Proceedings of the First 

International Workshop on 

Corallium Science, Management, 

and Trade

U.S. Department of Commerce

March 16-20, 2009 

Hong Kong, China

Edited by

Andrew W. Bruckner 

Glynnis G. Roberts

NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-OPR-43

NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-8

September 2009

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

National Marine Fisheries Service 
This publication should be cited as: 

Bruckner, A.W. and G. G. Roberts (editors). 2009. Proceedings of the First International 

Workshop on Corallium Science, Management, and Trade. NOAA Technical Memorandum 

NMFS-OPR-43 and CRCP-8, Silver Spring, MD 153 pp. 

Significant support for the development of this document was provided by NOAA Fisheries, 

Office of Habitat Conservation, and NOAA’s Coral Reef Conservation Program. The views 

expressed in this document are those of the authors and the participants of the workshop, 

and do not necessarily reflect the official views or policies of the U.S. Government, NOAA 

or DOC.

Additional copies of this publication may be requested from: 

Nerie Canasa

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAA Fisheries 

Office of Habitat Conservation 

1315 East West Highway 

Silver Spring, MD 20910-3282 

Nerie.Canasa@noaa.gov
Proceedings of the First International 

Workshop on Corallium Science, 

Management, and Trade

Edited by Andrew W. Bruckner and Glynnis G. Roberts

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Jane Lubchenco, Ph.D

Under Secretary for Oceans and Atmosphere 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

Jim Balsiger, Ph.D

Assistant Administrator for Fisheries (acting)

Office of Habitat Conservation

Habitat Protection

NOAA Fisheries

Coral Reef Conservation Program

& I.M. Systems Group, Inc. at NOAA 

1315 East-West Highway 

Silver Spring, MD 20910-3282 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Gary Locke, Secretary 

NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-OPR-43

NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP-8
Proceedings of the First International Workshop on 

Corallium Science, Management, and Trade

Organizing Committee

Andrew Bruckner, NOAA Fisheries, Headquarters 

Glynnis Roberts, I.M. Systems Group, Inc. at NOAA Fisheries, Headquarters

Frank Parrish, NOAA Fisheries, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center

Laura Noguchi, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Management Authority

Ernie Cooper, World Wildlife Fund for Nature-Canada, TRAFFIC

Jeremy Linneman, The Ocean Foundation

Sponsors

NOAA Fisheries

Office of Habitat Conservation 

Habitat Protection

Silver Spring, MD 

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program

Silver Spring, MD

The Ocean Foundation

Washington, DC

Working Group Leaders

Frank Parrish, NOAA Fisheries, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center

Vin Fleming, UK CITES Scientific Authority, Joint Nature Conservation Committee

Sergio Rossi, ICTA, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
v

Acknowledgments

Andy Bruckner

NOAA Fisheries

The International Workshop on Corallium Science, Management, and Trade is the first of two 

workshops convened to better understand the biological status of precious corals in the family 

Coralliidae, the adequacy of existing management measures, and the benefits and limitations of a 

potential CITES Appendix-II listing at enhancing conservation of this taxa. The meeting was convened 

in response to an Appendix-II listing proposal submitted by the U.S. at the 14th meeting of the CITES 

Conference of Parties (COP 14), specifically to address questions pertaining to the ability to effectively 

implement a possible CITES listing. The workshop would not have been possible without the financial 

support provided by the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program (CRCP) and NOAA Fisheries, and 

supplementary funding from The Ocean Foundation. 

The meeting was organized and convened under unusual circumstances, with all meeting facilities, 

travel arrangements and lodging arranged under an extreme time crunch. Our steering committee, 

including Glynnis Roberts, Frank Parrish, Laura Noguchi, Jeremy Linneman, and Ernie Cooper were 

instrumental in helping me shape the working group tasks and agenda, and ensure we had the optimal mix 

of participants. This meeting would not been possible without the dedicated logistical support provided 

by Jeremy Linneman and Glynnis Roberts. I am extremely grateful to both Jeremy and Glynnis, who 

managed to shift locations from the Mediterranean, identify a new venue, and secure participation by 

Pacific experts in just under a month. Jeremy and Glynnis devoted several weeks prior to the workshop 

to communicate with the Corallium experts from the region, complete their travel arrangements, and 

assist them in developing presentations, white papers, and other background information. Jeremy 

and Glynnis also compiled all of the reports and background information into a detailed workshop 

document that guided discussions and deliberations. During the workshop, they provided invaluable 

assistance in organizing each session, providing audio-visual assistance, addressing technical issues, 

and making sure each participants’ needs were promptly and thoroughly addressed.

I would like to acknowledge each of the keynote speakers, including Georgio Tsounis, Giovanni 

Santangelo, Sergio Rossi, Vin Fleming, Laura Noguchi, Ernie Cooper, Frank Parrish, Tony Montgomery, 

Susan Torntore, Joyce Wu and Soyo Takahashi, Abdelaziz Zoubi, Chi-Shin Chen, Niphon Phongsuwan, 

Julia Robertson, and Nozomu Iwasaki. Their detailed presentations during the first and second days of 

the meeting highlighted key issues surrounding these taxa and provided a framework for the working 

group deliberations. These talks included comprehensive background information on various aspects 

of Corallium biology, population status, fisheries, and trade. I am most grateful for the dedicated 

efforts of the three working group chairs, Frank Parrish, Vin Fleming and Sergio Rossi, who facilitated 

discussions on their respective topics and compiled the information into detailed working group 

reports. I would also like to give special thanks to all of the participants, each of whom contributed 

their expertise to the development of these reports. Everyone was extremely congenial and respective 

of various viewpoints, and without these dedicated efforts, the outcomes of this workshop would have 

been much less comprehensive.

The workshop successfully addressed many of the most pressing workshop questions and issues 

surrounding the effective conservation of Corallium, and it provides a framework for the second 

workshop, to be held in the Mediterranean in the fall of 2009. We look forward to continued 

collaborations with all of the participants, and would like to thank everyone for their involvement. 

Together, we can ensure the conservation, sustainable harvest, and trade of these jewels of the sea.
vi

preface

Andy Bruckner

NOAA Fisheries

Introduction

Corallium has been intensively harvested for centuries, and both landings and population data 

provide strong evidence that most commercially viable Corallium beds are now depleted. Long 

term trends in landings from both the Pacific and Mediterranean and available data on population 

demographics of Mediterranean C. rubrum populations provide considerable evidence that known 

commercial beds of Corallium have declined to less than 20-30% of their historic baseline, meeting 

the criteria required for a CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of 

Wild Fauna and Flora) Appendix-II listing (Bruckner 2009). Nevertheless, questions remain 

regarding the effective implementation of a potential listing. There are difficulties in identifying 

Corallium specimens to species, especially processed material (polished and dyed jewelry including 

powdered and reconstituted Corallium). Identification to family (Coralliidae) or genus (Corallium, 

Paracorallium) may be possible and may be allowed under CITES, mirroring the approach taken 

with some of the other listed corals. If a CITES listing were adopted, countries would need to 

develop procedures for handling stockpiled coral harvested prior to a listing, which would be 

considered pre-Convention and could be traded under a CITES exemption document. There are 

also large local markets and trade between neighboring European Union countries, which would 

not be regulated by CITES.

While regulating the international trade in Corallium presents challenges, a CITES listing could 

reduce illegal trade and promulgate stronger management and enforcement efforts by giving 

both exporting and importing countries joint responsibility for ensuring that trade is sustainable. 

