DEPAR TMENT OF AGRICULT URE

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacific Northwest 

Research Station

General Technical 

Report

PNW-GTR-879

May 2013

Exploring the Role of Traditional 

Ecological Knowledge in Climate 

Change Initiatives

Kirsten Vinyeta and Kathy Lynn
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Authors

Kirsten Vinyeta (kvinyeta@gmail.com) is a graduate research assistant, and 

Kathy Lynn (kathy@uoregon.edu) is an adjunct faculty researcher, Environmental 

Studies Program, 5223 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403.

This publication is a result of research through the Pacific Northwest Tribal Climate Change Project, a collaboration between the USDA Forest Service Pacific 

Northwest Research Station and the University of Oregon Environmental Studies 

Program. Kathy Lynn is the lead investigator and Kirsten Vinyeta is the graduate 

research fellow for the Pacific Norhtwest Tribal Climate Change project.
Abstract

Vinyeta, Kirsten; Lynn, Kathy. 2013. Exploring the role of traditional ecological 

knowledge in climate change initiatives. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-879. 

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest 

Research Station. 37 p. 

Indigenous populations are projected to face disproportionate impacts as a result of 

climate change in comparison to nonindigenous populations. For this reason, many 

American Indian and Alaska Native tribes are identifying and implementing culturally appropriate strategies to assess climate impacts and adapt to projected changes. 

Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), as the indigenous knowledge system is 

called, has the potential to play a central role in both indigenous and nonindigenous 

climate change initiatives. The detection of environmental changes, the development of strategies to adapt to these changes, and the implementation of sustainable 

land-management principles are all important climate action items that can be 

informed by TEK. Although there is a significant body of literature on traditional 

knowledge, this synthesis examines literature that specifically explores the relationship between TEK and climate change. The synthesis describes the potential role 

of TEK in climate change assessment and adaptation efforts. It also identifies some 

of the challenges and benefits associated with merging TEK with Western science, 

and reviews the way in which federal policies and administrative practices facilitate 

or challenge the incorporation of TEK in climate change initiatives. The synthesis 

highlights examples of how tribes and others are including TEK into climate 

research, education, and resource planning and explores strategies to incorporate 

TEK into climate change policy, assessments, and adaptation efforts at national, 

regional, and local levels.

Keywords: Climate change, traditional ecological knowledge, American 

Indians, Alaska Natives.
Contents

1 Introduction

3 Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Natural Resource Management

5 National and International Interest in TEK

6 TEK in a Climate Change Context

8 The Role of TEK in Climate Change Adaptation

8 Climate Change Assessment

9 Climate Change Adaptation

10 Tribes Incorporating TEK Into Climate Change Initiatives

11 Tribal–Federal Partnerships

13 Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Western Science 

14 Two Ways of Knowing

15 Protection of Native Knowledge Systems and Culture

16 Perceptions of Western Scientists

17 Bringing TEK and Western Science Together

19 Policy Considerations: Including TEK within Climate Change Initiatives

20 Mechanisms for Knowledge Exchange

21 Protection of TEK

22 Funding and Compensation

25 Continued Involvement and Communication

25 Inclusion of TEK in Climate Change Research and Management

26 Conclusion

26 Acknowledgments

27 References

35 Appendix: Considerations for Incorporating TEK Into Climate 

 Change Initiatives
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Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

Introduction

Climate change may be a global phenomenon, but the impacts will not be evenly 

distributed among the world’s population. Indigenous groups are projected to be 

among the communities most heavily affected by climate change (Parrotta and 

Agnoletti 2012). In Secretarial Order No. 3289, “Addressing the Impacts of Climate 

Change on America’s Water, Land, and Other Natural and Cultural Resources,” the 

U.S. Department of the Interior states that “climate change may disproportionately 

affect tribes and their lands because they are heavily dependent on their natural 

resources for economic and cultural identity” (USDI 2010: 4). 

Many indigenous communities are beginning to experience the effects of 

climate change (IPCC 2001a, 2001b, 2007). As American Indians, Alaska Natives, 

and Native Hawaiians prepare to confront this threat, effective, culturally relevant 

strategies for climate change assessment and adaptation must be developed. Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK; See the “Traditional Ecological Knowledge and 

Western Science” section for a comparison of the two types of knowledge), is the 

primary indigenous way of understanding relationships among species, ecosystems, 

and ecological processes. Traditional ecological knowledge has the potential to play 

a vital role in climate change assessment and adaptation efforts that bridge human 

and environmental systems. Not only does it hold relevance for indigenous groups, 

it is also being recognized as an invaluable contribution to the larger climate change 

discussions occurring at regional, national, and international levels (Parrotta and 

Agnoletti 2012). 

This synthesis of literature is specifically focused on TEK in the context of 

climate change. A significant body of literature exists describing the use of TEK 

in natural and cultural resource management, as well as the similarities and differences between TEK and Western science. As academics, governments, and communities build their understanding of climate change impacts, an understanding of the 

role of TEK in identifying impacts and planning for and adapting to climate change 

and its relationship to Western Science is needed. This synthesis identifies literature 

that has begun to explore this relationship between TEK and climate change.

This knowledge synthesis examines agency reports, science journals, indigenous natural resources and climate change initiatives, and reports by national and 

international organizations, to frame the applicability of TEK within a climate 

change context. It intends to summarize some of the ways TEK has historically 

been used in resource management and highlights the potential role of TEK in 

climate change assessment and adaptation initiatives. It also identifies some of the 

challenges and benefits associated with merging TEK with Western science, and 
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general technical report pnw-gtr-879

reviews how federal policies and administrative practices facilitate or challenge the 

incorporation of TEK in climate change initiatives. 

This synthesis includes examples of indigenous groups, agencies, and organizations incorporating TEK into research, education, and resource planning efforts. 

These examples can serve as ideas for tribes and public and private partners with 

an interest in exploring the role of TEK in addressing climate change. 

Although there is a growing body of literature related to TEK and climate 

change, TEK is not yet a mainstream consideration in climate change literature. 

There is also a gap in the literature describing culturally sensitive approaches to 

knowledge exchanges, collaboration, and communication between indigenous 

groups and federal agencies. 

There are varying definitions of TEK given the significant body of literature 

on the subject. The Swinomish Climate Adaptation Action Plan defines TEK as the 

“holistic, evolving practices and beliefs passed down through generations about the 

relationships of living beings to their environment” (Swinomish 2010: 5). Author 

Fikret Berkes defines TEK as: 

A cumulative body of knowledge, practice, and belief, evolving by 

adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural 

transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including humans) 

with one another and with their environment (Berkes 1993, Berkes et al. 

1995, Gadgil et al. 1993 as cited in Berkes 2008: 7). 

This body of knowledge encompasses language, naming and classification 

systems, and sustainable practices for the use of resources. It also guides the use 

of rituals and defines the indigenous worldview and spirituality (Boven and Morohashi 2002). 

TEK can include diverse kinds of narratives or observations by an 

indigenous person or group (Menzies and Butler 2006). These narratives, in turn, can provide intergenerational observations of various 

kinds of natural resource phenomena (Alexander et al. 2011: 477). 

Traditional ecological knowledge is sometimes referred to as a subset of indigenous knowledge, while in other cases it is considered synonymous with indigenous 

knowledge. In this document, traditional ecological knowledge, traditional knowledge, and indigenous knowledge are used interchangeably. 
3

Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Natural Resource 

Management

Indigenous groups have historically relied on TEK to guide their interaction with 

natural resources (Berkes 2008). Traditional ecological knowledge “is acknowledged as having fundamental importance in the management of local resources, in 

the husbanding of the world’s biodiversity, and in providing locally valid models 

for sustainable living” (Turner et al. 2000: 1275). In the United States, there are 

examples of indigenous groups that have included TEK guidelines in contemporary 

resource management plans for their tribes and communities. A few examples in 

the Pacific Northwest are profiled below.

Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation: “First Foods” 

mission— 

First foods are a central aspect of the traditions of the peoples of the Confederated 

Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation (CTUIR). In 2007, the CTUIR Board 

of Trustees approved the adoption of the tribe’s Department of Natural Resources 

(DNR) “First Foods” mission. 

Management of natural resources needs to be responsive to the unique 

values placed on the resources by tribal culture. The CTUIR DNR has 

adopted a mission based on indigenous foods served at tribal meals. 

These foods are served at ritual meals and are known to the CTUIR as 

“First Foods” (CTUIR 2010: 153). 

Based off of the traditional first foods ceremonies of the CTUIR, this plan 

provides an indigenous framework for restoring culturally important foods; each 

branch of the program covers one of the first foods important to the people. 

Coquille Indian Tribe: sustainable forestry initiative— 

Congress awarded the Coquille Indian Tribe 5,400 acres of tribal forest in 1996, and 

the tribe has since developed a sustainable forestry initiative that combines Western 

science with TEK. The Coquille Tribe’s forest-management plan calls for the tribe 

to manage “intensively for spiritual, cultural, biological, recreation, aesthetic, and 

economic values” (Wells 2011). Their approach is intended to balance “modern 

land-management tools and techniques” with tribal traditions. Some of the practices 

that reflect TEK values include the protection of wildlife habitat and ecologically 

valuable forest components, such as big trees and snags; the protection of nesting 

sites of culturally important birds; and management practices that promote the rapid 

regeneration of food and shelter for culturally significant wildlife after a timber harvest (Wells 2011).
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general technical report pnw-gtr-879

Karuk Tribe: Eco-Cultural Resource Management Plan— 

The Karuk Tribe DNR drafted the tribe’s Eco-Cultural Resource Management Plan 

in 2010. The plan is defined as “an integrated approach to adaptive problemsolving, 

in the interest of managing the restoration of balanced ecological processes utilizing Traditional Ecological Knowledge supported by Western Science” (Karuk 2010: 

cover). As the principle way of knowing, TEK guides the Karuk’s resource management efforts in a culturally sensitive way and promotes the use and preservation of 

TEK in their community. This approach is guided by cultural environmental management practices specific to resources of interest. 

Bridging traditional knowledge and agency management strategies— 

The use of fire as an ecosystem management tool is an example of one of the contemporary applications of TEK, and illustrates the potential for TEK to influence 

changes in public land management processes. 

Euro-Americans arrived in North America bearing their folk knowledge that held fire in forests to be destructive and hazardous to humans 

(Arno 1985, Lewis 1982). This view contrasted sharply with the traditional knowledge of the indigenous inhabitants, who embraced the 

benefits of burning and were skilled in application of fire technology 

(Kimmerer and Lake 2001: 36).

Colonizing Europeans and subsequent American forest policies that suppressed 

wildfires contributed to ecosystem change and other environmental consequences 

(Kimmerer and Lake 2001). In recent decades, however, the ecological role of 

fire has gained attention with Western scientists and federal land managers as a 

management tool. The significance of fire’s influence on society and the environment is exemplified by the 2008 publication Interagency Prescribed Fire: Planning 

and Implementation Procedures Guide. This publication, which serves groups 

such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service and the U.S. 

Department of the Interior (USDI) Bureau of Indian Affairs and the National 

Park Service (among others) provides guidelines for prescribed fire planning and 

implementation.

...prescribed fire is used to alter, maintain, or restore vegetative communities; achieve desired resource conditions; and to protect life, property, and values that would be degraded and/or destroyed by wildfire 

(USDA and USDI 2008: Executive Summary).

The use of fire 

as an ecosystem 

management tool 

is an example 

of one of the 

contemporary 

applications of 

TEK, and illustrates 

the potential for 

TEK to influence 

changes in public 

land management 

processes. 
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Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

National and International Interest in TEK

Many disciplines rooted in Western science now recognize the value of TEK 

(Trosper and Parrotta 2012). Various forms of TEK are commonly accepted in 

disciplines such as the social sciences as well as among scientists in fields such 

as agriculture and soil and water conservation (Alexander et al. 2011). Traditional 

ecological knowledge is also recognized for the contributions it can make to 

resource management. “In recent decades, resource managers have gradually 

begun to embrace the usefulness of applying TEK to contemporary stewardship 

issues in various parts of the world” (United Nations 2008, WCED 1987 as cited in 

Alexander et al. 2011: 478). Public agencies and nongovernmental organizations in 

the United States and around the world are beginning to incorporate TEK in climate 

change, planning, policies, education, and research. 

The National Science Foundation has funded projects incorporating TEK in the 

study of climate change, including the development of indigenous-based math curriculum, the effects of contaminants on subsistence foods, and alternative technologies for waste disposal (Barnhardt and Kawagley 2005). In 2010, the USDA Natural 

Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) published a guidebook titled Indigenous 

Stewardship Methods and NRCS Conservation Practices, which “provides a sensitive process in which knowledge is shared, allowing employees to incorporate the 

indigenous knowledge into NRCS’ assistance through its conservation practices” 

(USDA NRCS 2010: 1). According to the NRCS, “culturally diverse worldviews 

and ways of knowing are as important as genetic and biologic diversity in providing 

solutions to the ever growing daunting environmental issues we are facing” (USDA 

NRCS 2010: 4). 

The United Nations University (the academic arm of the United Nations) has 

also addressed the importance of TEK by creating the Traditional Knowledge 

Initiative. The initiative “seeks to build greater understanding and facilitate awareness of traditional knowledge to inform action by indigenous peoples, local communities, and domestic and international policy makers” (United Nations University 

2011). Their efforts include partnerships with other organizations to facilitate the 

inclusion of TEK into international endeavors. 

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is also acknowledging the role 

of TEK and encouraging its responsible use. The CBD’s Article 8j states:

Each contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate: Subject to national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, 

innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable 

use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the 
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general technical report pnw-gtr-879

approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations 

and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising 

from the utilization of such knowledge innovations and practices (CBD 

2011a). 

The CBD’s article 10c also promotes TEK by advocating that each contracting 

party “protect and encourage customary use of biological resources in accordance 

with traditional cultural practices that are compatible with conservation or sustainable use requirements” (CBD 2011b). Protecting and encouraging the traditional 

use of resources sets the stage for the preservation of knowledge associated with 

traditional activities.

TEK in a Climate Change Context

Traditional ecological knowledge is essential to the economic and cultural survival 

of indigenous groups and has proven invaluable to nonindigenous communities as 

a way of knowing that provides a renewed perspective. As indigenous and nonindigenous communities alike have benefitted from the application of TEK in natural 

and cultural resource management, there is increasing recognition of the value of 

TEK as it applies to climate change assessment and adaptation efforts. 

Traditional ecological knowledge can help build an understanding of climate 

impacts on ecological processes and phenomena across spatial and temporal scales 

for different organisms, habitats, and various ecosystems (Nabhan 2010). It can also 

serve an important role in short- and medium-term weather forecasting (Parrotta 

and Agnoletti 2012). The applicability of TEK, associated with socioeconomic 

and adaptive human responses to environmental change can make an important 

contribution to understanding the impacts from climate change and strategies for 

adaptation. 

Indigenous groups are projected to be among the most vulnerable in the face 

of climate change. This is in part because of their close ties with and reliance on 

ecosystem goods and services. Because of this, it is important that climate change 

impacts and adaptation strategies be examined through an understanding of 

Western science and place-based TEK. Internationally, organizations are progressively recognizing this need but continue to face challenges when attempting to 

incorporate TEK in their climate change initiatives. The foremost climate change 

authority, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), is among these 

organizations. 

In its fourth assessment report, the IPCC noted the importance of TEK as it 

pertains to climate change. Specifically, it stated that TEK is “an invaluable basis 
7

Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

for developing adaptation and natural resource management strategies in response 

to environmental and other forms of change” (Raygorodetsky 2011).

