Prepared in cooperation with the 

New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services

Geochemical, Isotopic, and Dissolved Gas 

Characteristics of Groundwater in a Fractured 

Crystalline-Rock Aquifer, Savage Municipal Well 

Superfund Site, Milford, New Hampshire, 2011

Open-File Report 2013–1089

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
Prepared in cooperation with the

New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services

Geochemical, Isotopic, and Dissolved Gas 

Characteristics of Groundwater in a Fractured 

Crystalline-Rock Aquifer, Savage Municipal Well 

Superfund Site, Milford, New Hampshire, 2011

By Philip T. Harte

Open-File Report 2013–1089

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

SALLY JEWELL, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013 

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Suggested citation:

Harte, P.T., 2013, Geochemical, isotopic, and dissolved gas characteristics of groundwater in a fractured 

crystalline-rock aquifer, Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire, 2011: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 2013–1089, 25 p., http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1089/. 

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government. 

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual 

copyright owners to reproduce any copyrighted material contained within this report.
Acknowledgments

This study was conducted as part of the remedial effort at the Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, 

specifically operable unit 3 (OU3), and is a collaborative effort between Federal, State, and local 

governments, and private companies and individuals. The author wishes to thank Robin Mongeon, project 

manager for the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services (NHDES); and Richard Hull, site 

remedial project manager for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), region 1, for their 

leadership in managing remedial efforts and their support. Thanks to Sharon Perkins also of the NHDES for 

assistance in planning and sampling of residential wells. Thanks also to personnel at Roy F. Weston, Inc., 

for much-needed logistical assistance and sampling of monitoring wells.

iii
Contents

1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................................ 1

1.1.Well Construction................................................................................................................................................. 2

1.2.Geology, Fracture Characteristics, and Lineaments ............................................................................................ 2

1.3. Well Identifier ...................................................................................................................................................... 3

2.Methods of Well Sampling and Analysis..................................................................................................................... 4

3.Results of Geochemistry, Isotopes, and Dissolved Gases in Groundwater................................................................ 5

3.1. Comparison of Open-Borehole and Discrete Fracture Samples ......................................................................... 6

3.2. Water-Quality Field Parameters.......................................................................................................................... 7

3.3. Geochemistry...................................................................................................................................................... 7

3.4.Isotopic Analysis .................................................................................................................................................. 8

3.5.Dissolved Gases .................................................................................................................................................10

4. Implications for PCE Transport.................................................................................................................................12

4.1.Vulnerability Rank Model ....................................................................................................................................12

5.Conclusions ...............................................................................................................................................................15

6.References Cited.......................................................................................................................................................15

Figures..........................................................................................................................................................................18

Appendix 1.Wells Sampled for Analysis of Isotopes.....................................................................................................25

Figures

1. Location map of monitoring wells and residential-supply wells, Savage Municipal Well Superfund 

site, Milford, New Hampshire...........................................................................................................................19

2. Piper diagram of major water type for residential and monitoring wells, Savage Municipal Well 

Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire .........................................................................................................20

3. Modified piper of major water type for residential and monitoring wells, classified by well parameter, 

Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire ....................................................................21

4. Graphs showing relation of stable isotopes of δD and δ18O of groundwater from residential and 

monitoring well samples and the local meteoric water line by A, well type and B, yield at Savage 

Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire .........................................................................................................22

5. Graph showing relation of δ13C and alkalinity of groundwater from residential and monitoring well 

samples, Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire .....................................................23

6. Graphs showing relation of recharge temperature from argon-nitrogen gas and δ13C of 

groundwater from residential and monitoring well samples for A, all wells and B, selected wells at 

the Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire ..............................................................24

iv
Tables

1. Well construction for sampled wells, OU–3 Savage Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire ......................... 3 

2. Chemical constituents, reporting limits and regulatory standards, OU–3 Savage Superfund site, 

Milford, New Hampshire ................................................................................................................................... 5 

3. Results of open-borehole and fracture specific samples for water-quality parameters from 

monitoring wells, Savage Superfund Site, Milford, New Hampshire ................................................................. 6 

4. Results of open-borehole samples for water-quality parameters from monitoring wells and 

residential-supply wells, Savage Superfund Site, Milford, New Hampshire ...................................................... 7 

5. Results of dissolved gas in groundwater from monitoring and residential wells, Savage Superfund 

Site, Milford, New Hampshire ..........................................................................................................................11

6. Ranking of groundwater samples from wells based on results of chemical analyses and the 

potential of capturing long flowpaths, Savage Superfund Site, Milford, New Hampshire.................................14

v
Conversion Factors, Datums, and Abbreviations

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Volume

gallon (gal) 3.785 liter (L) 

liter (L) 33.82 ounce, fluid (fl. oz)

Flow rate

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06309 liter per second (L/s)

Concentration

micrograms per liter (μg/L) 1.00 parts per billion (ppb)

milligrams per liter (mg/L) 1.00 parts per million (ppm)

Mass

kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound avoirdupois (lb)

megagram (Mg) 1.102 ton, short (2,000 lb)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:

°C=(°F–32)/1.8

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29).

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83).

Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.

Volumes of liquid are given in milliliters (mL)

Delta notation for reporting of isotope data.—Stable isotope data are reported as a ratio relative to the ratio 

of a standard. For example, 18O/16O of a sample is compared with 18O/16O of a standard by the relation: 

δ18O = (Rsample/Rstandard – 1) × 1,000, where Rsample = 18O/16O in the sample, Rstandard = 18O/16O in 

the standard, and δ18O = relative difference in concentration, in parts per thousand (per mil).

Delta 18O (δ18O) is referred to as delta notation and is the value reported by isotopic laboratories for 

stable isotope analysis. Delta D (also designated as δ2H) or deuterium can be derived by analogy to δ18O 

where the ratio 2H:H replaces 18O:

16O in Rsample and Rstandard. In this report deuterium is expressed as 

δD. The standard used for determining δ18O and δD in water originally was standard mean ocean water 

(SMOW) as defined by Craig (1961). The standard used in this report is Vienna standard mean ocean 

water (VSMOW). If δ18O and δD samples contain more of the heavier isotopes (18O or 2H) than the 

reference material, the samples have positive per mil values and are referred to as heavier than the 

reference material or as being enriched in the heavier isotope. Conversely, if the samples contain more of 

the lighter isotopes (16O or H) than the reference material, the samples have negative per mil values and 

are referred to as lighter than the reference material or as being depleted in the heavier isotope. For 

vi
example, a δ18O value of –18.15 per mil can be referred to as lighter than VSMOW or depleted in 18O 

relative to VSMOW. Once the reference material has been specified, it is assumed by convention that all 

values are reported relative to it unless otherwise indicated.

Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) of carbon-13 (δ13C) is reported relative to the Vienna Peedee

Belemnite (VPDB) standard and expressed in per mil. The carbon-13 standard is –25 per mil VPDB; VPDB 

is the carbonate standard derived from the Rostrum of Belemnitella Americana of the Peedee Formation in 

South Carolina. Because values are reported relative to the reference material, samples with positive per 

mil values are referred to as heavier than the reference material or as being enriched in the heavier 

isotope. Conversely, if the samples contain more of the lighter isotopes than the reference material, the 

samples have negative per mil values and are referred to as lighter than the reference material or as being 

depleted in the heavier isotope.