A CITES listing requires monitoring and annual reporting of international trade, filling critical 

gaps in knowledge of harvest and trade levels. A listing would also promote research on the 

status and trends of Corallium populations and the impacts of fisheries, as well as the adoption 

of sustainable management approaches. Exporting countries would be required to meet nondetriment requirements of a CITES Appendix-II listing. While new administrative burdens would 

be associated with a CITES listing for Corallium, these are not insurmountable, having been 

successfully resolved in other species that presented similar challenges including stony corals, 

antipatharians, and seahorses.

The following information includes a brief summary of what is known about the harvest, trade, and 

population status of Corallium. This is followed by an overview of recent activities undertaken to 

conserve these species through CITES, and the rationale for technical workshops on Corallium.

Corallium fisheries and trade

Precious corals in the family Coralliidae are important deep-water resources that are harvested in 

the western Mediterranean Sea and in the western north Pacific Ocean, including traditional harvest 

areas off Japan, Philippines, and the island of Taiwan. Historic fishing grounds also occur around 

Emperor Seamounts and Midway Island, and limited Corallium resources have been collected in 

several locations off Hawaii, but current harvest from these areas is negligible or non-existent.
vii

These corals have been highly valued since ancient times for use in the fabrication of jewelry, 

amulets, and art objects. The history of precious coral exploitation began in the Mediterranean 

with the red coral, Corallium rubrum, which has been found with 25,000 year old Paleolithic 

human remains. During ancient times, most red coral was collected after heavy storms broke off 

branches and washed them up on shore. Harvest of living colonies of Corallium started about 5000 

years ago with Greek fishermen using kouralio or iron hooks to dislodge colonies from deeper 

water. Beginning around 1000 AD, the ingegno or St. Andrew’s Cross—a wooden cross with 

attached nets—was dragged across the bottom to entangle coral. The “barra italiana,” a version 

of a coral dredge made of heavy iron bars with nets attached along its length, was also widely 

used following the emergence of large-scale commercial fisheries off Italy in 1830. Commercially 

valuable colonies of Corallium were first discovered in the Pacific off Japan in the early 1800s. 

Most Pacific landings over the next century were from mid-depth beds (100-400 m depth) off Japan 

(Okinawa and the Bonin Islands) and China (Taiwan). In 1965, Japanese fishermen discovered a 

large bed of C. konojoi on the Milwaukee Banks in the Emperor Seamount Chain, and in the mid 

1980s a deepwater species was discovered at depths of about 1500m. 

Each new discovery of a Corallium bed led to “coral rushes,” where both effort and landings 

rapidly increased and then declined as resources were overexploited. For example, landings of 

Corallium from the Pacific reported by Japan and China (Taiwan) show five major peaks over the 

45 years for which data have been compiled. Taiwan’s reported landings were 2-3 times greater 

than that reported by Japan, with 4 major peaks in landings of C. secundum in 1969 (112 t), 1976 

(102 t), 1981 (270 t), and 1984 (226 t), with Midway coral (Corallium sp. nov.) accounting for 

over 90% of the world’s production from 1983-1986 (564 t). Landings by Taiwan remained at low 

levels (< 5 t) over the next 20 years with exception of two small peaks in 1996 (12 t) and 2002-

2004 (35 t) of C. elatius from mid-depth coral beds between Taiwan and the Philippines. Annual 

yield from Japan was the greatest from 1979-1984 (57-91 t/yr) with 70-90% consisting of Midway 

coral. Reported landings declined to 2.6 t in 1987 and have remained at < 5 t/yr over the last 20 

years, consisting mostly of C. elatius (mean = 1.9 t/yr) and C. japonicum (1.2 t/yr) with lower 

amounts of C. konojoi and Corallium sp. nov. (0.22 t/yr).

The total yield of Corallium rubrum from the Mediterranean reported over a 30 year period (1976-

2006) was 1250 t with 33.5% from Italy, 17.6% from Spain, 15.3% from Tunisia, and 9.9% from 

France. Landings from those four major Mediterranean source countries show a decreasing trend 

over 15 years (> 85% decline from 97 t in 1976 to 12 t in 1992), mostly due to reduced yields 

from European countries, especially Italy (70 t in 1978 vs. 8 t in 1986). Total annual yield for the 

four most important Mediterranean countries fluctuated between 12-18 t from 1992-2003 with 

progressive increases to 26 t by 2006 (FAO 2008). These boom and bust cycles have occurred 

repeatedly in both the Mediterranean and Pacific, although landings since 1991 have been a 

fraction of earlier harvest. 

While few trade data exist for Corallium, the U.S. has kept detailed records of Corallium imports 

for over 10 years. These data suggest that China (including Hong Kong and Taiwan), Japan, and 

Italy are currently the largest manufacturers of Corallium jewelry with most imports destined for 

the U.S. Other important exporting countries include India, Indonesia, Korea, Thailand, and the 

Philippines, although the origin of the raw material is primarily from the Mediterranean, Taiwan, 

or Japan. From 2001-2008, the U.S. imported over 28 million pieces of Corallium jewelry and 80 t 

of skeletons. Imports were lowest during 2001-2002, increased significantly from 2003-2005, and 
viii

then dropped off in 2006, with notable increases in C. rubrum in 2007 and 2008. The taxon listed 

as being traded at highest volume is P. japonicum, representing > 75% of all manufactured items 

and 45% of the raw skeletons imported over the last seven years. Interestingly, P. japonicum is 

extremely rare due to past overharvesting, and these records may represent jewelry manufactured 

from stockpiled resources, or a misidentification. A high volume of C. elatius skeletons was also 

imported in 2003 (> 9 t), and a large amount of C. elatius jewelry was imported in 2005 (> 1.8 

million pieces). There were also two major peaks in imports of unprocessed skeletons of C. rubrum

in 2003 (12.3 t) and 2008 (22.8 t); < 5% of skeletons consist of this taxa during other years, while 

trade in processed C. rubrum jewelry increased sharply in 2006 and 2008 (Bruckner 2009).

Changes in population structure and habitat impacts

Modernization and industrialization of the fishery since the 1950s has led to both rapid exploitation 

of newly discovered beds and increased illegal fishing, with widespread changes in the integrity 

of Corallium populations now documented throughout much of the Mediterranean (GFCM 1984, 

1988, Santangelo et al. 1993, Galasso 2000, Linares et al. 2003). Large, highly branched C. rubrum 

colonies 20-50 cm in height formerly played a paramount role in structuring the coralligenous 

zone through their trophic activity and biogenic structure. These functions have been lost as most 

populations in the Mediterranean are dominated by 2-5 cm tall colonies (Cicogna and CattaneoVietti 1993, Garrabou and Harmelin 2002, Tsounis et al. 2007, Santangelo et al. 2007). Landings 

data may be indicative of similar population declines for Pacific Corallium beds, but few biological 

data are available from these regions.

Corallium typically occurs at densities of < 1 colony/m2

. The only exceptions to this are certain 

shallow C. rubrum populations that are now dominated by recruits and small adult colonies, 

largely in response to overexploitation (Rossi et al. 2008). Because of the sessile nature of the 

species, further reductions in density associated with the selective removal of the largest colonies 

in a coral bed may alter reproductive potential due to allele effects. Corallium populations are 

already fragmented and highly isolated as a result of limited larval dispersal and a high degree of 

self-seeding, and they exhibit density dependent recruitment (Weinberg 1979, Grigg 1989, Abbiati 

et al. 1993, Costantini et al. 2007a, b). Remnant colonies within coral beds below minimum legal

size of harvest may contribute to rebuilding of these depleted populations only if these beds are 

protected from fishing, but this may take decades due to their slow growth and size-dependent 

reproductive output (Garrabou and Harmelin 2002).