Previous IPCC Assessments, however, were unable to access this type 

of information because, for the most part, traditional knowledge either 

appears in grey literature outside of peer-reviewed academic forums, or 

remains in oral form, thereby falling outside the scope of IPCC process 

(Raygorodetsky 2011).

To adress this issue, the IPCC is taking steps to make TEK a more prominent 

component of its fifth assessment, slated for publication in 2014 (Raygorodetsky 

2011). One of these steps has been to partner with the United Nations University 

Traditional Knowledge Initiative to facilitate the incorporation of TEK into IPCC 

research and reporting. The two organizations are working “to ensure that the 

experience of indigenous and traditional peoples of climate change impacts and 

their adaptation and mitigation strategies are fully integrated in the next IPCC 

Assessment...” (Raygorodetsky 2011). Despite these efforts, there are claims that 

the IPCC’s fifth assessment does not go to great enough lengths to include TEK as 

a significant component of the publication. 

There is no Indigenous population’s chapter planned for WGII for 

example, and aside from the affirmation of the importance of Indigenous Knowledge at the 31st and 32nd Session of the IPCC, there is 

limited indication at an institutional level that this is a priority area for 

improvement or development. This is an important gap because Indigenous populations have been identified as a highly vulnerable subgroup, 

while their accumulated knowledge can help us understand how the 

climate is changing, characterize impacts, and provide valuable lessons 

for adaptation (Ford et al. 2010, Green et al. 2009, Salick and Ross 2009, 

Turner and Clifton 2009 as cited in Ford et al. 2011).

The IPCC’s acknowledgement of the importance of TEK in a climate change 

context is indicative of the momentum that TEK is gaining as a knowledge system 

that has much to contribute to climate change research and political initiatives. The 

obstacles faced by researchers, policymakers, and others when attempting to incorporate TEK into climate change research illustrates some of the administrative and 

cultural challenges that must be addressed for TEK to be successfully incorporated 

into such efforts. 

The IPCC’s 

acknowledgement 

of the importance 

of TEK in a climate 

change context is 

indicative of the 

momentum that 

TEK is gaining as a 

knowledge system 

that has much to 

contribute to climate 

change research and 

political initiatives.
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The Role of TEK in Climate Change Adaptation

Traditional ecological knowledge is an invaluable way of knowing that has the 

potential to become instrumental in climate change assessment and adaptation 

efforts (Salick and Ross 2009). Indigenous communities have historically lived 

within the land’s means and adapted to environmental changes. Climate change is 

likely to bring rapid environmental changes in many regions of the United States 

and require broad-scale adaptation strategies. The detection of environmental 

changes, the development of strategies to adapt to these changes, and the implementation of sustainable land-management principles are all important climate action 

items that can be informed by TEK (Parrotta and Agnoletti 2012). Researchers 

and scholars have already started to identify and categorize ways in which TEK 

and Western science can be used together in climate change-related research. As 

demonstrated above with international and national frameworks, this effort can be 

improved. Based on research carried out in the Arctic, Riedlinger and Berkes (2001 

as cited in Berkes 2008: 164) identified five areas in which science and TEK can 

communicate and collaborate, through the use of TEK: 

• As local-scale expertise

• As a source of climate history and baseline data

• In formulating research questions and hypotheses

• As insight into impacts and adaptation in communities

• For long-term community-based monitoring 

Traditional ecological knowledge can make significant contributions in assessing the impacts of climate change and in identifying strategies for climate change 

adaptation. 

Climate Change Assessment

Indigenous cultures have centuries of experience with local natural 

resources. They may observe local environmental changes out in the 

field before Western scientists detect them and can develop ways to 

respond to these changes (Grossman 2008: 8).

Climate change assessments, approaches often guided by Western scientific 

frameworks, examine the potential changes that may occur to the environment, as 

well as community economies, infrastructure, public health, and other aspects of 

community livelihood as a result of climate change. Traditional ecological knowledge has the potential to inform various aspects of climate change assessments 
9

Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

(Parrotta and Agnoletti 2012). Specifically, TEK can provide baseline climate 

information and climate history, in identifying local climatic changes both shortand long-term, and in identifying the environmental and cultural impacts within 

ecological, spatial, and temporal scales. 

Traditional ecological knowledge relies on the accumulation of long-term, 

land-based wisdom gained from experiences with organisms, habitats, ecosystems, 

and ecological processes. Consequently, this way of knowing can compare historical landscape conditions with present-day conditions (Parrotta and Agnoletti 2012). 

Indigenous narratives and traditions often include references to environmental 

conditions and events, giving TEK holders a fine-tuned sense of nature’s temporality, diversity, and variability. Stumpff (2009) describes an example of how these 

traditions instill a keen sense of environmental awareness: “The Quileute know 

something is wrong because there are no smelt eggs in time for Honoring Elders 

Day to make ‘stinky eggs,’ so they know the smelt are out of balance often before 

scientists realize that this keystone species is faltering” (Stumpff 2009: 81). This 

knowledge can be useful when attempting to understand natural systems over time. 

As illustrated in the example below, research comparing information inferred from 

traditional narratives with scientific data reveals strong similarities and conclusions.

In several Iñupiaq indigenous narratives, the changes in sea ice and 

whale migrations that have affected hunting success were described. 

This effect influences the Iñupiaq’s spiritual and physical ties with the 

whale in relation to traditional musicmaking (Sakakibara 2009). These 

narratives were linked to NASA Earth Observations Records (NASA 

2007). As time series of remotely sensed data become longer, further 

links between narrative and scientific observations may be found 

(Alexander et al. 2011: 482). 

Climate Change Adaptation

In reference to TEK, Fikret Berkes (2008) uses the phrase “knowledge as process” 

and defines it as “knowledge that undergoes continual generation and regeneration 

as people interact with the environment; observing, learning, and adapting.” This 

definition suggests that TEK and “knowledge as process” refers to the ability of 

indigenous groups to be adaptive and resilient to change and offers a way of knowing that could be conducive to understanding impacts from climate change and 

strategies for climate adaptation. Salick and Ross (2009) suggest that indigenous 

peoples “interpret and react to climate change impacts in creative ways, drawing on 

traditional knowledge as well as new technologies to find solutions, which may help 

society at large to cope with the impending changes.” 

“The Quileute know 

something is wrong 

because there are no 

smelt eggs in time 

for Honoring Elders 

Day to make ‘stinky 

eggs,’ so they know 

the smelt are out of 

balance often before 

scientists realize that 

this keystone species 

is faltering.”
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general technical report pnw-gtr-879

Indigenous groups have applied TEK to adapt to the changing environment 

through time, and there are already examples of groups applying TEK to adapt to 

the impacts of climate change. Such examples provide insight into potential adaptation strategies. In his research focused on the people of Sachs Harbour, Berkes 

(2008) breaks indigenous adaptive measures into two categories: (1) short-term or 

coping responses to environmental changes, and (2) cultural practices and adaptive 

responses to the broader environment. 

Short-term responses include modifying the timing and location of harvest 

activity, adjusting the mix of species harvested, and monitoring for dangerous 

environmental conditions. Adaptive responses include intercommunity trade, hunting group mobility through seasonal settlements, sharing mechanisms and social 

networks, and flexibility of seasonal cycles of harvest and resources use (Berkes 

2008). Knowledge exchanges between tribal communities are also occurring.

At the Tribal Lands Climate Conference, a Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) 

woman reported that she had visited relations to her south to learn 

what was coming into her territories and then visited communities to 

her north to let them know what may be coming their way (Grossman 

2008: 11).

Climate change is likely to affect the phenology and range of culturally important species. Information exchanges can help indigenous communities adjust their 

knowledge to prepare for these changes, and can be applicable to climate adaptation 

strategies.