Abbreviations 

Ar argon

As arsenic

C carbon

CH4 methane

CHF Campbell Hill Fault

CO2 carbon dioxide

DO dissolved oxygen (dissolved water sample)

GMWL global meteoric water line

gpm gallons per minute

H hydrogen

LMWL Local meteoric water line

meq/L milliequivalents per liter

μg/L micrograms per liter

MSGD Milford-Souhegan Glacial Drift

N2 nitrogen

NHDES New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services

NWIS National Water Information System

‰ per mil (parts per thousand)

O2 oxygen (dissolved gas sample)

ORP oxidation-reduction potential

OU operational or operable unit

PCE tetrachloroethylene

R reference standard

R2 coefficient of determination

RDL reported detection level

RT recharge temperature

Ur uranium

USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

VDPB Vienna Peedee Belemnite

VSMOW Vienna standard mean ocean water

δ13C delta of carbon-13

δ18O delta of oxygen-18 isotope

δD delta of deuterium (2H)

vii
Geochemical, Isotopic, and Dissolved Gas Characteristics 

of Groundwater in a Fractured Crystalline-Rock Aquifer, 

Savage Municipal Well Superfund Site, Milford, New 

Hampshire, 2011

By Philip T. Harte

1 Introduction

Tetrachloroethylene (PCE), a volatile organic compound, was detected in groundwater from 

deep (more than (>) 300 feet (ft) below land surface) fractures in monitoring wells tapping a crystallinerock aquifer beneath operable unit 11 (OU1) of the Savage Municipal Well Superfund site (Weston, 

Inc., 2010). Operable units define remedial areas of contaminant concern. PCE contamination within the 

fractured-rock aquifer has been designated as a separate operable unit, operable unit 3 (OU3; Weston, 

Inc., 2010). PCE contamination was previously detected in the overlying glacial sand and gravel 

deposits and basal till, hereafter termed the Milford-Souhegan glacial-drift (MSGD) aquifer (Harte,

2004, 2006). Operable units 1 and 22 encompass areas within the MSGD aquifer, whereas the extent of 

the underlying OU3 has yet to be defined. The primary original source of contamination has been 

identified as a former manufacturing facility—the OK Tool manufacturing facility; hence OU1 

sometimes has been referred to as the OK Tool Source Area (New Hampshire Department of 

Environmental Services, undated).

A residential neighborhood of 30 to 40 houses is located in close proximity (one-quarter of a 

mile) from the PCE-contaminated monitoring wells (fig. 1). Each house has its own water-supply well 

installed in similar rocks as those of the monitoring wells, as indicated by the New Hampshire State 

geologic map (Lyons and others, 1997). An investigation was initiated in 2010 by the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) region 1, and the New Hampshire Department of 

Environmental Services (NHDES) to assess the potential for PCE transport from known contaminant 

locations (monitoring wells) to the residential wells.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the NHDES entered into a cooperative agreement in 

2011 to assist in the evaluation of PCE transport in the fractured-rock aquifer. Periodic sampling over 

the last decade by the USEPA and NHDES has yet to detect PCE in groundwater from the residentialsupply wells (as of 2012). However, part of assessing the potential for PCE transport involves 

understanding the origin of the groundwater in the monitoring and residential wells. One of the tools in 

delineating the movement of groundwater to wells, particularly in complex, highly heterogeneous 

fractured-rock aquifers, is the understanding of the geochemical and isotopic composition of 

groundwater (Lipfert and Reeve, 2004; Harte and others, 2012). This report summarizes findings from 

1

OU1 designates the primary source area of PCE for the Savage Municipal Well Superfund site. 2

OU2 designates the extended plume area of PCE for the Savage Municipal Well Superfund site.

1

 
analyses of geochemical, isotopic, and dissolved gas characteristics of groundwater. Samples of 

groundwater were collected in 2011 from monitoring wells and nearby residential-supply wells in 

proximity to OU1.

1.1 Well Construction

Construction information on the sampled wells (table 1) was derived from driller logs for the 

monitoring wells and from NHDES reports for the residential wells (Genevieve Al-Egaily, New 

Hampshire Department of Environmental Services, written commun., August 2, 2010). Most monitoring 

wells also were logged with a suite of borehole geophysical tools, which helped verify well construction

information (Weston, Inc., 2012). All sampled wells are openly connected (open borehole) to the 

fractured-rock aquifer. The length of each open borehole can be determined by subtracting casing length 

from well depth (table 1). The maximum open-borehole length, 520 ft, is at DW–24. Wells are typically

cased with 6-inch-diameter steel pipe that penetrates through the overlying MSGD aquifer and extends

at least 10 ft into the underlying rock.

The reported well yields ranged from 1.5 (well DW–12) to 100 (well DW–17) gallons per 

minute (gpm), based on drilling records (table 1). These yields may not reflect the yield capability of the 

aquifer under steady state conditions (equilibrium conditions) because part of the yield is likely from 

storage (well and aquifer) and represents a short-term (hours to days) yield. Nevertheless, reported 

yields are useful to assess the relative water yielding capability of each well.

1.2 Geology, Fracture Characteristics, and Lineaments

The fractured-rock aquifer consists of tonalite, granite, and gneiss (Lyons and others, 1997). 

Tonalite is mapped to the west and is coincident with the higher terrain in the study area. Tonalite is 

separated from the rocks to the east (granite and gneiss) by the Campbell Hill Fault3 (CHF; fig. 1). The 

fault is primarily a normal fault that also may have a strike slip component (William C. Burton, U.S. 

Geological Survey, written commun., 2013). Granite and gneiss occur in the valley (Lyons and others, 

1997).

The residential and monitoring wells are intersected by multiple fractures over the length of the 

open borehole. Mixing of groundwater, therefore, occurs in the borehole from the contribution of 

groundwater from multiple fractures. Mixing can complicate the analysis of results from well water 

samples because they represent composite (integrated) samples.

Fractures are predominantly northeast striking and steeply inclined (>45 degrees) (Weston, Inc.,

2012; William C. Burton, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 2013). The location of the study 

area on the western limb of the Massabesic anticlinorium is likely a major factor in the number of 

foliation features that dip to the northwest (William C. Burton, U.S. Geological Survey, written 

commun., 2013).

Lineaments are linear features seen on the surface of the Earth with remotely sensed imagery. 

They are potentially related to structural features and high water–yielding zones within the bedrock 

(Mabee and Hardcastle, 1997). Lineaments were mapped in the study area by Clark and others (1997) 

and are shown on figure 1. Several wells are close (within 100 ft) to lineaments or the CHF including 

DW–2, DW–17, DW–12, DW–5A, DW–6, DW–9A, DW–19, and DW–18. Several of these wells 

(called lineament wells), DW–2 (15 gpm) and DW–17 (100 gpm), have high yields (table 1), whereas 

several of the other wells have relatively low yields (less than (<) 10 gpm). In contrast, four of the eight 

wells that are not within 100 ft of the mapped lineaments have high yields. The mean yield between 

3

The location of the CHF is approximate and has been remapped (William C. Burton, U.S. Geological 

Survey, written commun., 2013).