Colonial gorgonians that characteristically form highly complex, branched colonies are dependent 

on the occurrence of large colonies to ensure successful reproduction and recruitment. A shift from 

historic measures of 20-50 cm height to less than 5 cm, like that reported for the Mediterranean, 

is equivalent to a loss of 80-90% of the reproductive modules of individual colonies. Corallium

rubrum can become sexually mature at a young age (2-3 cm height), although colonies don’t 

achieve 100% fertility until about 6 cm height (Santangelo et al. 2003, Torrents et al. 2005, Tsounis 

et al. 2006b). The spawning potential in gorgonians increases exponentially with size, with larger 

arborescent colonies producing up to 98% of the recruits (Babcock 1991, Beiring and Lasker 2000, 

Santangelo et al. 2003, Torrents et al. 2005). Populations of C. rubrum today are dominated by 

small colonies (mean = 3 cm) with one or two branches. These corals are capable of producing 

tens to hundreds of larvae annually, as compared to thousands of larvae produced by colonies that 
ix

are double or triple in size (Santangelo et al. 1993, 2003, 2007, Torrents et al. 2005, Tsounis et al. 

2006b, Rossi et al. 2008, Bruckner 2009). 

Dredges are known to have caused extensive habitat impacts to the coralligenous zone in the 

Mediterranean (Chessa and Cudoni 1988), and are likely to have removed most of the largest 

colonies of Corallium from exposed horizontal and gently sloping substrates in deep water, as well 

as juvenile and undersized colonies of Corallium. Coral dredges are also extremely inefficient, 

as only about 40% of the detached colonies are entangled and retrieved (Grigg 1984). Shifts to 

a SCUBA fishery in the 1950s allowed less destructive selective harvesting. Nevertheless, areas 

formerly excluded from dredging in shallow water were suddenly available for exploitation, 

including corals concentrated on vertical slopes, under overhangs, near cave entrances, and in 

crevices were coral dredges cannot operate (Rossi et al. 2008). SCUBA fisheries also tend to 

operate in a “pulse fishing” mode, with local patches being selectively eliminated, leaving only 

inaccessible and noncommercial sized individuals before another patch is located and eliminated 

(Caddy 1993).

Management and conservation

A wide variety of approaches have been proposed or implemented to protect Corallium from 

overexploitation. This includes gear restrictions, size limits, quotas, rotational harvest, and 

spatial closures. During several Corallium consultations held by FAO over the last three decades, 

various experts have emphasized a need to re-examine and adjust the existing measures, based 

on new information on the biology and population dynamics (Caddy 1993, Tsounis et al. 2007). 

For example, existing no take areas (protected areas) for C. rubrum are relatively small and it is 

unclear whether they are sited such that they would replenish fished areas, given the high degree 

of genetic structure, reproduction characterized by brooding, and evidence that populations are 

self-seeding (Costantini et al. 2007). In addition to the need for larger MPAs, additional areas in 

shallow water should be closed to fishing, especially where other stressors (e.g. climate change) 

are having compounding impacts (Bramanti et al. 2007). As one alternative to permanent spatial 

closures, Caddy (1993) recommended rotational harvest on a 20-30 year cycle. Some rebuilding of 

populations may occur over this time period, provided that an adequate number of reproductively 

mature colonies remain to allow replenishment. However, the proposed time frame may be too 

short to allow full recovery of populations as colonies in areas protected from fishing for 15-30 

years are still less than half the reported historic size (Francour et al. 2001, Tsounis et al. 2006a).

There are also concerns that the legal minimum size of Corallium, where adopted in the 

Mediterranean, is too small to ensure the persistence of fished populations. In one of the earliest 

studies of C. rubrum, García-Rodríguez and Massò (1986b) documented the harvest of colonies 

that were 5-14 years in age, which they concluded was well below maximum sustainable yield 

(MSY). Using data from demographic studies conducted off Costa Brava, Spain, Tsounis et al. 

(2007) estimated a MSY of 98 years, whereas the current practice of harvesting colonies once they 

achieve a 7 mm basal diameter (11 year old colonies) results in only 6% of the potential yield. New 

methods of aging indicate colony age was underestimated by a factor of 2-4, and growth rates are 

2.6-4.5 times lower than previously thought (Marschal et al. 2004, Roark et al. 2006), which further 

emphasizes the need for a larger minimum size of harvest. For instance, Rossi and Gili (2007) 

recommended a minimum size of at least 8.6 mm diameter and 10 cm height to allow development 
x

of third order branching patterns. This increase could help ensure adequate reproductive output to 

compensate for fishing pressure.

Consideration of international trade regulations

In 2006, due to environmental concerns associated with Corallium fisheries, SeaWeb (a nongovernmental organization) petitioned the U.S. to propose Corallium for listing in the CITES 

Appendices. After a detailed review and consultation with Corallium range states, the U.S. 

submitted a proposal at the 14th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP 14) in June 2007 

to list all species of Corallium (pink and red corals) on Appendix-II of CITES (COP 14 Prop.21, 

Anonymous 2007). This proposal identified seven species of Corallium as under considerable 

threat from harvest and international trade, with other species recommended for listing because of 

their similarity in appearance to other regulated species (Wijnstekers 1988). Some of the findings 

highlighted in the proposal included 1) that these species were traded in large numbers and harvest 

and trade is one of the most significant impacts to the species; 2) populations have declined in 

abundance and size structure, primarily in fished locations due to heavy fishing pressure; 3) in 

some locations non-selective gear further impacts populations and habitats; 4) in addition to 

direct removal of sessile adults, reduction in size structure like that reported for certain C. rubrum

populations increases the proportion of the juvenile population and causes an exponential decline 

in reproductive output.

The U.S. proposal for listing Corallium in CITES Appendix-II was adopted in committee and 

later overturned in plenary largely due to perceived challenges in implementing and enforcing this 

CITES listing, and the conclusion that insufficient data were available on the population status to 

warrant a listing (Morell 2007). According to an expert FAO review, these species had not declined 

to 20-30% of the historic baseline, as required for listing a low productivity species in CITES 

Appendix-II (FAO 2007). While the international community recognized the conservation needs 

of these species, concerns were expressed about implementation of the listing including difficulties 

in identification of specimens in trade, needed clarifications regarding personal effects exemptions, 

and procedures for handling pre-Convention jewelry and other specimens harvested before the 

listing. The Parties requested two ad hoc events be organized, one in the Mediterranean region and 

one in the Pacific, to address these outstanding issues prior to re-submission of a proposal at the 

next CITES COP. These proceedings represent the outcomes of the first workshop.

