philippines and 20 to 80 tonnes (22 to 88 tons) 

per hectare are produced in India. Mature trees produce 1,000 to 2,500 fruit annually. 

Sapote, black:

Cultivated mostly in Mexico and Guatemala. Other production regions include 

Central America including Guatemala; South America including Colombia and Brazil; 

the Philippines, Malacca, Mauritius, the Moluccas, Sulawesi, Asia; the West Indies 

including Cuba and the Dominican Republic; Réunion Island, Australia; cultivated 

elsewhere in the Tropics. No yield data is available. EPA Crop Production Region 13.

Sapote, green:

Production regions includes: Central America including Guatemala, El Salvador, 

Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama, and Nicaragua; Mexico; tropical America. No yield data 

is available. Individual trees can produce 34 to 45 kilograms (75 to 99 pounds) of fruit.

Sapote, mamey:

Production in U.S. is in south Florida, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and other warm 

subtropical areas of the U.S. In 1995, 129 hectares (318 acres) was grown in south 

Florida. EPA Crop Production Region 13. Fruit is grown and harvested commercially

throughout the distributed range including southern Mexico, Central America, south 

Florida, the Caribbean, Australia, Cuba and Southeast Asia. Other commercial 

production regions: Mexico, Central America including Costa Rica, Guatemala, and 

Nicaragua; South America including Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela; the 

Caribbean including Cuba, Barbados, Trinidad, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, 

and the Dominican Republic; Southeast Asia including the Philippines, Indonesia, 

Malaysia, and Vietnam; Australia, Israel, Spain; widely cultivated elsewhere in tropics; 

no yield data is available. Mature trees can produce 200 to 500 fruit per year. 

Sapote, white:

Production in U.S. is in California, Florida, and Hawaii. (EPA Crop Production 

Region 10 and 13). Other production regions include: Northern and Central Mexico, 

Central America including Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala; South 

America including Brazil; the Caribbean including the Bahamas; Australia, the East 

Indies, South Africa, the Mediterranean region including Spain, Portugal, southern 

France, and Italy; India, Israel, New Zealand, drier areas of Southeast Asia; distributed in 

most subtropical and cool tropical areas of the world; no yield data is available. Large 

mature trees can produce 900 to 2,700 kilograms (1,984 to 5,952 pounds) of fruit. 

Sataw:

Production regions include Southeast Asia such as Thailand, Indonesia (Java and 

Sumatra), Brunei, Borneo, Malaysia, Malay Peninsula, and the Philippines. 
86

Satinleaf:

Production in U.S. includes Florida, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (EPA Crop 

Production Region 13). Other production regions include the Caribbean (Bahamas, 

Cuba, Dominican Republic, the greater Antilles, Haiti, Jamaica); French Polynesia, 

Central America including Belize; cultivated elsewhere in the West Indies. 

Screw-pine:

Pandanus tectorius is a tropical to subtropical coastal species of the Pacific that thrives at 

elevations of sea level to 20 meters (66 feet). Production in U.S.: Hawaii; American 

Samoa. EPA Crop Production Region 10 and 13. Other production regions: Southeast 

Asia; region of Malesia (Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines), Australia, 

Northwestern Pacific (Micronesia), south-central Pacific (French Polynesia), 

southwestern Pacific (New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, Fiji, Vanuatu); 8 to 12 fruit are 

produced per year. 

Soncoya:

Production in U.S. is in Puerto Rico (EPA Region 13). Other production regions

are in Central Mexico, Central America including Panama; South America including 

Venezuela and Colombia; the Philippines. 

Soursop:

Commercial plantings mainly occur in the Philippines, India, the Caribbean 

(Jamaica), Madeira, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and South America. Also grown 

extensively in Mexico, where orchards can reach 20 hectares (49 acres). Grown widely

on subsistence farms in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands and as a home garden 

plant. Fruit has been consumed since ancient times. Production in U.S.: Puerto Rico, 

Florida, Hawaii. An important fruit in Puerto Rico (104 tonnes from 20 hectares (115 

tons from 50 acres) in 1992 CENSUS). It is too tender for culture in the continental U.S., 

except in the warmest parts of Florida. In Hawaii, approximately 43 to 83 kilograms (95 

to 183 pounds) are produced per tree. EPA Crop Production Region 13. Other 

commercial production regions include: South and Central America including Mexico, 

Costa Rica, Brazil, Peru, Argentina, Colombia, and Venezuela; Madeira; eastern and 

western Africa; Southeast Asia including southeast China, Surinam, Malaysia, Malaya, 

Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Guam, India, Sri Lanka; the Pacific Islands including the 

Philippines; the Caribbean including Cuba, Bermuda, the Dominican Republic, Grenada, 

Jamaica, San Domingo, and the Bahamas; Australia; widely cultivated and naturalized; 

pantropic. Approximately 2,000 hectares (4,942 acres) were planted in Brazil. In 

Surinam, yields are 54 kilograms (119 pounds) per tree at 278 trees per hectare. In 

Puerto Rico, 2,268 to 3,629 kilograms (5,000 to 8,000 pounds) are produced per acre. 

Individual trees can produce 12 to 24 fruit per tree. No world production, export, and 

import figures are available. 
87

Spanish lime:

Production in U.S. is in Puerto Rico, Florida, and Hawaii. EPA Crop Production 

Region 13. Other production regions: West Indies including Cuba, Haiti, the Bahamas, 

Jamaica, Trinidad, and the Dominican Republic; the lowlands of Central America 

including Nicaragua; South America including Venezuela, Margarita Island, Brazil, 

Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Surinam, and Colombia; the Philippines; Zanzibar; 

widely cultivated in the tropics. In 2002, the Dominican Republic exported 2,045 tonnes 

(2,254 tons). Over 1,700 tonnes (1,874 tons) of this fruit was imported into the U.S. 

Canada and Europe imported the remainder of the fruit. 

Star apple:

Production in U.S.: Florida, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico and 0.4 hectare (1 acre) is 

grown in Florida. EPA Production Region 13. Other production regions include the 

West Indies including Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, and Bermuda; Central America including 

Panama and Guatemala; South America including Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil; 

Mexico Southeast Asia including Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, the 

Philippines, India, and Sri Lanka; Africa; Australia; widely cultivated and naturalized in 

the tropics. In 1987, the Philippines grew 7,600 hectares (18,780 acres) (25,389 tonnes 

(27,987 tons)). In India, trees can bear 68 kilograms (150 pounds) of fruit per year. 

Yields can reach 1,000 fruit per tree or 60 to 113 kilograms (132 to 249 pounds) per tree. 

There are no reliable worldwide figures available for the area grown or production. 

Sugar apple:

Production in U.S. is in Florida, Hawaii, Guam, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands. 

There is increasing production in South Florida (12 hectares (30 acres) in 1994). Guam 

harvested 458 kilograms (1,010 pounds) in 1992. EPA Crop Production Region 13. 

Other commercial production regions include tropical America including Mexico, Central 

America, South America including Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Uruguay, 

Venezuela, Peru, French Guiana, Guyana, Colombia, and Argentina, and the Caribbean 

including the Bahamas, Cuba, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Martinique, Dominican Republic, 

Grenada, Jamaica, Barbados, and Bermuda; Asia including Taiwan, Vietnam, Surinam, 

Thailand, Malaysia, China, Cambodia, Indonesia, and India, Africa, Egypt, Greece, the 

lowlands of Palestine, the Pacific; Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Polynesia. 

Sugar apples are important fruits in many tropical areas. Taiwan (especially Taitung 

County) produces the most fruit. The average annual production in Taiwan was 50,005 

tonnes (55,121 tons) from 4,978 hectares (12,300 acres) and mature trees can produce up 

to 100 fruit per tree. 

Sun Sapote:

Production in U.S. is in Florida and Hawaii. EPA Crop Production Region 13.

Other production regions include Central Mexico, Central America including Panama 
88

and Costa Rica; South America including Colombia and Brazil; the Philippines. A 

mature tree can produce 300 to 400 fruit.

Tamarind-of-the-Indies:

Production regions include the northeast tropical Africa (Ethiopia, Sudan), east 

tropical Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda), west-central tropical Africa (Cameroon, 

Central African Republic, Zaire), west tropical Africa (Ghana, Nigeria), south tropical 

Africa (Malawi), South Africa, Madagascar, Asia; cultivated in India, northern Australia, 

and Trinidad; naturalized elsewhere in the tropics; no yield data is available.

Velvet Tamarind:

Production regions are ion Southeast Asia including Thailand, Indonesia (Java, 

Kalimantan, Sumatra, Borneo) and Malaysia.

Wampi:

Production in U.S. is in Hawaii; experimental plants in Florida and Puerto Rico. 

EPA Crop Production Region 13. Other production regions include Southeast Asia and 

Indo-China including China, Vietnam, Malaya, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, 

Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, the Philippines; Australia, India, Sri Lanka, Central America, 

South America including Brazil; experimental plants in Jamaica and St. Croix; widely

cultivated in the tropics and subtropics. Mature trees can yield 45 kilograms (100 

pounds) of fruit in one season. 

White star apple:

Production regions: are in the northeast tropical Africa (Sudan), east tropical 

Africa (Kenya, Uganda), west-central tropical Africa (Cameroon, Gabon, and Zaire), and 

west tropical Africa (Benin, Cote D’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone). 

Wild loquat:

Production regions: include East Tropical Africa (Tanzania), west-central tropical 

Africa (Zaire), south tropical Africa (Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe); 

Angola, Burundi, northern Namibia, northern Botswana, northern South Africa, and 

south of the Democratic Republic of Congo; Madagascar. Fruit production varies by tree 

size, populations, and seasons, but mature trees can produce over 2,000 fruit per tree.

SPECIFIC CULTURAL PRACTICES AND CULTIVATION OF THE TROPICAL 

AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT – INEDIBLE PEEL: 
89

The majority of tropical fruits develop on trees or shrubs, while a small portion of 

tropical fruits grow on vines on trellises (for example, dragon fruit). Since tropical and 

subtropical fruits are grown in similar climates, these crops have similar production 

methods. Specific cultural practices for the tropical and subtropical fruit inedible peel are 

discussed below:

Açaí

Açaí is a tall-slow growing, slender palm tree that reaches a height of 15 to 25 meters (49 

to 82 feet). The tree suckers at the base, resulting in large clusters of trunks (25 or more 

per tree). Trunks are 7 to 20 centimeters (3 to 8 inches) in diameter. Aerial roots are 

found on trees growing in swampy areas. Açaí is indigenous to the Amazon rainforest. 

The crown contains 8 to 14 leaves that are long pinnate and 2 to 4 meters (7 to 13 feet) 

long. Leaf bases are tightly sheathing and form a crown shaft that is green, yellow, red or 

purple in color. Each leaf contains 50 to 62 widely spaced leaflets that are pendulous on 

the rachis and reach 1 meter (3 feet) in length. The inflorescence emerges from below 

the crown shaft, contains a central rachis and approximately 54 lateral branches and 

reaches 1 meter (3 feet) long. Branches are covered with light brownish-white hairs. 

Each branch bears clusters of two male flowers and one female flower. Terminal 

branches contain male flowers. Male flowers are purplish and 0.45 by 0.27 centimeters 

(0.2 by 0.1 inch) in size. Female flowers are purple to light brown and 0.32 by 0.26 

centimeters (0.2 by 0.1 inch) in size. Both male and female flowers are unstalked. 

Pollination is by small bees, flies and beetles. The small, round, 1 to 2 cm (0.4 to 0.8 

inch) in diameter fruit is a drupe that contains a single large seed surrounded by stringy 

fibrous sheaths and a thin oily coating. Immature fruit are green and ripens to dark 

purple when mature. Some fruit are green at maturity and are known as white açaí. Four 

to eight bunches of fruit are produced each year per trunk. The fruit skin is smooth and 

shiny. The fruit pulp is creamy to oily and sweet. The flavor resembles raspberries, 

blackberries, or nuts with a metallic aftertaste. This fruit is a major food resource in 

tropical America. Old trunks are removed for palm cabbage; the tree is the main source 

of palm hearts. 

Acerola:

A large, bushy evergreen small tree or shrub growing up to 6 meters (20 feet) tall 

and wide. Native to the Caribbean, Central America, or Northern South America. The 

trunk diameter is 10 centimeters (4 inches). Branches are minutely hairy, contain many

lenticels, and can be erect or spreading and drooping. The tree may have a semiprostrate, compact, upright or open growth habit. Leaves are simple, entire, opposite, 

elliptical, oblong, obovate, oval, ovate or narrowly oblanceolate in shape and 2-7 

centimeters (0.75 to 2.75 inches) long by 2.5 to 3.8 centimeters (1 to 1.5 inches) wide; 

young leaves and petioles are hairy; mature leaves are dark green and hairless. Pink, 

lavender or white flowers are borne in clusters in leaf axils on new terminals and on 

lateral spurs. Each flower contains 5 petals, 10 stamens; flowers range in size from 2.0 to 

2.5 centimeters (0.8 to 1 inch) wide. Pollination is by insects. Bright-red, orange-red, or 
90

deep purplish red fruit cherry-like, oblate to round in shape, 3-lobed, 1 to 3.5 centimeters 

(0.4 to 1.4 inch) wide and 3 to 10 grams (0.1 to 0.4 ounce) in weight. The skin is thin, 

delicate, smooth and glossy. Pulp is yellow to orange in color, juicy, and acid to subacid. 

Individual fruit contain three small, rounded to triangular ridged stones that may contain 

seeds. Fruit is borne singly or in 2’s or 3’s. Currently, the plant is not heavily cultivated. 

Fruit is highly perishable and easily bruised. Ripe fruit and fruit turning color should be 

harvested every other day. In Puerto Rico individual trees may yield 13.5 – 28 kg. In 

Florida a planting of 300 trees produced 2,856 – 23,270 kg of fruit from March to 

November. Fruit is eaten fresh or processed into puree and juice; high in vitamin C 

content. 

African plum:

A medium-sized deciduous, nitrogen-fixing tree growing 8 to 20 meters (26 to 66 

feet) high. The tree contains a dense, rounded crown, and is native to the hot, tropical 

climate of Africa. The bark is pale brown to grayish white with vertical fissures. Leaves 

are thick, leathery, dark green, opposite, glabrous, and 14 to 34 centimeters (5.5 to 13 

inches) long. Each leaf contains 5 leaflets on stalks 6-14 centimeters (2 to 5.5 inches) 

long. Leaflets are entire, ovate, obovate-elliptic or oblong in shape, contain rounded tips, 

and range in size from 8 to 22 centimeters (3 to 9 inches) long by 2 to 9 centimeters (0.8 

to 3.5 inches) wide. Flowers are white and tinged purple and occur in dense opposite and 

axillary cymes. Fruit are oblong, up to 3 cm (1.2 inches) long, and turn from green to 

purplish-black as they ripen. The skin is smooth and shiny. The pulp is starchy black. 

Each fruit contains one hard conical seed that measures 1.5 to 2 centimeters (0.6 to 0.8 

inch) long and 1 to 1.2 centimeters (0.4 to 0.5 inch) wide. Fruit is sweet and tastes like 

prunes. Fruit can be candied, made into jam or eaten fresh; leaves, pods, and seeds are 

used for fodder; leaves are used in cooking; roots and fruit are used for medicinal 

purposes; bark is used for dye; wood is used for construction purposes and fuel. Grown 

around homes. 

Abiu:

A small to medium size evergreen tree that grows to a height of 6 to 12 meters (20 

to 39 feet). Some trees may reach up to 35 meters (115 feet) high, and is native to South 

America, specifically Western Amazonia. The tree is narrow when young and spreads up 

to 10 meters (33 feet) in diameter when mature. The crown is pyramidal to round in 

shape. In productive areas, the tree has a densely leafed crown. The trunk of large trees 

is fluted. Bark is rough, scaling, fissured, grey, grayish-brown or dark reddish-brown in 

color and contains white to reddish latex. Leaves are alternate, glossy, smooth or slightly

hairy, dark green above and pale underneath, entire, pointed at both ends, ovate-oblong, 

obovate or elliptic in shape, and 10 to 20 centimeters (4 to 8 inches) long by 3 to 6 

centimeters (1.2 to 2.4 inches) wide. Leaves cluster at the end of the shoot. The acute 

apex of the leaf is curved. The petiole is 0.2 to 2.3 centimeters (0.08 to 0.9 inch) long. 

Slightly scented, cylindrical-shaped, 4- to 5-lobed, white to greenish flowers are almost 

sessile and occur solitary or in clusters of 2 to 5 along the branches between the shoot tip 

and the trunk in the leaf axils. Flowers are enclosed by two bracts and four light-green 
91

sepals. The corolla is white, cylindrical, encloses four stamens, and measures 0.5 

centimeters (0.2 inch) long. Flowers contain both male and female reproductive organs. 

Individual flowers measure 0.4 to 0.8 centimeters (0.2 to 0.3 inch) long. Some trees 

require cross-pollination. Pollination is by insects. Yellow fruit is ellipsoid, ovoid, or 

spherical in shape, 4 to 12 centimeters (1.6 to 5 inches) long, and 50 to 250 grams (2 to 9 

ounces) in weight. Some fruit can weigh up to 1,000 grams (35 ounces). Fruit grows 

solitary on the tree. When immature, the skin is downy. Skin of mature fruit is smooth, 

thin, tough, leathery, and 0.5 centimeters (0.2 inch) thick. The pulp is translucent to 

whitish in color, and jelly-like in consistency. The flavor is sweet to bland. Some 

believe the taste resembles caramel. Each fruit contains one to five large, oblong, shiny

black seeds. Immature fruit is green and contains sticky white latex. When mature, the 

latex is not present in the pulp but remains in the peel. Fruit has been cultivated for 

centuries. Propagation is by seed and grafting. Seeds should be washed, dried in the 

shade and planted 5 centimeters (2 inches) deep in fertile soil. Germination occurs from 

15 to 50 days. When the seedlings are 30 to 40 centimeters (12 to 16 inches) high, the 

seedling is planted in the permanent location. Most propagation is by seed. However, 

seeds do not remain viable for a long period of time and trees grown from seed result in 

great variation in form, yield and fruit quality. Although grafting results in uniform trees, 

grafting is difficult due to latex accumulation. Trees should be planted 7 by 7 meters (23 

by 23 feet) apart. Young trees require staking, irrigation, fertilizer, and shade for the first 

6 months. Plants require occasional pruning, fertilizer after harvest, and irrigation during 

the dry months. Fruit are harvested when half yellow. Fruit can be stored for one week 

at 12 °C (54 °F). It is not widely commercially grown.

Aisen:

Evergreen shrub 1 to 5 meters (3 to 16 feet) high with a dense, rounded crown. 

Grows in open scrub or savanna woodlands and dry lands; can also form a thick 

understory in woodlands and dry forests in Africa. Blackish-grey bark is smooth, but 

somewhat crumbly. Leaves are alternate and stiff, ovate or elliptic in shape, 9 to 14 

centimeters (3.5 to 5.5 inches) long and 2 to 4 centimeters (0.8 to 1.6 inches) wide. 

Inflorescence is a terminal corymb 3 to 5 centimeters (1 to 2 inches) long. Flowers are 

hairy with 4 greenish-white to yellowish sepals ranging in size from 0.8 to 0.9 

centimeters (0.3 to 0.4 inch) in diameter. Fruit is a spherical berry, 1 to 1.5 centimeters 

(0.4 to 0.6 inch) in diameter. Mature yellow fruits are found in small bunches of 2 to 3. 

Skin is hard and slightly pubescent. After being husked, the pea-like berry is consumed. 

Pulp is translucent and jelly-like. Each fruit contains 1-2 flattened seeds. Fruit is used as 

a famine food and can be fermented into beer; seeds are used as a coffee substitute. 

Other uses include fuel, wood, pesticides, medicinal purposes, and natural coagulants for 

water purification in Africa.

Akee apple:

A fast-growing medium to large evergreen tree that reaches a height of 8 to 20 

meters (26 to 66 feet), and is native to tropical west African forests. The tree contains a 

large, moderately dense crown and stiff, spreading branches. The trunk is short and 
92

measures 1.8 meters (6 feet) in diameter. The bark is gray and smooth. Bright green 

leaves are large, smooth, alternate, elliptic, coarsely pinnate and 30 centimeters (12 

inches). Leaves contain three to five pairs of leaflets. Leaflets are green, glossy on the 

upper surface, dull, pale and finely hairy on the underside, opposite or sub-opposite, 

elliptical, oblong-obovate, or oblong in shape, rounded at the base, short-pointed at the 

apex, shortly acuminate, and 6 to 30 centimeters (2 to 12 inches) long by 7 centimeters (3 

inches) wide. The upper leaflets are the longest. Flowers occur in pendulous, pubescent 

compound racemes that are 4 to 17.5 centimeters (1.6 to 7 inches) long. Individual 

flowers are showy, creamy-white to greenish in color, hairy, fragrant, small, and 0.5 

centimeters (0.2 inch) long. Each flower contains a five- to six-parted light green calyx

and five petals. Bisexual and male flowers occur on the same plant. The main 

pollinators are insects, including bees. Large, red and yellow to orange-yellow fruit is a 

fleshy, dehiscent capsule that is pear-shaped, occurs in clusters of 3 to 10, and measures 5 

to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) long and 4 to 5 centimeters (1.6 to 2 inches) in diameter. 

Individual fruit weigh 70 to 150 grams (2 to 5 ounces) and hang on long stalks from the 

tips of the branches. Each capsule contains three to four chambers that each contains a 

large, glossy, rounded, smooth, hard, black seed. The seed is embedded in the kidneyshaped, spongy, waxy, cream-colored aril. Each aril is 3 to 4.5 centimeters (1.2 to 2 

inches) long by 2.5 to 3.5 centimeters (1 to 1.4 inches) wide. There are two main types of 

arils: a soft yellow aril known as “butter” and a hard cream-colored aril known as 

“cheese”. The pink, fibrous tissue extends into the groove between the two lobes of the 

aril and connects the aril to the seed. The skin is smooth, shiny to waxy and leathery. 

The flavor of the aril is rich, nutty and buttery. Immature fruit is green. When mature, 

the fruit splits lengthwise, exposing the aril. The light dispels hypoglycin, a highly toxic 

substance. Fruit may be consumed only after dehiscing naturally on the tree. One of the 

most commonly planted trees in Jamaica. It is the national fruit of Jamaica.

Atemoya:

A semi-deciduous, fast-growing, small to medium tree that reaches a height of 3 

to 10 meters (10 to 33 feet). Similar in appearance to the cherimoya. A hybrid of the 

cherimoya and sugar apple that was made by P.J. Wester at the USDA subtropical 

laboratory of Miami, Florida in 1908. The trunk is short, and the canopy is open, 

symmetrical, round and dense. Branches are drooping. Leaves are alternate, leathery, 

slightly hairy, simple, entire, elliptical, ovate or lanceolate in shape, and 10 to 20 

centimeters (4 to 8 inches) long by 4 to 8 centimeters (1.6 to 3 inches) wide. Vegetative 

buds are subpetiolar. Trees are dormant during late winter to early spring. Bud break 

occurs during the late spring. Yellowish green flowers are long-stalked, triangular in 

shape, contain two series of three petals, and are 6 centimeters (2.4 inches) long by 4 to 5 

centimeters (1.5 to 2 inches) wide. The outer series of petals are thick and fleshy. 

Flowers are borne in the axils of the leaves singly or in clusters of two or three on oneyear-old wood or new shoots. Buds are produced at the same time as the current season’s 

shoot growth. Flowers contain both male and female reproductive organs. Female 

flowers open from 2 to 4pm and convert to the male stage approximately 27 hours later. 

Some varieties require hand-pollination in order to obtain high yields. Self-pollination is 

rare. Beetles are the main insect pollinators. Dark green, light green, or pale bluish-
93

green fruit is a pseudocarp that grows solitary on the tree, measures 10 centimeters (4 

inches) long, 9.5 centimeters (3.75 inches) wide, 8 to 15 centimeters (3 to 6 inches) in 

diameter, and 300 to 900 grams (11 to 32 ounces) or more in weight. The shape of the 

fruit can be round, ovoid, conical or heart-shaped. The knobby rind is 0.3 centimeters 

(0.125 inch) thick and is covered with fused, firm, pliable, smooth to pointed U-shaped 

areoles. The pulp is white in color, fine-textured, custard-like and solid. The flavor is 

sweet, subacid and resembles the cherimoya. 10 to 40 seeds are distributed throughout 

the pulp and are dark brown, hard, smooth, cylindrical, 2 centimeters (0.75 inch) long and 

0.8 centimeters (5/16 inch) wide. Popular in the Americas. Fruits may split when the 

weather is rainy during the ripening period. Propagated by seed, budding and grafting. 

Atemoyas for rootstocks are raised from seed. Germination occurs in 4 weeks. At one 

year of age, seedlings are planted in the nursery. Whip and cleft grafting is performed 

most. Cuttings should be taken at the end of the cool season. Rooting occurs in 8 to 12 

weeks and potting occurs in 16 to 20 weeks. Cherimoya is a good rootstock for atemoya. 

Transplanting should occur when trees are 30 to 46 centimeters (12 to 18 inches) and 

dormant. Trees should be planted 15 centimeters (6 inches) above the ground, irrigated 

and protected from sun and wind. In Australia and Florida, trees should be planted 4 to 6 

meters (13 to 20 feet) apart within the row and 6 to 8 meters (20 to 26 feet) between 

rows. Trees should be pruned, irrigated and fertilized. Specific temperatures, humidity, 

pruning, irrigation, and pollination factors control productivity and growth. Mature green 

fruit are harvested every 3 to 7 days by clipping the fruit from the branch. Fruit must be 

picked when creamy lines appear around the areoles. If picked too early, fruit darkens 

and shrivels. Because fruit is highly perishable, it is usually shipped by air. Fruit should 

be stored at 10 to 13 °C (50 to 55 °F) and 90 to 95% relative humidity. Fruit can be 

stored for at least 3 weeks. 

Avocado:

An evergreen tree that varies in height from 15 to 18 meters (49 to 59 feet). Tree 

shape varies from tall and upright to wide and spreading with multiple branches, and is 

native to the lowlands of Central America, South America and Mexico. A food source 

since 8,000 BC. The trunk is 30 to 60 centimeters (12 to 24 inches) in diameter. Leaves 

are dark green, smooth, spirally arranged, simple, entire, alternate, elliptic, oval, obovate, 

ovate or lanceolate in shape, variable in size and 10 to 13 centimeters (4 to 5 inches) wide 

by 20 to 25 centimeters (8 to 10 inches) long. All or some leaves are shed during 

flowering and are quickly replaced by new leaves. New leaves occur in flushes. Pale 

green, greenish white or yellowish-green fragrant flowers are small and borne on 

multibranched axillary panicles terminating in a shoot bud. Flowers contain both male 

and female reproductive organs. Individual flowers lack petals but contain 2 whorls of 3 

perianth lobes, nine stamens, a pair of nectaries and one pistil. Approximately 1 to 2 

million flowers is produced on each tree. Flowers are placed into 2 groups. Type ‘A’ 

flowers open in the morning for 2 to 3 hours as female flowers, close at noon, and reopen 

the next day in the afternoon for 3 to 4 hours as male flowers. Type ‘B’ flowers open in 

the afternoon as female flowers, close in the evening and reopen the next morning as 

male flowers. Cross-pollination is used for production purposes. Self-pollination and 

pollination by insects and wind can also occur. Fruit (green, yellow-green, red or purple) 
94

is a large berry (See Figure 2) that is round, ovoid, ellipsoid, or pear-shaped, 8 to 33 

centimeters (3 to 13 inches) long, up to 15 centimeters (6 inches) wide, and 200 to 2,000 

grams (0.4 to 4 pounds) in weight. The skin is approximately 0.65 centimeters (0.26 

inch) thick, smooth or pebbled, thin or leathery, glossy or dull and pliable or granular and 

brittle. The pulp is yellow, greenish-yellow, bright yellow or whitish in color. The flavor 

is nutty, buttery, or bland. Each fruit contains one seed that is hard, ivory in color, 

enclosed in two brown seed coats, oblate, round, conical or ovoid in shape and 5 to 6.4 

centimeters (2 to 2.5 inches) long. Each tree produces 200 to 300 fruit. The ‘Hass’ 

cultivar is the leading cultivar in international trade. Consumption of avocado continues 

to increase over the years. The West Indian race Persea americana var. americana is 

native to the lowlands of Central America. Leaves are not aromatic. This tree produces 

small fruit with thin, leathery, pliable, non-granular skin, low oil content and loose seed. 

This type of avocado is summer fruiting. The main cultivars grown in Florida are mainly

West Indian and West Indian-Guatemalan hybrids. The Guatemalan race Persea

americana var. guatemalensis grows up to 40 meters (131 feet) tall. It is native to the 

highlands of Guatemala and adjacent areas. Leaves are coarse and oak-like. Blackish 

green pebbled fruit is medium to large, ovoid, round, or pear shaped, 2.5 to 5 centimeters 

(1 to 2 inches) long, and 1.4 to 2 kilograms (3 to 4.4 pounds) or more in weight. The skin 

can be thin or thick and granular to gritty, hard, brittle or warty. The Mexican race 

Persea americana var. drymifolia is grown in the higher elevations of Mexico. Leaves 

are anise scented. The green to black fruit is small and 227 grams (0.5 pound) or less in 

weight. The skin is paper-thin, glossy, and tender and clings to the flesh. There is high 

oil content in the pulp. The main cultivars grown in California are mainly Mexican x 

Guatemalan hybrids. Flowering occurs from February to March in Florida. In general, 

fruit maturation occurs in 120 to 400 days. Fruit production occurs in 5 to 8 years from 

seed and 3 to 4 years from grafting. P. americana var. americana fruit mature 160 to 240 

days after flowering. With P. americana var. guatemalensis flowering occurs from 

March to May; called the winter avocado in Hawaii. Fruit mature more than 250 days 

after anthesis. With P. americana var. drymifolia, flowering occurs north of the equator 

October to December and into spring; called the summer avocado in Hawaii. Fruit 

matures 150 to 240 days after anthesis. In general, avocados require humid, warm, sunny 

tropical or near tropical lowlands and medium to high rainfall or monsoon rains. Trees 

grow best with a well-distributed annual rainfall of 125 to 175 centimeters (49 to 69 

inches) per year, temperatures of 25 to 28 °C (77 to 82 °F), and coastal limestone soils. 

Prefers night temperatures of 15 to 20 °C (59 to 68 °F) and day temperatures of 20 °C (68 

°F) during floral development, pollen tube growth and embryo development. High 

humidity aids flowering and early fruit set. Grows well in Indonesia at elevations of 200 

to 1,000 meters (656 to 3,281 feet). In Hawaii, trees grow well with an annual rainfall of 

approximately 310 centimeters (122 inches). Tolerant of a variety of ecological 

conditions from the tropics to latitudes of 30 °N and 30 °S, and a variety of well-drained 

soils including deep volcanic soils, sandy loam and calcareous soils with a pH of 5 to 7. 

Not tolerant of excessively high temperatures, frost, excess moisture and extended 

periods of dry conditions. Persea americana var. americana is more tolerant of high 

summer rains. Propagation is by seed, budding or grafting. Seeds are removed from the 

fruit, placed in a water bath at 49 to 50 °C (120 to 122 °F) for 30 minutes, cooled and 

dried in a shaded area. Seeds are planted broad side down in polyethylene bags with a 
95

well-drained potting mix. Germination occurs in a month. Seedlings can be cleft or side 

wedge grafted 2 to 4 weeks after germination occurs. Grafted container-grown trees can 

be transplanted easily. Transplanting should be performed during the beginning of the 

rainy season. Plants are spaced in the field according to the cultivar’s natural growth 

habit, vigor of the rootstock, and the environment. Spacing in Florida is 7.5 to 10.5 

meters (25 to 34 feet) in row and 7.5 to 12 meters (25 to 39 feet) between rows. Plants 

can be spaced at 4.5 to 6 meters (15 to 20 feet) in row and 6 to 7.5 meters (20 to 25 feet) 

between rows for higher yields. Trees should be pruned towards the end of fall. 

Fertilizer should be applied at the appropriate time, depending on climate, soil, cultivar, 

and management practices. Irrigation should be performed during the flowering period 

and other dry periods during the year. Fruit are harvested when mature. Skin color, oil 

content, fruit weight, size and moisture content are used as indications of maturity. 

Picking poles and clippers are used to harvest fruit. Fruit should be stored at 12.5 °C (55 

°F) with a relative humidity of 80 to 90%. Deterioration of flavor and enzymatic 

discoloration occur during commercial processing of the fruit. P. americana var. 

guatemalensis is a subtropical to semitropical plant that grows well in the cool highlands 

in full sun. Adapted to cool tropical to warm humid climate. P. americana var. 

drymifolia: a cool, subtropical plant that is grown in dry plateaus and highlands in full 

sun, and it prefers a Mediterranean climate. Thrives in Mexico at an elevation of 152 

meters (500 feet). Prefers well-drained, loose, decomposed, granite or sandy loam. 

Compared to Persea americana var. americana, the Mexican avocado is not very tolerant 

to saline conditions and high winds, and is hardiest type of avocado. Fruit should be 

stored at 4 °C (39 °F) with a relative humidity of 80 to 90%. Fruit of Mexican types 

discolor quickly and should be immediately consumed.

Figure 2. Avocado Fruit Shapes and Type of Fruit is a Berry (Descriptors for 

Avocado (Persea spp.). 1995. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, 

Italy. ISBN 92-9043-220-9).

The avocado comes in a variety of shapes, some of which are depicted here:

1. Oblate, 2. Spheroid, 3. High spheroid, 4. Ellipsoid, 5. Narrowly obovate, 6. 

Obovate, 7. Pyriform, 8. Clavate, and 9. Rhomboidal.
96

The avocado fruit is a single-seeded berry, and the fruit is the matured ovary of a 

flower. In the case of avocado it consists of the ovary wall, or pericarp, which encloses 

one seed. The pericarp is differentiated into three layers of tissues: the outer layer is 

exocarp, which commonly is called the skin or rind. The middle layer is mesocarp 

which, generally, makes up the bulk of the pericarp. The inner layer is endocarp which, 

in some fruits is tough, leathery or hard, in other fruits is soft or fleshy.
97

Bacury:

A tree that grows up to 25 meters (82 feet) in height, and is native to Brazil, 

Guyana and Amazonia. The second most popular dicot fruit species in eastern 

Amazonia. A mid- to upper canopy tree in forests. The crown is pyramidal. The bark 

contains yellow latex. Branches grow at angles of 50 to 60 degrees from the trunk. Dark 

green leaves are smooth, glossy, leathery, short-petioled, deciduous, opposite, oblong or 

elliptic in shape, acute, and 8 to 15 centimeters (3 to 6 inches) long by 4 to 8 centimeters 

(1.6 to 3 inches) wide. Leaves are borne singly or in groups of three. Showy, pale rosecolored flowers are solitary, 7 centimeters (3 inches) long, and borne terminally on young 

branches after leaf fall. Individual flowers contain five sepals, five petals, numerous 

stamens, and a superior ovary with five locules. Flowers contain both male and female 

reproductive organs. Trees are cross-pollinated. Pollinators include birds and insects. 

Pale yellow, brownish-yellow or brown fruit is ovoid to subglobose in shape, 7 to 15 

centimeters (3 to 6 inches) long, 5 to 15 centimeters (2 to 6 inches) in diameter, and 200 

to 1,000 grams (7 to 35 ounces) in weight. The rind is 1 to 3 centimeters (0.4 to 1.2 

inches) thick, tough, hard, smooth, leathery, elastic, and exudes yellow, gummy, resinous 

latex when bruised. The pulp is creamy-white in color, pithy, mucilaginous, fibrous or 

juicy, and can be divided into 6 sections. The flavor is strong, acidic, and sweet. Each 

fruit contains one to five seeds within the pulp. Seeds are large, oblong-ovoid in shape, 4 

to 6 centimeters (1.6 to 2.4 inches) long and 2 to 3 centimeters (0.8 to 1.2 inches) in 

diameter. When seeds do not develop, the pulp forms a parthenocarpic segment that can 

be consumed by humans. Plants may bear well one year and bear poorly the following 

year. Propagation is by seed. Seed should be planted immediately after harvest. 

Germination of the radicle occurs in 12 to 30 days and germination of the shoot bud

occurs in 150 to 750 days. This occurs as a result of the long dry seasons. The tree also 

produces suckers from the roots. Cultivated plants are grown in open fields. Trees 

should be grown to a height of 15 to 20 meters (49 to 66 feet) and a crown of 10 to 15 

meters (33 to 49 feet) in diameter. Pruning can be done to limit tree size. Fruit is popular 

and is collected from wild or managed plants maintained on farms in Brazil. When ripe

fruit falls from the tree. Fruit that are stored in a shaded and well-ventilated area can last 
98

for 7 to 10 days. Demand is increasing, but currently, the demand has not exceeded 

supply. Starting to be considered as an orchard crop. Industrial processing and 

commercialization is underway.

Bael fruit:

A small to medium, spreading, slow-growing, deciduous tree that reaches a height 

of 6 to 15 meters (20 to 49 feet), and is native to India. It is a sacred tree to Hindus. 

Leaves are used as religious offerings. The tree slightly arches or droops. The trunk is 

short and contains thick, soft, flaking, corky bark. The sap is slimy, clear and gummy. 

Spreading branches are smooth or finely fissured and flaking. Mature branches may

contain 1 to 2 centimeter (0.4 to 0.8 inch) long spines and suckers contain spines. Bright 

green leaves are compound, trifoliate, alternate, emit a disagreeable odor, can contain 

winged petioles, and are borne singly or in twos or threes. Each leaf contains three to 

five ovals, pointed, and slightly serrated leaflets that measure 4 to 10 centimeters (1.6 to 4 

inches) long by 2 to 5 centimeters (0.8 to 2 inches) wide. Terminal leaflets contain long 

petioles. New leaves are glossy and pinkish-maroon in color. Flowers are borne in 

axillary cymes on young branchlets. Each cluster contains four to seven flowers. The 

waxy, fragrant, showy flowers are citrus-like in appearance and 2 centimeters (0.8 inch) 

wide. Individual flowers contain both male and female reproductive organs, four to five 

recurved petals that are green outside and yellowish inside or greenish-white, five hairy

sepals, and numerous stamens. Grey-green to yellowish fruit is a round, pyriform, oval 

or oblong berry that is gourd-like in appearance, and measures 5 to 20 centimeters (2 to 8 

inches) in diameter. Immature fruit is green in color. The rind of unripened fruit is soft, 

smooth and thin. Mature fruit contain a thin to moderately thick, hard, brittle, smooth, 

tough, woody shell with oil glands. Within the fruit, there is a hard central core. Inside 

the core, there are eight to 20 triangular segments with thin, dark-orange walls. Segments 

are filled with yellow to pale orange pulp that is pasty, soft, mucilaginous, slimy, sticky

or doughy. Six to 15 seeds are contained within the pulp and each is enclosed in a 

mucilaginous sac. Seeds are flattened-oblong, hairy, and 1 centimeter (0.4 inch) in 

length. The flavor is sweet, aromatic, resinous, or astringent. Propagation is by seed, 

grafting, budding, air layering, marcottage, and cuttings. Seeds should be planted 

directly after being removed from the fruit. Most trees grow wild. Grown on a large 

scale only on the subcontinent. Main cultivation is in India. Fruit is grown commercially 

from non-formal plantings. Trees should be spaced 6 to 9 meters (20 to 30 feet) apart. 

Cultivated fruit can be trained, pruned, irrigated and fertilized. Fruit are harvested when 

the peel is yellowish-green in color and the stem separates from the fruit. Then fruit is 

stored for 8 days until the green color fades. In addition, fruit can be harvested 2 to 3 

months before color development and exposure to ethylene. Fruit storage is 2 weeks at 

30 °C (86 °F) or 4 months at 9 °C (48.2 °F).

Banana and Plantain:

Musa spp. is fast-growing, giant perennial herbs that reach a height of 2 to 15 

meters (7 to 49 feet). The largest perennial herb in the world, and is native to Southeast 

Asia or Malesia (Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Borneo, and Papua New Guinea). 
99

First domesticated in Southeast Asia. All cultivars of bananas and plantains were 

developed from intra- and interspecific crosses of Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. 

Classification of cultivars depends on the ploidy level and contribution of genomes of 

both species. Musa spp. (banana) includes all wild species, land races and cultivars. 

Musa spp. is divided into dessert bananas, cooking bananas, beer bananas, and plantains. 

Bananas have been used as fertility and prosperity symbols for many centuries in 

countries including India and China. The banana is considered a sacred fruit in India. It 

has been used as a crop in Papua New Guinea since 5000 BCE. Banana trees are the 

largest herbaceous plants in the world, and there are hundreds of varieties (see Appendix

I for examples of varieties). A banana tree is typically a tropical plant, but, according to 

Florida State University's Department of Horticulture, banana trees grow in some parts of 

the Northern Hemisphere if temperatures don't drop below freezing. Depending on 

variety, time from planting to crop maturity can be as much as 18 months. The plant 

contains an underground corm (which is the real Musa stem) that produces suckers and 

adventitious roots. The corm contains many leaf scars that form rings. Each leaf scar on 

the corm contains a bud that can develop into a sucker. Suckers, or lateral shoots become 

the source of conventional planting material for farmers. Each true stem bears flowers 

and fruit only once. The pseudostem grows from the corm and consists of encircling leaf 

sheaths that carry the leaves. The meristem of the plant is located near the soil level. 

Leaves form from the apical meristem and emerge from the middle of the pseudostem. 

The two types of leaves that can form are scale leaves and foliage leaves. Scale leaves 

are almost without lamina and are formed underground on buds. Foliage leaves contain a 

sheath, petiole, midrib and lamina. These leaves are large, mid-gray, green, green with 

maroon splotches, or green on the upperside and reddish purple underneath, tender, 

smooth, oblong or elliptic in shape, sometimes waxy, and up to 3 meters (9 feet) long by

0.6 meter (2 feet) wide. Petioles are fleshy, deeply grooved, and short. Each plant 

contains 4 to 15 spirally-arranged leaves. In good conditions, new leaves emerge every 7 

to 10 days until flowering. As leaf development ends and the leaves unfurl, the flower 

bract emerges from the throat of the plant as a long, tapering, purple-hued bud. As the 

candela (the candle-like stalk of the flower) lengthens, small fruit buds (the developing 

bananas) appear in clustered intervals along the stalk. Each is covered with a bract, or 

hood, that's purple outside and dark red within. As the candela continues to rise, it 

assumes a pendulum position and the flower opens. At full bloom the bananas are 50 %

developed. The bracts begin to wither and fall and half of the fingers have an upward 

turn. The fruit then fills out and thickens. When flowering begins, the apical meristem 

turns into an inflorescence. The inflorescence emerges as a terminal spike from the 

pseudostem at the top of the plant. Most bananas and French plantains contain pendant 

bunches. All bananas have a complete inflorescence with 12 to 20 flowers per hand. A 

complete inflorescence contains female flowers, neutral flowers and a male bud. Before 

opening, the male bud is large, long-oval, tapering, and purple to reddish-purple in color. 

Male buds occur at the end of the inflorescence and contain bracts that cover two rows of 

male flowers. Male flowers contain a short, slender ovary, a slender style and stigma, 

and well-developed stamens that do not usually produce pollen. Female flowers consist 

of a large ovary with approximately 300 ovules, a style with a six-lobed stigma, stamens 

or staminodes and a perianth. Only female parts develop fully. These flowers are located 

on the lower 5 to 15 rows. Neutral flowers follow female flowers on the inflorescence 
100

and do not develop into fruit. In addition, stamens do not produce pollen. Individual 

yellow, white, or cream-colored flowers are large, slim, tubular, toothed, and clustered in 

whorled double rows along the stalk. The rachis (fruit stalk) attaches the inflorescence to 

the pseudostem. Almost all Musa cultivars are triploids, do not require pollination for 

fruit production, and are sterile. Inedible wild banana fruit require pollination from bats, 

honeybees and birds. Clusters of fruit (also known as “hands” of bananas) develop from 

the female flowers. Fruit bunches consist of 5 to 10 hands that bear 65 to 155 fruit. 

When immature, fruit resemble skinny, green fingers. As the bananas develop, the stalk 

droops until the bunch turns upside down. The yellow, red or green-and-white-striped 

fruit is a berry that is oblong, cylindrical and blunt to 3-angled, curved, and hornlike in

shape, and 6.4 to 30.5 centimeters (2.5 to 12 inches) long by 2 to 5 centimeters (0.75 to 2 

inches) wide. The peel is smooth and thin. The pulp is ivory-white, yellow or salmonyellow in color. When unripe, pulp is firm, and may contain latex. When ripe, pulp is 

tender, slippery and soft. The flavor may be astringent when unripe and mild, sweet, 

subacid, dry and mealy or starchy when ripe. Triploid cultivars do not contain seeds. 

Wild banana fruit contain black, hard, rounded to angled seeds that measure 0.3 to 1.6 

centimeter (0.125 to 0.625 inch) wide. Banana and plantain are considered the most 

important fruit crop in the world and the seventh most important food crop in the tropics. 

Major source of income for many farmers. Banana seeds are only used in breeding 

programs. Water suckers that contain small, broad leaves and small corms are used as a 

source of planting material in the field. The perennial crop is harvested by leaving the 

lower parts of the plant and roots uncut during harvesting. A ratoon or sucker is formed 

after the plant is harvested. This technique allows for the production of succeeding 

generations of crops. Pruning the banana mat is necessary for best vegetative growth and 

fruit production. Allowing numerous pseudostems to grow from a single mat may lead to 

small bunches of low quality fruit and encourage disease development. In addition, 

competition among pseudostems prolongs the time to flowering and to harvest. A banana 

pseudostem (stalk) produces fruit only once. After harvest, the stalk is cut off at the base 

and chopped into small pieces which are left on the ground and incorporated in as mulch. 

New pseudostems (follow-up stalks, sword suckers) which have been allowed to grow 

from the rhizome (also called a mat) will produce the next crop. For best production, 

there must be ample space between plants to avoid crowding and competition for water, 

light and nutrients. Once suckers are planted, the first growth occurs in the roots. 

Adventitious roots grow over 40 centimeters (16 inches) before leaves appear. Another 

method of propagation in commercial plantations is shoot tip culture. Tissue culture 

micropropagation is used to produce clones. Planting time depends on desired time of 

harvest, but is usually done at the end of the dry season or beginning of the wet season. 

In Puerto Rico, plantains are planted monthly year round. In commercial plantations in 

the tropics, there should be approximately 1,667 banana plants per hectare or a spacing of 

6 m2 per plant (3 meters (10 feet) between rows and 2 meters (7 feet) among plants within 

rows). In the subtropics, banana planting density should be approximately 2,000 plants 

per hectare. The spacing of many dwarf cultivars ranges from 3 by 2 meters to 5 by 4 

meters (10 by 6 feet to 15 by 12 feet). In Puerto Rico, 1,235 to 1,976 plantain plants per 

hectare are grown in plantations. Mulching aids root development. The application of 

inorganic fertilizers is important during plant growth. Weeds, infected leaves and excess 

suckers should be removed to prevent competition. Cooking bananas and plantains not 
101

grown in plantations are not usually thinned. Wind breaks should be planted in 

plantations to protect trees, and trees in plantations should be propped. Polyethylene 

bagging is used to prevent fruit loss due to insect damage, bat damage, and leaf scarring. 

Fruit for export are harvested when fruit are immature and contain a green peel. The 

bunch is cut from the pseudostem using a curved knife. The fruit are transported in 

plastic bags to the packing room where the fruit are washed, rinsed, treated to prevent 

fungus growth, graded for size and quality and packed. Fruit are then ripened with 

ethylene at a rate of 1,000 ppm for 24 hours at temperatures of 13 °C (55 °F) to 18 °C (64 

°F) with 90% humidity. Plantain ripening occurs in 4 to 5 days when stored at 13 to 22 

°C (56 to 72 °F), 95 to 100% relative humidity and exposed to ethylene gas once. If 

stored at room temperature, plantain fruit will ripen in 9 days from harvest. Dwarf 

banana grows to a height of 1.2 to 8 meters (4 to 26 feet). Native to Southeast Asia and 

Northern Queensland, Australia, and it is the smallest well-known banana. The trunk is 

slender. The root system is extensive to prevent plants from blowing over in high winds. 

The outer sheaths contain streaks or patches that are dark-brown or reddish-brown. 

Leaves are yellowish and non-waxy. Fruit is usually produced without fertilization. 

Greenish, yellow, orange, or red fruit is small, 6 to 35 centimeters (2 to 14 inches) long 

and 2.5 to 10 centimeters (1 to 4 inches) in diameter. Fruit bunches are usually small and 

contain 10 to 150 or more fruit per cluster. The peel is smooth and thin. Pulp is white, 

yellow or orange in color. The flavor is sweet to starchy and the fruit can contain seeds. 

There are many varieties of dwarf bananas. Musa acuminata is considered the most 

important diploid species because it is the source of fruit parthenocarpy, has the widest 

distribution in Asia and a center of origin and diversification in Indonesia. Most 

commercial cultivars belong to the species Musa acuminata or Musa x paradisiaca.

Plantains grow up to 15 meters (49 feet) high, and are native to Southeast Asia. A 

polyploidy species and its fruit are produced without pollination. Plantain types are 

classified according to the inflorescence type and include: French, French Horn, Flase 

Horn and True Horn. True Horn types do not contain neutral flowers and only contain 

one to five hands and one to 50 fruit. French plantains contain both neutral flowers and 

male buds, six to 12 hands and 60 to 170 fruit. French plantains contain pendant flower 

bunches and other plantain cultivars consist of sub-horizontal or horizontal flower 

bunches. Plantains are also grouped into giant, medium and small according to 

pseudostem height and the total number of foliage leaves produced until flowering. 

Compared to other Musa spp., plantain fruit are larger and more angular. Fruit are used 

mostly for cooking.

Binjai:

A large deciduous tree that grows to a height of 20 to 45 meters (66 to 148 feet), 

and is native to Southeast Asia, specifically Borneo. One of the most common mango 

species in Western Malesia. The trunk is straight and 50 to 120 centimeters (20 to 47 

inches) or more in diameter. The bark is grey to grayish-brown in color, fissured and 

contains pale yellow sap that is irritating to the skin. Bark strips are glossy, hard, smooth 

and pale. Branches are large. The crown is dense and is shaped like a dome. Medium 

green leaves are shiny on the upper surface, leathery, blunt or tapered to a sharp point, 
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elliptic, lanceolate, or obovate in shape, 7 to 30 centimeters (3 to 12 inches) long and 3 to 

10 centimeters (1.2 to 4 inches) wide. Petioles are short, flattened and 1 to 2.5 

centimeters (0.4 to 1 inch) long. Leaves are located at the ends of branchlets. The 

inflorescence is a densely flowered, branched terminal panicle that is 15 to 40 centimeters 

(6 to 16 inches) long. Individual pale pink, blue or lilac flowers are fragrant. Each 

flower contains slightly reflexed linear petals that are up to 1 centimeter (0.4 inch) long, 

five sepals, a stamen, a 0.5 centimeter (0.2 inch) long filament, 4 teeth-like staminodes, 

an ovary and style. Light brown, pale-green, yellowish or yellowish-brown fruit is an 

obovate-oblong, elliptical, subellipsoid, oval or pear-shaped drupe that is necked at the 

base, 10 to 20 centimeters (4 to 8 inches) long and 6 to 7 centimeters (2.4 to 2.8 inches) 

in diameter. The skin is very thin (approximately 0.1 centimeters (0.04 inches) thick), 

smooth, glossy or slightly scaly. The pulp is whitish to yellowish-white in color, soft, 

juicy, and fibrous. The flavor is sweet or sour and resembles a mixture of mango and 

pineapple. The large, pinkish-brown seed is ellipsoid-lanceolate in shape, and 7 

centimeters (3 inches) long by 3.5 to 4 centimeters (1.4 to 1.6 inches) wide. The seed is 

contained in matted fibers. Mature fruit produce a strong, disagreeable smell. The 

‘wani’ cultivars contain pear to ellipsoid shaped fruit that have a glossy pale green skin 

and pulp that is nearly fiber less and sweet. Fruit of this cultivar are 9 to 11 centimeters 

(3.5 to 4.3 inches) long by 6 To 7 centimeters (2.4 to 2.8 inches) wide. Wild fruit are

acidic and fibrous. The juice of immature fruit are irritating to skin and the digestive 

tract. Propagation is by seed, and plant spacing is 12 to 16 meters (39 to 52 feet).

Biriba:

Biriba is a small to medium, deciduous, fast-growing tree that grows to a height of 

4 to 15 meters (13 to 49 feet), and is native to Central and South America and the West 

Indies. Cultivated during pre-Columbian times. One of the most popular fruit grown in 

Western Amazonia. The trunk is short, thick, and grey in color. The canopy is round or 

conic in shape. Branches are open and spreading. Twigs are brown and hairy. Glossy

green leaves are alternate, simple, leathery, pubescent underneath, oblong, ovate-oblong, 

oblong-elliptic or elliptic in shape, pointed at the apex, rounded at the base, slightly

folded, and 10 to 35 centimeters (4 to 14 inches) long by 5 to 12 centimeters (2 to 5 

inches) wide. The petiole is yellowish and 0.5 to 1 centimeter (0.2 to 0.4 inch) long. 

Young growth is rusty, silky, hairy, and yellowish-green in color. Inconspicuous 

yellowish-green to whitish flowers are 3.5 centimeters (1.4 inches) wide, borne 1 to 3 or 

more together in the leaf axils and triangular in shape. Each flower contains 3 large, 

thick, winged outer petals, 3 inner petals, 3 hairy sepals, male and female reproductive 

organs, many stamens and pistils. Flowers are contained on large stalks. Fruit is a 

syncarp (compound fruit) that is formed from the fusion of pistils and is composed of 

many segments that each end in a point. Each segment contains a brown, elliptic seed 

and pulp. Fruits are yellow with black tipped points, solitary, variable in shape, size, 

consistency, and pericarp and measure 10 to 20 centimeters (4 to 8 inches) long, 7 to 20 

centimeters (3 to 8 inches) in diameter, and 200 to 1,000 grams (7 to 35 ounces) in 

weight. Most fruit are spherical, conical, heart-shaped, oblate, or oblong in shape. The 

rind is 0.3 centimeter (0.125 inch) thick, leathery, tough, sometimes bumpy, and is 

composed of hexagonal, conical segments that are tipped with a wart-like or soft spine 
103

protrusion. Pulp is white in color, juicy, mucilaginous, transparent, and creamy. Fruit 

contain a slender, white core with numerous seeds. Seeds are black to dark-brown, 

elliptic to obovate in shape, shiny, and 1 to 2 centimeters (0.4 to 0.8 inch) long. The 

flavor is sweet, sweet-sour, slightly acidic or bland. Some describe the flavor as 

resembling lemon sherbet or lemon meringue pie. Immature fruit is whitish-green in 

color. Fruit is popular because of its unique flavor, large quantity of pulp, and fruit size. 

Wild populations of the tree are threatened by deforestation. Propagation is by seed, 

layering and grafting. Seeds are planted directly after obtaining from fruit. Germination 

occurs in approximately 30 days. Trees require a spacing of 8 meters (26 feet) for proper 

development. To promote growth, fertilizer should be applied. Fruits are harvested in 

South America when green and hard for transportation to urban markets. Fruit must be 

harvested and handled carefully; darkening occurs when injured. The shelf life of the 

fruit is short and lasts 2 to 3 days. Cooling can extend shelf life by up to one week. 

Widely grown throughout the Amazon region; not commercially exploited. Grown 

mostly in home gardens, urban yards and small farms. Commercial cultivation is 

recommended around big cities.

Breadfruit:

An attractive, fast-growing tree that reaches a height of 15 to 30 meters (49 to 98 

feet), and is native to Southeast Asia and Polynesia. Cultivated in Malaya and the Pacific 

for over 3,000 years and considered a staple food in Polynesia. The trunk is straight, 

buttressed at the base, and grows to a diameter of 2 meters (7 feet). Branches are thick to 

slender and spreading. The crown is broad. The tree grows as an evergreen in humid, 

wet areas and as a partially deciduous tree during drought or the dry part of a monsoon 

climate. Dark green leaves are alternate, shiny, hairy on the underside, broadly ovate to 

broadly obovate in shape, deeply cut into 5 to 13 pointed lobes, 20 to 90 centimeters (8 to 

35 inches) long, and 20 to 51 centimeters (8 to 20 inches) wide. Petioles are thick, 

yellow and 4 centimeters (1.5 inches) long. Male and female inflorescences are borne on 

4 to 15 centimeter (2 to 6 inch) peduncles in separate leaf axils on the same plant. The 

male inflorescence is long, drooping, spongy, cylindrical to club-shaped, 15 to 45 

centimeters (6 to 18 inches) long, and 3 to 4 centimeters (1 to 2 inches) wide. It contains 

small, yellowish-green to brownish flowers with a single stamen. The female 

inflorescence is rounded to elliptic in shape, 6 centimeters (2 inches) long by 3.8 

centimeters (1.5 inches) wide, and contains many tiny flowers on a spongy axis. Fruit 

develops from the entire female inflorescence. Perianth of each flower attached to the 

core fuse together and become fleshy. Mature pale green or greenish yellow fruit is a 

syncarp (compound fruit) that is spherical, ovoid, pear-shaped, cylindrical or oblong in 

shape, 5 to 30 centimeters (2 to 12 inches) in diameter and 0.2 to 4.5 kilograms (0.4 to 10 

pounds) in weight. Fruit grows solitary or in clusters of 2 to 3 on 2.5 to 13 centimeter (1 

to 5 inch) long stalks at the ends of branches. The rind is thin, tough and netted with 4 to 

6-sided faces. The surface of the rind may be smooth, rough, bumpy, or contain sharp, 

black points or soft, green spines that are 0.3 centimeter (0.125 inch) long. Ripe fruit are 

yellow-brown. The core is cylindrical to oblong and is surrounded by pulp. Pulp is 

whitish or pale yellow in color and mealy. The flavor is starchy to sweet. There are 

seeded and seedless cultivars. The wild, seedy form of the fruit is called breadnut. This 
104

fruit contains skin that is covered in spines and 10 to 150 brown seeds that are irregularly 

oval-shaped and 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) long. The core, skin and flesh can exude white 

latex that becomes reddish brown or greenish when exposed to air. Latex is an indication 

of maturity. The fruit is an important food in the hot Tropics. Trees can live for up to 90 

years. Propagation is by seeds, cuttings, root suckers, air layering, budding, and grafting. 

Seed should be planted as soon as it is removed from the fruit. Roots (1.5 to 6 centimeter 

(0.6 to 2 inch) diameter) are cut into 12 to 30 centimeter (5 to 12 inch) long sections. 

Roots are planted horizontally below the surface or diagonally in clean, washed sand or 

moist potting soil. Trees should be planted 7 to 15 meters (23 to 49 feet) apart. Rainfall 

and irrigation are needed during vegetative growth, flowering and fruiting. Pruning aids 

tree shape and fertilization aids growth. Fruit are harvested when mature and can be 

harvested at different growth stages for different uses. Mature green fruit are hard, 

starchy, and fibrous and used as a starch vegetable; ripe, soft, sweet fruit are eaten as 

dessert. Latex should be drained from the fruit after harvest before washing is done. 

Fruits are graded according to size, packed and stored at 12 to 14 °C (54 to 57 °F) in high 

humidity for 20 days; sold by weight. Grown as a subsistence crop in many areas of the 

world.

Burmese grape:

A large, spreading, slow-growing evergreen tree with a dense, round crown 

growing to a height of 9 to 25 meters (30 to 82 feet), and is native to Southeast Asia. 

Thrives as an understory tree in tropical lowland forests. Tree diameter is 25 to 70 

centimeters (10 to 27.5 inches). The bark is thin and smooth or slightly flaking and pale 

cream or orange-brown in color. The shiny, dark-green leaves are simple, alternate, and 

ovate to ovate-lanceolate in shape and 10 to 20 centimeters (4 to 8 inches) long by 4 to 9 

centimeters (1.5 to 3.5 inches) wide. Young leaves are reddish brown and pubescent. 

The petiole is 1 to 8 centimeters (0.4 to 3 inches) long and contains stipules. Red-pink 

inflorescences are borne on old branches and the trunk. Pale yellow male racemes are 3 

to 13 centimeters (1.2 to 5 inches) long and composed of many 3-flowered hairy cymes, 4 

to 5 sepals, and 4 to 8 stamens. Fragrant yellow female racemes are 10 to 20 centimeters 

(4 to 8 inches) long, borne on the lower trunk, contain 4 to 5 sepals, two-lobed stigmas, 

and are solitary or fascicled. Berry fruits are grown in strands that are 15 to 30 

centimeters (6 to 12 inches) long. Fruit is 2.5 to 3.5 centimeters (1 to 1.4 inches) in 

diameter and round or oval in shape. The skin is smooth. The pulp is whitish in color. 

Each fruit contains 2 to 4 large seeds. Fruits turn from ivory to yellowish, pinkish buff, 

purple or bright red in color. Fruits are sweet, sour, or acid in flavor. Fruits are 

consumed fresh, stewed or made into wine; the bark, roots, and wood are used 

medicinally and as a brown-red dye; wood is used for building purposes; ornamental. 

Use by local populations has led to overexploitation. Propagated by seed, air layering, 

budding, and grafting. Fruit can be stored for 4 to 5 days at ambient temperatures.

Canistel:

An upright to spreading evergreen tree growing to a height of 5 to 30 meters (16 

to 98 feet), and is native to southern Mexico, Central America and the West Indies. 
105

Grown by indigenous people for fruit and timber. The tree contains milky sap, a thick 

trunk that is 25 to 60 centimeters (10 to 24 inches) in diameter, brown to dark gray

furrowed bark, a spreading crown, and velvety brown branches. Glossy, thin, papery 

leaves are simple, alternate, whorled at the ends of branches, elliptic, oblanceolate, 

lanceolate-oblong, obovate, or oblong in shape, 6 to 28 centimeters (2 to 11 inches) long 

and 2.5 to 8 centimeters (1 to 3 inches) wide. Small, fragrant, silky-hairy, greenish-white 

to cream colored tubular flowers are borne solitary, or in small clusters in the leaf axils or 

at leafless nodes on pedicels. Individual flowers contain both male and female 

reproductive organs, five sepals, a five to six-lobed green or white corolla, five stamens, 

and a hairy ovary with one stigma. Flowers measure 0.8 to 1.1 centimeters (0.3 to 0.4 

inch) long. Flowers are pollinated by insects. Large, yellow or orange fruit is a berry

that grows solitary on young shoots of the tree. Fruit varies in size from ovoid, rounded, 

or conical in shape, may contain a pointed apex, measures 4 to 12 centimeters (1.6 to 5 

inches) in diameter, 5 to 8 centimeters (2 to 3 inches) in width, and weighs 70 to 715 

grams (2.5 to 25 ounces). Fruit may be bulged on one side and contains a 5-pointed 

calyx at the base. The peel is smooth, waxy or glossy and thin. Some fruit are coated 

with light-brown or reddish-brown russetting. Immature fruit is green in color and tough. 

Ripe fruit skin is easily damaged. Ripe pulp is bright yellow to orange in color, highly 

nutritious, very soft and creamy. Unripe pulp is dry, gummy and mealy, like a hardboiled egg yolk. Fruit may contain 1 to 4 ovals to oblong-oval glossy, brown, inedible 

seeds that measure 0.6 to 5 centimeters (0.25 to 2.125 inches) long by 1.3 to 3 

centimeters (0.5 to 1.25 inches) wide. The flavor is very sweet and can be musky; similar 

in flavor to a baked sweet potato. Propagation is by seed, grafting, budding, and airlayering and marcottage. Seeds should be planted immediately after being removed from 

the fruit. Most superior cultivars are grafted. Trees for commercial production should be 

planted 4.5 to 7.6 meters (15 to 25 feet) in-row and from 6.1 to 7.6 meters (20 to 25 feet) 

between rows. Trees in commercial production can be pruned and fertilized. Mature, 

bright orange, firm fruit are harvested with clippers. Ripe fruit split and fall when left on 

the tree. Fruit are ripened at room temperature for 3 to 10 days, and can be stored at 13 to 

15 °C (55 to 59 °F) and 85 to 90% humidity for up to 3 weeks. 

Cat’s-eyes:

A small to medium size tree that grows to a height of 10 to 20 meters (33 to 66 

feet), and is native to Southeast Asia. Fruit grows in large clusters. Individual fruit is 

brown in color, ovoid, oblong or round in shape, and 1.5 to 2 centimeters (0.6 to 0.8 inch) 

in diameter. The skin can be smooth or warty. The pulp is whitish to translucent. The 

flavor is sweet. In Malaysia, the most common form of the fruit is brown, round and 

smooth. This is the ‘cat’s eye’. It has a very thin aril. A more superior form of the fruit 

contains a densely thick, warty skin and a large aril. The fruit forms are divided into 

three types: the ‘isau’ consists of round, green fruit; the ‘sau’ consists of green oblong 

fruit; the ‘kakus’ consists of brown, round fruit. In addition, the characteristics of the 

leaves, flowers and tree forms differ for each fruit. The greatest variation of the plant 

occurs in Borneo. Propagation is by seed. 

Champedak;
106

A large evergreen tree that grows to a height of 15 to 25 meters (49 to 82 feet). 

The trunk is straight and 30 to 80 centimeters (12 to 31 inches) in diameter. Bark is 

grayish-brown to dark brown, rough, uneven and scaly with white hairs that are up to 

0.05 centimeters (0.02 inch) long. The dense canopy is dome-shaped and 3.5 to 7 meters 

(12 to 23 feet) in diameter in mature trees. The tree has a long taproot and all parts of the 

tree produce milky white latex. Native to Southeast Asia, specifically India, Malaysia 

and Sri Lanka. A close relative to the jackfruit. Dark green leaves are glossy, hairy, 

obovate to elliptic in shape, wedge-shaped to round at the base, pointed at the tip, and 4 

to 25 centimeters (2 to 10 inches) long by 2 to 12 centimeters (0.8 to 5 inches) wide. On 

horizontal branches, leaves are arranged alternately and on ascending branches, leaves 

are arranged spirally. Wiry, brown hairs less than 0.3 centimeters (0.1 inch) long occur 

on the stipules, twigs and leaves. The leaf stalk is 1 to 3 centimeters (0.4 to 1.2 inches) 

long. Inflorescences are similar to breadfruit flowers and are solitary, axillary, 

cauliflorous, or ramiflorous on leafy shoots. Both male and female flowers are contained 

on the same tree. The male inflorescence is cylindrical, whitish-yellow, 3 to 5.5 

centimeters (1.2 to 2.2 inch) long, 1 centimeter (0.4 inch) in diameter and contains a 3 to 

6 centimeter (1.2 to 2.4 inch) long peduncle. Male flower heads are located on peripheral 

shoots. The female inflorescence contains a simple filiform style that is 0.15 centimeters 

(0.06 inch) in size. Female flower heads are located on cauliflorous shoots. Flowers are 

pollinated by nocturnal insects. Yellowish, brown, or orange-green fruit a syncarp that is 

pear, cylindrical, or round in shape, 20 to 35 centimeters (8 to 14 inches) long, 10 to 15 

centimeters (4 to 6 inches) in diameter, and about 10 to 20 kilograms (22 to 44 pounds) in 

weight. Each achene is one-seeded. Fruit can contain hundreds of kidney-shaped seeds. 

Fruit hangs on a 5 to 10 centimeter (2 to 4 inch) thick stalk. The rind is fairly smooth, 

thick and rubbery. When young, the skin is pale to dark green. Pulp is yellow in color, 

juicy and creamy. The flavor is sweet to strong. Compared to the jackfruit, the 

champedak contains smaller fruit, a thinner rind and more juicy dark yellow flesh. Fruit 

contains a musky, rancid cheese smell that in some opinions is slightly less objectionable 

than durian fruit. Propagation is by seed and grafting. Seed should be planted 

immediately once removed from ripe fruit. Seeds should be cleaned with water before 

planting. Seedlings should be grown in shade and should be transplanted in 1 year. 

Plants should be planted at the beginning of the rainy season and should be spaced 12 to 

14 meters (39 to 46 feet) apart. Pruning and fertilization can be done to mature trees. 

Fruit are mature when yellowish brown in color, a strong odor is emitted, and a dull 

hollow sound is heard when the fruit is tapped. Mature fruit are harvested by cutting the 

peduncle, draining the latex and wrapping fruit in palm leaves or bags. 

Cherimoya:

A subtropical, erect, low-branched, dense, shrubby or spreading tree that grows 3 

to 10 meters (10 to 33 feet) tall. Fast-growing and its young branchlets are rusty-hairy. 

Native to South America, particularly the highland Andes’ valleys of Peru, Ecuador, 

Colombia and Bolivia. Fruit has been cultivated in South America since ancient times 

and is considered the best of the annonas. A staple food in South and Central America. 

Deep green leaves are deciduous (before spring flowering), alternate, 2-ranked, hairy on 
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the upper surface, velvety underneath, ovate, elliptic or ovate lanceolate in shape, short 

blunt-pointed at the tip, and 7.5 to 15 centimeters (3 to 6 inches) long by 3.8 to 8.9 

centimeters (1.5 to 3.5 inches) wide. Petioles are hairy and 0.6 to 1.25 centimeters (0.2 to 

0.5 inches) long. Fragrant yellowish flowers are solitary or in groups of two to three on 

short, hairy stalks. Each flower contains three outer petals that are greenish, fleshy, 

oblong, and downy and 3 centimeters (1 inch) long, and three inner petals that are smaller 

and pinkish in color. Individual flowers contain both male and female reproductive 

organs. Pollination is done by Nitidulid beetles and hand pollination. Solitary compound 

yellow-green fruit is conical or heart-shaped, 10 to 20 centimeters (4 to 8 inches) long, up 

to 10 centimeters (4 inches) wide, 10 to 15 centimeters (4 to 6 inches) in diameter and 

150 to 2,000 grams (0.3 to 4 pounds) in weight. The skin can be thin to thick, smooth 

with fingerprint-like markings or rough with conical or rounded protuberances. 

Immature fruit is greyish green. Fruit contains spirally arranged carpels that resemble a 

raspberry. Each flesh segment surrounds a seed. Pulp is white in color, fragrant and 

juicy. The flavor is sweet and fruity to subacid. Each fruit contains many seeds that are 

glossy, hard, and brown to black in color, bean-like and 1.25 to 2 centimeters (0.5 to 0.8 

inch) long. Many cultivars exist with varying leaf and fruit types. Propagation is by seed 

and grafting. Seeds should be planted directly after being removed from the fruit. 

Germination takes approximately 30 days. Gibberellic acid aids germination. Side whip 

graft and cleft graft techniques provide the best grafting results. Orchard trees should be 

planted 6 to 9 meters (20 to 30 feet) apart. Trees for commercial production should be 

pruned when dormant and fertilized. Fruit should be harvested when mature and firm. 

Fruit must be clipped from the branch and should be pre-cooled as soon as possible to 12 

to 15 °C (54 to 59 °F). Fruit can be stored at 10 to 13 °C (50 to 55 °F) and 90 to 95% 

relative humidity for 2 to 3 weeks.

Cupuaçú;

A medium-sized tree growing to a height of 6 to 30 meters (20 to 98 feet). 

Cultivated plants grow 6 to 8 meters (20 to 26 feet) tall and 7 meters (23 feet) in 

diameter. The tree is native to the Brazilian Amazon. A relative of Theobroma cacao. A 

pre-Colombian crop. Dark green, leathery leaves are simple, alternate, and pubescent on 

the upper leaf surface, grey underneath, and 25 to 35 centimeters (10 to 14 feet) long by 5 

to 15 centimeters (2 to 6 feet) wide. Fruit contain short petioles. New leaves are reddish 

when young. Cymose inflorescences are axillar or extra-axillary, and contain one to five 

flowers. Individual flowers contain five thick, triangular fleshy sepals, 5 stamens, and 

five reddish to purple petals. An obligate cross-pollinated species. Brown fruit is a drupe 

that is ellipsoid or obovoid-ellipsoid in shape, rounded at the ends, and 12 to 25 

centimeters (5 to 10 feet) long by 10 to 12 centimeters (4 to 5 inches) in diameter and 200 

to 5,000 grams (0.4 to 11 pounds) in weight. Each fruit contains a short, thick peduncle. 

The epicarp is hard, smooth, woody and 0.2 to 0.4 centimeters (0.08 to 0.2 inch) thick. 

Pulp is yellowish to whitish in color, soft, creamy, fibrous, juicy or spongy. The flavor is 

subacid, strong, and tropical. Individual fruit contain 15 to 50 ovoid to ellipsoid-ovoid 

flattened seeds that measure 2 to 3 centimeters (0.8 to 1.2 inches) long, 2 to 2.5 

centimeters (0.8 to 1 inch) broad and 1 to 1.2 centimeters (0.4 to 0.5 inch) thick. An 

important crop in its native area; one of the most popular fruit species in Eastern 
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Amazonia. Fruit are beginning to be industrial processed and commercialized. Most 

propagation is by seed. Pulp must be removed from the seeds before planting in a sand 

and sawdust mixture. Germination occurs between 25 and 30 °C (77 to 86 °F) 13 to 25 

days after sowing. Grafting can be done in seedless varieties. Seedlings should be 

planted in double rows that are 40 centimeters (16 inches) apart. Partial shade is required 

during establishment in the field. Shade is also needed for trees planted in areas with 

long dry seasons. When mature (eight mature leaves and 30 centimeters (12 inches) tall), 

trees can be planted 6 meters (20 feet) apart in areas with low levels of shade. 

Commercial trees should be pruned once per year and fertilized. When mature, fruit 

abscise from the tree. Color changes do not occur when fruit reach maturity. Instead, 

fruit aroma increases when ripe.

Custard apple:

A low, erect tree with a rounded, spreading, open or irregular crown that grows 

4.5 to 10 meters (15 to 33 feet) tall. The trunk is 25 to 36 centimeters (10 to 14 inches) 

thick, and is native to tropical America, specifically the West Indies. Leaves are 

deciduous, alternate, smooth, slender, long, narrow, oblong, oblong-lanceolate, 

lanceolate, or narrow-lanceolate in shape, pointed at the tip, and 10 to 20 centimeters (4 

to 8 inches) long by 2 to 5 centimeters (0.75 to 2 inches) wide. When crushed, leaves 

emit an unpleasant odor. Fragrant, slender flowers are in drooping clusters of three to 

four and are light-green externally and pale-yellow with a dark-red to purple spot 

internally. Individual flowers contain 3 outer petals that are fleshy, narrow, oblong linear 

in shape, and 2 to 3 centimeters (0.75 to 1.25 inches) long and three small, inner scalelike ovate petals. Reddish, brown or yellow compound fruit grows solitary on the tree 

and is ovoid, heart-shaped, lopsided, round, or oblate in shape. Fruit contains a deep or 

shallow depression at the base, and measures 8 to 16 centimeters (3 to 6 inches) in 

diameter, and 400 to 1,000 grams (0.9 to 2 pounds) in weight. The skin is thin, tough, 

and faintly, moderately, or distinctly reticulated. Pulp is white in color, thick, creamy, 

custard-like, somewhat granular. Fruit segments contain a single hard, dark-brown to 

black, 1.3 centimeter (0.5 inch), and oblong, smooth, glossy seed. Each fruit contains 50 

to 80 seeds and a pointed, fibrous central core that is attached to the thick stem. The 

flavor is sweet to bland. Propagation is by seed, inarching, budding, and grafting. Trees 

can be mulched, fertilized, pruned and irrigated. Fruit are harvested when there is no 

green color 

Dragon fruit:

A perennial, fast-growing, sprawling, climbing vine-like cacti that reaches up to 6 

meters (20 feet) in length, and is native to Mexico, the Caribbean, Northern South 

America and Central America. Stems are branched, 0.3 to 0.5 centimeters (0.1 to 0.2 

inch) thick, green, fleshy, succulent, heavy, 3-angled, and jointed. Each stem segment 

contains 3 flat, wavy wings with horny stem margins and 1 to 5 short, conical brown to 

gray 0.3 centimeter (0.1 inch) long spines. Plants can be epiphytes with aerial roots that 

cling to support such as a trees, rocks, trellises or walls; nutrients can be obtained from 

cracks containing organic material. Plants can also be terrestrial and grow directly in the 
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soil. Fragrant, large flowers are bell-shaped, white, and 25 to 30 centimeters (10 to 12 

inches) in diameter. Each flower contains several linear, green scales that measure 4 to 

7.5 centimeters (1.6 to 3 inches) long, a circle of recurved, greenish-yellow, linear 

segments that measure 11 centimeters (4.3 inches) long by 1 to 1.6 centimeters (0.4 to 0.6 

inch) wide, an inner circle of 20 white, oblong-lanceolate segments that measure 10 

centimeters (4 inches) long by 3.2 to 3.8 centimeters (1.25 to 1.5 inches) wide, and many

cream-colored stamens. Flowers contain both male and female reproductive organs. 

Flowers open at dusk and bloom one night. Pollinated by bats and moths; hand 

pollination is also used. Large, attractive bright red or yellow fruit is a berry that is 

spherical, oblong, or oval in shape, and measures 7 to 12 centimeters (3 to 5 inches) long, 

11 centimeters (4.5 inches) thick, and 400 to 600 grams (0.9 to 1.3 pounds). Fruit do not 

contain spines. The outside of the fruit is coated with fleshy ovate bases of scales. The 

pulp is white, yellow, deep purple or red in color, and juicy. The flavor is sweet and 

melon-like. There are approximately 700 tiny edible black seeds in each fruit. The 

second most important commercial fruiting cactus species. Enjoyed for centuries in 

tropical and subtropical rainforests in many Latin America countries; important fruit crop 

in Southeast Asia. Most propagation is by cuttings; some propagation is by seed. Stem 

cuttings should be 15 to 38 centimeters (6 to 15 inches) long. A slanted cut should be 

made at the stem base, a fungicide treatment should be applied, and cuttings should be 

left to heal for 8 days in a dry, shady location before being planted in the field. 

Cultivated plants should be spaced so that there is interplant shading. Partial shade is 

needed during the first 3 to 4 months of growth. Plants should be trained to grow on a 

trellis. Spacing depends on the type of trellis used and varies from 1.5 to 5 meters (5 to 

16 feet). Pruning induces branching and removes excessive growth. Fertilizer and 

irrigation should be applied to commercial crops during dry periods. Fruit are harvested 

when scales turn yellow. Well-colored, mature fruit is harvested using clippers 25 to 45 

days after flowering. Fruit storage is 14 days at 10 °C (50 °F).

Durian:

A large, fast-growing evergreen tree that reaches a height of 20 to 50 meters (66 

to 164 feet), and is native to Southeast Asia, including Malaysia, Borneo and Indonesia. 

The trunk is straight, short, 1.2 meters (4 feet) in diameter, rough, and peeling with bulky 

buttresses. Bark is dark red-brown and peeling. Wood is brittle, grainy, dark brown or 

reddish. Limbs are almost horizontal and rough. Young branches are coated with 

coppery or gray scales. The crown is irregular, dense, or open. Light to dark green large, 

drooping leaves are simple, alternate, glossy, leathery, silvery to rusty brown with scales 

underneath, oblong-lanceolate, elliptic, lanceolate-elliptic, or elliptic-obovate in shape, 

and 6 to 25 centimeters (2.4 to 10 inches) long by 2.5 to 9 centimeters (1 to 3.5 inches) 

wide. The petiole is short, thick and measures 1 to 1.5 centimeters (0.4 to 0.6 inch) long. 

Flower clusters containing 1 to 50 flowers are found on the laterals, main branches, and 

tree trunk. Individual creamy white, pink, yellow or greenish flowers are long-stalked, 

pendulous, 3 to 5 petalled, 5 to 6 centimeters (2 to 2.4 inches) long and 2 centimeters (0.8 

inch) in diameter. Flowers open during the afternoon over a period of 2 to 3 weeks. 

When flowers open, a sour-milk odor is emitted. Approximately 20,000 to 40,000 

flowers are produced per tree. Bats and moths promote pollination. Cross-pollination 
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and hand-pollination aid fruit set. Greenish yellow to light green fruit is a solitary

capsule that is divided into 3 to 5 smooth-walled compartments containing 1 to 6 glossy, 

creamy to red-brown seeds that are 2 to 6 centimeters (0.8 to 2.4 inches) long and an aril. 

Fruit is ovoid, ovoid-oblong, nearly round or ellipsoid in shape, 15 to 30 centimeters (6 to 

12 inches) long, 15 to 25 centimeters (6 to 10 inches) in diameter, and up to 8 kilograms 

(18 pounds) in weight. Immature fruit is light brown. The rind is fibrous, thick, tough, 

semi-woody, and densely covered with coarse, stout, sharp, pyramidal spines that 

measure 1 centimeter (0.4 inch). Pulp (aril) is creamy-white, pinkish, orange or 

yellowish in color with a soft, custard-like to firm texture. The flavor is sweet and is 

described as a mixture of buttery custard, bananas, caramel, vanilla and garlic. Fruit 

emits a strong odor of garlic, onion and strong cheese with a fruity background smell. 

There are strong and mild tasting varieties. A highly prized, popular, expensive fruit in 

parts of Southeast Asia. Requires hot, humid tropical lowlands or rainforests, 

temperatures of 27 to 30 °C (81 to 86 °F), relative humidity of 75 to 80%, and abundant, 

well-distributed rainfall of 1,500 to 2,500 millimeters (59 to 98 inches). Prefers high 

light intensity, elevations up to 900 meters (2,953 feet) and deep, rich, fertile, welldrained sandy clay or clay loam soil. Not tolerant of cold temperatures and poorly

drained, heavy soils. Propagation is by seed and grafting. Seed must be planted soon 

after being removed from the fruit. Germination occurs in 3 to 8 days. In commercial 

production, trees should be transplanted just before the rainy season. Spacing should be 8 

to 16 meters (26 to 52 feet) in a square or triangle. Young trees should be shaded. 

Irrigation is required if the dry period is longer than 3 months. In heavy production areas, 

thinning is required. Fertilization aids production. Fruit are harvested at maturity (when 

the fruit appears to be hollow, or fall to the ground) and can be held at 29 to 31 °C (84 to 

88 °F) for 3 to 6 days. Fruit are graded and cleaned before being sold.

Elephant-apple:

A small, deciduous, slow-growing, erect tree that reaches a height of 10 to 12 

meters (33 to 39 feet), and is native to southern India and Sri Lanka. Branches are 

thorny, bent outwards near the top of the tree, and are subdivided into slender branchlets. 

Branchlets droop at the tips. Bark is dark grey, rough, rigid, furrowed, and contains 

spines that are 2 to 5 centimeters (0.8 to 2 inches) long. The trunk and branches exude 

white, transparent gum. Wood is yellow-grey to whitish in color. Dark green leaves are 

pinnate, leathery, minutely toothed, and blunt or notched at the tip, lemon-scented, and 

7.5 to 25 centimeters (3 to 10 inches) long. Leaflets are alternate, obovate, sessile or on 

petioles that measure 2.5 to 3.8 by 1.3 to 2.5 centimeters (1 to 1.5 by 0.5 to 1 inch). 