2

 
wells located proximal (<100 ft) and distal (> 100 ft) to lineaments or the CHF is 19.8 and 18.8 gpm, 

respectively. The difference is not significant at the 95-percent confidence interval (p-value of 0.477

based on t-test for unequal variance).

Table 1. Well construction for sampled wells, OU3 Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, Milford, New 

Hampshire.

[Well type: R, residential well; M, monitoring well. Sample type: C, general chemistry sample 

collected; I, isotope sample collected. Altitude of land surface is in feet (ft) above the National Geodetic 

Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29). gpm, gallons per minute; NHDES, New Hampshire Department of 

Environmental Services; OU3, operations unit 3; --, no data]

NHDES well identifier1 Well type Sample 

type

Altitude of 

land surface 

(ft)

Length of 

casing (ft)

Depth of 

well (ft)

Well yield 

(gpm)

OKT_DW–17 R C,I 303 60 240 100

OKT_DW–9A R C,I 290 120 360 5

OKT_DW–5A R C,I 285 76 340 5

OKT_DW–6 R C,I 290 -- 450 --

OKT_DW–2 R C,I 290 130 420 15

OKT_DW–27 R C 272 -- -- --

OKT_DW–18 R C 295 123 320 8.5

OKT_DW–20 R C 292 135 240 8

OKT_DW–24 R C,I 380 180 700 10

OKT_DW–25 R C,I 319 102 500 20

OKT_DW–23 R C 311 102 300 5

OKT_DW–21 R C 279 115 320 5

OKT_DW–22 R C 300 103 320 3

OKT_DW–12 R C,I 288 123 420 1.5

OKT_DW–19 R C 289 112 300 3.5

OKT_DW–29 R C,I 265 95 300 75

OKT_DW–30 R C 265 100 500 25

OKT_DW–28 R C 275 -- -- --

OKT_BR–4 M C,I 269 138 420 --

OKT_MW–30 M C,I 268 160 304 --

OKT_BR–3 M C,I 275 134 400 --

1

The “OKT_” prefix is omitted in remainder of report. Location of wells shown in figure 1.

1.3 Well Identifier

The well identification system used in this report follows the NHDES record system (table 1 and 

appendix 1). The USGS uses a station (site) name identification system in addition to the NHDES 

identifier (appendix 1). The USGS station (site) name can be used to access well data through the 

National Water Information System (NWIS; http://nwis.waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis).

3
2 Methods of Well Sampling and Analysis

Three monitoring wells and 18 residential-supply wells were sampled in 2011 (table 1). 

Monitoring wells (BR–3, BR–4, and MW–30) were sampled by purging and sampling of the entire open 

borehole according to methods described in NHDES sample analysis plan (New Hampshire Department 

of Environmental Services, 2011). Typically, 50 gallons of water were purged at approximately 1 to 2 

gpm prior to sampling (New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services, 2011). For a 6-inch 

diameter well, 50 gallons (gal) is equivalent to evacuating approximately 34 ft of water column within 

the open borehole. After 50 gal was purged, pump rates were decreased and sampling began. This 

procedure is meant to mimic a pumping cycle in a residential-supply well (New Hampshire Department 

of Environmental Services, 2011). All monitoring wells were previously sampled with a packer and 

pump assembly that allowed for the collection of samples from discrete fracture intervals (Weston, Inc., 

2010); these data are discussed in the “Results of Geochemical, Isotopic, and Dissolved Gas Analyses ” 

section below.

Residential-supply wells were sampled according to methods described in New Hampshire 

Department of Environmental Services (2011).Wells were purged by using the existing well pump and 

water system infrastructure of the home and samples collected before any household treatment system. 

The open boreholes of the residential-supply wells are frequently recharged from daily pumping, unlike 

monitoring wells, which are infrequently purged (only a few times over their well history).

Water-quality field parameters (pH, specific conductance, water temperature, oxidationreduction potential (ORP), DO, and turbidity) were measured with an YSI Model 600XL or 6820 meter

in the field. Meters were calibrated as described in New Hampshire Department of Environmental 

Services (2011). Water-quality field parameters were collected prior to sampling for the other chemical 

constituents. Only the final set of readings was recorded by field personnel (New Hampshire 

Department of Environmental Services, 2011). Therefore, the temporal chemical variability of 

groundwater during purging cannot be assessed.

Duplicate and equipment blank samples were collected according to methods described in New 

Hampshire Department of Environmental Services (2011). Duplicates were collected in the field 

immediately after initial sample collection. Laboratory spikes were performed according to NHDES 

laboratory procedures for most of the chemical constituents analyzed for this study.

A listing of the constituents analyzed (nonisotopic only), methods of analyses, regulatory action 

limits, and laboratory reporting levels is provided in table 2. In general, samples were unfiltered and 

collected into preacidified bottles to prevent precipitation of metals and other constituents. In addition to 

the chemical constituents listed in table 2, USEPA and NHDES routinely sample for volatile organic 

compounds (USEPA schedule 8260). A discussion of volatile organic compounds is presented in 

Weston, Inc. (2012). All water-quality (nonisotopic) data reported in this report also are included in the 

Weston, Inc. (2012) report.

Groundwaters from a subset of the residential wells (9 of the18) and all three monitoring wells 

were sampled, and samples were analyzed for isotopes of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen and selected 

dissolved gases (fig. 1). Isotope samples were collected according to USGS procedures and analyses 

were performed in the U.S. Geological Survey Stable Isotope Laboratory in Reston, Va. Stable isotopes 

of δD were measured by using a hydrogen equilibration technique (Coplen and others, 1991; Révész 

and Coplen, 2008a). Stable isotopes of δ18O were measured by using the CO2 equilibration technique of 

Epstein and Mayeda (1953), and Révész and Coplen (2008b). Analytical results are reported as δD and 

δ18O (per mil, relative to VSMOW) with 1-sigma uncertainties of 1 per mil for δD and 0.1 per mil for 

δ18O. These samples were collected unfiltered and untreated in 150-mL glass bottles. Dissolved 

inorganic carbon-13 (δ13C) was analyzed according to methods described in U.S. Geological Survey

4
(2012b) and St-Jean (2003). These samples were collected filtered and treated in 40-mL (milliliter) vial 

septum bottles.

Additional samples were collected for analysis of dissolved gases (Ar, N2, CH4, and CO2).

Dissolved gases were analyzed in the USGS Chlorofluorocarbon Laboratory in Reston, Va., by using 

gas chromatography procedures (U.S. Geological Survey, 2012a; Busenberg and others, 1998; 

http://water.usgs.gov/lab/cfc/). Samples were collected unfiltered and untreated in 150-mL septum 

bottles that were filled while submerged in water, thus without headspace.