Addressing questions and concerns surrounding a potential CITES listing

As an initial step to resolve implementation issues and determine if a CITES listing is warranted, 

NOAA Fisheries secured funding to convene two workshops on Corallium Science, Management, 

and Trade. The first workshop was held in Hong Kong, China during March 2009. This workshop 

was convened to address a number of science questions regarding the status and trends of 

known Corallium beds, and implementation issues that were identified as factors that would 

hinder the effectiveness of a potential CITES Appendix-II listing for all species of Corallium

and Paracorallium. The workshop involved a review of Corallium biology, Corallium fisheries 

and management, and international trade in coral reef species. This included an evaluation of 

approaches 1) to address information gaps and research needs; 2) to resolve difficulties in regulating 

harvest and trade; and 3) to address issues surrounding implementation of a possible CITES 

listing. The workshop involved one day of keynote presentations on the biology, taxonomy and 
xi

status of populations, fisheries, existing management approaches, trade and other and threats, uses 

of Corallium and major markets, possible conservation measures including CITES, and detailed 

country reports. These background presentations were supplemented with relevant documents 

which have been included in the workshop Proceedings. The plenary talks were followed by two 

days of concurrent working groups to address science, management, and enforcement knowledge, 

gaps, and needs, and a final session detailing recommendations and next steps. The working groups 

included: 1) The Science Working Group, which discussed the state of knowledge of the biology 

and population status and threats; 2) The Management Working Group, which compiled and assess 

information on existing national management; and 3) The CITES Working Group, which focused 

on taxonomy and identification and implementation issues of a potential CITES listing. The 

specific tasks of each working group and working group reports are included in the Proceedings. 

Participants included Corallium scientists, government officials involved in the management and 

enforcement of Corallium fisheries, CITES officials from exporting and importing countries, the 

CITES Secretariat, NGOs, and industry representatives. 

All of the recommendations and documents included in the Proceedings form the framework and 

starting point for the second International Workshop on Corallium Science, Management, and 

Trade. It is our hope that several of the representatives at this workshop will also participate in the 

second workshop, along with a larger representation of experts from all stakeholder groups from 

the Mediterranean region.

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xvi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... v

Preface .......................................................................................................................................... vi

Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................... 1

Terms of Reference for Working Groups ....................................................................................... 4

Working Group Reports ................................................................................................................. 9

Science Working Group Report ....................................................................................... 10

Management Working Group Report ............................................................................... 20

CITES Working Group Report ......................................................................................... 27

White Papers and Regional Reports ............................................................................................. 33

Precious Corals in a Global Marketplace (Torntore) ....................................................... 34

The Fishery and Trade of Corallium of East Asia (Wu and Takahashi) .......................... 60

Biology of Japanese Corallium and Paracorallium (Iwasaki, Hasegawa, Suzuki, and 

 Yamada) ........................................................................................................................... 68

What We Have Learned about Red Coral and What We Need to Learn for its Rational 

Management (Santangelo, Bramanti, Vielmini, and Iannelli) ......................................... 71

The Status of Corallium spp. in Hawaii and the U.S. Pacific: Population Status, Trends 

and Threats, Fisheries, Trade, Management, Enforcement and Conservation (Parrish, 

Grigg, DeMello, and Montgomery) ................................................................................. 87

Mediterranean Red Coral (Dridi) ................................................................................... 109

An Overview of the Main Marine Resources (Commercial and Non-Commercial 

Groups) in the Moroccan Mediterranean (Zoubi) .......................................................... 117

Fishery Management of the Mediterranean Red Coral: A Call for a Paradigm Shift 

(Tsounis, Rossi, and Gili) ............................................................................................... 123

Appendix .................................................................................................................................... 146

List of Participants ......................................................................................................... 147

Workshop Agenda .......................................................................................................... 149
xvii
1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In March of 2009, approximately 40 experts from government agencies, non-government 

conservation organizations, the CITES Secretariat, academic institutions and industry convened 

in Hong Kong to discuss the state of knowledge regarding the biology, population status, trade, 

and management of precious corals in the family Coralliidae, and to examine issues surrounding 

the implementation of a potential CITES Appendix-II listing. Background presentations 

summarized information on the biology and taxonomy, population status, threats, harvest, trade, 

and management of Coralliidae, with detailed national and regional reports presented from Pacific 

and Mediterranean range states. Background information was presented on the Convention on 

International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and how it functions 

to regulate international trade, including examples from similar taxa listed (black corals) and 

some of the complications that needed to be resolved to effectively implement a listing. These 

talks were followed by concurrent working groups to address science, management, and CITES 

implementation issues.

The family Coralliidae includes 27 described species and several undescribed species of precious 

corals known as pink and red corals in the genera Corallium and Paracorallium, of which seven 

are currently in international trade. These corals have been harvested for thousands of years for 

use in jewelry, amulets, and to a lesser degree in homeopathic medicines, reaching a peak in the 

late 1980s with annual landings of about 400 metric tons, and then declining to 30-50 tons per 

year since 1991. Coralliidae fisheries have primarily involved the use of non-selective dredges and 

trawls, with limited use of submersibles and a recent shift to SCUBA harvest in the Mediterranean. 

Long-term trends in landings from both the Pacific and Mediterranean, as well as available data on 

population demographics of Mediterranean C. rubrum populations, provide evidence that known 

commercial beds of Corallium and Paracorallium have declined to less than 20-30% of their 

historic baseline, meeting the criteria required for a CITES Appendix-II listing. Commercial harvest 

has been characterized by boom and bust cycles, with intensive harvesting following the discovery 

of a new bed until the resource declines and harvest is no longer commercially viable; landings 

subsequently decline for a period of years or until a new bed is discovered and the process repeats 

itself. In addition, Mediterranean populations have undergone significant changes in population 

demographics in fished areas, shifting from relatively low density populations consisting of large 

(10-50 cm tall), reproductively mature colonies to small (mean size 3-5 cm), predominantly 

juvenile colonies often occurring in small patches at very high local densities. With the exception 

of selected areas off Hawaii, population data for the Pacific are largely unavailable, although new 

research efforts have been recently initiated off Japan and other locations. 

While the group reached a general consensus that Coralliidae populations were overexploited, 

questions remained regarding the conservation benefits of CITES for these species, and the efficacy 

of implementing a potential CITES listing. CITES regulates international trade through permits 

on which specimens are typically identified to species level, which may not be possible for all 

specimens of Coralliidae due to difficulties of identification – especially of processed material 

(polished and dyed jewelry including powdered and reconstituted Corallium and Paracorallium). 

Nevertheless, identification to the family level (Coralliidae) would be possible for worked 

specimens and to the genus level for raw coral. The group considered that listing the entire family 
2

and allowing identification of worked specimens at the family level would be easier to implement 

than the current Appendix-III listing by China of four Coralliidae species. 

Stockpiled coral harvested prior to a listing would be considered ‘pre-Convention’ specimens for 

CITES purposes, but these would be difficult to differentiate from recently harvested Corallium

and Paracorallium. Options to address this include countries conducting inventories to track 

and monitor pre-Convention stockpiled coral that is traded, or inviting voluntary declarations of 

stockpile quantities. The CITES Working Group also noted that fossils should not be excluded 

from CITES, as these would be difficult to differentiate and trade volumes are low. The CITES 

Working Group also recommended consistent reporting of specimens in trade, and a CITES 

personal effects exemption per person of up to a maximum of seven specimens of finished items 

or one kilogram (2.2lbs), including any ancillary mounting, whichever is the lesser. The working 

group also highlighted the need for an identification manual and training for enforcement officers. 

Finally, they suggested that CITES non-detriment findings should be made at the species level 

taking an ecosystem approach, with considerations for bycatch and impacts from non-selective 

fisheries. 