Tribes Incorporating TEK Into Climate Change Initiatives

An increasing number of tribes and native groups throughout the United States are 

engaged in addressing climate change, and some explicitly mention the role of TEK 

in their efforts. In the Pacific Northwest, the Swinomish Indian Tribal Community 

has developed a strong climate change initiative, completing an impact assessment 

in 2009 and a climate change adaptation plan in 2010 that includes a section on the 

challenges of developing effective adaptation measures that consider tribal traditions. The plan also discusses “the need to have an ethical response that respects 

and preserves the sensitive nature of traditional knowledge and specifies ongoing 

work to connect elders with youth for intergenerational sharing of spiritual and 

other traditional environmental knowledge” (Swinomish 2010: 24).

The Swinomish plan (2010) includes a list of initiatives that are exploring ways 

in which TEK can be incorporated into adaptation planning. These include:
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Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

• The pursuit of a codification approach to institutionalizing traditional 

knowledge by creating an ethical construct that functions as an indirect 

representation of more sensitive knowledge concepts, in the interest of 

respecting and protecting such core knowledge. 

• The creation of tribal review boards as a vehicle for formal screening and 

approval of traditional knowledge and sources. This would allow for and 

create a pathway for application of traditional knowledge, while providing 

a direct means of protecting such knowledge from misappropriation and 

misuse. 

On a larger scale, the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues 

inspired indigenous groups to form the Indigenous Peoples’ Biocultural Climate 

Change Assessment Initiative (IPCCA 2012) in 2008 as a platform to bring together 

TEK and Western science and incorporate indigenous perspectives into global 

climate change conversations (IPCCA 2012). 

As climate change is a global phenomenon, IPCCA is also undertaking 

a Global Assessment of indigenous peoples vis-à-vis climate change, 

producing reflections for policy development to support implementation 

of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples’ 

and strengthen the role of indigenous knowledge in building appropriate 

solutions to the challenge of climate change. Part of the strategic policy 

goals of this indigenous initiative is to enable local voices to reshape the 

climate change debate (IPCCA 2012). 

Martinez describes the IPCCA’s approach as one that empowers local 

communities to do their own assessments. 

Our mission is to empower Indigenous communities to develop and use 

their own ecocultural realities and knowledge to assess the effects of 

climate disruption; the development and implementation of response 

options for building Indigenous resilience and “buen vivir” or wellbeing, and adaptive strategies to mitigate climate disruption impacts by 

enhancing ecocultural diversity for food sovereignty, security, and 

self-determined development (Martinez 2011: 7).

Tribal–Federal Partnerships

There are a growing number of examples of collaborations between indigenous 

groups and public agencies to incorporate TEK into climate change strategies. 

Examples of these collaborative efforts are provided below.
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general technical report pnw-gtr-879

The 2010 Tribal Leaders Summit— 

Tribal leaders and officials with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

worked together during the summit in Juneau, Alaska, to develop a report on climate change called “Visions for Action.” The report (EPA 2010) included action 

items that highlighted the region’s commitment to climate change within three 

categories:

• Education and communication

• Tribal leadership/consultation/co-management and policy development/

regulations

• Interagency tribal coordination/equitable funding/funding research 

Each of these categories included the incorporation of TEK (or indigenous 

knowledge) in some capacity. For example, as it pertained to education and communication category, participants at the summit “proposed climate change education, informed by traditional ecological knowledge and science, targeted to schools, 

communities, and political leadership” (EPA 2010: 2).

Monitoring change using Aklavik (Inuvialuit) local ecological knowledge— 

To effectively detect climatic changes, the Inuvialuit of Canada and Alaska developed the Arctic Borderlands Ecological Knowledge Co-op, joining forces with 

interested locals and officials to monitor various climate change indicators. In 

September 2011, the monitoring data were used to produce a report on 13 years 

of community-based monitoring by Inuvialuit harvesters in Aklavik, Northwest 

Territories (Robinson and Nguyen 2011). The Borderlands Co-op gathered local 

ecological knowledge from harvesters on topics related to subsistence harvesting 

and changes on the landscape and climate and helped illustrate how TEK can 

contribute to scientific understanding. 

The results of this study in some cases agreed with and other times 

corrected recent scientific conclusions, demonstrating the value and 

efficiency of such community-based ecological monitoring programs 

(Robinson and Nguyen 2011: Exec. Summary). 

The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA)— 

Prepared by more than 300 participants from 15 countries, the ACIA (2005) was 

a scientific report including many examples drawn from the local traditional knowledge of Inuit, Sami, Athabaskans, Gwich’in, Aleut, and other Arctic indigenous 

peoples. “These publications demonstrate some of the possibilities for bringing 

diverse groups together to frame challenges related to climate change” (Alexander 

et al. 2011: 478).
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Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

In reference to TEK (or indigenous knowledge as it is referred to in ACIA), the 

report suggests that the ACIA utilized indigenous knowledge to an unprecedented 

degree (Huntington and Weller 2005). 

The value of TEK as a climate change assessment and adaptation tool is quickly 

being realized. As the above examples demonstrate, local, regional, national, and 

international initiatives are relying on TEK to make important contributions. These 

types of collaborations are only bound to increase in frequency. In the United 

States, agencies and organizations can begin to consider financial and administrative strategies to incorporate TEK within climate change initiatives. 

The Pacific Northwest Climate Change Network— 

The Tribal Climate Change Project is a collaboration between the University of 

Oregon Environmental Studies Program and the USDA Forest Service Pacific 

Northwest Research Station. One of the Tribal Climate Change Project’s central 

endeavors is the Pacific Northwest Climate Change Network, which serves as a 

platform for tribes to exchange information on climate change policy, grants, and 

programs. It provides a place for tribes and nontribal organizations to engage in climate change issues and share helpful resources and ideas. The network has over 50 

organizations represented, including tribes, federal agencies, and nongovernmental 

organizations. A significant area of focus for the network includes exploring the role 

of TEK in climate change studies, vulnerability assessments, and adaptation plans, 

as well as the protection of TEK in cross-jurisdictional climate change initiatives. 

Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Western Science

As the value of incorporating TEK into climate change mitigation and adaptation 

plans is recognized, bringing TEK and Western science together will be indispensible. Successfully bringing together these two knowledge systems requires 

an understanding of any presumed incompatibilities and identification of how 

TEK and Western scientific approaches are compatible. Western scientists have an 

opportunity to reframe traditional perspectives on TEK (that may consider TEK as 

a subjective, informal, lesser way of knowing), and see TEK as a relevant, reliable 

knowledge system with strengths complimentary to those of Western science. 

Knowledge exchanges can be planned in a respectful way that will ensure the full 

protection of the knowledge systems and cultural practices of the tribe or native 

group contributing TEK. Finally, changes can be considered that would inform 

standard institutional practices and accommodate the unique nature of such knowledge exchanges. 

Western scientists 

have an opportunity 

to reframe traditional 

perspectives on TEK 

(that may consider 

TEK as a subjective, 

informal, lesser 

way of knowing), 

and see TEK as a 

relevant, reliable 

knowledge system 

with strengths 

complimentary to 

those of Western 

science.
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Two Ways of Knowing

An obstacle to incorporating TEK into collaborative management and mitigation 

plans is the perceived incompatibility between TEK and Western science (Gamborg 

et al. 2012). Recent studies and collaborations have contested this notion and have 

shown that the two ways of knowing can be meaningfully used together, in part 

because of their inherent differences. The two knowledge systems differ most in the 

way facts are acquired and transmitted. Traditional ecological knowledge involves 

the accumulation of highly localized, experiential, placed-based wisdom over a 

long period, most often passed down orally from generation to generation. Western 

science, on the other hand, develops rapidly by testing the validity of hypotheses 

with experimental manipulation in a highly controlled setting via the application of 

standardized procedures, and is most often passed on via writing in an academic 

setting. The two knowledge systems also share some similarities. Both knowledge 

systems are founded on observations and critical evaluation of the phenomena, processes, or taxa of interest. Procedurally, they both rely on empirical observation in 

natural settings and on pattern recognition to refine their knowledge base (Gamborg 

et al. 2012). Both are subject to modification as initial facts and assumptions are 

disproven or improved upon through additional experience or testing, both relying on repetition to validate an assumed fact. The key differences and similarities 

between the two systems are highlighted in table 1 proposed by the Alaska Native 

Science Commission.