Flowers are borne in small, loose, terminal or auxiliary panicles. Male and female 

flowers are usually found on the same panicle. Individual flowers are dull red, white or 

greenish in color, 5-merous, and 1.25 centimeters (0.5 inch) wide. Cross-pollinated by

insects. Fruit are round to oval in shape and measure 5 to 12.5 centimeters (2 to 5 inches) 

in diameter. The rind is hard, woody, scaly, dry, and brownish to grayish-white in color 

and 0.6 centimeter (0.2 inch) thick. Pulp is brown to pinkish in color, mealy, aromatic, 

resinous, and astringent. The flavor is acid to sweet. Each fruit contains numerous small, 

hairy, white, 0.5 to 0.6 centimeter (0.20 to 0.24 inch) seeds. Often thought of as a “poor 

man’s fruit” until the development of more recent processing techniques. Commonly
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grown throughout Southeast Asia. Propagation is by seed, root cuttings, air layers or 

budding. Germination occurs in 2 to 3 weeks. Fruit is mature when it does not bounce 

after being dropped from a height of 30 centimeters (12 inches). Fruit is placed in the sun 

for 2 weeks to encourage ripening.

Etambe:

A large tree that grows to a height of 35 meters (115 feet) and is native to Sri 

Lanka. The trunk is 90 centimeters (35 inches) in diameter. Bark is rough, deeply 

fissured with strips 2 to 3 centimeters (0.8 to 1.2 inch) wide, and dark to light brown in 

color. Live bark is 0.3 to 0.5 centimeters (0.1 to 0.2 inch) thick, red with lighter bands on 

the outside and straw to light red inside. White latex exudes from the bark. Branch lets

are thick and furrowed. Leaves are scattered and clustered at the ends of twigs. 

Individual leaves are leathery, spathulate, obovate-oblong, or oblanceolate in shape, 

tapered at the base, and approximately 3 by 9 centimeters (1.2 by 3.5 inches) in size. 

Leaf margins are slightly incurved. The petiole is slender and 1 to 3 centimeters (0.4 to 

1.2 inches) long. Flower panicles are stiff, erect and up to 20 centimeters (8 inches) long. 

Flowers are light yellow in color and grouped into clusters. Individual flowers are 0.4 

centimeter (0.16 inch) wide, and contain 5 ovate, acute 0.2 by 0.15 centimeter (0.08 by 

0.06 inch) sepals, 5 elliptic 0.35 to 0.4 by 0.2 centimeter (0.14 to 0.16 by 0.08 inch) 

petals, a large, cushion-like disc with 5 lobes, a 0.2 centimeter (0.08 inch) long fertile 

stamen, 5 to 8 staminodes with anthers, and a style. The pedicel is slender and 0.1 

centimeter (0.04 inch) long. Yellowish flushed with red fruit are mango-shaped, slightly 

flattened with a small beak, and up to 6.5 by 5 by 4 centimeters (2.6 by 2 by 1.6 inches) 

in size. The skin is thin and contains many tiny glands. Pulp is yellow in color, 0.5 

centimeter (0.2 inch) thick, juicy, fluid, and fibrous. The flavor is sweet to slightly acid. 

etambe. Trees are grown in both the wet and dry zones of Sri Lanka. Tolerates water rich 

areas and altitudes of up to 800 meters (2,625 feet). Fruit is ripe when it drops from the 

tree. 

Granadilla:

A strong, vigorous, woody vine that can grow several feet in a single season, and 

is native to Central and South America. The vine is weakly angled, grooved, or 

cylindrical and tapering at the ends. Plants have the ability to climb high trees using 

tendrils and often shade out the understory. Shiny, medium-green leaves are broadly 

heart-shaped, pointed at the tip, prominently veined, pale green and hairy underneath, 8 

to 22 centimeters (3 to 9 inches) long and 6 to 17 centimeters (2.4 to 7 inches) wide. 

Three pairs of 1 centimeter (0.4 inch) long hair-like glands are located along the petiole. 

The leaf axils contain paired leaf-like finely toothed stipules that are ovate-oblong and 

2.5 centimeters (1 inch) long by 1.25 centimeters (0.5 inch) wide. Sweet, musky-scented 

flowers are 10 centimeters (4 inches) wide and are contained on a 3.8 centimeter (1.5 

inch) stalk that bears 3 leaf-like pointed, faintly toothed bracts that are ovate-oblong and 

3.8 centimeters (1.5 inches) long by 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) wide. Greenish-white sepals 

are lanceolate in shape, petals are pinkish white, and filaments are in 2 rows and are 

white, horizontally striped with purple-blue. There are two flowers per node. Fruit is 
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greenish, yellow, orange or yellow-orange with white speckles. Individual fruit is 

solitary, broad-elliptic in shape, 5 to 8 centimeters (2 to 3 inches) long and 4 to 7 

centimeters (1.6 to 2.8 inches) in diameter. The outside of the rind is smooth, thin, hard 

and brittle. Internally, the rind is white and soft. The pulp is whitish-yellow to orange, 

mucilaginous, aromatic and juicy. The flavor is sweet. There are numerous seeds that 

are black, flat, pitted, and tender. Unripe fruit is green with purple blush and dotted. 

Fruit are cultivated commercially in native countries. Becoming invasive on some 

Hawaiian islands. Propagation is by seed and cuttings. Fruit deteriorates quickly after 

harvest.

Granadilla, Giant:

A fast-growing, large, coarse, herbaceous vine that is woody at the base. Vines 

may climb 10 to 46 meters (33 to 150 feet) and can grow 15 meters (50 feet) in one 

growing season. Roots are fleshy, tuberous and increase in size with age. Stems are 

thick, 4-angled and prominently winged on the angles. Vines contain axillary tendrils 

that reach 30 centimeters (12 inches) long. Leaf-like, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, faintly

toothed stipules measuring 2 to 3.5 centimeters (0.75 to 1.4 inches) in size are located 

along side of tendrils. Leaves are alternate, broad-ovate or oblong-ovate in shape, 

rounded to heart-shaped at the base, pointed at the tip, 8.3 to 15 centimeters (3.25 to 6 

inches) wide and 10 to 20 centimeters (4 to 8 inches) long. Large, fragrant red and purple 

flowers are solitary and measure 12 to 13 centimeters (4.75 to 5 inches) wide. Individual 

flowers contain a bell-shaped calyx, 5 sepals that are greenish to reddish-green outside 

and white, pink or purple inside, 5 white and pink petals measuring 4.4 centimeters (1.75 

inches) long, and 2-ranked, 6 centimeter (2.375 inches) long filaments that are purple and 

white below, blue in the middle and pinkish-blue above. Hand pollination is used to 

increase yield. Fruit is yellowish green, greenish-white or pale to deep yellow blushed 

with pink, irregularly shaped, ovate-oblong or oblong-ovoid in shape, melon-like, 10 to 

30 centimeters (4 to 12 inches) long, and 10 to 15 centimeters (4 to 6 inches) in diameter. 

Fruit can be faintly ribbed or longitudinally 3-lobed. The skin is thin and delicate. The 

flesh is white to pink in color, firm, mealy, coated with a parchment-like material on the 

inner surface and 2.5 to 3.8 centimeters (1 to 1.5 inches) thick. The interior of the fruit 

contains juice and arils that are yellow, whitish, or purple-pink in color. The flavor of the 

flesh is mild and the flavor of the arils (pulp) is subacid, sweet-acid or bland. Purplishbrown, flattened-oval seeds are 1.3 centimeters (0.5 inch) long. Fruit is highly aromatic. 

The largest fruit in its genus. A widely cultivated plant. grandgi. For commercial 

purposes, trees may need to be replaced every 5 to 6 years. Fruit are harvested with 

clippers when the skin becomes translucent, glossy and yellowish at the tips.

Guiri:

A small, slow-growing, bushy palm that reaches a height of 1.8 meters (6 feet) 

and a diameter of up to 2.1 meters (7 feet), and is native to the Atlantic coast of Brazil 

from Bahia to Sao Paulo. The stem is short, solitary or branched, and subterranean. In 

rare cases, the stem is visible. The growing point may be lower in the ground than the 

base of the stem. Bright green to silvery green leaves emerge out of the ground in groups 
113

of 4 to 15 and grow in a swirling pattern. Individual leaves are pinnately compound, 

narrow, tough, arching, bushy, densely waxy underneath, sharp, and 0.6 to 2 meters (2 to 

6 feet) long,. The petioles are short. Leaflets radiate in different planes and are narrow, 

clustered irregularly, split at the tip, and 0.6 meters (2 feet) long. Inflorescences are 

spicate, unbranched, borne among the leaves, and 51 centimeters (20 inches) long. Many 

greenish yellow flowers occur on the short broad flowering branch. On the lower portion 

of the flowering branch flowers occur in triads of two lateral male flowers and one 

central female flower. This results in the female flowers growing in distinct spirals. 

Male flowers occur on the upper part of the flowering branch. Oval fruit are yellowishgreen to yellowish-orange, shaped like small coconuts, and 1.3 to 2.5 centimeters (0.5 to 

1 inch) long by 1.3 centimeters (0.5 inch) in diameter. Each fruit contains one to two 

seeds. Fruit are densely clustered on the fruiting stem. Propagation is by seed, and 

germination is erratic and can take 3 to 6 months. High temperatures and humidity aid 

the germination process. The tree is also widely cultivated as an ornamental. Fruit are 

not yet produced commercially. The sweet mesocarp of the fruit and seeds are edible and 

the fruit is consumed raw or in drinks.

Ilama:

A small spreading to erect slender tree that grows to a height of 6 to 8 meters (20 

to 26 feet), and is native to Central America and Mexico. The trunk measures 25 

centimeters (10 inches) in diameter. Furrowed bark is aromatic and pale brownish-gray

in color. Branching may occur from the ground, forming 3 to 6 main stems. Leaves are 

glossy, thin, elliptic, obovate or oblanceolate in shape, rounded at the apex, and 5 to 15 

centimeters (2 to 6 inches) long. Young foliage is reddish to coppery in color. One to 

two leaf-like, nearly circular glabrous bracts that measure 2.5 to 3.5 centimeters (1 to 1.4 

inches) long occur along the base of the flowering branchlets. Undersides of the leaves, 

small branches and fruit have a powdery whitish appearance. Maroon, pinkish, or 

purplish-red flowers are solitary, long-stalked and open to the base. Individual flowers 

contain small rusty hairy sepals, 3 narrow, blunt, minutely hairy linear-oblong outer 

petals that measure 2 to 5 centimeters (0.8 to 2 inches) long, and 3 minute stamen-like 

pollen-bearing inner petals. Pale green, deep pink or lavender fruit is solitary, spherical, 

heart-shaped, ovoid globose, conical, or ovoid in shape, 15 centimeters (6 inches) long, 

10 to 15 centimeters (4 to 6 inches) in diameter, and 400 to 900 grams (0.9 to 2 pounds) 

in weight. The surface of the fruit is rough and contains pronounced triangular 

protuberances. The leathery soft, granular rind is coated with a dense, velvety gray-white 

bloom and is 0.6 centimeter (0.25 inch) thick. Pulp is white or pinkish in color, smooth, 

fibrous, or custard-like in texture and dry to juicy. The flavor varies according to 

cultivar. Green types contain white flesh that is sweet in flavor. Pink to purple types 

contain light to dark pink flesh that is tart in flavor. Some believe the aromatic fruit 

resembles cherimoya or atemoya in flavor. Each fruit contains 25 to 80 seeds enclosed in 

a membrane that are hard, smooth, brown, cylindrical in shape, and 2 centimeters (0.75 

inch) long by 1 centimeter (0.375 inch) wide. Propagation is by seed and grafting. 

Cultivated trees should be irrigated in dry areas. Fruit are usually harvested when they

begin to crack open. Fruit can also be harvested early and left to soften for up to 3 days. 
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Fruit has a short shelf life. The ilama is grown together with other fruit trees, in small 

fields, or on patios.

Ingá:

A large, attractive, semi-deciduous fruit tree growing to a height of 5 to 10 meters 

(16 to 33 feet), and is native to Brazil. Branches are spreading. Compound leaves are 

pinnate with a winged stalk. Each leaf contains 4 to 5 pairs of leaflets with pubescent 

veins that measure 4 to 14 centimeters (1.6 to 5.5 inches) long. Between each leaflet, a 

nectar gland occurs on the leaf rachis. Flowers form from August to September. White 

and yellow inflorescences occur in solitary, axillary racemes and resemble pompoms. 

Indehiscent fruit are legumes that are cylindrical in shape, resemble tamarind pods and 

measure 12 by 2 by 0.5 centimeters (5 by 0.8 by 0.2 inches). The skin of the fruit is 

dense-pubescent. The pulp is white in color, juicy, and has a soft cotton wool texture. 

Each fruit contains few seeds. The flavor of the aril is sweet and resembles vanilla icecream. A nitrogen-fixing tree. Grown in the Atlantic Forest from Sao Paulo to Rio 

Grande do Sul. Fruit is cultivated for use in landscaping. It is propagated by seeds and 

the seeds often germinate while the fruit is still attached to the tree.

Jackfruit:

A fast-growing medium size evergreen tree that grows to a height of 8 to 25 

meters (26 to 82 feet), and is native to tropical Asia, specifically the rain forests of India 

and Malaysia. It is a close relative of the chempedak. Jackfruit has been cultivated since 

ancient times in Southeast Asia and widely cultivated in many tropical countries. The 

tree produces large quantities of latex. The grayish-brown trunk is straight, rarely 

buttressed, rough, uneven, and reaches 30 to 80 centimeters (12 to 31 inches) in diameter. 

Bark is scaly and contains minute, 0.05 centimeter (0.02 inch) long white hairs. The 

canopy is dome to pyramidal shaped and 3.5 to 7 meters (11.5 to 23 feet) in diameter. 

Large dark green leaves are glossy, leathery, entire, simple, stiff, pale green underneath, 

smooth along the margins, round, elliptic, oval or oblong in shape, arranged alternately 

on horizontal branches, spirally on ascending branches, and 4 to 25 centimeters (1.6 to 10 

inches) long by 2 to 12 centimeters (0.8 to 5 inches) wide. The stipules are fused around 

the stem. Young leaves can be oblong or deeply lobed. The tree contains both male and 

female flowers. The male inflorescence is elongated, oblong, cylindrical or club-shaped, 

hanging or drooping, dense, fleshy, produced singly, and 5 to 15 centimeters (2 to 6 

inches) long by 2 to 4.5 centimeters (0.8 to 1.8 inches) wide. Spikes are smooth and 

whitish green to dark green when young, turning yellowish and rough when mature. 

Male flowers occur throughout the tree. The female inflorescence is solitary to paired, 

elliptical to round in shape, rough, light to dark green, and 5 to 15 centimeters (2 to 6 

inches) long. Female spikes are contained on a 0.8 to 0.9 centimeter (0.3 to 0.4 inch) 

thick peduncle. Female flowers occur on the main trunk and branches. Pollination 

occurs by wind; hand pollination can also be done. Compound fruit are borne from an 

entire flower cluster. Large greenish yellow, yellow or brownish multiple fruit are pear 

to barrel-shaped syncarps that measure 30 to 100 centimeters (12 to 39 inches) long, 25 to 

50 centimeters (10 to 20 inches) in diameter, and 4.5 to 60 kilograms (10 to 132 pounds) 
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in weight. Achenes that make up the syncarp fruit are indehiscent and contain one seed. 

The fruit contains large amounts of latex. Each fruit is borne on a 5 to 10 centimeter (2 to 

4 inch) stalk on the main branches or directly on the trunk. Immature fruit are pale to 

dark green. The rind is thick, rubbery, hard, pebbly, 1 centimeter (0.4 inch) thick, and 

contains short, blunt spines. Pulp (perianth) consists of large bulbs that are yellow to 

orange-yellow in color, waxy, leathery, smooth, firm to soft, and fleshy. In between the 

bulbs are narrow ribbons of thin, tough, undeveloped perianths and a central pithy core. 

The receptacle is not separable from the pulp. Each bulb encloses one seed. The flavor 

is sweet, strongly aromatic and resembles a combination of pineapple, banana and melon. 

When ripe, the fruit produces a fruity onion odor. Each fruit can contain up to 500 seeds. 

Each seed is smooth, oval, and 2 to 4 centimeters (0.8 to 1.6 inches) long by two

centimeters (0.8 inch) wide. Seeds are surrounded by a horny endocarp and a subgelatinous exocarp. Fruit are classified into two general types: Koozha chakka, which are 

fruit with small, fibrous, soft, mushy, sweet carpels and Koozha pazham, commercially

important fruit that contain crisp carpels. Largest edible tree fruit in the world. 

Propagation is by seed, root and stem cuttings, air layers, budding, tissue culture and 

grafting. Seed must be planted at a depth of 2 centimeters (0.8 inch) within 1 month after 

being removed from the fruit. Germination occurs in 3 to 8 weeks. Seedlings should be 

grown in shade. Trees should be spaced 6 to 12 meters (20 to 39 feet) apart. For 

commercial practices, shoots are thinned and branches cleared for harvesting purposes. 

Fruit is mature when a hollow, dull sound is heard once the fruit is tapped. Yellowish 

brown skin color, a strong onion odor, and flattening of the surface spines also determine 

when the fruit is ripe. Fruit is harvested by cutting the peduncle and allowing the latex to 

drain. In other areas, fruit is harvested after falling from the tree. The shelf life for 

harvested fallen fruit is 2 to 3 days. Fruit can also be stored at 10 to 12 °C (50 to 54 °F) 

for 2 to 3 weeks, and is favored most in Asia.

Jatobá:

A slow-growing large tree that reaches a height of 15 to 40 meters (49 to 131 

feet), and is native to Central and South America and the West Indies. The sap is 

resinous, thick and clear-yellow. The trunk is cylindrical, straight and up to 2 meters (6.6 

feet) in diameter. The base can sometimes develop buttresses. Grayish to brown bark is 

smooth, thick, contains lenticels, and measures 1 to 3 centimeters (0.4 to 1.2 inches) 

thick. The wood is hard, durable, tough and reddish-brown. The roots are superficial and 

large roots occur near the surface. The crown is open or dense and hemispherical to 

umbrella-shaped. Leaves are semi-deciduous, alternate, compound and consist of 2 

leaflets. Petioles are 1 to 3 centimeters (0.4 to 1.2 inches) long. The two leaflets are 

shiny, thick, smooth, waxy, leathery, ovate, lanceolate, narrowly oblong, elliptical, or 

elliptic-lanceolate in shape, acute to obtuse at the tip, asymmetrical, rounded at the base, 

contain entire margins, and range in size from 3 to 14 centimeters (1.2 to 5.5 inches) long 

by 1.5 to 7 centimeters (0.6 to 3 inches) wide. The inflorescences consist of short, dense, 

terminal corymbs panicles containing few branches and flowers. Inflorescences measure 

8 to 15 centimeters (3 to 6 inches) long by 10 to 15 centimeters (4 to 6 inches) wide. 

Pedicles are 0.3 to 1.0 centimeter (0.1 to 0.4 inch) long. Individual whitish to purplish 

rounded flowers are 1.5 to 5 centimeters (0.6 to 2 inches) long by 3 centimeters (1.2 inch) 
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in diameter and contain both male and female reproductive structures, 4 to 5 concave 

sepals, 5 petals, deciduous corollas, ten stamens, one pistil an ovary with one locule, 6 to 

18 ovules, and an anther. Flowers are pollinated by bats. The dark brown legume is 

indehiscent, rigid, oblong in shape, and 6 to 17 centimeters (2.4 to 7 inches) long, 6.5 

centimeters (2.6 inches) wide, and 10 to 50 grams (0.4 to 2 ounces) in weight. The pod is 

dull, hard, and woody. The pod contains yellow, creamy brown or greenish pulp that is 

starchy, mealy, and powdery, resembling dry flour. When placed in the mouth, the 

texture turns into a paste. The flavor is sweet and reminiscent of bananas or dates. The 

aroma is uncommon. Each pod also contains 1 to 6 light, dark, or reddish-brown seeds 

that are flattened, hard, and measure one to two centimeters (0.4 to 0.8 inch) long. 

Propagation is by seed and cuttings and the seeds germinate in 20 to 30 days. 

Scarification is used to reduce germination time. Seventy-seven trees per hectare are 

used for commercial plantings. This fruit is locally important but rarely cultivated 

outside of native areas.

Karuka:

Trees prefer seasonally distributed rainfall and fertile soil. Grows best along the 

banks of small creeks, in the hollows that occur around the edges of hills, and around the 

edges of small clearings in the bush. Trees can tolerate cooler climates as far south as 

New Zealand. Trees are maintained by villagers. Large harvests occur when there is a 

drought. A commonly eaten indigenous nut; over half of the population in New Guinea 

consumes this cultivated nut. A potential cash crop and an exotic export crop. Pandanus 

julianettii trees are palm-like and can obtain a height of up to 30 meters (98 feet). Native 

to the highlands of New Guinea. The trunk is straight and aerial prop roots occur at the 

base. Branching occurs near the top of the tree. Approximately 3 to 4 crowns of leaves 

are produced. Twisted, long, narrow leaves grow in pairs opposite of each other, bend at 

the tips, and have spikes along the edges, and measure 3 meters (10 feet) long. The fruit 

are round, composite, and approximately 45 centimeters (18 inches) in diameter. Each 

fruit contains over 1,000 phalanges. The seed (nut) inside the phlange is consumed. 

When sweet potato is scarce, people survive on karuka nuts.

Kei-apple:

A vigorous shrub or small evergreen tree that grows to a height of 3 to 9 meters 

(10 to 30 feet) and a spread of 8 meters (25 feet), and is native to the Kei River area in 

southwestern Africa. Bark is smooth, grey and fissured on young branches and flaky or 

corky on old branches. Young branches contain 4 to 7 centimeter (1.6 to 2.8 inch) long 

spines. Stems contain few to no spines. The crown is branched. Leaves occur in tight 

clusters on lateral branches or at the bases of the thorns, and alternate on young shoots. 

Individual leaves are simple, glossy, waxy, obovate, obovate-elliptic or oblong-obovate 

in shape, rounded at the tip, tapered at the base, and 2 to 7.5 centimeters (0.8 to 3 inches) 

long by 0.5 to 3 centimeters (0.2 to 1.2 inches) wide. The petioles are short and measure 

0.5 centimeters (0.2 inch) long. Cream-green flowers are small, petalless, and occur in 

dense clusters in the leaf axils on lateral shoots. Pale-yellow male flowers occur in 

clusters of 5 to 10 and measure 0.3 centimeters (0.1 inch) long. Pale-yellow female 
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flowers are solitary or occur in clusters of 2 to 3 on stalks that measure 0.4 to 1.0 

centimeters (0.2 to 0.4 inch) long. There are separate male and female plants. 

Pollination occurs by insects. Bright yellow to yellow-orange fruit is solitary, fleshy, 

ovoid, oblate, or almost spherical in shape and 2.5 to 6 centimeters (1 to 2.4 inches) in 

diameter. Immature fruit is green in color. The skin is tough, thin, and velvety. The 

pulp is yellow, mealy, apricot-textured and juicy. The flavor is sour, subacid or acid and 

pleasant. Fruit is aromatic. Each fruit contains 5 to 15 seeds in two circles. Individual 

seeds are flat, pointed, surrounded by fibers and 1.0 centimeter (0.4 inch) long. Fruit 

resembles a small flattened apricot. Propagation is by seed, cuttings, layering and 

grafting. Cleaned, dried seeds must be planted in flats of light sandy loam soon after 

being removed from the ripe fruit. Germination occurs in 18 to 20 days. Trees for fruit 

production should be spaced 4 to 5 meters (12 to 15 feet) apart. Trees for hedges should 

be spaced 0.9 to 1.5 meters (3 to 5 feet) apart. Pruning aids growth and harvesting. Trees 

can grow 60 centimeters (24 inches) per year. Harvesting is done when fruits turn 

yellow-orange and become soft. Fruit are collected from the ground after branches are 

shaken. Propagation is mainly by seed and cuttings. For commercial production, trees 

should be spaced 6 to 9 meters (20 to 30 feet) apart. Trees should be pruned, topped at 5 

meters (16 feet), and fertilized. Fruit are harvested when they open on the tree. For 

processing purposes, mature, unopened fruit are harvested and placed on racks in the sun. 

Fruit that open within 3 days are processed.

Langstat:

A slender, tall, evergreen tree that grows to a height of 5 to 10 meters (16 to 33 

feet) in cultivation and up to 30 meters (98 feet) in the wild, and is native to southeast 

Asia, specifically peninsular Thailand, Malaysia and Borneo. The trunk is straight, short 

and up to 75 centimeters (30 inches) in diameter. Mottled grey and orange, red-brown or 

yellow-brown bark is deeply and irregularly fluted with steep buttresses; contains sticky, 

milky sap. The crown is erect and open. Dull green leaves are glossy, coarse, pinnate, 

alternate and 22 to 50 centimeters (9 to 20 inches) long. Petioles are up to 7 centimeters 

(3 inches) long. Each leaf contains 5 to 9 oval, leathery, dark-green, glossy, alternate 

obovate to elliptic-oblong, pointed leaflets that measure 7 to 20 centimeters (3 to 8 

inches) long by 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) wide. Petiolules are 0.5 to 1.2 

centimeters (0.2 to 0.5 inch) long. Both langsat and duku produce many flowered, hairy, 

solitary or clustered racemes that range in size from 10 to 30 centimeters (4 to 12 inches) 

long. Racemes are showy and can occur in groups of two to five directly on the trunk 

and large branches. Individual langsat and duku flowers are small, yellow to white in 

color, perfect and sessile; flowers occur in clusters of 20 to 30 and measure 1.2 

centimeters (0.5 inch) wide by 0.5 centimeters (0.2 inch) long. Each flower contains 5 

fleshy, cup-shaped 5-lobed greenish-yellow sepals, 5 fleshy, erect ovate petals, 10 anthers 

and united stamens. Ripe fruit occur in clusters of 2 to 30, are oval, ellipsoid, ovidoblong or round in shape, and generally measure 2.5 to 5 centimeters (1 to 2 inches) in 

diameter. The skin of the mature fruit is generally light grayish-yellow, pale yellow with 

brown blemishes, pale brownish or pink in color, velvety, leathery and thin to thick. Pulp 

(aril) is clear, white translucent, juicy and divided into five segments. The flavor is acid, 

subacid or sweet. Seeds are green, large, bitter, and 2 to 2.5 centimeters (0.8 to 1 inch) 
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long by 1.25 to 2 centimeters (0.5 to 0.8 inch) wide. Pale green immature fruit contains 

white latex. Lansium domesticum consists of three types of fruit: longkong, langsat, and 

duku. The longkong tree consists of a round, upright trunk with little roughness; the 

trunk lacks a white stripe. The dark green leaves of this tree contain deep veins. Leaves 

are large, thick, smooth underneath, and glossy. The tip of the leaf is oval and wavy. 

Light yellow fruit is large, oval in shape and occurs in clusters of 10 to 40. The peel is

thick, rough, hairless, and hard. No latex is present in the peel. Pulp is translucent and 

hard. Each fruit contains few or no seeds. Yellow-greenish seeds are large, oval and 

bitter. Longkong fruit are sweeter and contain less latex compared to langsat. Because 

of this, longkong fruit are more expensive compared to langsat fruit in Thailand. 

The langsat tree is meager, slender, open, and consists of a white-striped trunk with 

upright, hairy branches. Native to the north of the Malay Peninsula. Leaves are long, 

tapered, thin, hairy underneath, and contain shallow veins. Overall, foliage is sparse. 

White-yellow fruit are smaller than longkong and duku fruit and are grown in clusters of 

15 to 25. Individual fruit are ovoid to oblong in shape and 3 to 5 centimeters (1.2 to 2 

inches) in size. The pale, grayish buff peel is thin, soft and contains very short hairs and 

sticky sap. Pulp is white-translucent. Each fruit contains five segments with 1 to 5 seeds 

that are small and green. The duku tree is robust, broad-topped, densely foliaged, and 

consists of a trunk with knobs and a spreading dome-shaped canopy. Native to the south 

of the Malay Peninsula. Leaves are long, tapered, smooth underneath, and similar to the 

coffee leaf. Leaves contain a thin oval tip and shallow veins. Light-yellow fruit are 

round, larger than longkong and langsat, 4.0 to 5.0 centimeters (1.6 to 2 inches) in size, 

and contain 4 to 12 fruit per cluster. The peel is thick, rough, brownish buff in color and 

contains short hairs and no sap. The crusty rind can be removed easily, revealing 5 

segments. Fruit contain less pulp compared to other fruit. The aroma of the fruit is 

strong. All carpels contain 1 to 2 non-bitter seeds. The duku is the more popular fruit 

form. Langstat Propagation is by seed, layering, and grafting (approach, cleft, whip or 

side veneer). Seeds must be planted soon after being removed from the fruit. Longkong 

seeds are fertile and germinate with many seedlings. Langsat and duku seeds germinate

with only one seedling. Grafting is done during the rainy season. Trees should be spaced 

8 by 8 meters (26 by 26 feet) to 12 by 12 meters (39 by 39 feet) apart. Irrigation can be 

used to promote flowering. Fertilization promotes new growth. Pruning is done to 

promote an open shape. Mature plants are pruned after harvest, at the beginning of the 

rainy season when dormant. Flower thinning is done to prevent small fruit and lower 

fruit set. Fruit thinning is done when fruit reach 0.5 centimeter (0.2 inch) in diameter to 

promote uniformity. Fruit is harvested when the skin color turns green to yellow, the 

aroma increases, the fruit becomes sweeter, and the quantity of latex is reduced. 

Longkong fruit are harvested when the skin changes from light yellow to dark yellow and 

the peduncles and calyxes are dry. Longkong fruit must be harvested as soon as they turn 

ripe or fruit drop occurs, resulting in a short shelf life. Clusters do not mature uniformly. 

However, clusters of fruit are harvested and sold intact. Individual fruit are sold at a 

lower price. 4 to 5 harvests are required to collect mature fruit. Fruit can be stored for 21 

days at 18 °C (64 °F) and 90% relative humidity.

Lanjut;
119

A tree that grows up to 40 meters (131 feet) tall, and is native to Indonesia. The 

trunk is up to 18 meters (59 feet) long, 80 centimeters (31.5 inches) in diameter and 

contains thick buttresses that may reach up to 30 centimeters (12 inches) high. Bark is 

scaly, red brown to grey brown in color, smooth when young, and irregularly cracked and 

slightly too broadly fissured when older. Ridges in the trunk are wrinkled, flaky and up 

to 0.3 centimeters (0.1 inch) thick. Live bark is hard, laminated, up to 2 centimeters (0.8 

inch) thick and dark reddish, reddish yellow or pink in color with longitudinal stripes. 

Sap is sticky, watery, and chocolate brown to dark red brown in color. Sapwood is white 

in color. Bud scales are pinkish in color, small, acute, and stiff. The crown is dense and 

consists of many subcrowns. Dark green leaves are spirally arranged and crowded on the 

upper half of twigs. Individual leaves are smooth, leathery, and obtuse at the base, 

obovate-lanceolate to spathulate in shape and up to 11 by 16 centimeters (4 by 6 inches) 

in size. Flowers are in panicles that are subterminal or in the axils of apical leaves. 

Panicles are slightly hairy and up to 30 centimeters (12 inches) long. The pedicel is up to 

0.15 centimeter (0.06 inch) long. Individual dark velvety black-violet, dark violet or pale 

lilac flowers contain 5 broadly ovate to broadly elliptic 0.15 to 0.25 centimeter (0.06 to 

0.1 inch) long hairy sepals, 5 dark to light purple oblong, linear-oblong, or oblanceolate, 

0.5 to 0.7 centimeter (0.2 to 0.3 inch) long erect to reflexed petals, 5 fertile stamens, 

filaments that are purple to blue, tipped with yellow, a slender disc and a style. Fruit are 

large in size, pear-shaped, and 10.5 centimeters (4 inches) long by 7 to 8 centimeters (2.8 

to 3.1 inches) in diameter. At maturity, fruit are green flushed with pink and at full 

maturity, fruit turn brownish in color. Pulp is up to 2 centimeters (0.8 inch) thick, 

stringy, fibrous, and white to dirty pink or purple in color. The flavor is very sour, acidic 

and bitter, and foul smelling. 

Longan:

An erect, large, semi-deciduous to evergreen tree that grows to a height of 8 to 20 

meters (26 to 66 feet) and a spread of 14 meters (46 feet), and is native to northeastern 

India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand and southern China. It has been cultivated in China 

for 2,000 years. Roots are 2 to 4 meters (7 to 13 feet) deep. The trunk is massive and 

sometimes buttressed. Bark is corky, rough and 0.8 meter (2.5 feet) thick. The canopy is 

dense, many-branched and rounded. Young branches are brownish grey and hairy. Main 

branches are long, spreading and somewhat drooping. Leaves are dark green above, 

minutely grey velvety below, pinnately compound, alternate, and 25 centimeters (10 

inches) long. Leaves contain 6 to 12 leaflets that are alternate to nearly opposite, shiny, 

smooth, leathery, oblong, elliptic, ovate-oblong, or lanceolate in shape, blunt or pointed 

at the ends, wavy on the edges and 5 to 30 centimeters (2 to 12 inches) long by 3.5 to 5 

centimeters (1.4 to 2 inches) wide. Young leaflets are wine-red in color. Flowers are 

borne in large terminal panicles in the upper leaf axils and measure 10 to 40 centimeters 

(4 to 16 inches) long. Fragrant flowers are small, greenish-yellow, yellow-white or 

brownish in color and hairy stalked. Each flower contains five sepals and five petals. 

Trees have three different flower types: staminate flowers, hermaphrodite flowers 

functioning as females and hermaphrodite flowers functioning as males. Pollination is 

accomplished mostly by honeybees. Fruit are contained in large clusters of 20 to 30. 

Individual fruit (drupes) are yellowish-brown to reddish-brown in color, spherical to 
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ovoid in shape and 1.5 to 2.5 or even 4 centimeters (0.6 to 1 or 1.6 inch) in diameter. 

Fruit is smaller compared to lychee. The skin is thin, fragile, leathery, crusty and pebbly

to almost smooth with a honeycomb pattern. Pulp (aril) is juicy, mucilaginous, 

translucent, clear to whitish or golden. The flavor is strong, musky, sweet or sweet-sour 

and more delicate than a lychee. The aroma is spicy. Each fruit contains one round, 

dark-brown, red-brown or black shiny seed with a circular white spot at the base. The 

seed resembles an eye. Fruit is well-known and esteemed in Asia. Lond. Propagation is 

mostly vegetative (air layering, budding, cuttings, grafting). Propagation is not often 

done by seed since fruit quality is unpredictable. If propagating by seed, plant seeds 2 

centimeters (0.75 inch) deep. Germination occurs in 7 to 10 days. Seedlings should be 

transplanted to a shaded area during the spring and placed in the field 2 to 3 years later 

during dormancy. Trees should be planted 5 to 12 meters (16 to 39 feet) apart between 

trees and 8 to 10 meters (26 to 33 feet) between rows when there is sufficient moisture 

and warm temperatures. Thinning flower clusters can promote more even fruiting and 

increased fruit size. Irrigation, fertilization, and pruning aid growth and yield. Fruit 

shape, skin color and flavor influence when harvesting occurs. Fruit are ready for harvest 

when fruit develop a smooth, dark skin and reach 8 to 10 grams (0.3 to 0.4 ounce) in size. 

Harvesting is accomplished by clipping fruit from the stem. Rapid skin browning occurs, 

making fruit hard to market. A sulfur dioxide acid treatment is used to treat this problem 

in many countries. Fruit should be stored at 4 to 7 °C (39 to 45 °F) at 90 to 95% relative 

humidity for 2 to 3 weeks.

Lúcuma:

A tall, subtropical evergreen tree that grows to a height of 8 to 20 meters (26 to 66 

feet), and is native to South America, specifically the inter-Andean valleys and the cool 

highlands of Ecuador and Peru. Grown since ancient times. Similar in appearance to the 

avocado tree. The canopy is dense, rounded and 6 to 10 meters (20 to 33 feet) in 

diameter. Branchlets contain velvety hairs and large amounts of latex. Dark green leaves 

are clustered at the ends of small branches. Individual leaves are simple, thin, leathery, 

obovate, oval or elliptic in shape, blunt at the apex, pointed at the base, pale green with 

brown hairs underneath, 12.5 to 25 centimeters (5 to 10 inches) long and up to 10 

centimeters (4 inches) wide. Compared to the avocado, leaves are darker, smaller, and 

more leathery. Small, yellowish-green flowers are borne solitary or in clusters of 2 or 3 

in the leaf axils. Flowers are tubular with hairy sepals and a five to seven-lobed opening 

that measures 1.3 centimeters (0.5 inch) across. Flowers contain both male and female 

reproductive organs. Trees are self-fertile and pollinated by insects. Yellow, yellowishgreen, or brownish-green fruit is solitary, oblate, ovate or elliptic in shape, pointed or 

depressed at the apex, and 4 to 10 centimeters (1.6 to 4 inches) long. Immature fruit are 

green in color. The skin is thin, delicate, smooth, and overlaid with russet. Pulp of 

mature fruit is bright yellow, soft, firm, dry and mealy. Pulp of immature fruit is hard 

and contains latex. The flavor is very sweet and delicate, but has an unfavorable 

aftertaste. Some have described the taste as a combination of pumpkin and maple-syrup 

with a tart aftertaste. Each fruit contains one to five round to broad-oval dark brown 

glossy seeds. Seeds contain a whitish hilum on one side. Fruit is similar to canistel, but 

larger in size. Propagation is by seed and grafting. Germination occurs in 25 to 40 days. 
121

Cleft or tongue grafts are made in the early spring when the stem is pencil size. Trees 

should be spaced 4 to 5 meters (13 to 16 feet) in-row and 5 to 6 meters (16 to 20 feet) 

between rows. Young trees should be pruned to promote branching and fruiting. Mature 

fruit may or may not ripen while on the tree. Fruit are generally ripe when the pulp 

becomes soft, sweet, orange yellow in color, and the soluble solids content increases from 

9 to 16%. Fruit will not ripen if picked when immature. After harvesting, fruit are kept 

in the shade for several days to become soft prior to packing. Propagation is by seed and 

grafting. Germination occurs in 25 to 40 days. Cleft or tongue grafts are made in the 

early spring when the stem is pencil size. Trees should be spaced 4 to 5 meters (13 to 16 

feet) in-row and 5 to 6 meters (16 to 20 feet) between rows. Young trees should be 

pruned to promote branching and fruiting. Mature fruit may or may not ripen while on 

the tree. Fruit are generally ripe when the pulp becomes soft, sweet, orange yellow in 

color, and the soluble solids content increases from 9 to 16%. After harvesting, fruit are 

kept in the shade for several days to become soft prior to packing. Approximately 18 

tonnes (20 tons) per hectare of fruit are produced 10 years after planting. Trees can yield 

over 300 fruit and each fruit can weigh 150 to 200 grams (5 to 7 ounces).

Lychee:

A slow-growing, long-living, spreading, evergreen subtropical tree that grows to a 

height and width of 4 to 30 meters (13 to 98 feet), and is native to the low elevations of 

the Kwangtung and Fukien provinces in southern China. Cultivated for thousands of 

years. Closely related to the longan. Trees contain taproots, and the trunk is smooth, 

gray, and brittle. Depending on the cultivar, trees can be broad with low-hanging 

branches or contain upright branches with a dense, compact rounded crown. Branches 

are brittle. Leaves are alternate, pinnately compound and measure 8 to 25 centimeters (3 

to 10 inches) long. Each leaf contains two to five pairs of dark green, smooth, shiny

leaflets that are arranged oppositely. Leaflets are pale underneath, pointed, elliptic, 

elliptic-oblong or lanceolate in shape, flat to curved upwards, and 2.5 to 6.4 centimeters 

(1 to 2.5 inches) wide by 5 to 20 centimeters (2 to 8 inches) long. Leaflet edges can be 

smooth, wavy, or undulating. Young leaves are pale green, pinkish or copperish red in 

color. Flowers are borne in large quantities on leafless or leafy well-branched, erect, 

terminal panicles. Panicles measure 10 to 75 centimeters (4 to 29.5 inches) and are 

located on branch tips. Each panicle can contain a few hundred flowers. Individual 

flowers are yellow-green, greenish-white, creamy yellow, or brownish-yellow in color, 

small, and 0.3 to 0.6 centimeters (0.1 to 0.2 inch) long. Each flower contains small 

valvate sepals, a fleshy disk and approximately 8 stamens; flowers do not contain petals. 

Trees contain three types of flowers. Type I flowers are male. These flowers contain six 

to ten stamens and measure 0.5 to 0.7 centimeters (0.2 to 0.3 inch) long. Type II flowers 

contain both male and female parts, but function mostly as female flowers. These 

flowers contain a pistil and stigma and measure 0.2 to 0.3 centimeters (0.08 to 0.12 inch). 

Type III flowers contain both male and female parts, but function as male flowers. These 

flowers contain pistil and six to ten stamens. Trees are self-fertile and can be pollinated 

by insects. Yellow, orange-red, pink or deep red fruit occurs in long-stemmed, drooping 

clusters of 2 to 30. Individual fruit are spherical, elongated, conical or ovoid in shape, 

2.5 to 4 centimeters (1 to 1.6 inches) in diameter, and 15 to 30 grams (0.5 to 1 ounce) in 
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weight. The skin is thin, hard, fragile, leathery, warty, and covered with angular 

protuberances. Pulp is whitish, grayish or pinkish in color, glossy, succulent, thick and 

translucent. Pulp texture is reminiscent of a grape. The flavor is sweet to acidic and 

resembles a grape or rambutan. Seeds are glossy, hard, round, oblong or bullet-shaped, 

brown in color, and up to 2.0 centimeters (0.8 inch) long. Two subspecies of the fruit 

exist. The philippinensis subspecies originates from the Philippines and has a long, ovalshaped fruit with thorn-like protuberances that split when ripe, and this fruit is inedible. 

The javanensis subspecies originates from Indonesia and grows in hot equatorial areas, 

and this fruit is edible, and many varieties exist. Propagation is by seed, air layering, 

cuttings and grafting. Seeds should be removed from the fruit within one month after 

harvest. Viability is lost 4 to 5 days after being removed from the fruit. Germination 

occurs in 4 to 10 days. Air layering is the most popular technique and should be done 

when there are warm temperatures and the ground is moist. Trees 6 to 12 months old can 

be planted during any time of the year when there is sufficient moisture. Trees should be 

spaced 5 to 12 meters (16 to 39 feet) apart. Irrigation and fertilization are given to trees 

following harvest in summer to promote new growth. Panicles without fruit are cut to 

promote growth flushes. Fruit are harvested when the skin turns red in color, a mature 

size has been reached, and pulp has increased in sweetness and juiciness. Fruit do not 

ripen if harvested when immature. Fruit are harvested by packing individual fruit in 

cartons or cutting or breaking off the panicle containing the cluster of fruit. In some 

countries, a portion of last year’s wood is removed while harvesting to enhance a higher 

production of terminals next spring. Fruit quickly turn brown if left to dry. Fruit can be 

stored at 8 °C (46 °F) for 4 weeks. Without refrigeration, fruit can be stored for only 3 to 

5 days.

Mabolo:

A slow-growing evergreen tree that reaches a height of 7 to 33 meters (23 to 108 

feet). Trees can be small and straggly with drooping branches or erect with a stout, 

furrowed trunk, and is native to the Philippines. The trunk is black in color, furrowed, 

and can reach 80 centimeters (31.5 inches) in diameter. Wood is smooth, durable and 

pinkish to dark red, mottled with grey. The crown is dense and elongated to conical in 

shape. Dark green leaves are smooth, glossy, leathery, silvery and hairy underneath, 

alternate, oblong in shape, pointed at the apex, rounded or pointed at the base and 8 to 30 

centimeters (3 to 12 inches) long by 2.5 to 12 centimeters (1 to 5 inches) wide. New 

leaves are silky, hairy, and pale green to pink in color. The petiole measures up to 1.7 

centimeters (0.7 inch) long. Creamy white flowers are fragrant, tubular, four-lobed, 

waxy, and held on a short stalk. Trees contain either male or female flowers. Male 

flowers are borne in 3 to 7-flowered axillary cymes on short pedicels, contain 24 to 30 

stamens united at the base, a tubular 4-lobed calyx, and measure 0.6 centimeter (0.25 

inch) wide. Female flowers are larger than male flowers. Female flowers occur singly 

on separate trees, contain four to five staminodes, and measure 1.3 centimeters (0.5 inch) 

wide. Male flowered trees must be planted close to female trees in order for fruiting to 

occur. Purplish red, pink, yellow, brownish, or orange fruit is a berry that is oval, 

globose, depressed-globose, or oblate in shape, and 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) in 

diameter. Fruit are solitary or occur in pairs. Unripe fruit are greenish brown in color. 
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The skin is velvety, thin, pliable and tough; tough and papery when chewed. The fruit 

skin gives off an unpleasant cheese-like odor. The hairs are short, golden brown to 

copper colored. Fruit is capped at the base by a stiff dull-green calyx. The pulp is white 

to yellowish in color, firm, moist, and creamy to mealy. Resembles an overripe apple in 

texture. The flavor is dry and sweet to astringent. Some describe the taste as a bananaflavored apple. Each fruit contains four to eight brown seeds that occur in a circle around 

the core of the fruit. Seeds are smooth, wedge-shaped, and 4 centimeters (1.6 inches) 

long by 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) wide. A whitish membrane is contained around each 

seed that is translucent when fresh and opaque when dried. Seedless cultivars exist. Tree 

shape, hairiness of the leaves and branches, and fruit size, shape, color and sweetness will 

vary.

Madras-thorn:

A fast-growing, medium-sized, hardy tree that reaches a height of 5 to 22 meters 

(16 to 72 feet), and is native to America, from California to South America. A broadspreading thorny tree with irregular branches. Wood is reddish-brown, hard, heavy, 

brittle, and strong. The trunk is short, spiny and 30 to 100 centimeters (12 to 39 inches) 

in diameter. The bark is grey in color, smooth or rough, furrowed and peeling. Branches 

are slender, irregular and drooping. The crown is broad, spreading and up to 30 meters 

(98 feet) across. Deciduous leaves are bipinnately compound. Each leaf contains 4 

leaflets. Leaflets are oblong to ovate-oblong in shape, asymmetric, and 2 to 4 centimeters 

(0.8 to 1.6 inches) long by 1 to 2 centimeters (0.4 to 0.8 inch) wide. Each leaf contains a 

pair of short, thin, sharp spines at the base that measure 0.2 to 4 cm (0.08 to 1.6 inches) 

long. Spines are longer than the petioles. New leaves are borne directly after the loss of 

old leaves. Flowers occur on short-stalked whitish, racemelike or spiciform panicles in 

terminal compound inflorescences that range in size from 5 to 30 centimeters (2 to 12 

inches) long. Each panicle contains 20 to 30 densely hairy flowers. Individual white to 

greenish-white flowers are small, fragrant, sessile, and measure 1 centimeter (0.4 inch) in 

diameter. Flowers contain a hairy corolla, green calyx and 50 thin stamens united in a 

tube at the base. Pollination is by bees. The pinkish, black, brown, or reddish-brown pod 

can be linear, curved, or coiled in shape, thin, flattened, or irregular, and 1 to 1.5 

centimeters (0.4 to 0.6 inch) wide by 20 centimeters (8 inches) long. The immature pod 

is green. The pod splits along both margins, is swollen, constricted between the seeds, 

and slightly hairy. Pulp (arils) is thick, white to red in color, and surrounds the seeds. 

The flavor is sweet, acidic and resembles a chestnut in flavor. Each pod contains 

approximately 5 to 12 black, shiny, elliptical, bean-like seeds that measure 2 centimeters 

(0.8 inch) long. Seeds hang on a reddish thread from the pod. Trees can become weedy

and shade out other trees.

Mammy-apple:

A slow-growing, long-lived evergreen tree that grows to a height of 6 to 25 

meters (20 to 82 feet). The tree resembles a magnolia, and is native to the West Indies, 

Central America and northern South America. Grown as a food crop for thousands of 

years. Heartwood is reddish or purple-brown in color. Sapwood is light brown in color. 
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Wood is hard, heavy, fine-grained and strong. The trunk is short, erect and can reach 0.9 

to 1.2 meters (3 to 4 feet) in diameter. Bark is grey brown in color, smooth, or fissured, 

and contains gummy, pale yellow latex. The canopy is erect and oval to pyramidal. 

Branches are ascending and densely foliaged. Dark green leaves are simple, thick, shiny, 

smooth, opposite, leathery, broadly elliptic to oblong-ovate in shape, rounded to blunt at 

the apex, and up to 20 centimeters (8 inches) long by 10 centimeters (4 inches) wide. 

Each leaf contains many closely arranged parallel lateral veins. The petiole is short. 

Showy flowers occur singly or in clusters of two to three on thick stalks on the axils of 

young branches. Individual white, fragrant flowers are waxy, large, and 2.5 to 5 

centimeters (1 to 2 inches) wide. Male flowers resemble camellia flowers; contain 4 to 6 

waxy, white petals and a bunch of golden stamens. Female flowers contain a pistil. 

Male, female and hermaphrodite flowers occur together or on different trees. Light 

brown to grayish-brown fruit is a drupe that is spherical to irregular in shape, solitary, 8 

to 15 centimeters (3 to 6 inches) in diameter, and 0.5 to 2 kilograms (1.1 to 4.4 pounds) in 

weight. Fruit is borne on a short, thick stem. Each fruit contains a distinct tip or bristlelike floral remnant at the apex. The skin is leathery, 0.3 centimeter (0.1 inch) thick, bitter 

and rough. Skin contains small, scattered, warty or scurfy areas. Directly beneath the 

skin, there is a thin, dry, astringent, bitter, whitish membrane that adheres to the pulp. 

Pulp is light to golden yellow, reddish or orange in color, non-fibrous, and can range 

from firm, crisp and dry to tender, melting and juicy. Immature pulp is usually hard, 

while mature pulp is usually slightly softer. Pulp contains milky latex. The flavor is 

sweet to sub-acid and is reminiscent of apricots or red raspberries. Small fruit are usually 

single seeded and larger fruit usually contain two to four seeds. Seeds are red-brown to 

russet brown in color, large, rough, ovoid, oblong or ellipsoid in shape, and 6.25 

centimeters (2.4 inches) long. Propagation is by seed, cuttings, air-layering and grafting. 

Germination occurs in 1 to 4 months. Seed should not be allowed to dry out. Seedlings 

should be grown under light shade. When 3 to 5 months old and 40 to 50 centimeters (16 

to 20 inches) tall, seedlings can be transplanted at the beginning of the rainy season. 

Grafting can help achieve earlier fruiting. Plants should be spaced 10 meters (33 feet) 

apart. Fertilizer can aid growth. When mature, fruit should be clipped from the tree, 

leaving a small portion of stem attached. Harvesting can occur when the fruit skin 

becomes more yellowish in color. As a test for ripeness, fruit can also be scratched. If 

the scratched surface is green, fruit are not mature. If yellow underneath, fruit are fully

ripe. 

Manduro:

A long-lived, medium to large, deciduous to semi-deciduous tree that grows to a 

height of 8 to 25 meters (26 to 82 feet), and is native to Zimbabwe and Mozambique. 

Young trees surround older trees, and older trees have an upright, straight, deeply folded, 

multi-fluted, or buttressed trunk. Grey, yellowish-brown or mottled bark is smooth when 

young, becoming roughly fissured when older. The crown is sparse, spreading, 

sometimes rounded and high-branching. Older trees contain an umbrella-like or Vshaped canopy. Branches are grayish green to yellow in color, hairy when young, and 

smooth when mature. Branches zigzag, and grow outwards. Low branches remain close 

to the trunk. Branches on the upper bole and younger branches contain unequally forked 
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green spines with brown tips that can be simple or y-shaped and 3 to 15 centimeters (1.2 

to 6 inches) long. Fruit-bearing branches contain thinner, short, straight spines. Dark 

grey olive green leaves are leathery, alternate, compound, arranged spirally, and 3 to 9 

centimeters (1.2 to 3.5 inches) long by 2 to 7 centimeters (0.8 to 3 inches) wide. Leaves 

contain triangular stipules that are hairy, corky, and 0.3 centimeters (0.1 inch) long. Each 

leaf contains two leaflets that are hairy or smooth, acute or shortly acuminate, 

asymmetrical, and ovate, broadly elliptic, obtuse, or round in shape. Leaflets contain a 

rounded apex, a tapering base, and an entire margin. The central vein of the leaf can be 

off-center and the base can be unequal. Petioles and petiolules are velvety. Flowers are 

borne in fascicle-like cymes of 3 to 7 in leaf axils. Scented green to greenish-yellow 

flowers are star-shaped, small, hairy above, smooth below, and 2 centimeters (0.8 inch) in 

diameter. Individual flowers contain 5 ovate to obovate sepals (0.5 centimeters or 0.2 

inch long), 5 densely hairy oblong-lanceolate to oblanceolate petals (0.5 to 0.9 

centimeters or 0.2 to 0.4 inch long), 10 stamens, a 5-chambered ovary, a short velvety

stalk (0.5 to 1 centimeter or 0.2 to 0.4 inch long), and both male and female reproductive 

structures. Flowers can be sessile. Brownish-yellow to reddish-brown fruit is a drupe 

that is large, fleshy, and ovoid to oblong-ellipsoid in shape, depressed at both ends, datelike or plum-like in appearance and 3 to 8 centimeters (1.2 to 3 inches) long by 2 to 3 

centimeters (0.8 to 1.2 inch) wide. Fruit contains 5 grooves at the base. The skin is firm, 

thin, hairy, and brittle at maturity. Pulp is thin, spongy, sticky to oily, dark and fibrous. 

The flavor is sweet to bitter. Each fruit contains a large, hard, grooved, cream-colored, 

ellipsoid to spindle-shaped woody stone that measures 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) long. The 

kernel contains clear, yellow, edible oil that is tasteless and odorless. Propagated by

seed. The fleshy part of the fruit should be removed before planting. The seed should be 

covered with the same amount of soil as the seed is thick. Germination occurs in 3 to 4 

weeks. When ripe, fruit falls to the ground with the stem attached.

Mango:

A long-lived, fast-growing, exotic evergreen fruit tree that reaches a height of 8 to 

45 meters (26 to 148 feet),and is native to Southeast Asia, specifically the region of 

Northeastern India and Burma. It is a relative of the cashew. Trees have been cultivated 

for thousands of years. The taproot can grow up to 6 meters (20 feet) and the lateral 

fibrous roots can extend beyond the canopy drip-line. The canopy can be broad, dense, 

round and reach 38 meters (125 feet) in width or upright, oval and slender. Mature, dark 

green leaves are large, simple, alternate, spirally arranged on the tips of branches, 

leathery, shiny, drooping, aromatic, lanceolate, oblong or oblong-elliptic in shape, 

smooth-edged, pale underneath, and 7 to 40 centimeters (3 to 16 inches) long by 2 to 10 

centimeters (0.8 to 4 inches) wide. Petioles are slender and 2.5 to 10 centimeters (1 to 4 

inches) long. Flowers are borne on large erect, showy, pyramidal, branched, redstemmed, terminal or axillary panicles that measure 6 to 60 centimeters (2.4 to 24 inches) 

long. Each panicle can contain 300 to 6,000 individual male and perfect flowers 

(containing both male and female reproductive organs). Individual small flowers are 

green, greenish-yellow, yellow, reddish-pink, or pink in color and fragrant; each flower 

contains a five-lobed calyx and five petals. Perfect flowers contain one pistil, one 

functional stamen and four staminodes. Male flowers contain one functional stamen and 
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four staminodes. Most varieties are self-fertile, but can be cross-pollinated. Trees may

be pollinated by insects. Fruit is a large drupe that grows solitary or in small clusters on 

long, stout stalks. Individual fruit is lop-sided, round, oblong, oval, ovoid-oblong, 

kidney-shaped, heart-shaped, or oblate in shape and ranges from 6 to 30 centimeters (2.4 

to 12 inches) long and 100 to 2,300 grams (0.2 to 5 pounds) in weight. Fruit can contain 

a pronounced beak and a flower scar at the apex. Fruit color is green to light green with 

blushes or combinations of yellow, orange, purple or red. The skin is waxy, smooth, 

thick, leathery and inedible; skin can contain a powdery bloom. Pulp of mature fruit is 

light yellow to orange in color, more or less fibrous, soft, juicy and peach-like. Immature 

pulp is hard and white to light yellow in color. Mature mangoes are sweet and mild to 

strong and turpentine-like in taste. Immature mangoes are sharp, acid, and lime-like in 

taste. Fruit emits a strong to mild aroma. Each fruit contains one flat, oval or kidneyshaped longitudinally-ribbed, pale yellowish-white, woody, fibrous stone. The starchy 

seed is contained within the stony endocarp. Each seed can contain one or many

embryos. Fruit form, size, color, and quality vary. Sap from the fruit stem can highly

irritate the skin. Trees in bloom can cause irritation in some individuals. There are two 

main races of mango. The Indian race evolved in the warm subtropical climate of India, 

contains monoembryonic seeds, is highly colored, and is susceptible to anthracnose. The 

Indo-Chinese race evolved in the hot, humid, lowland tropical areas of Southeast Asia, 

contains ployembryonic seeds, is green, light green, or yellow in color, and is more 

resistant to anthracnose. There are many species and varieties that are consumed on a 

commercial scale. mango Propagation is by seed, budding, marcottage, rooted cuttings, 

tissue culture and grafting. Monoembryonic cultivars must be propagated vegetatively, 

by budding or grafting. Seeds should be removed from the fruit when the fruit has 

become mature and planted. To increase the speed of germination, kernels should be 

husked before planting. Germination occurs in 8 to 14 days in warm climates and 3 

weeks in cooler climates. Before planting out into the field, the taproot of young trees 

should be pruned to 31 centimeters (12 inches), and plants should be set out for a week in 

full morning sun. Young plants are planted in 0.6 meter (2 feet) holes during the rainy 

season or irrigated until established. Tree spacing and pruning varies depending on 

climate, cultivar, soil type, and economics. Generally, trees should be spaced 4 to 12 

meters (13 to 39 feet) in-row and 6 to 15 meters (20 to 49 feet) between rows. Initial tree 

training is required in most orchards. Maintenance pruning should be done after harvest. 

For young trees, 100 to 200 grams (3.5 to 7 ounces) of an NPK material should be 

applied two to four times per year. As trees mature, rates should increase and frequency 

should decrease. Trees should be irrigated from flowering to near harvest. For 

commercial production, there are many techniques to induce or enhance flowering 

including cincturing the trunk or branches, root pruning, smudging and application of 

saline materials or other chemicals. Fruit is harvested depending upon the end use of the 

fruit (crunchy or soft), the distance and time to market, available storage conditions, and 

required quarantine treatments. Fruit is picked by hand or with a picking pole. Fruit are 

mature when the fruit stem snaps easily from the tree. Fruit to be exported are precooled, washed, treated with fungicide, waxed, graded, packed, stored, and shipped. In 

some areas, fruit are placed stem-end-down to drain the sap. Fruit can be stored for 2 to 3

weeks at 8 to 21 °C (46 to 70 °F) and 85 to 90% relative humidity. 
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Mango, horse:

A tree that grows to a height of 25 to 40 meters (82 to 131 feet). Trees rarely

reach 40 meters (131 feet) tall, and are native to Southeast Asia. The trunk is straight,

long, and can reach a diameter of 100 centimeters (39 inches). Bark is light brown, dark 

grayish brown, grey, or whitish grey in color and contains longitudinal shallow fissures 

with broad flat ridges. Inner bark is red and has a strong turpentine smell. Wood is 

cream in color and soft. The tree exudes a milky white, sticky sap that turns black on 

exposure. Branches are massive. The crown is dense and globose to ovoid-globose in 

shape. Dark green leaves are scattered to subaggregate, stiff, smooth, leathery, oblong, 

elliptic-oblong, oblanceolate, or broadly elliptic in shape, blunt or notched at the tip, 

acute at the base, and 12 to 40 centimeters (5 to 16 inches) long by 9 to 15 centimeters 

(3.5 to 6 inches) wide. The petiole is stout, swollen at the base, and 1.5 to 10 centimeters 

(0.6 to 4 inches) long. Deep reddish-pink panicles are sub-terminal, pyramidal, upright, 

densely flowered, and 10 to 40 centimeters (4 to 16 inches) long. Peduncles are stout and 

red. Individual reddish-pink flowers emit a turpentine odor when crushed, contain red to 

greenish yellow bracts that are lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate in shape and 0.4 centimeter 

(0.2 inch) long, a black-purple flower stalk that is short and 0.05 to 1.1 centimeter (0.02 

to 0.4 inch) long, five sepals that are erect, thick, red, ovate, ovate-lanceolate or obovatelanceolate in shape, and 0.3 to 0.5 centimeters (0.1 to 0.2 inch) long, five petals that are 

erect, reflexed, narrowly lanceolate in shape, pale reddish-pink at the base, pale yellow at

the tip, and 0.6 to 0.9 centimeters (0.2 to 0.4 inch) x 0.15 to 0.25 centimeters (0.06 to 0.1 

inch) and one to five 0.5 to 0.8 centimeter (0.2 to 0.3 inch) long violet stamens. 

Yellowish green, dark olive green or brownish fruit is subglobose, ovoid-oblong, or 

globose in shape and 9 to 16 centimeters (3.5 to 6 inches) long by 7 to 12 centimeters (3 

to 5 inches) wide. The skin is thick, smooth, glossy to dull, covered with dirty spots and 

brown lenticels, and 0.5 centimeters (0.2 inch) thick. Pulp is pale to dark yellow or 

orange in color, fibrous and juicy. The flavor is sweet to turpentine-like. Fruit emits a 

strong unpleasant turpentine odor. Fruit contains one stone that is fibrous and 6 x 5 x 3 

centimeters (2.4 x 2 x 1.2 inches). Similar in appearance to the mango. There are 

different forms of this mango that vary in fruit size, shape and color. One of the best 

known and most commonly cultivated mango species. mangohorse Propagated by seed, 

budding and grafting. Seedlings require a large amount of moisture and light shade. 

Plants should be planted 14 to 16 meters (46 to 52 feet) apart. Grown wild and 

cultivated.

Mango, Saipan:

Saipan mango is a medium-sized to large tree that grows to a height of 10 to 30 

meters (33 to 98 feet), and is native to Malesia. The trunk is straight and cylindrical. 

Bark is grey in color, smooth when young, fissured when old, and contains clear sap 

which is irritating to the skin. Branches are thick, cylindrical, smooth, dark green, and 

contain leaf scars. Leaves are irregularly scattered on the branches. Individual leaves are 

papery to leathery, glossy, and oblong-lanceolate to lanceolate-elliptic in shape, pointed 

or rounded at the tip, wedge-shaped or obtuse at the base, smooth around the edges, and 

12 to 35 centimeters (5 to 14 inches) long by 4 to 10 centimeters (1.6 to 4 inches) wide. 
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New leaves are red purple to dark wine red in color. The petiole is swollen at the base, 

yellowish-green, cylindrical, and 3 to 7 centimeters (1.2 to 3 inches) long. Reddish, 

yellowish or whitish flowers are in densely-flowered terminal or pyramidal panicles that 

are 15 to 50 centimeters (6 to 20 inches) long. Flowers are fragrant and 0.5 to 0.7 

centimeters (0.2 to 0.3 inch) in diameter. Each flower contains 5 dark red 0.2 to 0.4 

centimeter (0.08 to 0.2 inch) long ovate, oblong-ovate, obtuse, or acute, concave, smooth 

sepals, 5 reddish to yellowish 0.4 to 0.6 centimeter (0.16 to 0.24 inch) long by 0.12 to 0.2 

centimeter (0.05 to 0.08 inch) wide, lanceolate petals, 5 to 6 stamens, one 0.5 centimeter 

(0.2 inch) long filament, 0.15 to 0.2 centimeter (0.06 to 0.08 inch) long staminodes, a 

subglobose ovary and a style. Green to yellowish-green fruit is a drupe that is ellipsoidoblong, round-oblique or oblate in shape, plump, and 10 to 13 centimeters (4 to 5 inches) 

long by 6 to 10 centimeters (2.4 to 4 inches) wide. Fruit contains a small beak. Skin is 

thick (0.3 to 0.4 centimeters or 0.1 to 0.2 inch), tough, and can be spotted with dark 

brown or yellow lenticels. Skin contains acrid juice that is very acrid when the fruit is 

immature. Pulp is orange-yellow, pale-orange or yellowish in color, firm, fibrous, 

resinous and juicy. Each fruit contains a stone that is covered with soft fibers and 

measures 8 to 10 centimeters (3 to 4 inches) by 4.5 to 5 centimeters (1.8 to 2 inches) by 

2.5 to 3 centimeters (1 to 1.2 inches). The flavor is sour to sweet, with an aftertaste of 

turpentine. Fruit has a strong turpentine smell. mangisaip. Propagation is by seed and 

grafting. Trees should be planted 12 to 14 meters (39 to 46 feet) apart. Trees are mainly 

grown with other tree species in village orchards or homes. Mangifera odorata, 

Mangifera langenifera and Mangifera zeylanica fruit is cultivated or gathered 

commercially on a small scale in parts of Southeast Asia.

Mangosteen:

A slow-growing, erect, evergreen tree that grows to a height of 6 to 25 meters (20 

to 82 feet), and is native to Southeast Asia, specifically Malaysia and Indonesia. 

Mangosteen may be a hybrid of G. hombroniana and G. malaccensis. Bark is darkbrown or nearly black in color and flaking. Inner bark contains yellow, gummy, bitter 

latex. The crown is pyramidal to conical and densely foliaged. Olive-green to dark green 

leaves are large, opposite, simple, thick, leathery, glossy, smooth, yellow-green below, 

oblong, ovate-oblong, or elliptical in shape, pointed at the tip, and 9 to 25 centimeters 

(3.5 to 10 inches) long by 4.5 to 13 centimeters (1.8 to 5 inches) wide. New leaves are 

reddish in color. Fragrant flowers are terminal, solitary or in groups of 2 to 9 on the tips 

of older mature shoots and more hidden branches. Individual flowers measure 4 to 5 

centimeters (1.6 to 2 inches) in diameter and contain four thick, persistent sepals in two 

pairs (2 outer yellowish and 2 inner reddish), four small, thick, fleshy, ovate yellow-green 

to red petals, a prominent 5 to 8 celled round to mushroom-shaped ovary, short stamens, 

a four- to eight-lobed stigma, and staminodes. Flowers open midday. All trees are 

female; therefore fruit develops parthenocarpically. Large purple to reddish-purple fruit 

is a berry that is ovoid to round in shape, slightly flattened at each end, and 3.5 to 8 

centimeters (1.4 to 3 inches) in diameter. Fruit are grown on twiggy limbs. The fruit 

skin is smooth, dense, bitter, leathery, soft to woody, tough, thick (0.6 to 1 centimeter or 

0.2 to 0.4 inch), and contains a bitter yellowish latex and purple juice. The calyx occurs 

at the stem end. The pulp (aril) is white to cream in color, fleshy, succulent, and 4 to 8 
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segmented. Flesh resembles the texture of a plum. One or two of the larger segments 

contains 1 to 5 soft seeds that are ovoid-oblong in shape, slightly flattened, 2.5 

centimeters (1 inch) long and 1.6 centimeters (0.6 inch) wide. The flavor is sweet to 

sweet-sour, resembling a combination of grapes and strawberries. mangost

Propagated by seed and grafting (top wedge grafting). Seeds are viable for 3 to five days 

if dried or 3 to 5 weeks if left in the fruit. Seeds should be planted in well-drained 

growing medium with high humidity and shade. Germination occurs in 2 to 3 weeks. 

Plants are transplanted when plants reach 60 centimeters (24 inches) in size. 

Transplanting must be done carefully due to the long taproot and poor lateral root 

development. A 40 to 80 square meter (431 to 861 square foot) area should be utilized 

per mangosteen tree. 60 centimeter (24 inch) trees are planted at the beginning of the 

rainy season and spaced 8 to 12 meters (26 to 39 feet) apart. Young trees should be 

shaded for 2 to 4 years. Then trees should be exposed to full sun. Mangosteen trees 

should be interplanted with more dominant trees including durian, rambutan, and 

coconut. Dead branches, suckers and inside shoots should be pruned when the tree 

contains no flowers, fruit or flushes of new leaves. Cultivation occurs in Southeast Asia. 

Fruit are harvested by hand or with a pole and basket every 2 to 3 days when fruit are 

soft, dark purple in color, and contain a peduncle. Export fruit picked at an earlier stage 

when the fruit is mature and light greenish yellow with irregular pink-red spots. 

Marketable fruit contains a fresh and complete green calyx, an unbroken peduncle, and 

translucent flesh. Fruit should be greater than 80 grams (3 ounces) in size and free from 

internal latex. Since fruit serves as a fruit fly host, harvested fruit are inspected by 

cutting open the fruit and inspecting the aril before the fruit is frozen whole and shipped. 

Heat treatments can also be made to fruit shipments. Fruit can be stored at 12 to 14 °C 

(54 to 57 °F) for 20 days. marang. Requires hot, wet tropical lowlands, shaded areas, 

rich, loamy, well-drained soils, elevations of up to 800 meters (2,625 feet), and abundant 

equally-distributed rainfall. Temperature requirements are similar to the jackfruit. In 

Sarawak, trees are grown at elevations of up to 1,300 meters (4,265 feet) in sandy clay

soil. In the wild, trees grow in sandy to sandy clay soils in secondary forests at elevations 

up to 1,000 meters (3,281 feet); can grow in some subtropical regions. Not tolerant of 

frost; not as hardy as the jackfruit. Propagation is by seed, inarching and grafting. Seeds 

should be sown in sandy well-drained soil after being taken from ripe fruit and cleaned 

with water. Germination occurs in approximately 1 week. One-year-old seedlings 

should be planted 12 to 14 meters (39 to 46 feet) apart in the field at the beginning of the 

rainy season. Pruning can be done to maintain a 3 to 5 meter (10 to 16 foot) tree. Shoots 

can be thinned and branches can be cleared for harvesting access. Irrigation is required in 

dry areas. Fruit can be harvested while still hard and left to mature until soft. Fruit 

harvested off of the ground has a shelf life of 2 to 3 days. Mature undamaged fruit are 

stored at 10 to 12 °C (50 to 54 °F) for 2 to 3 weeks. Fruit is mostly cultivated in the 

Philippines and Malaysia for local markets in neighboring countries.

Marang:

An evergreen tree that reaches a height of 6 to 25 meters (20 to 82 feet), and is 

native to Southeast Asia, specifically the Philippines, Malaysia, and Borneo. Fruit is 

similar to the jackfruit, but is generally smaller, different in shape and contains spines on 
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the rind. Propagation is by seed, inarching and grafting. Seeds should be sown in sandy

well-drained soil after being taken from ripe fruit and cleaned with water. Germination 

occurs in approximately 1 week. One-year-old seedlings should be planted 12 to 14 

meters (39 to 46 feet) apart in the field at the beginning of the rainy season. Pruning can 

be done to maintain a 3 to 5 meter (10 to 16 foot) tree. Shoots can be thinned and 

branches can be cleared for harvesting access. Irrigation is required in dry areas. The 

trunk is up to 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter with low buttresses. Leaves are 

papery, large, simple, entire to trilobed, rough on the upper surface, elliptic, oval or 

obovate in shape, wedge-shaped at the base, shortly pointed at the tip, and 16 to 50 

centimeters (6 to 20 inches) long by 10 to 30 centimeters (4 to 12 inches) wide. Leaf 

margins are smooth to scallop. Stipules are ovate in shape, contain yellow to red hairs, 

and measure 1 to 8 centimeters (0.4 to 3 inches) long. The solitary inflorescences are 

unisexual and are borne terminally or in the leaf axils. Individual trees contain both male 

and female flowers. Male flowers are in ellipsoid club-shaped spikes that measure 4 to 

11 centimeters (1.6 to 4 inches) by 2 to 6 centimeters (0.8 to 2 inches). Female flowers 

are in globose spikes that contain short, soft hairs, simple bracts, and simple styles that 

measure 0.15 centimeters (0.06 inch). Trees are pollinated by nocturnal insects. 

Yellowish-brown compound fruit are borne at the ends of branches, are round, ellipsoid 

or oval in shape, and approximately 16 centimeters (6 inches) long and 13 centimeters (5 

inches) in diameter. Fruit range in size from 1 to 2.5 kilograms (2.2 to 5.5 pounds). The 

rind is thick, fleshy, and is covered with short brittle spines and protuberances. Immature 

fruit is light green in color. Pulp is snow white in color, juicy, succulent, and separated 

into segments that cling to the central core. Each segment contains an ellipsoid shaped, 

smooth, white seed that measures 1.5 centimeters by 0.8 centimeters (0.6 inch by 0.3 

inch). Each fruit can contain 100 to 200 seeds. The flavor is sweet and fruity and 

strongly aromatic. Fruit can be harvested while still hard and left to mature until soft. 

Fruit harvested off of the ground has a shelf life of 2 to 3 days. Mature undamaged fruit 

are stored at 10 to 12 °C (50 to 54 °F) for 2 to 3 weeks. Fruit is mostly cultivated in the 

Philippines and Malaysia for local markets in neighboring countries. A mature tree can 

produce an average of 180 fruit per year.

Marmalade-box:

A medium-sized, semi-deciduous erect tree that grows to a height of 8 to 33 

meters (26 to 108 feet), and is native to the West Indies and South America (Amazon 

Basin). Fruit has been widely distributed as a cultivated fruit since pre-Columbian times. 

Wood is white, tan, yellowish-white, or slightly pinkish or lavender in color with light, 

reddish-brown streaks; flexible, fibrous, hard, even-textured, strong, compact, and 

reasonably durable. The trunk is straight, tall, slender, and may reach 30 to 80 

centimeters (12 to 31 inches) in diameter. Bark is thick, smooth, and green-grayish in 

color. The canopy contains many leaves and an abundance of whorled, horizontal 

spreading branches. One form of the tree contains a dense coating of soft hairs on the 

young branchlets and undersides of the leaves. Dark green leaves are simple, opposite, 

leathery, smooth, shiny, sometimes faintly toothed, obovoid, oblong-obovate, or oblong 

in shape, pointed or rounded at the tip, and 10 to 35 centimeters (4 to 14 inches) long by 

4 to 13 centimeters (1.6 to 5 inches) wide. Leaves grow densely on the tips of branches. 
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Petioles are short and triangular. Flowers are arranged in small cyclical subcymose 

inflorescences, and are solitary or in short, branched axillary or terminal groups of two or 

more. Individual large, fragrant pipe-shaped flowers contain 5 white to yellowish 4 

centimeter (1.6 inch) wide petals and both male and female reproductive organs. 

Pollination is by large bees. Red-brown to yellow-brown fruit is a berry that is round, 

elliptic, rounded oval or ovoid in shape, tapered at the stem end, 5 to 9 centimeters (2 to 

3.5 inches) in diameter, 9 to 15 centimeters (3.5 to 6 inches) long, and 200 to 500 grams 

(7 to 18 ounces) in weight. Immature fruit is gray in color. Clear colored yellowish fresh 

juice from the immature fruit oxidizes into a dark bluish-black color. The apex of the 

fruit contains remains of the stylar tube. The skin is thin, leathery, and scurfy. Pulp is 

succulent, astringent, fleshy, yellowish gray, gray or white in color, spongy to rubbery, 

and 1.5 centimeters (0.6 inches) thick. The central cavity of each fruit contains as many

as 480 seeds in rows enclosed in grayish-yellow mucilaginous membranes. Individual 

seeds are cream, yellowish or brown in color, flattened, circular, and 0.7 by 1.25 

centimeters (0.3 by 0.5 inches) long. The flavor is sweet, acidic or sour and strong and 

resembles dried apples, pears, or quinces. Musky aroma. Trees 15 to 20 years old can 

produce 400 to 600 fruits per year. Propagation is by seed, patch budding, air layering 

and grafting. Seeds should be sown after directly being removed from the fruit. 

Germination is high (90%) and occurs within 25 to 30 days. Seed can be stored dried and 

may remain viable for 3 to 4 months. Seedlings take 9 months to reach a proper planting 

size of 20 to 50 centimeters (8 to 20 inches). A 60 by 60 by 60 centimeter (24 by 24 by

24 inch) planting pit with fertilizer should be prepared for each seedling. Seedlings 

should be planted in deep soils with high water-holding capacity. Each tree should be 

spaced 10 to 15 meters (33 to 49 feet) apart. Seedlings can be interplanted with annual or 

semi-perennial crops during the first years to provide shade. Pruning should be done on 

older branches after fruiting. Fruit usually fall from the tree when ripe and spoil a few 

days after harvest. To avoid damage, fruit should be harvested from the tree before 

ripening fully. The tree is currently of little economic importance due to its low quality

wood and lack of use of the fruit. Fruit is not produced commercially but is grown in 

small domestic orchards and home gardens. 

Marang:

Marang is an evergreen tree that reaches a height of 6 to 25 meters (20 to 82 feet), 

and is native to Southeast Asia, specifically the Philippines, Malaysia, and Borneo. Fruit 

is similar to the jackfruit, but is generally smaller, different in shape and contains spines 

on the rind. The trunk is up to 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter with low 

buttresses. Leaves are papery, large, simple, entire to trilobed, rough on the upper 

surface, elliptic, oval or obovate in shape, wedge-shaped at the base, shortly pointed at 

the tip, and 16 to 50 centimeters (6 to 20 inches) long by 10 to 30 centimeters (4 to 12 

inches) wide. Leaf margins are smooth to scallop. Stipules are ovate in shape, contain 

yellow to red hairs, and measure 1 to 8 centimeters (0.4 to 3 inches) long. The solitary

inflorescences are unisexual and are borne terminally or in the leaf axils. Individual trees 

contain both male and female flowers. Male flowers are in ellipsoid club-shaped spikes 

that measure 4 to 11 centimeters (1.6 to 4 inches) by 2 to 6 centimeters (0.8 to 2 inches). 

Female flowers are in globose spikes that contain short, soft hairs, simple bracts, and 
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simple styles that measure 0.15 centimeters (0.06 inch). Trees are pollinated by nocturnal 

insects. Yellowish-brown compound fruit are borne at the ends of branches, are round, 

ellipsoid or oval in shape, and approximately 16 centimeters (6 inches) long and 13 

centimeters (5 inches) in diameter. Fruit range in size from 1 to 2.5 kilograms (2.2 to 5.5 

pounds). The rind is thick, fleshy, and is covered with short brittle spines and 

protuberances. Immature fruit is light green in color. Pulp is snow white in color, juicy, 

succulent, and separated into segments that cling to the central core. Each segment 

contains an ellipsoid shaped, smooth, white seed that measures 1.5 centimeters by 0.8 

centimeters (0.6 inch by 0.3 inch). Each fruit can contain 100 to 200 seeds, and the 

flavor is sweet and fruity and strongly aromatic. Propagation is by seed, inarching and 

grafting. Seeds should be sown in sandy well-drained soil after being taken from ripe 

fruit and cleaned with water. Germination occurs in approximately 1 week. One-yearold seedlings should be planted 12 to 14 meters (39 to 46 feet) apart in the field at the 

beginning of the rainy season. Pruning can be done to maintain a 3 to 5 meter (10 to 16 

foot) tree. Shoots can be thinned and branches can be cleared for harvesting access. 

Irrigation is required in dry areas. Fruit can be harvested while still hard and left to 

mature until soft. Fruit harvested off of the ground has a shelf life of 2 to 3 days. Mature 

undamaged fruit are stored at 10 to 12 °C (50 to 54 °F) for 2 to 3 weeks. 

Matisia:

A large, fast-growing, erect, evergreen tree that grows to a height of 12 to 45 

meters (39 to 148 feet). Trees usually grow 12 to 15 meters (39 to 49 feet) tall in 

cultivation, and are native to South America. Most roots are superficial and there are 

only a few deeper, stabilizing roots. Wood is lightweight and light-colored. The trunk is 

slender, unbranched, and sometimes buttressed. Bark is smooth, light brownish grey in 

color, slippery when wet, and usually covered by lichens. Sap is yellow and gummy. 

Branching is pagoda-shaped (tiered whorls of 5). Individual branches are stiff. 

Individual leaves are semi-deciduous, alternate, simple, leathery, broadly heart-shaped, 

and 15 to 40 centimeters (6 to 16 inches) long and wide. Leaves are clustered in rosettes 

near the ends of branches. Irregularly-shaped, pale yellow-orange, yellowish-white or 

rose-tinted flowers contain both male and female reproductive organs, five obovate petals 

measuring 2.5 to 3 centimeters (1 to 1.2 inches), 5 stamens, and one pistil. Flowers are 

borne on the older branches and the trunk and can be axillary, solitary or in small groups. 

Pollination occurs at night by hummingbirds, bees, wasps, and bats. Brown to green fruit 

is a large berry that is round, ovoid, oblong, or elliptic in shape, 12 to 14 centimeters (5 to 

5.5 inches) in diameter, and 200 to 800 grams (7 to 28 ounces) in weight. A rounded 

knob occurs at the apex and a 2 to 5- lobed velvety, leathery, strongly persistent calyx

occurs at the base. The rind is thick, leathery, downy and elastic. Pulp is bright orange to 

orange-yellow in color, soft, fibrous, dense, and juicy. The flavor is sweet and

reminiscent of pumpkin. Each fruit contains 2 to 5 seeds with long fibers that measure 4 

centimeters (1.6 inches) long and 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) wide. Wild trees produce 

smaller fruit. mabolo. Propagation is by seed, air layering, budding, rooted shoot 

cuttings, and shield and cleft grafting. Germination occurs in 24 days. Grafting can 

produce shorter trees, more lateral branches, and pistillate trees with good fruit quality. 

At the beginning of the rainy season, grafted trees should be spaced 8 to 10 meters (26 to 
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33 feet) apart and seedling trees should be spaced 10 to 15 meters (33 to 49 feet) apart. 

Tree branches should be pruned. Fruit are harvested when fruit color changes from 

greenish-brown to dull-red. After fruit are harvested, the fruit are wiped with a cloth to 

remove the hair. Propagated by seeds and cuttings. Seeds are viable under dry cool 

conditions for a period of 6 months. Germination occurs in 1 to 2 days. Seedlings should 

be placed in the field when 40 centimeters (16 inches) tall. For hedge use, seedlings 

should be spaced 15 centimeters (6 inches) apart in two rows that are 30 centimeters (12 

inches) apart. Pods are picked from trees or the ground and air-dried in the sun. Seeds 

are harvested by hand-flailing or use of a macerator. Pod fragments are removed with a 

screen. Propagation is by seed, stem cuttings, side veneer grafting, and top cleft grafting. 