Table 2. Chemical constituents, reporting limits and regulatory standards, OU3 Savage Municipal Well 

Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire.

[All concentrations in milligrams per liter. AGQS, Ambient Groundwater Quality Standards; Env-Or600, New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services environmental rule (September 2008);

N/A, not applicable; RDL, reporting detection limit; OU3, operations unit 3; USEPA, U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency;--, no standard]

Test methods Analytes

Interim cleanup 

levels for 

Savage site

NHDES AGQS 

(Env-Or-600) Lab RDLs

Total metals by USEPA method 200.7/200.8 Arsenic 0.05 0.01 0.001

Antimony 0.003 0.006 0.003

Beryllium 0.001 0.004 0.001

Chromium 0.1 0.1 0.005

Lead 0.015 0.015 0.001

Nickel 0.1 0.1 0.005

Total metals by USEPA method 200.7/200.8 Calcium N/A -- 1

Iron N/A -- 0.05

Magnesium N/A -- 0.1

Manganese N/A 0.84 0.01

Potassium N/A 35 0.25

Sodium N/A -- 1

Uranium N/A -- 1

USEPA method 200.7 Dissolved iron N/A -- 0.05

USEPA 415.3 Total organic carbon N/A -- 0.5

USEPA SM 2320B Alkalinity N/A -- 1

Ion chromatography, Lachat 10–117–07–1–B1 Chloride N/A -- 3

Ion chromatography, Lachat 10–107–04–1–C1 Nitrate N/A 10 0.05

Ion chromatography, Lachat 10–107–04–1–C1 Nitrite N/A 1 0.05

Ion chromatography, Lachat 10–107–04–1–C1 Nitrate and nitrite N/A -- 0.05

Ion chromatography, Lachat 10–510–00–1–E1 Sulfate N/A 500 1

Ion chromatography, Lachat 10–510–00–1–E1 Bromide N/A -- 0.1

Ion chromatography, Lachat 10–109–12–2–A1 Fluoride N/A 4 0.2

1

Lachat instrument (http://www.lachatinstruments.com/download/LL022-Methods-List_5-10.pdf).

3 Results of Geochemical, Isotopic, and Dissolved Gas Analyses

Results are first presented for a comparison between open-borehole samples (collected for this 

study) and discrete fractures samples (collected by a previous study, Weston, Inc., 2010) from the three 

monitoring wells. This comparison was done to assess whether open-borehole samples are 

representative of groundwater from the fractured rock. Water-quality field parameters (specific 

conductance, pH, ORP (oxidation-reduction potential), dissolved oxygen (DO), temperature, and 

turbidity) are discussed first, followed by a discussion of general geochemistry (major ions), isotopes, 

and dissolved gases. Some trace-ion chemistry was also collected (Ur, As). Uranium was detected above 

the reported detection level (RDL of 1 μg/L) in all samples and had a maximum concentration of 60 

5
μg/L (Weston, Inc., 2012). Arsenic was non-detect (RDL of 1 μg/L) in all samples except for two and 

had a maximum concentration of 8.1 μg/L (Weston, Inc., 2012).

3.1 Comparison of Open-Borehole and Discrete Fracture Samples

The specific conductance values of well water derived from the three open-borehole samples 

were within the range of specific conductance from discrete fracture samples at 2 of the 3 monitoring 

wells (table 3). However, pH, ORP, DO, and to a lesser extent, temperature, differ between open

borehole and discrete fracture samples. The pH of the open-borehole samples was less than the ranges 

of pH from the discrete fracture samples; the same relation was true for DO. The ORP of the openborehole sample was within the range of ORP from fracture samples for BR–3 but outside the range for 

BR–4 and MW–30. Temperature from the open-borehole samples was similar in 1 of 3 wells. Uranium 

concentrations also were similar for both sets of samples from BR–3.

Table 3. Results of open-borehole and fracture specific samples for water-quality parameters from monitoring 

wells, Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire.

[μs/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (°C); ORP, oxidation-reduction potential; 

mV, millivolts; DO, dissolved oxygen; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; --, no 

data]

Well1 Zone

Specific 

conductance 

range 

(μs/cm)

pH range

ORP range

(mV)

DO range

(mg/L)

Temperature

range (°C)

Uranium 

range

(μg/L)

BR–3 Discrete fracture (ranges) 206–266 8.26–8.35 -12–86 1.4–1.9 11.0–11.6 3–9

Open borehole 237 7.18 55 0.5 12.9 7

BR–4 Discrete fracture (ranges) 222–234 8.51–8.77 67–85 1.7–3.9 9.9–11.0 --

Open borehole 247 7.77 10 0.2 9.8 26

MW–30 Discrete fracture (ranges) 231–259 8.72–9.41 -206–32 1.9–4.1 7.9–12.5 --

Open borehole 213 8.45 78 0.6 11.4 15

1

Location of wells shown in figure 1.

The results of the comparison between open-borehole and discrete fracture samples suggest that 

the open-borehole samples may not reflect recent recharge from fractures. The purging method for the 

open-borehole samples is less than ideal because only 10 percent of a typical well volume is withdrawn 

prior to sample collection (New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services, 2011), and the 

samples may represent borehole water that is stagnant within the well or derived from poorly connected 

fractures.

The DO concentration of the open-borehole samples are approximately 1⁄8 to 1⁄3 the value of the 

fracture samples. The open-borehole samples likely contain some stagnant borehole water or water 

derived from poorly connected fractures. The median DO concentration in water from 115 residentialsupply wells in New England crystalline rocks was 1.9 mg/L (Flanagan and others, 2012); the DO 

concentration in water from fracture samples (table 3) were comparable to residential-supply well 

samples from this study. The amount of stagnant water in residential-supply wells should be relatively 

low and, therefore, the similarity in DO concentrations in residential and fracture samples supports the 

theory of recent recharge from fractures (hydraulically connected fractures) in both sets of samples. In 

New England crystalline-rock aquifers, an inverse relation has been demonstrated between residence 

time and DO concentrations in groundwater: old waters had low DO concentrations. This also supports 

the theory of low DO concentrations in poorly connected fractures (Harte and others, 2008).

6
3.2 Water-Quality Field Parameters

Specific conductance, pH, ORP, DO, turbidity, and water temperature are physiochemical 

properties of water that can affect the mobility of trace elements in groundwater (Flanagan and others, 

2012). These properties vary in water from the crystalline-rock aquifer at the site depending on the 

physical and chemical characteristics of soil and of aquifer materials, fracture flow (such as whether 

water being pumped originates from short or long flowpaths), residence time of groundwater, and inputs 

from anthropogenic sources such as road salting and septic leachate. Water-quality field parameters may 

also be affected by the frequency and amount of water withdrawn from the well and how the sample 

was collected.