Historically, the differences between these two ways of knowing often hindered 

collaborative effort. There are many examples now, however, of those who view 

these differences as complementary to each other rather than mutually exclusive 

(Parrotta and Agnoletti 2012). Traditional ecological knowledge can contribute 

qualitative, historical field data that Western science may lack, while Western 

science typically provides more quantitative data. As it pertains to climate change, 

contributions from both knowledge systems are imperative. Traditional ecological 

knowledge can identify on-the-ground climate-related changes occurring at a local 

level and contribute traditional management practices that have been time-tested. 

Additionally, as ecosystems experience increased fluctuations and former extremes 

in variability become more common, TEK of the “extreme” or “atypical” can 

be used to increase predictability of current and future change. Western science 

can quantify and document the changes that are occurring and test the validity of 

assumptions and potential solutions. Climate change mitigation and adaptation 

plans, frameworks, or strategies, especially for regions within or surrounding lands 
15

Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

Table 1—Comparisons between traditional and scientific knowledge in usea

Indigenous scientific knowledge Western scientific knowledge

Holistic approach Compartmentalized approach

Lengthy acquisition Rapid acquisition

Long-term wisdom Short-term prediction

Prediction in local areas Predictability in natural principles

Weak in predictive principles in distant areas Weak in integrated, local areas of

knowledge

Models based on cycles, accepting variablity Linear modeling as first approximation

Explanations based on examples, anecdotes, Explanations based on hypothesis, 

parables, and experiential familarity theories, laws, and scientific judgment 

a Modifed from Alaska Native Science Commission 2011a.

critical to tribes and native groups, have an opportunity to include TEK, along with 

Western science, to address the challenges in a holistic way that will maximize the 

positive outcomes for all parties involved.

Protection of Native Knowledge Systems and Culture

The holders of TEK have often been hesitant to collaborate with Western scientists 

because TEK is closely linked with each native group’s and native individual’s 

identity, lifestyle, intellect, and spirituality, and disclosing such information could 

be detrimental to cultural preservation. 

Many Natives view the extraction of their traditional knowledge from 

its broader cultural context as a form of theft and, understandably, have 

been reluctant to share the depth and breadth of what they know with 

outside interests. They also fear that, because many wildlife managers 

and decision-makers do not understand their culture, customs or values, 

their traditional knowledge will somehow be used against them (e.g., 

setting quotas and other hunting regulations). At best, piecemeal extraction of traditional knowledge from its larger cultural context invites 

misrepresentation and misinterpretation. At worst, it represents a form 

of misappropriation and cultural exploitation (Alaska Native Science 

Commission 2011b).

Many legal systems have historically treated TEK as part of the public domain 

once it leaves the indigenous community to which it belongs. For example, 

researchers have acquired TEK from indigenous groups and published it in their 

research, which then became public domain and open for use by private corporations that could capitalize on profits without benefitting the indigenous community 

that contributed the TEK (Posey and Dutfield 1996,1997 as cited in Berkes 2008). 
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An indigenous individual’s inheritance of TEK comes with a responsibility to 

one’s family, elders, and community, and especially to mentors who have entrusted 

or shared the information (Johnson 1992, Lake 2007). Unethical behavior on the 

part of some scientists and private entities can deteriorate TEK holders’ trust and 

willingness to participate in future collaborations for fear that their TEK will be 

misappropriated (Mason et al. 2012). For scientists and TEK holders to enter into a 

long-term collaboration, native knowledge systems and culture must be protected 

from exploitation and misapplication. 

Perceptions of Western Scientists

Because TEK is produced and disseminated differently than Western science, 

Western scientists have sometimes viewed TEK not as science, but as folklore 

(Mason et al. 2012). “Throughout history, marginalization of alternate perspectives 

as ‘unscientific’ has been a pervasive characteristic of Western science” (Bala and 

Joseph 2007, Nader 1996, as cited in Mason et al. 2012: 188). Such attitudes have at 

times negatively impacted the collaborative process, the quality of the knowledge 

resulting from such processes, and even the willingness of TEK holders to participate, the latter of which is described in a publication by the U.S. Global Change 

Research Program:

Desires on the part of some Native peoples not to air their concerns 

publicly, not to have their sacred knowledge revealed to the uninitiated, 

not to have their wisdom and stories dismissed as mere folklore, or not 

to have their participation become overly romanticized by those who 

may wish to focus on quaint pageantry while ignoring the vital message 

carried by the seasoned wisdom of these traditions, sometimes influences the willingness to participate (Maynard 1998: 5).

To find ways to use these two knowledge systems to address climate change, 

practioners of Western science have an opportunity to reframe the way they view 

TEK and strengthen their interactions with tribes and native groups in discussing 

TEK. Scholars have proposed strategies to bring TEK and Western science together. 

Among these scholars are Anthony Davis and Kenneth Ruddle, who suggest that 

TEK and Western science can be brought together more easily by systematizing TEK research to strengthen its validity within the scientific community and 

increase its applicability.

Despite notable exceptions, much of the most cited IEK/LEK/TEK 

literature lacks even the notion of subjecting IEK/LEK/TEK claims 

to systematic examination. Skeptical study is so uncommon that much 

An indigenous 

individual’s 

inheritance of 

TEK comes with a 

responsibility to 

one’s family, elders, 

and community, 

and especially to 

mentors who have 

entrusted or shared 

the information. 

Unethical behavior 

on the part of 

some scientists 

and private entities 

can deteriorate 

TEK holders’ trust 

and willingness to 

participate in future 

collaborations 

for fear that 

their TEK will be 

misappropriated.
17

Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

presented as ‘‘knowledge’’ amounts to little more than statements of 

either belief, faith, or preference (Davis and Ruddle 2010: 892).

In addition, guidelines to ensure an ethical and equitable knowledge exchange 

can be established when initiating collaboration between scientists and TEK holders. An example of such an undertaking can be found in the NRCS’ Indigenous 

Stewardship Methods and NRCS Conservation Practices Guidebook, a thorough 

compilation of guidelines to help both the agency and the tribes understand each 

other and improve communication in an effort to facilitate knowledge exchange. 

The guide’s introduction sets a collaborative, equitable tone: 

This guide will help NRCS employees gain an understanding of the 

indigenous perspective of natural resources conservation, indigenous 

stewardship methods (ISM), and intellectual property rights. Further, it 

will guide NRCS employees through a process to incorporate or implement the ISM into their conservation planning process. This guide will 

help both the NRCS employee working with Tribes as well as our Tribal 

partners to make the NRCS list of conservation practices stronger, more 

comprehensive, and more culturally relevant to Tribes across the United 

States. It will allow NRCS and Tribes to work on a professional level to 

achieve their common goal—helping each other help the land (USDA 

NRCS 2010: 1). 

The guide’s contents promote respectful communication, the acceptance of differing cultural values, the equal importance of both indigenous and Western science 

contributions, and the protection of tribal culture and intellectual property.

Bringing TEK and Western Science Together 

Various agencies are taking steps to overcome some of the hurdles listed above in 

order to bring TEK and Western science together. This is demonstrated in the EPA 

Region 10 Tribal Leaders Summit 2010 Action Plan, which states, “...within the 

next year, the federal agencies in collaboration with tribes in Region 10, will sponsor a workshop to explore the connections between indigenous knowledge, citizen 

science and western science” (EPA 2010: 6).