The Management Working Group summarized the current state of management in range 

countries, and identified minimum and maximum measures needed to ensure sustainable harvest. 

The aspects of management included jurisdictions, permits, quotas, gear, size limits, reporting, 

observers, monitoring, and enforcement. The working group suggested that the measures may 

differ between shallow SCUBA fisheries in the Mediterranean and deeper non-selective Pacific 

fisheries. Nevertheless, there were certain minimum measures such as licensing, reporting, quotas, 

fishery dependent and fishery independent monitoring programs, and enforcement that needed to 

be in place in each country to properly manage Coralliidae resources. There was general consensus 

that an effective CITES listing requires collaboration between CITES authorities and relevant 

fishery management bodies. Whilst CITES provides a mechanism to control international trade, it 

is fishery management that ultimately determines the sustainability of exploitation of this resource.

The Science Working Group compiled available data on the biology and population status of 

Coralliidae within Pacific range countries, including Japan, China (Taiwan), and the U.S. (Hawaii). 

The group concluded that very limited information is available for Pacific populations, especially 

in international waters around Emperor Seamounts, where most of the Coralliidae species were 

landed from the 1960s-1980s. Population trends are available for selected locations off Hawaii, 

with limited information on the impacts of a short-lived fishery. New research off Okinawa, 

Japan is providing distributional data, new biological information, and some information on 

population dynamics. The working group also evaluated the value of different types of information 

for management, including abundance data, population dynamics, biological data, and genetic 

information. The working group recognized the importance of abundance data, noting that while 

these data can be used to estimate harvest levels, they cannot be extrapolated to other areas. 

Knowledge on habitat conditions and requirements for Coralliidae species can assist managers in 

identifying other potential Corallium and Paracorallium beds, as well as potential environmental 

drivers that may enhance or reduce survival and recruitment potential. The group also felt that 

population data should include measures of size and branching patterns, as these taxa exhibit a sizedependent increase in reproduction, and persistence of large colonies may be required to ensure 

the long-term persistence of populations. There was also a need for more biological and genetic 

data to better understand reproductive potential, dispersal ability, connectivity of populations, and 
3

likelihood of successful recruitment. Furthermore, knowledge of growth rates and better estimates 

of age are needed to determine sustainable harvest quotas. The group emphasized the need for 

baseline evaluations before fishing is undertaken, as well as routine monitoring of collection areas 

to evaluate fisheries impacts and adapt management as necessary. 

The workshop participants recognized the need for improved conservation and management of 

Coralliidae populations, and most felt that CITES is one tool that could enhance conservation. A 

listing could reduce both illegal trade and fishing, as well as promulgate stronger management and 

enforcement by giving both exporting and importing countries joint responsibility for conservation 

of this resource. A CITES listing requires monitoring and annual reporting of landings and trade, 

which would fill critical gaps in knowledge of harvest and trade levels. A listing would also promote 

research on the status and trends of Coralliidae populations and the impacts of fisheries, as well as 

the adoption of more sustainable management approaches, all of which would help an exporting 

country make the non-detriment finding that is required for issuance of an export permit for species 

listed in CITES Appendix-II. However, questions still remain regarding the benefits of a CITES 

listing. For instance, there are large local markets and trade between neighboring European Union 

countries, which would not be regulated by CITES. While several new administrative burdens 

would be associated with a CITES Appendix-II listing for Coralliidae, the outcome of this meeting 

demonstrates that these are not insurmountable, having been successfully resolved for other species 

that presented similar challenges, including stony corals and antipatharians. 
TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR THE

WORKING GROUPS

4
Working Group 1: The Science Working Group 

This group will discuss the state of knowledge of the biology, population status and threats, 

whether the available science is adequate to estimate decline, and if these species have declined 

to the extent required to justify a CITES Appendix-II listing. The emphasis will be on Pacific 

species of Corallium and Paracorallium that are the target of precious coral fisheries with 

comparative information for Mediterranean species.

1. How much do we know about Coralliidae in the Pacific? For each country, and in 

international waters, compile information on:

A) Historical extent and range of these species, the ecological history of these corals, and if 

an estimate of total population size and distribution area is possible to ascertain.

B) Current status, including spatial area of occupancy (vertical and horizontal), abundance, 

and size structure.

C) Identify and characterize the threats that have impacted populations, where these occur, 

and whether they are ongoing, recent, or historic.

D) Characterize changes among populations. Include a discussion of the extent of expansion 

into new habitats,depths, and/or shifts in distribution (i.e. loss of populations at certain 

depths), and factors that may have mediated these changes. 

E) Estimate the percent of beds where these corals have declined substantially from some 

historic level, the percent of beds where populations are stable or recovering, and identify 

specific locations where these changes have been observed.

F) Identify locations that have been impacted by trawl fisheries and the type of information 

available on impacts from these fisheries.

2. Evaluate the adequacy of existing knowledge and research approaches:

A) Identify and evaluate monitoring approaches that have been applied or need to be applied 

to assess status and trends in these species, including ways to quantify abundance, cover, 

various life history stages, depth stratified long term distribution and density studies, 

factors affecting growth and reproductive capacity, and other demographic parameters. 

B) Identify gaps in assessment and monitoring information (specific countries or locations 

where the coral is thought to occur, or once did occur but no recent information is 

available) and what is needed to obtain this information.

C) Identify information gaps regarding the biology, life history traits, taxonomy, genetics 

and what is needed to address these gaps.

D) Identify science needs for populations in international waters.

3. Assess decline criteria for these species:

A) Discuss relationships between density, abundance, size structure, and the use of size as a 

surrogate of decline for modular organisms.

B) Discuss possible implications of life history on the genetic structure of populations.

C) Discuss known information on growth, and how new measures of growth impacts prior 

determinations of MSY or other management measures.

D) Evaluate the adequacy of measures of decline included in the draft 2007 listing proposal, 

concerns identified through the FAO review, and options for estimating decline in data 

poor populations drawing from other fisheries.

5
Working Group 2: The Management Working Group 

This group will compile and assess information on existing national management strategies, how 

they vary between jurisdictions, and their adequacy. 

1. Summarize the national management plans for Coralliidae:

A) Compile information on existing national legislation, regulations, statutes, management 

approaches, and conservation initiatives that apply to Coralliidae, and develop a table to 

compare and contrast management approaches between countries and provinces.

B) Evaluate the effectiveness of national management at protecting these corals, enhancing 

recovery potential, and where they are being applied.

C) Summarize how management measures differ across jurisdictions and in international 

waters.

2. Compile available information on Coralliidae fisheries:

A) Identify numbers of fishermen and/or fishing vessels within each country or province, 

types of gear used, effort (seasons etc.), and locations that are currently targeted and how 

this has changed over time.

B) Evaluate relationships between landings, how these have changed over time, and how this 

is related to resource changes and/or decline in demand. Compile available information 

on value of different species of Coralliidae and fluctuations in value.

3. Develop recommendations on changes needed to management approaches to enhance 

conservation:

A) Recommend additional measures that could be implemented on a local, national, and 

regional scale that are necessary to address threats affecting these species and can help 

rebuild populations, and where these need to be applied.

B) Identify strong local management and enforcement efforts among range states to prevent 

unsustainable harvest of Coralliidae, and gaps where more steps are needed.

C) Develop an adaptive management approach for Coralliidae that could be applied across 

jurisdictions to standardize management approaches.