Given the differences in the number of samples between monitoring and residential-supply 

wells, it is to be expected that the ranges in values of field parameters were much larger for the 

residential-supply well samples than the monitoring well samples, particularly for DO and turbidity 

(table 4). The DO of the samples from monitoring wells was less than 1 mg/L, whereas 6 of 18 samples 

from the residential-supply wells were greater than 1 mg/L. Differences in withdrawals between 

monitoring and residential wells likely affect DO, as discussed in section 3.1 (Water-Quality Field 

Parameters). Turbidity was much greater in the monitoring well samples than in the residential-supply 

well samples. A high of 801 NTU (nephelometric turbidity units) was measured at MW–30 (fig. 1).

Table 4. Results of open-borehole samples for water-quality parameters from monitoring wells and residentialsupply wells, Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire.

[DO, dissolved oxygen; mg/L, milligrams per liter; mV, millivolts; μs/cm, microsiemens per centimeter 

at 25 degrees Celsius (°C); NTU, nephelometric turbidity units; ORP, oxidation-reduction potential; <, 

less than]

Well Number of wells

Specific 

conductance 

range (μs/cm)

pH range

ORP range

(mV)

DO range

(mg/L)

Temperature

range (°C)

Turbidity

range (NTU 

units)

Monitoring 3 213–247 7.18–8.45 10–55 0.2–0.6 9.8–12.9 28–801

Residential 18 142–328 6.94–8.22 -7–185 *0.2–8.3 10.8–15.3 <1–13

*DO concentrations in 6 of 18 samples were greater than 1 mg/L.

3.3 Major-Ion Geochemical Analysis

Major-ion chemistry is useful for the designation of water type and identification of general 

water composition and reactions. Piper (trilinear) diagrams (Piper, 1944) are a helpful visual tool in the 

identification of water type; they include two ternary diagrams, one for major cations and the other for 

major anions in percentage of major ions in milliequivalents per liter (meq/L). The position of the water 

composition of the sampled water on the two ternary diagrams is then projected onto a third diagram.

Water type was identified for the sampled groundwater and compared to four parameters

associated with each well: altitude of land surface (elevation), well depth, yield, and rock type. Rock 

type was differentiated based on the location of wells relative to three geologic features: either granite or

gneiss rocks, proximity to fracture zone (within 100 ft), and tonalite rock as mapped according to the 

geologic map of New Hampshire (Lyons and others, 1997).

Results show groundwater ranges from a calcium-bicarbonate water type to a sodiumbicarbonate water type (fig. 2). The composition and distribution of water types suggests groundwater is 

chemically evolving as a result of cation exchange of calcium with sodium. Therefore, groundwater 

characterized as a calcium-bicarbonate water type can be viewed as relatively “chemically immature”

whereas groundwater characterized as a sodium-bicarbonate water type can be viewed as relatively 

“chemically mature.” For the fractured-rock aquifer at this site, chemically mature water essentially 

7
means that some of the groundwater from a single or multiple fractures had sufficient time for cation 

exchange reactions to occur.

The water type at monitoring wells BR–4 and MW–30 indicate a relatively chemically mature 

water composition. In addition, the relatively high pH of these waters (table 3) is consistent with more 

highly evolved water from the crystalline-rock aquifers of New England (Flanagan and others, 2012). 

Wells BR–4 and MW–30 are between the residential wells and monitoring well BR–3 (fig. 1). BR–3

had high PCE concentrations (>10,000 μg/L), BR–4 had no detectable PCE, and MW–30 had low 

concentrations (<100 μg/L) (Weston, Inc., 2012).

Depth of well and well yield appear to be a factor in water type, whereas the elevation of the 

well (altitude of land surface) and rock type show no particular water compositional pattern (fig. 3). 

Depth of well shows an inverse pattern with deep wells characterized as a calcium-bicarbonate water 

type; this suggests that the recharge water to these wells is relatively chemically immature. Although 

this relation appears contradictory, it is consistent with observations of water chemistry from deep wells 

with long open boreholes in fractured-rock aquifers (Harte and others, 2008). The deep wells generally 

are characteristic of low fracture frequency and low yields. In some cases, these wells have been shown 

to be recharged primarily by shallow fractures near the well casing, and the absence of fractures in the 

rock dictates that long open boreholes be drilled to ensure adequate storage for water-supply use. The 

pattern for yield shows that high-yield wells are primarily characterized as a calcium-bicarbonate water 

type, which indicates these wells were quickly recharged by relatively young groundwater (fig. 3).

3.4 Isotopic Analysis

Deuterium (δD) and oxygen-18 (δ18O) provide information on sources of recharge to 

groundwater and show a high degree of correlation. Craig (1961) demonstrated this relation by the 

creation of a Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL), expressed by the equation: δD = 8 δ18O + 10‰.

The GMWL is an average of many local relations of δD and δ18O. Differential fractionation of δD and 

δ18O occurs as a function of humidity during primary evaporation of water vapor from the ocean and as 

a function of temperature during secondary evaporation as rain falls from a cloud (Kendall and Coplen, 

2000). These two factors affect the local relation of δD and δ18O, thereby producing a unique Local 

Meteoric Water Line (LMWL) at different locations (Benjamin and others, 2004). Kendall and Coplen 

(2000) developed an LMWL for New Hampshire that is expressed as δD = 7.3 δ18O + 5.3‰. The latter 

LMWL is presented in selected graphs shown in this report. The values of δ18O and δD from 

precipitation are always negative because the reference standard (VSMOW) reflects the average isotopic 

composition of the ocean and distillation from evaporation leaves a residue of water with a heavy 

isotopic composition.

Measured δD and δ18O values from samples plot closely to the LMWL indicating that 

groundwater is recharged by meteoric water. Measured δD values varied by –4.37‰ and δ18O varied by 

–0.68‰. The δD and δ18O composition of groundwater from sampled wells are similar to values in river 

water for the northeastern United States (Kendall and Coplen, 2000) suggesting that groundwater from 

the study area was recently (less than 40 years) recharged. The isotopically lightest groundwater was 

from well DW–6 and the isotopically heaviest from well DW–5A. Wells DW–6 and DW–5A are closely 

located (fig. 1) but their water quality differs the most. Results illustrate the effect of heterogeneity in

fractured-rock aquifers on groundwater flow and transport.

There is no distinguishing difference between the δD and δ18O composition of groundwater from 

the monitoring wells and many of the residential wells (fig. 4A). Groundwater from the monitoring 

wells had intermediate δD and δ18O values. Parameters associated with each well such as rock type, 

elevation of well (land surface), casing length, and depth of well showed no discernible pattern. 

However, wells with the highest yields tended to have isotopically lighter δD and δ18O values (fig. 4B).

8
The relation of yield to isotopic composition suggests that there is a temporal difference in 

recharge to some of the wells. Evapotranspiration in the warmer months preferentially distills δD and 

δ18O and produces a heavier isotope. Conversely, winter or early spring recharge from snowmelt 

produces a lighter isotope. Long-term averaging of recharge would produce intermediate δD and δ18O

values. Samples from the monitoring wells exhibit an intermediate δD and δ18O composition, indicating 

a diffuse recharge pattern. The highest yielding wells likely receive a part of their recharge from a 

shorter “seasonal” time period unlike lower yielding wells, which likely receive diffuse recharge over a 

longer time period (years). In this study, the highest yielding wells likely receive a greater component of 

recharge from the preceding winter or early spring period (sampling occurred in August 2011). The 

exception is DW–17, which has an intermediate δD and δ18O composition that points to a bimodal (with 

equal contributions of light and heavy isotopes) mixing pattern of recharge. Groundwater with the 

heaviest δD and δ18O values (DW–5A, DW–12, and DW–9A) may receive a disproportionate part of 

their recharge from the summer compared to other wells with lighter isotopic composition.

Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) δ13C can help identify carbon sources and carbon reactions 

such as calcite dissolution. Carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes: δ 12C (98.89 percent) 

and δ13C (1.11 percent). The δ13C of the atmosphere is –7‰. During photosynthesis, the carbon that 

becomes fixed in plant tissue is significantly depleted in δ13

C relative to the atmosphere (Kendall and 

others, 1995). Isotope fractionation in the CO2–HCO3–CaCO3 geochemical system results in calcite that 

is enriched in δ13C by about 10‰ relative to CO2 at 20°C. The δ13C values of dissolved inorganic 

carbon (DIC) in groundwater are generally in the range of –5 to –25‰ (Mills, 1988; Kendall and others, 

1995). The primary reactions that produce DIC are (1) weathering of carbonate minerals by acidic rain 

or other strong acids, (2) weathering of silicate minerals by carbonic acid produced by the dissolution of 

biogenic soil CO2 by infiltrating rain water; and, (3) weathering of carbonate minerals by carbonic acid.

Under favorable conditions, carbon isotopes can be used to understand the biogeochemical 

reactions controlling alkalinity in watersheds (Mills, 1988; Kendall and others, 1995). Carbon isotopes 

can also be useful tracers of the seasonal and discharge-related contributions of different hydrologic 

flowpaths to streamflow (Kendall and others, 1995). In many carbonate-poor watersheds, waters along 

shallow flowpaths in the soil zone have characteristically light δ13C values reflecting carbonic-acid 

weathering of silicates. Waters along deeper flowpaths within less weathered materials have 

intermediate δ13C values characteristic of carbonic-acid weathering of carbonates (Bullen and Kendall, 

1998). Other processes that may complicate the interpretation of the δ13C values of surface waters and 

groundwater include CO2 degassing, input of soil gas CO2 from bacteria respiration, carbonate 

precipitation, exchange with atmospheric CO2, carbon uptake by aquatic organisms, methanogenesis, 

and methane oxidation (Bullen and Kendall, 1998).

Groundwater δ13C varied by approximately –20‰ , which is a fairly large range that indicates 

differences in contact time between the sampled groundwater and the various sources (carbonate 

minerals) or sinks of carbon (fig. 5). The contact time of groundwater is thought to be a limiting factor 

in δ13C composition rather than reaction time because reaction time is fairly quick in carbonate reactions 

(Kendall and others, 1995). In this report, contact time is defined as the interaction of spatiotemporal 

factors (flowpath length and travel time) with rock mineralogy. Therefore, differences in δ13C values 

reflect differences in flowpaths to the wells. Differences also are attributable to the effect of soil CO2 on 

groundwater, which generally lowers values of δ13C in groundwater to an equivalent δ13C value of the 

predominant organic matter in the soil (Doctor and others, 2008).

Monitoring well MW–30 (–5.09‰) is relatively enriched in δ13C, which means groundwater 

from the well likely reacted with carbonate minerals. Conversely, DW–5A is relatively light in δ13C 

indicating little or less reaction with carbonates and/or substantial input of groundwater affected by soil 

9
gas CO2. Interestingly, DW–5A was isotopically heaviest in δD and δ18O indicating the well was 

recharged by shallow groundwater that was exposed to evapotranspiration during the summer months. 

Monitoring wells BR–3 and BR–4 have isotopically similar δ13C composition as many of the residential 

wells.

3.5 Dissolved Gas Analysis

Dissolved gas measurements also are useful for the determination of geochemical reactions 

along flowpaths. Analysis of dissolved gases, particularly noble gases, allow for the determination of 

recharge areas and seasonal period of recharge that the sample entered the groundwater. Other dissolved 

gases help identify biogeochemical reactions like methanogenesis and denitrification.

The concentrations of dissolved gases, as specified by the mean and standard deviation from 

repeated measurements of the same gas samples, are provided in table 5. Oxygen concentrations were

generally less than 0.5 mg/L, which is consistent with water-quality field measurements of DO although 

biological oxygen demand could suppress DO in lab measurements. Methane generally was low (except 

for groundwater at MW–30) indicating low methanogenic activity. Conversely, CO2 shows a two-order 

magnitude range in values. High CO2 occurred at DW–17, which is the highest yielding well (100 gpm) 

in the study area. High CO2 is likely from soil production from heterotrophic oxidation of soil organic 

matter and respiration from plant roots (Doctor and others, 2008). Therefore, groundwater from well 

DW–17 exhibits characteristics of rapid recharge. Groundwater at DW–5A has moderate CO2

concentrations and, therefore, its relatively low δ13C value (section 4.2) is attributed to less contact time 

with calcite minerals. Groundwater at MW–30 had low CO2 concentrations indicating little rapid 

recharge.

Argon (Ar) is a noble gas and its exchange with the atmosphere ceases when water enters the 

saturated zone (Manning, 2009). Noble gases are chemically inert and their concentrations seldom 

change along flowpaths. This condition allows for the use of dissolved noble gases as a marker on the 

time and location of recharge water as it enters the saturated zone by the ability to use this information 

to calculate a recharge temperature (RT) of the water as it enters the saturated zone.

Calculated RT was made from an analysis of dissolved nitrogen and argon for an assumed 

amount of excess nitrogen corresponding to the pressure associated with the elevation of the land 

surface of the well (Heaton and Vogel, 1981). Recharge temperatures ranged from 4.1o

C (DW–25) to 

8.1o

C (DW–5A). Warmer RT indicates rapid recharge of groundwater given the time of the sampling 

was August 2011. Recharge temperatures compare favorably to the inverse of the δ13C for most wells 

except DW–25 and MW–30 (fig. 6). This suggests that soil CO2 is an important factor in δ13C value

because warm RT is indicative of summer recharge. A linear regression of RT and δ13C excluding DW–

25 and MW–30 yields a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.78 (fig. 6B).

Calculated RT also compared favorably to the inverse of excess air in the samples. Excess air in 

the samples occurs when air is entrapped in groundwater during recharge. Excess air is commonly 

associated with large water-table fluctuations that occur in cold months. A linear regression of RT and 

excess air yields an R2 of 0.67.

10
Table 5. Results of dissolved gas in groundwater from monitoring and residential wells, Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, Milford, New 

Hampshire.