Seeds must be planted immediately after being removed from the fruit. Trees should be 

spaced 8 to 10 meters (26 to 33 feet) apart. Fruit are harvested when the calyx contracts 

slightly and leaves a light-colored ring around the edge of the calyx. Fruit are harvested 

with a knife or long cutting-pole. Fruit do not fall from the tree, but remain on the tree 

until rotting occurs. Trees can produce yields of 100 tonnes (110 tons) per hectare per 

year. Fruit ship well and can obtain a high price at the market. Not a widely cultivated 

crop due to alternate bearing, and the lack of high-quality varieties. Indigenous and 

peasant communities plant the tree in home gardens and orchards and consume the fruit, 

as a good alternative crop. 

Mesquite:

A fast-growing, deciduous to evergreen thorny shrub or small tree that reaches a 

height of 3 to 20 meters (10 to 66 feet), and is native to Central and South America. The 

tree contains a deep taproot that may reach 35 meters (115 feet) long. The short, twisted 

trunk grows up to 45 centimeters (18 inches) in diameter and contains long, strong thorns. 

Gum exudes from the trunk. Bark is thick, brown, reddish or blackish in color, rough and 

shallowly fissured. Branches are green-brown in color, flexible, wavy, and contain axial 

thorns on both sides of the nodes that measure 1 to 5 centimeters (0.4 to 2 inches) long. 

The crown is thin, open flat-topped or rounded and large. Dark green leaves are 

compound and contain 12 to 25 pairs of leaflets. Leaflets are linear-oblong to oblong in 

shape, bipinnate, smooth to hairy, rounded, obtuse or sub-acute at the apex, rounded at 

the base and 0.3 to 1.6 centimeters (0.1 to 0.6 inch) long by 0.15 to 0.32 centimeters (0.06 

to 0.1 inch) wide. Leaves contain stipular spines that are short and yellow in color and 

one to two pairs of rachis that are almost pendulous. Sweet-scented, small, greenishyellow flowers are perfect, lateral to the axis, and in cylindrical spikes that measure 5 to 

15 centimeters (2 to 6 inches) long. Individual flowers contain a deeply lobate corolla 

measuring 0.4 to 0.5 centimeters (0.16 to 0.2 inch) long, stamens measuring 0.5 to 0.8 

centimeters (0.2 to 0.3 inch) long, a tubular, hooded toothed calyx measuring 0.15 

centimeter (0.06 inch) wide and 5 hairy petals measuring 0.3 centimeters (0.1 inch) wide. 

Pollinated by wind and insects. Mature brown or yellowish pods are straight, linear, and 

cylindrical, curved and tapered to a point, or ring shaped, thick, leathery, several-seeded 

and constricted between the seeds, non-dehiscent and 8 to 30 centimeters (3 to 12 inches) 

long by 0.8 to 1.7 centimeters (0.3 to 0.7 inch) in diameter. Immature pods are strongly 
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compressed. Each pod contains 10 to 30 seeds. Individual seed is compressed, oval, 

obovoid, or elliptic in shape, hard, dark brown in color and 0.25 to 0.7 centimeters (0.1 to 

0.3 inch) long by 0.4 to 0.5 centimeter (0.16 to 0.2 inch) wide. Mucilaginous endosperm 

surrounds the embryo. Mesquite pods are one of the earliest known foods of prehistoric 

man. A weedy plant in some areas of the world. The wood is an important barbeque fuel 

in the U.S. and produces a sweet smoky flavor in foods. Propagation is by seed, root 

suckers, grafting and hardwood cuttings. Germination occurs in 4 to 6 days. Seeds 

germinate at a faster rate when exposed to hot water or acid. In India, seeds are collected 

and sown from May to June. Seed collected in September and October is sown in April. 

Tree spacing depends on the use. Trees for fuel wood are spaced 2 by 2 meters (6.6 by 

6.6 feet). Trees for crop production are spaced 5 by 5 to 10 meters (16 by 16 to 33 feet). 

Transplants should be sown during the rainy season. Root cuttings should be made when 

stems are 1.25 centimeters (0.5 inch) in diameter and 10.0 centimeters (4 inches) long. 

For crop production, thinning and pruning are done. Trees are harvested by hand after 

the fruits have fallen.

Mongongo, fruit:

Mongongo is a large 15-20 meter (49-66 ft) tree native to dry upland areas of 

southern Africa, particularly around the Kalahari. It is dioecious, with palmately divided 

alternate leaves bearing 5-7 lance-shaped leaflets on a 15 cm (6 inch) long, hairy petiole. 

The small, white to yellow flowers are borne in loose, slender sprays. The bark is light 

grey to pale golden brown, and the light, yellowish wood is very useful for making boats, 

packing crates, and children’s toys. However, this species is primarily valued for its fruit 

and, particularly, for the nut inside. The fruits are oval and about 3.5 x 2.5 cm (1.4 x 1 

in). Fruit drop from the tree while still green and ripen on the ground. This species is 

highly productive and one female tree has been known to produce up to 950 fruits in a 

year. The fruit has a fuzzy, inedible peel and a thin layer of sweet, edible pulp 

surrounding the large, hard pit. Inside the pit are a soft inner shell and an edible kernel 

(1.2 g/0.04 oz) that is valued both for food and oil. The oil is used both for culinary

purposes and as a skin cleanser and moisturizer. This is one of the most consumed nuts 

in Africa and in some areas, such as among the Bantu people or the Kung San Bushmen, 

it is considered a staple food. The fruit and kernels can both be stored for extended 

periods of time and remain edible.

Monkey-bread-tree:

A large, deciduous tree that grows to a height of 10 to 30 meters (33 to 98 feet), 

and is native to Africa. The tree appears as if it was planted upside down. The tree 

contains a thick taproot and thick lateral roots that end in clusters of tubers. The trunk is 

swollen in appearance, bottle-shaped, cylindrical, short, wide, and 3 to 30 meters (10 to 

98 feet) in diameter. With age, the trunk decays and becomes hollow at the center. This 

creates a storage cavity for water that can hold as much as 4,500 liters (1,189 gallons). 

Bark is soft, smooth to folded, fibrous, thick, and pock-marked, 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 

4 inches) thick, and reddish-brown, grayish-brown, or purplish-grey in color; bark can 

regenerate after it is stripped and is fire resistant. Branches are spindly to thick, short, 
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root-like, and small in number. The canopy is round. Leaves are deciduous, compound, 

and alternate, and three- to nine-foliate. Dark green leaflets are oblong, ovate, elliptic or 

obovate-elliptic in shape, pointed at the apex, hairy, and 5 to 15 by 3 to 7 centimeters (2 

to 6 by 1 to 3 inches) in size. Lower leaflets are smaller than terminal leaflets. Each leaf 

can contain 5 leaflets when mature. The petiole is up to 12 centimeters (5 inches) long. 

Rotten meat-scented flowers are large, pendulous, waxy, white, bisexual, solitary, and up 

to 20 centimeters (8 inches) in diameter. Flowers mainly occur on stalks in the leaf axils. 

Individual flowers contain floral parts that occur in fives, a deeply lobed calyx with 

white, silky hairs, many stamens attached to a large central column, an ovary with five to 

ten chambers, and large, crinkly, spreading petals. Flowers open during the late 

afternoon. Pollinated by bats, flies and moths. Large brown fruit is solitary, oblong, 

globose, ovoid, or irregular in shape, pointed to obtuse at the apex, and 7.5 to 54 

centimeters (3 to 21 inches) long by 7.5 to 20 centimeters (3 to 8 inches) wide. The fruit 

shell is hard, woody, covered with velvety yellowish hairs, and 0.8 to 1 centimeter (0.3 to 

0.4 inch) thick. Pulp is white in color, dry, powdery, and mealy. The flavor is sour. 

Each fruit contains approximately 100 angular, woody, smooth, dark brown to reddishblack kidney-shaped seeds that measure 1 to 1.3 by 0.8 to 1 by 0.4 to 0.5 centimeters (0.4 

to 0.5 by 0.3 to 0.4 by 0.16 to 0.2 inch). Trees can live up to 4,000 years. An important 

crop in Africa. Propagation is by seed, cuttings, and bud grafting. Seeds can remain 

viable for several years. Pretreatments such as scarifying the seed coat or subjecting the 

seed to acid can aid germination. Germination occurs in 4 to 6 days if treated or 1 to 3 

months if untreated. Seedlings should be gradually exposed to full light over 4 to 7 days 

and then transplanted into the field after 3 months at the beginning of the rainy season. 

Trees should be planted 20 to 30 meters (66 to 98 feet) apart. Cultivated and wildharvested in rural areas. Fruit is harvested during the late rainy season. Pegs are driven 

deep into the trunk to form a ladder and fruit are obtained by climbing the tree. Fruit are 

also harvested by knocking down the fruit with throwing sticks or waiting for the fruit to 

fall from the tree. Leaves are harvested with a sickle at the start of the rainy season and 

consumed fresh or are dried and stored.

Monstera:

A large, fast-growing, stout, herbaceous vine that grows up to 24 meters (79 feet) 

long, and is native to Mexico and Central America including Guatemala, Costa Rica and 

Panama. Closely related to the Philodendron. The vine can spread over the ground, 

forming mats and can climb trees. Green stems are cylindrical, heavy, 6.25 to 7.5 

centimeters (2.5 to 3 inches) thick, rough with leaf scars, and rarely branched. Numerous 

tough, fleshy, corky aerial roots are produced at the nodes. Dark green leaves are oval in 

shape, heart-shaped at the base, leathery to papery, alternate, smooth, large, deeply cut 

into 23 centimeter (9 inch) strips around the margins, perforated on each side of the 

midrib with oblong to elliptic holes of various sizes, and 40 to 100 centimeters (16 to 39 

inches) long by 80 centimeters (31.5 inches) wide; leaves can reach up to 1 meter (3 feet) 

in diameter. Young leaves are heart-shaped, and do not contain holes. Petioles are stiff, 

erect, flattened and up to 105 centimeters (41 inches) long. Multiple inflorescences on 

tough cylindrical stalks are borne in groups in the leaf axils. Each inflorescence contains 

a cream to tan spadix that is surrounded by a waxy white to cream-colored spathe with a 
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pointed apex. Flowers resemble calla lilies. The spadix develops into the fruit. 

Individual inconspicuous flowers are sessile, and contain two-carpellate and two-locular 

gynoecia. Cross fertilization is required for fertilization. Yellowish-green compound 

fruit is solitary, cylindrical in shape, corn on the cob-like or pine cone-like in appearance, 

and 15 to 30 centimeters (6 to 12 inches) long by 5 to 8 centimeters (2 to 3 inches) wide. 

The rind is thick, hard, and made up of hexagonal scales that cover the individual 

segments. Each segment contains pale yellow to ivory pulp that is juicy and can contain 

irritating crystals that are unpleasant in the mouth. Between each segment there is a thin, 

black membrane. Each segment is an individual fruit (berry) that measure 1 centimeter 

(0.4 inch) long by 0.5 to 0.6 centimeters (0.2 to 0.24 inch) in diameter. When ripe, the 

small angular “scale” of each individual fruit drops off to reveal the edible fruit. A pale 

green, pea-size seed can occur in some of the segments. The flavor is sweet and 

reminiscent of a combination of pineapple, banana, and mango with sweet, coconut 

overtones. Some believe the taste resembles piña colada and is aromatic. Propagation is 

by seed, tissue culture, and cuttings. Cuttings should be 15 to 30 centimeters (6 to 12 

inches) long with two nodes and mature leaves. Suckers can also be used. Seeds should 

be sown as soon as possible after removal from the fruit. Plants can be transplanted near 

tree trunks or walls. For fruit cultivation purposes, vines are usually grown on the ground 

and spaced 91 to 152 centimeters (36 to 60 inches) apart. Fruit are not usually harvested 

until the fruit becomes ripe. Ripening is indicated by a fruity smell and small green 

“scales” dropping off or slightly separating at the base. Fruit are harvested with at least 

2.5 centimeters (1 inch) of stem attached. Fruit kept at room temperature will ripen in 5 

to 6 days. Ripe fruit can be kept in a refrigerator for one week. Frequently cultivated as 

an ornamental. Often cultivated for fruit production in California, Florida and Australia.

Muriti:

A robust, solitary-stemmed palm that grows to a height of 4 to 40 meters (13 to 

131 feet), and is native to northeastern South America. Trees form aerial roots in flooded 

soils. There are visible roots at the base of the trunk. The trunk is 23 to 80 centimeters (9 

to 31 inches) in diameter. The tree does not contain a palm heart. Each tree contains 8 to 

20 leaves that are concurrent, fan-shaped and form a large, rounded crown. Individual 

leaves consist of a 2.5 meter (8 foot) long blade that is divided into several hundred 

segments. The petiole can reach up to 6 meters (20 feet) long. Many dead leaves hang 

down below the crown. Inflorescences are borne from the axils of the leaves and hang 

down. Inflorescences contain 20 to 46 rachises. Each flower stem is approximately 2 

meters (7 feet) long and contains many conspicuous bracts. Flower branches can contain 

several dozen flowers. Male flowers are catkin-like and in pairs on the branches. Female 

flowers are shorter, thicker, and solitary on the branches. Male and female flowers occur 

on different trees. Yellow, brownish-red or dark red fruit is spherical to ellipsoidal in 

shape, 4 to 5 centimeters (1.6 to 2 inches) in diameter and 5 to 7 centimeters (2 to 3 

inches) long. The fruit is covered with hard, shiny, brownish-red scales. Pulp is yellow, 

orange, or reddish-orange in color, thin, soft and fleshy. Each fruit can contain up to a 

dozen seeds. Seeds are round, brownish in color, and contain a solid, white endosperm. 

One of the most extensively utilized palms of the Amazon region. Propagation is by

seed. Germination occurs in 75 days when seed are collected 10 days before sowing. 
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Pretreatment in water and acid can increase the germination rate. Seedlings should be 

placed in shade. Most fruit is harvested from wild populations of palms. Fruit are 

harvested by collecting the fallen fruit from the ground before fruit fully ripens; taller 

trees are cut down to make the harvest easier. An individual palm can yield 200 kg (441 

lb)/year. The fruit from this palm is a significant source of food in the native country. 

From this quantity, 24 kilograms (53 pounds) of oil can be extracted. In Peru, harvests 

have reached 19 tonnes (21 tons) of fruit per hectare per year from plantations of 100 

palms per hectare, and a net of 190 kilograms (419 pounds) fruit / plant. Large stands of 

this palm occupy at least 1,000 square kilometers (247,104 acres) in the Amazonas.

Paho:

An erect, large, evergreen tree that grows to a height of 12 to 54 meters (39 to 177 

feet), and is native to the Solomon Islands, New Britain, New Guinea (west and north), 

Moluccas, Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, and the Philippines (Luzon to Mindoro). The 

trunk contains small buttresses and is long (15 to 20 meters or 49 to 66 feet), straight, and 

35 to 100 centimeters (14 to 39 inches) in diameter. Sapwood is thick (8 to 10 

centimeters or 3 to 4 inches), light colored with a yellowish tinge, and distinctly marked 

off from the heartwood. Heartwood is dark brown in color with narrow, nearly black 

longitudinal bands. Branches are thick, fleshy, and angular and contain prominent leaf 

scars. Bud scales are velvety. Dark green leaves are leathery, smooth, narrow, wedgeshaped at the base, pointed or obtuse at the apex, entire at the margins, elliptic, obovateoblong, or oblong-lanceolate in shape, and 5 to 43 centimeters (2 to 17 inches) long by 2 

to 11 centimeters (0.8 to 4 inches) wide. Petioles are 1.5 to 9 centimeters (0.6 to 3.5 

inches) long. Inflorescences are terminal or axillary panicles that are crowded at the apex 

of twigs on secondary branches and measure 3 to 25 centimeters (1.2 to 10 inches) long. 

Pedicels are 0.1 to 0.5 centimeters (0.04 to 0.2 inch) long. White or creamy white 

smooth flowers occur in clusters of 4 to 5, and are male or perfect (containing both male 

and female reproductive organs). Individual flowers contain triangular bracts, a 4-lobed, 

0.15 to 0.3 centimeter (0.06 to 1.2 inches) long, ovate-oblong calyx, 4 greenish, acute,

smooth, overlapping, 0.15 to 0.2 centimeter (0.06 to 0.08 inch) long spoon-shaped sepals, 

4 white, ovate-oblong, smooth, 0.3 to 0.5 centimeter (0.1 to 0.2 inch) long petals, a 4-

lobed disk, 0.2 to 0.3 centimeter (0.08 to 0.1 inch) long stamens, one 0.15 centimeter 

(0.06 inch) long filament, one smooth round ovary, and a 0.2 to 0.3 centimeter (0.08 to 

0.1 inch) long style. Yellowish fruit is a drupe that is ellipsoid to ovoid in shape, slightly 

compressed, 5 to 8 centimeters (2 to 3 inches) long by 3 to 6 centimeters (1.2 to 2.4 

inches) wide, and 40 grams (1.4 ounces) in weight. Immature fruit are green in color. 

The peel is tender, smooth, glossy, and up to 0.17 millimeters (0.06 inch) thick. Pulp is 

slightly fibrous, firm, resinous, and white, whitish yellow, or light yellow in color. A 

small protuberance occurs below the apex. The stone is sparsely fibrous and 4.2 to 4.8 

centimeters (1.7 to 1.9 inches) by 2.3 to 2.7 centimeters (0.9 to 1.1 inch) by 0.8 to 1.5 

centimeters (0.3 to 0.6 inch). The flavor is acid to slightly sweet. Propagation is by seed 

and cleft grafting. Grafted trees are smaller and more compact compared to seedling 

trees. Fruit is cultivated or gathered commercially.

Palymyra palm:
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A large, slow-growing fan palm with a single trunk that grows to a height of 30 

meters (98 feet), and is native to Southeast Asia, specifically India and Myanmar. The 

trunk is hard, rough, dark in color, and may reach 1.7 meters (5.6 feet) at the base. A 

skirt of dead leaves occurs underneath the crown. The palm contains 25 to 40 large 

leaves. Grey-green to blue-green leaves are leathery, fan-shaped, folded along the 

midrib, 1 to 3 meters (3 to 10 feet) wide, and divided to the center into 60 to 80 linearlanceolate marginally spiny segments that are 0.6 to 1.2 meters (2 to 4 feet) long. 

Petioles are grooved, black at the base, black-margined when young, edged with hard 

spines, and 1 to 1.2 meters (3 to 4 feet) long. Male and female inflorescences differ in 

the order of branching. Male inflorescences are branched twice and female 

inflorescences are unbranched or branched once. Male and female flowers occur on 

separate trees. Male flowers are borne on catkin-like rachillae and female flowers are 

borne on thicker branches. Fruit are coconut-like and are three-sided when young and 

become rounded to oval, 12 to 15 centimeters (5 to 6 inches) wide, and capped at the base 

with overlapping sepals when older. The mesocarp is a juicy mass of long, tough, coarse 

white fibers that are coated with yellow or orange pulp. This has a sweet, fruity taste. 

Each fruit contains 2 to 3 large seeds. Each seed contains a kernel. When young, the 

kernel is hollow, soft like jelly, translucent and contains a watery liquid. When mature, 

the kernel is solid white and resembles coconut meat. The sap of the tree is an important 

source of sugar. The fruit and seeds have been consumed for centuries. Plantings date 

back to more than 2,000 years before the present. Propagation is by seed. Seeds 

germinate remotely and deeply. Because a long cotyledonary petiole is produced that 

may grow 0.5 meters (1.6 feet) below ground, the seeds should be planted in a permanent 

location. Germination occurs in 2 to 6 weeks. Important food crop in India. The fruits 

and young seedlings are raised on a large scale in Africa and are considered an important 

food. 

Pandanus:

Pandanus species is propagated by seed, aerial/prop roots, and cuttings. To speed 

germination, phalanges are soaked in cool tap water for 5 days. Viable phalanges float, 

and they are then mashed against screens to remove pulp and planted at a depth of two 

times their diameter. Another planting method is removing the fleshy part of the 

phalange, laying it on the planting medium, and burying it half-way. Germination occurs 

in 2 months. Seedlings should be planted in the field in 4 to 12 months. Cuttings should 

be 30 to 40 centimeters (12 to 16 inches) long and taken after the fruit have been 

harvested. Cuttings should be planted during the wet season. For cultivation purposes, 

trees are planted in lines with a 3 to 5 meter (10 to 16 foot) spacing between trees. 

Fertilizer can be applied to aid growth. Trees are cultivated for the edible fruit, fibrous 

leaves and fragrant flowers. Leaves are harvested every 3 months when the tree reaches 

3 years of age. Fruit are harvested with a bush knife when a new sprout of leaves shoots 

up where the fruit is growing. Trees must be climbed to obtain the fruit. 

Papaya:
139

An upright, fast-growing, large, herbaceous perennial that grows to a height of 3 

to 10 meters (10 to 33 feet), and is native to tropical America, particularly the lowlands of 

Central America between southern Mexico and Nicaragua. The single trunk is erect, 

thick, semi- to non-woody, green, deep-purple, or brown in color, segmented, hollow and 

20 to 40 centimeters (8 to 16 inches) in diameter. Bark is smooth and marked by halfmoon shaped leaf scars. Most papayas have a single stem that grows without branching. 

Some varieties produce lateral branching when trees reach 5 to 10 years old. The main 

foliage on the plant occurs as a cluster of leaves at the tip and along the upper part of the 

stem. Leaves occur singly and are large, thin, soft, smooth, spirally arranged, palmately

lobed with prominent yellowish venation, deeply divided into 5 to 9 main segments, and 

30 to 60 centimeters (12 to 24 inches) wide by 40 to 50 centimeters (16 to 20 inches) or 

more in diameter. New leaves form at the apex, while old leaves fall. There are 

approximately 15 mature leaves per plant. Leaves exude milky latex. Petioles are 

cylindrical, hollow, succulent, green to dark purple, and 30 to 105 centimeters (12 to 41 

inches) long. Flowering occurs on modified cymose inflorescences in the leaf axils. The 

inflorescence type depends on the sex of the tree. Plants can produce three primary

groups of flowers: pistillate, staminate, and hermaphrodite. Female trees produce only 

pistillate flowers. Pistillate flowers are small, plump, waxy, creamy white, occur in 

singles or clusters of two to three and contain a functional pistil devoid of stamens, five 

petals, and a short, 4 to 6 centimeter (1.6 to 2.4 inch) peduncle. Staminate trees contain 

small, sessile flowers that are produced in clusters on long, thin pendulant racemes that 

are 1.5 to 1.8 meters (5 to 6 feet) long. Individual staminate flowers are tubular, lack an 

ovary, and contain ten stamens that are attached to the corolla tube. Hermaphrodite 

flowers are ivory-white and contain an elongated pistil with five stigmatic rays and five 

petals, ten stamens, a short peduncle, bright-yellow anthers, short stalks, and both male 

and female reproductive organs. Five basic types of flowers exist. Type I flowers are 

pistillate, lack stamens, and contain an ovoid ovary and a five-lobed stigma. Type II 

flowers are hermaphrodite and contain five stamens and a globose five-furrowed ovary. 

Type III flowers are hermaphrodite and contain six to nine stamens and an irregularly 

ridged ovary. Type IV flowers are hermaphrodite, and contain 10 stamens and an 

elongate, smooth ovary. Type IV+ flowers are hermaphrodite, contain ten stamens and 

lack a stigma. Type V flowers are staminate, bunched in an inflorescence, contain 10 

stamens and lack an ovary. Environmental changes can alter floral types. Wind and 

insects aid pollination. Yellow to orange melon-like fruit is a berry that grows solitary or 

in small clusters on the tree. Individual fruit is spherical, elongated club-shaped, ovoid, 

cylindrical, pyriform, or ellipsoid in shape, 10 to 50 centimeters (4 to 20 inches) long, 10 

to 20 centimeters (4 to 8 inches) thick, and 400 to 2,500 grams (0.9 to 5.5 pounds) in 

weight. Unripe fruit is green and contains latex. The skin is thin, waxy, tough, and 

smooth. Ripe pulp is yellow, orange, salmon pink or red in color, juicy and soft. The 

flavor is sweet and reminiscent of cantaloupe. Some varieties are musky. Delicate 

aroma. Each fruit contains a cavity of 800 to 1,000 small, hard, ovoid, corrugated, black 

seeds that are 0.5 centimeter (0.2 inch) long. Seeds are attached to the fruit wall by soft, 

white, fibrous tissue. Fruit vary in size and shape. Smaller cultivars such as ‘Solo’ and 

‘Eksotika’ are used for export. Propagation is mainly by seed. Seeds should be 

harvested when the fruit reaches ‘color-break’ stage. Seeds should not be directly planted 

after being removed from the fruit. Instead, seeds should be dried, kept in cool 
140

temperature storage at 15 °C (59 °F) for 30 to 50 days, and soaked in acid to promote 

germination. Germination occurs in 2 to 5 weeks. Seedlings should be transplanted at 

the eight to twelve leaf stages (6 to 8 weeks). Each row should be spaced 2.7 meters (9 

feet) apart. Within each row, plants should be grown 1.8 meters (6 feet) apart. Cuttings 

from side shoots (30 centimeters (12 inches) in size), tissue culture, air-layering, and 

grafts can also be made. Irrigation, proper temperatures and fertilizer (especially

nitrogen, potassium, boron, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium) aids growth. For 

commercial purposes, fruit should be harvested with knives into buckets at the ‘colorbreak’ stage, when the fruit begins to turn slightly yellow. Harvesting occurs year round. 

Fruit are consumed when there is 3⁄4 or more color on the skin. Fruit should be stored at 7 

to 13 °C (45 to 55 °F) with 90 to 95 percent relative humidity. Fruit at color-break stage 

can be stored at 7 °C (45 °F) for 14 days. Ripe fruit can be held for more than one week 

at 1 to 3 °C (34 to 37 °F). Cultivated commercially in the tropics, primarily between 23 ° 

N and S latitudes. Fruit have a rapid return on investment and high yield. Flowering and 

fruiting occurs all year in the tropics. In subtropical areas, flowering does not occur in 

the winter. In Brazil, flowering occurs mainly during the summer. Flowering and fruit 

set stops in the winter in Australia. Although fruiting occurs during most months of the 

year, the two major fruiting periods are from spring to early summer and from autumn to 

early winter. Fruit matures in four to nine months. Fruit production occurs in 8 to 10 

months from seed.

Passionflower, winged stem:

A robust, herbaceous semi-perennial vine native to Brazil and Peru. Climbs with 

well-developed tendrils. All parts of the plant are smooth except for the flower buds. 

The main stem of the plant has winged angles and is stout and quadrangular. Stipules are 

linear to linear-lanceolate and 1.0 to 1.5 centimeters (0.4 to 0.6 inch) long. Leaves are 

leather-like, ovate to ovate-oblong in shape, entire or finely toothed, pinnately veined, 7 

to 15 centimeters (3 to 6 inches) long by 7 to 10 centimeters (3 to 4 inches) wide. 

Petioles are 2.0 to 4.5 centimeters (0.8 to 1.8 inches) long and contain 2 to 4 opposite, 

circular, flat, sessile glands. Fragrant crimson or carmine flowers are solitary, occur in 

the axils of the leaves, and range in size from 10 to 12 centimeters (4 to 5 inches) in 

diameter. Flowers attract butterflies and insects. Yellow to orange fruit is medium-sized, 

obovoid to pyriform in shape, and 8 to 15 centimeters (3 to 4 inches) long and 5 to 10 

centimeters in diameter. Pulp is light orange in color and juicy. The flavor is sweet

Passionfruit:

Passionfruit is propagated is by seed, cuttings, air-layering, and grafting. A trellis 

of at least 2 meters (7 feet) tall is required in commercial plots. Minimum row spacing 

for the trellis should be 3 meters (10 feet). Plant spacing within the trellis row depends 

upon the type of passionfruit being grown. Planting holes should be made 0.6 to 1.0 

meter (2 to 3 feet) away from the posts. When seedlings reach 45 to 60 centimeters (18 

to 24 inches) tall, seedlings should be topped during transplanting to force lateral shoots 

to develop. Shoots should then be trained to grow in a certain direction and can be tied to 

stakes. Additional pruning at the end of the annual cycle of production encourages new 
141

growth and permits air flow and light. Fertilization, especially with nitrogen aids growth. 

Fruit are harvested by hand when three-quarters or more of the skin is yellowing or 

purpling. Fruit for juice processing is harvested when the skin turns fully ripe. Fallen 

fruit are harvested once or twice per week. Fruit can be waxed to increase shelf life. 

This is a small commercially grown crop. Yields vary with climate, species, cultivation 

practices, type of trellis, presence of diseases, and abundance of pollinating agents. 

Passiflora edulis forma flavicarpa prefers warm tropical or near-tropical climates, 

lowlands, and elevations of sea level to 600 meters (1,969 feet) or more. Plants grow 

well in Hawaii with a precipitation of 100 to 150 centimeters (39 to 59 inches) per year. 

Compared to P. edulis forma edulis, plants grow at lower elevations and are more 

adaptable. Does not tolerate frost well. Propagated exclusively by seed. Seeds should be 

washed to remove the pulp, dried in the shade, and sown 1.3 centimeters (0.5 inch) deep. 

Seeds can be stored at 10 to 13 °C (50 to 55 °F) until use. Germination occurs in 2 weeks 

to 3 months. Cracking the seed coat can increase the germination rate. Seedlings at the 2 

to 4 leaf stage should be transplanted into individual plastic bags and grown in semishade for 1 to 2 months. Plants should be transplanted into the field when a height of 25 

to 50 centimeters (10 to 20 inches) is reached and the plants can tolerate full sun. For 

commercial purposes, plants should be spaced at 3 meters (10 feet). After the first 

harvest year, every other vine can be thinned to provide a permanent spacing of 4.8 

meters (16 feet). After being harvested, fruit can be stored for one week at 5 to 7.5 °C 

(41 to 46 °F). Passiflora edulis forma edulis plants prefer subtropical climates and 

highlands with cool periods. Plants can produce fruit for 3 to 4 years at elevations of 800 

meters (2,625 feet) and 8 years at elevations between 1,200 and 1,500 meters (3,937 to 

4,921 feet). Plants thrive and yield well at night temperatures of 4.5 to 13 °C (40 to 55 

°F) and day temperatures of 18 to 30 °C (64 to 86 °F). Mature vines tolerate light frost. 

Plants can be injured at temperatures of 1 to 2 °C (28 to 30 °F) below freezing. 

Propagated by grafting onto seedlings of the yellow passionfruit. Grafting is done at a 

height of 50 to 55 centimeters (20 to 22 inches) above ground level. The scion portion 

should have grown approximately 25 centimeters (10 inches) and hardened. For 

commercial production, plants should be spaced 2.5 to 4.5 meters (8 to 15 feet) apart. Inrow spacing can be up to 5 meters (16 feet) for vigorous varieties. For long distance 

transport, fruit are harvested when fruit are at the light-purple stage. Fruit can be kept for 

up to 4 to 5 weeks at 5 °C (41 °F) and 80 to 90% relative humidity. 

Passionfruit, Banana:

A vigorously-climbing, semi-woody vine that grows 6 to 7 meters (20 to 23 feet), 

native to the Andean valleys from Venezuela and eastern Colombia to Bolivia and Peru. 

Stems are nearly cylindrical and densely coated with yellow hairs. Leaves are deeply 3-

lobed, finely toothed, downy above, grayish to yellowish and velvety beneath, and 6 to 16 

centimeters (2.4 to 6.3 inches) long by 7 to 20 centimeters (3 to 8 inches) wide. Petioles 

contain 4 to 6 scattered, minute, sub sessile nectaries. Stipules are short, slender, 

obliquely ovate, curved, and bristly at the tip and 0.6 centimeters (0.2 inch) long. 

Individual pink flowers are pendant and contain ovate bracts that form a gray-green tube 

that is blushed with red (7.6 to 10 centimeters or 3 to 4 inches long), a green tubular 

hypanthium (5 to 7 centimeters or 2 to 3 inches long), a corolla with 5 lanceolate to 
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oblong pink sepals, lanceolate to oblong deep pink petals (4 to 5 centimeters or 1.6 to 2 

inches long), and a rippled, tuberculate to dentate purple to white corona. Flowers range 

from 6 to 9 centimeters (2.4 to 3.5 inches) in diameter. Peduncles are solitary, and 3.8 to 

10 centimeters (1.5 to 4 inches) long. Self-compatible. Can be pollinated by birds and 

insects. Yellow-orange to whitish-yellow fruit is a berry that is ellipsoidal, oblong, 

obovate, or oblong-ovoid in shape (banana-shaped), and 5 to 12 centimeters (2 to 5 

inches) long by 2.5 to 4 centimeters (1 to 1.6 inches) wide by 57 to 156 grams (2 to 5.5 

ounces) in weight. The rind is thick, leathery, and sometimes hairy. One form of the 

fruit is dark green in color and downy. Pulp (aril) is salmon-colored to orange. The 

flavor is subacid to acid and rich. Highly aromatic. Each fruit contains 50 to 200 small, 

black, flat, elliptic, reticulated seeds. Fruit is popular in Colombia. Vines form a dense 

canopy and smother surrounding vegetation. Considered a noxious weed in many areas. 

Fruit are widely cultivated in Brazil and are prized. Propagation is by cuttings and seeds. 

Plants are more commonly grown from seeds. Germination occurs in 10 weeks. Soaking 

in lukewarm water or using bottom heating (21 to 27 °C or 70 to 80 °F) can reduce 

germination time to 1 to 5 weeks. Seedlings are transplanted at 3 months of age and are 

trained onto a horizontal 2 meter (6.5 foot) trellis with cross wires spaced 41 centimeters 

(16 inches) apart. Vines should be spaced 2 to 3 meters (6.5 to 10 feet). Crops should be 

weeded, pruned and fertilized properly for commercial production. The plant is 

commonly cultivated. Propagation is by seed. Flowering and fruiting occurs year round 

in Colombia and Hawaii. Peak flowering occurs in the dry season in Hawaii and South 

America. In New Zealand, fruiting occurs from late March or early April to September 

or October. Fruiting occurs in 2 years from seed.

Pawpaw, Common:

A moderately small, slow-growing, deciduous tree or shrub that grows to a height 

and width of 5 to 10 meters (16 to 33 feet). Pawpaw is a member of the mostly tropical 

custard apple family, Annonaceae and is native to eastern North America. The largest 

edible fruit native to North America. Trees consist of a taproot and fibrous root system. 

Dark green leaves are alternate, simple, oblong, obovate, or obovate-oblong in shape, 

smooth, wedge-shaped at the base, lush, long, large, drooping, and 15 to 30 centimeters 

(6 to 12 inches) long by 10 to 15 centimeters (4 to 6 inches) wide. Vegetative and flower 

buds occur at different nodes on the stem. Vegetative buds are narrow and pointed. 

Flower buds are round, covered with dark-brown hairs, and appear singly on the previous 

year’s wood before leaves in spring. Fowl-smelling flowers are dark maroon to purple in 

color and pendant to nodding. Individual flowers contain an outer whorl of three, threelobed petals (measuring 5 centimeters (2 inches) in diameter), an inner whorl of petals 

that are smaller and fleshier with a nectar band at the base, a globular group of stamens, a 

calyx with 3 sepals, and 3 to 7 carpels. Peduncles are sturdy, hairy, and up to 4 

centimeters (1.6 inches) long. Flowers are self-incompatible. Pollination is mostly by

flies and beetles. Green to yellowish brown fruit is a berry that is borne singly or in 

clusters (up to 9), is oblong to oblong-cylindrical in shape, custard apple-like, curved, 

plump, and 3 to 15 centimeters (1.2 to 6 inches) long by 3 to 10 centimeters (1.2 to 4 

inches) wide by 20 to 1,000 grams (0.7 to 35 ounces) in weight. The skin is smooth, soft, 

and thin. Pulp is creamy white, orange, or yellow in color and mushy, custard-like or 
143

firm in texture. The flavor is unique and resembles a combination of banana, mango and 

pineapple. Flavor intensifies as fruit over-ripens and can vary by cultivar. Poor quality

cultivars can lack sweetness, have an overly rich flavor, and turpentine to bittersweet 

aftertaste. Each fruit contains 2 rows of seeds (12 to 20 total seeds) that are brown in 

color, bean shaped, large, flat and up to 3 centimeters (1.2 inches) long. Asimina 

parviflora is a miniature version of the common pawpaw that grows to a height of 2 to 

2.5 meters (6 to 8 feet) and a width of 0.6 to 1.8 meters (2 to 6 feet). This uncommon 

small to medium shrub or low tree contains smaller flowers, smaller leaves, smaller fruit, 

and a shorter stature. The trunk is slender and up to 10 centimeters (4 inches) in 

diameter. Bark is smooth, gray-brown and contains warty lenticels. Stems and branches 

have soft rust-colored hairs and are spreading-ascending, dark brown, and slender. 

Shoots are red-brown in color and covered with red hairs. Dark green leaves contain a 

rusty pubescence underneath and are deciduous, simple, alternate, fragrant when crushed, 

large, leathery, membranous, obovate, oblong, or oblanceolate in shape, wedge-shaped at 

the base, pointed at the tip, and 6 to 20 centimeters (2.4 to 8 inches) long by 3.8 to 6.4 

centimeters (1.5 to 2.5 inches) wide. Leaves turn yellow in the fall. The petioles are 0.5 

to 1 centimeters (0.2 to 0.4 inch) long. Fowl-smelling flowers are oddly shaped, small, 

solitary, and green to purplish-brown in color, bell-shaped and 1 to 1.7 centimeters (0.4 to 

0.7 inch) in diameter. Individual flowers contain 1 to 2 ovate-triangular hairy bracteoles 

(0.2 to 0.3 centimeters (0.08 to 0.1 inch)), triangular-deltate hairy sepals (0.4 to 0.7 

centimeters (0.2 to 0.3 inch)), 6 oblong to ovate hairy outer petals (1 to 1.3 centimeters 

(0.4 to 0.5 inch)), ovate inner petals, and 5 to 7 pistils. Flowers contain both male and 

female reproductive organs. The peduncle contains red-brown to tan hairs and measures 

0.3 to 0.8 centimeters (0.1 to 0.3 inch) long. Flowers emerge with leaves in the spring. 

Yellow-green fruit is a berry that is nearly round in shape, short, fat, and 3 to 7 

centimeters (1.2 to 3 inches) long. When ripe, fruit turns black or dark brown in color. 

Pulp is custard-like. The flavor is sweet. Each fruit contains chestnut brown colored 

seeds that are 1 to 2 centimeters (0.4 to 0.8 inches) long. Propagation is by seeds, 

budding and grafting. Seed should be collected from fruit when the flesh is soft to overripe, cleaned, and stratified by storing the seed in moist peat moss at 2 to 5 °C (36 to 41 

°F) for 60 to 100 days to overcome embryo dormancy. After stratification, seeds can be 

planted 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) deep in containers and placed in moderate shade. 

Germination occurs in approximately 7 weeks. After reaching 1 meter (3 feet) in height, 

seedlings can be transplanted into the field in fall or spring. For grafting purposes, 

dormant bud wood that has fulfilled the chilling requirement should be used. The 

seedling rootstock should be 0.5 centimeters (0.2 inch) in diameter. Trees should be 

planted 2.4 meters (8 feet) within rows and 3.7 to 4.6 meters (12 to 15 feet) between 

rows. Supplemental irrigation, weeding, fertilization, and pruning in late winter to early 

spring aids growth. Fruit ripening occurs when there is an increase in soluble solids, 

flesh softening, increased volatile production and a decline in the intensity of green color. 

Since fruit in clusters ripen during different times, harvesting occurs over a period of 3 to 

4 weeks. Fruit are harvested by gently tugging the fruit from the tree. Ripe fruit also 

falls to the ground. Fruit is rapidly perishable and can soften rapidly at room 

temperature. Ripe fruit have a shelf life of 2 to 3 days. Fruit beginning to ripen have a 

shelf life of 5 to 7 days at room temperature or 1 month at 4 °C (39 °F). Immature fruit 

do not ripen. Good potential for commercial production, but orchard plantings are 
144

limited. Asimina parviflora is a forest understory shrub of the Coastal Plain and 

Piedmont regions of North Carolina. Plants also occur in the dry pine and oak woods of 

Texas. Compared to the common pawpaw, trees prefer drier sites, open shade (partial 

sun), elevations of sea level to 700 meters (2,297 feet), and moist, acid, well-drained 

soils. Thrives in USDA zone 7. Tolerates full sun, and sands, sandy loams or sandy 

alluvium.

Pelipisan:

A tree that grows to a height of 10 to 30 meters (33 to 98 feet). The trunk can 

reach 15 meters (49 feet) long and 40 to 115 centimeters (16 to 45 inches) in diameter. 

Bark is grayish white to light brown in color, thin, or sometimes thick, cracked and 

fissured, containing 1 centimeter (0.4 inch) of thick, dead bark. Live bark is 0.6 

centimeters (0.2 inch) thick, mustard yellow to pale brown in color; bark contains whitish 

or pale yellow sap that turns brown when dry. Sapwood is pale yellow in color. Twigs 

are angular, smooth and shiny. Leaves are scattered among branches. Individual leaves 

are papery, smooth, oblong to elliptic in shape, acute to shortly pointed, acute at the base, 

and 5 by 28 centimeters (2 by 11 inches) in size. Leaves near inflorescences are smaller 

and measure 2.5 by 6 centimeters (1 by 2.4 inches). Petioles are flat above, somewhat 

thickened at the base and 1.5 to 8 centimeters (0.6 to 3 inches) long. Inflorescences are 

pseudo-terminal panicles that measure over 30 centimeters (12 inches) long. The rachis 

is greenish to yellowish white in color and slightly hairy. Bracts are ovate-oblong in 

shape, acute, slightly hairy, and 0.3 centimeters (0.1 inch) long. Individual fragrant 

flowers contain thick, pale green sepals, white to pale pink reflexed petals, one fertile 

stamen, a white filament, a dark purple or brown-purple anther, 3 staminodes, a cushionlike disc, a style, and a 4 to 5-lobed ovary. In general, the fruit is shiny, green when 

immature, brown to purple-black when mature, and 50 to 84 grams (2 to 3 ounces) in 

weight. Pulp is orange in color, stringy, and aromatic. There are three varieties of the 

fruit. The Kasturi is a green fruit with dark spots that resembles a small mango. It is 

slightly compressed, contains a slight nose, and measures 6 by 4.5 to 5 by 3.5 to 4.2 

centimeters (2.4 by 1.8 to 2 by 1.4 to 1.7 inches). The skin is thin, smooth and glossy. 

At maturity fruit turns completely or partly black in color. Pulp is dark orange and juicy. 

Each fruit contains a stone that measures 5 by 4.5 by 3 centimeters (2 by 1.8 by 1.2 

inches). Compared to Mangifera indica, fruit is less sweet, but has a stronger taste and 

softer aroma. This is the most popular variety. The Mangga Cuban fruit is rose red in 

color, ovoid to ellipsoid in shape and 6 to 6.3 by 5 to 5.2 by 4.2 to 4.4 centimeters (2.4 to 

2.5 by 2 to 2.1 by 1.65 to 1.73 inches) in size. The rind is 0.2 to 0.3 centimeters (0.08 to 

0.1 inch) thick and easily removable from the pulp. Pulp is orange yellow, watery, and 

fibrous. The stone is 4.6 by 3 by 1.4 centimeters (1.8 by 1.2 by 0.6 inch) in size. The 

Asem pelipisan fruit is pale green with brown dots, ellipsoid in shape, flattened, and 6 to 

7.2 by 3 to 5 by 3 to 4.4 centimeters (2.4 to 2.8 by 1.2 to 2 by 1.2 to 1.7 inches) in size. 

Pulp is deep orange yellow in color, and fibrous. The stone is 5 to 7 by 2.5 to 3 by 1.5 to 

3.4 centimeters (2 to 2.8 by 1 to 1.2 by 0.6 to 1.3 inches) in size. Mangifera casturi fruit 

are generally smaller than other species of mangoes. 

Pequi and Pequiá:
145

Caryocar brasiliense is a small, semi-deciduous, slow-growing tree or shrub that 

reaches a height of 6 to 10 meters (20 to 33 feet), and is native to the savannas of central 

Brazil. The taproot is large and deep. The trunk is twisted and up to 30 centimeters (12 

inches) in diameter. Bark is thick, gray, and contains longitudinal fissures and ridges. 

The crown is large, wide, and up to 10 meters (33 feet) in diameter. Leaves are alternate, 

compound trifoliate, large, tough, hairy, and up to 20 centimeters (8 inches) long. 

Leaflets are elliptic-ovate in shape, rounded at the tip and base, pubescent, and lighter in 

color underneath. Margins are rounded. The terminal leaflet is 10 to 18 centimeters (4 to 

7 inches) long and 8 to 12 centimeters (3 to 5 inches) wide. Lateral leaflets are

asymmetrical. The petiole is 1 to 10 centimeters (0.4 to 4 inches) long and covered in 

hair when young. The inflorescence is a terminal raceme that contains 6 to 20 white to 

yellow flowers. Each flower contains both male and female flowers, a 5 to 6-round lobed 

broadly cup-shaped calyx (10 to 13 centimeters (4 to 5 inches) long), 5 petals, a white, 

yellow or orange-red 5 to 6-lobed oblong corolla (1.8 to 2.5 centimeters (0.7 to 1 inch) 

long), 270 to 330 stamens (1.5 to 50 centimeters (0.6 to 20 inches) long), a globose 

ovary, and styles. Most flowers are up to 8 centimeters (3 inches) in diameter. The 

peduncle is 4 to 10 centimeters (1.6 to 4 inches) long. The pedicel is 1 to 5 centimeters 

(0.4 to 2 inches) long. Pollinated by bats. Green fruit are dehiscent, oblong to irregular 

ovoid-globose in shape, 1-locular, and 4 to 5 centimeters (1.6 to 2 inches) in diameter. 

Skin is mostly smooth and fibrous. Pulp is thick, oily, yellow, and fleshy. The flavor is 

slightly sweet and rich and aromatic. Pulp hides an ovoid stone (2.5 to 3 centimeters (1 

to 1.2 inches) in diameter) that is covered in miniscule spines (2 to 3 centimeters (0.8 to 

1.2 inches) long). Spines can injure the mouth. Individual fruit contain one or two 

woody seeds. The kernel is white and oily. Caryocar villosum is an evergreen that 

grows to a height of 20 to 50 meters (66 to 164 feet) under forest conditions. In open 

areas, trees are smaller with lower branches and spreading crowns. Native to the eastern 

Amazon. The trunk is straight and 90 to 250 centimeters (35 to 98 feet) in diameter. 

Wood is whitish beige. Bark is gray-brown in color, rough, and fissured. The crown is 

open and leafy. Leaves are alternate and compound-trifoliate. Leaflets are sub-sessile, 

pubescent on the upper surface, glandular on the lower surface, broadly elliptic, pointed 

at the tip, wedge-shaped at the base, wavy at the margins, and 8 to 22 centimeters (3 to 9 

inches) long by 6 to 12 centimeters (2.4 to 5 inches) wide. Petioles are 4 to 15 

centimeters (1.6 to 6 inches) long. Inflorescences consist of terminal clustered racemes 

of 24 flowers. Pedicels are 2 to 4 centimeters (0.8 to 1.6 inches) long. Individual flowers 

consist of a broadly cup-shaped calyx (1.5 centimeters (0.6 inch) long), a 5-lobed oblong 

pale yellow corolla (2.5 centimeters (1 inch) long), approximately 300 yellow stamens 

(1.5 to 7 centimeters (0.6 to 3 inches) long), a globose 4-locular ovary, and 4 filamentous 

styles. Pollination is by bats. Fruit is irregularly oblong-globose, globose or oblong in 

shape, 1 to 2 locular, and 6 to 8 centimeters (2.4 to 3 inches) long by 7 to 9 centimeters (3 

to 3.5 inches) in diameter. Skin is smooth to slightly hairy with small lenticels. Pulp is 

thick, fleshy, yellow, and butter-textured. The flavor is rich and sweet when cooked 

fresh. The stone is hard, spiny, kidney-shaped, and 5 centimeters (2 inches) long. Each 

fruit contains 1 to 2 seeds. The kernel is large, white, oily, sweet in flavor, and 2 

centimeters (0.8 inch) long by 1 centimeter (0.4 inch) wide. Pequi Propagation is by

grafting, marcottage, and seeds. Seeds may take more than a year to germinate. 
146

Stratification can aid germination. Fruit is ripe when it falls to the ground. Fruit must be 

used soon after being harvested or rancidity will occur. Important fruit in the diets of the 

local people in the Brazilian Cerrado. Not currently cultivated, but plentiful in its natural 

habitat. Caryocar villosum prefers tropical climates, humid to dry rainforests on terra 

firma, poor, heavy, well-drained clay soil, 130 to 250 centimeters (51 to 98 inches) of 

rainfall, a 1 to 4 month dry season, uniform temperatures and elevations below 300 

meters (984 feet). Grows along the Atlantic coast from São Luis in Maranháo Province 

of Brazil, Cayene in French Guyana and westwards within the major river basins. 

Thrives along the Amazon River. Propagation is by seed, budding and grafting. 

Germination occurs in 2 months to 1 year. Freshly fallen fruit is collected from the tree, 

and is not currently cultivated. Fruit and nuts are an important part of the diet in 

Brazilian Amazonia area.

Persimmon, American:

A deciduous, irregularly-shaped, slow-growing, upright to drooping, small to 

medium tree that can reach 9 to 24 meters (30 to 80 feet) in height and 6 to 11 meters (20 

to 35 feet) in width, and is native to the eastern U.S. Diospyros kaki (Japanese 

persimmon) has overtaken Diospyros virginiana (American persimmon) in popularity. 

The trunk ascends up through the crown in a curved fashion and can reach 0.6 meter (2 

feet) in diameter. Young bark is gray-brown in color with orange to cinnamon-red 

cracks. Older bark is dark brown to black in color, and consists of square scaly thick 

plates. Wood is close grained, heavy, hard, and strong. Branches are light brown, gray

or reddish in color, slender, drooping, and crooked to straight, tall, and scabrous to hairy. 

Buds are dark red to black in color, broad, triangular to egg-shaped, imbricate, and 

appressed. The crown is irregular, oval, round-topped, conical, or pyramidal in shape. 

Leaves are alternate, deciduous, entire, simple, round, elliptic, oblong or oval in shape, 

pinnately-veined, pointed at the tip, glossy, leathery, dark green above, pale below, and 

6.4 to 20 centimeters (2.5 to 8 inches) long by 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) wide. 

Leaf margins are entire. Leaves turn red to yellow in autumn. White, greenish-white, or 

yellow flowers are inconspicuous, shaped like blueberry flowers, and approximately 1.3 

centimeters (0.5 inch) long. Greenish yellow male flowers occur in two or threeflowered cymes, are tubular and range in size from 0.8 to 1.3 centimeters (0.3 to 0.5 inch) 

long. Female flowers are solitary, sessile or short-peduncled, urn-shaped, and about 1.9 

centimeters (0.7 inch) long. Female flowers contain a fragrant corolla with 4 or 5 

greenish yellow thick recurved lobes. Male and female flowers occur on separate plants 

and are required for proper fruiting. Orange, orange-red, red, yellow or black fruit is a 

berry that is round in shape, plum-like, and 2 to 5 centimeters (0.75 to 2 inches) in 

diameter. Immature fruit is green. The skin is smooth and fleshy. Leafy bracts occur on 

the top of the fruit. Diospyros virginiana fruit are smaller in size compared to Diospyros 

kaki fruits. Immature fruit are very astringent and mouth numbing. Most fruit ripen after 

a hard frost and become sweet and edible. Fruit must be allowed to sit until extremely

soft and wrinkled. The flavor is similar to dates. Each fruit contains 1 to 8 flat brown 

seeds that measure 1.3 centimeters (0.5 inch) long, and some fruit can be seedless. 

Propagation is by root cuttings, grafting, and seed. Seeds should be removed from the 

fruit, cleaned, spread out for drying for one to two days and stratified under moist 
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conditions for 2 to 3 months at 1 to 4 °C (34 to 39 °F). Before planting seeds 1.3 

centimeters (0.5 inch) deep in light soils, seeds should be soaked 2 to 3 days. Planting 

should occur during the spring or fall months. Seeds remain dormant during the winter 

and germinate from April to May. Germination occurs in one month when soil 

temperatures are above 16 °C (60 °F). Root cuttings should be 15 to 20 centimeters (6 to 

8 inches) long and 0.8 centimeters (0.3 inch) in diameter. Pruning, thinning, and 

fertilizer aids growth. Fruit ripens after frost. Some varieties do not require frost to 

ripen. Fruit fall from September to late winter. Optimum fruit bearing occurs from 25 to 

50 years. Good crops occur every 2 years. 

Pineapple:

A monocotyledonous herbaceous perennial that grows to a height of 0.6 to 1.5 

meters (2 to 5 feet) and a width of 0.9 to 1.5 meters (3 to 5 feet), and is native to South 

America, specifically the savannas of Southeastern Brazil, Paraguay and Northern 

Argentina. Pineapple ranks third in production of tropical fruit behind bananas and 

citrus. Roots are dense and 15 to 50 centimeters (6 to 20 inches) long. Aerial roots occur 

in the leaf axils. The stem is club-shaped, short, stout, 5 to 8 centimeters (2 to 3 inches) 

in diameter just below the apex, and 30 to 35 centimeters (12 to 14 inches) long. 

Internodes are short (0.1 to 1 centimeters (0.04 to 0.4 inch) apart). Adventitious roots 

and axillary buds grow from the stem. Axillary buds can produce shoots (slips), which 

can serve as a second crop. Leaves are borne in a rosette around the stem and surround a 

terminal bud. Leaf number can total 40 to 80. Individual leaves are simple, evergreen, 

gray-green, stiff, trough-shaped, evenly-spaced, waxy, smooth, silvery on the lower 

surface with many trichomes (that absorb water), strap-like, pointed and needle-like at the 

tip, succulent, and 50 to 200 centimeters (20 to 79 inches) in length. Leaves of some 

varieties are striped with red, yellow or ivory down the middle or in the margins. Spines 

can occur in the margins (some varieties). The leaf design allows for rain water to 

collect. During flowering, the stem elongates and enlarges at the apex, forming an 

inflorescence. The inflorescence is terminal or axillary, globose, short, stout, and can 

contain 100 to 200 individual trimerous flowers each accompanied by a single bract. 

Red, yellowish, green, or yellow-green bracts open in a spiral from the base to the apex. 

Individual pink, purple, lavender-blue or red flowers are hermaphroditic and contain 

three sepals, three petals, six stamens, a fleshy bract, a style, and a tricarpellate ovary. As 

flowers are being produced, the stem continues to grow and a compact tuft of stiff short 

leaves (the crown) is produced. Plants are self-sterile and fruit develops 

parthenocarpically. Fruit can be pollinated by hummingbirds. Individual fruitlets 

develop from flowers that do not abscise and join together to form a fruit. Dark-green, 

yellow, orange-yellow or reddish fruit is a coenocarpium (multiple fruit derived from 

ovaries, floral parts, and receptacles of many coalesced flowers) that is solitary, pine cone 

to oval in shape, and 30 to 60 centimeters (12 to 24 inches) long. A leafy stem (crown) 

occurs at the top of each fruit. The rind contains hexagonal units based on the individual 

sepal and bract tissues and the tips of the ovaries. The rind is tough, leathery, waxy, and 

yellow-red at maturity, and green when immature. Pulp is white to yellow in color, 

succulent, and juicy. The core is fibrous and edible, and the flavor is sweet and acidic. 

Pollinated flowers produce fruit that contain hundreds of small, hard apple-like seeds. 
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‘Smooth Cayenne’ cultivar is the most important commercial variety for canning and 

fresh fruit. ‘Queen’, ‘Abacaxi’ and ‘Red Spanish’ are also important fresh cultivars. One 

of the most important fruit crops in the world. Vegetative propagation is by crowns (fruit 

tops), slips (shoots borne on vestigial fruit at the base of the fruit), and suckers (shoots 

borne at any position on the stem). Stem sectioning (for axillary buds) can be done by 

stripping the leaves from the stem, quartering the stem longitudinally, and dividing each 

quarter into sections 5 centimeters (2 inches) in length. Sections should be air-cured for 

several days and immersed in fungicide before planting in nursery beds. Tissue culture is 

also done. Seed is only used in breeding programs. Germination is slow and can occur 

within 10 days if seeds are treated with acid. In preparation for a new pineapple field, old 

plants should be disked multiple times or chopped. When dry, old plants should be 

ploughed under or burned. The new field should be disked until the soil is fine. The field 

should be laid out in a block-road-block arrangement to allow for spraying, irrigation, 

and harvesting. Elevated beds (80 centimeters (3 feet) wide) should be made and 

polyethylene mulch should be added to help retain the moisture, temperature, fertilizer 

and control weeds. Planting should be done with a 30 centimeter (12 inch) long trowelshaped planting tool; planting can also be done mechanically. Tops and crowns should 

be planted 5 centimeters (2 inches) deep, and slips should be planted 9 to 10 centimeters 

(3.5 to 4 inch) deep. Crowns, slips and suckers should be planted separately in different 

fields. Plants should be planted in a staggered fashion. Spacing is dependent upon 

cultivar, but a general spacing rule is 30 to 45 centimeters (12 to 18 inch). On small 

farms, a single-row system is used with wide spacing between plants and rows, giving a 

density of 15,000 to 25,000 plants per hectare. In commercial plantings, a double-row 

system is used, with 60 centimeters (24 inches) between the two rows. Three and fourrow systems are also popular. Up to 4 crops can be produced from a commercial 

plantation. Fertilizer and irrigation aid growth. Fruit is mature when the fruit ‘eye’ is 

flat, the aroma increases, and the skin becomes light pale green to yellow. Summer crops 

are picked when the eye turns light pale green. Winter crops are picked when there is 

yellowing around the base. Fruit does not continue to ripen or sweeten after harvest. 

Therefore, immature fruit should not be shipped. Slightly less mature fruit are selected 

for transport to distant markets. Fruit is harvested in 2 to 4 passes. In manual harvesting, 

fruit is cut or broken off from the plant. Mechanical harvesting is also done. Fruit are 

graded according to skin color, size, and weight, absence of defects, uniformity, maturity, 

and crown to fruit size before packing. Most fruit that is produced is sold to the fresh 

fruit market. Fruit for canning is harvested when fruit is of highest quality which is 

during the summer months. Fruit at color-break stage should be stored at 7 to 12 °C (45 

to 54 °F) and 85 to 95 percent relative humidity for 14 to 20 days. Ripe fruit should be 

stored at 7.2 °C (45 °F) for 7 to 10 days.

Pitaya:

Hylocereus spp. is a fast-growing, climbing cacti native to Central and South 

America. Roots are shallow and the stems are thin (0.3 to 0.5 centimeters (0.1 to 0.2 

inch) thick) and contain 2 to 4 three-angled vertical ribs. Stems develop aerial roots. 

During the seedling stage, plants contain spines that are soft bristles. As the plant 

matures, the spines are short or absent. Flowers are large, white and yellow in color, 
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fragrant, and night blooming. Flowering occurs in waves. Each wave lasts one week. 

All species except Hylocereus megalanthus are self-incompatible and require cross 

pollination. Fruit can weigh up to 800 grams (2 pounds). Fruit ripening occurs in waves. 

Pulp is red to white. Seeds are small, black and edible. Hylocereus megalanthus is a 

shrub or vine, succulent and epiphyte. Native to Ecuador. Green photosynthesizing 

branches (phylloclades) are trialate, slightly branched with two thorns, short, rigid, 

fleshy, and 4 to 5 centimeters (1.6 to 2 inches) wide by 5 centimeters to 6 meters (2 

inches to 20 feet) long. Branches have a thick base on each areole (cushion-like area 

from which spines arise), and attach to supports (such as trees) with aerial roots. Unlike 

other cacti, Hylocereus megalanthus does not contain a wax layer on the branches. 

Flowers are solitary, nocturnal, open once, and contain both male and female 

reproductive organs. Not self-incompatible; does not require cross pollination. Yellow 

fruit is a berry that is knobby, similar in appearance to the dragon fruit, and weighs up to 

350 grams (0.8 pounds). The skin is yellow. Areoles with tufts of thin spines occur on 

the surface of the fruit. When fruit ripen, spines easily release. Pulp is succulent and 

white and the flavor is sweet and tangy. Fruit are smaller than other vine cacti fruits and 

smaller than the dragon fruit. Hylocereus polyrhizus is a sprawling, climbing, succulent, 

epiphytic or terrestrial plant that can grow several meters long. Native to the arid regions 

of Mexico. Plants are profusely branched. Phylloclades are two, three or four angled, 

slender, and 0.5 to 2 meters (1.6 to 7 feet) long by 3 to 10 centimeters (1.2 to 4 inches) 

wide. Stems have a wax cover and thick skin. Younger stems are green or purplish in 

color. Older stems turn whitish. Branches contain aerial roots, and areoles that are 

spaced approximately 2 centimeters (0.8 inch) apart. Areoles contain 2 to 7 spines that 

are bulbous basally, reddish, brownish or gray in color, needle-like, straight and 0.2 to 1 

centimeter (0.08 to 0.4 inch) long. Spines may be accompanied by hairs. Ribs are 

smooth, straight and obtuse to wavy, thin, horny to non-horny, and contain concave faces. 

Flower buds are globular and purple. Flowers occur singly or in clusters and are large, 

white, fragrant, open during the day, contain both male and female reproductive parts and 

measure 25 to 31 centimeters (10 to 12 inches) long by 25 to 30 centimeters (10 to 12 

inches) in diameter. Floral tubes are straight to curved, outer perianth segments are 

linear-lanceolate and red, inner perianth segments are white, and stigma lobes are short, 

yellowish and entire. Red fruit is a berry that is ellipsoidal to oblong in shape, 7 to 10 

centimeters (3 to 4 inches) long and up to 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) in weight. The skin is 

red, thick and spine-free. Pulp is dark red to white, and spongy to fleshy. The flavor is 

sweet and refreshing. Fruit contains small black seeds. Hylocereus ocamponis is a fastgrowing climber. Native to the tropical rainforests of Mexico. Grayish or bluish green 

stems are three-angled, elongated, heavily waxed, and 3 meters (10 feet) long by 5 to 6 

centimeters (2 to 2.4 inches) wide. Between nodes, plants have shallowly indent stem 

margins. Aerial roots occur at the joints and along the stems. Compared to dragon fruit, 

wings are more deeply undulated and are bordered with longer spines. Plants contain 5 to 

8 yellow to brown spines that measure up to 1.5 centimeters (0.6 inch) long. Flowers are 

white, nocturnal, fragrant, and 25 to 30 centimeters (10 to 12 inches) in diameter. Inner 

petals are wide and pure white, while outer petals are pale yellowish-green with a green 

stigma. Fruit is wine red. The pulp is wine red and the flavor is sweet. Hylocereus 

triangularis is a strong climbing plant that attaches itself to a host plant. Native to the 

coastal zones of Jamaica. Branches are 5 centimeters (2 inches) wide. Plants have three 
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ribs. 20 centimeter (8 inch) long white flowers grow from the areoles. Fruit are red. 

Hylocereus spp. prefers warm, shady habitats of subtropical and tropical America and dry

areas; can grow in temperate climates. Trees are native to forests with natural shading. 

Tolerates temperatures of 4 to 0 °C (39 to 32 °F) (light frost) when mature, sunny areas 

away from strong wind, partial shade, and a range of well-drained soil types with high 

amounts of organic matter. Does not tolerate excessive humidity, excessive soil moisture 

and excessive high temperatures of 45 to 48 °C (113 to 118 °F). Compared to other 

cacti, Hylocereus spp. is the most sensitive to low temperatures. High temperatures 

above 45 °C (113 °F) and excessive rainfall inhibit flower production. Plants should be 

irrigated during fruit development. Irrigation, pruning and fertilization aid growth. A 4 

meter (13 foot) trellis provides support. Spacing is 3 meters (10 feet) between rows and 

1.5 meters (5 feet) in the rows. Fruit can be stored at room temperature for 10 days. 

Hylocereus megalanthus prefers a desert, rather than tropical climate, and a minimum 

average temperature of 16 °C (60 °F). Cultivated in Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, and 

Israel. It is grown in USDA zones 10 to 11. Tolerates high temperatures compared to 

other vine cacti. Does not tolerate drought or frost well. Propagation is by cuttings and 

seed. For commercial production, a trellis system is required for support. Net-houses 

that provide shade are used in Israel to grow the plant. Spines are removed from fruit 

before entering food markets. Hylocereus polyrhizus prefers arid regions, part shade, and 

rainfall of 165 to 297 centimeters (65 to 117 inches) and temperatures of 23 to 27 °C (73 

to 81 °F). Cultivated in Israel, Brazil and Mexico. Grown in USDA zones 10 to 12. 

More tolerant of light and drought compared to other climbing cactus species. Tolerant 

of frost to 1 °C (30 °F). Propagated by cuttings. Hylocereus ocamponis prefers part 

shade, tropical rainforests, high humidity, and temperatures of 15.6 to 48.9 °C (60 to 120 

°F). Grown in USDA zones 10 to 12. Tolerates temperatures to 1 ° C (30 °F). 

Hylocereus triangularis prefers coastal zones in the Caribbean and a tropical climate. 

Fruit are cultivated in the Caribbean.

Pomegranate:

A semi-deciduous to evergreen, fast-growing, short, bushy rounded shrub or small 

crooked tree that grows to a height of 2 to 10 meters (7 to 33 feet). Dwarf cultivars are 

less than 1 meter (3 feet) tall, and are native to the Middle East, specifically from Iran to 

the Himalayas in northern India. Trees are long-lived. The trunk can be single or 

multiple. Basal water sprouts emerge from the trunk (especially the base of the trunk), 

that are usually pruned off. Bark is smooth and red-brown when young and gray, 

irregularly ridged and furrowed when mature. Trees are many-branched. Gray-brown 

branches are stiff, angular, slender, arching, and spiny. The canopy is vase-shaped. Pale 

to bright green leaves are opposite to whorled, simple, leathery, glossy to waxy, smooth, 

short-petiole, slightly curled, obovate, oval, narrow, lance, narrowly elliptical, oblonglanceolate or oblong in shape, and 1 to 10 centimeters (0.4 to 4 inches) long. Margins are 

smooth. Leaf axils contain small spines. Fall leaf color is bronze. Single or clusters (up 

to 5) of scarlet, orange-red, white or variegated trumpet-shaped flowers are borne on the 

shoot terminals and measure 5 centimeters (2 inches) in diameter. Individual flowers are 

showy and contain both male and female reproductive organs, a thick tubular red calyx, 5 

to 8 fleshy pointed sepals, 3 to 8 deep red, orange-red, pink, white or variegated crinkled 
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petals, several whorls of individual stamens (of varying lengths) lining the inner surface 

of the floral tube, an ovary, a thick fleshy style (1 to 1.5 centimeters (0.4 to 0.6 inch) 

long), and a small disk-shaped stigma. The central terminal flower is usually fertile, and 

the lateral flowers are usually sterile. Self and cross pollinated by insects, bees, and 

hummingbirds. Varieties that exhibit parethenocarpy have fruit with seeds that lack 

embryos. Yellow and red, brownish, pink, white or red fruit is a pome-like berry that is 

globose to ovoid in shape, and 5 to 13 centimeters (2 to 5 inches) in diameter. Dwarf 

pomegranates produce golf-ball-sized fruit. The rind is smooth, thick, tough, and 

leathery and contains a thick, leathery calyx at the tip. Cream colored, thin membranes 

and white, spongy, bitter tissues separate the locules (aggregates of small seeds). Arils 

(which are single enlarged cells containing starch grains) are tear-drop shaped, 

transparent, white, yellow, red, or pink in color, juicy, fleshy, and contain one woody, 

white or red angular soft or hard seed. The flavor is sweet, tart or subacid. The number 

of seeds produced depends on the number of pollination events that occur. Seed number 

governs final fruit size. Fruit was domesticated in 2000 BC and is one of the earliest 

cultivated fruit. ‘Wonderful’ is the most widely grown cultivar in California.

Propagation is by seed, hardwood or softwood cuttings and layering. Cuttings should be 

from dormant 10 to 50 centimeter (4 to 20 inch) long suckers and water sprouts. When 

rooted, cuttings should be placed in a nursery row, 16 to 20 centimeters (6 to 8 inches) 

apart. Seeds germinate well, but are usually only used for breeding purposes. Trees 

should be spaced 6 to 7 meters (20 to 23 feet) apart and planted 0.6 meter (2 feet) deep in 

the orchard. For hedgerow plantings, trees should be spaced 4 to 5 meters (13 to 16 feet) 

apart within the row and 6 to 7 meters (20 to 23 feet) between rows. Trees are pruned 

during the first three years early in the growing season to shorten branches, create a vase 

shaped canopy, shorten the tree to 4 to 7 meters (13 to 23 feet) tall, remove basal water 

sprouts, and remove crossing limbs. Irrigation and fertilization (0.45 kilograms (1 

pound) of nitrogen annually before the fall rains) are required to produce a good crop. 

Fruit should be harvested just prior to full maturity, once fruit turn color, a metallic sound 

is heard when tapped, and before yellowing appears at the base. Fruit does not continue 

to ripen once harvested. Splitting of the fruit can occur on the tree at full maturity. In 

California, fruit must meet minimum marketing standards of color, sugar content, sugar: 

acid ratio, and lack of blemishes. The crop has a long storage life and should be stored at 

5 to 7.5 °C (41 to 46 °F) in a relative humidity of 90 to 95% for 2 months. Fruit can last 

more than 7 months when held at 0 to 5 °C (32 to 41 °F) and 80 to 85% relative humidity. 

The crop area of pomegranates has increased since the discovery of the nutritious nature 

of the juice and rind.

Poshte:

A tropical, vigorous, tall tree that reaches a height of 15 to 20 meters (49 to 66 

feet), and is native to Mexico and Guatemala. Trees grown in the sun have a lower, more 

compact habit. Leaves are large, thick, tough, shiny on the upper side, slightly pubescent 

on the underside, lace-like, lanceolate to oblong in shape and 10 to 25 centimeters (4 to 

10 inches) long by 5 to 8 centimeters (2 to 3 inches) wide. Petioles are fragile and 3 

centimeters (1.2 inches) long. Greenish-yellow to cinnamon-brown flowers are small and 

contain outer petals with a longitudinal prominence which arise in the small branches or 
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in groups in the old part of the thick branches. Flowers occur on previous years’ 

outgrowth. Dull green fruit is solitary to clustered (in compact spherical groups), round 

to roundish oblate in shape, and 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) in diameter. The 

leathery, thick, hard, tough skin (shell) surface varies. Skin can contain areoles that are 

marked by raised edges which form a hexagon, areoles with reduced edges to a crisscross 

of brown lines on a smooth, green surface, a central prominence on each areole, well 

developed edges and prominences on the areoles, or an irregular, corrugated surface. 

Fruit skin thickness is usually 0.3 centimeters (0.1 inch), but can vary. Smooth-skinned 

varieties contain thicker, tougher skin. Pacific varieties are green or green with brown 

spots, while Atlantic varieties have thicker reddish green skin. Pulp is white, cream, or 

creamy grey in color, creamy and soft in texture. The flavor is sweet to bittersweet and 

resembles that of Casimiroa edulis. The flavor has been described as a combination of 

banana and pineapple. Each fruit contains seeds within the pulp that are of the same size 

as those of cherimoya. One of the least known fruit trees of the genus Annona. Poshte

Propagation is by seed and grafting. Seeds that have been stored for approximately 2 

weeks germinate in approximately one month, but seeds that have been stored for two to 

three months germinate within 6 months. No special treatment increases germination 

rate. Young plants may require shade. Pruning should be done to create a wide crown. 

Fruit do not turn color, but fall from the tree when ripe. Compared to other Annona

species, the fruit skin is tough, allowing for more handling during harvesting and 

shipping. Fruit are also less likely to be attacked by insects. Fruit has the potential to 

become an export item and product for wide local consumption. However, the height of 

the tree, defoliation by wind, and fruit damage caused by birds presents issues.

Prickly pear:

Prickly-pear Opuntia ficus-indica is a large, segmented, branched, succulent, 

spiny shrub (cactus) that grows to a height of 2 to 5 meters (7 to 16 feet) and a width of 3 

meters (10 feet), and is native to Mexico. Domestication of the plant occurred over 9,000 

years ago. Roots are shallow and measure 10 to 20 centimeters (4 to 8 inches). A woody 

stem is formed from old pads or cladodes. Dull green to grey cladodes are large, flat, 

pad-like, succulent stem segments which are branched, leaf-like, oblong, ovate, or 

broadly obovate in shape, and 25 to 60 centimeters (10 to 24 inches) long by 20 to 40 

centimeters (8 to 16 inches) wide. Margins are entire. Cladodes can hold large amounts 

of water. New cladodes are produced in a single flush on the terminal cladodes in the 

spring. Cladodes contain areoles (similar to lateral buds) that are spaced a few 

centimeters apart and contain 1 to 6 white or yellowish spines (measuring 1 to 3 

centimeters (0.4 to 1.2 inches) long) and glochids. Each cladode can contain a few 

hundred areoles. Each areole can produce one flower that occurs near the apex 

(perimeter) of a cladode. Yellow or orange flowers are solitary, large, cup-shaped, and 

range in size from 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) in diameter. Flowers open for only 

one day to limit water loss. Individual flowers contain both male and female 

reproductive organs, an inferior ovary that occurs beneath the perianth parts and spirallyarranged yellow stamens, 150 to 400 ovules, a thickened greenish style and a stigma. 

Flowers can be self-pollinated. Most fruit is produced on 1 year old cladodes at the top 

and periphery of the plant. Each cladode can produce 4 to 20 fruit. Purple, red-purple, 
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yellow-orange, greenish-orange, greenish or red fruit is a berry that is pear-shaped, 

roundish, or barrel-shaped, and 4 to 10 centimeters (1.6 to 4 inches) long by 4 to 9 

centimeters (1.6 to 3.5 inches) in diameter. The skin contains spines and glochids. The 

pulp is red, red-purple, yellow-orange, or greenish in color, fleshy, watery, and succulent. 

The flavor is sweet to slightly acidic and resembles watermelon. Fruit contains 150 to 

400 hard edible seeds that are similar in size and texture to those in grapes. Some 

countries regard the plant as an invasive noxious weed. Opuntia engelmannii var. 

lindheimeri is a thicket-forming, heavy-bodied shrub (cactus) that can grow to a height of 

0.9 to 3 meters (3 to 9 feet) and a width of 1.5 to 2.4 meters (5 to 8 feet). It is native to 

the U.S. The trunk is cylindrical and can be erect to spreading. Cladodes (joints) are 

green to bluish green in color, obovate, subcircular, round, oval or orbicular in shape, 

asymmetrical, flat, waxy, juicy, and 15 to 30 by 12.5 to 25 centimeters (6 to 12 by 5 to 10 

inches) in size. Tubercles are 3.8 to 6.4 centimeters (1.5 to 2.5 inches) apart. Cladodes 

contain dense tufts of minute yellow to brown barbed glochids (0.3 centimeter (0.1 inch) 

long) and 1 to 6 translucent, yellow, creamy white, brown or black spines (up to 4 

centimeters (1.6 inch) long) per areole. Some varieties are spineless. Red, yellow or 

orange flowers are bowl-shaped, contain one pistil, many yellow stamens, many

greenish-yellow sepals, and measure 5 to 13 centimeters (2 to 5 inches) wide. Most 

flowers are crowded on the edge of the cladodes. Red to purple fruit (tuna) is variable in 

shape and size. The thick rind is covered with scattered tufts of glochids and small 

areoles. The skin is thin. Pulp is juicy. Fruit contain many seeds. The prickly pear 

requires subtropical, tropical, or cool, semiarid climate with mild, cool winters and hot 

summers (with temperatures above 40 °C (104 °F)), an annual rainfall of 25 to 60 

centimeters (10 to 24 inches), full sun, and well-drained sandy soils, soils of low clay and 

sodium content, or calcareous soil. Naturalized in dry disturbed habitats. A higher pH is 

preferred in wetter areas. A lower pH is tolerated in drier areas. Thrives in USDA zones 

8b to 10. Tolerates drought, high temperatures, wind, a wide range of climates, and 

rocky or sandy soils of low fertility. Does not tolerate freezing temperatures, very acid 

soils, wet conditions or excessive moisture. Propagation is by seed, tissue culture and 

cuttings. Cuttings are used in commercial practices. Stem segments (pads) with one to 

three cladodes are selected during late spring to early summer. Detached cladodes are 

dried for 1 to 3 weeks before planting to minimize fungal infections. The basal cladode 

should be planted upright, with 30 to 50 percent of its surface area in the soil and spaced 

30 to 40 centimeters (12 to 16 inches) apart. New roots will develop from the areoles in 

2 weeks. No irrigation is required for establishment. Vegetative propagation can also be 

done with flower buds and fruit. For commercial production, plants are planted in a 

rectangular grid or in rows oriented north-south. Spacing for fruit production should be 3 

by 4 meters (10 by 13 feet) or 400 to 1,600 plants per hectare. Light irrigation and 

fertilization aids production. Pruning and shaping is used to facilitate movement of 

equipment between plants and fruit picking. Thinning of flower buds can produce larger 

fruit. Fruit ripening is favored by temperatures above 25 °C (77 °F). Temperatures 

below 15 °C (59 °F) delay fruit ripening and extend the harvest period. Fruit are 

harvested over a 2 to 6 week period that is accomplished by multiple pickings. Fruit is 

harvested with gloved hands and knives just after the peel color changes from green to its 

final color. Fruit are harvested on the outer portions of the canopy. A small piece of the 

underlying cladode is removed with the fruit to prolong fruit shelf life. During 
154

processing, the cladode is removed, a de-prickling machine removes the spines and sizes 

are sorted. Fruit can be stored for 2 to 6 weeks at temperatures near 5 °C (41 °F). Pads 

are harvested twice per year. Commercially the most important cactus species. Fruit is 

cultivated in more than 20 countries. Opuntia engelmannii var. lindheimeri requires full 

sun, elevations of up to 1,900 meters (6,234 feet), well-drained acid to neutral sand, 

gravel, loam, clay, or caliche soil, low annual precipitation, and dry conditions. Grown in 

drier areas including rock outcrops and stony limestone soils of south and central Texas, 

Mexico, and New Mexico. Also grown in the plains, shrub lands and woodlands. 

Thrives in USDA zones 8 to 10. Tolerates heat, part shade and cold (10 °F or -12 °C). 

Propagated by seeds and cuttings 

Pulasan:

A small tree that grows to a height of 9 to 15 meters (30 to 49 feet). Trees rarely 

grow to a height of 24 meters (79 feet), and are native to Southeast Asia, specifically 

Myanmar and the Malaysian peninsula. The trunk is short, 30.5 to 41 centimeters (12 to 

16 inches) thick and up to 45 centimeters (18 inches) in diameter. Buttresses are up to 

1.5 meters (5 feet) tall. Wood is light red, hard and heavy. The crown is wide and 

rounded. Dark green to bluish leaves are alternate, pinnate to odd-pinnate, slightly wavy, 

and barely glossy above, hairy underneath, pale, and 17 to 45 centimeters (7 to 18 inches) 

long. Leaves consist of two to five pairs of opposite leaflets that are oblong to ellipticlanceolate in shape, pointed at the tip, and 5 to 17.5 centimeters (2 to 7 inches) long by 

1.5 to 5 centimeters (0.6 to 2 inches) wide. Petioles are 3 to 9 centimeters (1.2 to 3.5 

inches) long. Petiolules are 0.2 to 0.4 centimeters (0.08 to 0.2 inch). Greenish flowers 

are very small and are borne singly or in clusters on the branches of the erect, axillary or 

terminal panicles. Panicles contain yellowish to brownish hairs. Flowers are petal less, 

contain 4 to 5 hairy sepals can contain male and female reproductive organs or just one 

type of reproductive organ. Hermaphroditic female flowers contain 5 to 8 stamens, a 

pistil with a bilobed ovary and, a single style topped with a stigma. Male flowers contain 

5 to 8 stamens. Yellow, purple, or light to dark red fruit can be produced without 

fertilization. Fruit solitary or in clusters of 3 to 5, is globose, ellipsoid, subglobular, or 

ovoid in shape, and measures 3 to 7.5 centimeters (1.2 to 3 inches) long by 4 to 6 

centimeters (1.6 to 2.4 inches) wide by 50 to 80 grams (2 to 3 ounces) in weight. Skin is 

thick, leathery, and covered with short, thick, fleshy stubby, straight spines (1 centimeter 

(0.375 inch) long) or conical, blunt-tipped tubercles. 1 to 2 small, undeveloped fruits 

may occur close to the stem. Pulp (aril) is white to yellowish-white in color, translucent, 

juicy and up to 1 centimeter (0.375 inch) thick. The flavor is subacid to sweet. 

Compared to rambutan, pulasan fruit are larger, have smaller spines, have a larger fruit 

stem, and are less juicy and tasty. Pulasan fruit are also sweeter. Each fruit contains an 

ovoid, oblong or ellipsoid, light brown to grayish-brown, flattened seed that measures 2 

to 3.5 centimeters (0.8 to 1.4 inch) long. Some fruit contain under-developed seeds. 

Propagated by seed, layering, budding and grafting. Seeds should be sown fresh and 

should not be allowed to dry out. Germination occurs in 10 to 15 days. Propagation by

seed is not favored, since seedlings may be male or female. Air layers are short lived. 

Grafting and budding is difficult, and is best done in the rainy season on rootstocks 

already set out in the field. Plants should be spaced 8 to 10 meters (26 to 33 feet). 
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Pruning after harvesting is required to maintain the tree size. Trees should be fertilized 

similar to rambutan. Heavy or inconsistent rainfall can cause fruit to crack. Mostly

cultivated in Malaysia and Thailand.

Quandong:

A parasitic, small, evergreen shrub, bush, or tree that grows to a height and width 

of 1 to 10 meters (3 to 33 feet) native to Australia. Quandong requires a host plant (or 

plants) growing nearby in order to thrive. Trees have a modified root structure called a 

haustorium, which attaches to a host root and extracts xylem. Roots can extend 

approximately 10 meters (33 feet). Wood is hard, heavy, and close-grained. Bark is 

gray. Branchlets are pendulous. Olive-green, gray-green, or yellow-green leaves are 

simple, leathery, opposite, lance-shaped to ovate with a sickle-like curve, slender, pointed 

at the tip, and 3 to 12 centimeters (1.2 to 5 inches) long by 0.3 to 1.5 centimeters (0.1 to 

0.6 inch) wide. The leaf stalk is 0.5 to 1 centimeter (0.2 to 0.4 inch) long. Flowers occur 

in clusters and form racemes on the ends of branches. Individual flowers are creamy 

white to creamy-green and orange/red/brown in color, fragrant, small, and 0.2 to 0.4 

centimeters (0.08 to 0.16 inch) long. Flowers can contain both male and female 

reproductive organs. Red fruit is a drupe that is small, globe-shaped, and approximately

2 to 4 centimeters (0.8 to 1.6 inches) wide. Immature fruit are green in color. The skin is 

shiny to waxy. The pulp is white to brown in color, fleshy, dry, and 0.3 to 0.5 

centimeters (0.1 to 0.2 inch) thick. The flavor is similar to a combination of tart apricots 

or peaches, rhubarb, and cinnamon. Some fruit can be tart to sour. Seeds are spherical, 1 

centimeter (0.4 inch) in diameter, and protected by a hard, wrinkled, woody shell. Fruit 

have been valued for over 40 million years by Europeans and Aboriginals. Fruit is highly 

desired in Australia and is an important “bush food” in the drier areas of Australia. 