D) Examine the potential implications of not taking additional steps to conserve these 

species and the areas where they occur.

4. Compile information on Industry concerns associated with a potential listing and approaches 

to resolve these difficulties:

A) Internet sales.

B) Repairs of jewelry when products are returned (via mail and/or across international 

borders).

C) Re-export of Corallium and Paracorallium (including material imported as skeletons and 

subsequently exported as a manufactured product.

6
Working Group 3: The CITES Working Group 

This group will address implementation issues of a potential CITES listing. 

1. Identification:

A) What tools does a law enforcement officer need to identify Corallium and

Paracorallium?

B) How feasible is it to identify Corallium and Paracorallium to the level of genus (and 

differentiate it from other precious corals), and what implications does this have for 

the CITES listing and conservation of the species?

C) Can we justify a listing based on the findings that adequate science is available only 

for a single species, and other species are included based on the look alike criteria?

D) How do you deal with jewelry or other products that include multiple species of 

Corallium?

2. Origin of species in trade:

A) Recommend strategies to address interpretation inconsistencies surrounding 

Introduction from the Sea and potential implications for Coralliidae.

B) Discuss problems and solutions regarding illegal harvest of Corallium and

Paracorallium species, and steps to effectively confirm that specimens in trade were 

legally obtained. 

C) Provide options for a suitable approach to address pre-Convention specimens.

3. Administrative burden:

A) Discuss measures that would address the potential administrative burden, including 

increased paperwork load from issuing trade documents for all Corallium and

Paracorallium species and new reporting requirements that might result if Coralliidae 

is listed. 

B) Identify national issues that would need to be addressed including new enforcement 

officers and training programs if the species were regulated through CITES.

4. Commercial trade versus personal items:

A) Develop an approach to address Coralliidae jewelry that is purchased by tourists 

and/or in a person’s possession, and identify an acceptable method for the allowable 

personal exemption, including a discussion of the number of allowable pieces and 

what considerations need to be taken into account for the differences in weight and/or 

size between pieces.

5. Linking science and management needs for CITES and Enforcement Authorities:

A) Evaluate the type of information that would be needed by Scientific Authorities to 

establish an export quota and make a non-detriment finding. 

B) Evaluate difficulties in enforcement if the species were listed and approaches to 

resolve these issues.

7
8
WORKING GROUP REPORTS

9
Science Working Group Report

The working group was charged with assessing the state of biological knowledge and population 

information for Corallium and Paracorallium in Pacific waters, with emphasis on national and 

international waters that have been or may be targeted by commercial or industrial fisheries. The 

group also evaluated the adequacy of these data and the types of information that could help in 

determining sustainable management approaches for Corallium and Paracorallium fisheries. An 

evaluation of science needs and gaps in information is also presented for this region.

A. State of existing knowledge of Coralliidae populations and biology in Pacific waters

Japan

1. Distributional data

Dredge and ROV surveys conducted off the southeast part of the Japanese archipelago have identified 

seven taxa of Corallium. Two of these, C. elatius (100-276m) and C. konojoi (76-276m), are found 

in multiple locations between Mie in the north to Okinawa in the south. Paracorallium japonicum 

(76-280 m depth range) overlapped with C. elatius and C. konojoi, but also extended further north 

to Sagami Bay. Two other non-commercial species have been found off Boso Peninsula, north 

of Sagami Bay (C. boshuense 540 m depth, and C. sulcatum 180-540 m depth); C. pusillum was 

identified off Izu Island; C. inutile off Kochi; and a single sample of Corallium sp was collected 

at 1200m depth off Ogasawara Island. Coralliidae appears to be absent north of Sagami Bay, 

possibly because of lower temperatures and other environmental factors. The northern boundary 

of Corallium and Paracorallium distribution may be determined by the Kuroshio current, as it 

deflects to the east in the northern part of Sagami Bay. 

Four 100 meter Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) transects were recently conducted off Kagoshima 

area to characterize population dynamics and habitat features. The population surveyed with the 

ROV was almost mono-specific. The colonies were surrounded by mud, but were attached to rocky 

substrate in a flat area. Current was not recorded but was not too strong. Nonaka and collaborators 

also recently completed surveys of C. japonicum, C. konojoi and C. elatius off Okinawa to observe 

distribution and some population structure parameters (Deep Sea Coral Symposium, Nov. 2008). 

No other population information is available, with exception of observations made in 1904. 

2. Biological data

Samples of P. japonicum collected in 1904 identified the presence of eggs, which were larger 

in March than in September. Stable isotope studies carried out by NI suggest Corallium has an 

intermediate carnivorous-herbivorous diet. NI also examined cross sections of calcein-stained 

growth rings and radioactive labeling (Pb) samples collected at approx. 100 meters off Okinawa 

and Kochi areas to estimate age. Colonies had the following growth rates:

P. japonicum 0.30 ± 0.14 SD mm/year (N=5)

C. elatius 0.19 ± 0.15 SD mm/year (N=5)

C. konojoi 0.58 mm/year (N=1)

10
The Japanese Coral Association is collecting information on precious corals, limited environmental 

data (temperature, depth, current speed) and landings data for Corallium during fishing operations. 

This group is selectively harvesting coral using ROVs in Okinawa areas and using tangle net dredges 

off Kochi. Their website (www.sangokumiai.jp) includes general information about various species 

of Corallium and Paracorallium used in jewelry manufacture, approaches to harvest corals, and 

footage on Corallidae habitat. There currently are six videos illustrating the selective harvest of 

colonies off Okinawa using an ROV. From these videos, the following conclusions were made:1) 

The habitat was soft bottom-gravel community; 2) The density of corals seems to be low or even 

sporadic; 3) Other organisms such as soft gorgonians and alcyonarians occur in these habitats. 

Bottom trawls are not thought to be used in this area. 

 

●

●

● ● ● ●

●

●

●

●

●

Ogasawara Is

Sagami Bay

Goto Is

Ryukyu Is, 

(Okinawa)

Kochi

Kagoshima

Mie

Wakayama

●

●

● ● ● ●

●

●

●

●

●

Ogasawara Is

Sagami Bay

Goto Is

Ryukyu Is, 

(Okinawa)

Kochi

Kagoshima

Mie

Wakayama

Taiwan

There have been no biological studies or population surveys undertaken for Coralliidae in waters 

surrounding the island of Taiwan. A research program was initiated in 2008, which primarily 

involves and observer program and an examination of landings to obtain information on population 

dynamics. Four species of Corallium and Paracorallium have been identified from fishery catches:

	Corallium elatius (momo)

	P. japonicum (aka)

	C. secundum (miss) *taxonomy has not been confirmed (HI only)

	C. konojoi (shiro)

Fishery effort is concentrated in a band that extends from the edge of the shelf between 100 to 

1000m depth from the south-western part of the south China Sea (N19° E112°) to waters northeast of the island of Taiwan (N28° E126°) with most effort concentrated from 200 to 500m depth. 

11

Fig. 1. Locations known to contain Corallium populations. Figure 

provided by Dr. Nozomu Iwasaki.
No data on abundance, density or size structure are available. Beginning in January 2009, data 

have been collected on the condition of landed colonies. The first two months of data indicate that 

only 2% of the colonies were alive when landed, while 15% of them had recently died and 83% 

consisted of long-dead, eroded fragments.

International waters around Emperor Seamounts

Corallium populations were first discovered around Koko Seamount (C. secundum) in 1965. 