[Residential wells start with the prefix DW. Monitoring wells include BR–3, BR–4, and MW–30. All values are in milligrams per 

liter. Ar, argon; CH4,methane; CO2, carbon dioxide; N2 , nitrogen; O2, oxygen]

Well1

N2 Ar O2 CO2 CH4

Mean Standard 

deviation Mean Standard deviation Mean Standard deviation Mean Standard deviation Mean Standard deviation

DW–17 26.59534 0.03695 0.87786 0.00070 0.31707 0.00438 10.48209 0.04336 0.00176 0.00011

DW–24 24.28567 0.00060 0.83696 0.00252 0.31245 0.00097 2.26717 0.04404 0.00740 0.00071

DW–9A 22.76611 0.12992 0.80666 0.00493 0.29447 0.00281 1.17167 0.00118 0.00000 0.00000

DW–25 25.48657 0.00506 0.86978 0.00085 0.31288 0.00278 1.07636 0.01047 0.00000 0.00000

DW–5A 24.32725 0.14455 0.80747 0.00156 0.28880 0.00208 1.45724 0.04280 0.00074 0.00020

DW–6 28.03265 0.16318 0.91068 0.00134 0.32293 0.00963 1.39997 0.00132 0.00168 0.00137

DW–2 24.14230 0.08934 0.83316 0.00301 0.35770 0.06237 1.16506 0.12831 0.00126 0.00012

DW–12 22.83133 0.02529 0.80949 0.00222 0.29972 0.01513 2.47624 0.02459 0.00000 0.00000

DW–29 22.94571 0.15744 0.80671 0.00289 0.55386 0.17658 0.87365 0.04255 0.00000 0.00000

BR–4 23.95804 0.07792 0.82741 0.00151 0.31607 0.00566 0.49936 0.01635 0.00000 0.00000

MW–30 19.62685 0.09213 0.73480 0.00405 0.28182 0.01016 0.03532 0.02207 2.94754 0.09149

BR–3 24.18718 0.02744 0.82770 0.00044 0.30076 0.01133 1.00889 0.02519 0.00589 0.00013

1

Location of wells shown in figure 1.

11
4 Implications for PCE Transport

Results of the geochemical, isotopic, and dissolved gas analyses can be used to characterize the 

residential wells based on their potential for capturing groundwater that has traveled along long 

flowpaths (>1⁄4 mile). Long flowpaths are considered necessary to transport PCE contamination from 

PCE source areas to the area served by the residential wells. Conversely, short flowpaths are less likely 

to transport PCE contamination to the residential wells given the distances between the residential wells 

and PCE contamination (fig. 1). A preponderance of recharge to wells from short flowpaths augments 

the need for wells to capture long flowpaths that potentially could be transporting PCE.

The geochemical, isotopic, and dissolved gas analyses provide information on contact time

between the groundwater and the rock. The information on contact time is then used to infer flowpath 

length assuming that (1) contact time is analogous to travel time, and (2) travel time generally increases 

with increasing flowpath length. It is acknowledged that heterogeneity affects the mineralogy and 

permeability distribution of the fractured-rock aquifer and that contact time may not be precisely 

analogous to travel time or flowpath length. However, as a “rule of thumb” it is believed that there is a

general overall positive relation between increasing contact time and flowpath length.

Individually and collectively, the chemical analyses can be used as a semiquantitative guide in 

determining flowpath length. The chemistry data are also potentially useful in identifying the amount of 

mixing in the open borehole. Potentially highly mixed groundwater in the residential wells likely means 

a greater ability to dilute contaminants if a limited subset of fractures transports PCE.

4.1 Vulnerability Rank Model

Different categories of chemical analyses are affected by different reactions or conditions. The 

synthesis of results can be used to develop multiple lines of evidence to identify flowpath length. 

Several categories of chemical analyses were used to rank the samples based on the potential of the well 

to capture water that had traveled along short or long flowpaths (table 6). The criteria for ranking are 

specified in table 6 under the predominant process for that particular analysis. For example, light 

isotopic δ13C values are interpreted as groundwater with little contact with carbonate minerals and/or 

recharged rapidly from shallow sources such as groundwater showing the effect of soil gas CO2. 

Therefore for δ13C, wells were ranked from light to heavy. Heavier δ13C values would imply that the 

groundwater traveled along longer flowpaths. Wells more likely to intercept long flowpaths were 

identified under each category as those falling in the lower half (arbitrary limit) of the ranking (ranking 

from short to long).

The ranking for δD and δ18O is more complex and relates to the relative effect of seasonal vs.

long-term recharge. Groundwater samples with either light or heavy “end member” δD and δ18O values 

were considered affected by seasonal recharge and ranked under the short flowpath category. 

Groundwater samples with intermediate δD and δ18O values were considered representative of diffuse, 

average recharge and ranked under the long flowpath category. Alternatively, bimodal mixing of end 

member δD and δ18O values from multiple water-bearing fractures could produce similar intermediate 

δD and δ18O values. In this case, the samples ranked in other categories would provide some insight on 

the amount of mixing in the well.

By simply counting the number of times a well falls into the lower half of each category, a 

relative assessment can be made of a well’s vulnerability to capture long flowpaths. Of the nine wells 

that were sampled for chemistry, isotopes, and dissolved gases, wells DW–2, DW–24, DW–17, and 

DW–6 ranked in the lower half three times and had the highest occurrences in the lower half (relative 

score). Therefore these four wells likely capture some groundwater from long flowpaths. Wells DW–29, 

12
DW–25, and DW–9A ranked in the lower half twice and have groundwater chemical signatures that 

suggest possible capture of long flowpaths. 

Several wells show strong characteristics of having mixed groundwater and likely capture 

groundwater from a variety of shallow and deep fractures. These include DW–17 (high CO2, moderate 

δ13C value, moderate cation exchange (major ion), and colder RT), and DW–5A (relatively heavy δD

and δ18O values but major ions indicate cation exchange). At DW–5A, the heavy δD and δ18O values

indicate groundwater is affected by evapotranspiration during the summer; groundwater recharged 

primarily in summer months is interpreted as recent recharge. Conversely, DW–5A also has evidence of 

being affected by cation exchange, which is characterized as a more chemically mature water type.

This vulnerability assessment is based on a model to evaluate flowpath length but should be 

tempered by the location of the well relative to the PCE contamination source. For example, although 

wells DW–24 and DW–25 show evidence of capturing long flowpaths, their location indicates that they 

receive a part of their recharge from the hillside areas to the west. Conversely, a high level of 

vulnerability may be appropriate for well DW–2, which is near the PCE contamination and has evidence 

of capturing long flowpaths (relative score of three). The flowpath length model should also be 

tempered by the potential for mixing of young and old groundwater in a well indicating the ability to 

dilute contaminants being transported by select fractures.

13
Table 6. Ranking of groundwater samples from wells based on results of chemical analyses and the potential of capturing long flowpaths, Savage 

Municipal Well Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire.

[Monitoring wells excluding (BR–3, BR–4, and MW–30). δ13C, del value of dissolved inorganic carbon of carbon-13 isotope; RT,

recharge temperature; CO2, carbon dioxide; δD, deuterium; δ18O, oxygen-18. Shaded cells are wells more likely to capture long 

flowpaths; Arrow indicates direction of increasing flowpath length].