Similarly, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National 

Marine Fisheries Service addressed collaboration and inclusion of TEK into scientific processes in the 2010 Tribal Consultation Recommendations, which state: 

“Allow tribal entities to participate in the scientific analysis stage of the decision 

making. Allow for traditional ecological knowledge to be used in this phase of the 

process” (NOAA NMFS 2010: 5).
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Fire is a critical ecological component of many ecosystems. Climate change 

is affecting fire behavior and landscape disturbance patterns caused by vegetation/fuel dynamics affecting natural resources of sociocultural importance. In 

the United States, regarding wildland fire management, an interdisciplinary collaborative approach to fire and fuels research and management acknowledges the 

importance of community values and TEK. Various initiatives are taking place to 

facilitate strategies to coordinate the use of Western science and TEK as it pertains 

to fire management.

One such initiative took place during a 2-day workshop in June 2010. Seven 

tribal elders and 20 native and nonnative scientists (including USDI Bureau of 

Indian Affairs and U.S. Forest Service employees) partook in a workshop on the 

Flathead Indian Reservation of the Confederated Salish Kootenai Tribes in Western 

Montana. The process, was documented and published in the Journal of Forestry 

(Mason et al. 2012). The purpose of the workshop was to “explore ways to integrate 

Native American stewardship practices, traditional knowledge, and philosophies 

with western science to address contemporary forest health and wildfire challenges” (Mason et al. 2012: 187).

The National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy’s Western Regional 

Assessment also acknowledges the importance of TEK in the section “Honoring 

tribal heritages and land uses.”

Preserving and respecting traditional uses and practices is of vital 

importance. Wildland fire management policies and practices need 

to take into account cultural values and beliefs, related historic and 

spiritual sites and resources, and the relevant lessons to be gleaned from 

traditional ecological knowledge (National Cohesive Wildland Fire 

Management Strategy 2011: 18). 

Given the importance of forest and grassland resources to indigenous communities, and the cultural reliance on fire-managed landscapes by many indigenous 

groups, fire-related TEK pertaining to climate change has utility to Western scientists and managers. Natural resource-based indigenous organizations representing 

indigenous interests, such as the Intertribal Timber Council, facilitate the incorporation of TEK into forestry and fire management with indigenous governments and 

practitioners. These efforts provide mechanisms for the equitable inclusion of TEK 

with Western science (Trosper et al. 2012)

There are several cases in which the two ways of knowing have been used 

together. As illustrated in Berkes (2009), indigenous groups in Canada worked 

with scientists to use traditional knowledge to inform resource management and 
19

Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

planning, address environmental contaminants, and identify issues related to public 

health, development, climate change, and biodiversity and conservation, among 

other areas.

Non-indigenous researchers have played a major role in knowledge 

co-production in these areas, always preceded by trust-building, development of working relationships, and respect for areas that should not 

be researched (Berkes 2009: 153). 

The Alaska Traditional Knowledge and Native Foods Database (2000) is 

another example of a successful collaborative effort. 

The database serves as a clearinghouse for data and observations concerning contamination and other adverse changes in the environment, in 

order to assist Native communities in facing these impacts. This project 

is one example of how Alaska Natives, scientists, government entities 

and others can work together to seek solutions to the effects of climate 

change on Native communities (Hanna 2007: 48). 

Traditional ecological knowledge holders and scientists are beginning to 

recognize the mutual benefits that can result from collaborating. When asked why 

his people share TEK, Richard Glenn, an Iñupiat who has served on the Arctic 

Research Consortium and the Alaska Native Science Commission, responded: 

Why do Iñupiat share traditional knowledge? Despite the stigma our 

community is proud of a long history of productive, cooperative efforts 

with visiting researchers, hunters, travelers, scientists, map makers 

and others. We share when we consider others close enough to be part 

of Iñupiat culture and share when it is in the best interest of a greater 

cultural struggle (Barnhardt and Kawagley 2005: 14).

Policy Considerations: Including TEK Within Climate 

Change Initiatives 

The successful incorporation of TEK into climate change efforts depends not only 

on bridging TEK and Western science; ultimately, it calls for institutional practices 

and policies to accommodate knowledge exchanges, and the development of a 

framework that guides federal agencies and organizations toward the culturally 

sensitive incorporation of TEK into climate change planning and policy (Parrotta 

and Agnoletti 2012). This section explores areas that may be included in a culturally 

sensitive process for the exchange and use of TEK:
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general technical report pnw-gtr-879

• Mechanisms for knowledge exchange 

• Protection of TEK

• Funding and compensation

• Continued involvement and communication 

• Inclusion of TEK in climate change research and management

Mechanisms for Knowledge Exchange 

There are various federal laws and principles in place to encourage meaningful 

collaboration and knowledge exchanges between federal agencies and federally 

recognized tribes. In 1994, President Clinton signed a presidential memorandum for 

heads of executive departments and agencies, entitled “Government-to-Government 

Relations with Native American Tribal Governments.” The memorandum describes 

the unique government-to-government relationship between the federal government 

and federally recognized tribes, and encourages close communication and collaboration through principles such as:

Each executive department and agency shall assess the impact of 

Federal government plans, projects, programs, and activities on Tribal 

trust resources and assure that Tribal government rights and concerns 

are considered during the development of such plans, projects, programs 

and activities (U.S. Presidential Memorandum 1994).

One important component of the government-to-government relationship is 

consultation. As part of its trust responsibility to American Indians and Alaska 

Natives, the federal government must consult with tribes on federal actions, policies, rules, or regulations that will directly affect them. Through consultation, 

federal agencies have an opportunity to discuss the use of the TEK in addressing 

climate change and to create formal mechanisms to share and utilize TEK in federal 

and tribal climate change assessments, plans, and implementation strategies. These 

mechanisms may include development of memorandums of understanding or agreements that help formalize strategies for sharing and utilizing information. 

Beyond consultation, many public agencies and nongovernmental organizations 

are working to improve communication with indigenous groups and foster more 

meaningful collaboration. These initiatives may involve meetings with tribal representatives to discuss opportunities for improving consultation and collaboration. 

Examples of collaboration between tribes and public agencies using TEK in climate change initiatives include the 2010 EPA Tribal Leaders Summit. This summit 

resulted in action items and long-term objectives, including some related to tribal 

leadership, consultation, comanagement, and policy development and regulations. 

Through 

consultation, federal 

agencies have 

an opportunity 

to discuss the 

use of the TEK in 

addressing climate 

change and to create 

formal mechanisms 

to share and utilize 

TEK in federal and 

tribal climate change 

assessments, plans, 

and implementation 

strategies.
21

Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

Specific objectives related to climate change included sponsoring local, national, 

and international forums on climate change and researching, collecting data, and 

sharing information related to TEK (EPA 2010).

The USDA Forest Service has also taken recommendations from tribal leaders 

in an effort to improve tribal-agency communication and collaboration. In response 

to tribal requests asking that the role of science in the agency’s planning process 

account for traditional tribal knowledge, the Forest Service passed rule 219.4(a)(3) 

“Requirements for public participation: Native knowledge, indigenous ecological 

knowledge, and land ethics,” stating that, “the responsible official shall request 

information about native knowledge, land ethics, cultural issues, and sacred and 

culturally significant sites.” (USDA Forest Service 2012: 21196).

In addition to improving the consultation process to better accommodate the 

exchange and use of TEK, federal agencies and organizations may consider modifying institutional standards as they pertain to accepted forms of knowledge and 

literature. Presently, many agencies and organizations accept only peer-reviewed 

literature, which may exclude TEK. Standards will have to be modified if TEK is 

to be considered an acceptable source of information that can be incorporated into 

climate change assessments and adaptation plans.

Protection of TEK

A process to incorporate TEK into climate change assessment and adaptation planning should also include appropriate measures to protect the sensitive information 

shared through traditional knowledge. Traditional ecological knowledge is closely 

linked with each native group’s identity, and disclosing such information could be 

detrimental to cultural preservation. 