Additional populations were identified on Koko, Kamu, and Hancock Seamount in 1972 (the 

report of 1972 Kaiyo Maru survey). An extensive population of an undescribed species (Corallium

sp. nov.) was discovered in 1978 at the depth of 900-1500m. No scientific surveys were done 

focused on Corallium prior to inception of the fishery or during the period of active exploitation 

(1965 and 1990) in these areas. ROV surveys (2006) and additional drop camera surveys (2008) 

were made off Koko Seamount by the Fisheries Agency of Japan in areas formerly targeted by 

coral drag fisheries, with the primary goal of identifying vulnerable marine ecosystems, of which 

sessile benthic Corallium habitats are included. Out of 44 drop camera surveys conducted during 

these surveys, Corallium was only identified in one area; this area is now proposed as a closed area 

for trawl fisheries.

12

Fig. 2. Distribution of fishing effort for Corallium around the island of 

Taiwan. Figure provided by Dr. Chih-Shin Chen.
Hawaii

1. Distribution and abundance

Deep coral research in Hawaii was initiated in 1970, approximately four years after the discovery 

of Corallium secundum at Makapu’u Bed off Oahu. Makapu’u bed contains the largest known 

population of Corallium in the U.S Pacific, with colonies occurring over an area of about 3.6 

km2

. The density and size structure of this population was first characterized in 1971, following 

three years (1966-1969) of non-selective fishing (1800 kg of C. secundum were removed using a 

coral tangle dredge). The area was resurveyed in 1983 and 1985, following six years of manned 

submersible harvest (total harvest = 6200 kg). This coral was found to have density of 0.02 

colonies m-2 in 1971and 0.022 ± 0.01 colonies m-2 in 1985. Additional surveys in 2001 found that 

the bed was larger than previously estimated (4.3 km2) and corals occurred at a higher density (0.3 

colonies/m2

).

Submersible surveys between 350-500 m were conducted at 6 coral beds in the lower Hawaiian 

Archipelago between 1998 and 2001 to characterize the distribution, abundance, and size structure 

of precious corals. Two beds, Makapu’u and WestPac, were dominated by C. secundum. C. regale

was the dominant species of Corallium at Brooks, Keahole, and Cross sites. Corallium was rare at 

the remaining French Frigate Shoals site. 

To date, precious corals have been identified in 17 locations off Hawaii. In some cases, the size 

of these beds, colony abundances, and size structure are known, but collection of additional data 

would help improve our understanding of these taxa and the potential for sustainable harvest.

2. Population dynamics

The Makapu’u coral bed has been the focus of fishing and monitoring since the early 1970s. There 

was no significant change in recruitment throughout this period, although there was a slight shift 

in the age-frequency distribution. In 1983, age groups between 15 and 35 years old declined in 

abundance by 2-9% when compared to 1971 surveys, and all colonies older than 35 years old were 

absent. Over the next 2 years, increases in abundance were observed for the 20-25 year age classes 

(12%) and 30-40 year classes (1%), but older colonies were still absent. By 2001, all age classes 

from 20–45 years were at a higher abundance than that observed in 1983, while older colonies 

were still under-represented. 

13
3. Biological data

Linear growth rates and ages of C. secundum colonies were first estimated from skeletal growth 

rings (0.9 cm height/yr; Grigg 1976), with 28 cm tall colonies estimated at 29 years. Recent aging 

studies using radiocarbon determined growth rates of 170 microns diameter/yr, which suggests a 

28 cm tall colony is around 70 years old (Roark et al. 2006).

Colonies of C. secundum were found to have separate sexes and exhibit broadcast spawning. 

Colonies achieve sexual maturity at 10-12 years, as determined from growth ring studies (Grigg 

1976).

4. Habitat

Habitat for Corallium in Hawaii includes hard substrates free of sediment that have strong currents 

with C. regale extending slightly deeper than C. secundum (Grigg). C. regale appears to exhibit a 

general preference for outcrops and ledges, while C. secundum occurs primarily on flat, hardpan 

carbonate substrates (Parrish 2007).

B. Value of various types of biological information for management purposes

14

Fig. 3. Age structure (frequency distribution) of pink coral in the 

Makapu’u Bed, Oahu, in 1971, 1983, 1985, and 2001. Figure taken 

from Grigg 2002.
o Presence/occurrence data

1. Information on the species present in national or international waters can provide useful 

distributional and diversity data for a particular region, but information solely consisting 

of locations of occurrence is not sufficient to determine sites where Corallium can be 

sustainably harvested, and it cannot be used to develop quotas and harvesting placed on 

population based demographic models.

o Abundance data

1. Abundance information on colonies within a Corallium bed provides valuable 

information on the status of a taxa in that location, but the data must be combined 

with knowledge of the entire size of the bed suitable for colonization by the species 

under consideration, and abundance data must be normalized over the entire bed. Use 

of density data from small patches, without considering the total number of patches 

and size of those patches within the bed, can overestimate the total abundance and/

or yield because Corallium often forms dense aggregations within a limited area, 

with population abundance declining at the margin of the patch, even though suitable 

hardground habitat is much more extensive. One approach to resolve this is to have 

variance to mean ratios calculated on similar samples (e.g. one portion from each 

transect).

2. Because fisheries have targeted many known Corallium beds in Pacific waters, it may 

not be possible to determine the true baseline of a “virgin” population, making it difficult 

to determine what the population looked like historically and whether areas that have 

been surveyed represent a natural state. Nevertheless, population size age structure can 

supply precious knowledge on the population history and on population trends. This is 

apparent even in some well studied populations, such as Makapu’u Bed, where the first 

surveys were conducted after several years of removal through a non-selective fishery.

3. Detailed information on the abundance and density of Corallium within a known area 

occupied by Corallium can provide useful information on possible levels of harvest 

for non-selective fisheries, but these data cannot be extrapolated for other beds, solely 

based on knowledge of the size of those beds. This is because existing data have shown 

that, even at the same depth, Corallium abundance is highly variable both within a 

bed and between beds. Furthermore, data on density/abundance of one species cannot 

be directly used to estimate density of another species as these may occur in different 

habitats and/or have different environmental requirements, even if they occur within 

the same depth range. This has been shown for two species of Corallium found in 

Hawaii, each of which occupies the same depth and are predominantly found in 

hardbottom habitats, yet one shows preference for outcrops and vertical areas while the 

other prefers flat hard pan areas.

o Habitat information

1. Surveys conducted to identify presence, abundance, and population dynamics of 

Corallium should include compilation of as much habitat and environmental data as 

possible, as this may provide information that can be used to identify other potential 

areas where the species may occur and it could form the basis for the estimation of the 

total available habitat in a region.

2. Other information that may affect the condition and/or quality of that habitat, such as the 

presence of high numbers of known predators, unusual environmental conditions that 

15
appear contrary to those preferred by Corallium (e.g. large temperature fluctuations, 

shifting sediments, etc.), or the presence of large numbers of broken, bioeroded, and/

or dead colonies should be recorded if possible, as this could be useful in determining 

things that may limit survival or recovery of populations after human or natural 

disturbances, and it can serve to identify impacts from previous non-selective target 

(e.g. coral dredge) or non-target (e.g. trawl) fisheries.

3. Information that enhances the survival and growth of Corallium and/or mitigates 

unsuitable factors (e.g. strong, nutrient rich currents) should also be documented, as 

this may help estimate potential impacts of different levels of harvest pressure.