Propagation is by seed and grafting. Seed germination is difficult. In order to promote 

proper germination, the seed should be aged for a period of 1 to 3 years and the seed coat 

should be broken. With these practices, germination will occur in 1 to 4 months at a 

temperature of 15 °C (59 °F). Seeds are best sown during the winter. When the 

cotyledons harden, the seedling should be potted and given fertilizer. Two host plants 

such as clover and couch grass (Cynodon dactylon) should be transplanted into the pot 

when transplanting the seedling. Seedlings should be planted a few meters from 

surrounding trees. Young trees require moisture, wind protection, and shade. Fruit 

should be harvested as soon as the skin changes color. After harvesting, fruit are halved, 

de-stoned, and the flesh is processed or stored as a dehydrated or frozen product. 

Cultivation is difficult. However, fruit is cultivated in several orchards across Australia, 

and also fruit are harvested from the wild.

Rambutan:

A bushy, spreading to upright evergreen tree that grows to a height of 5 to 25 

meters (16 to 82 feet), and is native to Southeast Asia, particularly peninsular Malaysia 

and Sumatra, Indonesia. It is widely cultivated and the trunk is straight and 60 

centimeters (24 inches) wide. Wood is reddish, dense and hard. Bark is wrinkled and 

grayish to red in color. The crown is open, wide, dense, and spreading. Leaves are 
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evergreen, alternate, alternate elliptic, oblong-elliptic, ovate, or obovate in shape, 

pinnately compound, divided into 1 to 7 pairs of leaflets, and 2 to 40 centimeters (0.8 to 

16 inches) long by 2 to 10.5 centimeters (0.8 to 4 inches) wide. The rachis is reddish and 

hairy when young. Leaflets are pale when young, yellowish-green to dark green and dull 

on the upper surface when older, yellowish to bluish-green beneath when older, subopposite to alternate, sub sessile, papery to leathery, elliptic, oblong-elliptic, or obovate 

in shape, oblique at the base, and 5 to 25 centimeters (2 to 10 inches) long by 2.5 to 11.0 

centimeters (1 to 4 inches) wide. Flowers are small, petal-less, greenish, yellow or white 

in color, less than 0.6 centimeters (0.2 inch) wide and contain 4 to 6 sepals (0.07 to 2.1 

centimeters (0.03 to 0.8 inch) long), and a complete disk. Flowers approximately 500 to 

3,000 per cluster are borne on hairy branched panicles at the ends of the branches in 

axillary or terminal positions. Three types of flowers exist: males (producing only 

staminate flowers), hermaphrodites functioning as males, and hermaphrodites functioning 

as females. Male functional flowers have 5 to 8 well-developed stamens and pistils that 

fail to function normally. Female functional flowers have well-developed pistils with 

non-functional stamens. Hermaphrodite flowers contain a prominent bifed syle and 5 to 

7 staminodes. There are separate male and hermaphrodite trees. The quantity of fruit 

produced increases when all three flower types are planted near each other. Pollination is 

achieved by insects. Yellow, orange, pinkish red, bright to deep red, orange-red, maroon, 

dark purple, yellowish red, or orange-yellow fruit are drupes that occur in clusters of 5 to 

18 on woody stalks and are large, ovoid, ellipsoid, subglobular, or globose in shape, 

somewhat flattened, and 3.4 to 8 centimeters (1.3 to 3 inches) long by 2.5 to 3.7 

centimeters (1 to 1.5 inches) wide by 25 to 45 grams (0.9 to 1.6 ounces) in weight. One 

to two small undeveloped fruits may occur close to the stem of mature fruit. The skin is 

leathery, thin, tough, shell-like, 0.2 to 0.4 centimeters (0.08 to 0.2 inch) thick, and 

covered with long, curling soft spines or tubercles and long, fleshy, soft, rigid, red, 

pinkish or yellow spine/hair (measuring 0.5 to 2 centimeters (0.2 to 0.8 inch)). The skin 

cracks away easily to reveal pulp that is white to rose-tinted, crisp to juicy, creamy, 

succulent, translucent, and 0.4 to 0.8 centimeters (0.2 to 0.3 inch) thick. The flavor is 

sweet, acid or subacid. Each fruit contains a flattened, ovoid to oblong, whitish seed that 

is 2.5 to 3.4 centimeters (1 to 1.3 inch) long by 1 to 1.5 centimeters (0.4 to 0.6 inch) wide. 

There are several varieties. Popular cultivars include ‘Jitlee’, ‘Binjai’, Silengkeng, 

‘Rongrein’, ‘R9’, and ‘R137’. Propagation is by seed, layering, budding and grafting. 

Seed must be planted directly after being removed from the fruit. Germination will occur 

in 7 to 25 days. Trees produced from seed are highly variable and result in a high 

proportion of male flowering trees. Vegetative propagation is used to produce female 

flowering trees. Grafting produces poor results. Grafting should be done during the 

active growing period (rainy season). Budding should be done when conditions are warm 

but drier. Budded or grafted trees are planted in the field within 12 to 24 months. Air 

layering is also becoming a popular technique. Air layered trees should be removed from 

the tree within 3 to 4 months of girdling and established in pots for 3 to 6 months prior to 

field planting. Young trees require shade. In the field, trees should be spaced 10 to 13 

meters (33 to 43 feet) apart. Windbreaks are needed in the field. For commercial 

purposes, irrigation is required. Water stress causes a reduction in yield and fruit size. 

Training young trees establishes a strong framework of branches. Annual pruning should 

be done to remove water sprouts, disease-infected shoots, and dead branches. 
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Fertilization aids growth. Trees can produce well for 15 to 20 years. Fruit are harvested 

by cutting the entire fruit cluster from the branch or cutting individual fruit with stems 

when fruit are mature. Maturity is based on the fruit’s fullness, flavor, and color 

development. Fruit do not continue to ripen after harvest. After harvest, fruit are graded. 

Fruit sold in local Asian markets is sold on the stalk. Fruit sold in local supermarkets are 

wrapped individually in plastic and boxed. Fruit can be stored for 2 weeks at 10 to 15 °C 

(50 to 59 °F) at 100% humidity. 

Saguaro:

A large, slow-growing, tree-like, branched (when mature), upright, stem succulent 

that grows to a height of 3 to 18 meters (10 to 59 feet), and is native to the Sonoran 

Desert in Arizona, California and Mexico. The largest of the columnar cacti growing in 

the U.S. Individual plants can weigh up to 8 tonnes (9 tons). The taproot is deep, 

anchoring, and up to 1 meter (3 feet) long. Lateral roots are thin to thick, extensive, 

shallow, and 30.5 centimeters (1 foot) to 30 meters (98 feet) long. Trunks are simple, 

have smooth, leathery, waxy skin, measure 5 to 75 centimeters (2 to 30 inches) in 

diameter, and contain 12 to 30 vertical ribs (1 to 3 centimeters (0.4 to 1.2 inches) wide). 

Ribs contain brown areoles (axillary buds) that produce clusters of 10 to 30 dense, gray, 

brown or yellow spines. Spines are downward pointing (to direct rainwater), up to 7 

centimeters (3 inches) long, and spaced 2 centimeters (0.8 inch) apart. Younger spines 

are stout and sharp. Older spines are bristly. Spines aid in cooling and insulating the 

plant. As the plant ages, ribs at the base of the trunk develop dark, woody, corky bark. 

13 to 20 internal ribs support the plant. When plants reach 50 to 100 years of age, lateral 

erect branches (arms) form. Approximately 1 to 50 branches can form and measure 30 to 

69 centimeters (12 to 27 inches) in diameter. Tips of branches (arms) and trunks contain 

tissue folds and spines for protection. Woody tissue runs parallel up and down the plant 

to form the cylindrical shape. Large, fragrant, waxy, creamy white flowers with yellow 

centers are borne in rings from areoles at the branch and trunk ends. Flowers open at 

night, and measure 10 to 12 centimeters (4 to 5 inches) long and 6.5 to 12 centimeters (3 

to 5 inches) in diameter. Individual flowers contain an ovary with a locule measuring up 

to 2.5 centimeters (1 inch), white, short filaments, and tan anthers, hundreds of stamens, a 

floral tube, a style, a nectar chamber, and stigma lobes. Flower tubes contain scales that 

are broadly triangular to rounded, and green with red apices. Plants are primarily 

pollinated by bats. Purple to red fruit are berries that are oblong, cylindrical, or oval in 

shape, 8 to 10 centimeters (3 to 4 inches) long, and up to 8 centimeters (3 inches) in 

diameter. Immature fruit are green. The skin is spiny. The pulp is fleshy and red in 

color. The flavor is sweet, and the fruit often split open while attached to the plant. Each 

fruit contains approximately 2,000 to 2,500 tiny, 0.3 centimeter (0.1 inch), reddish black 

seeds. Saguaro is the state flower of Arizona. Propagation is by seed and offsets. Seeds 

should be separated from the mature pulp using a sieve. Seeds should then be cleaned 

and dried. Germination rate is over 95 percent when seeds are exposed to light for 8 

hours at 30 °C (86 °F) and placed on moist blotter paper for 20 days at alternating 

temperatures of 20 to 30 °C (68 to 86 °F). Seeds can also be surface-sown on coarse 

potting medium. Seedlings should be placed in a shaded location (in the shelter of a 

surrounding tree) until reaching a meter in height. When ripe, fruit split open and later 
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fall to the ground. Fruit are harvested with long-handled knives before the fruits fall, and 

after harvesting, seeds are removed from the fruit by a macerator. 

Salak:

A small, creeping, tillering, nearly-stemless, rapidly-growing palm that grows to a 

height of 1 to 5 meters (3 to 16 feet), and is native to Southeast Asia, specifically

Malaysia. When the trunk comes in contact with the soil, shallow roots are sent out. 

Roots usually develop directly under the crown. The trunk is short, contains short 

internodes, is mostly a subterranean stolon, and measures 1.5 meters (5 feet) long by 10 

to 15 centimeters (4 to 6 inches) in diameter. Multiple-trunks can form. Basal suckers 

can form, forming compact clumps. Leaves are feather-like pinnate, large, erect, and 3 to 

7 meters (10 to 23 feet) long. Leaflets are dark green on top, light underneath, 20 to 70 

centimeters (8 to 28 inches) long and 2 to 7.5 centimeters (0.8 to 3 inches) wide. 

Petioles, midrib margins, and leaflets contain grey to blackish, long, thin sharp spines. 

Plants produce an axillary compound spadix that is stalked initially and enclosed by the 

spathe. Flowers occur in pairs in the axils of the scales. Male and female inflorescences 

occur on separate plants and emerge from the crown of the palm. The male inflorescence 

is 50 to 100 centimeters (20 to 39 inches) long and consists of 4 to 12 spadices that each 

measure 7 to 15 by 0.7 to 2 centimeters (3 to 6 by 0.3 to 0.8 inches). Male flowers 

contain 6 stamens that are borne on a reddish, tubular corolla with minute pistil lobes that 

shed pollen in the morning. The female inflorescence is 20 to 30 centimeters (8 to 12 

inches) long and consists of 1 to 3 shorter spadices that measure 7 to 10 centimeters (3 to 

4 inches) long. Female flowers are larger than male flowers and contain a tubular corolla 

that is yellow-green outside and dark red inside, a triocular ovary, a short trifid red style 

and six staminodes borne on the corolla throat, and 15 to 40 flowers are contained on 

each inflorescence. 9 to 12 female inflorescences are produced per year. Most varieties 

are cross-pollinated by insects. Reddish-brown fruit is produced in tightly-packed 

clusters of 15 to 40 (per spadix) in the crown of the plant. Individual fruit is a drupe that 

is globose, ellipsoid, or pear-shaped, rounded at the top, tapered to a point at the base, 

and 2.5 to 10 by 5 to 8 centimeters (1 to 4 by 2 to 3 inches) in size. The skin is smooth, 

shiny, and contains numerous overlapping yellow to brown united scales with small 

spines. Pulp is in 3 or 4 segments, and is yellowish white to brown in color, non-fibrous, 

dry, and crisp. The flavor is sweet to nutty and resembles a combination of apple, banana 

and pineapple. The aroma is slightly sour and pungent. Each fruit contains three edible, 

fleshy, shiny blackish, cream-colored or brown seeds that measure 0.2 to 0.8 centimeters 

(0.08 to 0.3 inch) thick each fruit segment contains a seed. A white, translucent 

homogenous endosperm surrounds the seeds. Propagation is by seed, suckers, layering or 

stem cuttings. Seeds should be planted immediately (2 to 5 seeds in a 5 centimeter (2 

inches) deep hole) into a moist field or nursery with organic matter after being removed 

from the fruit. Plants can be replanted in 4 months (during the rainy season) in a shaded 

area. Layers and suckers should be obtained from a mature clump in which three to four 

shoots develop each year. A bamboo tube is used to plant and encase the sucker. Stems 

from 7 to 10 year old plants with leaf sheaths removed can be cut into sections with a 

lateral bud and planted in the nursery. Trees should be planted 2 to 6 meters (7 to 20 

feet) on a square (2,000 to 3,000 plants per hectare). Male trees should be dispersed 
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among the female trees. Trees can be intercropped with other tree crops such as mango, 

jack fruit, and durian. Trees should be pruned to remove basal suckers. To prevent the 

stem from becoming too tall, earth can be pushed up around the stem to promote rooting. 

Fruit thinning is done (6 to 8 fruit per inflorescence) 3 months after flowering to provide 

space for remaining fruit. Trees are fertilized to promote fruit development. Cultivated 

fruit grown in sandy soils require irrigation or a high water table. Harvesting occurs 

when astringency and acidity have reached a minimum level, 160 days have passed since 

flowering, fruit color changes from dark brown to reddish brown, and firmness and ease 

of fruit detachment occur. Fruit are harvested by cutting bunches with a reaping hook. 

Under ripe fruit is held for 2 to 3 days before being sent to market. Overripe fruit is 

tasteless and has a strange odor. Fruit should be washed in water or scrubbed before 

going to market. Fruit should be stored at 12 to 15 °C (54 to 59 °F) for 2 to 3 weeks. 

Fruit is widely cultivated in the wetter areas of the Indo-Malay region.

Sapodilla:

A medium to large, evergreen, upright to spreading, low-branching, slow-growing 

tree that grows to a height of 5 to 40 meters (16 to 131 feet) and a diameter of up to 1.5 

meters (5 feet). Trees are shorter in height in subtropical regions and are native to 

tropical Central America, from southern Mexico to Venezuela. The root system is 

extensive, but shallow. The trunk is bulky, cylindrical, long, and can attain a diameter of 

2 to 3.5 meters (7 to 11 feet). Bark is dark brown, deeply furrowed, and forms small 

rectangular pieces. Wood is deep red in color, hard, heavy, strong, durable, and strong. 

Young branches are arranged horizontally. The tree contains copious amounts of white, 

milky latex. The crown is pyramidal when young and rounded, irregular or open when 

mature, widespread, shiny, dark, and dense. Leaves are alternate, simple, glossy, entire, 

thin, and papery to leathery, smooth on the upper surface, hairy underneath, pointed at 

both ends, ovate, oblong, elliptic, ovate-elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate in shape, spirally

clustered at the ends of the branches, and 5 to 15 centimeters (2 to 6 inches) long by 2.5 

to 6 centimeters (1 to 2.4 inches) wide. Internodes space between leaves is short. 

Petioles are 1 to 2 centimeters (0.4 to 0.8 inch). Light yellowish green to white flowers 

are small, fragrant, bell-shaped, solitary, pendulous, and 0.8 to 1.2 centimeters (0.3 to 0.5 

inch) in size. Flowers are borne on short brown hairy stalks (1 to 2 centimeters (0.4 to 

0.8 inch)) in the leaf axils of the terminal leaf clusters. Individual flowers contain both 

male and female reproductive organs, three outer brown hairy sepals, three inner sepals, a 

pale green to white tubular corolla, and six stamens. Cross pollination is done by insects. 

Brown fruit is a pendulous berry that is spherical, ellipsoid, oblate, oval or conical in 

shape, up to 15 centimeters (6 inches) long, 5 to 15 centimeters (2 to 6 inches) in 

diameter and 100 to 500 grams (3.5 to 18 ounces) in weight. The skin is thin, rough, and 

covered with light-brown scurf. In some varieties, scurf can be rubbed off when ripe. 

Immature fruit is dark green and hard. Mature fruit skin is light yellowish green, brown, 

or reddish-brown underneath the brown scurf. Mature fruit pulp is white, orange, 

yellowish, yellowish brown, pinkish brown, tan or brown in color, contains little to no 

latex, is smooth, soft, very juicy, and sometimes grainy in texture. Immature fruit pulp 

contains copious amounts of latex. The flavor of mature pulp is sweet and similar in taste 

to Pouteria sapota. Some describe the taste as mellow pea with overtones of caramel or 
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pear. Immature fruit is astringent. Fruit may be seedless or contain 3 to 12 hard, 

inedible, oblong to long-oval, flat, shiny dark brown to black (with a white margin) seeds 

measuring 2 centimeters (0.8 inch) long. Seeds contain a distinct curved hook on one 

margin. Immature seed is white and soft. Cultivated since ancient times to extract chicle 

for chewing gum and for fruit. Propagation is by seed, budding, grafting, cuttings, and 

air layering. Dry seed germinates in 2 to 4 weeks. Seedlings require shade, shelter, and 

staking during establishment. Vegetative propagation is used to achieve uniform planting 

material. Grafting should be done during the cooler, drier periods such as fall and spring. 

Mature, non-flushing terminal scions give the best results. Air layering is done in the 

warm, wet season. Upright branches that have not flushed recently and have a stem 

diameter of at least 1 centimeter (0.4 inch) should be used. Trees should be planted out 

into the field when 1 to 2 years old and spaced 6 to 14 meters (20 to 46 feet). Pruning 

should be done to remove dead branches and lower branches that bend towards the 

ground. Irrigation aids in producing good yields in dry areas. Fertilization aids growth. 

Fruit maturity is determined by size, lack of latex, and appearance. The brown scurf 

should be rubbed off to determine if there has been a color change. Fruit should be 

harvested when ripe fruit begin to fall from the tree. In some areas, fruit is harvested 

when still green and ripened in the dark. After being cut from the tree, the stalk should 

be pruned and latex should be allowed to drain in water. Mature fruit ripen in 3 to 7 days 

at 25 °C (77 °F). Fruit should be stored at 15 °C (59 °F) for 14 days. Trees are tapped 

for latex every 2 to 3 years during the rainy season.

Sapote, black:

A small to medium, broad-topped, slow-growing tree that reaches a height of 10 

to 25 meters (33 to 82 feet), native to Mexico and Central America (Guatemala). The 

tree is related to persimmon. The trunk is furrowed, dominant, and up to 75 centimeters 

(30 inches) in diameter. Bark is black. Wood is yellowish to deep yellow and contains 

black markings near the heart. Branches are in pseudo-whorled tiers and are spreading 

and slender. The crown is round. Pale green leaves are leathery, alternate, evergreen, 

glossy, papery, and simple, elliptic-oblong to oblong-lanceolate in shape, tapered at both 

ends or rounded at the base and acute at the tip, and 10 to 30 centimeters (4 to 12 inches) 

long. Flowers are borne in the leaf axils on new shoots and can contain both male and 

female reproductive organs (hermaphroditic) and just male or female organs. Male 

flowers are borne in clusters of 3 to 7 and possess a gardenia scent. Female and 

hermaphrodite flowers are borne singly. Individual white to greenish yellow flowers are 

fragrant, tubular-lobed, small, and contain a persistent green calyx, an 8, 10 or 12 celled 

ovary with one ovule per cell. Flowers measure 1 to 1.6 centimeters (0.4 to 0.6 inch) 

wide. Olive, muddy green, dark green, or brown fruit is a berry that is solitary, large, 

ovate, round, flattened, oblate or conical in shape, and 5 to 15 centimeters (2 to 6 inches) 

in diameter. Immature fruit is bright green. The skin is shiny, smooth, thin, and contains 

a persistent four to six-lobed calyx that is 4 to 5 centimeters (1.6 to 2 inches) across. 

Some fruit can contain slight ridges. The pulp is brown, dark brown or black in color, 

soft, fleshy, dense, floury, glossy, creamy or jelly-like in texture. The flavor of mature 

fruit is sweet and mild to bland and somewhat resembles chocolate pudding. The flavor 

in immature fruit is astringent and bitter. Each fruit contains 1 to 10 flat, smooth, brown 
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seeds that measure 2 to 2.5 centimeters (0.8 to 1 inch) long. Fruit can be seedless. 

Propagation is by seed, air layering, shield budding, and grafting. Propagation is usually

done by seed. Seeds should be sown in large bags. Germination occurs in 30 days. 

Seedlings can be transplanted within 2 years of germination when plants are 31 to 61 

centimeters (1 to 2 feet) tall. Plants are air layered or shield budded using mature green 

scions. Grafting produces shorter, pistillate trees with good fruiting capability. Young 

trees should be spaced 8 to 12 meters (26 to 39 feet). Young trees are pruned by cutting 

the main stem to a height of 90 to 100 centimeters (35 to 39 inches) to obtain a lower 

canopy height. Dead and weak branches are also be pruned. Fertilizer aids growth. 

Irrigation is required in dry areas. Fruit is harvested with a cutting pole when the fruit is 

full grown but unripe (bright-green) and the calyx becomes reflexed. Ripe fruit usually

fall from the tree. Mature fruit ripens in 10 days from a bright-green to an olive, muddy

green. Firm olive green fruit ripen in 2 to 6 days. At certain stages, harvested fruit can 

be stored for several months at 10 °C (50 °F). Fully ripe fruit is soft and can only be held 

for a few days in cold storage. 

Sapote, green:

An erect, medium to large evergreen tree that grows to a height of 12 to 25 meters 

(39 to 82 feet). A close relative of the mamey sapote (Pouteria sapote), and is native to 

the Central American highlands of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Mexico. 

Wood is reddish, fine-grained, compact, strong and durable. Young branches are covered 

with brown hairs. The tree contains white gummy latex. Leaves are clustered at the tips 

of flowering branches and are irregularly alternate along non-fruiting branches. 

Individual leaves are wavy, pointed, hairy along the upper mid-rib, downy-white beneath, 

and oblanceolate in shape and 10 to 25 centimeters (4 to 10 inches) long by 5 to 7 

centimeters (2 to 3 inches) wide. Pinkish to white flowers are borne in clusters of 2 to 5 

in the leaf axils along leafless branches. Individual flowers are tubular, five-lobed, hairy, 

and contain 9 to 10 sepals. Flowers are pollinated by insects. Olive green, brownishgreen or yellow-green fruit dotted with red-brown is solitary, ovoid, round, or ellipsoid in 

shape, pointed at the apex and/or base, and 5 to 20 centimeters (2 to 8 inches) long by 6 

to 8 centimeters (2.4 to 3 inches) wide. The skin is thin, membranous, and translucent. 

At maturity, an amber to brownish-orange color forms under the calyx. Pulp is orange to 

red in color, light-russet, fine-textured, melting, juicy, and smooth. The flavor is sweet 

and better than the sapote. Each fruit contains 1 to 2 dark brown shiny elliptic to ovate 

seeds that measure 4 to 6 centimeters (1.6 to 2.4 inches) long. Compared to mamey

sapote (Pouteria sapote), fruit, flowers and leaves are slightly smaller in size. 

Propagation is by seed and grafting. The hard seed coat should be removed or cracked 

before planting seeds. For grafting purposes, scion wood should be prepared 30 days in 

advance by girdling 15 centimeters (6 inches) below the shoot apex and removing all but 

the terminal three to four leaves. Trees can be pruned, fertilized, and regularly irrigated 

to promote quality fruit. Fruit are harvested hard, when the peel becomes translucent 

with a brownish-orange color showing through and an orange color is observed under the 

persistent calyx. Fruit are allowed to soften before processing. Mature fruit ripen in 4 to 

14 days. Grown on a small commercial scale in Central America; also grown in the wild.
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Sapote, Mamey:

A large, semi-deciduous to evergreen, erect to spreading tree that grows to a 

height of 10 to 25 meters (33 to 82 feet) and sometimes 30 to 40 meters (98 to 131 feet), 

and is native to southern Mexico and Central America. The tree is closely related to the 

sapodilla (Manilkara zapota). The taproot system can extend to a great depth. The 

fibrous lateral root system is extensive. The trunk is stout and short or tall, narrowly 

buttressed, and up to 1 meter (3 feet) thick. Bark is reddish brown and shaggy. Wood is 

light, reddish-brown, moderately hard, heavy, strong, and durable. The tree produces 

milky, white, gummy latex. Young branches are densely hairy (rusty red in color). 

Mature branches are thick. The crown is lush, dense or open, narrow or spreading, 

symmetrical to irregular, and oval. Leaves are clustered at the tips of branches and are 

spirally arranged. Individual leaves are simple, papery, smooth, obovate, oblanceolate, 

ovate or lanceolate in shape, prominently veined, pointed at the tip or both ends, lighter in 

color or brown underneath, hairy underneath when young, smooth underneath when 

mature, and 10 to 30.5 centimeters (4 to 12 inches) long by 4 to 10 centimeters (1.6 to 4 

inches) wide. The petiole is thick and 2 to 5 centimeters (0.8 to 2 inches) long. Small 

whitish to pale yellow flowers are subsessile, perfect, 5-parted, solitary to densely

clustered (in groups of 6 to 12), and borne at the tips of branches and in the axils of fallen 

leaves along small diameter (1.3 to 5.1 centimeters (0.5 to 2 inches) branches. Individual 

flowers contain both male and female reproductive organs, a calyx with 8 to 12 lobes, a 

tubular corolla with 5 lobes, 5 true stamens, 5 false stamens, 5 staminoids, one pistil, and 

a 5-celled ovary. Flowers open in the late afternoon or evening. Cross-pollination 

improves fruit set. Brown fruit is a berry that is solitary, ovoid, spindle-shaped, 

elongated, round, or ellipsoid in shape, pointed at the tip, 7.5 to 23 centimeters (3 to 9 

inches) long, 6 to 8 cm in diameter and 250 to 2,300 grams (0.6 to 5 pounds) in weight. 

Fruit resembles a large sapodilla. The peel is rough, leathery, hard, brittle, firm, semiwoody, thick, scurfy, and up to 0.15 centimeters (0.06 inch) thick. A persistent calyx

occurs at the base. The peel is less scurfy at maturity. Pulp is orange, salmon orange, 

pinkish-red, purple, or deep red in color, creamy, soft, and finely granular. Immature 

fruit can contain milky latex. The flavor is sweet, mellow, and almond to pumpkin-like. 

Each fruit contains 1 to 4 large, hard, glossy, spindle-shaped to ellipsoid, pointed, 

blackish brown to brown seeds. Seeds have a strong bitter almond scent. Propagation is 

by seed, layering, and grafting (veneer, cleft, or four-flap). Seeds should be planted soon 

after being removed from the fruit. Germination occurs in 2 to 4 weeks. Removing or 

breaking the seed coat hastens germination. Seeds should be planted with the pointed 

end upward, protruding 1.3 centimeters (0.5 inch) above the soil. Since seedlings are 

variable and do not produce fruit for a long period of time, grafting is done for 

commercial purposes. Grafting should be done during warm days, cool nights, and low 

humidity. Terminal branches or newly developed lateral shoots should be used. Girdling 

the branchlet 25 to 30 centimeters (10 to 12 inches) below the terminal or removing the 

terminal to force lateral bud break should be done 14 to 21 days before grafting. Planting 

should be done at the beginning of the rainy season. Tree spacing depends on climate 

and cultivar. Spacing should be 4 to 6 meters (13 to 20 feet) in row and 7 to 10 meters 

(23 to 33 feet) between rows. Trees can be pruned to remove closely spaced, weak, or 

damaged limbs. Fertilizer aids growth. Irrigation should be performed during dry 
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periods. Young, developing and mature fruit can be found on the same branch at the 

same time. Fruit should be harvested when mature, since immature fruit do not ripen. 

Fruit is mature if tissue immediately beneath the peel is orange and some of the scurfy

brown surface has dissipated. Fruit is harvested by twisting or cutting the fruit from the 

tree. The stem is then trimmed during processing. Fruit will soften at 25 to 27 °C (77 to 

81 °F) in 4 to 5 days, but can be stored for 6 to 13 days at 20 °C (68 °F). 

Sapote, white:

A moderately large, vigorous, erect to spreading tree that grows to a height of 4.5 

to 18 meters (15 to 59 feet), and is native to the central highlands of Mexico and Central 

America. It is a distant cousin of citrus. The root system is wide-spreading. Bark is light 

grey, thick, and warty. Wood is yellow, fine-grained, compact, moderately dense, heavy, 

and strong. Trees are densely branched. Branches of mature trees are spreading, long, 

lenticellated, grayish in color, and drooping. Leaves are alternate, large, palmately

compound, and contain 3 to 7 leaflets. Deep green leaflets are lanceolate to oval in 

shape, glossy, smooth to hairy underneath, pale underneath, gland-dotted, papery, and 7 

to 18 centimeters (3 to 7 inches) long by 2.5 to 5.0 centimeters (1 to 2 inches) wide. 

Margins are entire or undulated. Petioles are 10 to 12 centimeters (4 to 5 inches) long. 

New leaf growth is reddish. Flowers are borne in panicles in the axils of mature leaves or 

on the terminals of mature shoots. Panicles are slightly smaller than the leaves. There 

are 15 to 100 flowers per panicle. Individual flowers are greenish yellow to greenish 

white, small, 1 centimeter (0.4 inch) in diameter, odorless, and contain 4 to 5 sepals, 4 to 

5 petals, 5 stamens, and a 3 to 5 lobed stigma. Flowers can be female, male or perfect. 

Bees and other insects are the main pollinators. Greenish yellow to yellow fruit is a 

drupe that is solitary or occurs in clusters of 2 to 3, is spherical, oblate, oval, ovoid, 

flattened, symmetrical or irregular in shape, 5-lobed, 6 to 11 centimeters (2.4 to 4 inches) 

wide, up to 12 centimeters (5 inches) long, 6 to 12.5 centimeters (2.4 to 5 inches) in 

diameter, and 70 to 700 grams (0.15 to 1.5 pounds) in weight. Immature fruit is dark 

green. Skin is thin, papery, smooth, inedible, and covered with a very thin waxy bloom. 

Pulp is white to yellow, soft, smooth, fine, fleshy, buttery in texture, moist, and contains 

many tiny, conspicuous yellow oil glands. The flavor is sweet to bitter. Some describe 

the taste as nutty, peach-like or a combination of pear and banana. Each fruit contains 1 

to 7 oval, elliptic, or oblong, hard, bitter, white seeds that measure 2 to 5 centimeters (0.8 

to 2 inches) long and 1.25 to 2.5 centimeters (0.5 to 1 inch) thick. Many varieties exist. 

Propagation is by seed, cuttings, layering, budding, and grafting. Seeds are used for 

breeding purposes and should be sown 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) deep within 3 to 8 weeks 

of being removed from the fruit. Germination occurs in 3 to 4 weeks. Grafting and 

budding should be done in warm weather (spring). Young, mature scion wood with grey

bark should be used. Young trees should be spaced 4 to 8 meters (13 to 26 feet) in row 

and 7 to 10 meters (23 to 33 feet) between rows. After being planted, young trees should 

be staked or protected by a windbreak. Newly planted trees can be cut back to 1 meter (3 

feet) to encourage branching. Annual pruning can aid in producing more fruit. Fruit 

thinning can increase fruit size. Fertilizer aids growth. Irrigation should be provided in 

dry areas. Fruit maturity is determined by size and color. Fruit that are destined for 

distant markets are harvested at a less mature, hard stage. Fruit should be harvested by 
164

clipping and leaving a short stem piece attached to the fruit. Fruit are fragile and the skin 

is easily damaged. Fruit can be stored for 2 to 3 weeks at 19 to 21 °C (66 to 70 °F) and 

85 to 95 percent relative humidity or 3 to 6 weeks at 5 °C (41 °F). Fruit only last a few 

days at room temperature. Trees are grown for commercial purposes on a very small 

scale throughout the tropics and subtropics especially Central America. 

Sataw:

A tree that grows to a height of 15 to 40 meters (49 to 131 feet) (sometimes 54 

meters (177 feet)) and a diameter of 50 to 100 centimeters (20 to 39 inches), and is native 

to the Malay Peninsula, Brunei, Malaysia and Indonesia. Bark is smooth and reddish 

brown in color. Wood is light to medium weight, hard and has a garlic or bean-like odor. 

Heartwood is white, yellow-white, or pale yellowish-brown. Sapwood is paler in color. 

Branchlets are hairy. Leaves are bipinnate, compound, and alternate. Each leaf consists 

of 10 to 19 pairs of pinnae that are 3 to 9 centimeters (1.2 to 3.5 inches) long. Each 

pinnae contains 31 to 38 pairs of opposite linear leaflets that are penni-veined, smooth, 

and very small and contain a rounded tip, and small pointed lobe or ear at the base. 

Leaflets measure 0.5 to 0.9 centimeters (0.2 to 0.4 inch) long by 0.15 to 0.2 centimeters 

(0.06 to 0.08 inch) wide. Petioles are 2 to 6 centimeters (0.8 to 2.4 inches) long. The 

rachis is 18 to 30 centimeters (7 to 12 inches) long. Glands are 0.7 to 1.5 centimeters (0.3 

to 0.6 inch) above the stalk base. Flowers are contained in densely crowded pear-shaped 

to round pendulous heads that measures 2 to 5 centimeters (0.8 to 2 inches) in diameter. 

Stalks are 20 centimeters (8 inches) to 1 meter (3 feet) long. Creamy white, brownyellow or green-yellow flowers are small, contain 5-lobed tubular sepals and petals, a 

calyx, corolla, filaments, an ovary, and 10 stamens. Individual flowers measure 0.15 

centimeters (0.06 inch) in diameter. Male and female flowers are located at the base of 

the inflorescence and perfect flowers are located at the top of the inflorescence. 

Pollinated by bats. Fruit is a legume that is contained on a long stalk. Black pods dangle 

in small bundles, are large, straight to twisted, swollen over the seeds, and 35 to 55 

centimeters (14 to 22 inches) long by 3 to 5 centimeters (1.2 to 2 inches) wide. Immature 

fruit is green. The flavor is strong and somewhat resembles garlic. Each pod contains 10 

to 18 large, broadly ovoid seeds that measure 2 to 2.5 centimeters (0.8 to 1 inch) by 1.5 to 

2 centimeters (0.6 to 0.8 inch). The seed coat is soft. Green seeds have a strong aroma 

and a garlic flavor. Propagation is by seed, stem cuttings, and budding. In some areas, 

seedlings are collected from the wild and planted in fields. Seeds should be planted soon 

after being removed from the fruit. Germination is high and occurs in 3 to 15 days. Most 

commercial plants are vegetatively propagated. Proper space and light are required for 

optimal growth. Young trees require shade. Cultivated in Malay and Java villages and 

fruit orchards since ancient times.

Satinleaf:

A slow-growing, long-living, evergreen shrub or small to medium tree that 

reaches a height of 3 to 14 meters (10 to 46 feet) and a spread of 5 to 8 meters (16 to 26 

feet), and is native to Florida, the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and Belize. The trunk 

can be single or multiple and is straight, slender and up to 25 centimeters (10 inches) in 
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diameter. Bark is gray-brown to light reddish brown in color, thin, rough and contains 

fissures and plates. Wood is hard, heavy, and strong. Twigs are slender and rusty to 

reddish brown in color. Young twigs contain a rusty brown pubescence. The canopy is 

somewhat oval, symmetrical, and narrow in shade and spreading in full sun. Dark green 

leaves are alternate, simple, elliptic, ovate or oblong in shape, pointed at the tip, shiny, 

stiff, hairless on the upper surface, densely covered with coppery hairs underneath, and 3 

to 20 centimeters (1.2 to 8 inches) long by 2 to 5 centimeters (0.8 to 2 inches) wide. 

Margins are entire. Leaves resemble southern magnolias. Small white to whitish yellow 

flowers are bell-shaped, solitary to clustered, and on short pedicels in the leaf axils. 

Individual flowers are 5-merous, and contain a 0.3 to 0.5 centimeter (0.1 to 0.2 inch) fivelobed yellowish or greenish-white corolla. Flower buds contain a rusty brown 

pubescence. Pollinated by insects. Dark purple, blue or black fruit is a berry that is 

fleshy, elliptical to oval in shape, small, and 1 to 2.5 centimeters (0.4 to 1 inch) long. 

Skin is gummy or rubbery and secretes a white milky sap when cut. Pulp is whitish to 

purple-white in color, juicy and sticky. The flavor is sweet. Each fruit contains one seed. 

Trees have become endangered in Florida. Propagation is by seed and semi-hardwood 

cuttings. Plants are hard to establish in cultivation. Pruning, irrigation, and fertilization 

encourage growth. Widely cultivated as an ornamental.

Screwpine:

Pandanus tectorius is a stout, branching, multi-stemmed, large shrub or small tree 

that obtains a height of 4 to 14 meters (13 to 46 feet). The canopy obtains a height of 4 to 

14 meters (13 to 46 feet). Pandanus tectorius fruit are approximately 18 centimeters (7 

inches) in diameter. Flowers are produced at the ends of the leaf clusters, last one day, 

and lack both the calyx and corolla. Male inflorescences are arranged in racemes or 

branched in clusters of flowers surrounded by large white to bronze-colored spathes or 

bracts. Clusters are approximately 30.5 centimeters (1 foot) long. Fragrant male flowers 

are tiny, white, pendant, and produce large amounts of pollen. The female inflorescence 

is arranged in a solitary head with green bracts. The female flower consists of a superior 

ovary of many carpels in a ring. Male and female flowers are found on separate trees. 

Pollination can occur by bats, birds, insects and wind. Viable seed can be produced via 

apomixes. Red to yellow compound fruit is ovoid, ellipsoid, sub-globose, or spherical in 

shape, pendulous, 8 to 30 centimeters (3 to 12 inches) long, and 4 to 20 centimeters (1.6 

to 8 inches) in diameter. Each fruit consists of 38 to 200 tightly bunched, wedge-shaped 

phlanges that ripen as drupes. Individual phalanges or drupes are narrowly oblong to 

ovoid in shape, woody at the outer end, fleshy on the inner end, and 2.5 to 11 centimeters 

(1 to 4 inches) long by 1.5 to 6.7 centimeters (0.6 to 2.6 inches) wide. The skin is dry or 

hard. Pulp is bright yellow, orange, or red in color, juicy, starchy, fibrous, fleshy, or oily. 

The flavor is sweet and slightly resembles the taste of dates and very fragrant. Each 

phalange contains approximately two seeds that are obovoid, ellipsoid, or oblong in 

shape, red-brown in color outside, whitish and gelatinous inside, and 0.6 to 2 centimeters 

(0.2 to 0.8 inch) long. Some seeds have a taste similar to coconut. Fruit resemble a 

pineapple in shape. Fruit are important locally in Asia and the Pacific.

Sierra Leone-tamarind 
166

A shrubby tree that grows to a height of 20 to 30 meters (66 to 98 feet), and is 

native to West Africa. The trunk may or may not contain tall buttresses. Wood is dense, 

hard, durable, heavy, light brown, fine in texture and possesses high silicate content. 

Sapwood is white with ripple marks. Heartwood is red-brown in color. The bark is 

smooth and grey to reddish in color. Red gum exudes from the bark. The crown is 

densely leafy. Each leaf consists of an odd terminal leaflet and 2 pairs of opposite to 

alternate leaflets. The lower pair of leaflets is usually smaller in size. Individual leaflets 

are elliptic, broadly elliptic, or obovate in shape, blunt to pointed at the tip, symmetrical 

and rounded or slightly wedge-shaped at the base, leathery, smooth above, sometimes 

slightly hairy underneath, and 3.5 to 10 by 2.5 to 5 centimeters (1.4 to 4 by 1 to 2 inches) 

in size. The leaf stalk is 5 to 13 centimeters (2 to 5 inches) long. Whitish flowers are 

borne in large terminal or axillary panicles that are covered with short brownish hairs 

when young, and measure up to 30 centimeters (12 inches) long. Branches on panicles 

spread out widely and horizontally. Individual flowers are borne on short stout stalks. 

Buds measure 0.2 centimeters (0.08 inch) long. Black fruit is circular and flattened or 

round in shape, is borne on a 0.6 centimeter (0.2 inch) long stalk, and measures up to 2.5 

centimeters (1 inch) in diameter. The skin is densely velvety. A collar occurs near the 

tip of the fruit. Pulp is orange red to brown in color, and dry. The flavor is sweet-sour 

and astringent and tastes similar to a sweet baobab. A brittle shell encloses 1 to 2 seeds.

Propagation is by seed and the seed should be scarified to promote germination. Seeds 

should be sown just below the soil surface in moist, shaded beds containing equal parts of 

forest topsoil and river sand.

Soncoya:

A small to medium tree or shrub that grows to a height of 4 to 12 meters (13 to 39 

feet), and is native to Mexico and Central America. The trunk is short and up to 45 

centimeters (18 inches) in diameter. Bark is dark with light spots. Branching begins low 

on the trunk and is spreading. Young branches are rusty and woolly. Leaves are 

deciduous, simple, alternate, wavy, broad, oblong-elliptic, oblong-lanceolate, or oblongovate in shape, pointed at the apex, brown-hairy on both surfaces, short-petioled, and 20 

to 30.5 centimeters (8 to 12 inches) long by 10 to 14 centimeters (4 to 5.5 inches) wide. 

Fragrant purple flowers emerge with the new leaves along the branches. Individual 

flowers are solitary, fleshy, large, conical, enclosed at first by a pair of bracts, and contain 

a rusty-hairy 3-parted calyx, 3 thick outer petals that are brown hairy outside and 

yellowish and purple mottled inside, and 3 smaller, thinner inner petals that are creamy

white outside and purple inside. Pollinated by insects, especially beetles. Brown to gray

fruit is solitary, large, thick stalked, ovoid to nearly round in shape, and 15 to 20 

centimeters in diameter. Immature fruit is green. The skin is coated with a brown felt 

and contains hard, 4-sided, conical protuberances that are each tipped with a curved hook. 

Pulp is yellow to orange in color, soft and fibrous. The flavor is mild, and smells like a 

mango. Each fruit contains many dark brown seeds that are obovate and 2.5 to 3 

centimeters (1 to 1.2 inches) long, and propagation is by seed.

Soursop:
167

A small, fast-growing, slender, upright to low-branching bushy evergreen tree that 

grows to a height of 3 to 10 meters (10 to 33 feet), and is native to tropical America and 

the Caribbean. Older trees become straggly and untidy in appearance. The root system is 

shallow and fibrous. Wood is pale, aromatic, soft, light, and not durable. Branches are 

upturned. Young branchlets are rusty-hairy. The crown is pyramidal to symmetrically 

conical, dense and 3.5 meters (11.5 feet) in diameter. Dark green leaves are alternate, 

smooth, glossy above, dull underneath, leathery, obovate, oblong-obovate, oblong, 

narrow-obovate, or elliptic in shape, pointed at both ends, and 6 to 25 centimeters (2.4 to 

10 inches) long by 2.5 to 6 centimeters (1 to 2.4 inches) wide. When crushed, leaves 

emit a spicy odor. Yellow-green bell-shaped flowers can be solitary or produced in small 

clusters on old wood, trunks, branches or twigs. Individual odorous flowers are shortstalked, plump, triangular-conical, large, and contain three close-set, small, thin, rounded, 

pale yellow inner petals, three fleshy slightly spreading yellow-green ovate-acute outer 

petals, and both male and female reproductive parts. Flowers measure 2.5 to 5 

centimeters (1 to 2 inches) long. Pollination is poor, which results in poor fruit set. Hand 

pollination and pollination by beetles can aid yield. Large yellow green fruit is a syncarp 

that is solitary, irregular, broadly ovoid, heart-shaped, kidney-shaped, oblong-conical, or 

ellipsoid in shape, and 10 to 35 centimeters (4 to 14 inches) long by 15 to 35 centimeters 

(6 to 14 inches) wide by 0.5 to 7 kilograms (1 to 15 pounds) in weight. Immature fruit 

are dark green and shiny. The skin is thin, fragile, leathery, tender, bitter, and covered in 

recurved, stubby or elongated soft spines that are 0.5 to 1.3 centimeters (0.2 to 0.5 inch) 

apart. On one side of the fruit, there is an area where the spines are set much closer 

together. The woody fruit stalk is 3 to 8 centimeters (1.2 to 3 inches) long. Mature 

creamy white pulp is separated into segments, and is succulent, juicy, cottony in texture, 

and fibrous. The core is soft and pithy. The flavor is sweet, musky, subacid, or acid. 

Aromatic and resembles pineapple or mango in taste. Some varieties exhibit a turpentine 

aftertaste. Each fruit contains a few too many (12 to 200) black seeds that are oval, 

smooth, hard, and 1.25 to 2 centimeters (0.5 to 0.8 inch) long. Fruit forms on the trunk 

and major stems. Soursop produces the largest fruit in the family Annonaceae. 

Propagation is by seed, cuttings, budding and grafting. Seeds are the most reliable form 

of propagation and should be planted in moist, shaded soil, soon after being removed 

from the fruit. Germination occurs in approximately 15 to 30 days. After plants reach a 

height of 30 to 46 centimeters (12 to 18 inches), transplanting should be done at the 

beginning of the wet season. Grafted or budded plants should be planted so that the 

union is 15 centimeters (6 inches) above the ground. Plants should be spaced 

approximately 4.6 by 6 meters (15 by 20 feet). Irrigation is needed during transplanting 

time and dry seasons. Commercial trees are pruned into a mushroom or conical shape 

that is 1.8 to 2.4 meters (6 to 8 feet). Weak branches should be pruned after harvest. 

Mulching and fertilization aid growth. Leaf defoliation can promote lateral branch 

growth and additional flower formation near the tips of the branches. Fruit are hand 

harvested or mechanically harvested when fully mature (firm, yellowish green in color, 

dull, spines set apart, spines break off easily). Before processing, fruit are stored on 

shelves in the shade at room temperature for 4 to 7 days and inspected daily. Fruit that 

lose firmness are thrown out. Upon fully ripening, the skin eventually turns dark brown 
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to black and becomes soft. Fruit should be stored above temperatures of 15 °C (59 °F). 

Fully ripe fruit can remain in a refrigerator for 2 to 3 days. 

Spanish-lime:

A slow-growing, erect to spreading tree that commonly grows to a height of 6 to 

15 meters (20 to 49 feet). Trees can grow to a maximum height of 25 to 30 meters (82 to 

98 feet), native to the West Indies, Central America and northern South America. The 

trunk is up to 1.7 meters (6 feet) thick. Bark is thick, smooth, and grey in color. 

Heartwood is yellow with dark lines, compact, hard, heavy, and fine-grained. Branches 

are spreading. Young branches are reddish in color. Bright green leaves are alternate, 

fern-like, briefly deciduous, pinnately compound, and 15 to 25 centimeters (6 to 10 

inches) long. Leaves contain two pairs of opposite or sub-opposite leaflets that are 

elliptical in shape, membranous, smooth, sharp-pointed, and 5 to 13 centimeters (2 to 5 

inches) long by 2.5 to 6.25 centimeters (1 to 2.5 inches) wide. The rachis may be 

winged. Small, fragrant, greenish-white to white flowers are clustered in slender terminal 

racemes that measure 5 to 15 centimeters (2 to 6 inches) long. Male racemes are 

branched, while female racemes are simple. Individual flowers are 0.5 to 0.8 centimeters 

(0.2 to 0.3 inch) wide and contain four small sepals (0.2 centimeters (0.08 inch) long), 4 

petals (0.3 centimeters (0.1 inch) long), and 8 to 9 stamens or a pistil with a bifid white 

stigma. Pedicels are short and 0.4 to 0.8 centimeters (0.2 to 0.3 inch) long. Male and 

female flowers are borne on separate plants. Some plants contain both male and female 

flowers. Green to yellowish fruit is a drupe that is borne in branched, compact, heavy 

clusters. Individual fruit is globose, sub-globose, or ellipsoid in shape, 2 to 4 centimeters 

(0.8 to 1.6 inches) in diameter, and 10 to 25 grams (0.4 to 0.9 ounce) in weight. A short, 

sharp protrusion occurs on the tip of the fruit. Skin is smooth, thin, leathery, and brittle. 

Pulp (aril) is yellow, orange, or salmon-colored, translucent, pasty, thin, fibrous, 

gelatinous, juicy, and firmly attached to the seed. The flavor is sweet, acid-sweet, 

subacid, or astringent; resembles lychee in taste. Each fruit contains one large, yellowish 

white, hard-shelled seed. Some fruit contain two seeds. The kernel is white, crisp, 

starchy and astringent. Propagation is by seed, layering, cuttings, and grafting. Seeds are 

the most common propagation method. Germination occurs in 15 to 30 days. Air 

layering is done in the summer with 5 centimeter (2 inch) diameter stems. Air layers can 

produce roots in a period of 5 to 6 weeks. Trees should be spaced 8 to 10 meters (26 to 

33 feet). Pruning can be used in commercial plots to lower tree heights for harvesting 

purposes. Water and fertilizer aid tree growth. Mature fruit are harvested by clipping the 

entire fruit cluster from the tree. Harvesting immature fruit results in the rind turning 

black. Fruit is shipped in 6 to 10 kilogram (13 to 22 pound) boxes. Fruit ships and 

markets well and should be stored at 12 °C (54 °F). Fruit is very popular in Cuba and the 

Dominican Republic. Widely cultivated in home gardens, domestic orchards, and urban.

Star apple:

A medium to large semi-deciduous to evergreen tree that grows to a height of 8 to 

30 meters (26 to 98 feet), and is native to Central America and the West Indies (mainly

Cuba and Jamaica). The trunk is short and up to 1 meter (3 feet) thick. Wood is hard, 
169

heavy, strong, and durable. Heartwood is pinkish, red-brown, violet, or dark-purple in 

color, fine-grained, compact, heavy, hard, strong, tough, and durable. White milky latex 

exudes from the tree. Young branches are covered with chestnut-brown hairs. The 

canopy is broad, spreading, drooping and dense to airy. Dark green leaves are simple, 

alternate, papery or slightly leathery, glossy on the upper surface, covered with a goldenbrown pubescence underneath, elliptic, oblong-elliptic, oblong or ovate in shape, and 5 to 

16 centimeters (2 to 6 inches) long by 3 to 6 centimeters (1.2 to 2.4 inches) wide. Young 

leaves are silvery underneath. The inflorescence is axillary on the current season’s shoots 

and contains 5 to 35 densely clustered flowers. Individual whitish, greenish yellow, 

yellow, or purplish white flowers are small, inconspicuous, star-shaped, and contain a 

tubular five-lobed corolla, five to six sepals, five stamens, a seven to eleven-lobed stigma 

and both male and female reproductive organs, and is pollinated by insects. Red-purple, 

dark-purple or light green fruit is a berry that is solitary, plump, globose, obovoidglobose, oblate, ellipsoid, or pear-shaped, and 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) in 

diameter. The peel is inedible, thick, rubbery, glossy, smooth, and leathery. The peel 

adheres to the inner rind and contains latex. Green fruit peels are shiny and purple fruit 

peels are pale. Pulp is soft, fleshy, granular, sticky, jelly-like, milky and purple in purpleskinned fruit and white in green-skinned fruit. Purple-fleshed fruit contain a dark purple 

rind (0.6 to 1.3 centimeters (0.25 to 0.5 inch) thick). White-fleshed fruit contain a white 

rind (0.3 to 0.5 centimeter (0.125 to 0.1875 inch) thick). The flavor is sweet. Each fruit 

contains 3 to 11 gelatinous, rubbery seed cells and seeds. When the fruit is cut crosswise, the seed cells radiate form the central core, and form a star shape. Individual seeds 

are small, flattened, obovoid to oval in shape, pointed, hard, brown to black in color, and 

up to 2 centimeters (0.8 inch) long by 1.25 centimeters (0.5 inch) wide by 0.6 centimeter 

(0.25 inch) thick. Star apple has been cultivated since ancient times. Propagation is by

seed, budding, air layering, inarching, cuttings, and grafting. Seeds are viable for several 

months after being removed from the fruit. Germination occurs in 14 to 40 days. Trees 

are more commonly propagated vegetatively. Spacing should be 10 to 12 meters (33 to 

39 feet) between trees. Maintenance pruning can be done. Fertilization aids growth. 

Irrigation is required during dry periods. Fruit do not drop when ripe. Fully mature or 

ripe fruit are hand-picked by clipping the peduncle. Fruit are mature when slightly dull, 

wrinkled and soft to the touch. Green types should be shiny, light green to yellowish 

brown in color and purple types should be pale and dark purple in color. Immature fruit 

should not be harvested, since ripening does not occur properly, and latex is contained in 

the flesh. The peduncle should be removed before packing. Fruit should be stored at 3 to 

6 °C (37 to 43 °F) at 90 % relative humidity for up to 3 weeks. Fruit is grown on a small 

scale in mixed orchards or home gardens and is harvested commercially throughout the 

distributed range. Widely cultivated from Africa to Southeast Asia and Australia.

Sugar apple:

A small, semi-deciduous tree that grows to a height of 3 to 8 meters (10 to 26 

feet), and is native to tropical America, specifically the Caribbean region. The most 

widely grown Annona spp. in tropical America, Africa, Asia and the Pacific. Roots are 

shallow. The trunk is short. Sapwood is yellow. Heartwood is brownish. Wood is soft, 

light, and weak. Bark is light brown with leaf scars and smooth to slightly fissured. 
170

Inner bark is light yellow and slightly bitter. Branches are slender, irregular, and brown. 

The crown is broad and open. Dull green leaves are alternate, aromatic, leathery, pale 

underneath with a bloom, narrowly elliptic, oblong-lanceolate, lanceolate or oblong in 

shape, blunt tipped, pointed or rounded at the base, and 5 to 17 centimeters (2 to 7 inches) 

long by 2 to 6 centimeters (0.8 to 2.4 inches) wide. Young leaves are slightly hairy. 

Petioles are green, short, and hairy and 0.6 to 1.3 centimeters (0.2 to 0.5 inch) long. 

Fragrant yellowish flowers are axillary, pendant, and single or in clusters of two to five 

on leafy shoots. Individual flowers are 2 to 4 centimeters (0.8 to 1.6 inches) long, oblong 

in shape, and contain three degenerated, pointed, hairy green sepals (1.6 centimeters (0.6 

inch) long), 3 fleshy oblong, thick, rounded, slightly hairy outer petals that are yellowgreen outside and pale-yellow inside with a purple or dark red spot at the base (1.6 to 2.5 

centimeters (0.6 to 1 inch) long by 0.6 centimeters (0.2 inch) wide), 3 ovate inner petals 

that are tiny scales, multiple pistils, a light green ovary, white styles, a conical receptacle, 

a number of white stamens (less than 1.6 centimeters (0.6 inch) long, and both male and 

female reproductive organs. Flower stalks are drooping, slender, and 2.5 centimeters (1 

inch) long. Insects aid pollination. Hand pollination is also done. Yellowish-green, 

pale-green, gray-green, bluish-green, dull, deep-pink or purple fruit is solitary, 

compound, ovoid, round, conical, or heart-shaped, and 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) 

in diameter by 350 grams (0.8 pounds) in weight. The rind is thick, knobby and contains 

rounded protuberances (1.3 to 1.9 centimeters (0.5 to 0.7 inch) long by 0.6 to 1.3 

centimeters (0.2 to 0.5 inch) wide) that can separate, exposing the flesh. A powdery

bloom covers the rind. Pulp is divided into conical segments that are creamy white in 

color, glistening, fragrant, juicy and succulent. There is a fleshy center. The flavor is 

sweet and resembles a cross between a banana and a pineapple. Many conical segments 

of the fruit contain a single oblong to oblong-cylindrical, shiny, smooth, black to darkbrown seed that measures 1.25 to 1.6 centimeters (0.5 to 0.6 inch) long. An average fruit 

can contain 30 to 60 seeds. Propagation is by seed, inarching, budding, cuttings, and 

grafting. Micropropagation is also done. Seed is the most common form of propagation. 

Planting depth should be 2 centimeters (0.8 inch). Germination occurs in 20 to 30 days. 

Soaking seeds for 3 to 4 days increases the germination rate. For grafting purposes, the 

branches should be defoliated 1 to 2 weeks before scion wood is cut to induce bud 

swelling. Budding should be done at the beginning of the growing season. Plants should 

be transplanted when 30 to 45 centimeters (12 to 18 inches) tall, at the beginning of the 

wet season. Grafts should be planted so that the union is placed 15 centimeters (6 inches) 

above the ground. Trees should be irrigated well, and shaded after transplanting. 

Spacing should be 3.5 to 4.0 by 4.5 to 5.0 meters (11 to 13 by 15 to 16 feet). If 

machinery will be used in the rows, spacing can be increased to 5.0 to 5.5 by 6.0 to 6.5 

meters (16 to 18 by 20 to 21 feet). Pruning and proper spacing increases fruit set. For 

commercial production, trees should be pruned to a height of 2 to 2.5 meters (7 to 8 feet) 

and a canopy of 2.5 to 3 meters (8 to 10 feet) when dormant. Windbreaks and irrigation 

can aid fruit quality. Fertilization increases growth. Fruit is harvested when mature and 

firm (fruit turns color from gray green to yellowish green, fruit should give slightly when 

squeezed, and carpels near the peduncle separate and radiate out, exposing the white 

pulp). Fruit should be harvested carefully to prevent bruising of the skin. Harvested 

immature fruit do not ripen. Mature fruit ripen in 3 to 6 days after harvest. Fruit should 

be stored at 15 to 20 °C (59 to 68 °F). One of the major commercial species of the 
171

Annona genus that is cultivated in domestic orchards. Fruit is intensively cultivated in 

Taiwan.

Sun Sapote:

An erect tree that grows to a height of 30 to 50 meters (98 to 164 feet), and is 

native to Central and South America. The trunk is sometimes slightly buttressed and up 

to 1 meter (3 feet) in diameter. Sapwood is pale-yellow to light yellowish-brown. 

Heartwood is purplish to reddish in color, fine grained, heavy, and strong. Bark is dark 

purplish, grey, or brown in color, rough, and dotted with tiny white or reddish-white 

lenticels. Branches are thick and stout. The crown is rounded, tall, narrow, heavily 

foliaged, and 25 to 35 meters (82 to 115 feet) in diameter. Dark green leaves are simple, 

alternate to spiraled, deciduous, leathery, thick, finger-shaped, and elliptic to narrowlanceolate in shape, pointed to round at the ends, and 10 to 30 centimeters (4 to 12 

inches) long by 3 to 12 centimters (1.2 to 5 inches) wide. Blades curl toward the midrib. 

The midrib is thick. Petioles are thick and up to 2 centimeters (0.8 inch) long. Leaf loss 

usually occurs in December. Young foliage is bronze to red-purple in color and showy. 

Many flowers occur on broad, terminal branched, pyramidal panicles that are 10 to 35 

centimeters (4 to 14 inches) long. Individual greenish white to cream colored fragrant 

flowers are small (0.5 centimeters (0.2 inch)), densely hairy, and contain 5 recurved 

petals, an orange calyx, and 15 protruding stamens. Pollinated by insects. Greenishbrown, dark-brown, yellow-brown, or reddish fruit is solitary or contained in clusters of 

up to 5 fruit. Individual fruit is large, oblong, round, obovoid or pyriform in shape, 13 to 

20 centimeters (5 to 8 inches) long, 10 to 14 centimeters (4 to 5.5 inches) wide and up to 

900 grams (2 pounds) in weight. Skin is thin, warty, fibrous, and covered with white 

lenticels. Pulp is yellow to orange-yellow in color, soft, fibrous, dry to juicy, and 1.5 

centimeters (0.6 inches) thick. The flavor is sweet to sub-acid; some describe the taste as 

pumpkin-like. Each fruit contains a single rounded to ovate-oblong flattened seed that is 

6 to 10 centimeters (2.4 to 4 inches) long and occupies most of the volume of the fruit. 

Propagation is by seed. Germination occurs within a month. Transplanting is done when 

trees are 50 to 60 centimeters (20 to 24 inches) tall. Spacing is 8 to 10 meters (26 to 33 

feet). When mature, fruit fall from the tree and ripen/soften on the ground in 2 to 3 days. 

Heavy fruiting occurs every other year. Fruit is obtained from semi-wild cultivation or 

small plantings of a few individual trees. Fruit is not often cultivated since fruit is 

variable in size, fibrous, and infested with insects.

Tamarind-of-the-Indies:

A deciduous multi-branched shrub or small tree growing to a height of 2 to 15 

meters (7 to 49 feet), and is native to Africa and Madagascar. Bark is smooth and grey. 

Dark green leaves are opposite, large, shiny to slightly pubescent, elliptic-ovate or 

rotundate in shape, and 7 to 20 centimeters long (3 to 8 inches) by 2 to 11 centimeters 

(0.8 to 4 inches) wide. Sweet-scented flowers are borne in dense axillary cymes along 

the short lateral branches, are 0.8 centimeters (0.3 inch) long, and are greenish-yellow, 

greenish-white, yellow or cream with reddish-yellow pubescence. Yellowish-brown to 

light brown fruit is round, glossy and 2 to 4.5 centimeters (0.8 to 1.8 inches) in diameter. 
172

Immature fruit is green in color. The skin is very smooth, shiny and tough; skin may

contain white speckles. Pulp is greenish-yellow in color; the flavor is sweet-sour, acid or 

mealy. Many describe the flavor as chocolate-like. Each fruit contains 4 to 5 woody

seeds that are 1.6 centimeters (0.6 inch) long. Famine food. Propagation is by seed and 

coppice, and the hard seed coat makes germination difficult. Coppicing and pruning 

induce new growth and control shape. Fruit are semi-cultivated on farms and grown 

along boundaries and home compounds. Weeding should be performed until maturation 

is achieved. Harvested unripe mature fruit ripens approximately one week after harvest.

Velvet Tamarind:

A medium to large-sized, upper canopy evergreen tree that grows to a height of 

40 to 43 meters (131 to 141 feet), native to Indonesia. The trunk is branchless up to 12 

meters (39 feet) and is 95 centimeters (37 inches) in diameter. Wood is hard and 

compact. Dark green leaves are alternate, pinnate and contain three to nine smooth, 

leathery, alternate, penni-veined leaflets. Stipules are 0.5 centimeters (0.2 inch) long. 

Flowers occur on large branched, terminal panicles. Individual small (0.8 centimeter (0.3 

inch) in diameter), white to white-yellowish flowers contain short calyx tubes, a 

lanceolated lobe, no petals, two stamens and anthers, a sessile ovary, two ovules, and five 

sepals. Black fruit is small, oblong or ovoid and globose in shape, 1.5 to 3 centimeters 

(0.6 to 1.2 inches) long and 1 to 2 centimeters (0.4 to 0.8 inch) wide. The pod is thin, 

brittle, and covered in black velvet. Pulp is orange-red to black in color, pithy, and driedfruit-like in texture. The flavor is sweet and similar to tamarind. One shiny, slightly 

flattened seed (0.5 centimeter (0.2 inch) long) is contained in each pod. Propagation is by

seed. Fruit is collected from the wild in Southeast Asia. Harvesters must climb the tree 

and knock or shake the fruit off. Some harvesters cut the branch off to obtain fruit. Fruit 

is then placed on a mat, and dried in the sun for a few days until the shell and pulp 

separate. The shell is broken by placing the fruit in a cloth bag and hitting the bag on the 

ground. The broken shell is then separated from the pulp by shaking. Fruit are graded by

size. It is so far rarely grown commercially.

Wampi:

A fast-growing, attractive, upright, evergreen large shrub or small tree that 

reaches a height of 3 to 12 meters (10 to 39 feet), native to southern China. A distant 

relative of Citrus. The trunk can reach up to 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter. 

Wood is white and close-grained. Bark is gray-brown in color and rough. Branches are 

long, upward-slanting, low, and flexible. The canopy is open and willow-like. Dark 

green, glossy leaves are evergreen, dense, spirally-arranged, odd pinnately compound, 

resinous, aromatic (anise-scented), and 10 to 30.5 centimeters (4 to 12 inches) long. Each 

leaf contains 5 to 15 leaflets. Leaflets are alternate, thin, papery, smooth to slightly hairy

above, elliptic, elliptic-ovate, ovate, or lanceolate in shape, pointed at the tip, oblique at 

the base, wavy and shallowly toothed at the margin, and 7 to 10 centimeters (3 to 4 

inches) long. The underside of the leaf contains a yellowish and warty midrib. Leaflet 

stalks are approximately 0.3 centimeter (0.1 inch) long. The petiole is warty and hairy. 

Flowers are contained on slender, hairy, open terminal panicles that are 10 to 51 
173

centimeters (4 to 20 inches) long. Whitish, yellowish-white, or yellowish-green flowers 

are small, fragrant, 4 to 5-parted, subsessile, and 1.4 centimeters (0.6 inch) in diameter. 

Individual fruit contains 5 sepals (1.25 centimeters (0.5 inch) wide), five white boatshaped petals, a small, five-parted calyx, ten stamens with yellow anthers, a hairy, shortstalked, five-celled ovary, a short style, and a rounded stigma. Fruit are contained on 0.6 

to 1.25 centimeter (0.2 to 0.5 inch) long stalks that hang in showy, loose clusters of 

several strands. Each bunch can contain 2 to 80 fruit. Light brownish-yellow, whitish, or 

yellowish individual fruit is a berry that is round, subglobose, oval, oblong, or conicaloblong in shape, slightly flattened at the base, round at the tip, and up to 2.5 centimeters 

(1 inch) in diameter. The rind is thin, pliable, sometimes brittle and papery, tough, 

leathery, oily, resinous, minutely hairy, soft, and is dotted with tiny, raised, brown oil 

glands. The rind can sometimes contain 5 faint, pale ridges emerging from the apex and 

the pulp is divided into five segments, is yellowish-white to colorless, grape-like, 

mucilaginous, soft, and juicy. The flavor is sweet, subacid, tangy, or sour. Some say the 

fruit resembles grapes or gooseberries in taste. Each fruit may contain 1 to 5 seeds (one 

per pulp segment). Seeds are large, flattened, oblong in shape, thickish, bright green in 

color with one brown tip, and 1.25 to 1.6 centimeters (0.5 to 0.6 inch) long. There are 

sweet, subacid and acid varieties. One of the most popular fruit in Thailand. Propagation 

is by seeds, softwood cuttings, air-layers, and grafting. Germination occurs in a few 

days. Trees must be irrigated during long, dry periods. The crown can be thinned. 

Fertilization aids growth. Fruit are harvested when ripe. Cultivated in the domestic 

orchards of Brazil. Cultivated most in Asia, particularly China and Thailand 

White Star-Apple:

A small to medium tree that grows to a height of 25 to 40 meters (82 to 131 feet), 

and is native to Ghana, Kenya, Sierra Leone, Sudan and Uganda. The trunk is buttressed, 

straight, fluted, free of branches for up to 21 meters (69 feet), and 1.5 to 2 meters (5 to 7 

feet) in diameter. Wood is coarse, open, soft, and brownish white in color. Bark is thin, 

pale brownish green in color and exudes white, gummy latex. Dark green leaves are 

simple, oblong, oblong-elliptic, elongated-obovate, or elongate obovate elliptic in shape, 

pointed at the tip, wedge-shaped at the base, pale tawny (when young) to silver-white 

(when mature) below, and 12 to 30 centimeters (5 to 12 inches) long by 4 to 10 

centimeters (1.6 to 4 inches) wide. The petiole is 1.7 to 4.2 centimeters (0.7 to 2 inches)

long. Flowers occur in dense clusters in the leaf axils or from above the scars of fallen 

leaves. Individual flowers are small and contain a short pedicel and a five-lobed calyx

(0.3 centimeters (0.1 inch) long) that is rusty pubescent outside and creamy white inside. 

Orange-red, pinkish, yellow, or yellow-brown fruit are almost spherical in shape, slightly 

pointed at the tip, and approximately 3 to 4 centimeters (1.2 to 1.6 inches) in diameter. 

Immature fruit are greenish grey in color. The skin is smooth and sometimes speckled. 

Pulp is yellowish in color, fleshy and juicy. The flavor is acidic and each fruit contains 

three to five seeds that are brown, shiny, compressed, bean-like, and arranged in a starshaped pattern. Individual seeds are 1 to 1.5 by 2 centimeters (0.4 to 0.6 by 0.8 inch) in 

size and contain a hard seed coat. A dominant canopy tree that is grown mostly in 

lowland mixed tropical rainforests and along river banks. Propagation is by seedlings, 

direct sowing and cuttings and the seeds are usually stored in layers of red clay. Seeds 
174

should be planted soon after being removed from the fruit. Cracking the seed coat may

improve germination, and the seedlings should be shaded.

Wild loquat:

A small to medium evergreen or semi-deciduous tropical fruit tree that reaches a 

height of 5 to 13 meters (16 to 43 feet). A small to medium evergreen or semi-deciduous 

tropical fruit tree that reaches a height of 5 to 13 meters (16 to 43 feet). The root system 

consists of a mass of small laterals and a deeply penetrating taproot that ranges in size 

from 50 to 150 centimeters (20 to 59 inches). The trunk is short, but can sometimes 

remain unbranched for up to 9 meters (30 feet). Trunk height is 5 to 12 meters (16 to 39 

feet) and trunk diameter is 5 to 40 centimeters (2 to 16 inches). Wood is uniform, hard, 

durable, pale pink-red in color, and medium and even in texture. Bark is dark grey to 

grey-brown in color, thick, and deeply fissured. Branches are spreading, stout, short, 

thick, and contain prominent leaf scars. The crown is dense and rounded. Dark green 

leaves are simple, alternate, thick, broad, leathery, shiny, smooth, clustered at the ends of 

branches in a spiral arrangement, obovate to subcircular-obovate in shape, rounded at the 

tip, wedge-shaped at the base, and 7 to 36 centimeters (3 to 14 inches) long by 4 to 24 

centimeters (1.6 to 9 inches) wide. Young leaves contain short grey to rust-colored curly 

hairs underneath. Young shoots are covered in creamy-brown hairs. Petioles are velvety, 

short, stout, and up to 3.5 centimeters (1.4 inches) long. Stipules are pubescent, 

deciduous, and 0.3 to 0.4 centimeters (0.1 to 0.16 inches) long. Inflorescences occur in 

axillary positions among the leaves or below them on the second or third season’s wood 

of the branchlets. Pale yellow flowers are globose in shape. Male and female flowers are 

located on different plants. Male inflorescences occur in clusters of 4 to 12. Each male 

inflorescence contains 10 to 20 flowers, four to eight oblong-elliptic to broadly elliptic 

pale yellow-green bracts, and a 1 to 2 centimeter (0.4 to 0.8 inch) long peduncle. Each 

male flower contains five triangular and fringed or linear calyx lobes (0.2 centimeter 

(0.08 inch) long and five to seven in number) and ranges in size from 0.5 to 1 centimeter 

(0.2 to 0.4 inch) long by 1.2 to 1.8 centimeter (0.5 to 0.7 inch) wide. Each female 

inflorescence contains pink bracts that are similar to staminate bracts and a 0.6 to 1 

centimeter (0.2 to 0.4 inch) long peduncle. Female flowers are solitary, and contain a 

shallow copular five to eight-lobed calyx, an ovoid sub-globose, three to four locular 

densely brownish-yellow or tawny tomentose ovary (0.3 to 0.4 centimeter (0.1 to 0.16 

inch)), and three to four fan-shaped styles (0.4 centimeter (0.16 inch) long). Pollinated 

by insects. Yellow, yellow-brown, brown, cream, brownish-red, or reddish fruit is a 

drupe that is round in shape, 2 to 4 centimeters (0.8 to 1.6 inch) in diameter, and 5 to 50 

grams (0.2 to 2 ounces) in weight. The peduncle is thick, short, and less than 1 

centimeter (0.4 inch). The skin is tough, thin or thick, finely hairy when young and 

smooth when ripe. When mature, a hard, thick exocarp encloses the pulp. Pulp is yellow 

in color, thin, fleshy, and has a pH of 5.05. The flavor is sweet and pear-like in taste. 

Each fruit contains three to five seeds that are whitish in color, heart-shaped, flattened on 

one side, ridged, pointed at the tip, tough, fibrous, and up to 2 centimeters (0.8 inch) long 

by 1.4 centimeters (0.6 inch) wide. The seed coat is brittle. Fruit that contain four seeds 

are larger and contain thinner skins and more pulp. Propagation is by seed, coppicing, 

cuttings, wildlings, root suckers, air-layering or grafting. Seed should be planted soon 
175

after being removed from the fruit (within 2 weeks). Germination occurs in four to six 

weeks. Soaking the seed in cold tap water can increase the germination rate. However, 

seeds should never be directly planted in the field. Grafting should occur from October 

to December during the onset of the rainy season. Weeding and use of inoculation can 

enhance growth. When mature and ripe, fruit fall from the trees and are collected from 

the ground. Fruit can also be picked from the branches. To collect fruit from taller 

branches, the tree is climbed, or beaten. Fruit is collected from semi-wild or wild 

conditions. There are also a few commercial plantings of the fruit. Fruit is preferred in 

southern Africa due to its role in food security, potential for income generation, and 

nutrition. A major part of the diet in rural households and during times of famine.

Worker Activities (Adapted from USDA Crop Timelines and Crop Profiles (CA, 

FL, HI, Samoa) for Avocado in California, and Atemoya and Sugar Apple in 

Florida, 2007, 2009, 2010, J. Crane Tropical Research and Education Center in South 

Florida., jhcr@ufl.edu, and M. Mossler, Agronomy Department’s Pesticide Information 

Office at the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. UF/IFAS, 

plantdoc@ufl.edu).

Atemoya and Sugar apple: (J. Crane and M. Mossler, plantdoc@ufl.edu).

Atemoya and sugar apple are harvested numerous times approximately 25 each 

year. They are generally harvested every third day for the first peak in August and 

September, and weekly for the second peak in October and November). Since mature 

fruit tend to split, they are harvested a few days prior to full maturity. Trees are picked 

by hand or by using a long picking pole which has at its distal end a canvas or nylon bag 

attached to a metal ring with a cutting blade. Ladders and hydraulic lifts are also used to 

enable pickers to reach fruit high in the tree canopy. A worker can generally pick up to 

three acres daily. Workers may also spend several weeks a year pruning tree limbs. 

Sugar apple fruit are quite fragile, so they are sold locally.

Avocado:

The University of California has prepared a schedule which lists the key timings 

for cultural and monitoring practices for their grower’s guidance (Table 27). Outlined 

below in the shaded areas are approximate times of key cultural/monitoring practices for 

avocado trees growing in California Santa Barbara and Ventura counties. Optimal times 

vary according to location, weather, and crop development stage. Testing foliage and soil 

generally are done once during the indicated period. Practices such as cultivation, frost 

protection, irrigation, and pest monitoring are ongoing or are repeated at appropriate 

intervals.

Table 27. Guidance and Timings for Cultural and Monitoring Practices for 

California Avocado Growers. (Adapted from: CAC and CMCC. 2003, 2007. A Pest Management 
176

Strategic Plan for Avocado Production in California. Irvine, CA: California Avocado Commission and 

California Minor Crops Council, UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines: Avocado UC ANR Publication 

3436).

TIME OF YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

CROP

DEVELOPMENT

STAGE

Older Fruit Development or Presence

Young Fruit 

Development

Pollination and Fruit Set

Pre-Bloom and Open Flower

Leaf Flush

CULTURAL/MONITORING PRACTICES

Irrigate regularly 

based on monitoring 

trees' need for water

Monitor pests 

regularly

Prune and thin where 

beneficial1

Protect against frost

Place honey bee hives 

in groves

Test soil nutrients, pH,

etc.
177

TIME OF YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Measure and adjust 

irrigation output and 

uniformity

Test irrigation water 

quality

Harvest

Cultivate weeds

Fertilize if needed

Sample foliar 

nutrients

Test soil salinity

Banana:

A cultural practice calendar for banana production in the home landscape of 

Florida is shown in Table 28 below:

Table 28. .Cultural Practice Calendar for Banana Production in the Home 

Landscape in Florida. (Adapted from Crane, J.H., C. F. Balerdi, and I. Maguire, 2005. 

Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida HS-10

(http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu).

Operation Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec 

General1

Apply nitrogen-phosphate-potash-magnesium containing fertilizers every 4 

to 8 weeks throughout the year. Less may be applied during the winter (i.e., 

Nov.-Feb.) because of less nutrient demand during cooler weather 

conditions.

Nutritional 

sprays 

Apply 1 or more foliar nutritional sprays 

containing magnesium, manganese, and 

zinc during this time. 
178

Operation Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec 

Iron 

applications 

Soil applied iron may be applied during the 

warm season 1 to 2 times. 

Watering Banana plants should be watered regularly during any dry period without 

substantial rainfall.

Insect 

control2

Monitor the base of banana pseudostems (stalks) for signs of weevil 

infestation throughout the year. 

Disease 

control2

Monitor banana leaves for sigatoka infestation. Periodic applications of 

copper and/or horticultural oil may be beneficial during prolonged wet 

periods (i.e., during summer).

Pruning 

Maintain 3 to 4 pseudostems (stalks) of different ages: 1 stem that is 

flowering and/or fruiting; 1 that is 1/2 to 2/3 the size of the stalk with 

flowers and fruit; 1 to 2 sword suckers (small 6 inches to 3 ft tall) 

throughout the year.

1, Dry fertilizer containing nitrogen, phosphate, potash, and magnesium should be 

applied every 2 months throughout the year. 2. Foliar applications of micronutrients 

may be made 1 to 2 times per year; follow label instructions. 3. Iron applications should 

be made to the soil 1 to 2 times per year.

Pollination of Tropical and Subtropical – Inedible Peel Fruit Crops. (Adapted from 

Russell Goodman, 1994. Honeybee Pollination of Fruit Tree Crops. AG 20092). 

Pollination is one of the most important factors in fruit production. Pollination is 

the means of transferring pollen from main part of the flower. Many types of commonly

grown fruit require pollination in order to bear satisfactory marketable crops. Some fruit 

trees may carry thousands of flowers, but unless there is adequate pollination, little if any

fruit will be produced. Not all plants require pollination and fertilization, as some are 

able to produce fruit parthenocarpic; that is, the fruit will develop without fertilization of 

the flower and production of seed. Two types of pollination may occur: self - and crosspollination. Some of the trees may be self-pollinated or require cross-pollination. Selfpollination refers to the transfer of pollen from the anthers to the stigma of flowers of the 

same variety. In most cases a carrier is needed to transfer the pollen for maximum 

pollination. Trees that bear fruit through self-pollination are called "self-fruitful" as their 

own pollen is quite compatible. Cross-pollination refers to the transfer of pollen between 

trees of different varieties. A carrier or vector is always needed for this. Trees requiring 

cross-pollination cannot produce fruit from their own pollen as it is incompatible and 

fertilization will not result. These trees are called "self-sterile" or "self-unfruitful". Other 

compatible varieties that flower at the same time must be planted next to these trees to 

allow transfer of suitable pollen. The most important and efficient carrier of pollen from 

anther to stigma is the honeybee. Cool, dull, showery conditions will limit bee flights up 

to about 150 m from the hive. Therefore, colonies of bees should be located within the 

orchard to obtain best pollination. They should be evenly distributed over the whole area 

so that all trees are within 100 - 150 m of a colony. Honeybees, bumblebees and large 

flies are the major agents responsible for transferring pollen among plum cultivars. The 

recommended number of beehives for plums is two per hectare in mature orchards. Place 
179

the hives in the centre of every 2 hectares when about 30% of the blooms have opened. 

Pesticides should not be sprayed in the orchard during the bloom period. Many of the 

tropical fruits benefit from use of pollinators (Table 29). Examples of how the tropical 

fruit inedible peel crops are pollinated are discussed below and atemoya, avocado and 

mango are examples of an inedible peel tropical fruit. Specific pollination requirements 

for the tropical and subtropical fruit are as follows:

Avocado:

Insect pollination is required as the flower opens in two stages on consecutive 

days. During the female stage (stage 1 ) the stigma is receptive to pollination. On the 

second day, the male stage (stage 2) occurs and pollen is released but the stigma is no 

longer receptive. In type A cultivars, stage 1 occurs in the morning of the first day and 

stage 2 in the afternoon of the second day. In type B cultivars, stage one occurs in the 

afternoon and stages two occurs next morning. Interplanting of the two types is 

necessary. Two to seven colonies per hectare are recommended. The higher stocking 

rates are required for the larger trees. Where high stocking rates are used, it is more 

likely that bees will move from tree to tree. 

Where cross-pollination is required, the orchard layout should be carefully

planned. Pollinizer varieties should be adjacent to each other and must flower at the same 

time if bees are to be effective in their pollinating role. The tropical and subtropical fruit 

crops that benefit from pollination are listed in Table 29. For effective cross-pollination, 

the best orchard layout as far as bee activity is concerned is to have pollinizer grafts in 

each tree. An alternative layout is to have every third tree in every third row a pollinizer 

variety. Planting alternate double rows of pollinizers is also common. 

Table 29: Tropical Fruit Crops - Inedible Peel that Benefit from Pollination 

(Delaplane, K.S. and D.F. Mayer, 2000, Crop Pollination by Bees, Goodman, 1994 

Honeybee Pollination of Fruit Tree Crops, Insect Pollination of Cultivated Crop 

Plants, McGregor, 1979).

Commodity Pollinator Commercial 

Product

of 

Pollination

Pollinator 

impact *

Geography of 

cultivation

Atemoya, 

Cherimoya, 

Custard apple, 

Sugar apple

Nitidulid

beetles

fruit 4 (10 % of 

yield 

attributed to 

pollination 

by bees, 

while beetles 

are the most 

important 

pollinator)

tropical
180

Commodity Pollinator Commercial 

Product

of 

Pollination

Pollinator 

impact *

Geography of 

cultivation

Avocado Honey bees, 

Stingless bees, 

Solitary bees

fruit 3

Cactus, Prickly

pear

Bumblebees, 

Solitary bees

fruit 2

Jackfruit Honey bees fruit 2 (10 % of 

the yield 

attributed to 

honey bees)

Lychee Honey bees, 

flies

fruit 1

Mango Honey bees, 

Stingless bees, 

flies, ants, 

wasps

fruit 3 - 6 subtropical

Mamey sapote Bees fruit 2 tropical

Naranjillo Bumble bees, 

Solitary bees

fruit 3 tropical

Passionfruit. 