Category Major ion δ13C CO2 RT δD and δ18O

Predominant process

used for the ranking 

of vulnerability

Cation exchange

(chemical maturity)

Carbonate (for example, 

calcite) dissolution and 

CO2 soil gas input

CO2 soil gas and shallow 

recharge

Seasonal (summer and winter)

recharge

Fractionation from seasonal 

recharge

Ranking order Low (short flowpath) to 

high (long flowpath) Na 

to Ca milliequivalent

per liter ratio

Light (short flowpath) to 

heavy (long flowpath)

isotopic composition

High (short flowpath) to 

low (long flowpath)

concentrations

Warmer or colder RT (short 

flowpaths ) to average RT 

(long flowpaths,and diffuse 

recharge)

Heavy or light (short flowpaths)

to intermediate (long flowpath)

isotopic composition

Short flowpaths DW–28* DW–5A DW–17 DW–5A DW–5A

DW–25 DW–25 DW–12 DW–29 DW–6

DW–23* DW–9A DW–24 DW–9A DW–9A

DW–22* DW–2 DW–5A DW–12 DW–12

DW–29 DW–12 DW–6 DW–2 DW–29

DW–24

DW–17

DW–30*

DW–27*

DW–12 DW–17 DW–9A DW–24 DW–17

DW–20* DW–24 DW–2 DW–17 DW–25

DW–5A **DW–29 DW–25 DW–6 DW–2

DW–6 DW–6 DW–29 DW–25 DW–24

DW–2

DW–21*

DW–19*

DW–18*

Long flowpaths DW–9A

*Sample for major ion data only.

**Heavier δ13C but low alkalinity suggests mixing.

14
5 Conclusions

Understanding the origin of groundwater flow to fractured-rock aquifers provides a mechanism 

to assess the vulnerability of residential-supply wells to capture contaminants from known 

contamination areas. For this study, although concentrations of tetrachloroethylene (PCE) have yet to be 

detected in samples from nearby residential-supply wells, concerns over future changes in hydraulic 

stresses (pumpage) or modifications to remedial operations at operable units provided motivation to 

characterize groundwater from the residential–supply wells. The interpretation of geochemical and 

isotopic data helped researchers assess the origin of flowpaths to each well.

Groundwater samples that were collected from monitoring and residential-supply wells represent 

an integrated sample from multiple flowpaths and multiple fractures. Deciphering the likely origin of 

groundwater from each well sample required the use of multiple lines of evidence, which were provided 

by the suite of chemical, isotopic, and dissolved gas analyses performed for this study.

A simple vulnerability-rank model was developed that utilized the multiple lines of evidence 

approach based on data collected for this study. The vulnerability-rank model assumes that groundwater 

that appears to be younger is recharged by short flowpaths. Short flowpaths originate closer to the well. 

Given the distances (>1⁄4 mile) of some of the residential-supply wells to areas of known contamination, 

wells characterized as containing signatures of young groundwater are assumed to be less at risk. 

Groundwater samples that exhibit a high level of mixing of younger and older waters are from wells that 

have the capability of diluting contaminants because they capture a variety of flowpaths. Groundwater 

that appears to be older is assumed to be recharged by long flowpaths (> 1⁄4 mile). Long flowpaths are 

capable of transporting contaminants to residential-supply wells. Four wells were characterized as 

containing signatures of old groundwater. Two of the four wells are closer to PCE source areas and may 

be the most vulnerable to potential PCE contamination; these wells could be targeted for additional 

study to understand their fracture and flow characteristics.

Results of this work can be used to help target wells for additional chemical analyses and 

geophysical investigations. For example, age dating of groundwater samples with environmental tracers 

would refine the evaluation of flowpath length. Geophysical logging can be performed to help map 

fracture patterns in open boreholes and help track sources of water. Sampling of both open boreholes 

(this study) and discrete fractures would help researchers identify the relative contribution of fractures to 

the integrated open-borehole sample. Collectively, the estimates of age from groundwater samples and 

geophysical fracture mapping would provide additional evidence to evaluate vulnerability of residential 

wells to capture PCE contaminants. The vulnerability-rank model of categorical data developed by this 

study is most appropriate as a screening tool for followup investigations.

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17
Figures

18
19 

Figure 1. Location map of monitoring wells and residential-supply wells, Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, 

Milford, New Hampshire.
20 

Figure 2. Piper diagram of major water type for residential and monitoring wells, Savage Municipal Well 

Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire. %meq/L, percent milliequivalents per liter. Residential wells start with the 

prefix DW; monitoring wells include BR–3, BR–4, and MW–30.
21 

Figure 3. Modified piper of major water type (showing combined cation-anion plot only) for residential and 

monitoring wells, classified by well parameter, Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire. 

%meq/L, percent milliequivalents per liter; gpm, gallons per minute.
22 

Figure 4. Graphs showing relation of stable isotopes of δD and δ18O of groundwater from residential and 

monitoring well samples and the local meteoric water line (LMWL) by A, well type and B, yield, Savage Superfund 

site, Milford, New Hampshire. gpm, gallons per minute.
23 

Figure 5. Graph showing relation of the delta of carbon-13 isotope (δ13C) and alkalinity of groundwater from 

residential and monitoring well samples, Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire. 
24 

Figure 6. Graphs showing relation of recharge temperature from argon-nitrogen gas and δ13C of groundwater 

from residential and monitoring well samples for A, all wells and B, selected wells, Savage Municipal Well 

Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire. R2, coefficient of determination.
Appendix 1. Wells Sampled for Analysis of Isotopes

Table 1–1. New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services and U.S. Geological Survey site identifiers 

for sampled wells analyzed for isotopes, OU3 Savage Municipal Well Superfund site, Milford, New Hampshire.

[NHDES, New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services; USGS, U.S. Geological Survey] 

NHDES well identifier Sample collection date USGS station (site) name

OKT_DW–25 8/30/2011 NH-MOW 445

OKT_DW–24 8/30/2011 NH-MOW 446

OKT_DW–5A 8/30/2011 NH-MOW 439

OKT_DW–2 8/30/2011 NH-MOW 440

OKT_DW–9A 8/30/2011 NH-MOW 441

OKT_DW–12 8/30/2011 NH-MOW 442

OKT_DW–6 8/30/2011 NH-MOW 447

OKT_DW–17 8/30/2011 NH-MOW 448

OKT_DW–29 8/31/2011 NH-MOW 449

OKT_BR–4 9/01/2011 NH-MOW 438

OKT_BR–3 9/01/2011 NH-MOW 437

OKT_MW–30 9/01/2011 NH-MOW 436

25 
Prepared by the Pembroke Publishing Service Center.

For more information concerning this report, contact:

Office Chief

U.S. Geological Survey

New England Water Science Center 

New Hampshire-Vermont Office

331 Commerce Way, Suite 2

Pembroke, NH 03275

dc_nh@usgs.gov

or visit our Web site at:

http://nh.water.usgs.gov
Harte— Geochemical, Isotopic, and Dissolved Gas Characteristics of Groundwater in a Fractured Rock Aquifer, Savage Well Superfund Site, Milford, N.H., 2011—OFR 2013–1089