The 2008 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 

addresses the indigenous right to control and protect TEK in article 31, which 

states:

Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain, control, protect and 

develop their cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional 

cultural expressions, as well as the manifestations of their sciences, 

technologies and cultures, including human and genetic resources, 

seeds, medicines, knowledge of the properties of fauna and flora, oral 

traditions, literatures, designs, sports and traditional games and visual 

and performing arts. They also have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their intellectual property over such cultural heritage, 

traditional knowledge, and traditional cultural expressions (United 

Nations 2008: 11).
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Many public agencies are taking action and developing guidelines to ensure that 

native knowledge systems are protected when tribes or native groups collaborate 

with the agency. The Bureau of Reclamation’s 1998 Protocol Guidelines: Consulting 

with Indian Tribal Governments document, illustrates their strategies to address the 

protection of native knowledge systems. (See sidebar 1.)

The USDA Farm Bill (2008) has also taken measures to protect TEK by including a statement limiting the need to disclose information related to traditional site 

and resource uses among tribes. Specifically, the bill limits disclosure of information “concerning the identity, use, or specific location in the National Forest System 

of a site or resource used for traditional or cultural purposes by an Indian tribe” 

(USDA 2008: 1261).

Tribes and native groups have also been proactive in the development of 

guidelines for government agencies and scientists wanting to collaborate with them 

or carry out research on tribal or native lands. The guidelines are meant to ensure 

an equitable interaction that keeps the tribe or native group’s best interests in mind. 

The Alaska Federation of Natives Board released an example of such guidelines in 

1993. (See sidebar 2.)

In addition, tribes and native groups have also taken initiatives to protect TEK 

as intellectual property. 

In addition to sponsoring a day-long symposium on “Native Science 

at its 2003 annual meeting in Denver, the AAAS, has published a 

Handbook on Traditional Knowledge and Intellectul Property to guide 

traditional knowledge holders in protecting their intellectual property 

and maintaining biological diversity (Hansen and VanFleet 2003, as 

cited in Barnhardt and Kawagley 2005: 11).

Funding and Compensation 

Lack of funding is often a barrier that prevents indigenous groups from developing 

climate change initiatives or participating in initiatives led by others. The Department of the Interior noted the consequences of inadequate funding in the Tribal 

Recommendations for the fiscal year 2012 Climate Change Adaptation Initiative: 

Many Native communities are proactively addressing climate change, 

demonstrating great resilience and adding unique knowledge and 

practices of value both within and beyond tribal communities. Due to a 

lack of financial resources, only a few of the 565 federally recognized 

tribes, such as the Swinomish Tribe, have developed or are developing 

adaptation plans, calculating their carbon footprints, and collaborating 

with states, local governments and federal agencies in joint climate 
23

Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

Sidebar 1

Bureau of Reclamation’s 1998 Protocol Guidelines: Consulting with 

Indian Tribal Governments

Tribes are particularly sensitive about the disclosure of certain kinds of 

information about religious practices and sacred sites, traditional knowledge, 

intellectual property, and cultural resources. In order to minimize the likelihood that sensitive material may be released, Reclamation staff are encouraged 

to refrain from acquiring sensitive information. Tribes should be informed that 

they should only submit to Reclamation information or material that the tribe 

is willing to release as part of the public record. If tribally sensitive information is discussed or collected during consultation, Reclamation staff should be 

mindful of the following:

• Tribal information that has been disclosed or collected should be protected to the maximum extent practicable. 

• Information obtained from tribes may become part of the public record 

and be released as a result of requests made under the Freedom of 

Information Act (FOIA).

• When FOIA requests are made for the disclosure of tribal information, Reclamation offices are encouraged to notify and consult with the 

affected tribe.

Source: USDI Bureau of Reclamation 1998: 34.

Sidebar 2

Alaska Federation of Natives Board Policy Guidelines for Research

• Advise those native people who will be affected by the study of the 

purpose, goals and time frame of the research, the data-gathering techniques, the positive and negative implications and the impacts of the 

research.

• Obtain informed consent of the appropriate governing body.

• Fund the support of a native research committee appointed by the local 

community to assess and monitor the project and ensure compliance 

with the expressed wishes of native people.

• Protect the sacred knowledge and cultural/intellectual property of 

native people.

• Hire and train native people to assist in the study.

• Use native languages whenever English is the second language.

• Include native viewpoints in the final study.

• Acknowledge the contributions of native resource people.

• Inform the native research committee in a summary report, in nontechnical language, of the major findings of the study. 

• Provide copies of the study to the local people. 

Source: Alaska Native Science Commission 2011b.
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adaptation efforts. By comparison, at least 36 of the 50 states have 

climate action plans (USDI 2010: 2). 

The Department of the Interior further noted that: 

Tribal peoples are sharing their traditional knowledge with other tribal 

peoples, providing invaluable insights to scientific efforts to understand 

climate change, and reviving ancestral practices that are time-tested, 

climate resilient, and are inherently effective adaptation techniques. 

Through an extensive intertribal outreach effort, tribes have managed 

to secure seats at the table in developing the National Fish, Wildlife, and 

Plants Climate Adaptation Strategy led by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. However, this strategy effort only 

supplies minimal travel funding for tribal participants and no resources 

to cover staff time. There are huge demands for tribal participation on at 

least ten federal climate planning strategies, but none of these processes 

provide adequate, dedicated funding to support tribal involvement 

(USDI 2010: 2–3).

To remedy this lack of adequate funding, the 2012 Indian Country Budget 

Request included a request to the Department of the Interior for $15 million for a 

Climate Change Adaptation Initiative (NCAI 2011). Pending appropriation, this 

funding could significantly increase the number of tribes and native groups able 

to fund climate change initiatives, increasing the opportunities for the inclusion of 

TEK in climate change assessment and adaptation plans. These funds would also 

“support tribal participation in interagency workshops to incorporate traditional 

knowledge into climate adaptation strategies...” (USDI 2010: 7). This would 

increase collaborative efforts between indigenous groups and federal agencies, as 

well as opportunities to include TEK in climate change assessment and adaptation 

plans on native and nonnative lands. 

If TEK is to form part of climate change assessment and adaptation efforts, 

agencies and organizations must plan for and allocate adequate funding. The 

National Science Foundation and North Pacific Research Board, for example, allocated $1 million for the TEK component of their Bering Sea Integrated Ecosystem 

Research Program (BSIERP) (NOAA NMFS 2010). The BSIERP project summary 

is available online at http://www.nprb.org/science/ltk.html.

Compensation for TEK holders is another aspect that should be addressed when 

incorporating TEK into climate change assessment and adaptation planning. In at 
25

Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

least one meeting between tribal representatives and a federal agency, tribal representatives have addressed the topic of payment in exchange for information. Under 

the Presidential Executive Order 13175, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration’s (NOAA’s) National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) brought 

together a group of representatives from Alaska tribes in November 2009 to discuss 

strategies to improve the tribal consultation process. Among the recommendations 

was one stating that NMFS should fund tribes’ participation in consultations, and 

that such consultations “can’t be an unfunded mandate or a low priority in the 

budget” (NOAA NMFS 2010: 4).

Forms and quantity of payment for TEK contributions are not well documented. 

In one Canadian case study described in a joint publication by Nuffic and UNESCO’s Management of Social Transformation Programme (Boven and Morohashi 

2002), tribal elders transmitted indigenous knowledge to members of their own 

tribe who work with children. In this case, TEK holders were paid in either cash 

or gifts equal to an approximate value of CAD 50 (about $48 US) for a half hour 

session (Boven and Morohashi 2002). In some cases, institutions may be unable to 

fund TEK holders owing to internal barriers, such as lacking the structural flexibility to fund small-scale practitioners. If compensation in exchange for TEK is to 

become a standard, institutions could consider amending their standards to make 

payment to small-scale practitioners an accepted practice. 