Maracuja 

Carpenter bees, 

Solitary bees, 

bumblebees, 

hoover flies, 

humming birds

fruit 4 (2 to 3 

hives needed 

per acre)

tropical

Pawpaw Carrion flies, 

Dung flies

Honey bees

fruit 4 temperate

Persimmon Honey bees, 

Bumble bees, 

Solitary bees

fruit 1

Pomegranate Honey bees, 

Solitary bees,

beetles

fruit 2

Rambutan Honey bees, 

Stingless bees, 

flies

fruit 1 (honey

bees doubled 

fruit 

production in 

New 

Zealand)

tropical

Sapodilla thrips fruit 4 tropical

Yellow Honey bees, fruit 1
181

Commodity Pollinator Commercial 

Product

of 

Pollination

Pollinator 

impact *

Geography of 

cultivation

mombin Stingless bees 

Pollinator Impact: 1 = little; 2 = modest; 3 = great; and 4 = essential.

In general, for tropical fruits where cross-pollination is required, the orchard 

layout should be carefully planned. Pollinizer varieties should be adjacent to each other 

and must flower at the same time if bees are to be effective in their pollinating role. The 

tropical and subtropical fruit crops that benefit from pollination are listed in Table 27. 

For effective cross-pollination, the best orchard layout as far as bee activity is concerned 

is to have pollinizer grafts in each tree. An alternative layout is to have every third tree in 

every third row a pollinizer variety. Planting alternate double rows of pollinizers is also 

common. With the tropical fruits pollination can fail and poor fruit set, low yields, or 

misshapen fruit are often caused by poor pollination during the period when trees are in 

bloom. Some of the common reasons for pollination problems can be the lack of a 

suitable variety for cross-pollination, and pollination failures occur when bloom periods 

of two varieties used for cross-pollination do not overlap, as well as poor climatic 

conditions during bloom that can also adversely affect pollination. 

COMPARISON OF HARVESTING, JUICE PROCESSING, POSTHARVEST 

HANDLING, RAW AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY (RAC), INEDIBLE 

PORTIONS, AND PROCESSED FOOD ITEMS FOR THE TROPICAL FRUITS:

Table 30 provides details on the flower timing, fruit maturity, and harvesting of the 

inedible peel tropical fruits. Most flower in the spring and mature late fall through 

November. In the tropics some of the crops like atemoya and papaya can flower more 

than once and have two to three harvests in a year

Table 30. Maturity and Harvesting of Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible 

Peel.

Commodity Growing Season

Abiu Flowering occurs from June to August in Florida. In Central 

Amazonia, three flowering periods occur from the early rainy season 

in February, to the mid-dry season in August. Major flowering 

occurs from September to November. In other areas, flowering 

occurs several times during the year. Fruiting periods occur from the 

mid-rainy season to the late dry season. In Ecuador, fruit ripening 

occurs from March to April. In Brazil, fruit are in season from 

September to April; some fruiting occurs from February to March at 

Bahia. In Florida, fruiting has occurred during the month of 

October. Fruit in different stages can be present on the tree at the 
182

Commodity Growing Season

same time. Fruit matures in 180 days. Fruit is produced in 2 to 10 

years from seed and 3 to 4 years from grafts. Trees may remain 

productive for 20 years

Aisen Flowering occurs in the first part of the cool dry season (October to 

January); fruits ripen at the beginning of the rainy season.

Akee apple Flowering occurs from April to May in Florida and can occur during 

the fall. In other areas including Jamaica, flowering can occur 

throughout the year. Flowering usually occurs after extended 

periods of rain. Three or more crops may be produced annually. In 

the Caribbean, fruiting occurs from January to March and July to 

September. In Florida, fruiting occurs midsummer. Fruit matures in 

approximately 50 to 90 days. Fruit production occurs in 3 to 4 years 

from seed and 1 to 2 years from by vegetative propagation.

Atemoya Flowering occurs from April to June and August to September in 

Florida. In Australia, flowers are produced once during the early 

summer, and a second time during the late summer or fall. The main 

flowering period in Australia is October and November. If fruit set 

is low, flowering occurs in February. Flowering can occur from 3 to 

6 months and can occur from two to three times per year. In Florida, 

fruit ripens from August to January. In Australia, fruits mature in 

April and May. Fruit matures in 150 to 180 days. Fruit production 

occurs in 4 to 5 years from seed and 2 to 3 years from grafting.

Avocado Flowering occurs from February to March in Florida. In general, 

fruit maturation occurs in 120 to 400 days. Fruit production occurs 

in 5 to 8 years from seed and 3 to 4 years from grafting. P. 

americana var. americana fruit mature 160 to 240 days after 

flowering. With P. americana var. guatemalensis flowering occurs 

from March to May; called the winter avocado in Hawaii. Fruit 

mature more than 250 days after anthesis. With P. americana var. 

drymifolia, flowering occurs north of the equator October to 

December and into spring; called the summer avocado in Hawaii. 

Fruit matures 150 to 240 days after anthesis

Bacury Season: Flowering occurs during the dry season, which takes place 

from June to September in Brazil. Fruit are harvested from 

December to May, and especially from February to March in Brazil. 

Fruit matures in 200 to 300 days. 

Bael fruit The main flowering occurs from early to mid-spring; in India, 

flowering occurs from April to May after new leaves appear. 

Flowering can occur intermittently all year. Fruit are harvested 10 to 

11 months after flowering. In many areas, fruit are harvested from 

late spring to early summer. In India, fruiting occurs from March to 

June, with a peak from May to June. However, fruit can be 

harvested in January before fruit is fully ripened. The highest yields 

occur in 15 years. Trees produce fruit in 6 to 7 years from seed and 

5 years from grafts. 

Banana/Plantain Flowering can occur during any time of the year. The growth cycle 

of the plant depends on planting time, nutrition, maturity, location, 

and cultivar. Small cultivars flower earlier. The plant requires 10 to 

15 months to produce a flower stalk. Fruit-filling occurs from the 
183

Commodity Growing Season

time of flowering to harvest and takes from 3 to 4 months in 

lowlands to up to 6 months in the mid-altitudes or highlands. 

Ripening occurs from when the fruit reaches its full size until the 

peel turns yellow. This takes approximately 2 weeks. Fruit 

production occurs in 12 months after planting. Fruit is produced 

year-round. Bunches are generally harvested when the fingers are 

plump but before they begin to turn yellow. However, bananas may 

be picked at different times for different purposes. In general, 

bananas for fresh consumption in the home landscape may be picked 

when they have reached or nearly reached the normal size for a 

particular variety. Usually, this is when the edges of the fruit have 

smoothed out and the sides of the fruit have swelled. Homeowners 

may want to harvest fruit 7 to 14 days prior to ripening on the plant. 

Banana yields vary considerably depending on many factors, but 

bunches weighing 25 to 40 lbs per pseudostem may be expected. 

Well cared for banana plants may produce bunches up to 100 lbs. 

Factors such as weather, pests and diseases, and cultural practices 

affect the life of a banana planting. 

Binjai Fruit ripen 3 months after anthesis.

Biriba In some areas, flowering takes place once per year and occurs after 

leaf fall. In other areas, flowering occurs during winter and summer. 

In Amazonia, flowering and fruiting can occur off and on during the

year. Flowering occurs from April to May in Florida, from June to 

September (low rainfall season) in the Central Amazon, and from 

February to July in Costa Rica. Fruit mature from October to May in 

the Amazonas, from February to Mach in Rio de Janeiro, from June 

to November in Costa Rica, and from November to December in 

Florida. Fruit matures in approximately 90 days. Fruiting occurs in 

3 to 4 years from seed.

Breadfruit In many locations, flowering occurs during summer and winter. In 

India, flowering occurs in March and fruits are harvested 3 months 

later. A period of drought followed by rainfall may be required for 

vegetative growth and flowering. In optimal environmental 

conditions, trees flower and fruit throughout the year. In some areas, 

the main crop is produced in summer and a second crop occurs in 

winter. In Hawaii, fruit are produced from July to February. Fruit 

are ripe from June to November in the Bahamas. Seeded fruit are 

produced once a year from December to March. Root suckers 

produce fruit in 3 to 5 years and seedling plants produce fruit in 8 to 

10 years.

Burmese grape Flowering is from February to March; fruiting time is from August 

to September. In India, flowering takes place during April to May 

and the fruits ripen during the rainy season. In Thailand, harvesting 

occurs from June to July. 

Canistel In tropical areas, flowering can occur over an extended period or 

year-round. In Cuba, most flowering occurs from April to May. In 

Mexico, flowering occurs from January to June. Flowering in 

subtropical areas occurs during certain periods during the year. In 

Florida, flowering occurs from June to August. Flowering to harvest 
184

Commodity Growing Season

occurs in 5 to 6 months. Most fruiting occurs from late fall to 

winter. In the Bahamas, fruit mature from September to February. 

In Florida, fruit are harvested from November to March. In Cuba, 

fruiting can occur all year or from October to February. Fruit 

production occurs in 3 to 7 years from seed and 2 to 4 years from 

grafts.

Cat’s-eyes Flowering occurs from March to May in Florida. Fruit matures in 

approximately 120 days. Fruit production occurs in 4 to 5 years.

Chanpedak Flowering can occur any time during the year, but main flowering 

occurs from February to April and August to October in peninsular 

Malaysia, July to August in Western Java, and September to October 

in Australia. Ripening occurs from September to December in 

Western Java. Fruit matures in 3 to 6 months. Champedak can be 

biennial in bearing fruit. The tree is more seasonal than jackfruit. 

The juvenile period is 3 to 6 years from seed and 2 to 4 years from 

clones.

Cherimoya Flowering occurs from April to May in Florida. In some areas such 

as India, flowering can occur twice per year. Fruit matures in 150 

days. In California, fruit ripen October to May. Fruit production 

occurs in 3 to 6 years from seed and 3 to 4 years from grafts.

Cupuacú In natural Amazonian conditions, the tree blooms in the dry season 

of July to December. Fruiting occurs from August to May, with the

major peak from January to March (the rainy season). In 

commercial crop production, the tree produces fruit continuously. 

Fruit take 4 to 4.5 months to develop from pollination.

Custard apple Flowering occurs from May to June in Florida. In many areas, 

fruiting occurs in late winter and spring. Fruit matures in 

approximately 200 days. Fruit production occurs in 4 to 5 years.

Dragon fruit In California, flowering occurs from May to November. In Florida, 

fruit ripen during June to November. In some areas, the plant blooms 

and fruits mainly in August and September. Flower bud emergence 

to fruit ripening takes 50 to 90 days. Seed to fruit production occurs 

in 7 years; cuttings to fruit production occur in 6 to 9 months. 

Durian Flowering can occur all year long, during or near the end of the dry 

period, or once in the winter and once in the summer, depending on 

the climate. For example, in monsoon climates such as Thailand and 

Sri Lanka, flowering begins in March after the dry season. In areas 

near the equator, plants can produce two crops of fruit per year. In 

Malaysia, crops are produced in early March and April and 

September or October. In Sri Lanka, fruit are harvested July and 

August. In Thailand, fruit are produced for 2 to 3 months. In some 

areas, fruit ripen near the end of the dry season (September to 

December). Fruit matures in 90 to 150 days. Fruit production 

occurs in 7 to 8 years from seed and 3 to 4 years from grafts. Peak 

production occurs when trees reach 12 to 15 years of age.

Elephant-apple In Malaysia, leaves are shed in January, flowering takes place from 

February to March, and fruit are harvested in October and 

November. In India, fruit is harvested from early October to March. 

Seedling trees produce fruit in 15 years and vegetatively propagated 
185

Commodity Growing Season

trees produce fruit in 3 years.

Granadilla The tree produces one crop per year. In Bolivia, fruit are produced 

in May and June.

Granadilla, Giant In Venezuela, flowering occurs May to October and fruiting takes 

place from July to October. In Indonesia and Queensland, Australia, 

vines fruit continually all year. Fruit matures in 65 to 85 days. Fruit 

is produced in 1 to 2 years from seed and less than 1 year from 

cuttings.

Ilama Flowering occurs from April to May in Florida. Fruit matures in 150 

days. Fruit are harvested in late June in Mexico, late July to 

September in Guatemala and July to December in Florida. Fruit 

production occurs in 7 to 8 years from seed and 3 to 4 years from 

grafts.

Ingá Flowers form from August to November.

Jackfruit Flowering occurs June to July and December to February in Florida 

and June to August in Brazil. In hot, humid tropical climates, 

flowering and fruit development occur throughout the year. In the 

subtropics, flowering occurs in late spring and fruit maturation 

occurs late summer to early autumn. In areas with wet and dry 

seasons, flowering takes place in the first 2 months of the dry season. 

Heavy loads of fruit can suppress flowering. In Asia, fruit ripen 

from March to June, April to September or June to August. Offseason crops can occur from September to December. In the West 

Indies, fruit ripen in June and in Florida fruit ripen from late summer 

to fall. Fruit matures in 90 to 200 days, depending on the climate 

and altitude. Fruit tend to be biennial in bearing. Trees from seed 

bear in 4 to 14 years.

Jatobá Flowering occurs during the dry season and early rainy season 

(December to May) in Panama. In Brazil, flowers form from 

October to December. In Costa Rica, flowering occurs from 

February to May. Fruit mature during the late rainy season in 

Panama. In Brazil, fruit ripen July to October. In Costa Rica, fruit 

forms one to two months following flowering. Fruit stay on the tree 

for seven to ten months. 

Karuka Pandanus species: In many areas, female flowers are produced one 

to three times per year, while male flowers appear approximately 

every 2 months. In Fiji, male plants usually flower once per year 

from March to May, but can flower during any time of the year. 

Female plants flower heavily every second year. In Fiji, fruit reach 

maturity in approximately one year, in February to April. In 

Northern Australia, fruiting occurs April to August. In Micronesia, 

fruiting occurs twice per year: December to March and July to 

September. Fruiting can occur during the off-season. Fruiting 

occurs in 15 years from seed and 3 to 4 years from cuttings; 

Pandanus utilis flowers in southern Florida during the winter; 

Pandanus julianettii fruit mostly mature December to May, but can

mature during any time of the year. A second season can occur in 

July. Water stress encourages flowering. 

Kei apple Flowering occurs from February to June in Florida. In southern 
186

Commodity Growing Season

Africa, flowering and fruiting occur November to January. In other 

areas including the Mediterranean region and U.S., flowering occurs 

in the spring (April and May) and fruit ripening occurs from August 

to October. In Tanzania, fruit ripen from February to March. Fruit 

matures in 90 days to 4 months. Fruit is produced in 5 to 6 years 

from seed and 2 to 3 years from vegetative propagation.

Langsat Longkong plants form flower buds from April to June. Flowering 

usually occurs during the 1 to 2 months when it is not raining. In 

langsat and duku trees, flower-bud differentiation occurs during the 

early part of the dry season. Flowering occurs after the beginning of 

the monsoon rains. In some areas, flowering occurs once during the 

spring and once during the fall. Fruit is harvested from September to 

November in Thailand. In Malaya, langsats bear twice per year in 

June to July and December to February. In India, fruit ripen from 

April to September. In the Philippines, the season is short. Langsat 

and duku take 180 to 220 days to develop from anthesis. Fruit 

production occurs in 7 to 15 years from seed and 3 to 5 years from 

vegetative propagation.

Lanjut Flowering occurs at very long intervals as long as 5 to 10 years.

Longan In most areas, flowering occurs once per year in spring. In Brazil, 

flowering occurs August to September. In order to promote 

flowering, the tree must be exposed to cool weather of 15 to 22 °C 

(59 to 72 °F) for 2 to 3 months. Fruit matures in 4 months, usually 

in late summer. In Brazil, fruiting occurs February to March. In 

Thailand, fruiting is mainly from June to August. Trees can bloom 

and fruit erratically. Fruiting can occur in alternate years. Trees 

produce fruit in 6 to 10 years from seed and 3 to 5 years from 

asexual propagation.

Lucuma Flowering occurs from June to August in Florida. Trees may bloom 

and fruit all year long. Fruit matures in approximately 180 days. In 

Chile, fruit are harvested April to December. Trees begin to produce 

fruit 5 to 20 years from seed and 4 years from grafting.

Lychee Growth flushes of leaves can occur several times per year, 

depending on the climate. In the Northern hemisphere, panicles can 

appear from November to April. Flowering occurs March to April in 

Florida. In Brazil, flowers form in August and September. In other 

areas, flowering occurs from late winter to early spring. Fruit 

matures in 60 to 90 days. Fruiting occurs from June to July in 

Florida, from late November to March in Australia, and at the 

beginning of summer in Brazil. Trees are erratic in bearing fruit. 

Fruit production occurs 8 to 12 years from seed and 3 to 4 years 

from vegetative propagation.

Mabolo Flowering occurs from March to May in Florida, mainly during the 

dry season (February to April) in the Philippines, August to 

September in Brazil, and March to April in India. Fruit matures in 

150 to 180 days. Fruit form in the summer in Brazil, July and 

August in India, June to September in the Philippines, and June to 

September in Florida. Additional fruiting can occur during any time 

of the year. Trees bear fruit in 6 to 7 years from seed and 3 to 4 
187

Commodity Growing Season

years from grafts. 

Madras-thorn Flowering occurs in April in Hawaii, October to November in the 

Philippines, April to June in West Java, and December to May in 

Central America. Flowering generally occurs in 2 to 4 years. 

Fruiting occurs from February to August in Central America, June to 

August in West Java, and January to February in the Philippines. In 

Puerto Rico, fruiting can occur throughout the year. Fruit ripen 

approximately 3 to 4 months after flowering.

Mammy-apple Flowering occurs May through October in the West Indies and 

Puerto Rico, and January to March in Brazil. Fruit ripen from July 

to February in the West Indies, April to May in Barbados, May to 

July in the Bahamas, June to December in Brazil, and late June to 

August in southern Florida. In Puerto Rico, fruiting can occur twice 

per year. In Colombia, fruiting occurs June and December. Fruiting 

occurs in 6 to 13 years from seed and 4 to 5 years from grafts.

Manduro Flowering occurs from July to November in South Africa and 

September to November in Zimbabwe. Fruit ripens from May to 

July, September to May, or November to March, depending on the 

area in Africa.

Mango In some growing areas, new leaves are borne from late winter to 

early spring. Flowering can occur during any time of the year and 

depends on variety, latitude, and climate. Flowers form in the winter 

in Brazil, in December and January in most of India, in January to 

March in northern India, and in late November to March in southern 

Florida. In other locations, flowering occurs in the spring. Fruiting 

can occur during any time of the year and can be biennial in certain 

areas. Fruit ripen from November to February in Brazil and in 

January, June and October in Thailand. Fruit matures in 120 to 180 

days. Fruit production occurs in 6 to 10 years from seed and 3 to 5 

years from grafts.

Mango, horse Flowering takes place from May to August in Sarawak. In East 

Kalimantan flowering occurs April to September. Fruit ripening 

occurs August to November in Sarawak and August to January in 

East Kalimantan. Fruit are harvested during the rainy season from 

October to December in West Java .

Mango, Saipan Fruit season in West Java is from August to November. Trees can 

produce two crops per year in areas with two dry seasons.

Mangosteen Flowering occurs from May to August in Brazil. Flowering can 

occur twice per year (spring and fall), depending on growing 

conditions. Fruiting can also be irregular and yield can vary 

depending on the tree and season. In India, fruiting occurs during 

the monsoon season from July to October and from April to June. 

Fruiting occurs from November to February in Brazil. In Sri Lanka, 

trees at lower elevations, fruit May through July and at higher 

elevations, trees fruit July through August or August through 

October. In Puerto Rico, unshaded trees fruit in July through August 

and shaded trees fruit November through December. Trees can bear 

in alternate years. Heavy fruiting in one year can be followed by a 

smaller crop the next year. Fruit matures in 150 to 180 days. Fruit 
188

Commodity Growing Season

production occurs in 7 to 10 years from seed and 4 to 5 years from 

grafts.

Marang Flowering occurs from October to November in northern Australia 

and September to November in Brazil. In Hawaii, flowering and 

fruiting occurs year round with sufficient rainfall. Fruit are 

harvested the following February in Australia and March to April in 

Brazil. Fruit production occurs in 3 to 6 years from seed.

Marmaladebox Flowering occurs in October, at the end of the dry season or in 

December, at the beginning of the rainy season in Amazonia. In 

Brazil, flowering occurs in November or from July through 

December. Flowering and fruiting occurs continuously from spring 

to fall in Puerto Rico. Fruit ripen during the rainy season from 

November to March in Amazonia and from September to January 

with a peak in October and November in Haiti. Fruiting occurs from 

February to March or October through June in Brazil. There are 

some varieties in Brazil that bear fruit all year. Trees begin 

producing fruit 6 to 8 years after the seedling stage. 

Matisia Flowering occurs from January to February in Florida, and August to 

November in the western Amazon of Brazil. Fruit mature in 

November in Florida and from February to May in the Western 

Amazon of Brazil. Fruit mature in 270 to 300 days. Fruit 

production occurs in 6 to 8 years from seed .

Mesquite Flowering occurs twice per year in India (February to March and 

August to September). Trees begin to bear fruit in 3 to 4 years.

Mongongo, fruit Flowering to harvest: March to May.

Monkey-bread-tree Flowering occurs May to June in western Africa, October to 

December in southern Africa, and January to March in Sudan. 

Flowering can occur during any time of the year, except the dry 

season. New leaves emerge during the rainy season in the spring 

and are harvested from October to November in some areas of 

Africa. Fruit matures in 5 to 6 months after anthesis. In some areas 

of Africa, fruit are harvested from April through June. Fruit 

production occurs in 8 to 10 years.

Monstera Flowering occurs throughout the year and is most prominent in the 

spring and summer. Fruit matures in 90 to 120 days. Flowering and 

fruiting can overlap, since it requires 12 to 14 months from the 

opening of the inflorescence to fruit maturity. Fruit ripening usually 

occurs during the summer and fall. Fruit production occurs in 6 to 8 

years from seed and 3 to 6 years from cuttings. Suckers can produce 

fruit in 2 to 4 years.

Muriti Flowering and fruiting occur annually and irregularly throughout the 

year. Flowering occurs at the end of the rainy season to the 

beginning of the dry season, from May to August in the central 

Amazons. In Venezuela, there are two flowering seasons, one 

during the beginning of the rainy season (male flowers) and a second 

in December (female flowers). In most areas, fruit ripen during the 

following rainy season. This pattern also occurs in Colombia. 

Fruiting occurs from December to June in the Amazon, February to

August in Peru, and January to July in the Eastern Amazonas. In 
189

Commodity Growing Season

Venezuela, fruit are found throughout the year, but are most 

common from August to October and from February to April. Palms 

bear fruit after reaching a height of 6 meters (7 to 8 years from seed 

germination).

Paho Flowering occurs in November to December in New Guinea and 

early in the dry season (October to November to January to 

February) in the Philippines. Flowering and fruiting can occur yearround in the Philippines. Fruit are harvested approximately 70 days 

from full bloom. Ripening occurs within 6 days.

Palmyra Palm Flowering occurs at 12 to 15 years of age and continues for 50 years. 

Flowering occurs March to April in India. In other areas, flowers 

appear in November to December and anthesis occurs in March. 

Fruit matures in July and August. Maturation is approximately 120 

days.

Papaya Flowering and fruiting occurs all year in the tropics. In subtropical 

areas, flowering does not occur in the winter. In Brazil, flowering 

occurs mainly during the summer. Flowering and fruit set stops in 

the winter in Australia. Although fruiting occurs during most 

months of the year, the two major fruiting periods are from spring to 

early summer and from autumn to early winter. Fruit matures in 

four to nine months. Fruit production occurs in 8 to 10 months from 

seed.

Passionflower, WingedstemFlowering occurs from August to March and fruit mature from 

December to May in Brazil. 

Passionfruit and 

Passionfruit, purple, and 

Passionfruit, yellow

In Australia, there are two vegetative flush peaks, one in late spring 

and the other in late summer/early autumn. Flowering occurs all 

year long in Brazil, and from March to September in Hawaii. 

Depending on the climate, there are one to three harvest peaks. In 

India, harvesting occurs August to December and March to May. In 

Hawaii, harvesting occurs June through January, with the most crops 

in July, August, October, and November. Trees will not set fruit if 

the mean temperature is too high. Fruit matures in 60 to 90 days. 

Fruit production occurs in 1 to 2 years from seed and less than 1 year 

from vegetative propagation. Passiflora edulis forma flavicarpa

flowers April to September in Puerto Rico, October to June in 

Australia and mid-April to mid-November in Florida. In Puerto 

Rico, Passiflora edulis forma flavicarpa are harvested from June to 

October. Passiflora edulis forma edulis flowers July to November 

and again in February to April in Australia and mid-March to April 

in Florida. Passiflora edulis Sims forma edulis trees have a lifespan 

of 3 to 4 years in tropical areas and 6 to 8 years in cooler areas. 

Passionfruit, banana Flowering and fruiting occurs year round in Colombia and Hawaii. 

Peak flowering occurs in the dry season in Hawaii and South 

America. In New Zealand, fruiting occurs from late March or early 

April to September or October. Fruiting occurs in 2 years from seed.

Pawpaw Seedlings flower after reaching 1.8 meters (6 feet) tall. Flowering 

begins in grafted trees after 3 years. Flowering occurs during the 

spring (April in Kentucky, March to May in California). Fruit ripen 

in late summer or early autumn. In California, harvesting occurs 
190

Commodity Growing Season

from mid August to October. Fruiting occurs in 5 to 8 years from 

seed and 5 to 6 years from grafts. Pawpaw, small-flower (Asimina 

parviflora ) flowering occurs in the spring, and April in North 

Carolina.

Pequi Caryocar brasiliense flowering occurs from September to 

November in some areas and June to October in other areas. Fruit 

ripen in December and January, November to March, or October to 

February, depending on the environment. Trees produce fruit in 8 

years from seed. Caryocar villosum leaves shed during the dry 

season. Flowering occurs during the dry season from July to 

November in some areas and August to September in other areas. 

Fruiting occurs March to May. Fruiting occurs in 10 to 15 years 

from seed.

Persimmon, American Flowering occurs in spring and early summer (March to June or 

April to May). Fruit matures in mid to late fall (September to 

November).

Pineapple Flowering can be induced during any time of the year in the tropics. 

The normal flowering season of ‘Smooth Cayenne’ is during the 

winter when there are cooler temperatures and a shortened 

photoperiod. In other cultivars, flowering occurs naturally during 

mid-winter, late spring and early to mid-summer. Flowers can be 

forced with acetylene and ethylene. Depending on the variety, fruit 

is produced in late summer, early winter, and spring. In subtropical 

climates, harvesting occurs during the summer. Fruit production 

occurs in 15 to 24 months from vegetative propagation. Crowns 

produce fruit in 18 to 24 months, slips produce fruit in 15 to 20 

months, and suckers produce fruit in 12 to 17 months. Fruit matures 

in approximately 180 days.

Pitahaya Hylocereus spp. flowering occurs from May to November in areas 

with moderate temperatures and May and October to November in 

areas with hotter temperatures. Depending on variety, fruit can be 

available from June to December. Flowering to ripening occurs in 

30 days. Hylocereus megalanthus flowering occurs from September 

to December in areas with moderate temperatures and November to 

December in areas with hotter temperatures. Flowering occurs 

during the spring and fruit ripens during the summer in South 

America. Flowering to ripening occurs in 90 to 180 days. 

Harvesting occurs in one to three years from cuttings. Hylocereus 

polyrhizus flowering occurs during the spring and summer and 

ripening occurs during the summer. Hylocereus ocamponis

flowering occurs mid-summer.

Pomegranate Flowering usually occurs in the spring until June, but can occur 

throughout the year. Fruiting usually occurs 6 to 7 months after 

flowering. Fruit mainly ripen during the summer. Fruit from the 

‘Wonderful’ cultivar matures in September and October. Fruit 

production occurs in 2 to 5 years from cuttings. 

Poshte Trees produce fruit from late December to April, with a maximum 

yield around the beginning of February. Harvesting occurs in four 

years from seed (when trees reach a height of 4 to 6 meters (13 to 20 
191

Commodity Growing Season

feet)). 

Prickly pear Flowering occurs from the end of winter to summer. Fruiting occurs 

in the summer, but can be timed by low wintertime temperatures, the 

application of fertilizers, or the removal of the spring flush of flower 

buds. Bud removal can lead to a second flowering and the 

production of fruit in November and December. Shade and 

Gibberellic acid can inhibit flower-bud initiation. Flower opening to 

fruit maturity occurs in approximately 70 to 150 days. Fruit 

production occurs in 5 to 6 years from seed and 2 to 3 years from 

cuttings. Trees can bear fruit for 30 to 40 years. Opuntia 

engelmannii var. lindheimeri flowering occurs from spring (March) 

to June in Texas, and other Southwestern states. Fruit ripens from 

July to September.

Pulasan In Hawaii, flowering occurs twice per year (February to March and 

August to October). In Southeast Asia, flowering occurs from June 

to August. In Hawaii, fruiting occurs spring and autumn (same as 

the rambutan). Fruiting occurs October to December in Malaysia 

and April to May in Thailand. Fruit mature at about 32 weeks after 

anthesis. Trees from grafts produce fruit in 3 to 5 years.

Quandong Flowering can occur throughout the year but mainly occurs during 

late summer or October to March, depending upon the growing 

region. Fruiting occurs from early spring to summer in some 

locations and August to December in other locations. Fruiting 

occurs in 3 to 5 years from seed.

Rambutan Flowering and fruiting times depend on the region the tree is grown. 

In some areas, flowering occurs at the end of the dry season. In 

these locations, the dry period must last at least 1 month to initiate 

flowering. Flowering occurs in the Philippines from late March to 

early May. Flowering occurs in the dry tropics in Australia after the 

onset of cool nights, from July to August. Flowering occurs in the 

wet tropics throughout the year, regardless of climate. Main 

flowering in the wet tropics occurs from September to October, 

following the short dry season. Flowering occurs December to 

February in Brazil. Fruiting generally occurs during the wet season 

(summer). A second smaller crop can occur that year (winter) on 

branches that did not bear fruit in the previous fruiting. Fruiting 

occurs from May to June in Thailand and is initiated by a drop in 

night temperatures of 2 to 3 °C (36 to 37 °F) and the onset of the dry 

season. Fruiting occurs during the summer in Brazil, June and 

December in Malaysia, July to November in the Philippines and 

mid-summer in Australia. Fruit development takes three months in 

warm areas and five months in cooler areas. Fruiting occurs from 

seed in 5 to 6 years and 3 to 4 years from grafting or layers.

Saguaro Flowering occurs March through June. Later flowering occurs in 

cooler areas. Fruit is produced yearly. Fruit ripen from June 

through August, before the summer rains. Plants can produce fruit 

after reaching a height of 2 meters (7 feet) and an age of 40. Plants 

can live over 200 years.

Salak Flowering and fruiting occurs continuously in areas where there is 
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Commodity Growing Season

uniform water availability. Most flowering occurs during the first 

half of the dry season (June to July). Harvest peaks occur in Bali 

and other areas in Indonesia from May to July and December to 

February. Some cultivars require at least 10 leaves to produce fruit. 

Fruit are harvested approximately 160 days after flowering. 

Flowering and fruiting occurs 3 to 4 years from seed and 2 to 3 years 

from suckers or layers. Trees can produce fruit for up to 50 years.

Sapodilla A short dry period and a reduction in vegetative growth aids 

flowering. Flowering mainly occurs from September to October in 

Southeast Asia, in the summer in Australia, April to June (early in 

the rainy season) in the Philippines, February to April and October to 

December in Mexico, October to December in Brazil, May to 

September (peak from June to July) in Florida, and December to 

March and July to August in India. In areas such as Florida, 

Malaysia, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, flowering can occur year 

round. Fruit mature from fall to winter in Brazil. Fruit matures in 

168 to 240 days. Fruiting occurs in 4 to 10 years from seed and 2 to 

5 years from grafts. Trees are long-lived.

Sapote, black Flowering occurs from March to May in Florida, August to October 

in Brazil, March in Mexico, and during the dry season in March in 

the Philippines. In some subtropical areas, flowering occurs during 

the spring and summer. Fruiting occurs from August to January or 

July to September in Mexico, and December, January, February and 

June to August in Florida. Fruit mature in 200 to 300 days. In 

subtropical areas, fruiting occurs from the late summer to winter. 

Fruit production occurs in 5 to 6 years from seed and 2 to 3 years 

from grafts.

Sapote, green Flowering occurs during the late winter and early spring. Fruiting 

occurs from October to February or March. Fruit matures in 

approximately 12 months. Fruiting occurs in 8 to 10 years from 

seed.

Sapote, mamey Flowering occurs from April to July in Florida and during springtime 

in Brazil. Flowering can occur year round in tropical areas and 

springtime in subtropical areas. Fruiting occurs from March to April 

through to July to August in southern Florida, February to April in 

Costa Rica, springtime in Brazil, and June to July and November to 

December in the Dominican Republic. Fruit can be produced year 

round, depending on location and cultivar. Fruit matures in 12 to 15 

months. Fruit production occurs in 7 to 12 years from seed and 3 to 

5 years from grafts. Trees can live and produce fruit for over 100 

years.

Sapote, white Flowering occurs from January to February or spring to summer in 

Florida, springtime, late summer, and fall in California, January and 

February in Mexico, and April to June in Brazil. In tropical 

locations, flowering occurs from autumn to winter. In subtropical 

areas, flowering occurs in mid- to late winter and spring. Flowering 

can occur multiple times during the year and can be induced by 

drought or girdling. Fruiting generally occurs from late spring and 

summer to early autumn. Most fruiting occurs from May to August 
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Commodity Growing Season

in Central America, April to May in Guatemala, September to 

November and February in California, May to October in Mexico, 

late May through August in the Bahamas, and August to November 

in Brazil. Some cultivars can produce two to five crops per year. 

Fruit matures in 120 days from flowering. Fruit production occurs in 

7 to 8 years from seed and 3 to 4 years from vegetative propagation.

Sataw Season: Peak flowering and fruiting occurs between August and 

October. A smaller peak occurs between January and March. 

Fruiting occurs in 7 years from seed and approximately 2 years from 

vegetative propagation.

Satinleaf Flowering occurs from July to October in Puerto Rico. Flowering 

and fruiting occurs all year in Florida. The flowering peak in Florida 

is from summer to fall. Fruiting occurs in February in Puerto Rico.

Sierra Leone-tamarind Flowering occurs from September to November and January to April 

in west Africa, September to November in Ghana, and September to 

October in Nigeria. Fruiting occurs October to January in Nigeria 

and March to May in Ghana. Fruit matures in 90 to 150 days.

Soncoya Flowering occurs May to July. Fruit ripen in August in the Yucatan, 

in the fall in Central America, and August to October elsewhere.

Soursop Flowering occurs from May to June and October to November in 

Florida and springtime in Brazil. Major flowering peaks occur in the 

tropics after periods of vegetative flushes. The second peak of 

flowering occurs during the onset of the monsoon season in India. 

In many tropical areas including Hawaii, flowering and fruiting 

occurs year round, with two or more main fruiting peaks. Fruiting 

occurs from September to January in Brazil, March to June or 

September in Puerto Rico, April in Queensland, June to September 

in southern India, Mexico and Florida, June to October in the 

Bahamas, and January to April, June to August and October to 

November in Hawaii. Although fruiting can occur year round in 

tropical areas, peak production occurs from summer to early autumn 

and during early spring. Fruit matures in 70 to 120 days. Fruit 

production occurs in 4 to 5 years from seed and 2 to 3 years from 

grafts.

Spanish lime Flowering occurs in April in Florida, October to December in Brazil, 

March to April in Jamaica, April to June in Puerto Rico, and 2 

months later in Trinidad. Fruit mature from June to September in 

Puerto Rico, summer in Brazil, September to October in Trinidad, 

July to October in the Bahamas, June to September in Florida, and 

July to December in the Dominican Republic. Fruit matures in 90 to 

150 days. Fruit production occurs in 7 to 10 years from seed and 4

to 5 years from vegetative propagation.

Star apple Flowering is associated with main shoot growth in the rainy season 

and occurs from late summer to early autumn. Flowering occurs 

from August to October in Florida and July to September in Brazil. 

Fruit are harvested from late winter or early spring to early summer 

in most locations. Fruiting occurs in the summer in Brazil, early to 

late spring in Florida, April to May in the West Indies, and February 

to March in India. Fruit matures in approximately 150 to 180 days. 
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Commodity Growing Season

Fruit production occurs in 5 to 12 years from seed and 4 to 5 years 

from grafts.

Sugar apple Flowering can occur for 3 to 6 months. Two major flowering peaks 

occur after the period of vegetative flush. The second peak occurs at 

the beginning of the monsoon season. Flowering and fruiting occur 

throughout the year in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. 

Flowering occurs from April to May in Florida and India, and 

springtime in Brazil. In many areas, fruit is harvested from July to 

October and can be extended to March if summer pruning is 

conducted. Peak production is between July and March in Taiwan, 

January to April in Brazil, July to November in India (Poona), and 

July to September in Thailand, Florida, and the Caribbean. Fruit 

matures in 120 to 150 days. Fruit production occurs in 3 to 5 years 

from seed and 2 to 3 years from grafts.

Sun Sapote Flowering occurs from November to December in Florida, July to 

September in Mexico and February to March in Honduras. Fruit 

mature from August to December in Mexico and June to September 

in Honduras. Fruit matures in approximately 250 days. Fruit 

production occurs in 10 years from seed.

Tamarind-of-the-Indies In most locations, flowers develop during the rainy season after the 

new leaves appear in September and October. In Tanzania, 

flowering occurs from October to February. In most locations, fruit 

ripen during the dry season from January to April. In Tanzania, fruit 

ripening occurs April to December. In Dodoma, Singida and 

Tabora, ripening occurs from April to July. In Kilimanjaro and 

Arusha, fruit ripens from August to December.

Velvet Tamarind Flowering occurs from April to June in Thailand. Harvesting occurs 

from August to September in Thailand. Fruit develops in 3 to 4 

months. Trees produce fruit in 5 to 17 years from seed.

Wampi Flowering is similar to lychee and occurs during the late winter in 

many locations. In Brazil, flowering occurs from September to 

October. Fruits mature in early to mid-summer in many locations. 

Fruit ripens from July to August in Florida, June to October in 

Southeast Asia, May to July in Thailand, January to March in Brazil, 

and November to December in Australia. Fruiting occurs in 5 to 8 

years from seed.

White star apple Flowering occurs from April to June in Nigeria. Fruiting occurs in 

December to March.

Wild loquat Flowering occurs during the beginning of the rainy season 

(October/November) and extends during the 5 to 6 months of the 

rainy season. Most trees flower from January to March. Male 

flowers begin flowering before female flowers. Fruiting is biennial 

and usually begins during the rainy season. Fruit set occurs from 

January to February and fruit maturation occurs from August to 

December in many areas. Fruit are said to be edible from October 

through February. Fruit in some areas ripens from November to 

April. Fruit development occurs in 5 to 8 months. Trees produce 

fruit in 9 to 10 years from seed and 3 years from vegetatively 

propagated material. 
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Specific Examples of Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Commodities 

Growing Season and Harvesting:

Banana:

The fruit of the banana tree is usually at full maturity from 11 to 16 months after 

planting. The taller varieties of trees can take up to 18 months to produce fully mature 

fruit. These trees can reach a height of 18 feet, but many varieties are fully grown at 

from 6 to 10 feet tall. Bananas are harvested while still green. They ripen slowly after 

picking. (Bananas receive less damage in shipping if transported at the green stage.) After 

harvest, growth stops, the flower withers and the season for growing is over, and the 

leaves should not be cut back too soon or the rhizome will be deprived of food. After the 

tree has produced, the leaves are the rhizome's only source of energy to refuel and start 

the next season's growth. Add topsoil or compost to the native soil, mix it with the soil 

excavated from making the hole in no more than a 50-50 ratio. Add backfill the hole 

with some of the native soil removed to make the hole. Remove the plant from the 

container and place it in the hole so that the top of the soil media in the container is level 

with or slightly above the surrounding soil level. Fill soil in around the plant roots and 

tamp slightly to remove air pockets. Immediately water the soil around the plant and 

plant roots. Banana bunches are generally harvested when the fingers are plump but 

before they begin to turn yellow. However, bananas may be picked at different times for 

different purposes. In general, bananas for fresh consumption in the home landscape may

be picked when they have reached or nearly reached the normal size for a particular 

variety. Usually, this is when the edges of the fruit have smoothed out and the sides of 

the fruit have swelled. Homeowners may want to harvest fruit 7 to 14 days prior to 

ripening on the plant. Hanging the fruit in a shady, cool place to ripen seems to allow 

development of better flavor than if allowed ripening on the plant. Bananas may also be 

cooked and consumed when still green or when very ripe as is done with plantains. 

Banana varieties may be eaten fresh when ripe or cooked when green.

Processing Studies for Banana, Dragon fruit, Lychee, Mango, Papaya, Passionfruit, 

Pineapple, and Soursop for Their Juice, Nectar, Pulp, and Canned Slices, and for 

Dried Fruits. (Adapted from Neil Ewing, National Food Processors Association, 1992, 

Nagy et al., 1993, Hui, 2006, and iTi Tropicals http://www.ititropicals.com).

Banana:

Fresh bananas are the most popular fresh fruit in the U.S.A. Native to the tropical 

region of Southeast Asia; bananas are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua 

New Guinea. Today, they are cultivated throughout the tropics. Bananas are known to 

be over 99% fat free and are a good source of potassium, vitamin C, fiber and 

manganese. Bananas are an exceptionally rich source of fructo-oligosaccharide, a 
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compound called a prebiotic because it nourishes probiotic (friendly) bacteria in the 

colon. Bananas have a wide range of food applications. They include: muffins, cakes, 

fruit beverages, yogurt, and ice cream and babyfood. Only a small percent of the banana 

cop is processed. The unripe stage of banana and plantains are preferred for processing 

than the ripe bananas. Banana puree is produced from high quality, ‘Cavendish’ variety 

bananas ripened under controlled conditions. For our puree, the bananas are carefully 

selected, peeled, pureed, deseeded, de-aerated and aseptically packed. In the entire 

process, the natural flavors and color are retained. We offer both acidified and nonacidified versions of the puree. Banana puree is also available with or without seeds, and 

used in preparation of baby foods, beverages, jams, juices, ice cream, and bakery

products. Clarified banana juice concentrate is produced from natural 100% ripe 

bananas, clarified, concentrated to 71 Brix and packed in metal drums. Banana chips are 

sliced and fried in palm oil. Ripe fruits are used to make banana flakes, while green and 

starchy bananas are dehydrates into flour and utilized in baby products, beverages, in 

baking and confectionaries. The iTi company supplies acidified banana puree, non 

acidified banana puree, banana puree with and without seeds, organic banana puree and 

70 Brix clarified banana concentrate. The banana puree is packed in either 6 gallon bagin-box- 55 gallon bag in drum or 220 gallon. 

Dragon fruit 

Dragon fruit is a fruit grown in Southeast Asia, Mexico, Central and South 

America, and Israel. The dragon fruit is usually dark red in color. However some other 

types are pink or yellow. The fruit has a very thin rind. The fruit skin is usually covered 

in scales, and the center is made up of red or white pulp. The flavor is a cross between a 

kiwi and firm pear. The red dragon fruit has bright pink colored pulp that can be used for 

various food and beverage applications. Dragon fruit puree can be used as a topping in a 

dessert, ice cream or sorbet. It can also be used in juice, jam, or topping on your salad. 

iTi Tropicals Inc offers dragon fruit puree from Thailand. The manufacturing facility

operates under a certified quality control system and HACCP regulations. The product is 

Kosher certified, and is manufactured under a certified quality system. The dragon fruit is 

processed under good manufacturing practices and is free of any additives or 

preservatives. The puree has bright pink color and can be used for various food and 

beverage applications. Dragon fruit puree can be used as a topping in a dessert, ice cream 

or sorbet treat. It can also be used in juice, jam, or topping on your salad. Dragon fruit

juice has a bright pink color and can be used in various food and beverage applications as 

a natural color. Its mild flavor blends well with other fruits. Dragon fruit juice can be 

used as a topping in a dessert, ice cream or sorbet treat.

Lychee

Lychee is a tropical fruit which is primarily grown in China and Vietnam, 

however Lychee is also found in the northern part of India. The history of planting this 

fruit goes back at least 2000 years. Lychee is considered the rose of the fruit world with 

its pearly flesh, tropical-floral aroma and delicate flavor. Nutritious and unique in flavor, 
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the lychee fruit is normally about 11⁄2 to 2 inches in size and has a distinct oval, heart 

shape. It is low in calories, low in saturated fat, cholesterol and sodium. The fruit is rich 

in Vitamin C, copper and potassium. Lychee can be used in various food applications 

such as jellies, jams, marmalades or sauces. While the fresh fruit is highly desirable, it is 

also processed into canned fruit, juice, and dehydrated products during the peak of 

harvest season. Lychee puree is produced from the best quality fruit and all processing of 

lychee puree is done under the guidelines of good manufacturing practices. Lychee puree 

is free of any additives or preservatives. The lychee puree is used for mixed drinks, but is 

equally good for sorbets, ice creams and smoothies. Lychee puree can also be used to 

add intense flavor to cocktails, beverage applications and sweet & savory sauces. Lychee 

jelly is also prepared as well as use in preparation of sherbet or ice cream. The lychee 

juice is produced from the best quality fruit and is made from all natural ingredients. All 

processing of the juice is done under the strict guidelines of good manufacturing 

practices. Lychee juice is free of any additives or preservatives. Lychee juice is great for 

mixed drinks, but is equally good for sorbets, ice creams and smoothies. The juice can be 

used to add intense flavor to cocktails, beverage applications and sweet and savory. 

Dried lychee is called lychee nuts. The fruit can be frozen without removing the peel. 

Lychee can be fermented for use in drugs or making lychee wine, pickles, and preserves. 

For preparing juice the fruits are harvested and fed into a pulper. The pH of the juice is 

adjusted to 4.0 and then pasteurized. 

Mango:

The fruit is a peach like, juicy fruit, with a single large kidney-shaped seed. The 

flavor is pleasant, and the fruit is high in sugars and acid. One small fruit provides a 

quarter of the recommended daily allowance for vitamin C, nearly two thirds of the daily

quota for vitamin A and good amounts of vitamin E and fiber. In India they are regarded 

as the king of fruits and this popular fruit can be used in a wide range of food applications 

like fruit juices, smoothies, ice-cream, sorbets, jellies and preserves. Mango puree, 

concentrates and essences are produced from highest quality fruits free of insects and 

diseases. Mango puree is prepared by processing fresh fruit which have been cleaned, 

washed, properly drained, sorted, and inspected. The pulp is then extracted, 

homogenized, de-aerated and sterilized for aseptic packing. The puree is then packed, 

stored and shipped in accordance with good manufacturing practices. Varieties of mango 

puree from Mexico, Ecuador, Columbia and India and offer varieties of mangoes like 

‘Alfonso’, ‘Totapuri’, ‘Kent’, ‘Chato’, ‘Tommy Mango’, and ‘Magdalena River’. 

Standard applications for mango include: juice, nectar, baby food and jelly. Mango 

concentrate is manufactured using mature fruit, free of insects and diseases. The fruit 

pulp is extracted, followed by an enzymatic deactivation, evaporation, enzyme addition 

and puree concentration and sterilization. Mango concentrate can be used in beverages, 

ice cream, jams, jellies, sauces and cereal bars. Mango essence captures the fresh fruit 

aroma and flavor of the fruit's essence by extracting the volatile aromas from the pulp 

through condensation. The powerful sensory qualities of this mango essence make it 

ideal for adding natural fruit taste and aroma to beverages, snacks, frozen treats, and 

confectionary. Organic mango puree is produced from fully, ripened mature organic fruit 
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from Columbia. All processing of this fruit product is done under the guidelines of good 

manufacturing practices. Standard applications for the puree include: juice, nectar, baby 

food and jelly. iTi supplies mango puree and mango concentrates. The products are 

produced from fresh, ripe, carefully selected fruit. Mango juice is prepared from mango 

puree with an equal amount of water. The difference between mango juice and nectar is 

the lower fruit content in the nectar. Mango nectar formulations vary from 20-33% pulp 

content. Mango slices are also dehydrated and fruit leathers are popular in the U.S. 

Mango powder is prepared from puree and used as a flavoring agent or as a beverage 

base. Immature green mangoes are made into chutneys, pickles, and for beverages. 

Papaya:

Papaya is native to Central and South America but found in most tropical climates 

around the world. It has black seeds and the fruit is yellow or red based on the variety. 

Papayas are bell-shaped, with one end much smaller than the other. Their skin is smooth 

and leathery, and changes from green to yellow as it ripens. Ripened papayas are juicy, 

sweet, somewhat like a cantaloupe in flavor. It is well recognized that the papaya 

contains valuable digestive properties. One medium-sized papaya is only 118 calories, 

and is a rich source of carotenes, vitamin C, flavenoids, B vitamins, folate, and 

pantothenic acid. It is also a good source of Vitamins E and K, as well as the minerals 

potassium and magnesium. Papaya puree is 100% natural, resulting from fresh, ripe, and 

selected fruit, by a mechanical process of extraction, refining, and pasteurization. IIn the 

U.S. papaya puree is the major processed papaya commodity. Both red and yellow 

papaya purees are available. The puree is the major semiprocessed product that is used in 

juices, purees, nectars, and fruit cocktails, jams, jellies, and fruit jellies. The initial step 

in preparing the puree is removal of the skins and seeds by using a lye peeling technique 

followed by a water wash. Papaya puree can be sold as such or utilized as a raw material 

for other processed products. Papaya can be used in various food and beverage 

applications. Papaya concentrate is 100% natural, resulting from fresh, ripe, and selected 

fruit. Papaya concentrate is obtained by a mechanical process of extraction, refining, and 

pasteurization and is concentrated through water removal and evaporation. It does not 

contain any artificial colorings, preservatives, or flavors. Papaya concentrate can be used 

in various food and beverage applications. Canned papaya chunks or slices are popular 

for fruit salads. Soft papaya fruits are not suitable for canning. For canning only green 

mature or semi ripe papaya fruits are used. The fruits are washed, peeled and deseeded 

and placed in cans with sugar syrup. For candied papaya fully mature but unripe fruit is 

hand peeled and cut into 0.5 – 1.0 cm cubes, and brined in 4% solution for two weeks, 

and then rinsed with fresh water. Syrup is added and boiled each day until the 

concentration is between 70 – 75 Brix. Other fruit essences such as orange or pineapple 

are added to the syrup and allowed to stand overnight. The candied papaya is then rolled 

in powder sugar to prevent stickiness. Candied papaya is used in baked products, ice 

cream, and confectionary formulation. Fully ripe and mature papaya is used for the 

preparation of jam and jelly. The fruits are peeled and seeds and inner white rind are 

removed, cut into slices and cooked with water to soften. The cooked slices are mashed, 

mixed with sugar and cooked until 65-68 Brix. The jam if filled into sterilized glass jars. 
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For jelly a clarified fruit extract from the pulp is mixed with sugar and cooked to a 

temperature of 106.5C and then placed in jars. Papaya juice and nectar are prepared 

from papaya puree, and is often mixed with other juices. Mango (75 parts) and papaya 

(25 parts) blended formulations are most acceptable in terms of color, appearance, flavor, 

and taste. A number of low moisture dried papaya products such as fruit leather, powder, 

toffee, rolls and slices are prepared from puree. The pieces are dried at 65.5C to 

moisture of 8-10%. Dried product can be rolled and cut into different sizes. 

Passionfruit Tropical Juice Products: 

Passionfruit grows on a vine in its native tropical and subtropical regions. 

Commercially, it is grown in Brazil, the Caribbean, Australia, Africa and some areas of 

the southern United States. It can be one to three inches in size with a hard, smooth, and 

wax coated rind. The colors range from dark purple to light yellow or orange. This fruit 

itself is composed of juice and pulp filled pockets, as well as hundreds of small black 

seeds. The distinctive flavor is robust, and very similar to tart guava. The yellow 

varieties are normally larger than the purple types. The pulp has an intense aromatic 

flavor and is used as a flavoring for beverages and sauces. Its aromatic properties make it 

popular in gourmet cooking. It is a good source of vitamins A and C, as well as 

potassium iron and fiber. Passionfruit has hundreds of medicinal properties that have 

been used throughout history. It supplies passionfruit puree from Ecuador. The 

processing of passionfruit confirms to good manufacturing practices and is carefully

processed to maintain the sensory and nutritional properties of the original product. Its 

consistency is viscous and its color is characteristic of passionfruit. The pulp has an 

intense aromatic flavor and can be used as a flavoring for beverages and sauces. Product 

is 100% natural with no additives. Its consistency is viscous and its color is characteristic 

of passion fruit. The pulp has an intense aromatic flavor and can be used as a flavoring 

for beverages and sauces. Passionfruit puree can be used in a wide variety of food and 

beverage products. Its colorful, flavorful, aromatic and refreshing tropical flavor makes it 

the ideal ingredient for a number of sophisticated applications. It keeps the intensity of 

the aroma and flavor of the single strength juice almost in totality, since the aromas of the 

pulp that are evaporated together with the water during the concentration process are 

recovered and incorporated back into the juice concentrate. Its consistency is viscous and 

its color is characteristic of passionfruit. Passionfruit concentrate is a product resulting 

from high quality short time concentration through water removal from juice derived 

from selected mature fresh passion fruits. The processing confirms to good 

manufacturing practices and is carefully processed to maintain the sensory and nutritional 

properties of the original fruit. Passionfruit concentrate can be used as a vital ingredient 

of some cocktails, chiefly the hurricane. Passionfruit essence is a pure fruit essence 

recovered from passion fruit juice prior to concentration. The powerful sensory qualities 

of passion fruit essence make it ideal for adding natural passionfruit taste and aroma to 

beverages, snacks, frozen treats, and confectionary. Typical processing for passionfruit 

juice and concentrate is designed to retain the fresh, wholesome, and unique qualities of 

the fruit. Time is of the essence as is strict adherence to quality standards. Collected 

daily, fresh passionfruit is transported to the processing plant where it is screened, 
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inspected, and washed vigorously with high pressure water jets designed to remove 

extraneous matter and any leaves or dirt that have adhered to the fruit. Once cleaned, the 

fruit passed to a final selection table where it is inspected and cleared for the extraction 

process. Specially designed extractors break down the fruit making it ready for 

processing and concentration. Seed fragments, peel and other unwanted solids are 

screened out leaving only clean juice. The juice is then centrifuged, deaerated and 

pasteurized in a sterilized circuit. If the resulting product meets all of the quality

standards, it is concentrated to the desired Brix level. In the concentration step, water is 

removed from the juice in a low-temperature process and the volatile aroma is recovered 

by a state-of the-art system that homogenizes the captured aroma with the concentrated 

juice and restores the important sensory profile typical of fresh passionfruit. Ready for 

packing, concentrate is piped to the filling room where it is placed into plastic bags and 

drums which have been sterilized by irradiation with ultraviolet light. The bags then 

drums are sealed, labeled and moved to freezers where they are quick frozen. The entire 

process is meticulously surveyed by a quality control team who conduct various tests at 

different stages of the process. Samples from each batch are procured for bacteriological 

analysis and kept in storage as control samples. The yield for processing one metric ton 

(2204 lbs.) of 50 Brix concentrate is 12:1 or it takes 12 kg of fruit to make 1 kg of 

concentrate. About two thirds of the bulk is refuse of which 90% is rind and 10% is 

seeds.

Pineapple:

Pineapple is the common name for an edible tropical plant and also its fruit. It is 

native to the southern part of Brazil, and Paraguay. The required processing studies for 

pineapple is in a series of processing study protocols from the National Food Processors 

Association submitted to Dr. Debra Edwards US EPA, OPP, CBTS (Ewing, 1992). The 

procedure simulates commercial practices and discusses the processing of pineapple 

samples starting with raw unwashed fruit which are also processed further into pineapple 

crown for forage, pineapple juice, and wet and dry pineapple bran. The procedure 

involves using unwashed whole pineapple that is sampled for residues for the RAC. 

Samples are taken of the unripe fruit, crowns are removed and weighed. Pineapples are 

quartered and chopped and washed with chlorinated water. They are sampled for 

residues and the wash water is sampled. The tops and buts of the pineapple are cut and 

washed and the peel and core are removed. The free run juice is collected and saved for 

pineapple juice. The peel, tops, buts, and trimmings are cut for the bran and weighed and 

samples taken for wet bran use. Pineapple segments are canned and juice is collected 

after macerating the segments. The juice is sampled before heating. Pineapple juice is 

heated to 195 – 205°F. Dry pineapple waste is dried to a moisture content of 10% or less. 

Pineapple is a good source of manganese (91% DV in a 1 cup serving), as well as 

containing significant amounts of Vitamin C (94% DV in a 1 cup serving). Pineapple 

contains a proteolytic enzyme bromelain, which breaks down protein. Iti specialties

supplies pineapple juice supplied by our company is aseptically manufactured in Costa 

Rica. Pineapple Juice is obtained from mechanical extraction of the juice of fresh, sound, 

and ripe pineapples that is pasteurized prior to the aseptic filling. No preservatives are 
201

added. This product can be used for many food applications. The pineapple juice 

concentrate is obtained by evaporation of the water in the single strength juices. We 

obtain pineapple concentrate from Thailand and offer product in two different Brix levels 

61 and 65. The processing confirms to good manufacturing practices and is carefully

processed to maintain the sensory and nutritional properties of the original fruit. Product 

is 100% natural with no additives. The pineapple concentrate can be used in different 

beverage applications.

Soursop:

Soursop is a native fruit from the West Indies, Central America, and Brazil. It is 

also grown in tropical Asia particularly Indonesia. The fruit is more or less oval or heartshaped, sometimes irregular, lopsided or curved. The flesh of the fruit consists of an 

edible white pulp and a core of indigestible black seeds. The flesh is custard-like, sweet, 

juicy, tart and fragrant. This well-known tropical fruit can be widely used in making jam, 

ice cream, fruit drinks (nectar). The sweet pulp can also be used to make candies, sorbets 

and ice cream flavorings. Soursop puree is produced from the best quality fruit and is 

made from all natural ingredients. All processing of soursop puree is done under the 

guidelines of good manufacturing practices. Aseptic soursop puree is made from fresh 

ripened fruits processed by sophisticated machines in which no single seed breaks during 

the process. The seeds are then removed by filtration. This tropical fruit can be widely 

used in making jam, ice cream, fruit drinks (nectar). The sweet pulp can also be used to 

make candies, sorbets and ice cream flavorings. 

Comparison of the Raw Agricultural Commodities (RAC) and Processed 

Commodities for the Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Group (see 

Table 31).

The raw agricultural commodities (RAC) for the proposed Tropical and 

subtropical fruit – inedible peel crop group are similar (Table 31). Only pineapple 

requires the process commodity juice and feedstuff – process residue. Pineapple process 

residue is also known as wet bran). A wet waste byproduct from the fresh-cut 

product line that includes pineapple tops (minus crown), bottoms, peels, any

trimmings with peel cut up, and the pulp (left after squeezing for juice); it can 

include culls. 860.1000. The portion analyzed for the tropical fruits is the whole 

fruit with usually the removal of the stems. 

Table 31. Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Portion Analyzed for the 

Raw Agricultural Commodity (RAC) and the Processed Commodity (40 CFR Vol. 

58, No. 187, 9/29/1993, pp. 50888 – 50893. Portion of Food Commodities Analyzed 

Pesticide Residues: Proposed Rule), and Table 1 Raw Agricultural and Processed 

Commodities Derived from Crops (EPA Residue Chemistry Guidelines OPPTS 

860.1000).
202

Commodity Portion Analyzed (RAC), Use as a 

Feedstuff (F)

Processed Commodity 

(PC) and Use as a 

Feedstuff (F) 

Tropical and 

Subtropical Fruit –

Inedible Peel Group

Analyze the whole commodity after 

removing stems and stones but residue 

is calculated and expressed on the whole 

fruit similar to Codex MRL.

Banana Analyze the whole commodity 

including peel after removing and 

discarding crown tissue and stalk.

Avocado Analyze the whole commodity after 

removal of stone but is calculated on 

whole fruit similar to Codex MRL..

Mango Analyze the whole commodity after 

removal of stone but is calculated on 

whole fruit similar to Codex MRL..

Papaya Analyze the whole commodity after 

removal of stone but residue is 

calculated and expressed on the whole 

fruit similar to Codex MRL.

Pineapple Analyze the whole commodity after 

removal of crown. 

Process residue (F)

Juice (PC)

Other uses for the specific tropical and subtropical inedible peel commodities are 

discussed under the section of this report for the preparation, cooking methods, uses, and 

marketing standards for the proposed members of the Tropical and Subtropical Fruit 

Group.

LIVESTOCK FEED ITEMS:

There are no significant animal feed items associated with the proposed Tropical 

and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Group 24 (Table 31), except for pineapple process 

residue. Pineapple process residue is only fed in Hawaii to livestock.

CROP ROTATIONS FOR THE TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT –

INEDIBLE PEEL:

The members of the Tropical and subtropical fruit - inedible peel proposed group 

are not rotated because of their long productive life spans at the same location and most 

orchards or plantations are maintained at the same location for greater than 10 years 

(Schneider, 1998). The HED Chemistry Branch (Schneider, 1998a) has previously 

determined that crop rotation studies will not be required for the following commodities 

avocado, banana, mango, papaya, passionfruit, pineapple, and plantain.
203

Several crops such as passionfruit require several years to develop and mature 

before they produce their first commercially available crop. Most tropicals are long-lived 

and are not rotated. Therefore, the length of time that it takes to establish a crop before it 

is mature enough to produce a crop, and the expected length of time the crop produces a 

profitable marketable commodity will determine if a crop rotation study is required. 

Table 32 lists specific tropical fruit commodities, whether the crop is rotated, and reasons 

for the decision. 

Table 32. Determination of Tropical and Subtropical Fruit - Inedible Peel 

Commodities Whose Cultural Practices Do Not Normally Include Crop Rotations.

Tropical and Subtropical 

Fruit – Inedible Peel 

Commodity

Crop Rotated 

(Y/N)

Notes

Avocado N Maintained as tree orchards developing 

to a height of > 60 ft. Takes 5 to 6 years 

to produce their first crop.

Banana N Bananas are grown in plantations and 

mature in 10 to 15 months after planting. 

Banana plantations can survive up to 25 

years, with the commercial life of an 

individual banana plant 5 to 6 years.

Mango N Mango orchards are > 20 years old.

Papaya N Papayas are grown for 4 to 5 years before 

replacing in HI. They are replanted in the 

same area.

Passionfruit N Takes 3 years to mature and may be 

productive for 5 years.

Pineapple N All of the U.S. commercial pineapple 

production is in Hawaii. Pineapple 

plantations are maintained for 3 years 

from planting to replanting and produce 

two crops (second crop is a ratoon crop 

produced from suckers left on the plant). 

The first crop takes 21 months to mature.

Plantain N Plantains like bananas are grown in 

plantations that can be maintained for up 

to 25 years, with the commercial life of 

one plantain also 5 to 6 years. The area 

is not rotated and individual plants are 

replaced periodically.

Other uses for the specific tropical and subtropical inedible peel commodities are 

discussed under the section of this report for the preparation, cooking methods, uses, and 

marketing standards for the proposed members of the Tropical and Subtropical Fruit 

Group.
204

PEST PROBLEMS FOR THE TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL INEDIBLE 

PEEL FRUIT CROPS: (Developed from USDA Crop Profiles from CA , FL, 

American Samoa, and HI Extension Bulletins, Ploetz, 2003, Schneider, 1998b–f, Crane, 

J. and Mossler, M. 2006. Pesticides Registered for Tropical Fruit Crops in Florida, 

University of Florida, IFAS Extension, EDIS, FS HS177 (http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/HS177), 

and other Research Literature). 

Environmental conditions in the tropics and sub-tropics are favorable for a wide 

range of weed, insect and plant diseases on a year-round basis. These diverse insects, 

weeds and pathogens often need to be controlled by herbicides, insecticides and 

fungicides. A crop group regulation would facilitate the establishment of pesticide 

tolerances on numerous pesticides that are needed to control a wide diversity of plant 

pests. 

There are several common pest problems that occur among the tropical fruits. 

The most important pest problems associated with this group of commodities are insect 

and plant diseases, including various postharvest diseases. Weeds common to humid 

climate orchards also affect tropical fruit orchards. Because tropical fruits are grown 

under hot and humid conditions fugal problems are common. Insect pests are not 

controlled by cold conditions. This discussion tries to emphasize pest problems in U.S. 

growing regions. The following tables provide lists of important insects, diseases, 

viruses, weeds and vertebrate pest problems of the tropical fruits. Many of the pest 

problems are common to all tropical fruits such as fruit rots, leaf and fruit borers, and 

nematodes. Environmental conditions in the tropics and subtropics are favorable for a 

wide range of weed, insect and plant diseases on a year-round basis. These diverse 

insects, weeds and pathogens often need to be controlled by herbicides, insecticides and 

fungicides. A crop group regulation would facilitate the establishment of pesticide 

tolerances on numerous pesticides that are needed to control a wide diversity of plant 

pests. Availability of a similar set of pest control options for the Tropical fruit inedible 

peel group would be useful in promoting integrated pest management (IPM) strategies to 

reduce the need for multiple applications and to avoid pesticide resistance problems. 

Some of the pests affect the external appearance of the fruit some from damage by

feeding on the leaves or buds, and some by reducing postharvest keeping qualities. 

Weeds can reduce plant growth significantly, and also harbor insect, disease and 

nematodes hosts such as chickweed, dandelion, and mustards and provide protection for 

vertebrate pests, as well as compete for nutrients and moisture. 

Atemoya:

Annona seed borers lay eggs in the seeds of very young fruit. The insects develop 

in seeds and emerge as adults when the fruit is nearing maturity, ruining the fruit in the 

process. This may be followed by a fungus infection which causes mummification of the

fruit. Ambrosia beetles sometimes bore into young stems, causing dieback in some cases. 

A rust disease may appear on the leaves in summer and fall and may cause premature 

defoliation.
205

Avocado:

The tropical fruits should be monitored for pests during the season. For example 

there are pest management guidelines for monitoring pest problems in the California 

avocado crop (Table 33). Year around pest problems and IPM programs have reduced

water quality issues related to pesticide use. Table 31 has an example of program covers 

the major pests of avocado. Details on carrying out each practice and information on 

additional pests can be found in these guidelines. Progress through the year can be 

tracked using the following guidance. 

Table 33. When to Monitor Avocado Pests, Damage and Natural Enemies. 2007. 

(Adapted from P. A. Phillips, B. A. Faber, J. G. Morse, M. S. Hoddle, UC IPM Pest 

Management Guidelines: Avocado UC ANR Publication 3436. General Information). 

YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

CROP

DEVELOPMENT

STAGE

Older Fruit Development or Presence

Young Fruit 

Development

Pollination and Fruit Set

Pre-Bloom and Open Flower

Leaf Flush

Grove 

Location

Coast

Inland PESTS JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV

D

E

C

DISEASES m m m m m m m m m m mm mm m m m m m m m m m m

VERTEBRATES o o o o m m m m m m mm mm m m m m m m o o o o

WEEDS m m m o o o o m m m o o o o o o o o o o o

INVERTEBRATES 

+ + avocado thrips o o o m m m m m m o

+ + persea mite m m m m mm mm m m m m m o o

– – caterpillars m m m m m mm mm m m m o o

+ – greenhouse 

thrips 

m m m m m mm mm o o o o o o o o
206

YEAR JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

+ – sixspotted 

mite 

m m m m m m m o o o o o

+ – avocado 

brown mite 

o o m m m m m m m o

+ + avocado lace 

bug 

m m m mm mm m m m m m o o

– – ants & 

Homoptera 

o m m m m o o o o o

+ + pests that 

migrate to 

young trees

o o o m m mm mo

– – glassywinged 

sharpshooter 

o o mm m m m o o

NATURAL ENEMIES

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN

J

U

L

AU

G SEP OCT

NO

V DEC

predatory thrips o m m m m m m o

predatory mites o m m m m m o

spider mite destroyer o m m m m m o o m m m m m m

greenhouse thrips parasites m m m m o o o o o o o

caterpillar pathogens, 

parasites, & predators

m m m m m mm mm m m m

KEY TO PESTS AND NATURAL ENEMIES

+ = Monitor routinely, commonly a pest

– = Routine monitoring probably warranted only in special 

circumstances, such as when a species recently was a pest there 

or when natural enemies have been disrupted, e.g., by broadspectrum insecticide application

= Shading indicates period of potential for damage

= Shading indicates period damage most likely
207

m = major times to monitor 

o = other times to monitor 

Table 34. Year-Round IPM Program (University of California, Agriculture and 

Natural Resources, 2010, http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/C008/m008yi01.html.

This checklist includes the growth periods of the crop and the pest problems and 

activities that need to be monitored. 

Bloom period (pre-bloom, open flower, pollination, and fruit set)

-

Mitigate pesticide usage to minimize air and water contamination

What should you be doing during this period?Monitor for diseases and conditions that 

promote disease development. 

Armillaria root rot

Avocado root rot

Dothiorella and Phytophthora cankers

Sunblotch

Record the date and location of problem trees or sites. Manage if needed according to 

Avocado Pest Management Guidelines.Begin monitoring for invertebrate pests, 

including: 

Avocado thrips (February or March, then regularly from April until fruit exceed 

3/4 inch).

Caterpillars (March through August).

Greenhouse thrips (late-March through July).

Persea mite and sixspotted mite (April through October).

Manage if needed according to Avocado Pest Management Guidelines.Survey weeds, 

especially weeds near trunks, during spring through fall. 

Manage vegetation if needed, especially weeds near trunks.Look for vertebrates, 

especially during spring and summer. Manage if needed.

Provide proper cultural care and good growing conditions to improve fruit yield and 

control pests.

Promote pollination of flowers: Place honey bee hives in groves during bloom, and 

manage pesticides to avoid killing bees.
208

Apply gypsum and mulch to reduce avocado root rot and improve soil.

Manage irrigation: Inspect irrigation systems by late winter, and monitor and adjust 

scheduling to meet trees’ varying water needs and test irrigation water quality.

Early fruit development (fruit are less than 2 inches long)

Mitigate pesticide usage to minimize air and water contamination.

What should you be doing during this early fruit development period?Identify and 

manage the causes of damage to fruit.Monitor for diseases and conditions that promote 

disease development: 

Armillaria root rot

Avocado root rot

Dothiorella and Phytophthora cankers

Sunblotch

Record the date and location of problem trees or sites. Manage if needed according to 

Avocado Pest Management Guidelines.Monitor invertebrate pests, including: 

Avocado thrips (in February or March, then regularly from April until fruit 

exceed 3/4 inch) 

Caterpillars (March through August) 

Greenhouse thrips (late-March through July) 

Persea mite and sixspotted mite (April through October).Avocado brown mite

(about August through October)

Record results on a monitoring form. Manage if needed according to Avocado Pest 

Management Guidelines. Look for other invertebrate pests.Provide proper cultural care

and good growing conditions to improve fruit yield, reduce insect damage, and control 

pests.Look for vertebrates especially during spring and summer. Manage if needed.

Survey weeds, especially during spring through fall. 

Manage vegetation, especially weeds near trunks, as needed and record results.

Manage irrigation, monitor and adjust scheduling to meet trees’ varying water needs.

Late fruit development (fruit are greater than 2 inches long)

What should you be doing during this late fruit development period?Monitor for 

diseases and conditions that promote disease development, including: 

Armillaria root rot

Avocado root rot
209

Dothiorella and Phytophthora cankers

Sunblotch

Manage if needed according to Guidelines.Monitor invertebrates: 

Caterpillars (March through August) 

Persea mite and sixspotted mite (April through October) 

Avocado brown mite (about August through October)

Other species (about August through October)Look for vertebrates, especially during 

spring and summer. Manage if needed.Reduce pest problems and manage tree growth by 

proper pruning.Manage nutrition: Test foliar nutrients and fertilize if needed.Provide 

proper cultural care and good growing conditions to improve fruit yield and control 

pests.Apply frost protection when warranted through March, especially if growing on flat 

land, and test frost control system by November.Inspect trees or sample foliage or soil 

during late summer or fall before winter rains to assess salinity from alkaline soils, poor 

quality water, and fertilizers.

Harvest (until fruit arrives at the packing house)

Mitigate pesticide usage to minimize air and water contamination.

What should you be doing during this harvest period?

Check preharvest intervals for all products used.

Use pruning and other cultural practices to minimize anthracnose in groves and fruit rots 

postharvest.

Sizes pick fruit. Thin clustered fruit and prune to reduce protected sites, thereby 

culturally controlling greenhouse thrips, leafrollers, loopers, and mealy bugs: Thin by

selectively harvesting only larger fruit, which increases market price to the grower.

Minimize fruit injury and postharvest disease.Educate and supervise workers regarding 

fruit handling Best Management Practices (BMP), Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), 

and food safety. Inspect fruit quality before bins are moved from the picking site to 

identify grove areas where management practices need improvement. Take steps to 

prevent fruit contamination and theft.

Pesticide application checklist

When planning for possible pesticide applications in an IPM program, review this 

checklist to consider practices that minimize environmental and efficacy problems. 
210

Choose a pesticide from the UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines for the target 

pest considering: 

Impact on natural enemies and honeybees. 

Potential for water quality problems using the UC IPM WaterTox database.

Impact on aquatic invertebrates

Chemical mode of action (based on efficacy, spectrum of activity, and 

pesticide resistance). Select an alternative chemical or nonchemical treatment 

when resistance risk is high. 

Before an application: 

Choose application procedures that keep pesticides on target.

Identify and take special care to protect sensitive areas (for example, 

waterways or riparian areas) surrounding your application site. 

Review and follow label for pesticide handling, storage, and disposal 

guidelines. Check and follow restricted entry intervals (REI) and preharvest 

intervals (PHI). 

After an application: Record application date, product used, rate, and location 

of application. Follow up to confirm that treatment was effective. 

Consider water management practices that reduce pesticide movement off-site. 

Limit irrigation to amount required using soil moisture and evapotranspiration 

monitoring. Install an irrigation recirculation or storage and reuse system. 

Consider the use of cover crops. Consider vegetative filter strips or ditches.

Install sediment traps. Use polyacrylamide tablets in furrow irrigation or 

sprinkler irrigation systems to improve soil infiltration and prevent off-site 

movement of sediments. Redesign inlets and outlets into tailwater ditches to 

reduce erosion.

Consider orchard floor management practices that improve soil structure and 

reduce erosion. 

Consider practices that reduce air quality problems. 

The guidelines suggest that whenever possible, to choose pesticides that are not an 

emulsifiable concentrate (EC) formulation, which release volatile organic compounds 

(VOCs); this is especially important from May to October. VOCs react with sunlight to 

form ozone, a major air pollutant.

Specific Pest Problems for Some of the Inedible Peel Fruits are discussed below:

Abiu:
211

Leaf eating larvae, twig borers, scales, aphids, and mealybugs are insect pests. 

The fruit is a host for fruit flies as it ripens. Fruit bats can also be a problem.

Avocado:

In Florida the insect problems for avocado includes: aphids, lepidoptera, thrips 

mites, scales, brown soft scale, plant bugs, ants, lacebug, and mirids, Plant diseases 

include, anthracnose, Cercospora leaf spot, powdery mildew, Phytophthora root rot 

anthracnose, and rust. Slugs and snails and deer are also a problem est. Preemergence

annual broadleaf and grass weeds, as well as postemergence growing, annual and 

perennial grass weeds, and woody brush post-emergence annual and perennial weeds, 

woody brush cause yields and quality losses. 

Banana :

Insect problems include banana scab moth which lays her eggs on the unopened 

inflorescence (flower stalk) or on the surrounding flag leaf. The larvae hatch after about 

four days and crawl under the bracts of the flower stalk, and feed on the basal hands of 

the bunch, moving to less mature hands as the bracts begin to fall from the inflorescence. 

Damage ranges from light scarring of a few bananas in the basal hand to severe scabbing 

of the bunch. As part of a banana bunchy top virus control program, infected plants are 

sprayed before removal. In Florida the banana borer or weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus)

lays eggs at the base of the pseudostem and the larvae bore into the pseudostems and 

rhizome causing extensive damage. Young plants may be killed by extensive tunneling 

and mature plants may weaken and topple with a subsequent reduction in yield. Control 

of the pest includes use of clean (non-infested) planting material and sanitation (removal 

and/or grinding up old pseudostems). The sugar cane weevil (Metamasius hemipterus) 

causes similar damage and problems as the banana weevil. The larvae tunnel into the 

pseudostem, building galleries that weaken the plant. 

Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) is a serious virus disease of bananas worldwide 

and threatens banana production in American Samoa. Bananas are a perennial crop and 

the disease is active year-round. New leaves are short and narrow, often with yellow, 

tattered margins. They are upright and do not completely emerge from the pseudostem, 

giving them a bunched appearance. The virus is systemic, moving from an infected plant 

to all plants in the mat, which no longer produces fruit. BBTV is spread over short 

distances by the brown banana aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa. Long distance spread is 

by infected planting material including suckers, pieces of the rhizome (mat) and infected 

tissue culture plants. There are no chemicals to control BBTV, only to eradicate it. 

Genetically modified BBTV resistant banana explants are being developed in several 

laboratories, one at the University of Hawai’i, Manoa. In Florida, Panama disease 

(Fusarium wilt) . Panama disease is of worldwide importance and is caused by the soil 

borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense. There are four known races of the 

disease, three of which attack one or more banana cultivars. Symptoms of the disease do 

not appear on young suckers. On mature plants symptoms include progressive yellowing 

and eventual death from older to younger leaves, so that only the youngest emerging leaf 
212

may remain; brown and black discoloration and slimy appearance of the water 

conducting vascular system (it may give off a bad odor as well); and death of the plant.

At present there is no chemical control available. The only effective control measures are 

planting in land not infested with the fungus, the use of disease-free propagation material, 

and the planting of cultivars with resistance to the disease. Plantains are resistant to the 

fungus. Black sigatoka and yellow sigatoka are of worldwide importance; in general, 

where the two diseases are found, black sigatoka dominates as the most severe disease 

causing fungus. Black sigatoka is an important leaf disease in Florida. Yellow sigatoka 

is caused by the fungus Mycosphaerella musicola and black sigatoka M. fijiensis.

Symptoms of yellow sigatoka begin as pale green flecks that become brown with yellow 

haloes. As the disease progresses infected areas coalesce forming large areas of dead leaf 

tissue. Black sigatoka begins as minute reddish-brown flecks on the lower leaf surface 

but as the infection progresses dark flecks may be seen on the upper leaf surface as well. 

As the disease progresses the dark areas with yellow haloes surrounding dead leaf tissue 

coalesce until the entire leaf is killed. Warm temperatures, high humidity, and frequent 

rainfall in semi to tropical growing areas are ideal for disease development. Sigatoka 

does not kill the plant but causes premature defoliation which results in reduced crop 

yield. Banana cultivars differ in their susceptibility to sigatoka with the ‘Cavendish’

group (AAA) and 'Pome' (AAB) bananas being highly susceptible. 'Sucrier' (AA), 

'Bluggoe' (ABB), and 'Silk' (AAB) are of intermediate susceptibility, while 'Mysore' is 

only slightly susceptible.

Weeds are a major agricultural pest in the tropics. Fast growth, broad leaves and 

a high competitive ability characterize many tropical weed species. Tall weeds and 

herbaceous or woody vines can quickly overgrow a neglected plantation, block sunlight 

and eventually kill plants. Weeds also raise relative humidity in the canopy and 

encourage fungal diseases, primarily black leaf streak. The most common methods of 

weed control are crop canopy management, hand clearing and mulching. Commercial 

growers, all used bush knives (machetes) to clear their fields before and after planting. 

This method is labor-intensive but only costs the farmer his time. Modern day farmers 

often have other activities that demand their attention, however, and banana plantings 

choked with weeds are not uncommon. At a minimum, clearing the area around the base 

of plants is necessary in order to identify suckers infected with banana bunchy top virus.

Weeds cut during hand clearing are left on the ground as mulch. A thick layer of mulch 

will inhibit weed germination, moderate soil temperatures and decrease erosion. Old 

leaves and stems are also cut and left on the ground to decompose. In unsprayed orchards 

with severe black leaf streak disease, affected leaves should be removed and burned to 

prevent wind-dispersed spores from reinfecting plants. A common weed in American 

Samoa is 'mile-a-minute vine' (Mikania micrantha). On unkempt farms it covers even 

the tallest plants, blocking sunlight and competing for nutrients. Yields are reduced and 

plants may eventually be destroyed. 

Radopholus similis is the most damaging nematode of bananas in the South 

Pacific and in Florida. It is called the burrowing nematode because it burrows into fleshy

banana roots and feeds on the cortex. Initial lesions are dark red but turn black as cortical 

tissue begins to rot. If R. similis enters the rhizome, round, black lesions appear, giving it 
213

the name "blackhead disease". The feeding habits of this nematode affect plants in two 

ways: anchorage and water and nutrient uptake. Heavy cortical feeding weakens existing 

roots and new roots become infected as they grow out of the infected rhizome. Wind, 

heavy rain, or the weight of a banana bunch can pull the plant from the soil. Under these 

conditions toppled banana plants can be found throughout an infested plantation. 

Symptoms of nutrient deficiency due to root damage by R. similis include poor growth, 

yellowing and reduced yields. Since poor soils, drought, nutrient imbalance or fungal 

root pathogens may also cause nutrient deficiencies, identification of the nematode is 

essential. Removing all banana plants, mats and suckers from a field for 6-12 months 

starves the nematodes and is one of the best methods of control. It is difficult to achieve, 

however, due to volunteer plants, mats and roots left in the soil on which the nematodes 

can still feed. Fallow fields are unproductive fields and most farmers are not willing to 

accept short-term losses for possible long-term gains. In Florida the burrowing nematode 

(Radopholus similis) and spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus multicinctus) causes extensive 

damage to the root system and rhizome of banana. The spiral nematode causes extensive 

damage to the fibrous root system, and injured plants are susceptible to invasion by

pathogens and toppling. Purchase and use of non-infested plant material (tissue culture 

plants, suckers or rhizomes) is the best control. 

Cactus (Pitahaya, prickly pear, dragon fruit):

There are over 100 insect species that feed on cactus. Larvae of the pyralid moth 

(Cactoblastis cactorum) as well as Mediterranean fruit fly and scales are common pests 

of cactus. Bacteria such as Erwinia and fungi such as Alternaria cause diseases in 

Mexico. 

Canistel:

Diseases reported include leaf rust, leaf spot, leaf necrosis, anthracnose, fruit spot, 

and root rots. Mealybugs and scales can be pest problems. 

Jackfruit:

The following pests are identified in Florida as being deleterious to jackfruit. 

Aphids, lace bugs, mealybugs, spider mites, lepidoptera larvae, thrips, mirids lepidoptera 

larvae aphids, mealybugs, and scales. Other pest problems are Anthracnose, broadleaf 

and grass weeds, slug control deer, rabbit, and mouse repellent.

Lucuma:

Major pests include serpentine fruit fly, hairy worm, whitefly, and scales. Fungal 

disease is Oidium spp. This attacks the leaves.

Lychee:

Lychee, longan, Spanish lime, rambutan, and pulusan have similar pest problems 

categorized as fruit eating insects; fruit rots; root rots; leaf spots; nematodes; and weeds. 
214

Based on similarities in pest problems, cultural practices, unique fruit morphology, and 

growing season, we would expect pesticide levels for the proposed lychee commodities 

to have similar residue levels. 

Mango:

Each mango producing area has a unique pest complex where insects attack 

leaves, fruit, shoots, and the tree trunk (Janick and Paull, 2008). Insect pests include 

spider mites, lepidoptera larvae, thrips, mirids aphids, mealybugs, scales, mango seed 

borer, ants, and whiteflies. Numerous plant diseases attack magoes and include powdery

mildew, bacterial leaf spot, anthracnose, red alga leaf spot, and Pythium root rot. Weed 

problems include broadleaf and grassy weeds that are postemergence as well as annual 

and perennial grass weeds. Other pest problems include slugs, deer, rabbit, and mice.

Monstera:

Insects in Florida that cause damage include grasshoppers, scales, mealybugs and 

caterpillars. Leaf spots are frequent and anthracnose and bacterial soft and root rot have 

been reported. 

Papaya:

Papaya; caimito; black sapote; mango; sapodilla; avocado; canistel; mamey

sapote. These tropical fruits share many of the same problems including viruses, aphids, 

fruit flies, beetles, thrips, lace bugs, mirids, lepidoptera larvae, mealybugs, mites, scales, 

several fungi (anthracnose, root rots, mildew) as well as several annual and perennial 

grassy and broadleaf weed species. The major disease attacking these tropical fruits is 

anthracnose. Papaya insects listed in Florida also included lepidoptera larvae, aphids, 

mealybugs, mites, ant’s scales, thrips aphids, lace bugs, and mirids.

Florida has a recent publication on the list of pests on papaya (J. E. Peña and F. 

Johns. 2006, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, ENY-414 

-IG074, and Crane, J. and Mossler, M. 2006. Pesticides Registered for Tropical Fruit 

Crops in Florida. University of Florida, IFAS Extension, EDIS, FS HS177 

(http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/HS177). Insects may be a limiting factor in growing papayas, 

especially from fruit set until harvest. Among those likely to be a problem are the papaya 

fruit fly, webworm, whitefly, mites, aphids, scales, mealybugs, leafhoppers and 

hornworms. Of these pests, the papaya fruit fly is especially important because it is 

difficult to control and requires some preventive control measures. Specific insect pests 

in Florida spider include mites, (Tetranychus spp.), which are observed on the underside 

of older leaves causing leaf discoloration and leaf drop. When populations are high, the 

apical leaves show deformity, mottling and virus-like symptoms. The papaya fruit flies 

(Toxotrypana curvicauda Gerstaecker) larvae which are small legless maggots, feed on 

the seed and interior parts of the fruit. When the larvae become mature, they emerge 

from the fruit, drop to the ground beneath the plant and pupate just below the soil surface. 

After about two to four weeks the flies emerge to mate and seek fruit in which to lay
215

eggs. It is too late to attempt control measures after the female fruit fly has deposited 

eggs in the fruit. Control of the fly may be achieved by mechanical protection such as the 

use of paper bags. Each fruit may be enclosed in a 3-5 pound size bag tied around the 

fruit stem to hold the bag. Newspaper, one-half sheet (about 12-15 inches in size), may

be rolled to enclose the fruit, then tied around the fruit stem, and also the free end. 

Bagging should begin when the fruit is small, shortly after the flower parts have fallen. 

This method of control is more adapted to small (1 to 25 plants) than too large (onefourth acre or more) plantings. Although bagging the fruit is the most certain method of 

control, it is a laborious process and requires attention at regular intervals (10 to 14 days) 

to keep the young fruit covered. Papaya webworms are sometimes referred to as the fruit 

cluster worm develops under a web between and around fruits and along stems of plants. 

The webworm cause injury to fruit and stem, providing an entrance for the fungus 

disease, anthracnose. The papaya whitefly adult is a small white insect which often can 

be detected by shaking the young leaves of the plant. Crawlers are flat and resemble 

scale crawlers, feeding and developing on the undersides of leaves. Three growth stages 

are followed by a pupa, and then the winged adult. The whiteflies produce honeydew, on 

which sooty mold grows. Papaya scales (Philephedra tuberculosa Nakahara and Gill), 

attacks papaya and Annona fruits. Scale infestation results in three types of damage to 

papaya plants. First, flower and leaf drop occur from severely infested young plants. 

Secondly, when the infestation on seedlings or on young plants is localized near the apex, 

distortion of apical leaves is induced. Thirdly, females attached to the fruit cause 

cosmetic damage that makes fruit unmarketable. Female scales produce up to 900 eggs 

over 3 to 4 weeks, and the eggs hatch after 12 - 17 days, and crawlers settle on leaves, 

stem and fruit. The papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de 

Willink) feed on leaves, stems, and fruits and even on seedlings. Mealybugs cause 

deformity, wrinkling and rolling of the leaf edges and early leaf drop. Attack to unripe 

fruits causes sap running and blemishes, a source of fruit downgrading. Papaya fruit can 

be heavily infested with mealybugs, becoming white and essentially inedible. 

Leafhoppers cause two types of damage: direct feeding and secondary damage as vectors. 

Symptoms of leafhopper feeding include tip burn, wrinkling and cupping of the leaves, 

burning of leaf margins in large trees, and stunting of smaller plants. Leafhoppers are 

more important for their vectoring ability than for the mechanical damage. The aphids 

are are a serious threat to papaya production due to their ability to transmit diseases, in 

particular papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) and the papaya mosaic virus. The aphids, Myzus 

persicae (Sulzer) and Lipaphis erysimi (Katenbach) infest leaves of papaya plantings in 

south Florida. These species increase from November through May. Nematodes also 

attack the roots of tropical fruits.

Passionfruit:

Insect pests include aphids, Lepidoptera, thrips, mirids, scales, mealybugs, lace 

bugs, spider mites, fruit flies, and whiteflies. Diseases include Alternaria leaf spot,

Fusarium wilt, and Phytophthora blight can be serious. Other pests include weeds, slugs, 

and deer, rabbit, and mice. 

Pineapple (Sipes, B. USDA Crop Profile Hawaii, 2000):
216

Pineapple is produced primarily on the islands of Oahu and Maui. Some small 

scale production is found on Kuaui and the island of Hawaii. Pineapple has relatively 

few insect pests. Scales (Diaspis bromeliae, Melanaspis bromeliae) and symphylids 

(Scutigerella sakimurai, Hanseniella unguiculata) are seldom serious pests in pineapple. 

Scales, a cosmetic problem on fresh fruit, are only problems in some fields during some 

growing seasons. However, thrips are vectors of the Yellow Spot Virus. Thrips are 

seldom of serious economic concern in pineapple. Mites (Steneotarsonemus ananas, and

Dolichotetranychus floridanus) are seldom serious problems. Mealybugs (Dysmicoccus 

brevipes, and D. neobrevipes), and ants (Pheidole megacephala, Iridomyrmex humilis, 

and Solenopsis geminata) tend o be associated with the very serious mealybug wilt 

disease. Diseases of pineapple include plant as well as fruit problems. A heart and root 

rot is caused by Phytophthora spp. Some root rots are caused by Pythium spp. Butt rot, 

caused by Thielaviopsis paradoxa, can be a devastating problem for newly planted 

material. Black rot of pineapple is caused by Ceratocystis paradoxa. Pineapple wilt is 

also a serious disease. Disease occurs only in association with a mealybug and a 

closterovirus (PMWaV). Mealybugs can transmit the virus. The virus occurs in high 

frequency in some clones that are planted. Yellow spot virus (tomato spotted wilt virus) 

also occurs in pineapple but is not usually a severe problem. Bacterial diseases caused by 

Erwinia carotovora and E. chrysanthemi can be problems of the fruit but are not 

common. Pink disease of the fruit is caused by Acetomonas spp. and is only a problem in 

canned fruit. Nematodes include Rotylenchulus reniformis and Meloidogyne javanica as 

are the major nematode pests of pineapple in Hawaii. These nematodes infest nearly all 

fields. Nematode damage is causes a wider fruit size distribution, uneven flowering, and 

smaller fruit overall. Weeds can have devastating effects on pineapple yield. Under 

severe weed problems, plant crop yield can be reduced 82% to 83%. Herbicide 

alternatives, such as hand weeding or tillage, are employed in pineapple after the canopy

has closed. Hand weeding is costly because of high labor cost. Plastic mulch laid during 

field preparation assists in fumigant retention, water management, soil temperature 

control, and weed control but prohibits tillage. 

Pomegranate:

University of California IPM pest management guidelines indicate he main pest 

problems are diseases such as Alternaria fruit rot, Aspergillus fruit rot, Penicillin blue 

green mold, and gray mold. Minor problems are leaf and fruit spot and foliar damage by

white flies, thrips, mites, mealybugs and scale insects. Nematodes are a problem on 

sandy soils. The roots are seldom bothered by gophers but deer will browse on the 

foliage.

Sapote, black, Sapote, mamey,Sapote, green, and Sapote, white (Crane, J. and 

Mossler, M. 2006. Pesticides Registered for Tropical Fruit Crops in Florida. University of 

Florida, IFAS Extension, EDIS, FS HS177 (http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/HS177).

The following insects are listed as pest problems in Florida: aphids, Lepidoptera 

larvae, thrips, scales, aphids, lace bugs, mealybugs, spider mites, mirids lychee web 
217

worm, whiteflies. Other pest problems include ants, root rot, anthracnose, broadleaf and 

grass weeds, and slug control. Animal repellents are needed to control deer, rabbit, and 

mouse. 

Sapodilla:

The following insects are listed as pest problems in Florida: aphids, Lepidoptera 

larvae, thrips, scales aphids, lace bugs, mealybugs, spider mites, mirids, and whiteflies. 

Other pest problems include ants, slugs, weeds and animal repellents are often needed to 

control deer, rabbit, and mouse problems. 

Star apple:

Star apple fruit may be attacked by dry rot (Lasiodiploida theobromae), stem-end 

decay (Diplodia spp.) Fusarium solani spp. may kill young trees, and leaves are also 

Insects include aphids, mealybugs, scales and fruit flies. Birds and bats may cause 

damage to ripening fruit. 

Sugar apple (including atemoya, custard apple, cherimoya, ilama, soursop, and 

biriba):

Pests of sugar apple, atemoya, custard apple, cherimoya, ilama, soursop, and 

biriba include a large number of insect pests (Annona seed borer, aphids, scales, 

leafhoppers, thrips lepidoptera, lace bug, mealybugs, fruit flies, plant bugs, mites, ants 

whiteflies) and plant diseases (anthracnose, fruit rots, Cercospora leaf spot, rust, black 

canker (Phompsis), diplodia rot, powdery mildew, Pythium root rot,) are common 

problems in the Annonaceous fruit production. Weeds also affect production, since the 

members of the sugar apple family are shallow rooted. Weeds include numerous 

broadleaf and grassy weeds. Animal problems include deer, rabbits, and mice.

COMPARISON OF POTENTIAL RESIDUE LEVELS IN THE TROPICAL AND 

SUBTROPICAL FRUIT – INEDIBLE PEEL:

Magness, Markle, and Compton in 1971 classified food and feed crops based on 

predicting the potential for pesticide residues based on exposure of the edible parts to 

applied pesticides, which led to the development of the crop groups. The tropical and 

subtropical fruit – inedible peel commodities all fit into three categories: Category I, II, 

and IV are they based on their potential exposure to pesticides. The majority of the 

tropical and subtropical fruits – inedible peel such as atemoya; avocado, banana; durian; 

jackfruit; mango; papaya; pineapple; pomegranate; rambutan; sapodilla; and sugar apple

are in Category I. Category II fruit include lychee; mesquite; mongongo, fruit; Spanish 

lime; and wampi, and they have a minimum exposure of the edible portion to direct 

contact with pesticides, since the peel is discarded when processed for juice. Category IV 

which includes passionfruit have increased exposure of medium to small edible parts to 
218

pesticide residues as compared to Category III and the fruit peel is usually eaten and can 

be pressed for juice.

The proposed representative commodities are placed into either Category I 

(atemoya, avocado, dragon fruit, pineapple, prickly pear, and sugar apple; II (lychee) and 

IV (passionfruit). Therefore the categories that have the maximum exposure to pesticide 

residues are well covered by the representative commodities, so we expect that all 

proposed members of the tropical and subtropical inedible peel fruit group will have 

similar residue levels based on similarities of the raw agricultural commodities (RAC’s), 

cultural practices, pest problems, and exposure to pesticide sprays. The proposed 

representative commodities also cover over 99% of the total tropical fruit inedible peel 

production areas in the U.S., and they also tend to be an equal or more conservative 

estimate of tolerances and potential residues. 

The commodity definition for lychee has been successful in establishing 16

tolerances for lychee, longan, Spanish lime, pulusan, and rambutan (Tables 37 and 43). 

The commodity definition for avocado has been successful in establishing 36 tolerances 

for avocado, papaya, caimito; black sapote; mango; sapodilla; canistel; and mamey

sapote (Tables 36, 38, and 39). The commodity definition for sugar apple has been 

successful in establishing 10 tolerances for sugar apple, atemoya, custard apple, 

cherimoya, ilama, soursop, and biriba (Tables 41 and 44). Banana/plantain has 22 

established tolerances (Table 39).

Comparison of the proposed representative commodities (Table 35) show that in 

most cases tolerances for avocado are higher than bananas which indicates these are good 

representative commodities for crop subgroup 24B. Similarly atemoya tolerances are 

higher than pineapple which makes them good representative commodities for crop 

subgroup 24C. Cactus or prickly pear tolerances are usually higher than the rest of the 

representative commodities. Passionfruit tolerances are usually lower than lychee, which 

indicates that the proposed representative commodities are well selected for this crop 

group. 

Currently there are two established commodity definitions [(40 CFR § 180.1(g)]

which apply to the proposed for tropical and subtropical fruits – inedible peel group. 

They are banana and sugar apple (Table 65). The tropical fruits while having no crop 

group have had to set tolerances on a case by case basis. Before the Tropical and 

subtropical fruit – inedible peel group proposal, to help the U.S. tropical fruit growers, 

and to facilitate residue data generation and tolerance establishment on tropical and 

subtropical fruits, USDA IR-4 requested commodity definitions for avocado, lychee, 

papaya, and an update to sugar apple and ChemSAC approved these commodity

definitions in 1998 (Schneider, B.A. 1998b, c, d, and e). The six proposed new or revised 

commodity definitions will be discussed below in this analysis and is shown in Tables

664 and 65 in the Commodity Definition Section of this analysis. Except for the case of 

the established commodity definition for banana and sugar apple, ChemSAC approved 

commodity definition for avocado and it has been successful in establishing 36 tolerances 

for avocado, papaya, caimito (star apple), black sapote, mango, sapodilla, canistel, and 
219

mamey sapote (See Tables 36, 38, and 39). The definition for lychee has been successful 

in establishing 16 tolerances for lychee, longan, Spanish lime, pulasan, and rambutan

(Tables 37 and 43). The commodity definition for sugar apple has been successful in 

establishing ten tolerances for sugar apple, atemoya, custard apple, cherimoya, ilama, 

soursop, and biriba (Tables 41, 44, and 47. Banana has 22 established tolerances (Table 

39). When the Tropical and subtropical fruit group - inedible peel is established the need 

for all the proposed tropical fruit commodity definitions except for banana and sugar 

apple will no longer be necessary. With the proposed established of the Tropical and 

subtropical fruit – inedible peel group 24, I recommend ChemSAC approve deleting 

the previously ChemSAC approved avocado, lychee and papaya commodity 

definitions under 40 CFR Part 180.1(g) because each of these commodities are listed 

separately as members of the new proposed Tropical and subtropical fruit – inedible 

peel crop group, as well as members of crop subgroups. Since these three 

commodity definitions were not published in the Federal Register there is no issue 

deleting them.

Table 35. Direct Comparison of Tolerances Established in U.S. for the Proposed 

Representative Commodities for the Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel 

Group 24 for Lychee (Crop Subgroup 24A), Atemoya (Crop Subgroup 24C), 

Avocado (Crop Subgroup 24B), Banana (Crop Subgroup 24B), Pineapple (Crop 

Subgroup 24C), Cactus Including Dragon Fruit and Prickly Pear (24D), and 

Passionfruit (Crop Subgroup 24E) Based on 40 CFR Part 180 (August 7, 2012). 

Compound CFR 

Citation

Lychee 

(24A)

Avocado 

(24B)

Banana 

(24B)

Atemoya 

(24C)

Pineapple 

(24C)

Cactus 

(24D) 

Passionfruit 

(24E)

1-naphthaleneacetic 

acid

180.155 - 0.05 - - 0.05 - -

Ametryn 180.258 - - 0.25 - 0.05 - -

Azoxystrobin 180.507 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 - - 2.0

Bifenazate 180.572 5.0 7.0 0.1 1.6 - - 0.9

Boscalid 180.589 - 1.5 0.2 - - - -

Buprofezin 180.511 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 - - 0.3

Carbaryl 180.169 - - 5.0 - 2.0 5.0 –

fruit

12 -

pads

-

Carfentrazone-ethyl 180.515 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 - - 0.1

Chlorantraniliprole 180.628 2.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 1.5 13 1.5

Chlorothalonil 180.275 15 - 0.5 - - - 3.0

Cyprodinil 180.532 2.0 1.2 - - - - -

Diazinon 180.153 - - 0.2 - 0.5 - -

Diquat 180.226 - 0.2 0.05 - - - -

Diuron 180.106 - - 0.1 - 0.1 0.05 -

Etoxazole 180.593 0.2 0.2 - - - - -

Ethoprop 180.262 - - 0.02 - 0.02 - -

Fenamiphos 180.349 - - 0.1 - 0.3 - -

Fludioxonil 180.516 1.0 0.45 - - 13 - -

Fosetyl-aluminium 180.415 - 25 3.0 - - - -

Glyphosate 180.364 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5 -

fruit

0.5 -

pads

0.2
220

Compound CFR 

Citation

Lychee 

(24A)

Avocado 

(24B)

Banana 

(24B)

Atemoya 

(24C)

Pineapple 

(24C)

Cactus 

(24D) 

Passionfruit 

(24E)

Imidacloprid 180.472 3.0 1.0 0.5 0.3 - - 1.0

Inorganic bromide 

residues resulting 

from fumigation 

with methyl bromide

180.123 - 75 - - 20 - -

Malathion 180.111 - 8.0 - - 8.0 - 8.0

Mancozeb 180.176 - - 4.0 3.0 - - -

Metalaxyl 180.408 - 4.0 - - 0.1 - -

Methoxyfenozide 180.544 2.0 0.6 - - - - 0.4

Oxamyl 180.303 - - 0.3 - 1.0 - -

Oxyfluorfen 180.381 - 0.05 0.05 - - - -

Paraquat 180.205 - 0.05 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.2

Phosphine 180.225 - 0.01 0.01 - - - -

Propiconazole 180.434 - 10 0.02 - 4.5 - -

Pyraclostrobin 180.582 - 0.6 0.04 - - - -

Pyriproxyfen 180.510 0.3 1.0 0.2 0.2 0.3 - 0.1

Spinetoram 180.635 0.3 0.3 0.25 0.3 0.04 - 0.3

Spinosad 180.495 0.3 0.3 0.25 0.3 0.02 - 0.3

Spirotetramet 180.641 13 0.6 - - - - -

Tebuconazole 180.474 1.6 - 0.05 - - - 2.5

Thiabendazole 180.242 - 10 3.0 - - - -

Table 36. Tolerances Established in U.S. on the Proposed Representative 

Commodities for the Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Group 24 for 

Mango, Papaya, Passionfruit, and Prickly pear (Cactus) based on 40 CFR Part 180

(June 14, 2012). 

Compound CFR 

Citation

Mango Papaya Passionfruit Prickly 

pear 

(Cactus)

Azoxystrobin 180.507 2.0 2.0 2.0

Bifenazate 180.572 7.0 7.0 0.9

Boscalid 180.589 3.5

Buprofezin 180.511 0.9 0.9 0.3

Carbaryl 180.169 5.0

Carfentrazone-ethyl 180.515 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Chlorantraniliprole 180.628 4.0 2.0 2.0 13

Chlorothalonil 180.275 1.0 15 3.0

Cyprodinil 180.532 1.2 1.2

Cyromazine 180.414 0.3

Difenoconazole 180.475 0.07 0.3

Diuron 180.106 0.5 0.05

Etoxazole 180.593 0.2 0.2

Fenbutatin-oxide 180.362 2.0

Fenpropathrin 180.466 1.0 1.0

Ferbam 180.114 4.0

Fludioxonil 180.516 0.45 0.45

Glyphosate 180.364 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5

Imidacloprid 180.472 1.0 1.0 1.0

Inorganic bromide residues 

resulting from fumigation 

with methyl bromide

180.123 20

Malathion 180.111 8.0 1.0 8.0
221

Compound CFR 

Citation

Mango Papaya Passionfruit Prickly 

pear 

(Cactus)

Mancozeb 180.176 15 10

Maneb 180.110 10

Mefenoxam 180.546 0.4 0.4

Metalaxyl 180.408 0.1

Metaldehyde 180. 0.07

Methidathion 180.298 0.05

Methoxyfenozide 180.544 0.6 0.6 0.4

Myclobutanil 180.443 3.0 3.0

Oryzalin 180.304 0.05

Oxyfluorfen 180.381 0.05

Paraquat 180.205 0.05 0.2

Permethrin 180.378 1.0

Phosphine 180.225 0.01 0.01

Piperonyl butoxide 180.127 8.0

Pyraclostrobin 180.582 0.6 0.6

Pyrethrins 180.128 1.0

Pyridaben 180.494 0.1 0.1

Pyriproxyfen 180.510 1.0 1.0 0.1

Saflufenacil 180.643 0.03

Spinetoram 180.635 0.3 0.3 0.3

Spinosad 180.495 0.3 0.3 0.3

Spirodiclofen 180.608 1.0 1.0

Spirotetramet 180.641 0.6 2.5 2.5

Tebuconazole 180.474 0.15

Thiabendazole 180.242 10 5.0

Thiamethoxam 180.565 0.4 0.4

Trifloxystrobin 180.555 0.7 0.7

Triflumizole 180.476 2.5 2.5

Tolerances established on Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, Inedible Peel (Tables 

37 – 44 of this analysis) shows the existing U.S., Codex and EU tolerances for Tropical 

and Subtropical fruits with an inedible peel. The majority of these tolerances are U.S.

and EU tolerances and it should be noted that over 80% of the U.S. tolerances are for 

those commodities which are included in the inedible peel crop definitions as shown in 

this proposal. As a consequence, many of the tolerances are similar for representative 

and member commodities listed in the USDA Foreign Agriculture Service “Maximum 

Residue Limit Database (http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/mrl.asp). 

Table 37. Tolerances Established on Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, Inedible Peel

(FASonline: mrldatabase.com; tolerances as of June 14, 2012).

Lychee (ppm) 

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24A. Small 

Fruits, Inedible Peel)

Spanish Lime (ppm) 

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24A. Small 

Fruits, Inedible Peel)

Compound US Codex EU US Codex EU
222

Lychee (ppm) 

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24A. Small 

Fruits, Inedible Peel)

Spanish Lime (ppm) 

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24A. Small 

Fruits, Inedible Peel)

Azoxystrobin 2.0 -- 0.05 2.0 -- --

Bifenazate 5.0 -- 0.01 5.0 -- --

Buprofezin 0.3 -- 0.05 0.3 -- --

Carfentrazone-ethyl 0.1 -- 0.01 0.1 -- --

Chlorantraniliprole 2.0 -- 0.01 4.0 -- --

Chlorothalonil 15 -- 0.01 -- -- --

Cyprodinil 2.0 -- 0.05 2.0 -- --

Fludioxonil 1.0 -- 0.05 1.0 -- --

Glyphosate 0.2 -- 0.1 0.2 -- --

Imidacloprid 3.0 -- 0.05 3.0 -- --

Methoxyfenozide 2.0 -- 0.02 2.0 -- --

Pyriproxyfen 0.3 -- 0.05 0.3 -- --

Spinetoram 0.3 -- 0.05 0.3 -- --

Spinosad 0.3 -- 0.02 0.3 -- --

Spirotetramat 0.6 - -- 0.6 -- --

Tebuconazole 1.6 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Note: That shaded cells indicate that the MRL is established for the respective crop group rather 

than for the individual commodity.

Table 38. Tolerances Established on Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, Inedible Peel 

(FASonline: mrldatabase.com; tolerances as of June 14, 2012).

Avocado (ppm) 

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Pomegranate (ppm) 

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Mango (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Compound US Codex EU US Codex EU US Codex EU

1-Naphthaleneacetamide 0.05 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

1-Naphthaleneacetic 

acid

0.05 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Avermectrin B1 0.02 -- 0.01 -- -- -- -- -- --

Azoxystrobin 2.0 -- 0.05 -- -- -- 2.0 0.7 0.7

Bifenazate 7.0 -- 0.01 -- -- -- 7.0 -- 0.01

Boscalid 1.5 -- 0.05 -- -- -- 1.5 -- 0.05

Buprofezin 0.3 -- 0.05 1.9 -- 0.05 0.9 0.1 0.1

Carfentrazone-ethyl 0.1 -- 0.01 0.1 -- 0.01 0.1 -- 0.01

Chlorantraniliprole 4.0 -- 0.01 4.0 -- 0.01 4.0 -- 0.01

Chlorothalonil -- -- -- -- -- -- 1.0 -- 0.01

Clothianidin -- -- -- 0.2 -- 0.02 -- -- --

Cyprodinil 1.2 -- 0.05 -- -- -- 1.2 -- 0.05

d-Phenothrin 0.01 -- 0.05 -- -- -- 0.01 -- 0.05

Fenhexamid -- -- -- 2.0 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Fenpropathrin 1.0 -- 0.01 -- -- -- 1.0 -- 0.01

Ferbam -- -- -- -- -- -- 4.0 2.0 --
223

Avocado (ppm) 

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Pomegranate (ppm) 

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Mango (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Fludioxonil 0.45 -- 0.05 5.0 -- 3.0 0.45 -- 0.05

Fluridone 0.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Folpet 25 -- 0.02 -- -- -- -- -- --

Fosetyl-Al 25 -- 50 -- -- -- -- -- --

Glufosinateammonium-- -- -- -- -- 0.2 -- -- --

Glyphosate 0.2 -- 0.1 0.2 -- 0.1 0.2 -- 0.1

Imidacloprid 1.0 -- 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.2 0.2

Inorganic bromide 75 75 50 100 20 50 -- -- --

Malathion 8.0 -- 0.02 -- -- -- 8.0 -- 0.02

Mancozeb -- -- -- -- -- -- 15 2.0 2.0

Mefenoxam -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.4 -- 0.05

Metalaxyl 4.0 0.2 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Methidathion -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.05 -- 0.02

Methomyl 2.0 -- 0.05 0.2 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Methoxyfenozide 0.6 0.7 0.02 0.6 -- 0.02 0.6 -- 0.02

Myclobutanil -- -- -- -- -- -- 3.0 -- 0.02

Norflurazon 0.2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Oryzalin 0.05 -- 0.01 0.05 -- 0.01 -- -- --

Oxyfluorfen 0.05 -- 0.05 0.05 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Paraquat dichloride 0.05 0.01 0.02 -- -- -- -- -- --

Pendimethalin -- -- -- 0.1 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Permethrin 1.0 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Table 38. Tolerances Established on Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, Inedible Peel 

(continued) (FASonline: mrldatabase.com; tolerances as of June 14, 2012)

Avocado (ppm) 

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Pomegranate (ppm) 

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Mango (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Compound US Codex EU US Codex EU US Codex EU

Phosphine 0.01 -- 0.05 -- -- -- 0.01 -- 0.05

Piperonly Butoxide -- -- -- -- -- -- 8.0 -- --

Pyraclostrobin 0.6 -- 0.02 -- -- -- 0.6 0.05 0.05

Pyrethrins -- -- -- -- -- -- 1.0 -- 1.0

Pyridaben -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.1 -- 0.5

Pyriproxyfen 1.0 -- 0.05 0.2 -- 0.05 1.0 -- 0.05

Simazine 0.2 -- 0.1 -- -- -- -- -- --

Spinetoram 0.3 -- 0.05 0.3 -- 0.05 0.3 -- 0.05

Spinosad 0.3 -- 0.02 0.3 -- 0.02 0.3 -- 0.02

Spirodiclofen 1.0 -- 0.02 -- -- -- 1.0 -- 0.02

Spirotetramat 0.6 -- -- -- -- -- 0.6 -- --
224

Avocado (ppm) 

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Pomegranate (ppm) 

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Mango (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Tebuconazole -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.15 -- 0.1

Thiabendazole -- -- -- -- -- -- 10 5.0 5.0

Thiamethoxam -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.4 -- 0.5

Trifoxystrobin -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.7 -- 0.5

Triflumizole -- -- -- -- -- -- 2.5 -- 0.1

Note: That shaded cells indicate that the MRL is established for the respective crop group rather than for the individual 

commodity.

Table 39. Tolerances Established on Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, Inedible Peel 

(FASonline: mrldatabase.com; tolerances as of June 14, 2012)

Papaya (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Banana (ppm) 

(Proposed Member and 

Representative Commodity; 

24B. Medium To Large 

Fruits, Smooth, Inedible 

Peel)

Plantain (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Compound US Codex EU US Codex EU US Codex EU

Azoxystrobin 2.0 0.3 0.3 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 -- 2.0

Bifenazate 7.0 -- 0.01 -- -- -- -- -- --

Boscalid 1.5 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Buprofezin 0.9 -- 0.05 0.2 -- 0.5 0.2 -- 0.5

Carbaryl -- -- -- 5.0 -- 0.05 5.0 -- 0.05

Carfentrazone-ethyl 0.1 -- 0.01 0.2 -- 0.01 0.2 -- 0.01

Chlorantraniliprole 2.0 -- 0.01 4.0 -- 0.01 4.0 -- 0.01

Chlorothalonil 15 -- 20 0.5 0.01 0.2 0.5 -- 0.2

Chlorpyrifos -- -- -- 0.1 2.0 3.0 0.1 -- 3.0

Clothianidin -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Cyprodinil 1.2 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

d-Phenothrin 0.01 -- 0.05 0.01 -- 0.05 0.01 -- 0.05

Diazinon -- -- -- 0.2 -- 0.01 0.2 -- 0.01

Diuron 0.5 -- 0.1 0.1 -- 0.1 0.1 -- 0.1

Dodine -- -- -- 0.5 -- 0.2 0.5 -- 0.2

Ethoprop -- -- -- 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 -- 0.02

Fenbuconazole -- -- -- 0.3 0.05 0.05 0.3 -- 0.05

Fenbutatin-oxide 2.0 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Fenhexamid -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Fenpropathrin 1.0 -- 0.01 -- -- -- -- -- --

Fludioxonil 0.45 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Fluridone -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Fosetyl-Al -- -- -- 3.0 -- 2.0 3.0 -- 2.0

Glufosinateammonium-- -- -- 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.05 0.2

Glyphosate 0.2 -- 0.1 0.2 0.05 0.1 0.2 -- 0.1

Imazalil -- -- -- 3.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 -- 2.0
225

Papaya (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Banana (ppm) 

(Proposed Member and 

Representative Commodity; 

24B. Medium To Large 

Fruits, Smooth, Inedible 

Peel)

Plantain (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Compound US Codex EU US Codex EU US Codex EU

Imidacloprid 1.0 -- 0.05 0.5 0.05 0.05 0.5 -- 0.05

Inorganic bromide 20 20 50 -- -- -- -- -- --

Malathion 1.0 -- 0.02 -- -- -- -- -- --

Mancozeb 10 5.0 7.0 0.5 2.0 2.0 0.5 -- 2.0

Maneb 10 5.0 7.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 -- 2.0

Mefenoxam 0.4 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Metalaxyl 0.1 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Methidathion -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Methomyl -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Methoxyfenozide 0.6 1 0.02 -- -- -- -- -- --

Myclobutanil 3.0 -- 0.02 4.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 -- 2.0

Norflurazon -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Oryzalin 0.05 -- 0.01 -- -- -- -- -- --

Oxamyl -- -- -- 0.3 -- 0.01 0.3 -- 0.01

Note: That shaded cells indicate that the MRL is established for the respective crop group rather than for the individual 

commodity.

Table 39. Tolerances Established on Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, Inedible Peel 

(continued) (FASonline: mrldatabase.com; tolerances as of June 14, 2012).

Papaya (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Banana (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Plantain (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Compound US Codex EU US Codex EU US Codex EU

Oxyfluorfen -- -- -- 0.05 -- 0.05 0.05 -- 0.05

Paraquat dichloride 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.02

Pendimethalin -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Permethrin 1.0 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Phosphine 0.01 -- 0.05 0.01 -- 0.05 0.01 -- 0.05

Piperonly Butoxide -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Propiconazole -- -- -- 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 -- 0.1

Pyraclostrobin 0.6 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.04 -- 0.02

Pyrethrins -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Pyridaben 0.1 -- 0.5 -- -- -- -- -- --

Pyrimethanil -- -- -- 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 -- 0.1

Pyriproxyfen 1.0 -- 0.05 0.2 -- 0.05 0.2 -- 0.05

Simazine -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Spinetoram 0.3 -- 0.05 0.25 -- 0.05 0.25 -- 0.05

Spinosad 0.3 -- 0.5 0.25 -- 0.02 0.25 -- 0.02

Spirodiclofen 1.0 0.03 0.02 -- -- -- -- --
226

Papaya (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Banana (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Plantain (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Spirotetramat 2.5 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Tebuconazole -- -- -- 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 -- 0.05

Terbufos -- -- -- 0.025 0.05 0.05 0.025 -- 0.05

Thiabendazole 5.0 10 10 3.0 5.0 5.0 3.0 -- 5.0

Thiamethoxam 0.4 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Trifloxystrobin 0.7 -- 1.0

Triflumizole 2.5 -- 0.1 -- -- -- -- -- --

Thiophanate-methyl -- -- -- 2.0 0.2 0.1 2.0 -- 0.1

Note: That shaded cells indicate that the MRL is established for the respective crop group rather than for the individual 

commodity.

Table 40. Tolerances Established on Tropical Fruits – Inedible Peel (FASonline: 

mrldatabase.com; tolerances as of June 14, 2012

Pawpaw, Common

(ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Sapote, Black (ppm) 

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Sapote, White (ppm) 

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Compound US Codex EU US Codex EU US Codex EU

Azoxystrobin 2.0 0.3 -- 2.0 -- 0.05 2.0 -- 0.05

Bifenazate -- -- -- 7.0 -- 0.01 -- -- --

Boscalid -- -- -- 1.5 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Buprofezin -- -- -- 0.9 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Carfentrazone-ethyl 0.1 -- -- 0.1 -- 0.01 -- -- --

Chlorantraniliprole -- -- -- 4.0 -- 0.01 4.0 -- 0.01

Cyprodinil 2.0 -- -- 1.2 -- 0.05 -- -- --

d-Phenothrin 0.01 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Etoxazole 0.2

Fenpropathrin -- -- -- 1.0 -- 0.01 -- -- --

Fluazifop 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Fludioxonil -- -- -- 0.45 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Fluridone 0.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Glyphosate 0.2 -- -- 0.2 -- 0.21 0.2 -- 0.1

Imidacloprid -- -- -- 1.0 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Mancozeb -- -- -- -- -- -- 15 -- 0.05

Mefenoxam -- -- -- 0.4 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Methoxyfenozide -- -- -- 0.6 -- 0.02 -- -- --

Myclobutanil -- -- -- 3.0 -- 0.02 -- -- --

Pyraclostrobin -- -- -- 0.6 -- 0.02 -- -- --

Pyridaben -- -- -- 0.1 -- 0.5 -- -- --

Pyriproxyfen 1.0 -- -- 1.0 -- 0.05 0.3 -- 0.05

Spinetoram -- -- -- 0.3 -- 0.05 0.3 -- 0.05
227

Pawpaw, Common

(ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Sapote, Black (ppm) 

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Sapote, White (ppm) 

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24B. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel)

Spinosad -- -- -- 0.3 -- 0.02 0.3 -- 0.02

Spirodiclofen -- -- -- 1.0 -- 0.02 -- -- --

Spirotetramat -- -- -- 0.6 -- -- 0.6 -- --

Thiamethoxam -- -- -- 0.4 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Trifloxystrobin -- -- -- 0.7 -- 0.02 -- -- --

Triflumizole -- -- -- 2.5 -- 0.1 -- -- --

Note: That shaded cells indicate that the MRL is established for the respective crop group rather than for the individual 

commodity.

Table 41. Tolerances Established on Tropical Fruits – Inedible Peel (continued)

(FASonline: mrldatabase.com; tolerances as of November 9, 2010, June 14, 2012).

Atemoya (ppm)

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Pineapple (ppm) 

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Cherimoya (ppm) 

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Compound US Codex EU US Codex EU US Codex EU

1-NAA 0.05

Ametryn -- -- -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- --

Azoxystrobin 2.0 -- -- -- -- -- 2.0 -- 0.05

Bifenazate 1.6 -- -- -- -- -- 1.6 -- 0.01

Bromacil -- -- -- 0.1 -- -- -- -- --

Buprofezin 0.3 -- -- -- -- -- 0.3 -- 0.05

Carbaryl -- -- -- 2.0 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Carfentrazone-ethyl 0.1 -- -- -- -- -- 0.1 -- 0.01

Chlorantraniliprole 4.0 -- -- 1.5 -- 0.01 4.0 -- 0.01

d-Phenothrin -- -- -- 0.01 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Diazinon -- -- -- 0.5 0.1 0.3 -- -- --

Diuron -- -- -- 0.1 -- 0.1 -- -- --

Endosulfan -- -- -- 1.0 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Ethephon -- -- -- 2.0 2.0 2.0 -- -- --

Ethoprop -- -- -- 0.02 -- 0.02 -- -- --

Fenamiphos 0.3

Fludioxonil 13

Fosetyl-Al -- -- -- 0.1 -- 50 -- -- --

Glyphosate 0.2 -- -- 0.1 -- 0.1 0.2 -- 0.1

Hexazinone -- -- -- 0.6 -- -- -- -- --

Hydramethylnon -- -- -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- --

Imidacloprid 0.3 -- -- -- -- -- 0.3 -- 0.05

Inorganic bromide -- -- -- 20 20 50 -- -- --

Malathion -- -- -- 8.0 -- 0.02 -- -- --

Mancozeb 3.0 -- -- 8.0 -- 0.02 3.0 -- 0.05
228

Atemoya (ppm)

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Pineapple (ppm) 

(Proposed Representative

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Cherimoya (ppm) 

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Mefenoxam 0.2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Metalaxyl -- -- -- 0.1 -- 0.05 -- -- --

O-phenylphenol -- -- -- 10 -- -- -- -- --

Oxamyl -- -- -- 1.0 -- 0.01 -- -- --

Paraquat -- -- -- 0.05 0.01 0.02 -- -- --

Piperonyl Butoxide -- -- -- 8.0 -- -- -- -- --

Propiconazole -- -- -- 4.5 0.02 0.05 -- -- --

Pyrethrins -- -- -- 1.0 -- 1.0 -- -- --

Pyriproxyfen 0.2 -- -- 0.3 -- 0.05 0.2 -- 0.05

Quizalofop-ethyl -- -- -- 0.1 -- 0.05 -- -- --

Spinetoram 0.3 -- -- 0.04 -- 0.05 0.3 -- 0.05

Spinosad 0.3 -- -- 0.02 -- 0.02 0.3 -- 0.02

Triadimefon -- -- -- 2.0 5.0 3.0 -- -- --

Triflumizole -- -- -- 4.0 -- 0.1 -- -- --

Note: That shaded cells indicate that the MRL is established for the respective crop group rather than for the individual 

commodity.

Table 42. Tolerances Established on Tropical Fruits – Inedible Peel (FASonline: 

mrldatabase.com; tolerances as of June 14, 2012)

Custard Apple (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Durian (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Jackfruit (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Compound US Codex EU US Codex EU US Codex EU

Azoxystrobin 2.0 -- 0.05 -- -- -- 2.0 -- 0.05

Bifenazate 1.6 -- 0.01 -- -- -- -- -- --

Buprofezin 0.3 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Carfentrazone-ethyl 0.1 -- 0.01 -- -- -- -- -- --

Chlorantraniliprole 4.0 -- 0.01 -- -- -- -- -- --

Glyphosate 0.2 -- 0.1 0.2 -- 0.1 0.2 -- 0.1

Imidacloprid 0.3 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Mancozeb 3.0 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Mefenoxam 0.2 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Pyriproxyfen 0.2 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Spinetoram 0.3 -- 0.05 -- -- -- -- -- --

Spinosad 0.3 -- 0.02 -- -- -- -- -- --

Note: That shaded cells indicate that the MRL is established for the respective crop group rather than for the individual 

commodity.

Table 43. Tolerances Established on Tropical Fruits – Inedible Peel 

(FASonline: mrldatabase.com; tolerances as of June 14, 2012).
229

Longan (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Sapodilla (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Sapote, Mamey (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Compound US Codex EU US Codex EU US Codex EU

Azoxystrobin 2.0 -- -- 2.0 -- -- 2.0 -- 0.05

Bifenazate 5.0 -- -- 7.0 -- -- 7.0 -- .01

Boscalid -- -- -- 1.5 -- -- 1.5 -- 0.05

Buprofezin -- -- -- 0.9 -- -- 0.9 -- 0.05

Carfentrazone-ethyl 0.1 -- -- 0.1 -- -- 0.1 -- 0.01

Chlorantraniliprole 4.0 -- -- 4.0 -- -- 4.0 -- 0.01

Cyprodinil 2.0 -- -- 1.2 -- -- 1.2 -- 0.05

Etoxazole 0.2 0.2

Fenpropathrin -- -- -- 1.0 -- -- 1.0 -- 0.01

Fludioxonil 1.0 -- -- 0.45 -- -- 0.45 -- 0.05

Glyphosate 0.2 -- -- 0.2 -- -- 0.2 -- 0.1

Imidacloprid 3.0 -- -- 1.0 -- -- 1.0 -- 0.05

Mancozeb -- -- -- 15 -- -- 15 -- 0.05

Mefenoxam -- -- -- 0.4 -- -- 0.4 -- 0.05

Methidathion 0.1 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Methoxyfenozide 2.0 -- -- 0.6 -- -- 0.6 -- 0.02

Myclobutanil -- -- -- 3.0 -- -- 3.0 -- 0.02

Pyraclostrobin -- -- -- 0.6 -- -- 0.6 -- 0.02

Pyridaben -- -- -- 0.1 -- -- 0.1 -- 0.5

Pyriproxyfen -- -- -- 1.0 -- -- 1.0 -- 0.05

Spinetoram 0.3 -- -- 0.3 -- -- 0.3 -- 0.05

Spinosad 0.3 -- -- 0.3 -- -- 0.3 -- 0.02

Spirodiclofen 0.3 -- -- 1.0 -- -- 1.0 -- 0.02

Spirotetramat 13 -- -- 0.6 -- 0.6

Thiamethoxam -- -- -- 0.4 -- -- 0.4 -- 0.05

Trifloxystrobin -- -- -- 0.7 -- -- 0.7 -- 0.02

Triflumizole -- -- -- 2.5 -- -- 2.5 -- 0.1

Note: That shaded cells indicate that the MRL is established for the respective crop group rather than for the individual 

commodity.

Table 44. Tolerances Established on Tropical Fruits – Inedible Peel 

(FASonline: mrldatabase.com; tolerances as of June 14, 2012).

Soursop (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Sugar Apple (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Compound US Codex EU US Codex EU

Azoxystrobin 2.0 -- 0.05 2.0 -- 0.05

Bifenazate 1.6 -- 0.01 1.6 -- 0.01

Buprofezin 0.3 -- 0.05 0.3 -- 0.05

Carfentrazone-ethyl 0.1 -- 0.01 0.1 -- 0.01

Chlorantraniliprole 4.0 -- 0.01 4.0 -- 0.01
230

Soursop (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Sugar Apple (ppm)

(Proposed Member

Commodity; 24C. Medium 

To Large Fruits, Rough or 

Hairy, Inedible Peel)

Glyphosate 0.2 -- 0.1 0.2 -- 0.1

Imidacloprid 0.3 -- 0.05 0.3 -- 0.05

Mancozeb -- -- -- 3.0 -- 0.05

Mefenoxam -- -- -- 0.2 -- 0.05

Methidathion -- -- -- 0.2 -- 0.02

Pyriproxyfen 0.2 -- 0.05 0.2 -- 0.05

Spinetoram 0.3 -- 0.05 0.3 -- 0.05

Spinosad 0.3 -- 0.02 0.3 -- 0.02

Note: That shaded cells indicate that the MRL is established for the respective crop group rather than for the individual 

commodity.

REQUIRED NUMBER OF CROP FIELD TRIALS FOR THE PROPOSED 

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL - INEDIBLE PEEL CROP GROUP 24 AND 

COMPARISON OF EPA CROP PRODUCTION REGIONS WITH THE NAFTA 

CROP PRODUCTION REGIONS:

A reevaluation of crop production data from the 2007 USDA Agricultural Census 

shows that the new Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Crop Group 24 will not 

require additional field trials because the acreage for the representative commodities 

(atemoya, avocado, banana, cactus (prickly pear), dragon fruit, lychee, passionfruit, 

pineapple, and pomegranate) have not significantly changed from the 1991 data used in 

the current field trial guidelines (EPA OPPTS 860.1500). Currently, since there is no 

crop group the individual inedible peel commodities listed in the field trial guidelines are 

avocado, banana, papaya, persimmon, and pineapple. For papaya, pawpaw, persimmon, 

pomegranate, and plantain the registrant/petitioner has the option of doing 3 trials with 

two treated sample (1x rate) per trial with four treated samples or 2 trials with four treated 

samples (two at 1x rate, two at 2x rate per trial. If a crop group tolerance is being 

pursued the number of field trials for the individual commodities will be reduced by 25%. 

Currently if a crop group tolerance is not being pursued the number of field trials for the 

individual commodities is 28 (Table 45). The number of field trials for the representative 

commodities if a Tropical and subtropical fruit – inedible peel group 24 tolerance as 

proposed will be is 21. The number of field trials for Tropical and Subtropical Fruit –

Inedible Peel Commodities Crop Subgroups 24A, 24B, 24C, 24D, and 24E is listed in 

Table 46. Location of the field trial production regions for the proposed Tropical and 

subtropical fruit – inedible peel group is listed in Table 47. 

Table 45. Current Required Number of Field Trials for Tropical and Subtropical 

Fruit Commodities (OPPTS 860.1500, Table 2). 

Representative Number of Field Number of Field 
231

Commodity Trials for 

Commodities if 

Not Part of the 

Crop Group

Trials for 

Commodities as Part 

of the Crop Group

Atemoya** 1* 1

Avocado** 5 3

Banana** and *** 5 3

Cactus 2 2

Lychee 1 1

Papaya 3 or 2 -

Passionfruit** 2 2

Pawpaw, common 3 or 2 -

Persimmon 3 or 2 -

Pineapple  8 5

Plantain** *** 3 or 2 -

Pomegranate 3 or 2 3 or 2*****

Sugar apple 2 -

Total for 

Representative 

Commodities

28 - 29 21-22

*Attachment 7. Methodology for Determining Number of Field Trials, in Appendix A of 

the EPA OPPTS 860.1500 Crop Field Trials. 

** The proposed representative commodities are atemoya, avocado, banana, cactus, 

dragon fruit, lychee, passionfruit, and pineapple.

*** Portion analyzed/sampled: Whole fruit for both. Banana: Field residue data on both 

bagged and unbagged bananas should be provided. The required number of field trials 

may be split between bagged and unbagged bananas. Alternatively, one sample each of 

bagged and unbagged bananas may be taken from each site. For establishing tolerances, 

data are required on the whole commodity including peel after removing and discarding 

crown tissue and stalk. Residue data on just the banana pulp may be provided for 

purposes of dietary risk assessment: Banana tolerance will cover plantain.

 Pineapple. Whole fruit after crown has been removed processed residue and juice. 

Pineapple process residue (also known as wet bran) is a wet waste byproduct from the 

fresh-cut product line that includes pineapple tops (minus crown), bottoms, peels, any 

trimmings with peel cut up, and the pulp (left after squeezing for juice); it can include 

culls.

** *** Plantain is covered by commodity definition for banana. 

****** Pomegranate is an alternative representative commodity with banana.

Table 46. Number of Field Trials for Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel 

Commodities to Establish for Crop Subgroups 24A, 24B, 24C, 24D, and 24E, 

Respectively (40 CFR 180.41 (12) and OPPTS 860.1500). 
232

Representative

Commodity

Subgroup 

24A; 

Tropical 

and 

Subtropical, 

Small Fruit, 

Inedible 

Peel 

Subgroup

Subgroup 

24B; 

Tropical 

and 

Subtropical, 

Medium to 

Large Fruit, 

Smooth, 

Inedible 

Peel 

Subgroup

Subgroup 

24C; 

Tropical and 

Subtropical, 

Medium to 

Large Fruit, 

Rough or 

Hairy, 

Inedible Peel 

Subgroup

Subgroup 

24D; 

Tropical 

and 

Subtropical, 

Inedible 

Peel, Cactus

Subgroup

Subgroup 

24E; 

Tropical and 

Subtropical, 

Inedible 

Peel, Vine 

Subgroup

Lychee -2 - - - -

Avocado and 

Banana or 

Pomegranate

- 10 - - -

Atemoya and 

Pineapple

- - 9 - -

Dragon fruit 

and Prickly

pear

- - - 2 -

Passionfruit - - - - 2

Attachment 7. Methodology for Determining Number of Field Trials, in Appendix A of 

the EPA OPPTS 860.1500 Crop Field Trials. 

There are no specific production data in the U.S. for the following commodities: 

Açaí; African plum; almondette; appleberry; arazá; Bacaba palm; bacaba-de-leque; 

breadnut; cabeluda; cajou,; carandas plum; cashew; Ceylon ironwood; Ceylon olive; 

Chinese olive, black; Chinese olive, white; Chirauli-nut; Ciruela verde; Davidson’s plum; 

desert date; Doum palm coconut; fragrant Manjack; gooseberry, Abyssinian; Guabiroba; 

Guava, Costa Rican; Guava, Para; Illawarra plum; Kakadu plum; Marian plum; mombin, 

Malayan; monkeyfruit; Mountain cherry; Patauá: peach palm; rambai; rumberry; Setecapotes; silver aspen; water berry; and water berry.

For one of the crop subgroups (24A) being recommended by HED, there is only

one representative commodity. Therefore, the 25 % reduction in field trials shown in 

Tables 46 and 47 does not apply if a tolerance is being sought only on iscrop subgroups. 

Also crop subgroup 24D, Tropical and Subtropical, Inedible Peel, Cactus Subgroup has 

only minimum number of crop field trials at two field trials so there is no reduction in the 

number of field trials. The minimal number of field trials for the representative 

commodities lychee, atemoya, and passionfruit will have to be increased to three. Table 

46 also lists the number of trials for the other three crop subgroups. For example, eight 

trials are needed for the Tropical and Subtropical, Medium to Large Fruit, Smooth, 

Inedible Peel Subgroup 24B and seven for the Tropical and Subtropical, Medium to 

Large Fruit, Rough or Hairy, Inedible Peel Subgroup.

Table 47. EPA Crop Production Regions Suggested Distribution of the Tropical 

and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Crop Field Trials > 3 for the Representative 
233

Commodities* for the Crop Group based on Current EPA Guidelines (OPPTS

860.1500).

Commodity # Field 

Trials

2 3 6 10 12 13

Atemoya* or 

Sugar apple

 2 2

Avocado* 5 1 4

Banana/Plantain* 5 1 4

Cactus* (prickly 

pear and dragon 

fruit)

 2 1 1

Lychee* 2 2

Pawpaw, 

common

 2 2

Papaya 3 3

Passionfruit* 2 2

Persimmon 3 1 2

Pineapple* 8 8

Pomegranate* 3 3**

Total 26* 2 3 1 5 2 23

** Pomegranate is an alternate representative commodity for banana.

The EPA crop production regions for residue field trials suggested distribution of the 

tropical and subtropical fruit – inedible peel representative commodities that are based on 

current EPA Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1500) shows that atemoya, banana, lychee, 

passionfruit, pomegranate, and pineapple are only grown in EPA Regions 3 and 13

(Table 47). Cactus is grown in EPA Region 6 and 10, and avocado in EPA Region 3 and 

10.

Efforts to update the NAFTA regions were initiated in 2009. Any future conflict 

in testing between regions can generally be resolved by having the ChemSAC review the 

test protocol regions before residue trials are initiated and any differences can also be 

resolved by input from the International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee (ICGCC) 

and reviews by Canada, PMRA.

CODEX CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSED COMMODITIES AND EPA FOOD 

AND FEED COMMODITY VOCABULARY: See Table 48. Comparisons of 

Tropical and Subtropical – Inedible Peel Crop Groups: Codex (006) and Proposed EPA 

(24). (Data prepared by Dr’s. Yuen-Shaung NG, Dr. Bernard A. Schneider, U.S. EPA 

and Bill Barney, USDA IR-4, 2007, 2012).

Another important aspect of crop grouping is the harmonization effort with the 

Codex Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds. The proposed EPA crop group for 

Tropical and subtropical fruit group – inedible peel is very similar to the corresponding 

Codex Assorted tropical and sub-tropical fruits group – inedible peel. The Codex Group 
234

006, Assorted tropical and sub-tropical fruits group – inedible peel (Crop Group 006, 

letter code FI), consists of sixty-two commodities including matches to the proposed EPA 

commodities and crop group (Table 48). 

The differences are several of the Codex commodities refer to another commodity

such as “Egg, fruit see Canistel” whereas in the U.S crop grouping system canistel is a 

distinct commodity. The sixty-two Codex commodities really consist of forty-seven 

distinct commodities with the rest being multiple entries, or varieties of cultivar of other 

commodities listed. The U.S. is proposing to add several commodities such as abiu, 

aisen, binji, Burmese grape, and wampi that are not yet in the Codex system. Several 

Codex names are equivalent to lookup terms in the EPA Food and Feed Commodity

Vocabulary like Java apple is wax jambu. Some of the commodities like guava and 

tamarind are being placed in the tropical and subtropical fruit - edible peel group. Note 

that the current Codex crop group does not have representative commodities. A revision 

of the Codex Classification is underway with consideration to include adding new 

commodities, creating subgroups, and selecting representative commodities. The 

expanded Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Group 24 and the representative 

commodities proposed in this petition would facilitate the harmonization of the U.S. and 

the Codex crop classification systems. 

Codex uses multiple commodity terms for the same commodity and refers to the 

preferred commodity, while EPA has the Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary website 

that has many lookup terms that link to the preferred commodity term used for 

establishing tolerances/MRL. 

TABLE 48. EPA/Codex Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Crop Group 

Comparison. The Codex Group Name is “Assorted Tropical and Sub-Tropical 

Fruits – Inedible Peel”. (Based on NG and Schneider, 2012).

CODEX

LETTER

CODEX 

COMMODITY 

NUMBER

CODEX COMMODITY NAME PROPOSED EPA PREFER 

COMMODITY NAME

- - - ABIU

- - - AISEN

FI 325 AKEE APPLE AKEE APPLE

FI 30 ASSORTED TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS-INEDIBLE PEELTROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT 

– INEDIBLE PEEL GROUP 24

- - - ATEMOYA

FI 326 AVOCADO AVOCADO

- - - AVOCADO, GUATEMALAN

- - - AVOCADO, MEXICAN

- - - AVOCADO, WEST INDIAN

- - - BACURY

- - - BAEL FRUIT

FI 327 BANANA BANANA

FI 328 BANANA, DWARF BANANA, DWARF

- - - BINJAI

- - - BIRIBA

FI 329 BREADFRUIT BREADFRUIT

- - - BURMESE GRAPE
235

CODEX

LETTER

CODEX 

COMMODITY 

NUMBER

CODEX COMMODITY NAME PROPOSED EPA PREFER 

COMMODITY NAME

FI 330 CANISTEL CANISTEL

FI 331 CHERIMOYA CHERIMOYA

- - - CAT’S-EYES

- - - CHAMPEDAK

FI 4127 CHINESE GOOSEBERRY, SEE 

KIWIFRUIT

KIWIFRUIT (MEMBER OF BERRY AND 

SMALL FRUIT GROUP 13-07

- - - CUPUACU

FI 332 CUSTARD APPLE CUSTARD APPLE

FI 333 DOUM OR DUM PALM PALM

- - - DRAGON FRUIT

FI 334 DURIAN DURIAN

FI 4129 EGG FRUIT, SEE CANISTEL CANISTEL

FI 371 ELEPHANT APPLE ELEPHANT-APPLE

- - - ETAMBE

FI 335 FEIJOA FEIJOA

FI 4131 GENIP, SEE MARMALADEBOX MARMALADEBOX

- - - GRANADILLA

- - - GRANADILLA, GIANT

FI 336 GUAVA GUAVA*

FI 337 ILAMA ILAMA

- - - INGA

FI 4133 INDIAN FIG, SEE PRICKLY PEAR CACTUS

FI 338 JACKFRUIT JACKFRUIT

FI 339 JAMBOLAN NO EPA PREFER TERM

- - - JATOBA

FI 340 JAVA APPLE WAX JAMBU

- - - KARUKA

- - - KEI APPLE

FI 341 KIWIFRUIT KIWIFRUIT (MEMBER OF EPA BERRY 

AND SMALL FRUIT GROUP 13-07 0

- - - LANGSAT

- - - LANJUT

FI 343 LITCHI LYCHEE

FI 342 LONGAN LONGAN

- - - LUCUMA

FI 4135 LULO, SEE NARANJILLA NARANJILLA

- - - MABOLO

- - - MADRAS-THORN

FI 344 MAMMEY APPLE MAMEY APPLE

- - - MANDURO

FI 345 MANGO MANGO

- - - MANGO, HORSE

- - - MANGO, SAIPAN

FI 346 MANGOSTAN MANGOSTEEN

FI 4137 MANGOSTEEN, SEE MANGOSTAN MANGOSTEEN

- - - MARANG

FI 347 MARMALADEDOS MARMALADEBOX

- - - MATISIA

- - - MESQUITE

- - - MONGONGO, FRUIT

FI 348 MOMBIN, YELLOW AMBARELLA*

- - - MONKEY-BREAD-TREE
236

CODEX

LETTER

CODEX 

COMMODITY 

NUMBER

CODEX COMMODITY NAME PROPOSED EPA PREFER 

COMMODITY NAME

- - - MONSTERA

FI 349 NARANJILLA NARANJILLA

- - - NICOBAR-BREADFRUIT

- - - PAHO

- - - PANDANAS

FI 4139 PAPAW OR PAWPAW, SEE PAPAYA PAPAYA

FI 350 PAPAYA PAPAYA

- - - PASSIONFLOWER, WINGED-STEM

FI 351 PASSION FRUIT PASSIONFRUIT

FI 352 PERSIMMON, AMERICAN PERSIMMON, AMERICAN

- - - PASSIONFRUIT, BANANA

- - - PASSIONFRUIT, PURPLE

- - - PASSIONFRUIT, YELLOW

- - - PAWPAW, COMMON

- - - PAWPAW, SMALL-FLOWER

- - - PELIPISAN

- - - PEQUI

- - - PEQUIA

FI 4141 PERSIMMON, JAPANESE, SEE 

GROUP 005

PERSIMMON*

FI 353 PINEAPPLE PINEAPPLE

FI 4143 PINEAPPLE GUAVA, SEE FEIJOA FEIJOA

- - - PITAHAYA

- - - PITAYA, AMARILLA

- - PITAYA, ROJA

- - - PITAYA, YELLOW

FI 354 PLANTAIN PLANTAIN

FI 355 POMEGRANATE POMEGRANATE

-- - - POSHTE

FI 356 PRICKLY PEAR PRICKLY PEAR

- - - PRICKLY PEAR, TEXAS

FI 357 PULASAN PULASAN

- - - QUANDONG

FI 4305 QUITO ORANGE, SEE NARANJILLA NARANJILLA

FI 358 RAMBUTAN RAMBUTAN

- - - SAGUARO

FI 359 SAPODILLA SAPODILLA

FI 360 SAPOTE, BLACK SAPOTE, BLACK

FI 361 SAPOTE, GREEN SAPOTE, GREEN

FI 362 SAPOTE, MAMMEY SAPOTE, MAMEY

FI 363 SAPOTE, WHITE SAPOTE, WHITE

- - - SATAW SATINLEAF

- - - SCREW-PINE

FI 364 SENTUL SENTUL

FI 4147 SESSO VEGETAL, SEE AKEE APPLE AKEE APPLE

- - - SIERRA LEONE-TAMARIND

- - - SONCOYA

FI 365 SOURSOP SOURSOP

FI 366 SPANISH LIME SPANISH LIME

FI 367 STAR APPLE STAR APPLE

FI 4149 STRAWBERRY PEACH, SEE 

KIWIFRUIT

KIWIFRUIT
237

CODEX

LETTER

CODEX 

COMMODITY 

NUMBER

CODEX COMMODITY NAME PROPOSED EPA PREFER 

COMMODITY NAME

FI 68 SUGAR APPLE SUGAR APPLE

- - - SUN SAPOTE

FI 4151 SWEETSOP, SEE SUGAR APPLE SUGAR APPLE

FI 369 TAMARIND TAMARIND*

- - - TAMARIND-OF-THE-INDIES

FI 370 TONKA BEAN

- - - VELVET TAMARIND

- - - WAMPI

- - - WHITE STAR APPLE

- - - WILD LOQUAT

*EPA has it as a member of the Tropical and subtropical fruit group – edible peel.

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT – INEDIBLE PEEL EQUIVALENTS 

AND YIELDS:

One 11 oz avocado is equivalent to about 1 cup mashed pulp. One pound of 

bananas is equivalent to three medium bananas, and one sliced banana about 2/3 cup, two 

diced bananas about one cup, and three mashed bananas equal about one cup. One 

medium papaya is equal to 11⁄4 to 11⁄2 cups peeled, sliced, seeded fruit. One medium 

pomegranate equivalent to = 3⁄4 cup seeds, and 1⁄2 cup juice. Durian 3 Kg of fresh pulp =1 

Kg of dried powder.

PREPARATION, FOOD FORMS, COOKING METHODS, FOOD FORMS, 

SPECIFIC USES, MEDICINAL USES, FRUIT YIELDS, AND MARKETING 

STANDARDS FOR PROPOSED MEMBERS OF THE TROPICAL AND 

SUBTROPICAL FRUIT – INEDIBLE PEEL CROP GROUP:

The members of this proposed crop group have similar food preparations, uses, and 

all are consumed fresh or consumed cooked or raw or dried in various recipes including 

deserts, fruit salads, ice cream, yogurt, jams and jellies, and juices. The wood is also 

used for construction and as an ornamental landscape uses. Some of these tropical fruits 

have plant extracts that have medicinal properties (See Table 51). Detailed preparation 

and cooking methods for the tropical and subtropical fruits – inedible peel are listed in 

Table 49, while detailed specific uses for the tropical and subtropical fruits – inedible 

peel will be listed in Table 50. Specific uses for some of the Tropical fruits with inedible 

peel will be discussed below.

Table 49. Preparation and Cooking Methods for the Tropical and Subtropical 

Fruits with Inedible Peel:

Commodity Preparation for Cooking

Abiu Pulp is consumed fresh; mostly consumed out-of-hand. Gummy latex can 

cling to the lips. Fruit is used in desserts; can be used dried, in sherbets, ice 

creams, jams, fruit salads, and yogurt

Aisen Fruit can be eaten raw but is very acidic; fruit becomes edible after soaking 
238

Commodity Preparation for Cooking

in water for one week; seeds are dried in the sun, pounded to remove the 

outer seed coat and soaked for several days to remove toxins; seeds are 

boiled in a cauldron with potash, soaked in cold water, and mixed with salt 

and butter for serving; fruit is fermented into beer; seeds are roasted and 

used as a coffee substitute. 

Akee apple The ripe aril is consumed fresh and cooked. The aril is often boiled, 

sautéed, fried with seasonings, placed in pastry, or placed into soup. Arils 

are prepared by parboiling in salted water or milk, discarding the liquid, and 

frying in oil or butter. Arils resemble scrambled eggs and are sometimes 

referred to as “vegetable brains”; considered a delicacy. The national dish 

of Jamaica is akee and dried codfish. Parboiled arils are also added to a 

stew containing beef, salt-pork, scallions, thyme and other seasonings; can 

be curried and eaten with rice. Served in restaurants. In West Africa, the 

aril may be consumed raw, fried or roasted. Arils must be detached entirely 

from the pink tissue around the aril and the large seed before being 

consumed. The immature or over-ripe arils, the pink tissue around the aril, 

the seed, and the rest of the fruit are extremely toxic.

Atemoya Atemoya is a dessert fruit that is usually served chilled. Pulp is consumed 

fresh by cutting the fruit in half or quartering it and eating the flesh from the 

rind with a spoon. Fruit is prepared into sherbets, beverages and other 

desserts. The white pulp can be easily separated from the seeds, cubed or 

sliced and added to fruit cups or salads. Pulp is also blended with orange 

juice, lime juice and cream and frozen as ice cream.

Avocado The pulp is consumed fresh and is combined with other ingredients in 

salads and desserts. The high fat content of avocadoes combines well with 

acidic fruit, vegetables, and dressings. Fruit is made into the popular dip 

guacamole. Fruit is sometimes used to supply the fat content of frozen 

desserts including ice cream. Ripe pulp is mashed with milk and sugar or 

made into ice cream in the Philippines. In tropical America, fruit is cut in 

half, salted and eaten with tortillas. Fruit can be stuffed with seafood. Used 

as a garnish; placed in sandwiches; pickled. Frozen avocado purée is used 

as a base for many products. Avocado oil is used for cosmetic products and 

culinary purposes. It is similar to olive oil. Added to hot foods including 

soup, stew, chili, or omelets prior to serving the dishes. Due to the tannin 

content, pulp becomes bitter if cooked and unripe avocados are toxic.

Bacury Because of the strong flavor, the pulp (except for the sweeter parthenocarpic 

sections) is usually not consumed out of hand. The pulp is used in desserts 

including ice creams, sherbets, bakery fillings, jams, marmalade, jellies, 

juices and candies; flavoring for beverages. Fruit are preserved in tins.

Bael fruit Fruit pulp is consumed fresh or processed. Fresh fruit is consumed by 

cutting the fruit in half and sprinkling palm sugar on the pulp; consumed for 

breakfast. Fruit is processed as nectar. In India, pulp is beaten with milk 

and sugar to create a drink. A drink is also prepared by combining the pulp 

with tamarind. Pulp is used to make sherbet, jelly, beverages, preserves, 

syrup, and toffee. Ripe pulp is pickled. Unripe fruit is made into jam. 

Young leaves and shoots are eaten as a vegetable and seasoning. An 

infusion of the flowers is used in drinks.

Banana/Plantain Dessert bananas are peeled and consumed fresh; mostly eaten as a dessert in 

the northern hemisphere. Fruit are added to fruit salads and sandwiches; 
239

Commodity Preparation for Cooking

used as a snack, smoothie, or meal. Fruit can be consumed whole, sliced or 

mashed; baked, boiled or broiled and served with meat; fruit are sliced and 

cooked with lemon juice and sugar to make jam, syrup or sauce; spiced. In 

the South Pacific, unpeeled or peeled unripe fruit are baked whole. Fruit is 

pureed and used in baby foods, baked goods, ice cream, yogurts, or 

beverages. Fruit can be canned and frozen; also made into beer and wine. 

Dwarf banana pulp is consumed fresh and cooked. Dwarf banana fruit are 

the most preferred for drying. Plantains are a type of cooking banana where 

fruit remain starchy after ripening; usually processed before consumption. 

Fruit are usually peeled, wrapped up in Musa leaves, cooked whole or 

grated, and mixed with coconut milk. Cooking bananas and plantains are 

fried, grilled, boiled or stewed. Ripe plantains are allowed to ripen until the 

skin has turned black, peeled, sliced, and fried in olive oil. A common dish 

in the Caribbean is made by boiling and mashing ripe plantains, and adding 

eggs, flour, butter, milk and cloves. This mixture is added to a casserole 

with beef and cheese; many other dishes are made from plantains. Fruit are 

stored by drying; fruit are also ground into flour that is later used for bread. 

Ripe fruit are used to make banana ketchup in the Philippines. Fruit can 

also be consumed raw when ripe. Fruit are canned and frozen. Dried green 

plantains can be ground, roasted and used as a substitute for coffee. In 

India and Ethiopia, the heart of the banana stem is consumed as a delicacy; 

stems are canned, added to curry sauce, candied, or consumed as a 

vegetable; corms are consumed as a vegetable; ash from burned leaves and 

stems are used as a seasoning in curries; in the Far East and Sri Lanka, the 

male buds are consumed in salads; in Southeast Asia, flowers are soaked in 

salt water, boiled, and consumed as a vegetable; may also be consumed in 

curries, or eaten with palm oil. A clear liquid called banana essence is 

added to desserts, juices and drinks.

Binjai Fruit pulp of green or ripe fruit can be consumed fresh, cooked, or 

preserved. Fruit is often used to make a spice that is based on chilies

(called sambal) and is eaten with fish. Fruit is commonly eaten with chili 

and soy sauce. Pulp of ripe fruit can be pickled or preserved with salt. In 

Bali, fruit are used to make creamy juices. The seed is edible; young leaves 

are edible and are consumed raw.

Biriba Pulp is consumed fresh; used in desserts. Locals in the Amazon blend the 

fruit into a juice with or without milk. In Brazil, fruit can be fermented to 

make wine.

Breadfruit Pulp is consumed fresh; used in desserts. Locals in the Amazon blend the 

fruit into a juice with or without milk. In Brazil, fruit can be fermented to 

make wine.

Burmese grape Fruit is peeled and eaten raw, stewed, salted for storage, or fermented into 

wine.

Canistel After removal of the skin and seeds, the pulp is consumed fresh or cooked; 

used more commonly in beverages and desserts including ice cream, milk 

shakes, and custards; used to make an eggnog-like beverage. Pulp is placed 

into baked goods such as pies, cupcakes, and pancakes; dried or dehydrated 

and used as a food additive. Pulp can be prepared into jams and 

marmalade. Fruit pulp may be cooked and consumed as a vegetable with 

salt, pepper, and lemon juice or mayonnaise.
240

Commodity Preparation for Cooking

Cat’s-eyes Fruit are usually consumed fresh.

Chanpedak Ripe fruit pulp is consumed fresh, preserved in simple sugar syrup, made 

into ice cream, or cooked with other foods. The seeds can be cooked. 

Unripe fruit is consumed as a vegetable and can be used in curry, pickled or 

canned.

Cherimoya Pulp is consumed fresh out of hand or scooped with a spoon. Fruit can be 

easily broken or cut open. Fruit is also made into ice cream, sherbets, soft 

drinks, alcoholic beverage, fruit salads, custards and pies; used to flavor 

flan and mousse; a dessert fruit.

Cupuacú Pulp can be consumed fresh and in beverages. Due to the strong flavor, 

fruit is not usually consumed fresh. Used in juices, ice creams, sherbets, 

jams, candies, desserts, confectionary fillings, preserves, and liquors. The 

pulp is traditionally extracted manually with a pair of scissors. Mechanical 

depulpers are used in commercial operations. A mild thermal treatment is 

used to stabilize the juice at room temperature. A product similar to cocoa 

powder (cupulate) can be obtained from fermented seeds. This is used in 

ice creams and cakes.

Custard apple Pulp is consumed fresh and in desserts. In India, fruit is consumed out-ofhand only by the lower classes. In Central America, Mexico and the West 

Indies, fruit is consumed by all classes. When soft to the touch and the stem 

and core can be easily pulled out, the flesh is scooped from the skin and 

consumed or served with cream and sugar. Pulp can be pressed through a 

sieve and used to flavor milk shakes, custards, puddings, sauces, or ice 

cream.

Dragon fruit Fresh fruit is cut in half, and the flesh is scooped out after chilling. Lemon 

or lime juice can be added to enhance the flavor. Fruit is also used in fruit 

platters, fruit salads, garnishes, and desserts including ice cream, yogurt, 

sorbets, purée, jams, jelly, preserves, candy, pastry, juice, marmalades, 

wines and soft drinks. Syrup made from the whole fruit can be used to 

color pastries and candies. The unopened flower bud is cooked and 

consumed as a vegetable.

Durian The aril of the fruit is consumed fresh, boiled, preserved, powdered, 

fermented, pickled, frozen, salted, or dried. Fruit is most commonly 

consumed fresh with sugar, fresh cream or coconut milk. To avoid 

difficulty of opening the fruit, the aril with seeds is sold packaged. Pulp is 

also sold as paste, relish and chips. Fruit is used in salads, tempura, 

chowder, milk-based desserts, cakes, ice cream, cookies, jams, candy and 

biscuits. Unripe fruit is boiled and eaten as a vegetable. Pulp deteriorates 

quickly. Ash of the burned rind is added to cakes. Mature seeds can be 

boiled, dried, fried and roasted. Young leaves and shoots are cooked as 

greens.

Elephant-apple The exocarp of the fruit is hard and must be cracked with a hammer to 

remove the sticky, brown sub-acid pulp with a spoon. Pulp is consumed 

fresh with or without sugar, prepared into a drink after mixing with coconut 

milk and palm-sugar syrup, or frozen as an ice cream. Pulp is also prepared 

into chutneys, jellies and jams. Nectar is made by diluting pulp with water. 

Pulp can be canned or freeze-dried.

Granadilla Fruit is cracked open and arils and seeds are consumed fresh out-of-hand or 

with a spoon. Fruit can also be placed in beverages, flavorings and desserts, 
241

Commodity Preparation for Cooking

including sherbet.

Granadilla, Giant Flesh is consumed fresh and in desserts. Flesh can be added to fruit salads, 

cooked with sugar, candied, or canned in syrup. Jelly can be made from the 

unpeeled flesh. The aril is consumed fresh, in beverages, and desserts. 

Arils can be consumed raw without removing the seeds. Juice from the 

arils is used to make beverages including wine. The flesh and arils can be 

eaten together with sugar, fruit juice, cream and shaved ice. Flesh and arils 

can be used as pie filling. The entire immature fruit can be steamed, boiled, 

or cut up, breaded and fried and consumed as a vegetable. The root of 

mature vines is baked and eaten as a substitute for yam in Jamaica.

Ilama Pulp is consumed fresh in the half shell or scooped out, chilled, and served 

with cream, lemon and sugar; also made into sherbets and other desserts.

Ingá The aril of the fruit is consumed raw. Consumed mostly by children.

Jackfruit The aril of mature fruit can be eaten fresh. Fruit is also preserved in simple

sugar syrup, dried into chips, candied, frozen, made into liquor, canned in 

syrup or used to make jam, jelly, chutney, paste, fruit leather, nectar, drinks, 

custard, or ice cream. Used in soups, fruit salads and curries. Cooked with 

rice or coconut milk. Since fruit contains large quantities of latex, gloves 

should be worn and oil should be applied to knives. Seeds are roasted, 

boiled and consumed like chestnuts. Cooked seeds can be ground into 

flour, canned in brine or curry or mixed into tomato sauce. Raw seeds are 

poisonous. The rind can be used to make a jelly. The immature fruit is 

prepared by peeling, slicing and boiling the fruit. Fruit can then be cooked, 

pickled, dried, canned, seasoned or mixed with other food. Jackfruit is 

made into curry in India and Malaysia. Leaves and young male flowers are 

cooked and eaten as a vegetable; flowers are also grated or smashed and 

eaten with salt and vinegar or pickled.

Jatobá Pulp is consumed fresh; can be powdered and made into gruel, beverages, 

or cakes. Jatobá bark tea is consumed by lumberjacks in Brazilian forests.

Kei apple Most people believe the fruit is too acid for eating out-of-hand. Therefore, 

fruit should be cut in half, peeled, seeded, sprinkled with sugar, left to stand 

for a few hours, and served in desserts or fruit salads. In addition to being 

consumed fresh, fruit can also be cooked. Fruit can only be cooked for a 

short period of time before turning into sauce. Fruit is most commonly 

preserved into jelly and jam. Under ripe fruit is processed into pickles.

Langsat Fruit is easily consumed by peeling from the stem end. Varieties with large 

amounts of latex should be dipped into boiling water before peeling. The 

aril is consumed fresh out-of-hand; also preserved, canned in syrup, candied 

and dried; made into jellies, jams or juice. Served as a dessert.

Lanjut Fruit is consumed cooked or uncooked. Uncooked fruit are prepared into 

pickles and preserved with salt or sugar with chilies or other spices before 

consumption. 

Longan Preparation for cooking: Fruit is consumed fresh, frozen, canned, 

crystallized, or dried; used in fruit salad; made into a drink or liquor; served 

with Asian desserts including almond jelly; dried longans are cooked with 

black rice to make rice pudding. Fruit tea is made from dried fruits. 

Longan flowers are a source of honey.

Lucuma Pulp is consumed fresh, dried, and powdered; fruit can be stewed in syrup 

and prepared into preserves. Fruit is also used to flavor desserts and 
242

Commodity Preparation for Cooking

beverages. In Peru and Chile, pulp is dried and ground into powder or 

frozen pulp and placed in ice cream, chocolate, confections, milk, pastries, 

milk shakes, pies, tarts and other desserts.

Lychee The aril is mostly consumed fresh after being chilled and hand-peeled; Hotlye dip and mechanical peeling are also used. Fruit can be dried, pickled, 

spiced, frozen, canned or preserved; made into sauce, jellies and preserves. 

Fruit is used in desserts, including ice cream and salads; added to stir fries, 

stuffing’s, meat and fish dishes and curries; processed into fruit juice and 

liqueur.

Mabolo Pulp of the fruit is consumed fresh after the skin is peeled and the fruit is 

chilled in the refrigerator. Peeling also reduces the cheese-like odor. Fruit 

are sliced, diced, seasoned with lime, lemon juice or syrup and served as 

dessert; fried in butter; preserved; used as a vegetable in fried dishes or 

salads; served with spicy meat.

Maduro Fruit is consumed raw; can be used for sweets and alcoholic beverages; oil 

from the fruit is used for cooking.

Madras-thorn Pulp and seeds are consumed fresh or roasted; the seed and pulp is made 

into a sweet drink that is similar to lemonade. In India and Southeast Asia, 

seeds are consumed fresh in curries; greenish oil from the seed can be used 

as food.

Mammy-apple Pulp is consumed fresh; for fresh consumption, fruit can be sliced and left 

to macerate in water for a few hours; added to fruit salads, ice cream and 

fruit drinks; cooked in pies or tarts; used as a filler for products made of 

other fruit; served with cream, sugar, or wine; fruit can be stewed, 

preserved, canned, or made into wine. Under-ripe fruit is rich in pectin and 

can be made into jelly, jam, purées, pastes, sorbets, marmalade, chutney, or 

preserves. Sap from the tree is used to make fermented toddy. Liquor can 

be distilled from the flowers.

Mango The pulp of ripe fruit is consumed fresh after washing and chilling. Fruit is 

usually prepared by slicing off the cheeks on either side of the seed, scoring 

the flesh in a criss-cross pattern, flipping the skin inside out and spooning 

out the pulp. Fruit may be difficult to peel. Pulp can also be cooked, dried, 

canned in syrup, preserved, powdered, pureed, or frozen. Pulp is added to 

beverages, cereals, custards, desserts, ice cream, sorbets, preserves, purées, 

yogurts, soufflés, jellies, fruit salads, savory salads, sauces, jams, chutneys 

and pickles; made into fruit leather. Depending on the variety, 

immature/unripe/green peel fruit can be made into chutney, pickles, pie 

filling, jelly, sherbet, and sauces; added to salads and salsas. Unripe 

mangoes can be peeled, sliced, and sundried to make a fine off-white to 

gray powdery spice called amchur. This spice is reminiscent of lemon juice 

and is used as a souring agent in Indian, African and Southeast Asian 

cooking including curries, stews, dips, vegetarian dishes, sauces, soups, 

dhals, pickles, chutneys, marinades, stir-fries, meat, fish, and bean dishes. 

Mango leaves are consumed raw in Thailand. Seeds are ground into flour 

or added to pudding in India. 

Mango, horse Pulp is most commonly used in curries, chutneys, preserves, and sambal. 

Pulp can be consumed fresh in fruit cocktails. Mature fruit should be 

peeled thickly to prevent contact with the irritating sap which produces 

blisters on the lips and tongue. The irritating juice is found throughout 
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Commodity Preparation for Cooking

immature fruit and must be washed with salt water. Sometimes unripe fruit 

is used to make pickles and is placed in vegetable salads. Seeds are ground 

up and used in dishes.

Mango, Saipan Fruit is consumed fresh after being peeled thick (due to an acrid juice). To 

reduce acidity, the fruit can also be soaked in diluted lime-water before 

consumption. Fruit are used to make chutney, curries, and pickles. Young 

fruit are also used to make pickles. In Java, flour is made from the seed 

kernels. This flour is used for dishes including ‘dodol’ and ‘jenang pelok’.

Mangosteen The aril of the fruit is mostly consumed fresh. Fruit is enjoyed by cutting 

through the rind and lightly pulling and twisting the fruit apart. Fresh fruit 

can be added to fruit salads, ice cream, sorbets or fruit purées. Also 

consumed in a partially frozen state. Fruit are used to make sorbets, jams, 

and preserves. However, preserving causes the color to darken and the 

unique flavor to be lost. Fruit that are canned or made into juice lose flavor. 

Immature fruit can be canned. Seeds can be eaten fresh or roasted. The 

rind can be made into a purplish jelly.

Marang The aril of mature fruit is consumed fresh. Fresh fruit are prepared by 

cutting open the fruit and slicing it into pieces; a dessert fruit. Mature fruit 

can also be dried, preserved in simple sugar syrup or used to flavor ice 

cream. Fruit can be eaten unripe (25 to 50% full size) as a vegetable. Seeds 

are consumed boiled or roasted and resemble the taste of chestnuts.

Marmaladebox Fruit pulp can be consumed fresh with sugar when overripe and soft to the 

touch. Fruit is mostly used to make beverages including juices (like 

lemonade), soft drinks, wines and liquors. Fruit juice is commonly mixed 

with cane alcohol to prepare ‘huitochado’ or ‘jenipapada’ beverages. Fruit 

is also made into syrups, jellies, preserves, sherbets, ice cream, and 

crystallized candies. Fruit flesh is sometimes added as a substitute for 

commercial pectin to aid the gelling of low-pectin fruit juices.

Matisia Pulp is consumed fresh out of hand. Fruit is used most in desserts but can 

also be made into juice.

Mesquite Flour products, bread, sweets, syrup, coffee, sugars, sweeteners, and gruels 

are made from the pods. Pods can be fermented into mesquite wine; pods 

can be baked after removing the seeds, fermented and brewed into beer. 

Seeds are toasted and added to coffee. Pulverized cotyledons and embryos 

are made into nutritious flour.

Mongongo, fruit The fruit is often boiled fresh or dried and boiled to remove the tough skin. 