Continued Involvement and Communication 

A culturally sensitive process to incorporate TEK into climate assessment and 

planning should ensure continued involvement of and communication with the 

indigenous entities contributing TEK. Historically, public agencies have met the 

minimum requirements for consulting with tribes but have missed opportunities 

for meaningful communication and collaboration with indigenous groups. As the 

Karuk Tribe writes in the Eco-Cultural Resources Management Plan, “National 

Forest interaction with the Karuk Tribe at times has been confined to ‘we have 

notified the Tribe and we have fulfilled our legal obligation’” (Karuk 2010: 6–7). 

The Karuk make clear their desire to establish more meaningful partnerships with 

public agencies in an effort to collaboratively address their respective needs as they 

pertain to planning, policy, and forest management (Karuk 2010). 

Inclusion of TEK in Climate Change Research and Management

Academic institutions, federal research entities, and professional societies can play 

an important role in including TEK in climate change research and management. 

The Ecological Society of America (ESA), for example, has a TEK section. The 

efforts of the ESA-TEK section members work to bring the value of TEK to the 

Historically, public 

agencies have 

met the minimum 

requirements for 

consulting with 

tribes but have 

missed opportunities 

for meaningful 

communication and 

collaboration with 

indigenous groups.
26

general technical report pnw-gtr-879

many disciplines of ecology, including climate change. The goals of this section 

are to (1) promote the understanding, dissemination, and respectful use of TEK in 

ecological research, application, and education; (2) encourage education in TEK; (3) 

stimulate research that incorporates the traditional knowledge and participation of 

indigenous people; and (4) increase participation by indigenous people in the ESA.

Other professional organizations have adopted or developed TEK working 

groups or committees. The Wildlife Society has a Native Peoples’ Wildlife Management Working Group, “which promotes improved relationships between state/

provincial/federal wildlife managers and tribal wildlife managers through improved 

communications” (USFWS 2011). These are mechanisms in which the inclusion of 

TEK to various disciplines working on climate change adaptation and mitigation 

strategies foster collaboration with indigenous and tribal people. 

Conclusion

Traditional ecological knowledge has the potential to play a vital role in indigenous 

climate change assessment and adaptation efforts, as well as make important 

contributions to the climate change efforts of federal agencies, institutions, and 

organizations at local, national, and international levels. Many indigenous groups, 

agencies, and organizations are taking steps to facilitate the incorporation of TEK 

into various climate change initiatives. A key example of this is the resolution 

on Traditional Knowledge and Climate Change passed in September 2011 by the 

Affiliated Tribes of Northwest Indians. This resolution illustrates the potential for 

significant impacts to tribal rights and resources from climate change, establishes 

the role of TEK in governance and decisionmaking, and emphasizes tribal capacity 

to be “co-managers in any government climate planning, or mitigation or adaptation 

measures that affect tribal resources, lands or well-being” (ATNI 2011). 

Acknowledgments

Additional contributions made to this project by Jose Aguto with the National 

Congress of American Indians. Publication reviewers included Mark Carey, Robert 

D. Clark Honors College, University of Oregon; Fred Clark, U.S. Forest Service; 

Chris Farley, U.S. Forest Service; Christian Giardina, U.S. Forest Service, Pacific 

Southwest Research Station Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry; Frank Lake, U.S. 

Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station; and John Parrotta, U.S. Forest 

Service.
27

Exploring the Role of Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives

References

Affiliated Tribes of Northwest Indians [ATNI]. 2011b. Resolution No.11-77. 

Traditional knowledge and climate change. http://www.atnitribes.org/PDF%20

Docs/resolutions/2011/annual/11-77_Amen%20an%20ff%20the%20Flr_

ATNI_2011_TEK_an_Climate_Change%20Final.pdf. (June 27, 2012). 

Alaska Native Science Commission. 2011a. Comparisons between traditional 

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Appendix: Considerations for Incorporating TEK Into 

Climate Change Initiatives

Following is a list of considerations for incorporating traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) into climate change policy, assessments, and adaptation efforts at 

national, regional, and local levels.

National Policy Considerations

• Establish formal recognition of the value of TEK in a climate context 

and inclusion of TEK within the National Climate Assessment.

• Clarification of TEK as an accepted form of literature in the National 

Climate Assessment.

• Protection of disclosed TEK.

• Examine the role of TEK in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 

Change assessments.

• Establish support for TEK (including funding) within Climate Science 

Center initiatives and processes where Landscape Conservation 

Cooperatives are establishing science priorities.

Formal Recognition of TEK by Federal Agencies and 

Public Officials

• Educate agency managers, scientists, and public officials on the nature of 

TEK and its role in climate change research and planning through publications, training sessions, and roundtables or meetings with indigenous 

groups. 

• Modify institutional standards for accepted formats of information to allow 

nonpeer reviewed literature and information to be considered acceptable. If 

need be, this can be an exception applied only in regards to TEK.

Protection of TEK

• Ensure that all agency representatives understand the United Nations 

Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples adopted by the General 

Assembly in 2007, as well as the international law of Free Prior and 

Informed Consent, and use these international regulations to guide the process of protecting the sensitive information that forms part of TEK.

• Consider the pursuit of a codification approach to institutionalizing TEK 

by creating an ethical construct that functions as an indirect representation 

of more sensitive knowledge concepts, in the interest of respecting and protecting core knowledge.
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Future Research

• Carry out or promote research that can inform the inclusion of TEK in climate change initiatives.

• Examine additional areas where TEK is relevant in climate change discussions, such as the effects of climate change on plant and animal phenology, 

and the implications of these effects on the foundations of TEK.

Funding and Compensation

• Identify the need for TEK early in the process and include it in formal planning documents so as to ensure that adequate funding is secured for the 

TEK portion of the climate change initiative. 

• Modify rules to allow for compensation of small-scale practitioners, such as 

may be the case for TEK holders.

Incorporating TEK in Climate Change Assessments and 

Adaptation Plans1

Establish the role of TEK in climate change efforts 

• Identify the scope of the climate change initiative, including the boundaries 

of the assessment and tribal resources and interests that may be affected (on 

and off-reservation.)

• Determine how TEK will inform and guide the objectives of the climate 

change initiative.

• Establish formal recognition among all partners of the value and use of 

TEK in the climate assessments and plans. 

Foster strong collaboration with tribal and nontribal partners

• Identify tribal and nontribal collaborators that should be involved in the 

initiative.

• Identify potential TEK holders that can contribute knowledge or establish a 

process by which TEK will be acquired. 

• Communicate results, findings, and plans to all partners, including TEK 

holders.

• Consider developing a standard knowledge exchange template or set of 

guidelines that can be used in future endeavors. 

1

 A list of resources for tribal climate change adaptation planning can be found 

at http://www4.nau.edu/tribalclimatechange/resources/adaptation.asp#tools.
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Protection of TEK

• Create a review board for the purpose of screening and approving the 

received TEK and its sources.

• Establish a strategy that ensures that protection of TEK when it is used to 

inform climate change assessments and adaptation plans.

• Ensure that collaborators understand the United Nations of the Rights of 

Indigenous Peoples adopted by the General Assembly in 2007, as well as 

the international law of Free Prior and Informed Consent, and use these 

international regulations to guide knowledge exchange.

TEK and Government-to-Government Relationships

• Tribes and public agencies should exercise the government-to-government 

relationship by forming partnerships and collaborations around federal climate change initiatives.

• Public agencies should strive to engage tribes in climate change initiatives 

and ensure that TEK has a role in informing such initiatives.

• When government action has tribal implications, public agencies should 

initiate a formal consultation with involved tribal groups. During this consultation, the following topics may be addressed:

• What the knowledge exchange is intended to accomplish

• How TEK will be used in the given climate change initiative

• How culturally sensitive information that forms part of TEK will be 

protected

• How funding or compensation will be addressed

• What the long-term role of the indigenous groups and TEK holders will 

be in the initiative
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