The flesh is then eaten or made into an apple-sauce like concoction. Some 

bushmen remove the flesh from the fresh fruit and dry it for later 

consumption. The shell around the kernel is extremely hard and to get to 

the nutritious nut, the pit must be roasted and dried for a long time, usually 

by burying in hot sand near a fire until it can be cracked open. 

Alternatively, some people collect the pits from elephant dung as elephants 

love the sweet fruit. The trip through the digestive tract leaves the pit weak 

enough to be cracked open with a rock. The nutmeat is eaten whole, or 

pounded and added as an ingredient to various other dishes.

Monkey-breadtreePulp is consumed fresh or dried; used as a flavoring or mixed with other 

ingredients. Pulp is added to gruels after cooking and cooling. Ground dry 

pulp is mixed with milk or water and is made into a refreshing drink that 

has a lemonade-flavor. Seeds are roasted and consumed as a snack, roasted 
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Commodity Preparation for Cooking

as a coffee substitute, soaked and fermented, or dried and ground into a 

powder for a thickening agent in soups, or as a flavoring agent. In Namibia, 

dry seeds are used as edible nuts. In the Middle East, seeds are used as a 

relish (like groundnuts). Oil from the seeds is used in cooking. Leaves are 

consumed as a fresh vegetable in west Africa. Leaves are also cut, dried, 

powdered, and used in cooking during the dry season. Dried leaves are 

mainly used as a thickening and flavoring agent in sauces, soups, and 

cereals. The pith or seeds are used as a substitute for cream of tartar in 

baking, to curdle milk and to smoke fish. Sap, bark and roots of seedlings 

are consumed as a famine food. Flowers are consumed raw or used to 

flavor drinks.

Monstera Ripe pulp is consumed fresh, served as a dessert with cream in fruit salads 

or ice creams, added to purées, or made into jellies, preserves, and jam. 

Fruit can be stewed with sugar and lime juice or strained and made into a 

drink. Fruit should only be consumed when the rind has loosened the entire 

length of the fruit.

Muriti Pulp of immature and mature fruit is consumed fresh. Pulp is also dried and 

ground into flour, made into bread, prepared into juice and jam, or 

fermented into an alcoholic beverage. A beverage known as ‘buriti wine’ is 

prepared from the pulp by softening the fruit in warm water for a few hours, 

leaving the fruit under leaves for several days, extracting the pulp by hand, 

diluting the pulp with water, and straining the liquid. The wine is consumed 

fresh, sweetened, or mixed with manioc flour. Fresh pulp can be made into 

a confection called ‘doce de buriti’; pulp is used in ice cream. Liquid from 

the fruit can be diluted, sweetened, and frozen into popsicles called dimdim. The endosperm of seed is consumed fresh. Oil can be extracted from 

the fruit. Starch is extracted from the trunk and consumed. The 

inflorescence and buds can be consumed.

Nicobar-breadfruit Pulp is boiled, and pressed into cakes.

Paho Fruit is consumed fresh or used to prepare marmalade in Indonesia. 

Immature fruit is consumed fresh with rice, pickled, or mixed with 

vegetables in the Philippines. Seeds are salted and pounded into an edible 

meal.

Palmyra Palm The mesocarp of the fruit is consumed fresh, roasted and dried. The pulp of 

mature fruit is sucked from the wiry fibers of roasted, peeled fruit. In Sri 

Lanka, the pulp is extracted and prepared into a product called punatoo. 

This product is consumed by itself or with the starch from the seedlings. 

Fruit is made into a preserve in Sri Lanka. Small fruit are pickled in 

vinegar. The shell of the seed is punctured with a finger and the endosperm 

of the immature seed is consumed fresh. This takes place during April and 

May in India. Peeled seedlings are consumed fresh, cooked or sun-dried. 

Starch from the seedlings is made into gruel and mixed with rice, herbs, 

chili peppers, or fish. The kernels of the immature seeds are obtained by 

roasting the seeds and breaking them open. The soft-shelled seeds are 

sliced longitudinally to form loops or rings and these and the whole kernels 

are canned in clear, sweetened water and exported. Natives bury the seeds 

until the kernels sprout. Kernels are then dug up, broken open and 

consumed. The taste resembles coarse potatoes. The main product of the 

palm is the sweet sap (toddy). The sap is obtained by tapping the tip of the 
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Commodity Preparation for Cooking

inflorescence. Sap is allowed to flow for 5 to 6 months. Sap from the cut 

inflorescences is made into sugar, molasses, palm candy, palm wine, 

sweets, pastries, confectionaries, and vinegar; Roots are consumed during 

times of famine in Africa.

Papaya Fully ripe pulp is consumed fresh after peeling, seeding and cutting into 

wedges. Pulp can also be made into juice, preserves, jam, chutneys, and 

other desserts; added to fruit salads, savory salads, salad dressings, ice 

cream and pies; pureed into sauces. Fruit are served with sugar, cream and 

rum. Fruit can be crystallized and dried. Fruit are consumed breakfast time 

with lemon or lime juice. Mature fruit are canned or frozen commercially. 

Due to the latex content, unripe fruit should be peeled, seeded, boiled, and 

chilled before consuming. In some countries such as Thailand and 

Vietnam, fruit are consumed raw. Green fruit are sliced into thin strips, and 

consumed as a vegetable or salad; processed into various products including 

candy, pickles or purée; added to curries. Young leaves are cooked and 

consumed like spinach in the East Indies. Mature leaves are bitter and must 

be boiled before consuming. In some Asian and Indonesian countries and 

New Guinea, male flowers are consumed as a vegetable or are candied. 

Young stems are consumed in Africa. Latex from unripe fruit and leaves 

contains the proteolytic enzyme papain, which is used to tenderize meat, 

clear beer and make chewing gum.

Passionflower, 

Winged-stem

Fruit are consumed fresh.

Passionfruit and 

Passionfruit, 

purple, and 

Passionfruit, 

yellow

Fruit are mostly processed into syrup and used as a flavoring in beverages. 

Fruit can be used as pure juice or as a constituent in frozen and heatprocessed punches. Juice can be pasteurized at 85 °C (185 °F) for 1 minute 

before freezing, however, heat treatments can destroy flavor. Extracted 

juice can be quick frozen as purée and kept frozen for later processing of 

finished products. Juice and concentrates are used as a mixer with alcoholic 

beverages including gin, vodka and rum. Used as a flavoring in pies, cakes, 

sauces, salads, candies, and sherbets. Arils (pulp) can be consumed fresh 

after cutting in half and scooping out the pulp. Pulp is added to fruit salads, 

ice cream, yogurt, soft drinks, icings, fillings for cakes, jellies, jams, 

sorbets, and fruit juices. In Australia and New Zealand, fruit is used in 

recipes for pavlova, a soft meringue shell filled with cream and fruit. 

Passiflora edulis is used more for eating. Yellow passionfruit is used more 

for juice for the beverage industry and for preserves. Seeds are consumed 

in some countries.

Passionfruit, 

Banana

Pulp is mostly eaten out-of-hand or strained for juice. Juice is not 

consumed alone, but is mixed in cold beverages. In Bolivia, juice, alcohol 

and sugar are mixed together into a cocktail. In Colombia, the pulp is 

mixed with milk and sugar and consumed as dessert. Pulp is also made into 

ice cream, gelatin dessert, pie filling, sauce, spiced relish, jelly, jam, 

pudding, ice cream topping, and preserves. Added to fruit salad.

Pawpaw, common Pulp is consumed fresh by cutting fruit in half and scooping out pulp with a 

spoon; fruit can be processed or frozen. Pulp is used to prepare ice cream, 

sorbet, mousse, compote, jam, pies, cakes, quick breads, drinks, beer, 

custards, and wine. Fruit is similar in taste to bananas and is used in recipes 

calling for banana. Over-ripe fruit is used for cooking purposes. Seeds and 
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Commodity Preparation for Cooking

skin are not usually eaten.

Pelipisan Fruit is consumed fresh or processed into jams, puree, juice, and cookies 

called dodol.

Pequi Pequi (Caryocar brasiliense) fruit are mostly consumed after cooking but 

can be eaten in their natural state; used in regional cuisine to flavor rice, 

beans, meat or stews; used to prepare ‘rice with piqui’. Fruit is also made 

into liquor by grating the pulp, adding it to alcohol, letting it ferment, 

straining out the pulp, and adding sugar. Pulp is used to make sweets and 

ice cream; used as a flavoring. The nut is edible, but not usually consumed, 

since it is difficult to remove from the spiny pit. Oil can be extracted for 

cooking. Pequia Caryocar villosum fruit is freshly collected from the tree 

and is usually cooked in slightly salted water for an hour. Fruit can be eaten 

fresh. Pulp becomes rancid several days after being removed from the tree. 

The nut is edible fresh or cooked, but not usually consumed, since it is 

difficult to remove from the spiny pit.

Persimmon, 

American

Fruit must be allowed to sit until extremely soft (like the texture of jam). 

Immature fruit is inedible. Ripe pulp is consumed fresh; can be used in 

cakes, puddings, beverages, bread, and preserves. Fruit is also used to make 

alcoholic beverages including beer and wine. Fruit can be dried and placed 

into baked goods. Dried, roasted ground seeds can be used as a coffee 

substitute. Oil can be extracted from the seeds and used in cooking. The 

taste is similar to peanut oil.

Pineapple Pulp is consumed fresh by cutting both ends off, standing the fruit upright, 

and slicing away the spiky skin in strips. The fruit is then quartered and the 

tough core is removed from each wedge. Fruit is also canned, fermented, 

candied, powdered, frozen and dried. Fruit can be made into juice, sauces, 

syrup, and preserves; added to fruit salads and compotes; cooked into pies, 

cakes, puddings and other desserts. Pineapple is used in savory dishes 

including Thai salads and pizza. Used as a garnish. Half ripe pineapples 

are utilized in Asian cooking such as sour soups and curries. Unripe fruit 

are inedible and poisonous. In Africa, young shoots are consumed in 

salads. The terminal bud and inflorescences can be eaten raw or cooked.

Pitahaya Hylocereus spp. fruit are consumed fresh and chilled. Fruit is eaten with 

lemon or lime juice or ice cream. Pulp can be used in jams or drinks; used 

as a garnish. Flower buds can be cooked as a vegetable. Hylocereus 

megalanthus fruit are consumed fresh or chilled; used to flavor drinks and 

pastries. Hylocereus polyrhizus fruit are consumed fresh.

Pomegranate Arils are consumed fresh as dessert with or without other fruit. Fruit is 

consumed by deeply scoring the fruit several times vertically and breaking 

the fruit apart. Then clusters of juice sacs are lifted out of the rind and 

eaten. Fruit can also be frozen for future use, placed in salads, or used as a 

garnish. Juice can be extracted and served as a beverage or used in mixed 

beverages; juice can be made into jelly, sorbets, sauce, wine, or the 

fermented or unfermented liquor, grenadine. Juice is used to flavor cakes 

and baked apples. Seeds dried with the aril give the sour Indian condiment 

(spice) called Anadana.

Poshte Pulp is consumed fresh; used in desserts. To consume, fruit is cut in half 

and pulp is scooped out with a spoon.

Prickly pear Most pulp is consumed fresh after chilling. Care must be taken to remove 
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Commodity Preparation for Cooking

the spines and glochids (fine spines). Glochids are usually removed by 

mechanical brushing. Pulp can be removed by gripping the fruit on the two 

ends and cutting out the pulp, which is the size of a golf ball. Lime or 

lemon juice can add flavor to fresh fruit. Pulp can be dried or cooked and 

made into jelly, candy and preserves; pulp is used in ice cream, milkshakes, 

fruit salads, compotes, sorbets, puree, jams, marmalades, wines, and soft 

drinks. Pulp is also added to some Indian and Mexican savory dishes. 

Flowers are sometimes consumed raw. Seeds are swallowed whole while 

eating the fruit or consumed after drying, roasting, or grinding. Immature 

young stems (pads) are consumed as vegetables (cooked and used like 

French beans) or pickles. Opuntia engelmannii var. lindheimeri fruit are 

consumed raw. Fruit can be processed into preserves, syrups, fermented 

juice, tuna, cheese, and tea.

Pulasan The aril is consumed fresh; can be cooked. Pulp is used in jams and 

desserts; can be made into juice. Seeds can be boiled or roasted and 

prepared into a cocoa-like drink; seeds can yield edible oil.

Quandong Fruit can be consumed fresh, but are usually cooked, frozen, or dried. Fruit 

is mostly used in jams. Fruit can also be added to cakes; used to make pie 

fillings, tarts, jellies, fruit leather, cordial, chutney, ketchup, and sauces for 

meat or ice cream. Dried fruit can be reconstituted in liquid and used in 

many recipes. Fruit can also be used as a flavoring. The seed is edible and 

can be eaten raw and salted, roasted in coconut oil, or ground into flour. 

Seeds have a nutty flavor and are added to desserts, savory sauces or crumb 

toppings.

Rambutan The aril is mainly consumed fresh by running a knife horizontally around 

the skin to lift off one half of the skin and exposing the flesh. Fruit can be 

stewed, canned, frozen, juiced, and dried; pulp is made into jams, preserves, 

and jellies. Seeds are sometimes roasted and consumed in the Philippines; 

seed oil is edible).

Saguaro Pulp is consumed raw after splitting open and peeling back the skin. Fruit 

can be dried, fermented, or canned. Fruit is used to make confections, wine, 

syrup, jelly and jam. Seeds are ground for use as flour, made into butter, 

used in porridges, or used in cakes.

Salak Ripe pulp is consumed fresh or added to fruit salads. Peeling can be timeconsuming, and spines may cause itchiness. Fruit can be candied, canned in 

syrup, pickled, and dried. Fruit can be processed with a plastic cover wrap 

or an edible coating and held in storage at 5 to 10 °C (41 to 50 °F) for 

approximately 1 week. Fresh unripe fruit can be made into salad or pickles. 

Seeds are edible. Palm hearts can be obtained from the plant.

Sapodilla Pulp is consumed fresh after being chilled. Fruit should be cut in half and 

the flesh should be removed with a spoon; the skin is not consumed. Lime 

juice can be added to improve taste. Pulp is used in desserts. Pulp can be 

dried, fried, stewed, or placed in sherbets, purées, ice creams, pies, cakes, 

bread, iced drinks, jams, fruit salads, and yogurt. Fruit can be made into 

preserves, wine, vinegar, and syrup. Young leafy shoots are consumed raw 

or steamed with rice.

Sapote, black Ripe, soft pulp is consumed fresh. Fruit is cut in half and the pulp is eaten 

with a spoon. Pulp can be mixed with other fruits or juices including lime, 

lemon, orange or pineapples. Fruit is used for ice cream, custards, cake and 
248

Commodity Preparation for Cooking

pie fillings, beverages, and other desserts. Pulp can be fermented and made 

into wine, brandy and liqueurs. Pulp is puréed and mixed with other fruit 

purées mousses, yogurt and rum. In Mexico, a dessert is made by mixing 

the fruit pulp, wine, and cinnamon. Pulp can also be boiled.

Sapote, green Pulp is consumed fresh by spooning the pulp from the skin. Fruit can be 

made into preserves or desserts. Seeds are edible and can be roasted.

Sapote, mamey Pulp is consumed fresh by cutting the fruit in half and spooning out the 

pulp. Pulp can be added to preserves, marmalades, jellies, jams, sherbets, 

ice creams, sauces, milk shakes, pastries and various desserts; pulp can be 

frozen or cooked and used as a substitute for apple purée or other 

confectionery. Seed kernels are boiled, roasted and mixed with cacao to 

prepare chocolate. Seeds add flavor and increase the bulk of chocolate 

products; can be ground and used in confections or beverages, and the seed 

oil is edible.

Sapote, white Pulp is consumed fresh. The skin should be thickly peeled to remove the 

bitter flesh underneath. Fruit can also be halved and the pulp can be 

scooped out. Pulp can be used in fruit salads, preserves, jellies, marmalade, 

fruit curries, spicy salsa sauces, milkshakes, fruit sherbets, and ice cream; 

served with cream and sugar, or made into beverages. Pulp can be dried 

and made into fruit leather. Fully dried and roasted seeds are edible.

Sataw Pulp of the pods is consumed as a food and flavoring. Half ripe pods are 

pickled in salt. Seeds are consumed raw, cooked, fried with curry paste, 

shrimp or pork, and as a vegetable and in stews. Young leaves and parts of 

the flower stalks are consumed fresh.

Satinleaf Fruit are consumed fresh and used to make jelly.

Screw-pine Pandanus tectorius: The soft portion of the pulp is consumed raw or 

cooked. Some varieties contain oxalate crystals that irritate the mouth 

unless cooked. Unlike other Pandanus species, the fruit are consumed for 

the sweet, juicy flesh; a staple food. Fruits are also preserved into pastes, 

jam, flours, drinks and desserts. Seeds are consumed fresh and cooked. 

Terminal buds are consumed fresh. In India, a fragrant spice is made from 

the plant. 

Sierra LeonetamarindFruit is peeled and pulp is consumed raw. Pulp can be macerated in water 

and consumed as a beverage. The bitter leaves are used to prepare 

Ghanaian dishes.

Soncoya Pulp is consumed fresh or is strained for juice.

Soursop Ripe pulp is consumed fresh after hand-peeling and coring. Fruit can also 

be cut in half and the pulp can be scooped out with a spoon. Fruit can be 

made into juice, sweets, beverages, soft drinks, purée, preserves, tarts, 

syrup, nectar, jams and jellies. Used as a flavoring in sherbets, yogurt, 

mousse, gelatin dishes, puddings, custard, and ice cream; served as a snack 

or other form of dessert; added to fruit salad. Fruit can be preserved, 

canned, bottled, fermented, frozen, and processed. Mixed with other juices 

or liquor (wine or brandy). A popular drink in Cuba consists of strained 

pulp, milk, and sugar. Young soft fruit with seeds are used as a vegetable 

and cooked with coconut milk; added to soups; roasted or fried.

Spanish lime The aril is consumed fresh as a snack by tearing the rind open at the stem 

end and squeezing the pulp and juice into the mouth. Fruit can be used in 

jellies, jams, marmalade, pie filling, liquors, and beverages. Fruit is peeled 
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Commodity Preparation for Cooking

and boiled to make a cold beverage. Juice can be canned. The seeds can be 

roasted and consumed. Flower nectar is used to produce a dark honey.

Star apple Pulp is consumed fresh by cutting the fruit in half and spooning out the 

pulp. When opening the fruit it is recommended that none of the bitter latex 

from the peel contacts the pulp. Fresh fruit can be added to fruit salads or 

used as a flavoring. Fruit pulp can be processed to make preserves, candies, 

sherbet, ice cream and beverages. In Jamaica, a traditional dish is prepared 

by mixing pulp with orange juice, sugar, nutmeg and whipped cream. In 

Bolivia, fruit is parboiled. An emulsion of the seed kernels can be used to 

make nougats and other confections.

Sugar apple Pulp is consumed fresh after cutting the fruit in half lengthwise and twisting 

the halves to separate. A spoon can be used to scoop out the flesh. The 

seeds and fibrous center should not be eaten. Pulp can be mixed with cream 

and sugar or wine; added to fruit salads. Pulp can be used to make juices, 

drinks, custards, fillings for cakes, shakes, ice cream, sherbets, and other 

desserts; pulp can be used in spicy dishes such as curry. Seed oil can be 

used for cooking purposes after being detoxified.

Sun Sapote Pulp is consumed fresh or used as a flavoring; very easy to peel; eaten when 

other fruits are not available.

Tamarind-of-theIndiesFruit is consumed fresh; because the skin is tough, it is usually removed and 

the pulp with the seeds is sucked. Seeds are discarded. Fruit may also be 

stewed, used to flavor beer, or placed into beverages and other foods.

Velvet Tamarind Pulp is consumed fresh; can be used as dessert. In Thailand, two products 

are prepared. Luk yee paste is prepared by mixing the pulp (with or without 

seeds) with sugar, chili, and salt. Then it is wrapped in thin plastic sheets. 

The other product is coated luk yee. This is prepared by coating the pulp 

either with sugar or a mixture of sugar, chili, and other ingredients (‘sweet’ 

or ‘hot’ luk yee). Fruit can be dried in the sun, separated from the shell and 

sold in the market along with the seeds.

Wampi Fully ripe fruit can be consumed out-of-hand after peeling and removing the 

seeds. The peel should not be consumed since it is highly resinous. Pulp 

can be added to fruit cups, gelatins, pie, jam, marmalades, preserves, or 

other desserts. Seeded fruit are served with meat dishes in China. Fruit are 

used to flavor meat curries in Sri Lanka. A carbonated beverage similar to 

champagne is made from the pulp by fermenting the fruit with sugar and 

straining off the juice. Jelly can be made from the under-ripe acid type 

fruit.

White star apple Fruit is consumed fresh. Pulp can be made into jam and soft drinks. Fruit 

can be fermented to make wine and distilled spirits. Dried products are also 

made from the pulp. The seed is not consumed, but the seed oil is edible.

Wild loquat Fruit is consumed fresh. Traditionally, fruit is processed by women. Pulp 

can be made into refreshing beverages, a variety of local beers, wines, juice, 

sweetmeats and jams. A salt for seasoning food is obtained from wood ash.

Specific Uses of the Tropical and Subtropical Fruit- Inedible Fruit:

The main method of consumption of most tropical and subtropical fruits is as fresh 

fruit. The breadfruit is the most important exception, as it is only eaten cooked. Salads, 
250

both savory and sweet types, are prepared with many fruits. Consumption is virtually as 

unlimited as the chef's imagination. Jams, jellies, juices (made with fresh fruits, 

concentrates, or frozen pulp), sauces, ice cream and sherbets, and other desserts and 

diverse confectionaries are typical of the uses to which tropical and subtropical fruits are 

put, both industrially and domestically. Infusions as social beverages, not as medicinal 

remedies, are made from many different fruits. Specific products such as baby food are 

made with "healthy" fruits like the banana or the papaya, based on different kinds of 

puree (industrially known as aseptic, chilled aseptic or simply chilled purees). Flour is 

also made from the durian and the banana. Pickles and chutneys are made from many 

fruits, the most famous of which is mango chutney, a staple in Indian cuisine and highly

esteemed by gourmets. Dips are also popular in many countries, of which perhaps the 

best known is avocado-based guacamole. Some of these tropical fruits have plant 

extracts that have medicinal properties (See Table 51). Detailed preparation and cooking 

methods for the tropical and subtropical fruits – inedible peel are listed in Table 49, while 

detailed specific uses for the tropical and subtropical fruits – inedible peel will be listed 

in Table 50. Specific uses for some of the Tropical fruits with inedible peel will be 

discussed below.

Table 50. Specific Uses of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits – Inedible Peel:

Commodity Specific Uses 

Abiu Pulp is consumed fresh; mostly consumed out-of-hand. Gummy 

latex can cling to the lips. Fruit is used in desserts; can be used 

dried, in sherbets, ice creams, jams, fruit salads, and yogurt. Wood 

used for construction and as an ornamental plant.

Aisen Plants are not domesticated; fruit is gathered for human consumption 

and sold in local African markets

Akee apple The aril is consumed fresh or is cooked and used as a vegetable; 

beads, medicinal purposes, vertebrate poison (mammals); 

ornamental; oil from the seed is mixed with the dried husks of the 

tree to make soap; dried husks are rich in potash; fruit are used in 

Ghana for washing; wood is used for building and tool-making; 

flowers are used for perfume; honey plant.

Atemoya Fresh fruit; ornamental; green fruit and seeds contain vermicidal and 

insecticidal properties

Avocado Persea americana: Fruit; mainly fresh eating, salads, "guacamole;" 

medicinal purposes, vertebrate poison (mammals), ornamental; fresh 

pulp is used in the hair as a tonic and restorer; oil is used for culinary 

purposes, soaps, cosmetics and aromatherapy; seeds produce a 

reddish brown dye for use on clothing; wood is used for construction 

purposes; honey plant; P. americana var. americana: fruit; P.

americana var. guatemalensis: fruit; P. americana var. drymifolia: 

probable progenitor of avocado; fruit; Mexican avocados are strong 

growers and are used as rootstocks.

Bacury Use as fresh fruit, wax, wood for construction and furniture; the seed 

is usually discarded but can be used for oil and animal feed.

Bael fruit Use as a fresh fruit, essential oils are extracted from the rind and 

flowers and used to make perfume and soap; gum/resin, and glue is 

made from the sap; fruit are used to make paint; ornamental, 

medicinal purposes; dried shells of the fruit are made into decorative 
251

Commodity Specific Uses 

boxes; the rind is used to produce a yellow dye; wood is used to 

make small objects; honey plant; leaves and flowers are consumed; 

bark is used as a fish poison; leaves and twigs are used for fodder; 

leaves are used as religious offerings.

Banana/Plantain Fruit is consumed fresh, cooked, or processed; leaves are used to 

wrap and cook food; also used as roofing materials, umbrellas or 

organic plates; flowers are consumed and used in floral 

arrangements; heart of the stem is consumed as a delicacy; 

pseudostem are used to make dams; also used as livestock feed;

fibers are used to make straps, clothing, hats, fishing nets, materials 

for car fittings;, partitions, and banknotes; seed are used to make 

necklaces; non-edible Musa species are grown as ornamental plants 

or plants for fiber; dried banana peel is used to blacken leather; ash 

from the dried peel is used to make soap and dye; plant sap is used 

as an emergency beverage. Dwarf banana is used as a beverage 

base, fruit, vegetable; related to A-genome bananas; wax; container 

plant. Plantains are used as a beverage base, fruit, and starch; 

medicinal purposes; in Colombia, plantain fruits and plants are used 

as animal feed.

Binjai Fruit, wood

Biriba Eaten fresh; genetic resource (natural genetic variability); medicinal 

purposes; wood is used to make boats, masks and boxes; ornamental; 

seeds are used to make an insecticide.

Breadfruit Fruit, seeds. Dried leaves used for tea; male flower spikes are 

boiled, peeled and eaten as vegetables or candied; leaves and fallen 

fruit are fed to animals; latex is used for medicinal purposes, as a 

caulk, glue and chewing gum; wood for construction purposes; bark 

fiber for clothing; ornamental.

Burmese grape Fruit, wine, medicinal purposes, wood, ornamental, dye.

Canistel Pulp eaten fresh or used in beverages and desserts; used as a 

dooryard tree in the home landscape; wood for construction; latex is 

used to adulterate chicle; medicinal purposes.

Cat’s-eyes Pulp eaten fresh or used in beverages and desserts; used as a 

dooryard tree in the home landscape; wood for construction; latex is 

used to adulterate chicle; medicinal purposes.

Chanpedak Fruit and seeds are consumed; wood for fuel and construction; leaves 

used for fodder; ripe fruit fed to cattle; bark used for making rope; 

resin used as a varnishing material; yellow dye from bark.

Cherimoya Fresh fruit; ornamental.

Cupuacú Food additive (flavoring), beverage base, material (lipids), medicinal 

purposes; grown in botanical and experimental gardens.

Custard apple Eaten fresh or added to milk shakes and other desserts; medicinal 

purposes, non-vertebrate poison (plant pest control) in seeds, leaves, 

bark and young fruits, dooryard fruit tree; leaves are used in tanning 

and yield a blue or black dye; fiber is derived from young twigs; 

wood is used to make tools.

Dragon fruit Fresh fruit, beverage base, vegetable, ornamental, medicinal 

purposes.

Durian Fruit; seeds; wood; botanic collection; rinds are burned as fuel; ash 
252

Commodity Specific Uses 

of the rind is used to bleach silk.

Elephant-apple Fruit, graft stock, medicinal purposes, wood for construction and 

fuel; gum from the tree is used as a substitute or adulterant of gum 

Arabic; gum is used to make watercolors, ink, dyes and varnish; the 

rind can be used as a small container.

Etambe Fruit.

Granadilla Beverage base, fruit, summer ornamental in the northern U.S.

Granadilla, Giant Beverage base, fruit, medicinal purposes.

Guriri Fruit, ornamental, beach screen, leaves are used to make baskets.

Ilama Pulp is eaten fresh in sherbets and other desserts. Some consider the 

fruit flavor lesser than that of Cherimoya; grown in gardens.

Ingá Fruit, ornamental.

Jackfruit Fruit, medicinal purposes, ornamental; yellow timber for 

woodcarvings and furniture; dye; young leaves and flowers can be 

used as a vegetable; seeds consumed; shade tree; waste from the rind 

is used in tobacco curing; fruit and leaves are fed to cattle.

Jatobá Bee plant for pollination, agroforestry, fruit, beverage base, beads, 

roots and trunk yield pale yellow or red gum/resin known as copal 

that is used in varnish, incense and medicines; wood for fuel, 

furniture, carpentry and construction; medicinal purposes; seeds are 

used as fodder; ornamental. 

Karuka Fruit. seeds, fiber (material).

Kei apple Fruit, ornamental, hedge; leaves are used as fodder for cattle, goats, 

and game; fermented fruit can be used as an herbicide.

Langsat Fruit, medicinal purposes; the dried peel is burned and the smoke is 

used as a mosquito repellant in the Philippines and as incense in 

Java; shade tree; wood for construction; arrow poison has been made

from the peel and bark.

Lanjut Fruit.

Longan Fruit; dried after seeds and rind removed; seeds and rind are burned 

for fuel; medicinal purposes; beverage base; seeds are used in 

shampoo; wood is used for construction purposes; planted as a forest 

tree for soil conservation; shade tree.

Lucuma Beverage base, fruit; wood for furniture manufacturing; ornamental; 

medicinal purposes.

Lychee Mainly as fresh fruit in U.S.; in China, canned and dried; 

ornamental, wood for construction, medicinal purposes; honey plant.

Mabolo Fruit, wood for handicrafts, ornamental; rootstock for Japanese 

persimmon; fruit are fed to animals. 

Madras-thorn Fruit; fruit pods, seeds, press cake residue from seed oil, hedge 

clippings and leaves are used as forage for livestock; nitrogen fixer, 

fuel wood, beads, wood for boxes, wheels and other construction; 

agroforestry, ornamental, shade/shelter plant, land rehabilitation, 

hedge/fence, soil improver, gum from the trunk is used for mucilage; 

tannin from bark is used for tanning; yellow dye from bark is used; 

medicinal purposes; oil from seeds are used for food purposes or 

soap-making; bark is used as a fish poison in the Philippines; tree is 

used for the cultivation of the lac insect; flowers produce honey.

Mammy-apple The fruit may be eaten fresh; cooked as a sauce, preserves or jam; 
253

Commodity Specific Uses 

beverage base; sap is used to make a fermented toddy; medicinal 

purposes, dooryard tree; home garden plant; shade; windbreak; 

erosion control; wood is used for construction and fuel; tannin from 

the bark is used to treat leather; all parts of the tree have insecticidal 

properties.

Mango Fruit, ornamental, medicinal purposes, shade tree, vertebrate poison 

(mammals); bark and leaves produce a yellow dye; honey plant; 

kernels can be used as animal feed; seed fat is used for soap-making; 

wood is used for building; bark is used for tanning hides; gum from 

the trunk is used to mend crockery and is sold as a substitute for gum 

Arabic.

Mango, horse Fruit, wood for construction, ornamental.

Mango, Saipan Fruit; home garden plant; medicinal purposes, wood.

Mangosteen Fruit; seeds; medicinal purposes; pericarp can be used to tan leather 

and dye fabric black; wood for carpentry; yard tree; twigs are used as 

chewsticks.

Marang Fruit, seeds, home garden plant.

Marmaladebox Fresh fruit; beverages; wood is used in construction, carpentry, 

handicrafts, and fuel; juice extracted from the immature fruit is used 

as a body paint; medicinal purposes; magic; ornamental; shade tree; 

reforestation; pulp is used as an insect repellent; bark is used to tan 

leather and yields a fiber for making clothing; fruit is used as fish 

bait; foliage is consumed by cattle; flowers yield nectar for 

honeybees.

Matisia Fruit; home gardens; wood is used in construction.

Mesquite Bee plants for pollination, source of honey, shade/shelter, erosion 

control, land reclamation, nitrogen fixer, soil improver, ornamental, 

charcoal, fuel wood, fiber used for the production of paper and 

hardboard; wood for furniture, fence posts, and fuel, medicinal 

purposes, vertebrate poison (mammals), weed, potential seed 

contaminant; leaves are used for forage and fodder; seeds are added 

to coffee; bark is rich in tannin and is used for roofing; gum forms an 

adhesive mucilage that is used as an emulsifying agent that is used in 

confectionary and mending.

Mongongo, fruit Fruit, nut, edible oil, cosmetic oil, timber.

Monkey-bread-tree Fruit; ornamental, beverage base, seeds; the hard fruit shell is used to 

make pots or is burnt as fuel for cooking. Ash of the fruit shell is 

used as salt or is pounded in sniff tobacco mortar to give tobacco a 

better taste. Inner bark fiber is used to make rope, cloth, mats, 

handbags, hats, baskets, nets, snares and fishing lines. Red dye is 

made from the roots; soap and glue are made from the tree; wood is 

used to make canoes and rafts. Seeds are used to make necklaces in 

Namibia; medicinal purposes; pith is used as a baking aid for food; 

parts of the bark are chewed during water scarcity. The tree is a 

good honey source. Hollow trunks and branches are used for 

beekeeping; leaves are used as fodder for animals; folklore; sap is 

consumed by humans.

Monstera Pulp is eaten fresh or made into beverages and preserves; also grown 

as an ornamental for the outdoors and indoors; vertebrate poison 
254

Commodity Specific Uses 

(mammals); aerial roots are used as ropes and made into baskets.

Muriti Fruit, starch, medicinal purposes, fiber for cordage; leaves, petioles 

and trunks are used in housing.

Nicobar-breadfruit Fruit; fiber (material).

Paho Fruit, wood for construction work, backyard tree.

Palmyra Palm Fruit, beverage base, sugar, ornamental, fiber, wood, medicinal 

purposes; tender fruit that fall from the tree are fed to cattle; planted

as a windbreak in India; natural shelter for wildlife; palm leaves are 

used for construction of houses and materials including writing 

paper.

Papaya Fruit; unripe fruits are used as a vegetable; production of enzyme; 

papain, from fruit and leaves is used as a food stabilizer, meat 

tenderizer, beer clarifier and fermentation retarder; latex can also be 

used to treat wool and silk before dying, tan leather and make 

chewing gum; in pharmaceutics, papain is used as a wound 

inflammation suppresser and laxative; papain is used in soaps, 

creams, toothpastes, and lotions; medicinal purposes, source of 

chymopapin; bark is used for making rope; home garden plant.

Passionflower, WingedstemFruit, ornamental.

Passionfruit and 

Passionfruit, purple, and 

Passionfruit, yellow

Beverages, desserts, jellies and some eating of fresh fruit; medicinal 

purposes, weed; rind and seed from fruit processing can be fed to 

swine and cattle; seed oil can be produced from the seeds for edible 

and industrial uses; ornamental.

Passionfruit, banana Fruit, ornamental, beverage base, weed.

Pawpaw Primarily consumed as fresh fruit, however it can be processed into 

desserts. The pawpaw has been shown to have high nutritional 

quality, especially compared to typical temperate fruits. Certain 

vegetative parts (bark) of pawpaw plant may contain compounds 

(asimicin) that exhibit highly effective pesticide and anti-cancer 

properties; ornamental, medicinal purposes, vertebrate poison 

(mammals); bark made into fishing nets; aromas from the fruit can 

be used in cosmetics and skin care products. 

Pelipisan Fruit and wood.

Pequi Fruit, medicinal purposes; fruit and kernel are both eaten whole or 

pressed for oil for cooking or soap-making; bark is used to make 

yellow dye; fruit is also fermented into a liquor; wood is used for 

furniture making; ornamental; the shell can be used for fuel. 

Caryocar villosum: Wood for ship building and construction; fruit.

Persimmon, American Fruit, graft stock, flowers for honey, seeds, seed oil, ornamental, 

buffer, erosion control, bonsai, reclamation plant, wood, medicinal 

purposes; ink is make from the fruit.

Pineapple Fruit, pulp mostly eaten fresh, canned frozen, dried, or made into 

juice; meat tenderizer (bromelane), fiber material (leaves are used in 

the textile industry to make cloth), medicinal purposes, source of 

bromelain, a proteolytic enzyme in the stem for industrial and 

medicinal applications including chill proofing beer, manufacturing 

pre-cooked cereals, and making cosmetics; bromelain has 

nematicidal properties; citric acid and alcohol can be extracted from 
255

Commodity Specific Uses 

the juice; residue from juice is processed into animal feed or other 

by-products; ornamental.

Pitahaya Fruit, ornamental.

Pomegranate Mainly beverages with some fresh fruit consumption. The aggregate 

of berry-like pulp is consumed raw in salads; 

boundary/barrier/support, ornamental, medicinal purposes, bonsai; 

fruit can be dried, shellaced, and set out as a decoration; the rind is 

used in tanning leather and the preparation of black ink; leaves are 

used to make ink; the rind and flowers are used to produce dyes for 

textiles; an insecticide is made from the bark; wood is used to make 

tools

Poshte Fruit.

Prickly pear Fruit used for mostly fresh eating; however, it can be made into 

preserves, candies or dried. Young cacti cladodes (pads) can be 

mixed with other ingredients to make relish (salsa) or used as 

livestock feed. Also the young pads are boiled and used like snap 

beans in salads and soups; gum from the stem is used to make 

candles and other products; ornamental, fence or barrier plant, 

beverage base, fuel wood; host plant of cochineal, a mealy bug that 

produces a valuable red vegetable dye known as carmine; medicinal 

purposes, weed; Opuntia engelmannii var. lindheimeri: Fruit; 

commercial alcohol is made from the sap of the stems; ornamental, 

forage, weed; juice from the cladodes is used in candle making .

Pulasan Pulp eaten fresh or stewed, canned, or preserved into jams and 

jellies. Seeds can be boiled or roasted and used to make beverages; 

seeds yield oil; oil can be used in cooking, fuel or soap making; 

wood; ornamental.

Quandong Fruit, beads; tannin from the bark; seed is rich in oil and burns well; 

wood is used to make furniture; firewood.

Rambutan Fruit; ornamental; fruit peels and leaves yield a red dye that is used 

to color batik; wood is used for construction; seed oil is used for 

edible purposes or in making soap and candles.

Saguaro Fruit, beverage base, fruit, seed for food and forage, fruit are used in 

spiritual ceremonies; wood is used to make fences, homes and 

firewood; nectar is an important source of honey, ornamental.

Salak Fruit; leaf stalks can be used to construct walls and partitions; 

leaflets are used for thatching; bark of the petioles are used for 

matting; boundary, barrier, or support plant.

Sapodilla Ripe fruit pulp eaten fresh or used for desserts. Latex from the 

tapped tree is used for chicle gum and an adhesive; bark is used as a 

dye; also grown as an ornamental, weed, mucilage, beads, wood for 

furniture, general construction, cabinetwork, and jewelry, medicinal 

purposes; home gardens.

Sapote, black Fruit; ornamental; medicinal purposes; immature fruit is used as a 

fish poison in the Philippines; wood for cabinetwork and handcrafts.

Sapote, green Fresh eating, preserves, home garden plant; latex form the tree is 

collected and marketed for use in chewing gum; wood is used in 

construction, carpentry, turnery, and furniture.

Sapote, mamey Fresh eating, beverages and desserts; seeds are used to prepare a 
256

Commodity Specific Uses 

substance similar to chocolate; seed oil is used in soaps, skin 

ointment, hair products, pharmaceuticals, perfume making, as linen 

starch and cosmetics; medicinal purposes; shade tree; wood is used 

for cabinet-making and general carpentry.

Sapote, white Fruit, ornamental, medicinal purposes, home gardens; wood is used 

in carpentry and furniture.

Sataw Fruit, vegetable, shade/shelter, wood is used in the manufacture of 

light paper.

Satinleaf Fruit, ornamental, soil protector, home for wildlife, nectar for bees, 

wood is used for construction.

Screw-pine Fruit; ornamental; coastal protection; windbreak; soil improver; 

shade tree; fiber (material) from the durable and fibrous leaves used 

for weaving; glue from the trunk; tannin; black dye; wood; branches 

and trunks are used in construction; various parts of the tree are used 

to make garlands; medicinal purposes; spice; perfume; soap; fodder 

for animals.

Sierra Leone-tamarind Fruit; wood is used for fuel, charcoal, vehicles, houses, and flooring; 

medicinal purposes.

Soncoya Gene source (related to Annona fruits), fruit, home garden plant; 

medicinal purposes; the seed extract is used as an insecticide.

Soursop Pulp is eaten fresh, made into beverages (carato), jelly, ice cream or 

other desserts; fruit can be used as bait; seeds and leaves can be used 

as an insecticide; bark is used in tanning; bark, seeds, and roots are 

used as a fish poison; wood is used for tools; medicinal purposes; 

home garden plant; ornamental.

Spanish lime Fruit, seeds are consumed; home garden plant; honey; wood is used 

for construction and cabinetwork; medicinal purposes; dye from fruit 

juice.

Star apple Fruit consumed fresh. Seeds are used in confections; medicinal 

purposes; ornamental; home gardens; wood is used in construction 

and furniture; latex is used in making plastic.

Sugar apple Fruit; primary genetic relative; progenitor of atemoya; medicinal 

purposes; ground seed, green fruits, and leaves are used as an 

insecticide; oil from seed kernels is used in the manufacture of soap; 

oil from leaves is used in the manufacture of perfume; fiber from the 

bark is used in cordage; wood for fuel; home garden plant; 

ornamental.

Sun Sapote Fruit, wood for furniture, marine construction, cabinet work, and 

fuel; ornamental; shade tree.

Tamarind-of-the-Indies Fruit, firewood, charcoal; wood for building construction and tools; 

flowers are a source of honey.

Velvet Tamarind Fruit, potential as wood, medicinal purposes, bark for tanning.

Wampi Fruit, medicinal purposes, home garden plant, hedge plant, 

ornamental.

White star apple Fruit, seed oil for cooking and soap-making; wood for construction 

work and tools; planted in villages.

Wild loquat Fruit; wood is used to make furniture, crafts, tools, buildings, 

charcoal, and firewood; a salt for seasoning food is obtained from 

wood ash; medicinal purposes; blue dye is made from the roots; 
257

Commodity Specific Uses 

leaves are used as a wrapper for storing processed food; leaves are 

used as a cockroach repellent; at the end of the dry season, leaves 

and fruit are used as fodder for cattle; shade tree; erosion control; 

soil improver; ornamental; boundary or barrier plant; flowers are 

used for honey production .

MEDICINAL USES OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS – INEDIBLE 

PEEL: 

There are several medicinal uses of the tropical and subtropical fruits inedible 

peel commodities are they are listed in Table 51. The medicinal value of tropicals and 

subtropicals, both the fruits themselves and their actual plant parts (bark, roots, and even 

pollen), has long been acknowledged by the diverse peoples in and around their areas of 

origin. These regions are rich in recipes for preparing infusions, decoctions, syrups, 

pastes, jellies, juices, and so forth for myriad purposes. Despite the relatively low caloric

values of tropical and subtropical fruits, they play an important role in human diet mainly

because of their high and diverse vitamin and mineral content (See Appendix II: Dietary

and Nutritional Value of the Tropical and Subtropical Fruits – Inedible Peel). This has 

been of extreme importance in the tropics, where people have been consuming them since 

ancient times, either by collecting fruit from the wild or by cultivating plants in home or 

community gardens. They have become an important part of the diet of people in the 

developed countries of the world, especially among the health and fitness conscious. 

Toward the end of the twentieth century market campaigns commonly recommended 

consumption of five fruits per day. 

Medicinal uses of these tropical fruits include for example the banana whereas the 

entire plant has medicinal purposes; flowers are used to aid bronchitis, dysentery, 

diabetes and ulcers; sap is used to cure hysteria, epilepsy, leprosy, fevers, insect bites, 

hemorrhages, and diarrhea; leaves are used to aid burns; ashes of the peel and leaves are 

used to cure dysentery and ulcers; roots are used to cure digestive problems; seeds are 

used to cure diarrhea. Lychee seeds are used in China as a painkiller for neuralgia. The 

fruit peel is used to treat diarrhea and smallpox. The fruit is also used to relieve 

coughing; can aid stomach pain, tumors, and enlarged glands. Decoctions of the root, 

bark and flowers are taken to aid throat ailments. Other tropical fruits inedible peel 

medicinal uses are in Table 51.

Table 51. Medicinal Uses of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits – Inedible Peel.

Commodity Medicinal Uses

Abiu The leaves are used in popular medicines. Fruit pulp is consumed to 

relieve pulmonary issues including coughs and bronchitis. Latex 

from the tree is used to remove intestinal worms; it is also placed on 

abscesses.

Aisen Wide range of purposes in Africa including use as a diuretic in the 

treatment of syphilis, rheumatism, ulcers, gastritis, and an eye wash; 

used to remove intestinal parasites from camels. Entire tree is used 
258

Commodity Medicinal Uses

for medicinal purposes.

Akee apple Aril mixtures are consumed to reduce severe diarrhea and fevers. 

Seed extracts are used to remove parasites. Ripe arils, crushed 

leaves, and leaf, seed or bark extracts are made into topical 

treatments to cure headaches, severe pain, conjunctivitis and ulcers. 

A mixture of the bark and hot peppers is rubbed on the body as a 

stimulant.

Atemoya It has medicinal properties such as other annonas and is used in 

traditional medicine. The green fruit and seed have vermicidal and 

insecticidal properties.

Avocado The seed and roots contain an antibiotic that prevents bacterial 

spoilage of food. The fruit skin is antibiotic and is used to treat 

parasitic worms and diarrhea. Leaves contain antibiotic activity and 

are taken to cure gum issues, diarrhea, sore throat and appetite 

issues; placed on wounds. The seed is used to aid diarrhea, dandruff, 

toothaches, and skin problems. 

Bacury Latex from the bark is used in veterinary practice in Guyana; oil 

from the seeds is mixed with almond oil and is used to treat eczema 

and herpes.

Bael fruit In many areas, the plant is used more for medicinal purposes than 

food purposes. Fruit, bark, leaves and flowers are used for various 

medicinal purposes in Asia. Immature fruit is boiled, strained, 

sweetened and consumed to treat diarrhea, hemorrhoids, hepatitis, 

tuberculosis, digestive issues, skin conditions, and sleeping 

problems; ripe fruit is used as a laxative and aphrodisiac. Many 

claim the fruit aids the heart and brain. Oil from the seeds is used as 

a purgative. Leaf juice is used to reduce fever and alleviate asthma; 

flowers are prepared into an eye lotion; a decoction of the bark is 

used to treat malaria; the root is used for a wide variety of 

conditions; fruit, roots, and leaves have antibiotic activity.

Banana/Plantain The entire plant has medicinal purposes; flowers are used to aid 

bronchitis, dysentery, diabetes and ulcers; sap is used to cure 

hysteria, epilepsy, leprosy, fevers, insect bites, hemorrhages, and 

diarrhea; leaves are used to aid burns; ashes of the peel and leaves 

are used to cure dysentery and ulcers; roots are used to cure digestive 

problems; seeds are used to cure diarrhea. The ripe peel and pulp of 

bananas contain antifungal and antibiotic principles. 

Biriba Both the fruit and seeds contain acetogenens and alkaloids that may 

act as anti-tumor agents. These substances may also inhibit platelet 

aggregations. Fruit is used to reduce fevers and cure scurvy; used as 

a stimulant. Seeds are a remedy for enterocolitis.

Breadfruit Fruit is consumed when mature, firm and starchy. Most varieties of 

fruit are purgative if consumed raw; very few varieties can be eaten 

raw. Some varieties of fruit are boiled twice before eating. 

Immature fruit are consumed cooked as a starchy vegetable. Ripe 

fruit is consumed as a dessert and is used to make pies, cakes, and 

sweets; can also be used in savory dishes. The entire fruit can be 

baked, boiled, roasted, dried, pickled, stuffed, candied, steamed, 

prepared into chowder, soup, paste, porridge or pudding, stored in 
259

Commodity Medicinal Uses

brine, or fried into chips. Fruit can be preserved by fermentation. 

Fruit are cooked, dried, and milled to make flour that is used in 

bread making. Used in Hawaii as a substitute for taro to make poi. 

Excess fruit are buried in leaves and preserved. Fruit absorb the 

flavor of other foods. Seeds of seedy fruit can be boiled in salt 

water, steamed, pureed or roasted and salted; consumed like 

chestnuts. Pulverized, roasted seed kernels and a decoction of bark 

or leaves are used to aid dysentery and intestinal disorders.

Burmese grape Fruit is used to treat skin diseases. The bark, roots, and wood are 

dried and ground before boiling in water and are used for medicinal 

purposes.

Canistel Various parts of the tree are used for medicinal purposes and have 

biological activity. Bark is used to aid skin rashes and cure fevers. 

Parts of the seed are used to aid scalp dermatitis and ulcers.

Cherimoya Seeds are used to induce vomiting and kill lice and other parasites. 

A decoction of the fruit skin is used to aid pneumonia.

Custard apple A leaf decoction is used to remove intestinal worms; crushed leaves 

or fruit flesh is placed on boils, abscesses and ulcers; dried unripe 

fruit and bark is used to aid diarrhea and dysentery; root bark is used 

to relieve toothaches and fevers.

Dragon fruit Fruit is used for medicinal purposes; seeds are used as mild laxative.

Durian Fruit is used as an aphrodisiac. Flesh of the fruit is used to rid 

intestinal worms; a mixture of leaves and roots is used to cure fevers; 

leaves and fruit are used to aid skin diseases.

Elephant-apple One of the most useful medicinal plants in India. Powdered gum 

mixed with honey is used to treat dysentery and diarrhea. Fruit is 

used to aid the liver and heart; unripe fruit are used to cure diarrhea, 

dysentery, hiccups, sore throat, and gum disease; the pulp and rind is 

placed on bites and stings; leaf juice is mixed with milk and sugar to 

cure digestion and intestinal problems; leaf oil is used to aid itching; 

an infusion of spines and bark are taken to cure liver problems, 

excess menstruation, bites and stings.

Granadilla, Giant Fruit is used to aid scurvy and the digestive system. Flesh is used to 

relieve headaches, asthma, diarrhea, dysentery, insomnia, and 

nervous problems. The seeds are used as a sedative. A leaf 

decoction is used to aid skin and liver conditions and remove 

parasitic worms. The root is used to aid skin wounds, induce 

vomiting, remove excess water and remove intestinal worms.

Jackfruit Unripe fruit can cause digestive disorders. Fruit pulp and seeds are 

used to cure hangovers; seed starch is used to relieve digestive 

problems; roasted seeds are an aphrodisiac; the ash of leaves burned 

with corn and coconut shells is used to heal ulcers; dried latex is 

made into steroids; dried leaves mixed with vinegar promotes the 

healing of abscesses, snakebites and swellings. The root is used to 

cure skin diseases, fevers, diarrhea and asthma. Bark and leaves are 

used to cure wounds.

Jatobá Bark tea is used as an energy tonic, stomach soother, and antifungal 

aid. Bark is also used as a tonic for the respiratory and urinary 

systems; bark is an astringent, balsamic, vermifuge, haemostatic, 
260

Commodity Medicinal Uses

cough reliever and diarrhea reliever by people of the Amazon; used 

as a cure-all. Bark, sap, or resin, and leaves are used to cure cystitis, 

hepatitis, prostatitis and coughs. Sap is used to aid coughs and 

bronchitis. The fruit is used to aid mouth ulcers. Leaves and wood 

are used to aid diabetes. The tree has been used as an anodyne, 

antiseptic, astringent, expectorant, laxative, pectoral, purgative, 

sedative, stomachic, stimulant, tonic, and vermifuge.

Karuka Fruit is carotenoid-rich and can protect against diabetes, heart 

disease, and cancer; alleviates vitamin A deficiency. Leaves are 

used to treat cold/flu, vomiting, hepatitis, urinary problems, asthma, 

boils, and cancer. Roots are used to treat hemorrhoids and stomach 

cramps. Fruits, male flowers, and aerial roots are used individually 

or in combination with other ingredients to treat digestive and 

respiratory ailments. 

Kei apple The roots, stems and fruit possess antibiotic properties.

Langsat The peel contains resin that is used to halt diarrhea and intestinal 

spasms. The dried peel is burned to aid tuberculosis sufferers. 

Crushed seed is used for scorpion stings, reduce fevers, and kill 

intestinal worms. A bark or bark and leaf decoction is used as a 

treatment for dysentery, stings, and malaria. Leaf juice is used as 

eye drops to aid inflammation.

Longan In some areas, the fruit is believed to improve brain functioning, 

insomnia, amnesia, and mental health. The pulp is used to aid the 

stomach, reduce fevers, and remove intestinal worms; regarded as an 

antidote for poison. In Southeast Asia, parts of the tree are used for 

therapeutically purposes. Seeds are ground into powder and used to 

treat skin diseases and snake bites.

Lucuma Dried fruit is used as a health food supplement

Lychee Seeds are used in China as a painkiller for neuralgia. The fruit peel 

is used to treat diarrhea and smallpox. The fruit is used to relieve 

coughing; can aid stomach pain, tumors, and enlarged glands. 

Decoctions of the root, bark and flowers are taken to aid throat 

ailments. Roots may aid certain cancer tumors.

Madras-thorn The tree is used to cure convulsions, dysentery, stomach problems, 

earache, leprosy, ulcers, sores, toothache, and venereal disease; bark 

is used as a fever reducer; root and bark is used in Haiti to reduce 

diarrhea. Fruit is used to aid coughs. Seed juice is taken for chest 

congestion. Leaves are placed on sores; an abortifacient, anodyne, 

astringent, larvicidal and guamachil.

Mammy-apple Various parts of the tree are used to treat scalp infections, diarrhea, 

digestive problems and eye problems. Powdered seed are used to 

treat parasitic skin diseases. An infusion of fresh or dry leaves is

used to cure fevers; an antibiotic principle was reported in the fruit. 

A liqueur made from the flowers is used as a digestive aid.

Mandura Roots and bark are used in purgative medicine. Roots have emetic 

properties. Leaf and twig extracts have genotoxic effects, causing 

DNA damage. Bark is placed in water and used as a refreshing bath. 

Extracts from the tree can be used to induce vomiting.

Mango All parts of the tree have been used medicinally. The sap (latex), 
261

Commodity Medicinal Uses

flowers, seeds, and leaves are used as astringents to treat diarrhea, 

hemorrhages, bladder problems, fevers, hypertension, and 

hemorrhoids. The bark is astringent and is used to treat rheumatism 

and diphtheria. Gum from the trunk is placed on cracks on the skin 

and sores. Leaves are used to alleviate coughs, chest problems, 

diarrhea, fever, diabetes, skin irritations, and dental problems. 

Flowers are used as an aphrodisiac and mosquito repellent. Ground 

seeds are used to treat scorpion stings; also used as a vermifuge and 

an astringent. Some parts of the tree have antibiotic activity.

Mango, horse Mango, horse is used to aid ulcers and deepen tattoo scars; Leaves 

are used to reduce body temperature. Seeds are used to cure fungal 

infections, eczema and other skin conditions.

Mango, Saipan A leaf poultice is applied externally in the treatment of hysteria and 

epilepsy. A bark poultice is applied externally in the treatment of 

hysterio-epilepsy.

Mangosteen The fruit rind, dried fruit and bract are used in traditional medicine. 

The rind contains the compounds xanthones, which have antioxidant 

properties. The dried rind is powdered and taken to aid dysentery, 

diarrhea, cystitis, sexually transmitted diseases, and skin disorders. 

A decoction of the leaves and bark is used to reduce fevers, diarrhea, 

thrush and urinary disorders.

Marmaladebox Fruit is consumed to aid jaundice, anemia, liver problems, and 

remove intestinal worms. The juice from the fruit is used as a 

diuretic and cold remedy. The pulp is used as a dental anesthetic and 

has bactericidal and germicidal properties. An alcoholic drink from 

the fruit is used to aid rheumatism. A sweet drink made from the 

juice of the mesocarp of the fruit or the residual water left over from 

cooking the fruit is taken to cure asthma and reduce respiratory 

inflammation. Bark is used as a diuretic, dental anesthetic, and cure 

for ulcers. A mixture of the crushed green fruit and bark are used to 

aid sores and sore throats. A decoction of the roots is used as a 

purgative. Leaf juice is used as a fever reducer. Flowers have tonic 

properties and are used to reduce fevers. Gum from the trunk is used 

to treat eye diseases.

Mesquite Juice is used as a folk remedy for cancer; used as a cathartic; emetic; 

poison; stomachic and vulnerary; folk remedy to treat catarrh, colds, 

diarrhea, dysentery, excrescences, eyes, flu, head cold, hoarseness, 

inflammation, itch, measles, pinkeye, stomachache, sore throat, and 

wounds. Extracts from the plant are antibacterial. Syrup made from 

the ground pods is given to children showing weight deficiency or 

poor motor skills; used as an expectorant. Tea made from the tree is 

used to aid digestive disturbances and skin lesions.

Monkey-bread-tree Folk medicines are made from the bark, leaves and fruit pulp; used 

as a fever reducer, anti-asthmatic, anti-histamine and anti-tension 

medicine. Fruit pulp and powdered seeds are used to cure dysentery, 

and fevers. Bark, fruit pulp, and seeds contain an antidote to 

Strophanthus poisoning. Powdered bark or roots mixed with 

porridge is used to cure malaria. Pulp mixed with honey is used to 

treat coughs. Leaves are used to cure diarrhea, fever, inflammation, 
262

Commodity Medicinal Uses

kidney diseases, blood disorders, and asthma. Humans chew on the 

spongy parts of the bark during water scarcity.

Monstera An infusion of the roots and leaves are taken to treat arthritis. A 

preparation of the roots is used to cure snake bites.

Muriti The pulp can eliminate all symptoms of vitamin A deficiency in

children. Palm oil is used to treat burns.

Palmyra Palm There are many medicinal purposes for all part of the palm. The 

young plant is used to relieve liver problems, intestinal issues, and 

sexually transmitted diseases. Roots are used to cure intestinal 

worms and respiratory problems; also used as a diuretic. The ash of 

the spadix is used to aid heartburn and an enlarged spleen and liver. 

A decoction of the bark is used as a mouth wash and teeth cleaner. 

Sap is used as a tonic, diuretic, stimulant and laxative. Sugar from 

the sap is used to cure poisonings, coughs, pulmonary complaints, 

and liver disorders. Fresh toddy is placed on ulcers. Leaves and 

flowers are used as a diuretic. Pulp of the fruit is used to cure 

dermatitis. 

Papaya Used in pharmaceutics, papain is used as a wound inflammation 

suppresser and laxative. Extracts of ripe and unripe fruits can have 

antibiotic properties. In folk remedies, juice is used against warts, 

cancers, tumors, corns, and skin problems. Papain is used to treat 

ulcers, warts and freckles, dissolve membranes in diphtheria, reduce 

swelling and fever, and remove intestinal parasites. Dried leaves are 

smoked to relieve asthma and aid stomach troubles. Concoctions of 

the root are used to remove tumors.

Passionfruit and 

Passionfruit, purple, and 

Passionfruit, yellow

The use of the glycoside, passiflorine is being tested in the 

pharmaceutical industry as a sedative or tranquilizer. Juice of 

passionfruit is used as a digestive stimulant and treatment for gastric

cancer. Brazilians prepare a drink from the flower to treat asthma, 

bronchitis, and whooping cough. The plant is used as a diuretic to 

treat urinary infections.

Pawpaw Seeds can impair mammalian digestion. Twigs, leaves and bark of 

the fruit contain annonaceous acetogenins which are being used in 

the development of anti-cancer drugs.

Pequi Fruit has been used to treat eye diseases. Aphrodisiac; treatment of 

respiratory problems; leaves are astringent and stimulate liver 

function. Nut oil can be used to treat asthma, bronchitis, colds, and 

whooping cough. Leaves have an anti-fungal property.

Persimmon, American Inner bark and unripe fruit have been used to treat fevers, sore 

throats, warts, cancers, heartburn, stomach aches, diarrhea, and 

hemorrhages.

Pineapple Bromelain, a proteolytic enzyme in the stem is used for medicinal 

applications including the treatment of edema, muscle relaxation, 

stimulation of muscle contractions, cancer prevention, burn 

debridement, ulcer prevention, appetite inhibition, enhanced fat 

excretion, sinusitis relief, inflammation relief, and relief from 

abscesses, contusions, hematomas, and sprains. The fruit peel and 

juice is used to treat corns, tumors, and warts. Fruit is a folk remedy 

for bladder ailments, hypochondria, scarlet fever, scurvy, sores and 
263

Commodity Medicinal Uses

sprains. The rhizome has been shown to produce an anti-edemic 

substance. Fruit juice is a diuretic. The juice of the leaves is 

consumed to cure hiccups, rid intestinal parasites, and cleanse the 

body. Buds are used to aid respiratory ailments.

Pomegranate Pulverized bark is used to produce the drug Pelletierine tannate. 

Fruit pulp yields oestrone and is used against HIV. Fruit juice 

contains citric acid and sodium citrate that is used for pharmaceutical 

purposes; used as an ingredient in treating dyspepsia and leprosy. 

The bark of the stem and root contains alkaloids that can be used to 

destroy tapeworms. Tannin from the bark, leaves, immature fruit 

and fruit rind are used as astringents to stop diarrhea, dysentery, and 

hemorrhages. Dried flower buds are used to cure bronchitis and 

throat inflammation. Leaves, seeds, roots, and bark have 

hypotensive, antispasmodic and anthelmintic activity.

Prickly pear Pads, flowers and fruit are used for medicinal purposes. Plants are 

used to treat kidney ailments, burns and diabetes; diuretic, analgesic, 

cardiotonic, laxative, and antiparasitic properties. Juice is used to 

treat nausea, fever, and ulcers. Roasted fruit is used to cure coughs. 

The rind is used to cure kidney diseases. Flowers and stems are 

antispasmodic, diuretic and emollient. Flowers are astringent and 

used to reduce bleeding and treat stomach problems. 

Pulasan Leaves and roots are used in poultices. A root decoction is given to 

reduce fevers, and expel intestinal worms.

Quandong The kernel of the fruit is used for medicinal purposes. The fruit skin 

is placed on sores and boils.

Rambutan The fruit peel, leaves and roots are used medicinally. Unripe fruit is 

astringent, and stomachic; used to expel worms, reduce fevers, and 

relieve diarrhea/dysentery. Leaves are placed on the temples to 

alleviate headaches. A bark decoction is used to cure thrush. A root 

decoction is used as a fever reducer.

Sapodilla A tea made from the leaves is used to treat fever, coughs, colds, 

diarrhea, hemorrhages, wounds and ulcers. A bark tea is taken to 

reduce fevers, diarrhea and dysentery. Crushed seeds are said to 

expel bladder and kidney stones. A paste from the seeds is placed on 

animal bites. A decoction from the young fruit is taken to stop 

diarrhea. An infusion of the fruit and flowers is taken to relieve 

pulmonary problems. Latex is used to fill cavities.

Sapote, black Crushed bark and leaves are applied as a poultice in the Philippines. 

Leaf decoctions are used to aid leprosy, ring worm, fever, and 

itching skin.

Sapote, mamey Seed oil is used as a sedative in eye and ear ailments, diuretic, skin 

tonic, muscle pain reducer, rheumatism treatment and hair 

revitalizer. A seed infusion is used as eyewash in Cuba. Pulverized 

seed coats are used to treat coronary trouble, kidney stones, epilepsy, 

and rheumatism. The seed kernel is used to aid digestion. A 

mixture of the bark and leaves is taken for arteriosclerosis and 

hypertension. Tree sap is used to induce vomiting, expel intestinal 

parasites, and remove warts.

Sapote, white Pulp, leaves, bark and seeds are used in traditional medicine. Bark, 
264

Commodity Medicinal Uses

leaves and seeds are used for blood pressure, rheumatics, sleep 

issues, and as a sedative. A decoction of the leaves is used to treat 

diabetes. Pulp and bark are used as a sedative and pain-reliever.

Sataw Seeds are known to reduce the blood sugar level and are used 

traditionally for treating kidney pain, cancer, diabetes, hepatalgia, 

oedema, nephritis, colic, cholera and intestinal worms. A medicine 

from the seeds can be applied externally to wounds and ulcers. 

Leaves and fruits are used to aid liver diseases, intestinal parasites, 

treat high blood pressure and aid diabetes.

Soncoya Fruit is prepared into a beverage and is consumed as a remedy for 

fever, chills, and jaundice. A decoction of the bark is used to aid 

dysentery and edema.

Soursop A decoction of the young shoots and leaves is used to cure gall 

bladder infections, coughs, diarrhea, dysentery, and indigestion. 

Mashed leaves are used as a poultice to aid eczema and rheumatism. 

Mature leaves have sedative properties and are used to reduce fever. 

Flowers are used to aid muscle spasms. Roots are used to rid 

intestinal worms and poisoning. Ripe fruit is taken to prevent 

scurvy. Unripe fruit is used to aid dysentery; astringent properties. 

Fruit flesh is applied to skin to rid chiggers and speed healing. Fruit 

juice is used as a diuretic and as a remedy for haematuria, urethritis, 

liver ailments, and leprosy.

Spanish lime Pulverized, roasted seed kernels and a decoction of bark or leaves 

are used to aid dysentery and intestinal disorders.

Star apple The pulp is used as an anti-inflammatory in laryngitis and 

pneumonia; used to treat diabetes. A decoction of the fruit is used to 

relieve chest pain. Unripe fruit are consumed to relieve intestinal 

problems. A decoction of the rind or leaves is taken to relieve 

muscle pain. A decoction of the bark is consumed as a tonic and 

stimulant and to halt diarrhea, dysentery, and hemorrhages. 

Pulverized seed is taken as a tonic, diuretic and fever reducer. Latex 

is applied on abscesses. When taken internally, it is taken as a 

diuretic, fever reducer, and remedy for dysentery; used to rid 

intestinal worms.

Sugar apple A leaf decoction is used as a cold remedy, fever reducer, tonic, 

digestive, or arthritis remedy; taken in cases of dysentery. Crushed 

leaves are sniffed to overcome hysteria and fainting spells. Leaves 

are applied on ulcers and wounds. A bark decoction or the juice of 

the fruit is used to treat diarrhea. Bark extracts have an anti-tumor 

effect in the laboratory. Roots are used to treat dysentery. Green 

fruit is taken to aid diarrhea. Crushed ripe fruit is applied on tumors.

Tamarind-of-the-Indies Roots and bark are used to treat worm infections.

Velvet Tamarind Pulp has medicinal purposes.

Wampi Pulp is used to aid stomach problems, remove intestinal parasites, 

and cool the body. Halved, sun-dried, immature fruit and slices of 

dried roots are used to cure bronchitis. A decoction of the leaves is 

used to preserve the color of the hair and treat the scalp.

Wild loquat Leaves bark and roots are used in traditional medicine. An infusion 

of boiled roots is used as a remedy for indigestion, dysentery, and 
265

Commodity Medicinal Uses

intestinal problems.

USDA MARKETING STANDARDS FOR TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL 

FRUITS – INEDIBLE PEEL:

The USDA Agricultural Marketing Service (USDA AMS 2007, 2008, and 2010 

has established standards for marketing some of the tropical fruits with inedible peels 

such as mango, pineapple, and pineapple juice and each will be discussed below. 

(http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/ams.fetchTemplateData.do?template=TemplateN&page=FreshMarketFruitStandards). 

Codex has some marketing standards for various fruits such as papaya and cactus. 

Hawaii, Florida and California also have standards for avocado and papaya.

The grade standards for mangos (U.S. Grade Fancy, US No 1, or U.S. No 2) are 

based on the varieties, color, uniform size and diameter, freedom from defects. Defects 

include color damage, broken skin, abnormal shapes, scaring, dry skins, sunken 

discolored areas, insect or mold injury, and mechanical injury. In order to obtain a grade

the variations in grading may not be greater than 10%. Pineapple standards are very

similar to mangos (USDA AMS, 2008). They also include no evidence of rodents and 

freezing damage. Pineapple juice standards are defined by FDA (21CFR146.185) and are 

either the juice itself or as the juice from concentrate. The juice is judged by color, and 

freedom from defects such as excess pulp, dark specks, and pieces of shells or seeds. 

There are two standard grades A and B. The Brix/acid ratio should be a minimum of 

12.0:1. 

Avocado:

Avocado have grade requirements to grade at least U.S. No. 2, as such grade is 

defined in the U.S. standards for Florida Avocados (7 CFR 51.3050 through 51.3069). 

All avocados imported into the United States, except the ‘Haas’, ‘Fuerte’, ‘Zutano’, and 

‘Edranol’ varieties, must meet the following requirements: For color - Avocado varieties, 

which change to any shade of red or purple when mature, except for the’ Linda’ variety, 

may be imported if any portion of the skin of the fruit has changed to the normal color for 

that variety when mature, or if the fruit meets the following minimum weight or diameter 

requirements. Avocados not meeting the color maturity requirements may only be 

imported if the fruit meets the minimum weight or diameter requirements for the 

specified effective periods for each variety listed. Sizes are 32 avocado = 7.5 oz.; size 36 

avocado = 6.5 oz; size 40 avocado = 6 oz; size 48 avocado = 5 oz; size 60 avocado = 4 

oz; size 70 avocado = 3.5 oz; and size 84 avocado = 3 oz. California graded avocadoes 

are required to be basically free from all defects that cause a waste of 10% or more by

weight of the entire avocado. The state offers a No. 1 and standard grade pack in most 

sizes

(http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/ams.fetchTemplateData.do?template=TemplateN&navID=Avocados&rightNav1=Avocados&to

pNav=&leftNav=&page=8eavocado&resultType=&acct=fvgeninfo).

Banana/Plantain:
266

There are no official U.S. grade standards for bananas. Bananas generally are 

considered No. 1 “premium” by major banana companies as part of their own grading 

standards. Smaller bananas sometimes are graded No. 2. Plantains are also subject to no 

official U.S. grade standards.

Table 52. AVAILABILITY OF THE TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT -

INEDIBLE PEEL PROPOSED CROP GROUP MEMBERS IN THE WORLD 

MARKETPLACE:

Some of these tropical and subtropical fruits with inedible peels have major markets 

such as banana, breadfruit, canistel, lychee, mango, papaya, and pineapple. At present, 

many of the tropical and subtropical fruit- inedible peel have limited availability by being 

in local markets (Table 52). Many such as jackfruit, longan, prickly pear, rambutan, and 

white sapote are widely available in health food stores. Others are available at this time 

as processed commodities such as jellies or juices such as longan and pomegranate 

Table 52. Availability of the Tropical and Subtropical Fruits – Inedible Peel in the 

World Marketplace.

Commodity Availability in the World Marketplace

Abiu Fruit are sold in the markets of Guayaquil, Ecuador. Fruit are sold in 

Brazilian markets from September to April and sometimes in 

February to March at Bahia. 

Aisen Plants are not domesticated; fruit is gathered for human consumption 

and sold in local African markets.

Akee apple Fruit is sold fresh for domestic consumption in Jamaica. Fruit is 

canned in Jamaica and exported. Because the fruit is toxic, canned 

fruit that is imported to the U.S. is subject to a Hazard Analysis and 

Critical Point (HACCP) manufacturing system. Found in specialty 

markets around the world.

Atemoya Fruit are shipped to northern fruit dealers. Fruit are sold in local 

markets in Florida.

Avocado Fruit are sold locally and exported to markets all over the world. 

Small to medium fruit are used for commercial production and large 

fruit are sold locally. Europe and the U.S. are the main markets for 

all exports. Cultivars are produced for local markets in each 

country. Guacamole, frozen avocado purée and avocado oil is sold 

as a major commercial product. Avocados are sold pickled.

Bacury Fruit is sold in small local markets and large markets in Belém, 

Brazil; sold commercially to a limited extent.

Bael fruit Fresh fruit, processed fruit and beverages made from the fruit are 

sold commercially in India and Southeast Asian countries. Leaves 

are harvested and sold commercially during late summer. Young 

fruit are sliced horizontally, sun-dried, and sold in local markets for 

medicinal purposes; exported to Malaya and Europe.

Banana/Plantain Fruit has been consumed locally and exported for centuries. ‘Gros 

Michel’ and ‘Cavendish’ cultivars are the most important cultivars 

for worldwide export trade. Due to disease problems with other 
267

Commodity Availability in the World Marketplace

cultivars, Cavendish cultivars provide almost all export dessert 

bananas. Fruit is sold canned, dried, frozen, extracted, puréed, and 

fermented. Plantains are sold canned, frozen, dried, and in mixes; 

plantain chips are widely sold.

Binjai Fruit of the ‘beluno’ and ‘wani’ cultivars are sold at high prices in 

local markets in Malaya and Singapore.

Biriba Fruit is sold per unit at fresh fruit markets or street vendors in the 

Central Amazon; widely marketed in Peru and Brazil.

Breadfruit Fresh fruit and chips are sold in town markets in the Caribbean and 

Pacific Islands; shipped to specialty markets in the US, Europe and 

Canada; sold to ethnic markets; Hawaiian markets; commercially 

made into chips in Trinidad and Barbados; canned and shipped to 

Europe and America; seeds are sold by street vendors in Costa Rica.

Burmese grape Fruit is harvested, used and sold locally; the fruit has market value.

Canistel Fruits are sold in Cuban markets. Mature fruit have been shipped 

from Florida to New York City and Philadelphia; sold in markets in 

the West Indies.

Chanpedak Fruit shelf life is only 2 to 3 days, so fruit is rapidly shipped to 

market. Mature fruit can be stored at 10 to 12 °C (50 to 54 °F) for 2 

to 3 weeks. Young fruit is sold canned.

Cherimoya Fruit is shipped to wholesale markets around the world including the 

U.S.; most fruit is grown and sold in California; short shelf life.

Cupuacú Fruit was once restricted to local Amazonian markets but the recent 

increase in production allowed for the fruit to reach international 

markets. Frozen pulp is exported to large populations in southern 

Brazil and Europe. Several industries are developing cupuassu 

products including chocolate.

Custard apple Fruit is sold in local markets of South America and Central America.

Dragon fruit Fruit are being traded in international markets and have become the 

most important export fruit of Vietnam. U.S. produced fruit is being 

sold in Asian communities in Orange and Los Angeles counties.

Durian Fruit is prized in southeast Asian markets. Singapore populations 

prefer fully ripe fruit that is not splitting, while Thais prefer less ripe 

fruit. Fruit is in demand among ethnic groups in large temperate 

cities. Also sold in local markets.

Elephant-apple Small quantities of the fruit are found in local markets.

Granadilla Fruit are sold in village markets in Latin American countries.

Granadilla, Giant Juice from the arils is bottled and sold in local Indonesian 

restaurants; pulp is canned in syrup.

Guriri Fruit is consumed by the locals.

Ilama Sold in the markets of Guatemala and other indigenous areas.

Jackfruit Fruit are sold in local markets. Mature fruit are cut open and sliced 

into pieces for sale, since the fruit is so large. Fruit is also sold 

mixed with other fruit. Young fruit is canned and sold 

commercially.

Jatobá Pulp is consumed locally and is sometimes sold in food markets, 

especially in El Salvador.

Kei apple Fruit are sold in local markets in Africa and elsewhere.

Langsat Fruits are sold in clusters or individually, plentiful in local markets.
268

Commodity Availability in the World Marketplace

Longan In Asian markets, fruit are sold still attached to the panicle in 

bunches. In Western markets, individual fruits are sold in 

containers. Canned fruit is available in supermarkets.

Lucuma Fruit is sold in local markets of Chile and Peru; sold in some markets 

in Ecuador. Fruit are sold in the markets of La Paz. Fruit are 

shipped from Chile to England for dessert use. Dried fruit is 

marketed as a health food supplement.

Lychee In Asian countries, fruit are sold while still attached to the panicle in 

bunches. In Western countries, individual fruit are sold in 

containers. Fruit has been sold in Chinese markets for thousands of 

years; sold in the U.S. and Canada.

Mabolo Fruit are sold in the Philippines and Bogor (Indonesian) markets.

Madras-thorn Pods are sold in Mexico, Cuba, India and Thailand on roadside 

stands.

Mammy-apple Fruit are sold fresh, canned or preserved on local markets and 

roadside stands.

Mango Fruit are available in local, regional, and national markets yearround around the world, depending upon production location and 

cultivars available. In tropical areas, mangoes are one of the most 

commonly eaten and purchased fruits in tropical countries.

Mango, horse Fruit are sold in local markets in Southeast Asia.

Mango, Saipan Fruit is popular and has local economic significance in places where 

the common mango cannot be grown.

Mangosteen Fruit can be exported and sold in local markets. Since fruit serves as 

a fruit fly host, movement in international trade is limited.

Marang Fruit is sold whole and in pieces at local markets. Since fruit have a 

short shelf life, fruit are transported rapidly to the market.

Marmaladebox Fruit are sold in local markets in Brazil.

Matisia Fruit is used as a source of family income. During harvest season, 

fruit are sold in the markets of Antioquia, Buenaventura, Cali and 

Bogotá in Colombia, Puerto Viejo in Ecuador, Tefé, São Paulo de 

Olivença, Tabatinga, Benjamin Constant and Atalaia do Norte in 

Brazil and Iquitos in Peru.

Mongongo, fruit The nuts are difficult to obtain outside of the tree’s native range. The

oil can be sometimes purchased in specialty shops or over the 

internet.

Monkey-bread-tree Sold in the herb and spice markets of Cairo since 2500 BC. Fruit is 

sold in African markets in different parts of Africa during different 

times of the year. Fruit juice is important in rural areas in Malawi 

where there are high levels of deforestation (alternative to charcoal 

dealing). In East Africa, seeds are exported to several Arab states in 

the Middle East. Products made from the tree fiber including cloth 

and handbags are sold along roadside markets. An important tree in 

the local African economies. Imported to various countries and sold 

as an ingredient in health foods.

Monstera Fruit is found for sale at roadside markets in Southern Florida. 

Shipped from Florida to gourmet grocers in New York and 

Philadelphia. Marketed in Queensland, Australia.

Muriti Products from muriti are important in the local commerce of the 
269

Commodity Availability in the World Marketplace

Amazon basin. Fruit are available in local markets from December 

to June in the Amazon and Colombia. In Peru, mature fruit are 

abundant in the markets from February to August and there is a 

shortage of the fruit from September to November. In the Eastern 

Amazonas, in Belém, fruit appear in markets from January to July. 

In Venezuela, fruit are found in markets from August to October and 

from February to April.

Nicobar-breadfruit Sold local markets.

Paho Fruit and wood is found in local markets.

Palmyra Palm Immature seeds are sold in Indian markets. The soft-shelled seeds 

and whole kernel are canned in clear, sweetened water and exported.

Papaya Immature seeds are sold in Indian markets. The soft-shelled seeds 

and the whole kernels are canned in clear, sweetened water and 

exported.

Passionfruit (purple and 

yellow)

Fresh fruit, juice, and other products enter world trade.

Passionfruit, banana Fruit are highly favored and are regularly sold in local markets.

Pawpaw, common Fruit are mainly sold at farmer’s markets, directly to restaurants, and 

over the Internet. Fruit has fresh market and processing potential. 

There is an increasing interest in pawpaw as a gourmet food.

Pelipisan Fruit is locally found abundantly, but it does not satisfy the demand. 

Jams made from the fruit are rarely sold in markets.

Pequi Fruit is sold in local markets canned, as paste, liquor, ice cream or 

popsicles.

Pineapple Whole or processed fruit is sold to markets around the world. Fruit 

are sold processed by removing the shell and core just before 

purchase or canning slices, chunks, tidbits, crush or solid pack. Fruit 

juice is produced from flesh remaining on the shell, cut ends, and 

core and is sold in markets. Young shoots are sold in markets in 

Guatemala.

Pitahaya Hylocereus spp. fruit are available on the markets in short waves 

from late May to early January. Hylocereus megalanthus fruit are 

sold in world markets under the name yellow pitaya from January to 

mid-May. Hylocereus polyrhizus is grown in Israel for export and is 

sold in markets.

Pomegranate The market for the fruit is limited since fruit must be cracked and 

individual seeds must be separated. However, cultivation of the fruit 

has increased since it has been discovered that the juice and rind are 

nutritious. Fruit and juice is sold in grocery stores, local markets and 

local restaurants. Most of the crop grown in California is marketed 

on the eastern seaboard of the U.S.

Poshte Sold in Guatemalan markets.

Prickly pear Fruit and young stems are sold in informal street markets by street 

vendors in South America and in major markets throughout the 

world including Europe. The most important markets in Mexico are 

near Mexico City, Guadalajara, and Monterrey. Fruit from many 

species of Opuntia are sold in informal markets in Mexico, Africa, 

the Middle East, Central and South America and Southern Europe.

Pulasan Fruit is not commonly seen in the market, but is superior to 
270

Commodity Availability in the World Marketplace

rambutan. Fruit is sold in markets in Costa Rica and Singapore.

Quandong Fruit is sold in local markets. Approximately 25 tonnes (27 tons) of 

fruit are sold each year. Fruit is mostly sold cut and dried. Products 

from the fruit can be purchased throughout Australia. Fruit has a 

huge potential for developing both domestic and international 

markets.

Rambutan Fruit is sold in markets around the world. UK fruit markets receive 

fruit from Honduras, Indonesia, Malaysia, Panama, the Philippines, 

Sri Lanka and Thailand. U.S. markets are mainly supplied by 

Central American growers including Costa Rica, Guatemala, 

Honduras, and Mexico. However, trade is limited by quarantine 

regulations.

Saguaro Fruit are traded by the Papago Indians.

Salak Fruit are seen on fresh produce markets in Southeast Asia including 

Malaysia and Indonesia. There is an export market for high quality 

graded fruit in cartons.

Sapodilla Fruit are sold in Southeast Asian markets and other local markets 

across the tropics. Florida fruit is marketed locally and shipped to 

northern and eastern U.S. markets. Fruit is used as a specialty item 

in North American restaurants. Small cakes of latex are exported.

Sapote, black Fruit are marketed in Mexico.

Sapote, green Fruit and latex from the tree are commonly marketed in Central 

America.

Sapote, mamey Fresh fruit is sold in local markets throughout the tropics. Fruit can 

be shipped to distant markets. Fruit are exported from Mexico to the 

U.S. Frozen pulp is exported from Central America. Seeds are 

marketed in Central America and Mexico.

Sapote, white Sold in local markets and health food stores throughout Central 

America, Mexico, the USA (California, Florida, and Hawaii), South 

Africa, Australia, Southeast Asia, and New Zealand.

Screw-pine Fruit are sold fresh in local markets. Fruit juice and preserved food 

items are produced commercially in the Marshall Islands. Leaves 

and crafts weaved from the tree are sold in local markets; Pandanus 

julianettii fruit and nuts are sold in highland markets.

Soncoya Fruit is sold in local markets.

Soursop Fruit is widely commercialized across Tropical America. Sold in the 

local markets around the world including Tropical America, Malaya, 

Southeast Asia, and the U.S.

Spanish lime Fruit is consumed locally; sold in local markets. The Dominican 

Republic is the main exporter.

Star apple Sold in local markets.

Sugar apple Fruit is sold in local village markets (especially in Brazil, India, and 

Taiwan). Fruit can be shipped by air to distant markets. Pulp is 

consumed fresh after cutting the fruit in half lengthwise and twisting 

the halves to separate. A spoon can be used to scoop out the flesh. 

The seeds and fibrous center should not be eaten. Pulp can be mixed 

with cream and sugar or wine; added to fruit salads. Pulp can be 

used to make juices, drinks, custards, fillings for cakes, shakes, ice 

cream, sherbets, and other desserts; pulp can be used in spicy dishes 
271

Commodity Availability in the World Marketplace

such as curry. Seed oil can be used for cooking purposes after being 

detoxified.

Sun Sapote Fruit is sold in native markets in Central and South America.

Tamarind-of-the-Indies Fruit is sold in local markets.

Velvet Tamarind Products made from the fruit (luk yee paste, coated luk yee, and 

dried fruit) are sold in markets, at railway and bus stations, and at 

many tourist centers in Thailand. Pulp is also sold for its medicinal 

purposes.

Wampi Fruit is sold in local markets. Immature fruit and roots are sold in 

Asian pharmacies.

Wild loquat The market is informal and there is no standard pricing system. 

Most fruit is sold along roadsides. Consumption and trading of the 

fruit occurs in both rural and urban areas. Many collectors and 

retailers exist, but few wholesalers exist. Wine made from the fruit 

is sold in local supermarkets.

AVAILABILITY OF THE TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT –

INEDIBLE PEEL PROPOSED CROP GROUP MEMBERS IN THE U.S. 

MARKETPLACE:

Most of the major tropical and subtropical fruits – inedible peel are widely 

available to the U.S. marketplace. The Packer (volume 110, No. 56, 2012) has identified 

eight commodity availability for avocado, banana, plantain, mango, papaya, and 

pineapple, pomegranate, and cactus pads. Tables 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, and 60, 

respectively in the U.S. marketplace. 

Avocados from Florida are available during January – March and then July –

December, whereas California is available April – December with a peak time April –

September (Table 54).

Table 53. Availability of Avocado in the U.S. Marketplace (A = Available, P = 

Peak). 

Location Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

California P P P P P P A A A

Florida A A A A A P P P P

Chile A A A A A A A A A A A A

Dominican 

Republic

A A A A A A A A A A A A

Mexico A A A A A A A A A A A A

New 

Zealand

A A A A A A A A A A A A
272

Bananas and plantains are available all year from Central or South American 

countries (Tables 54, 55).

Table: 54. Availability of Banana in the U.S. Marketplace (A = Available, P = Peak). 

Location Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Columbia A A A A A A A A A A A A

Costa Rica A A A A A A A A A A A A

Ecuador A A A A A A A A A A A A

Guatemala A A A A A A A A A A A A

Honduras A A A A A A A A A A A A

Table 55. Availability of Plantains in the U.S. Marketplace (A = Available, P = 

Peak). 

Location Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Columbia A A A A A A A A A A A A

Ecuador A A A A A A A A A A A A

Mexico A A A A A A A A A A A A

Venezuela A A A A A A A A A A A A

Mango is available all year from imports with Mexico having the longest availability

season (Table 56).

Table 56. Availability of Mango in the U.S. Marketplace (A = Available, P = Peak). 

Location Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Brazil A A A A

Ecuador A A A A

Guatemala A A A

Haiti A A A A

Peru A A A A

Mexico A A A A A A A A

Papaya is also available all year from Hawaii and Mexico and Brazil (Table 57).

Table 57. Availability of Papaya in the U.S. Marketplace (A = Available, P = Peak). 

Location Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Brazil A A A A A A A A A A A A

Hawaii A A A A A A A A A A A A

Mexico A A P P P P P A A A A A
273

Pineapples (Table 58) are also available all year from Hawaii and Mexico and Central 

America (Costa Rica and Honduras). 

Table 58. Availability of Pineapple in the U.S. Marketplace (A = Available, P = 

Peak). 

Location Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Hawaii A A A A A A A A A A A A

Costa Rica A A A A A A A A A A A A

Honduras A A A A A A A A A A A A

Mexico A A A A A A A A A A A A

In the US California produces all the pomegranates and they are available August –

January (Table 59). 

Table 59. Availability of Pomegranate in the U.S. Marketplace (A = Available, P = 

Peak). 

Location Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

California A A A A A A

Cactus pads are available during May through November (Table 60).

Table 60. Availability of Avocado and Cactus Pads in the U.S. Marketplace.

Commodity Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Avocados

Cactus Pads

Storage Life of Tropical Fruits with Inedible Peels:

Tropical fruits are unlike temperate fruits in that they are more difficult to store 

and deteriorate rapidly after harvest making them susceptible to storage diseases. 

Tropical fruits are classified as to ripening whether they are climacteric or nonclimacteric fruit. Climacteric fruits refer to fruits that have high respiration rate during 

the fruit's ripening and produce ethylene level. The climacteric fruits are those that are 

able to ripen after being picked. For example, avocado, banana, biriba, breadfruit, durian, 

jackfruit, mango, papaya, passionfruit, persimmon, rambutan, sapodilla, sapote, and 

soursop are climacteric. An example of climacteric fruits are bananas, which are picked 

and shipped green and then ripen at a later time. Nonclimacteric tropical inedible peel 

fruits include longan, lychee, pineapple, and pomegranate. With improvement in storage 

conditions some of the inedible peel tropical fruits such as durian and pineapple can be 

stored over 4 weeks (Table 61). 
274

Table 61. Approximate Storage Life of Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible 

Peel in Commercial Storage (Adapted Hardenburg, et al., 1986, Gast, 1991). 

Commodity Edible Peel (EP) or 

Inedible Peel (IP)

Approximate Storage Life With 

Proper Storage Temperatures

Atemoya IP 2 – 4 weeks

Avocado IP 2 – 8 weeks

Banana IP 1 – 4 weeks

Breadfruit IP 2 – 4 weeks

Cherimoya IP 2 – 4 weeks

Durian IP 6 – 8 weeks

Jackfruit IP 2 – 4 weeks

Longan IP 2 – 4 weeks

Lychee IP 3 – 5 weeks

Mango IP 2 – 3 weeks

Mangosteen IP 2 – 4 weeks

Papaya IP 1 – 3 weeks

Passionfruit IP 3 – 4 weeks

Pineapple IP 2 – 5 weeks

Plantain IP 3 weeks

Pomegranate IP 2 – 3 months

Rambutan IP 1 – 3 weeks

Sapodilla IP 2 weeks

Sapote, black; Sapote, 

mamey, and Sapote, white

IP 2 – 4 weeks

Soursop IP 1 – 2 weeks

Star apple IP 3 weeks

(http://www.producemarketguide.com/commodity_info/print.php?id=8).

CHANGES TO EPA DATABASES NEEDED FROM ESTABLISHMENT OF A 

NEW TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUI – INEDIBLE PEELCROP 

GROUP:

The establishment of a new Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Crop 

Group 24 will affect the need to update many Risk Assessment Models, Residue 

Chemistry Guidelines, OPP databases, and/or HED Standard Operating Procedures 

(SOP).

The affected EPA databases may include the following:

(1) Risk Assessment Models - The terminology in the Food Exposure Modules of our 

current Risk assessment Models from DEEM-FCID, LIFELINE, and CARES will need 

to be updated to reflect new terminology and the new Crop Group terminology.

(2) EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1000, Background), 

Table 1 Raw Agricultural and Processed Commodities and Feedstuffs Derived from 
275

Crops and EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1000, Background), 

EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1500, Crop Field Trials), Table 5 

Suggested Distribution of Field Trials by Region for Crops Requiring > 3 trials and Table 

6 Regional Distribution of Crop Production. 

Any differences between the EPA and NAFTA Crop Production Regions after the 

NAFTA Regions are updated will be addressed by the ICCGR Workgroup or by the EPA 

HED ChemSAC with attendance by Canada, PMRA and Mexico. The EPA Residue 

Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1500, Crop Field Trials) Table 5 Suggested 

Distribution of Field Trials by Region for Crops Requiring > 3 trials and Table 6 

Regional Distribution of Crop Production will be updated to reflect more recent crop 

production information. There is currently no conflict with Canada, and we expect no 

conflict with Canada since they do not produce tropical fruit crops.

(3) Health Effects Division Standard Operating Procedures: HED SOP 99.3 -–

“Translation of Monitoring Data” issued March 26, 1999. This policy provides guidance 

on translating pesticide monitoring data from one commodity to other similar 

commodities. Most of the monitoring data is from the USDA Pesticide Data Program 

(PDP) or the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The policy is based on the crop 

groupings in the 40 CFR 180.41. 

The policy does not have to be updated at this time, since it no tropical fruit 

inedible peel commodity is listed in this policy.

(4) HED SOP 99.6 - “Classification of Food Forms with Respect to Level of 

Blending” issued August 20, 1999. This SOP provides rationale and guidance to HED on 

revised criteria for inputting residue values and pesticide usage information into acute 

dietary exposure and risk assessments based on commodities. These revisions permit the 

Agency to more fully utilize data generated by the USDA Pesticide Data Program. 

Some of the Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Crop Group members are included in 

the HED SOP 99.6. See Table 62 below. Many members of the proposed tropical fruit 

group inedible peel such as avocado, banana, and plantain are considered non-blended 

commodities since they can be eaten as a single fruit and are listed as uncooked 

commodities. When canned or cooked such as passionfruit and pineapple they are 

considered partially blended since they are mixed from various sources. Other members 

not in the original SOP will need to be added to the HED SOP 99.6

Table 62. Classification of Food Forms with Respect to Level of Blending for the 

Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Group 24 – Inedible Peel Crop Group. (HED SOP 

99.6, April 20, 1999). 

COMMODITY CROP 

GROUP 

FOOD FORM CLASSIFICATION

Avocado O 11 - Uncooked NB – Not blended

Banana O 11 - Uncooked NB – Not blended

Banana O 12 – Cooked: NFS NB – Not blended

Banana O 13-- Baked NB – Not blended
276

COMMODITY CROP 

GROUP 

FOOD FORM CLASSIFICATION

Banana O 14 – Boiled NB – Not blended

Banana O 15 - Fried NB – Not blended

Banana O 31 – Canned: NFS PB - Partially blended

Banana O 32 – Canned: Cooked PB - Partially blended

Banana-dried O 13-- Baked PB - Partially blended

Banana-dried O 15 - Fried PB - Partially blended

Banana-dried O 18 - Dried PB - Partially blended

Banana-dried O 32 – Canned: Cooked PB - Partially blended

Banana-juice O 11 - Uncooked PB - Partially blended

Banana-juice O 31 – Canned: NFS PB - Partially blended

Breadfruit O 14 – Boiled NB – Not blended

Cactus pads (nopal) O 12 – Cooked: NFS NB – Not blended

Cherimoya O Cherimoya NB – Not blended

Jackfruit O Jackfruit NB – Not blended

Longan fruit O Longan NB – Not blended

Lychee - dried O Lychee - dried B - Blended

Lychee - fresh O Lychee - fresh NB – Not blended

Mamey O 11 - Uncooked NB – Not blended

Mango O 11 - Uncooked NB – Not blended

Mango O 12 – Cooked: NFS NB – Not blended

Mango O 31 – Canned: NFS PB - Partially blended

Nopales O 11 - Uncooked NB – Not blended

Nopales O 14 – Boiled NB – Not blended

Papaya – dried O 18 - Dried PB - Partially blended

Papaya – juice O Papaya - juice PB - Partially blended

Papaya - pulp O 11 - Uncooked NB – Not blended

Papaya - pulp O 12 – Cooked: NFS NB – Not blended

Passionfruit (grandilla) O 31 – Canned: NFS PB - Partially blended 

Passionfruit - juice O 11 - Uncooked PB - Partially blended

Passionfruit O 12 – Cooked: NFS PB - Partially blended

Passionfruit O 14 – Boiled PB - Partially blended

Passionfruit O 31 – Canned: NFS PB - Partially blended 

Pawpaw O Pawpaw NB – Not blended

Persimmon O 11 - Uncooked NB – Not blended

Pineapple - dried O 18 - Dried PB - Partially blended

Pineapple - juice O 11 - Uncooked PB - Partially blended

Pineapple - juice O 12 – Cooked: NFS PB - Partially blended

Pineapple - juice O 31 – Canned: NFS PB - Partially blended

Pineapple - Juice O 42 – Frozen: Cooked PB - Partially blended

Pineapple – juice -

concentrate

O 12 – Cooked: NFS PB - Partially blended

Pineapple – juice -

concentrate

O 31 – Canned: NFS PB - Partially blended

Pineapple – juice -

concentrate

O 33 –Canned: Baked PB - Partially blended

Pineapple – juice -

concentrate

O 42 – Frozen: Cooked PB - Partially blended
277

COMMODITY CROP 

GROUP 

FOOD FORM CLASSIFICATION

Pineapple – peeled fruit O 11 - Uncooked NB – Not blended

Pineapple – peeled fruit O 12 – Cooked: NFS NB – Not blended

Pineapple – peeled fruit O 13-- Baked NB – Not blended

Pineapple – peeled fruit O 14 – Boiled NB – Not blended

Pineapple – peeled fruit O 31 – Canned: NFS PB - Partially blended

Pineapple – peeled fruit O 33 – Canned: Baked PB - Partially blended

Pineapple – peeled fruit O 41 – Frozen: NFS PB - Partially blended

Plantain – dried O Plantain - dried PB - Partially blended

Plantain – green O 15 - Fried NB – Not blended

Plantain - ripe O 11 - Uncooked NB – Not blended

Plantain - ripe O 14 – Boiled NB – Not blended

Plantain - ripe O 15 - Fried NB – Not blended

Pomegranate O 11 - Uncooked NB – Not blended

Sapodilla O Sapodilla NB – Not blended

Soursop O 11 - Uncooked NB – Not blended

Soursop - juice O Soursop - juice PB - Partially blended

Sugar apple O Sugar apple NB – Not blended

(5) HED SOP 2000.1 – “Guidance for Translation of Field Trial Data from 

Representative Commodities in the Crop Group Regulation to Other Commodities in 

Each Crop Group/Subgroup” issued September 12, 2000. 

There is no guidance in the SOP for the proposed Tropical and subtropical fruit –

inedible peel group 24 and its proposed subgroups. The proposed Tropical and 

subtropical fruit – inedible peel commodities will be listed below followed by a listing of 

the proposed crop subgroups for the Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel group: 

Proposed Crop Group 24: Tropical and subtropical fruit – inedible peel

Representative Commodities: Atemoya or sugar apple, avocado, banana or 

pomegranate, dragon fruit, lychee, passionfruit, and prickly pear

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Abiu Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Aisen Lychee

Akee apple Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Atemoya Atemoya

Avocado Avocado

Avocado, Guatemalan Avocado

Avocado, Mexican Avocado 

Avocado, West Indies Avocado 

Bacury Avocado 

Bael fruit Lychee

Banana Banana

Banana, dwarf Banana
278

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Binjai Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Biriba Atemoya or Sugar apple

Breadfruit Atemoya or Sugar apple 

Burmese grape Lychee

Canistel Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Cat's-eyes Lychee

Champedak Atemoya or Sugar apple

Cherimoya Atemoya or Sugar apple

Cupuacú Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Custard apple Atemoya or Sugar apple

Dragon fruit Dragon fruit

Durian Atemoya or Sugar apple

Elephant-apple Atemoya or Sugar apple

Etambe Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Granadilla Passionfruit

Granadilla, Giant Passionfruit

Ilama Atemoya

Ingá Lychee

Jackfruit Atemoya

Jatobá Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Karuka Atemoya or Sugar apple

Kei apple Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Langsat Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Lanjut Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Longan Atemoya or Sugar apple

Lucuma Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Lychee Lychee

Mabolo Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Madras-thorn Lychee

Mammy-apple Atemoya

Manduro Lychee

Mango Avocado

Mango, horse Avocado

Mango, Saipan Avocado

Mangosteen Avocado

Marang Atemoya or Sugar apple

Marmaladebox Atemoya or Sugar apple

Matisia Lychee

Mesquite Lychee

Mongongo, fruit Lychee

Monkey-bread-tree Atemoya or Sugar apple

Monstera Passionfruit

Nicobar-breadfruit Atemoya or Sugar apple

Paho Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Pandanus Atemoya or Sugar apple

Papaya Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Passionflower, winged-stem Passionfruit

Passionfruit Passionfruit

Passionfruit, banana Passionfruit

Passionfruit, purple Passionfruit

Passionfruit, yellow Passionfruit

Pawpaw, common Avocado or Banana
279

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Pawpaw, small-flower Lychee

Pelipisan Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Pequi Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Pequia Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Persimmon, American Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Pineapple Pineapple

Pitahaya Dragon fruit

Pitaya Dragon fruit

Pitaya, amarilla Dragon fruit

Pitaya Roja Dragon fruit

Pitaya, yellow Dragon fruit

Plantain Banana

Pomegranate Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Poshte Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Prickly pear Prickly pear

Prickly pear, Texas Prickly pear

Pulasan Atemoya or Sugar apple

Quandong Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Rambutan Atemoya or Sugar apple

Saguaro Prickly pear

Sapodilla Atemoya or Sugar apple

Sapote, black Avocado or Banana

Sapote, green Avocado or Banana

Sapote, mamey Atemoya or Sugar apple

Sapote, white Avocado or Banana

Sataw Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Satinleaf Lychee

Screw-pine Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Sierra Leone-tamarind Lychee

Soncoya Atemoya or Sugar apple

Soursop Atemoya or Sugar apple

Spanish lime Lychee

Star apple Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Sugar apple Atemoya or Sugar apple

Sun sapote Atemoya or Sugar apple

Tamarind-of-the-Indies Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Velvet tamarind Lychee

Wampi Lychee

White star apple Lychee

Wild loquat Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

_____________________________________________________________________

The proposed new translations of field trials from the representative commodities 

to other commodities in the Tropical and Subtropical Fruit – Inedible Peel Crop 

Subgroups would be as follows:

Tropical and Subtropical, Small Fruit, Inedible Peel Subgroup 24A

Representative Crop: Lychee
280

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Aisen Lychee

Bael fruit Lychee

Burmese grape Lychee

Cat's-eyes Lychee

Ingá Lychee

Lychee Lychee

Madras-thorn Lychee

Manduro Lychee

Matisia Lychee

Mesquite Lychee

Mongongo, fruit Lychee

Pawpaw, small-flower Lychee

Satinleaf Lychee

Sierra Leone-tamarind Lychee

Spanish lime Lychee

Velvet tamarind Lychee

Wampi Lychee

White star apple Lychee

_____________________________________________________________________

Tropical and Subtropical, Medium to Large Fruit, Smooth, Inedible Peel 

Subgroup 24B

Proposed Representative Crops: Avocado and Banana or 

Pomegranate

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Abiu Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Akee apple Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Avocado Avocado

Avocado, Guatemalan Avocado

Avocado, Mexican Avocado 

Avocado, West Indies Avocado 

Bacury Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Banana Banana

Banana, dwarf Banana

Binjai Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Canistel Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Cupuacú Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Etambe Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Jatobá Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Kei apple Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Langsat Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate 

Lanjut Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Lucuma Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Mabolo Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Mango Avocado

Mango, horse Avocado

Mango, Saipan Avocado
281

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Mangosteen Avocado

Paho Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Papaya Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Pawpaw, common Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Pelipisan Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Pequi Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Pequia Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Persimmon, American Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Plantain Banana

Pomegranate Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Poshte Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Quandong Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Sapote, black Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Sapote, green Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Sapote, white Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Sataw Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Screw-pine Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Star apple Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Tamarind-of-the-Indies Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

Wild loquat Avocado or Banana or Pomegranate

_____________________________________________________________________

Tropical and Subtropical, Medium to Large Fruit, Rough or Hairy, Inedible Peel 

Subgroup 24C

Proposed Representative Crop: Atemoya or Sugar apple and 

Pineapple

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Atemoya Atemoya

Biriba Atemoya or Sugar apple

Breadfruit Atemoya or Sugar apple

Champedak Atemoya or Sugar apple

Cherimoya Atemoya or Sugar apple

Custard apple Atemoya or Sugar apple

Durian Atemoya or Sugar apple

Elephant-apple Atemoya or Sugar apple

Ilama Atemoya or Sugar apple

Karuka Atemoya or Sugar apple

Longan Atemoya or Sugar apple

Mammy-apple Atemoya or Sugar apple

Marang Atemoya or Sugar apple

Marmaladebox Atemoya or Sugar apple

Monkey-bread-tree Atemoya or Sugar apple

Nicobar-breadfruit Atemoya or Sugar apple

Pandanus Atemoya or Sugar apple

Pineapple Pineapple

Pulasan Atemoya or Sugar apple

Rambutan Atemoya or Sugar apple
282

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Sapodilla Atemoya or Sugar apple

Sapote, mamey Atemoya or Sugar apple

Soncoya Atemoya or Sugar apple

Soursop Atemoya or Sugar apple

Sugar apple Sugar apple

Sun sapote Atemoya or Sugar apple

_____________________________________________________________________

Tropical and Subtropical, Inedible Peel, Cactus Subgroup 24D

Proposed Representative Crop: Dragon fruit and Prickly pear

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Dragon fruit Dragon fruit

Pitahaya Dragon fruit

Pitaya Dragon fruit

Pitaya, amarilla Dragon fruit

Pitaya Roja Dragon fruit

Pitaya, yellow Dragon fruit

Prickly pear Prickly pear

Prickly pear, Texas Prickly pear

Saguaro Prickly pear

_____________________________________________________________________

Tropical and Subtropical, Inedible Peel, Vine Subgroup 24E

Proposed Representative Crop: Passionfruit

CROP GROUP COMMODITY REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

Granadilla Passionfruit

Granadilla, Giant Passionfruit

Monstera Passionfruit

Passionflower, winged-stem Passionfruit

Passionfruit Passionfruit

Passionfruit, banana Passionfruit

Passionfruit, purple Passionfruit

Passionfruit, yellow Passionfruit

_____________________________________________________________________

(6) HED Dry Matter Database will be updated to add the Table below:
283

Table 63. Health Effects Division Dry Matter and Seeding Rate Database. Tropical and 

Subtropical Fruit Inedible Peel (IP) Crop Groups. Prepared by Dr’s. NG and B. A. 

Schneider, 2006, 2012.

Commodity % Dry Matter

Abiu 18.5

Acerola 18.1

Almondette 97 (kernels)

Atemoya 21.3, 28.5

Avocado 20.3, 26.8, 27.5

Avocado, California 27.7

Avocado, Florida 21.2

Banana 18.0

Banana, dehydrated 86.3

Biriba 22.8

Breadfruit 28.1, 29.4, 30.0

Burmese grape 45.6

Cactus 8.0, 8.9

Cactus, prickly pear 12.4, 14.4, 17.0, 19.0

Canistel 39.4, 42.8

Cherimoya 23.4, 26.0, 26.5, 28.4, 31.3

Date, dried fruit 76.0, 77.0

Durian 8.9

Feijoa 13.0, 13.4

Fig 20.8, 21.0, 22.0

Fig, dried fruit 72.0, 76.0

Green sapote 30.0, 32.0

Guava 14.0, 14.9

Indian gooseberry 17.8, 22.9

Jaboticaba 12.9

Jackfruit 26.6, 27.5, 28.0

Jambolan 13.6, 15.5

Jujube 21.0, 22.0

Jujube, dried 80.3

Karanda 18.2

Longan 17.0, 17.2

Longan, dried 82.3

Lucuma 28.7, 35.2 

Lychee 15.2, 17.0, 18.0,18.1, 18.2, 23.0, 23.4

Lychee, dried 72.1, 77.0, 77.7

Mamey sapote 27.0

Mango 14.5, 15.0, 15.5, 18.3, 22.0

Mango, puree 14.0, 33.0

Mangosteen 84.0

Mabolo 14.0

Mombin, Malayan 19.7

Monkey jack 18.0

Monstera 22.1

Natal plum 16.0

Olive 20.0

Olive, oil 0.00

Otaheite gooseberry 10.4

Papaya 8.4, 11.0, 11.3, 13.3, 13.9, 14.0, 15.2

Passionfruit 14.4, 15.1, 16.8, 17.0, 17.2
284

Commodity % Dry Matter

Pawpaw 23.4

Persimmon 20.0

Persimmon, Japanese 22.9

Pineapple 13.0, 13.5, 14.0, 14.5

Pineapple, bran 87.0

Pineapple, juice 14.0, 14.5

Pineapple, process residue 25.0

Plantain, without peel 35.0

Pomegranate 19.0

Rambutan 17.0, 18.0

Rose apple 16.8

Sapodilla 22.0

Soursop 18.9, 19.9

Star apple 14.3, 21.5 

Starfruit 9.0, 10.0

Sugar apple 26.5

Surinam cherry 19.2

Tamarind 68.6, 79.1 (pulp)

COMMODITY DEFINITIONS [(40 CFR § 180.1(g)]:

Currently there are two established commodity definitions [(40 CFR § 180.1(g)]

which apply to the proposed for tropical and subtropical fruits – inedible peel group. 

They are banana and sugar apple (Table 64). The tropical fruits while having no crop 

group have had to set tolerances on a case by case basis. Before the Tropical and 

subtropical fruit – inedible peel group proposal, to help the U.S. tropical fruit growers, 

and to facilitate residue data generation and tolerance establishment on tropical and 

subtropical fruits, USDA IR-4 requested commodity definitions for avocado, lychee, 

papaya, and an update to sugar apple and ChemSAC approved these commodity

definitions in 1998 (Schneider, B.A. 1998b, c, d, and e). The six proposed new or revised 

commodity definitions will be discussed below in this analysis and is shown in Tables 65 

and 66 in the Commodity Definition Section of this analysis. Except for the case of the 

established commodity definition for banana and sugar apple, ChemSAC approved 

commodity definition for avocado and it has been successful in establishing 36 tolerances 

for avocado, papaya, caimito (star apple), black sapote, mango, sapodilla, canistel, and 

mamey sapote (See Tables 36, 38, and 39). The definition for lychee has been successful 

in establishing 16 tolerances for lychee, longan, Spanish lime, pulasan, and rambutan

(Tables 37 and 43). The commodity definition for sugar apple has been successful in 

establishing ten tolerances for sugar apple, atemoya, custard apple, cherimoya, ilama, 

soursop, and biriba (Tables 41 and 44). Banana has 22 established tolerances (Table 39).

When the Tropical and subtropical fruit group - inedible peel is established the need for 

all the proposed tropical fruit commodity definitions except for banana and sugar apple 

will no longer be necessary. With the proposed established of the Tropical and 

subtropical fruit – inedible peel group 24, I recommend ChemSAC approve deleting 

the previously ChemSAC approved avocado, lychee and papaya commodity 

definitions under 40 CFR Part 180.1(g) because each of these commodities are listed 

separately as members of the new proposed Tropical and subtropical fruit – inedible 
285

peel crop group, as well as members of crop subgroups. Since these three 

commodity definitions were not published in the Federal Register there is no issue 

deleting them.

Table 64. Current 40 CFR ' 180.1(g) Commodity Definitions for Banana and Sugar 

Apple. 

Tolerances and exemptions established for pesticide chemicals in or on the general category

of raw agricultural commodities listed in column A apply to the corresponding specific raw 

agricultural commodities listed in column B. However, a tolerance or exemption for a 

specific commodity in column B does not apply to the general category in column A.

A B

Banana Banana, plantain

Sugar apple (Annona squamosa L. (sugar apple, sweetsop, 

anon), and its hybrid A. squamosa L. x A. 

cherimoya M. (atemoya). Also true custard apple.

Table 65 lists the ChemSAC approved commodity definitions for the Tropical and 

subtropical fruit – inedible peel crop group for avocado, lychee, mango, and papaya, 

while Table 66 lists the USDA IR-4 proposed additions to the established commodity

definitions as well as a new definition for passionfruit. 

Table 65. ChemSAC Approved Commodity Definitions for Avocado, Lychee, 

Papaya, and Sugar Apple (Schneider, B.A. 1998b, c, d, e, Lychee. DP Barcode # 

D223335, Papaya and/or Avocado DP Barcode # D223307, Sugar Apple. DP Barcode # 

D222081).

General 

commodity 

Specific Commodities Included 

in Definition 

Comments All were approved by the 

HED ChemSAC.

Avocado 

Avocado, papaya, star apple, 

black sapote, mango, sapodilla, 

canistel, mamey sapote 

All crops have inedible peel; corresponds to 

Codex classification.

Lychee Lychee, longan, Spanish lime, 

rambutan, pulasan All crops in the Sapindaceae; inedible peel.

Papaya 

Papaya, star apple, black sapote, 

mango, sapodilla, canistel, 

mamey sapote

All crops have inedible peel; corresponds to 

Codex classification. Deletes avocado.

Sugar Apple 

Sugar apple, atemoya, 

cherimoya, custard apple, ilama, 

soursop, biriba 

All crops in the Annonacea; similar gross 

morphology; inedible peel [40CFR 

180.1(g)].
286

Table 66. USDA IR-4 Proposed Additions to the Established Commodity 

Definitions as well as a New Definition for Passionfruit.

A B

Avocado (Persea 

americana Mill.)

Avocado (Persea americana Mill.); Avocado, Guatemalan (Persea 

americana Mill. var. guatemalensis); Avocado, Mexican (Persea 

americana Mill. var. drymifolia (Schltdl. & Cham.) S. F. Blake); 

Avocado, West Indian (Persea americana var. americana)

Banana (Musa spp.) Banana (Musa spp.); Banana, Dwarf (Musa hybrids; Musa acuminata

Colla); Plantain (Musa x paradisiaca L. )

Passionfruit 

(Passiflora edulis

Sims)

Passionfruit (Passiflora edulis Sims); Passionfruit, Purple (Passiflora

edulis Sims forma edulis); Passionfruit, Yellow (Passiflora edulis Sims 

forma flavicarpa O. Deg.)

“

HED recommendations for revisions to commodity definitions both established 

and proposed as follows:

Commodity Definition Proposed Decision

Avocado Recommend not to establish this commodity definition 

since all of the commodities except mamey sapote will 

be a member of crop subgroup 24B - Tropical and 

subtropical, medium to large fruit, smooth inedible peel. 

Mamey sapote will become member of crop subgroup 

24C - Tropical and subtropical, medium to large fruit, 

rough or hairy, inedible peel. The other proposed 

avocado commodities listed in Table 66 will be listed as 

separate distinct members of the crop group and a 

definition will not be needed. 

Banana The proposed change to the banana commodity 

definition is to add dwarf banana and their scientific 

names. Because of the success of the current banana 

commodity definition we recommend not to add these 

two items because they are included in the current 

commodity definition or in the case of dwarf banana it is 

included as a distinct member of the Tropical and 

subtropical fruit – inedible peel. 

Lychee 

The commodity definition for lychee will no longer be 

needed, since lychee will be the representative 

commodity for crop subgroup 24A - Tropical and 

subtropical, small fruit, inedible peel subgroup. Several 

of the commodities including longan, rambutan, and 

pulusan will be in crop subgroup 24C - Tropical and 

subtropical, medium to large fruit, rough or hairy, 

inedible peel. 

Papaya

The commodity definition for papaya will also no longer 

be needed since it will become a member of crop 

subgroup 24B - Tropical and subtropical, medium to 

large fruit, smooth inedible peel with avocado as the 

representative commodity.
287

Commodity Definition Proposed Decision

Passionfruit

The proposed commodity definition for passionfruit is 

not necessary since crop subgroup 24E - Tropical and 

subtropical, vine subgroup with passionfruit as the 

representative commodity, and all the proposed 

commodities are in this subgroup.

Sugar Apple 

The addition of ilama and biriba to the established sugar 

apple definition is also not recommended since there are 

ten established tolerances based on the established 

definition and these two commodities are listed as 

members of the crop group and are in the same subgroup 

24C as sugar apple. Atemoya and sugar apple are 

proposed representative commodities to crop subgroup 

24C - Tropical and subtropical, medium to large fruit, 

rough or hairy, inedible peel subgroup. 

However the scientific names to the current 

commodity definition for sugar apple needs to be 

updated as follows:

Current sugar apple definition:

“Sugar apple = (Annona squamosa L. (sugar apple, 

sweetsop, anon), and its hybrid A. squamosa L. x A. 

cherimoya M. (atemoya). Also true custard apple.”

Revise Sugar apple definition to:

“Sugar apple = sugar apple (Annona squamosa L. and its 

hybrid atemoya (Annona cherimola Mill X A. squamosa 

L.) Also includes true custard apple (Annona reticulata

L.). Sweetsop and Anon are lookup terms for sugar 

apple”.

TOLERANCE EXPRESSION GUIDANCE:

Until the Federal Register Notice is issued revising the Crop Group Regulation to 

establish a new crop group 24 for Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Crops – Inedible Peel, 

with three new crop subgroups the commodities approved for the crop group will have to 

be listed as separate commodities at the same tolerance level as the representative 

commodity for the group. This also applied to the new Crop subgroups, the individual 

commodities will have to be listed separately with each at the same tolerance level. 

When ChemSAC approves the Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Group 24 – Inedible Peel, 

the Risk Integration, Minor Use, and Emergency Response Branch (RIMUERB) of the 

Registration Division with their agreement can immediately implement the amended 

Crop Group with new tolerance expressions located in the Section F submissions. The 

following tolerance expression examples will provide an expedited way to establish 

tolerances in or on Tropical and subtropical fruit – inedible peel crops, especially for new 
288

reduced risk pesticides, without requiring additional residue data for all the crops noted. 

This will create a practice in the United States which is already formalized in Canada and 

promote international harmonization. Several tolerance expression examples for 

guidance purposes for use by RIMUERB and HED reviewers will be listed below:

Example 1. What is the tolerance expression for the new Tropical and Subtropical Fruit 

Crop 24 – Inedible Peel?

Answer to Example 1:

The tolerance expression for the new Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Group 24 – Inedible 

Peel will be “Fruit, tropical and subtropical fruit – inedible peel, group 24.”

Example 2. How will the Crop group and subgroups appear in the Federal Register for 

the proposed crop group regulation [40CFR 180.41(c)]. This example is for the Field and 

External Affairs Division (FEAD) and Registration Division (RD) use in preparing the 

new Federal Register Regulation. The example follows the same format as the current 

Crop Grouping Regulation Federal Register Notice (FR 60, No.95, 5/17/95, 26626-26643

Answer to Example 2:

“Crop Group 24: Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Crop Group – Inedible Peel”.

Representative commodities. Atemoya or Sugar apple, Avocado, Banana or Pomegranate, Dragon fruit, 

Passionfruit, Pineapple, and Prickly pear.

Table. The following Table 1 lists all the commodities listed in Crop Group 24 and identifies the related 

crop subgroups and includes cultivars, varieties and/or hybrids of these commodities.

Commodities Related crop subgroups

Abiu, Pouteria caimito (Ruiz & Pav.) Radlk 24B

Aisen, Boscia senegalensis (Pers.) Lam. 24A

Akee apple, Blighia sapida K.D. Koenig 24B

Atemoya, Annona cherimola Mill. X A. squamosa L. 24C

Avocado, Persea americana Mill. 24B

Avocado, Guatemalan, Persea americana Mill. var. guatemalensis 24B

Avocado, Mexican, Persea americana Mill. var. drymifolia (Schltdl. & 

Cham.) S. F. Blak

24B

Avocado, West Indian, Persea americana var. americana 24B

Bacury, Platonia insignis Mart. 24B

Bael fruit, Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa 24A

Banana, Musa spp. 24B

Banana, dwarf, Musa hybrids; Musa acuminata Colla 24B

Binjai, Mangifera caesia Jack 24B

Biriba, Annona mucosa Jacq. 24C

Breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg 24C

Burmese grape, Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. 24A

Canistel, Pouteria campechiana (Kunth) Baehni 24B
289

Commodities Related crop subgroups

Cat's-eyes, Dimocarpus longan Lour. subsp. malesianus Leenh. 24A

Champedak, Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr. 24C

Cherimoya, Annona cherimola Mill. 24C

Cupuacú, Theobroma grandiflorum (Willd. Ex Spreng.) K. Schum. 24B

Custard apple, Annona reticulata L. 24C

Dragon fruit, Hylocereus undatus (Haw.) Britton & Rose 24D

Durian, Durio zibethinus L. 24C

Elephant-apple, Limonia acidissima L. 24C

Etambe, Mangifera zeylanica (Blume) Hook. F. 24B

Granadilla, Passiflora ligularis Juss. 24E

Granadilla, Giant, Passiflora quadrangularis L. 24E

Ilama, Annona macroprophyllata Donn. Sm. 24C

Ingá , Inga vera Willd. subsp. affinis (DC.) T. D. Penn. 24A

Jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. 24C

Jatobá, Hymenaea courbaril L. 24B

Karuka, Pandanus julianettii Martelli 24C

Kei apple, Dovyalis caffra (Hook. F. & Harv.) Warb. 24B

Langsat, Lansium domesticum Corrêa 24B

Lanjut, Mangifera lagenifera Griff. 24B

Longan, Dimocarpus longan Lour. 24C

Lucuma, Pouteria lucuma (Ruiz & Pav.) Kuntze 24B

Lychee, Litchi chinensis Sonn. 24A

Mabolo, Diospyros blancoi A. DC. 24B

Madras-thorn, Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. 24A

Mammy-apple, Mammea americana L. 24C

Manduro, Balanites maughamii Sprague 24A

Mango, Mangifera indica L. 24B

Mango, horse, Mangifera foetida Lour. 24B

Mango, Saipan, Mangifera odorata Griff. 24B

Mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana L. 24B

Marang, Artocarpus odoratissimus Blanco 24C

Marmaladebox, Genipa americana L. 24C

Matisia, Matisia cordata Humb. & Bonpl. 24A

Mesquite, Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. 24A

Mongongo, fruit, Schinziophyton rautanenii (Schinz) Radcl.-Sm 24A

Monkey-bread-tree, Adansonia digitata L. 24C

Monstera, Monstera deliciosa Liebm. 24E

Nicobar-breadfruit, Pandanus leram Jones ex Fontana 24C

Paho, Mangifera altissima Blanco 24B

Pandanus, Pandanus utilis Bory 24C

Papaya, Carica papaya L. 24B

Passionflower, Winged-stem, Passiflora alata Curtis 24E

Passionfruit, Passiflora edulis Sims 24E

Passionfruit, Banana, Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima (Kunth) HolmNiels. & P. Jorg.24E

Passionfruit, Purple, Passiflora edulis Sims forma edulis 24E

Passionfruit, Yellow, Passiflora edulis Sims forma flavicarpa O. Deg. 24E

Pawpaw, Common, Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal 24B

Pawpaw, Small-flower, Asimina parviflora (Michx.) Dunal 24A

Pelipisan, Mangifera casturi Kosterm. 24B

Pequi, Caryocar brasiliense Cambess 24B

Pequia, Caryocar villosum (Aubl.) Pers. 24B

Persimmon, American, Diospyros virginiana L. 24B
290

Commodities Related crop subgroups

Pineapple, Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. 24C

Pitahaya, Hylocereus polyrhizus(F. A. C. Weber) Britton & Rose 24D

Pitaya, Hylocereus sp. Including H. megalanthus, H. ocamponis and H. 

polychizus

24D

Pitaya Amarilla, Hylocereus triangularis Britton & Rose 24D

Pitaya Roja, Hylocereus ocamponis (Salm-Dyck) Britton & Rose 24D

Pitaya, Yellow, Hylocereus megalanthus (K. Schum. ex Vaupel) Ralf Bauer 24D

Plantain, Musa x paradisiaca L. 24B

Pomegranate, Punica granatum L. 24B

Poshte, Annona liebmanniana Baill. 24B

Prickly pear, Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. 24D

Prickly pear, Texas, Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck ex Engelm. var.

lindheimeri (Engelm.) B. D. Parfitt & Pinkava

24D

Pulasan, Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Leenh. 24C

Quandong, Santalum acuminatum (R. Br.) DC. 24B

Rambutan, Nephelium lappaceum L. 24C

Saguaro, Carnegiea gigantea (Engelm.) Britton & Rose 24D

Sapodilla, Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen 24C

Sapote, black, Diospyros digyna Jacq. 24B

Sapote, green, Pouteria viridis (Pittier) Cronquist 24B

Sapote, mamey, Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H.E. Moore & Stearn 24C

Sapote, white, Casimiroa edulis La Llave & Lex 24B

Sataw, Parkia speciosa Hassk. 24B

Satinleaf, Chrysophyllum oliviforme L. 24A

Screw-pine, Pandanus tectorius Parkinson 24B

Sierra Leone-tamarind, Dialium guineense Willd. 24A

Soncoya, Annona purpurea Moc. & Sessé ex Dunal 24C

Soursop, Annona muricata L. 24C

Spanish lime, Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq. 24A

Star apple, Chrysophyllum cainito L. 24B

Sugar apple, Annona squamosa L. 24C

Sun Sapote, Licania platypus (Hemsl.) Fritsch 24C

Tamarind-of-the-Indies, Vangueria madagascariensis J. F. Gmel. 24B

Velvet Tamarind, Dialium indum L. 24A

Wampi, Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels 24A

White star apple, Chrysophyllum albidum G. Don 24A

Wild loquat, Uapaca kirkiana Müll. Arg. 24B

Cultivars, varieties, and /or hybrids of these commodities.

Table. The following Table 2 identifies the crop subgroups for Crop Group 24, specifies the representative 

commodities for each subgroup and lists all the commodities included in each subgroup.

TABLE 2 -Crop Group 24: Subgroup Listing

Representative commodities Commodities

Crop subgroup 24A: Tropical and subtropical, 

small fruit, inedible peel subgroup.

Lychee. Aisen; Bael fruit; Burmese grape; Cat’s eyes; 

Ingá; Lychee; Madras-thorn; Manduro; Matisia; 

Mesquite; Mongongo, fruit; Pawpaw, smallflower; Satinleaf; Sierra Leone-tamarind; Spanish 

lime; Velvet tamarind; Wampi; White star apple;
291

Representative commodities Commodities

cultivars, varieties, and/or hybrids of these.

Crop subgroup 24B: Tropical and subtropical, 

medium to large fruit, smooth, inedible peel 

subgroup.

Avocado and Banana or Pomegranate. Abiu; Akee apple; Avocado; Avocado, 

Guatemalan; Avocado, Mexican; Avocado, West 

Indian; Bacury; Banana; Banana, dwarf; Binjai; 

Canistel; Cupuacú; Etambe; Jatobá; Kei apple; 

Langstat; Lanjut; Lucuma; Mabolo; Mango; 

Mango, horse; Mango, Saipan; Mangosteen; Paho; 

Papaya; Pawpaw, common; Pelipisan; Pequi; 

Pequia; Persimmon, American; Plantain; 

Pomegranate; Poshte; Quandong; Sapote, black; 

Sapote, green; Sapote, white; Sataw; Screw-pine; 

Star apple; Tamarind-of-the-Indies; Wild loquat; 

cultivars, varieties, and/or hybrids of these.

Crop subgroup 24C: Tropical and subtropical, 

medium to large fruit, rough or hairy, inedible peel 

subgroup.

Atemoya or sugar apple and pineapple. Atemoya; Biriba; Breadfruit; Champedak; 

Cherimoya; Custard apple; Durian; Elephantapple; Ilama; Jackfruit; Karuka; Longan; 

Mammy-apple; Marmalade-box; Marang; 

Monkey-bread tree; Nicobar-breadfruit; Pandanus; 

Pineapple; Pulasan; Rambutan; Sapodilla; Sapote, 

mamey; Soncoya; Soursop; Sugar apple; Sun 

sapote; cultivars, varieties, and/or hybrids of these.

Crop subgroup 24D: Tropical and subropical, 

inedible peel, cactus subgroup.

Dragon fruit and Prickly pear. Dragon fruit; Pitahaya; Pitaya; Pitaya Amarilla; 

Pitaya Roja; Pitaya, yellow; Prickly pear; Prickly 

pear, Texas; Saguaro; cultivars, varieties, and/or 

hybrids of these.

Crop subgroup 24E: Tropical and subtropical, 

inedible peel, vine subgroup.

Passionfruit. Granadilla; Granadilla, Giant; Monstera; 

Passionflower, Winged-stem; Passionfruit; 

Passionfruit, banana; Passionfruit, purple; 

Passionfruit, yellow; cultivars, varieties, and/or 

hybrids of these.

EPA FOOD AND FEED COMMODITY VOCABULARY FOR THE TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL 

FRUIT INEDIBLE PEEL CROP GROUP:

The following terms for the tropical and subtropical fruit inedible peel commodities will be 

incorporated to the EPA Food and Feed Commodity Database (http://www.epa.govopp/foodfeed). The 

Table 67 below is identical to the current Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary format. A search of the 

lookup terms will link to the EPA preferred tolerance/commodity term, and the base crop/animal term is the 

specific crop animal terms associated with the preferred term. Until the Federal Register Notice for the 

Crop Group is final, the Crop Group designation on each term will be listed as no crop group and given the 

crop group 99 for the present. 
292

Table 67. EPA FOOD AND FEED COMMODITY VOCABULARY

SEARCH OR LOOKUP TERM FOR 

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT 

INEDIBLE PEEL COMMODITIES

PREFERRED TOLERANCE 

TERM

BASE CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

Abiu; caimito; caimo; cauje Abiu Abiu

Aisen Aisen Aisen

Akee apple; akee; akí; seso vegetal; ackee; akée; 

fisanier; Akibaum; castanheiro-da-África; huevo 

vegetal

Akee apple Akee apple 

Avocado; Alligator pear, Aguacate; abacate Avocado Avocado

Avocado, Guatemalan Avocado, Guatemalan Avocado, Guatemalan

Avocado, Mexican Avocado, Mexican Avocado, Mexican

Avocado, West Indian; avocado-pear; lowland 

avocado; Trapp avocado; avocatier; Avocadobaum; 

Avocadopalme; abokado; aguacate; palto

Avocado, West Indian Avocado, West Indian

Bacury; bacuri; parcouri; bacouré Bacury Bacury

Bael fruit; bael; baeltree; belfruit-tree; Bengalquince; golden-apple; Indian baelfruit; mu ju; bel 

indien; Belbaum; beli; bela; milva

Bael fruit Bael fruit

Banana; Banana, dwarf; Banano, Guineo niño, 

bungulan; bananier; bananier nain; Banane; 

Zwergbanane; banana-nanica; nanicão; plátano; 

Cavendish banana; Chinese banana

Banana Banana

Binjai; wani; beluno Binjai Binjai

Biriba; wild sweetsop; cachiman montagne;

cachiman crème; Schleimapfel; biribarana; anona; 

cachimán; candón

Biriba Biriba

Breadfruit; pana de pepitas; Breadnut; Fruta de 

pan; arbre á pain; Brotfruchtbaum; fruta-pão; árbol 

del pan

Breadfruit Breadfruit

Burmese grape; baccaurea Burmese grape Burmese grape

Canistel; eggfruit-tree; yellow sapote Canistel Canistel

Cat’s-eyes; isau; mata kuching Cat’s-eyes Cat’s-eyes

Champedak; chempedak; campedak Champedak Champedak

Cherimoya; cherimoya; chirimólia; custard-apple; 

chérimolier; atemoya; cherimoya; chirimoyo

Cherimoya Cherimoya

Cupuaçú; copoasu; cupuassú; copoasú Cupuaçú Cupuaçú

Custard apple; anona; Ramphal; bullock’s-heart; 

ox-heart; annone reticule; coeur de boeuf; 

Netzannone; Ochsenherz; biribá; fruta-decondessa; fruta-do-conde; anona corazón; corazón 

de buey; mamán

Custard apple Custard apple

Dragon-fruit; belle-of-the-night; night-blooming 

cereus; pitahaya; queen-of-the-night; red pitaya; 

strawberry-pear; pitahaya rouge; pitaya; 

Distelbirne; chacam; chak-wob; junco tapatío; 

pitahaya dulce; pitahaya orejona; reina de la noche; 

tasajo; zacamb

Dragon-fruit Dragon-fruit

Durian; civet fruit; durianbaum; stinkfrucht; 

durião; durión

Durian Durian

Elephant-apple; Indian wood-apple; wood-apple Elephant-apple Elephant-apple

Etambe; wal ambe; kaddu-ma Etambe Etambe

Granadilla; Granada-china; sweet granadilla; 

granadilla; grenadille douce; süße Grenadille; 

maracujá; cranix

Granadilla Granadilla

Granadilla, Giant; maracujá-açú; grenadine; 

barbadine; Königs-Grenadille; Riesen-Grenadille; 

maracujá-mamão; maracujá-melão; maracujá-uaçu; 

badea; granadilla real

Granadilla, Giant Granadilla, Giant

Guirri; caxandó; coco da pria; seashore palm Guirri Guirri

Ilama; anona blanca; llama; perpauce Ilama Ilama

Ingá Ingá Ingá

Jackfruit; jack, jak; bo luo mi; jacquier; 

Jackfruchtbaum; Nangka; kathal; jaqueira; jaca; 

Jackfruit Jackfruit
293

SEARCH OR LOOKUP TERM FOR 

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT 

INEDIBLE PEEL COMMODITIES

PREFERRED TOLERANCE 

TERM

BASE CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

árbol del pan; jaqueiro

Jatobá ; mami-gum; Brazilian copal; jatoba; South 

American-locust; West Indian-locust; caroubier de 

la Guyane; courbaril; Heuschreckenbaum; jataí; 

jutaí; farinheira; jitaí; copal; curbaril; guapinol; 

paquio

Jatobá Jatobá

Karuka Karuka Karuka

Kei-apple; keiapfel; manzana cafre Kei apple Kei apple

Langsat; duku; langsep; lansium; longkong; 

Lansibaum; arbol-do-lanza; árbol de lanza; lanzón; 

lanzones

Langsat Langsat

Lanjut Lanjut Lanjut

Longan; Mamoncillo chino; Dragon’s eye; 

longanier; oeil de dragon; Longanbaum; 

Longanbeere; mata kucing; longán

Longan Longan

Lúcuma; lucmo; lúcumo Lúcuma Lúcuma

Lychee; leechee; litchi; cerisier de Chine; litchi de 

Chine; Litchi; Litchibaum; Litchipflanze; lici; 

litchi; lichia; lichee; laichi

Lychee Lychee

Mabolo; mabola-tree; velvet persimmon; velvetapple; yi se shi; pommier velours; pécego-de-Índia; 

camagón

Mabolo Mabolo

Madras-thorn; blackbead; camachile; guayamochil;

Madrasthorn; Manila-tamarind; sweet-inga; pois 

sucré, Camambilarinde, opiuma, guamúchil, 

huamúchil, madre de fleche 

Madras-thorn Madras-thorn

Mammy-apple; abricó; mammee-apple; tropicalapricot; abricotier d’ Amérique; abricotier des 

Antilles; Mammiapfel; abricó-de-São-Domingos; 

abricó-do-Pará; abricó-selvagem; abricoteiro; 

albricoque; mamey

Mammy-apple Mammy-apple

Manduro; torchwood; y-thorn torchwood; nulo; 

mguguni; mkonga

Manduro Manduro

Mango; Mangga; mangue; manguier; Mangobaum; 

Mangopalme; mangueira; manga

Mango Mango

Mango, horse; bachang mango; gray mango Mango, horse Mango, horse

Mango, Saipan [(kuwini, kuweni, manguier 

odorant, bembem, kuini, kweni

Mango, Saipan Mango, Saipan

Mangosteen; king’s-fruit; mangostan; mang ji shi; 

mangoustanier; Mangostanbaum; Mangostane; 

manggis; mangostão; mangostán

Mangosteen Mangosteen

Marang Marang Marang

Marmalade-box; genip; genipap; confiture de 

singe; génipa; caruto; genipa; huito; irayol; yagua

Marmalade-box Marmalade-box

Matisia; South American sapote; sapote; sapotillo; 

zapote

Matisia Matisia

Mesquite; ironwood; bayarone; mesquitebaum; 

algaroba; prosópis; algarroba; algarrobo; cují negro

Mesquite Mesquite

Mongongo, fruit; mangetti; manketti; mogongo; 

mugongo; mungomo; omunkhete

Mongongo, fruit Mongongo, fruit

Monkey-bread-tree; baobab; dead-rat-tree; 

calebassier du Sénégal; pain de singe; 

Affenbrotbaum; imbondeiro; baobá

Monkey-bread-tree Monkey-bread-tree

Monstera; split-leaf philodendron; Fruit-salad 

plant; Window leaf; cut-leaf-philodendron; 

Mexican-breadfruit; Swiss-cheese-plant; ceriman; 

Philodendron; banana-de-macaco; banana-dobrejo; banana-do-mato; harpoon; piñanona 

monstera

Monstera Monstera

Muriti; tree-of-life; Morichepalme; Yurumabrot; 

ite palm; moriche; aguaje;

Muriti Muriti

Nicobar-breadfruit Nicobar-breadfruit Nicobar-breadfruit
294

SEARCH OR LOOKUP TERM FOR 

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT 

INEDIBLE PEEL COMMODITIES

PREFERRED TOLERANCE 

TERM

BASE CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

Paho; pahutan Paho Paho

Palmyra Palm; boraço; boraso; borasse; broção; 

doub palm; Lontaro; palma palmira; palmira; toddy 

palm; Palmyrapalme; rônier; tala palm; wine palm

Palmyra Palm Palmyra Palm 

Pandanus; baquois; vaquois Pandanus Pandanus

Papaya; Papayo; Mamao; pawpaw; papayer; 

Melonenbaum; Papajabaum; Papajapflanze; 

mamão; papaia; mammon; papayero

Papaya Papaya

Passionflower, Winged-stem; maracujá-doce; 

maracujá-grande; maracutão; pasionaria

Passionflower, Winged-stem Passionflower, Winged-stem

Passionfruit; Parcha, Ceibey, Passion fruit, purple 

granadilla, grenadella, maracujá, maracujá-comum, 

maracujá-de-comer, maracujá-de-ponche, 

maracujá-do-mato, maracujá-doce, maracujámirim, maracujá-peroba, maracujá-preto, 

maracujá-redondo

Passionfruit Passionfruit

Passionfruit, banana; Banana parssionfruit; curuba; 

banana passionflower; banana poka; bananadilla; 

piesangdilla; tacso; Bananen-Passionsblume; 

curuba de Castilla; tacso de Castilla; tumbo

Passionfruit, banana Passionfruit

Passionfruit, purple; Purple passionfruit; Purple 

granadilla; grandilla, purple

Passionfruit, purple Passionfruit

Passionfruit, yellow; Yellow passionfruit Passionfruit, yellow Passionfruit

Pawpaw; dog-banana; Indian-banana; pawpawtree; 

asiminier; Papau; asimina

Pawpaw, common Pawpawt

Pawpaw, small flower; dwarf pawpaw; small-fruit Pawpaw, small flower Pawpaw, small flower

Pelipisan; kastooree Pelipisan Pelipisan

Pequi ; piquiá; almendra de Brasil Pequi Pequi

Pequiá; pequi; almendro Pequiá Pequiá

Persimmon, American; common persimmon; 

plaqueminier d'Amérique; Persimone; caqui de 

Virginia; caqui silvestre

Persimmon, American Persimmon, American

Pineapple; ananas;, Ananas; abacaxi; ananás; 

abacaxí-do-mato; ananás-selvagem; gravatá; ananá, 

piña, piña de América, piña tropical

Pineapple Pineapple

Pitahaya; cardeiro-trepador Pitahaya Pitahaya

Pitaya Pitaya Pitaya

Pitaya amarilla; queen-of-the-night; cierge liane Pitaya Amarilla Pitaya Amarilla

Pitaya Roja; roja pitaya Pitaya Roja Pitaya Roja

Pitaya, yellow; Yellow pitaya Pitaya, yellow Pitaya, yellow

Plantain; French plantain; bananier; Banane; 

Mehlbanane; banana-caturra; banana-da-terra; 

banana-de-São-Tomé; banana-macã; banana-ouro; 

banana-prata; banano

Plantain Plantain

Pomegranate; granada, grenadier, 

Granatapfelbaum, Granatapfelstrauch, zakuro, 

romanzeiro, romã, romã-de-flor-dobrada, romeira, 

romeira-da-granada, granado, mangrano

Pomegranate Pomegranate

Poshte Poshte Poshte

Prickly pear; Prickly-pear; pear, prickly; chumbo; 

Barbary-fig; Indian-fig; Indian-fig prickly-pear; 

mission cactus; mission prickly-pear; smooth 

mountain prickly-pear; smooth prickly-pear; 

spineless cactus; sweet prickly-pear; tuberous 

prickly-pear; tuna cactus; boereturksvy; 

grootdoringturksvy; figuier d’Inde; figuier de 

Barbarie; Feigenkaktus; figo-da-Índia; figo-daEspanha; figueira-da-Barbária; jamaracá; 

jurumbeba; orelha-de-onça; palma-de-gado; palmagigante; chumba; chumbera; higuera; nopal de 

Castilla; nopal pelón; tuna; tuna de Castilla; tuna 

mansa

Prickly pear Pricklypear

Prickly pear, Texas; Texas prickly pear Prickly pear, Texas Prickly pear, Texas

Pulasan; kapoelasan Pulasan Pulasan

Quandong; sweet quandong Quandong Quandong
295

SEARCH OR LOOKUP TERM FOR 

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUIT 

INEDIBLE PEEL COMMODITIES

PREFERRED TOLERANCE 

TERM

BASE CROP/ANIMAL 

TERM

Rambutan; litchi chevelu; ramboutan; rambutão Rambutan Rambutan

Saguaro; giant cactus; sage-of-the-desert Saguaro Saguaro

Salak; salak palm; snakefruit take out later Salak Salak

Sapodilla; chicle; chico sapote; naseberry; sapote; 

sapotier; sapotillier; Breiapfelbaum; 

Kaugummibaum; Sapodillbaum; sabojira; níspero; 

zapote; zapotillo

Sapodilla Sapodilla

Sapote, black; black sapote; black persimmon; 

barbaquois; Ebenholzbaum; schwarze Sapote; 

sapote negro; zapote negro

Sapote, black Sapote, black

Sapote, green; green sapote; injerto; raxtul; faisan Sapote, green Sapote, green

Sapote, mamey; mamey sapote; mammee sapote; 

marmalade-plum; marmalade-tree; große; mameycolorado; sapote, zapote; zapote mamey

Sapote, mamey Sapote, mamey

Sapote, white; casimiroa; Mexican-apple; pomme 

mexicaine; sapote blanche; Cochilsapote; weiße 

Sapote; sapoti; matasano; zapote blanco

Sapote, white Sapote, white

Sataw; petai; sator sataw sataw

Satinleaf; wild star-apple, caimitillo satinleaf satinleaf

Screw-pine; screwpine; pandan; textile screw-pine; 

thatch screw-pine; Veitch screw-pine; baquois; 

vacouet; vacquois; Pandanuspalme; hala; pândano; 

bacua

Screw-pine Screw-pine

Sierra Leone-tamarind Sierra Leone-tamarind Sierra Leone-tamarind 

Soncoya; atier; tête de négre; anona rosada; 

catagüire; manirote; turagua; toreta

Soncoya Soncoya

Soursop; prickly custard apple; cachiman épineux; 

corossol épineux; Sauersack; Stachelannone; 

graviola; araticum-grande; araticum-manso; 

coração-de-rainha; jaca-de-pobre; jaca-do-Pará; 

guanábana; guanábano

Soursop Soursop

Spanish-lime; genip; honeyberry; kenépier; 

quenette; Honigbeere; Quenepa; mamoncillo

Spanish-lime Spanish-lime

Star apple; caïmitier; Sternapfel; caimito; caimito 

blanco; caimito morado

Star apple Star apple

Sugar apple; Rinón; Sitaaphal; Sharifah; custardapple; sweetsop; annone écailleuse; pommecanelle; Rahmapfel; Süßsack; Schuppenannone;

Zuckerapfel; ata; fruta-do-conde; pinha; anon;

anona blanca; chirimoyo; fruta del conde

Sugar apple Sugar apple

Sun Sapote; sansapote Sun Sapote Sun Sapote

Tamarind-of-the-Indies; Spanish-tamarind; 

vavangue; voavanguier; tamarindo extranjero

Tamarind-of-the-Indies Tamarind-of-the-Indies

Velvet tamarind; tamarind-plum; Samttamarinde; 

keranji

Velvet tamarind Velvet tamarind

Wampi; Chinese clausena; wampee; whampi; 

huang pi

Wampi Wampi

White star apple White star apple White star apple

Wild loquat; masuku; mesange Wild loquat Loquat, wild

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Appendix I. Examples of Banana Varieties and Cultivars (Going Bananas, 24401 SW 

197 Avenue - Homestead, Florida 33031, (305) 247-0397).
308

Banana Variety Description

AEAE A beautiful variegated green & white plant that 

also has multicolored fruit. Usually cooked as a 

plantain, some also eat it very ripe as an out of 

hand fruit. Ht. 12-16ft.

AFRICAN RHINOHORN Height 10-12 feet. An unusual plantain that 

produces relatively few fruit but the size of 

each can weigh 2-3 pounds and be as long as 

12-20 inches or more. The pseudostem has a 

dark burgundy hue which gives rise to the term 

some call "African Red". A collector’s delight, 

especially when fruiting. Cold sensitive.

BALBISIANA The second of the primitive seeded varieties thought 

to be an ancestor to many modern day bananas and 

plantains. This hardy banana makes a nice 

landscape and collector variety. Height is about 14-

16 ft

BALONGKAUE Pronounced ball long coo is a cooking type which 

grows about 12 ft. tall. The fruit has a bluish/green 

outer appearance, with white flesh. Is a very sturdy 

and attractive plant that can be eaten out of hand 

when very ripe.

BASJOO This cool tolerant, seeded variety grows about 12 ft. 

tall, is solid light green and is a fast growing sturdy 

plant. It frequently sends out rhizomes 2-3 feet 

away from the corm. It has a golden-cream colored 

ovate inflorescence making it a very attractive 

acquisition. Becoming more popular in cooler 

regions for a tropical appearance.

BRAZILIAN One of the hardiest of the dessert bananas. The 

height varies on these varieties, may grow from 9ft -

14ft depending on growing conditions. Hardy and 

attractive plant. 

CARDABA A Philippine cooking variety that is a truly an 

attractive plant with a bluish hue to the fruit and 

very white pulp. The fruit is stubby and irregular in 

shape but can get quite large. Height 10-12 ft. 

COCCINEA Also known as uranoscopus This ornamental 

variety produces an erect inflorescence of brilliant 

red-orange color that lasts for weeks. Height 3-6 ft. 

Good for containerized growing in filtered light. 

CAVENDISH Both the Dwarf (5 ft.) and Giant (7-8 ft.) varieties 

produce wonderful tasting fruit as does the others in 

the Cavendish sub-group. A vigorous grower with 

wide green leaves. One of the more common and 
309

Banana Variety Description

popular growing varieties in the USA.

DWARF NAMWA Also known as pisang awak and other names 

throughout the world, this group of lady finger 

bananas produce large sized bunches of sweet, truly 

delicious, fruit that is prized in Indonesia and all 

over the world. Usually grows about 9-10 ft 

although may grow a little taller.

DWARF ORINOCO Named from the region in South America near the 

Orinoco river where they grow profusely, they are 

also called the horse banana or "burro". These 

angulated cooking bananas are also a tasty treat out 

of hand when fully ripe. Their versatility makes

them popular in many regions of the world. Height 

5-6 ft. dwarf & 12-14 ft. on the tall.

DWARF and RED TALL Known by many names in the world, (Cuban Red, 

Jamaican Red, Colorado, Indio, Macaboo) this very 

sweet lady finger fruit is most beautiful. It turns 

"sunset" colors when ripening from dark burgundy 

to orange, yellow-green and muted colors in 

between. The full bodied flavor and distinctive 

sweetness makes it worth the wait of 24 months or 

more to give fruit. The tall red, with a dark maroon 

pseudostem can grow 14-16 ft, the Dwarf version 

grows about 8-9 ft. The Red Tall and Dwarf Red 

are the same except for heights.

DOUBLE This beautiful Cavendish type has very wide, dark 

green leaves and produces a full sized fruit. Also 

called the Mahoi, the second generation produces 

multiple bunches of fruit, usually 2 but sometimes 

more. Height 5-6 ft.

ELE ELE A Hawaiian cooking variety that is known for its 

very dark pseudostem. Sometimes called the 

Hawaiian Black, it gets a purplish hue, especially in 

more acid volcanic type soil. Full sized fruit. Grows 

about 14 ft. tall. 

GOLDFINGER A rapid growing, mostly green plant producing a 

wonderful tasting, slightly sub-acid, refreshing fruit 

that gets 6-8 inches long or better. It is a very 

disease resistant, wind & cool tolerant plant that is 

easy to grow. In our area the ripening fruit does not 

get dark yellow, instead gives only a slight color 

change when mature so check it often when close to 

harvesting. Height 10-12 ft. 

FRENCH HORN This plantain is much favored in Ecuador and the 

West Indies; used as a staple in their diets. The 

slightly curved fruit is large and delicious, 

comparable to the commercial plantains that we 
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Banana Variety Description

know and adore. Height 12 ft.

GIANT PLANTAIN A taller version of the "Puerto Rican Dwarf 

Plantain". Both producing a superior fruit and 

commonly used for "maduros" and "tostones", a 

staple in the Caribbean and Hispanic cuisine. This is 

the one you find in the super market. Heights 12ft. 

and dwarf 8 ft. 

GOLDEN AROMATIC A Cavendish type sweet banana that has a fragrant 

aroma and gold ripe fruit. The full sized fruit 

produced from this wide leaved plant is a real taste 

treat. Height 10-12 ft.

GRAND NAIN The commercial variety that you can buy in the 

grocery store. The purchased ones are good but 

when you grow it yourself and see how delicious 

this banana can taste you wonder what took you so 

long to try. These full sized fruit ripen rapidly, so be 

ready. They can give 40-60 pounds of fruit with 

ease. Height 6-8 ft. 

HUAMOA A Polynesian cooking banana that is almost 

rectangular in shape and packed with flavor. These 

make wonderful to stones as well as other banana 

recipes. The large full leaves and fat, rounded fruit 

make this a great looking plant. Height about 12 ft.

KOFI From Papau New Guinea, a member of the Iholena 

sub group which is a combination cooking-dessert 

banana that rated highest in tasting tests.

KRU Brought into this country from New Guinea, plant 

gives fruit with green & red markings that narrows 

to a point on one end giving it an interesting and 

beautiful appearance. The fruit must be eaten very 

ripe to get full flavor. Grows about 12 ft. tall. The 

Green Kru is the same flavored fruit without the 

wine colored markings. 

MAIA MAOLI This 12-14 ft. tall plant of the Polynesian cooking 

variety has delicious flavor and statuesque elegance. 

It is mostly green with slight red colors in the 

pseudostem giving serious competition to the other 

cooking varieties. One of their favorites.

MALACCENSIS A primitive species, producing a small thin seeded 

fruit of about 4 inches. Resistant to Panama Disease 

and Sigatoka. Grows about 8-10 ft. tall.

MONKEY FINGER Produces very large bunches of long thin bananas 

with slight curving. It truly resembles the elongated 

fingers of a large monkey hand and hence obtained 

its name. The fruit is firm and sub-acid sweet giving 

it a very refreshing flavor. Height 10-12 ft. 
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Banana Variety Description

MYSORE Height 14-16 ft. and MISI LUKI (Height 10-12 ft.) 

are 2 of the most popular and delicious lady finger 

bananas we have tasted. The mysore, from India is 

an important commercial crop for that area of the 

world. The Misi, has a very fruity flavor. The shelf 

life of these delicious little morsels out last any 

other by several days. They are sturdy and fast 

growing. 

NEHUMBAHOKA A rare dessert banana that grows about 10-12 ft. tall 

with a large amount of "chocolate" coloration in the 

pseudostem. The fruit is plump, at about 5 inches 

long & narrowed at the tip. It has sub-acid flavor 

which makes it refreshing.

NINO This delicate sweet, thin skinned baby banana 

produces a fruit about 4 inches long. It is a light 

green plant that grows to about 8-10 ft.

PELIPITA A dark green plant that grows about 10-12 ft. tall 

and produces a cooking banana that is angulated in 

shape. It is a hardy plant resistant to disease which 

is why it is used as a progenitor for many other 

hybrids.

RAJA PURI A very popular sturdy plant originating in India and 

becoming a favorite around the world. Due to the 

rapid growth and delicious taste of these 3/4 size 

fruit as well as cool tolerance they have won the 

hearts (and taste buds) of thousands. 

SABA The "sequoia" of the banana plants with huge 

pseudostem (range 20"-45" diameter) and heights 

ranging from 16-20 ft. here, however clients have 

reported even greater sizes in other growing areas of 

the country. The wonderful tasting cooking banana 

makes the best tostones we have ever eaten. A 

sturdy plant and somewhat cool tolerant. 

SH 3008 Bred in the Honduras Research Station. It has 

beautiful large leaves with maroon under side and 

splotched maroon and green on the top side of the 

leaves. Resembles the Zebrina/Sumatrana except 

larger and fuller. Height 6 ft.

TEXTILES Also known as the Abaca and Giant Pisang is a 

seeded variety that is used primarily for its fiber in 

the Philippines for making hemp rope. It is disease 

resistant, grows about 16 ft. in the US & has a 

beautiful golden inflorescence.

THOUSAND FINGERS This novelty is as unique as beautiful. When full 

grown at 10-12 ft. It produces a stalk of tiny round 
312

Banana Variety Description

bananas that can continue to make fruit until it 

touches the ground (sometimes 5 ft. long or more) 

Mostly used for ornamentation or landscape 

however the fruit is edible. 

WILLIAMS A Cavendish type that produces a full sized fruit 

with excellent flavor. An all 'round favorite. Grows 

about 8-10 ft. in height. A popular variety for good 

reasons.

YANGAMBI KM-5 Considered an excellent tasting small dessert banana 

from West Central Africa. It is very disease resistant 

and sturdy. Height about 12 ft. 

2007 Census Ag Atlas Maps - Crops and Plants
313

Total Acres of Avocados: 2007

APPENDIX II: Dietary and Nutritional Value of the Tropical and Subtropical 

Fruits – Inedible Peel:

Despite the relatively low caloric values of tropical and subtropical fruits, they play

an important role in human diet mainly because of their high and diverse vitamin and 

mineral content. This has been of extreme importance in the tropics, where people have 

been consuming them since ancient times, either by collecting fruit from the wild or by

cultivating plants in home or community gardens. They have become an important part 

of the diet of people in the developed countries of the world, especially between the 

health and fitness conscious. Toward the end of the twentieth century, market campaigns 

commonly recommended consumption of five fruits per day. Many tropical fruits, 

notably the mango and the papaya, are a good source of carotene an indication of the 

high content of this vitamin is the orange-yellow color of the flesh. In general, tropical 
314

fruits are not a good source of the B group of vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin). 

Tropical and subtropical fruits are also rich in pectin, fiber, and cellulose, which promote 

intestinal motility. In common with other fruits, they are good sources of antioxidants, 

and some are good sources of organic acids, which stimulate appetite and aid digestion.

APPENDIX II. Dietary Value of the Tropical and Subtropical Fruits – Inedible 

Peel.

Commodity Dietary Value

Abiu The pulp contains insignificant amounts of nutrients, minerals and vitamins.

Aisen Fruit is very acidic; leaves contain alkaloids.

Akee apple Immature arils and seeds contain the amino acid hypoglycin. This can cause 

vomiting, convulsions, severe hypoglycemia, coma, and death. Arils are a 

good source of fat, protein, vitamin A, vitamin B1 and B2 and vitamin C.

Avocado One of the most nutritious fruit in the world. It is a good source of oil, 

minerals, phosphorus, provitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin E, potassium, 

riboflavin and niacin. The protein content is greater than any other fresh 

fruit. The fruit has the highest fiber content of any fruit and contains 

antioxidants. Fruit is composed of the major fatty acids monounsaturated 

oleic acid, palmitic acid and linoleic acid. Avocado oil can reduce blood 

cholesterol.

Bacury Fruits contain high amounts of vitamin C.

Bael fruit The fruit contains vitamin A, vitamin C and pectin. Pulp is rich in riboflavin 

and protein, and the peel contains tannins.

Banana The fruit is a staple food that is high in potassium, vitamin A, vitamin C, 

vitamin B6, and carbohydrates; considered an energy food; contains starch

and sugars. Fruit are easily digestible, low in fat, and contain no cholesterol; 

fruit neutralize acid in the stomach. Norepinephrine, dopamine, and 

serotonin are found in the fruit. The U.S. FDA has approved the following 

nutrient content descriptors for bananas: fat-free, sodium-free, cholesterolfree, a good source of fiber, a good source of vitamin C, a good source of 

vitamin B-6 (20% of the recommended daily allowance), and a good source 

of potassium. Research has shown that diets that are high in potassium can 

help prevent hypertension and stroke. 

Binjai Fruit pulp contains vitamin A and 58 milligrams of vitamin C. 

Biriba Fruit pulp is rich in vitamin C. 

Breadfruit Fruit pulp is an important source of carbohydrates, minerals including 

potassium and zinc, and vitamins A, B1 and C. The seeds are high in protein, 

low in fat and contain vitamins and minerals. 

Burmese grape The peel is a good source of pectin, and fruit is high in fiber and vitamin C. 

Fruit must be eaten sparingly, or vomiting may occur. 

Canistel Ripe pulp is high in niacin, calcium, phosphorus, amino acids including 

tryptophan and lysine, vitamin A, vitamin C, proteins and carbohydrates.

Champedak The seeds and fruit are high in starch. 

Cherimoya Fruit is nutritious; high in calories and fiber; fair to good source of niacin and 

vitamin C; and the seeds are toxic.

Cupuaçú The seed pulp is very acidic, low in sugar, and contains reasonable levels of 

total vitamin C, starch and pectin. Pulp contains low levels of proteins and 

fats. Seeds contain protein and fat. Cupuassu contains less saturated fat than 

cocoa . 

Custard apple Fruit is a good source of vitamin C. The kernels are very toxic. Seeds, leaves 

and young fruits are insecticidal.
315

Commodity Dietary Value

Durian Fruit is a good source of calories, protein, carbohydrates, vitamin B1 and B2, 

vitamin C, potassium, and beta-carotene and the seeds are rich in protein.

Dragon-fruit Seeds are digestible. Fruit contains vitamin C, carotene, protein, calcium, 

vitamin B, phosphorus and fiber.

Elephant-apple Fruit contains pectin. The seeds contain oil high in unsaturated fatty acids.

Granadilla, Giant Fruit are a source of phosphorus and vitamin A. Leaves, skin and immature 

seeds are toxic. If the pulp is consumed too much, lethargy occurs. The raw

root is poisonous and induces vomiting.

Jackfruit Jackfruit nutritional Fruit is a good source of carbohydrates, protein, 

potassium, iron, nicotinamide and vitamin A. Seeds are high in starch and a 

good source of vitamins B1 and B2.

Kei-apple Fruit is rich in vitamin C.

Langsat Fruit have a good source of carbohydrates and potassium; source of vitamins 

A and C.

Longan Fruit is a fair source of vitamin C, phosphorus and potassium. Fruit is a poor 

source of calcium, iron, thiamine and riboflavin.

Lúcuma Fruit pulp contains calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin C; rich in minerals 

carotenes, B vitamins, and carbohydrates; high calorie fruit.

Lychee Fruit are a poor source of calcium, iron, thiamine and riboflavin, and a fair 

source of phosphorus. Fruit are a good source of niacin, potassium and 

vitamin C. The seed is toxic.

Marang Fruit provides a source of iron and vitamin C.

Mabolo Fruit is a good source of iron, calcium, and vitamin B.

Madras-thorn Seeds are rich in protein.

Mammy-apple Fruit are rich in carotenoids (which are converted to vitamin A), other 

vitamins, minerals, and amino acids (including lysine). Seeds are poisonous.

Manduro The kernel has a high fat content.

Mango Fruit is a good source of vitamins A, B and C; high in anti-cancer 

antioxidants and phenols. Fat from the kernel is edible and has been 

proposed for use as a substitute for cocoa butter in chocolate. The peel is a 

source of pectin.

Mango, horse Fruit provides a source of vitamins A and C.

Mango, Saipan Fruit contains vitamin C.

Mangosteen Fruit has a low vitamin A and C content, is rich in sugar and carbohydrates, 

has a high energy value and contains little nutritional/mineral value.

Marang Fruit provides a source of iron and vitamin C.

Marmalade-box Fruit contains concentrations of two B vitamins, riboflavin and thiamine.

Matisia The fruit has low nutritional value, but the carotene content and fiber is high.

Mesquite Ripe pods contain a good amount of crude protein, rich in sugar and 

nitrogen. Flour made from cotyledons and embryos is rich in protein and 

sugar and is consumed by diabetic people.

Mongongo, fruit Extremely nutritious. Contains large amounts of polyunsaturated fats, 

protein, and vitamin E.

Monkey-bread-tree Pulp is rich in vitamin C, calcium, phosphorus, potassium and citric and 

tartaric acids. Seeds are nutritious and contain a high energy value and large 

quantities of protein, fat, and carbohydrates. Seeds also contain a high 

amount of potassium bitartrate and tartaric acid. Leaves are high in vitamin 

C, sugars, potassium tartrate, and calcium. Flowers are high in protein.

Monstera Unripe fruit pulp contains oxalic acid that may cause throat irritation, hives, 

allergic reactions, diarrhea or intestinal gases if consumed. Pulp is rich in 

potassium and vitamin C.

Muriti Fruit pulp is an important source of calories, proteins and vitamins (including 

vitamin A and C) for the Amazon people. The mesocarp oil is high in 

vitamin A and contains one of the highest concentrations of carotene in the 
316

Commodity Dietary Value

plant kingdom.

Paho Fruit contains vitamin C, vitamin A, calcium, phosphorus, and iron.

Palmyra Palm Pulp is rich in vitamins A and C. Palm jaggery is more nutritious than crude 

cane sugar. The fresh sap is a good source of vitamin B complex.

Papaya Fruit is a rich source of vitamins and minerals. Pulp has a high content of 

potassium, calcium, vitamins A, B and C and low levels of fat and calories. 

Fruit contains a fair source of iron and calcium papaya. Fruit pulp can help 

with the digestion of proteins and stimulate the appetite. The U.S. FDA has 

approved the following nutrient content descriptors for papayas: fat-free, 

saturated fat-free, very low-sodium, cholesterol-free, a good source of fiber, 

high in vitamin C and a good source of folate.

Paho Fruit contains vitamin C, vitamin A, calcium, phosphorus, and iron.

Palmyra Palm Pulp is rich in vitamins A and C. Palm jaggery is more nutritious than crude 

cane sugar. The fresh sap is a good source of vitamin B complex.

Papaya Fruit is a rich source of vitamins and minerals. Pulp has a high content of 

potassium, calcium, vitamins A, B and C and low levels of fat and calories. 

Fruit contains a fair source of iron and calcium papaya, and the fruit pulp can 

help with the digestion of proteins and stimulate the appetite. 

Passionfruit Fruit are a good source of vitamins A and C, carotenes, niacin, riboflavin, 

phosphorus, and potassium.

Pawpaw Fruit are highly nutritious, exceeding apple, peach and grape in most 

vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and food energy value. Similar to banana in 

nutritive composition and dietary fiber content.

Pequiá Caryocar brasiliense fruit contains fat, water, protein, oil, carbohydrates, 

carotene, and vitamins including vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin; 

good source of calories. Caryocar villosum: Fruit is rich in tannins; pulp 

contains protein, fiber, and carbohydrates. High in calories.

Persimmon, American Seed and fruit are low in crude protein, crude fat, and calcium, but high in 

nitrogen-free extract and tannin.

Pineapple Fruit is a good source of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), vitamin A, vitamin B, 

calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium and thiamine. Fruit is low in sodium. 

Excessive consumption of the pineapple core can cause the formation of fiber 

balls in the digestive tract. Unripe pineapples are poisonous and can irritate 

and throat and induce vomiting. The U.S. FDA has approved the following 

nutrient content descriptors for pineapples: fat-free, saturated fat-free, very 

low-sodium, cholesterol-free, and high in vitamin C. Pineapple contains the 

enzyme bromelain, which has been shown to help reduce inflammation and 

aid digestion.

Plantain The U.S. FDA has approved the following nutrient content descriptors for 

plantains: fat-free, sodium-free, cholesterol-free, a good source of fiber, a 

good source of vitamin C, and a good source of potassium. Plantains, like 

other bananas, are a good source of potassium, which has been shown to help 

lower blood pressure.

Pomegranate The juice and leathery rind are rich sources of antioxidants including 

phenolics, ascorbic acid, and anthocyanins, as well as other nutrients; 

pharmacological and therapeutically properties. Pomegranate juice contains a 

high concentration of three types of polyphenols, an antioxidant that has been 

shown to help prevent cancer and heart disease. Pomegranates are high in 

vitamin C. The rind, bark and leaves are rich sources of polyphenolics or 

tannins, especially punicalagins. Seeds are high in fiber. The U.S. FDA has 

approved the following nutrient content descriptors for pomegranates: 

cholesterol-free, high in fiber and high in vitamin C.

Prickly-pear The fruit is a good source of carbohydrates, vitamin C and calcium. Dried 

seed kernels contain a solid white fat.
317

Commodity Dietary Value

Quandong Fruit are rich in vitamin C. The seed is nutritious and high in fat and protein.

Rambutan Fruit is high in potassium and some vitamins. The seed is poisonous when 

raw.

Saguaro Fruit is nutritious and contains protein and carbohydrates. Seeds are rich in 

fat.

Salak Fruit is low in vitamins and oil. Unripe fruits contain large amounts of 

tannin.

Sapodilla Fruit is low in vitamins A and C.

Sapote, black The pulp is a good source of vitamin C, vitamin A, calcium and phosphorus.

Sapote, green Fruit has high antioxidant activity and contains a reasonable quantity of 

vitamin C.

Sapote, Mamey Pulp is nutritious and contains moderate amounts of phosphorus, and vitamin 

C. Fruit is low in fiber. Seed may be poisonous. Leaves and sap are 

reportedly poisonous.

Sapote, White Fruit pulp is a good source of phosphorus, niacin, calcium, protein, 

carbohydrates, vitamin C and vitamin A. Fruit are high in sugar. Seeds are 

poisonous when raw.

Screw-pine The seed oil contains palmitic, oleic, and linoleic fatty acids. Pandanus 

tectorius: Fruit are used as a source of carbohydrate; provides a source of 

protein, fat, fiber, calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin 

(vitamin B-3), beta-carotene, and vitamin C. Pandanus leram: The seed is 

nutritionally rich compared with the fruit pulp; pulp is a source of 

carbohydrates; Pandanus julianettii: Nuts are a major source of nutrition to 

people of the New Guinea highlands and provide protein and oil.

Soursop Fruit is highly nutritious. Pulp is an excellent source of vitamins B and C, a 

good source of potassium, riboflavin, and niacin, and a fair source of calcium 

and phosphorus. Raw seeds are poisonous.

Spanish-lime Fruit is rich in iron and phosphorus.

Sugar-apple Pulp is a good source of carbohydrates, potassium, thiamine, fiber, calcium, 

phosphorus, and vitamin C. Seeds are poisonous.

Velvet Tamarind The pulp has a low free-sugar content and non-detectable polyols.

Wampi Fruit contain vitamin C.

White Star-Apple Fruit is a good source of calcium, iron and vitamin C.

Wild loquat Fruit is low in fat and high in potassium and vitamin C.