4. Whenever possible, the importance of Corallium should be assessed because of its 

potential role as an ecosystem engineer, and considerations of the role of the taxa in the 

ecosystem should be given when establishing harvest guidelines.

o Population dynamics

1. The size structure and complexity of colonies (degree of branching) within a population 

and how that has changed over time is the most important information needed to 

sustainably manage a population subjected to fishery pressure. This is because colonial 

animals exhibit size-dependent survival and reproductive parameters including fertility, 

reproductive output, and possibly resilience of larvae and/gametes (e.g. larger colonies 

may produce offspring with greater lipid reserves). Using macrophotographs and a 

scale bar, some of these data can be obtained rapidly by photographing large numbers 

of colonies.

2. The most suitable measure of population structure for fishery management purposes 

is height and branching pattern, as this can be readily ascertained in situ using ROVs 

and submersibles. Diameter data may allow more precise age estimates, but diameter is 

more difficult to measure in deep water populations inaccessible to SCUBA, and may 

not be directly relatable to colony height or branching pattern for larger colonies.

o Biological data

1. Attempts should be made to collect information on reproduction for different species, 

including sex ratio, size at maturity, and relationships between size and numbers of 

gametes/per colony, as this can help determine the minimum size at which colonies 

should be harvested and the potential for recovery following harvest pressure and/or 

other disturbances. 

2. In areas with ongoing Corallium fisheries, representative colonies or parts of colonies 

should be sampled and preserved for examination of size structure targeted by the 

fishery, as well as reproductive characteristics, growth rates, and other life history traits 

(e.g. tips of colonies of known size fixed in formalin or bouins).

3. For areas with non-selective fisheries, especially when there are no in situ data on 

population structure, measurements of representative colonies can provide some 

information on the structure of the population in the harvested area. Managers should 

be cautious when applying these data to management, as the fishery may be targeting 

a certain portion of the population, and portions of that population (e.g. percent of 

small colonies) may be missed or underestimated – especially in situations where nonselective gear is used due to losses of colonies during collection.

4. Condition of colonies collected by fishermen is also indicative of the “health” and 

stability of a population, as landings consisting of a large proportion of dead, broken, 

16
and encrusted or bioeroded colonies may have experienced previous human or natural 

disturbances that have negatively damaged those populations. In cases where few live 

colonies are landed, consideration should be given to limit harvest and/or close an area 

to allow recovery.

5. Whenever possible, experimental data to evaluate recruitment (e.g. settlement 

tiles, photos, or ROV transects), growth (labeling of colonies in situ and/or direct 

measurements over time), and other biological parameters should be collected to allow 

assessment of the potential for recovery and/or expansion of populations, or the time 

required to restore populations to a natural (pre-harvest) state, and for use in models to 

estimate MSY and other fishery parameters.

o Genetic information

1. Knowledge of the genetic structure and connectivity of populations is extremely 

important and should form a focus of future research efforts, as available data suggest 

there may be limited connectivity between populations and several areas appear to be 

self-seeding. This has implications for the management of Corallium, as a low degree 

of genetic exchange between Corallium beds suggests these should be managed as 

separate stocks, such as the approach taken in the U.S. Precious Coral FMP.

o Monitoring

1. In areas where fishing is allowed, the beds should be examined over time to evaluate 

changes in population parameters, such as density and size structure, to evaluate threats, 

impacts, and to ensure populations remain stable and/or increase at allowable levels of 

removal. If significant changes are observed, considerations should be given to reduce 

fishing and/or closure of fishing to allow stocks to rebuild.

o Natural threats

1. Causes for natural mortality (parasites, predators, epidemies, substrate instability/

landslides, global ocean warming, acidification, sedimentation) should be identified 

and studied.

Working Group Participants:

Sergio Rossi (Chair), Andrew Bruckner, Hiroshi Hasegawa, Nozomu Iwasaki, Connie Pui Ling 

Lau, Giovanni Santangelo, Patrick Chung Wing Yeung 

17
Table 1. Fishery dependent data

Current Minimum Medium Maximum

Data mining

Compile grey literature 

from fisheries agencies, etc. 

on historic data (landings, 

fishing effort, etc.), museum 

collections, interviews with 

fishermen

Evaluate stockpiles 

to get historical 

information on 

population dynamics

Determine if populations are 

changing due to climate change, 

etc. (Isotopic analysis of samples in 

old collections to evaluate changes 

in biology) 

Landings 

reported by 

fishermen

FAO 

aggregated 

annual 

landings by 

country and 

species

Landings by vessel for each 

trip in port

Landings by region/

location for each 

country

Landings by specific Corallium bed

Fishing 

vessels

May or 

may not be 

licensed

Accurate Number of vessels 

operating in each area

Amount of effort per 

fishing trip related to 

landings

Amount of effort per unit catch per 

bed

Observer 

program

Variable, 

observer 

program 

started for 

Taiwan in 

2009

Random assessment of fishing 

activities within each country 

Dedicated observers for 

fishing vessels in each 

location targeted per 

country at certain times 

of year 

Observer placed on each fishing 

vessel

Observer data 

on landings

General information on 

locations of fishing, gear 

deployments, duration, and 

type of benthic organisms 

landed (e.g. number of trawl 

surveys with and w/o coral)

Detailed information 

on location and depth 

where fishing occurs, 

amount of landings per 

deployment, taxa landed 

by weight

Observer data 

on colony 

basis

Information on condition of 

colonies landed by species 

(live, recently dead, eroded), 

fragment or whole colony

More detailed colony condition 

(epibionts, degree of bioerosion, 

relationships between size, and 

colony condition

Observer data 

on population 

dynamics

Random samples of population 

structure by species within 

one or more locations (size of 

colonies, e.g. height) 

More detailed 

assessment of 

population dynamics 

by species in multiple 

locations (height, 

diameter, weight of 

colonies)

Full characterization of 

representative samples in each 

location and during each trip of 

population dynamics, branching 

patterns, etc.

Observer 

program 

contributed 

to advanced 

biological/

ecological 

understanding 

of corals and 

coral beds

Bycatch

Environmental 

parameters, deploying 

camera/rov during 

collections to 

characterize habitat

Sampling of colonies sent to 

experts to characterize reproductive 

status (e.g. seasonal cycle, sexual 

structure, relationship with size, 

etc.), growth rates 

18
Table 2. Scientific survey approaches

Approach Minimum Maximum

Simple data collection from 

boats without special equipment 

(e.g. Sample collection using 

tangle nets)

Species occurrence 

(maps of presence/

absence)

Analyze sample condition, population 

parameters, biological aspects, etc.

Drop camera

Single images of habitat 

and presence/absence 

of Corallium (still 

camera)

Video transects with GPS coordinates, 

temperature, and general habitat 

features

ROVs with video

Images of habitat, 

benthic community 

structure, presence 

of coral, depth of 

occurrence of coral

Environmental parameters 

(temp, current, etc.), depthrelated distribution, patch 

size, abundance/density 

along depth gradients, 

colony condition 

Size (height) structure of corals, 

branching pattern, morphology (laser, 

ruler to quantify)

ROVs with manipulator arm 

More detailed 

information on growth 

rates, reproductive 

parameters, weight, etc. 

from sampled colonies 

Genetic, biochemical, and isotopic 

analysis of samples

Submersible

Detailed benthic 

surveys of habitat, 

Corallium population 

structure, etc.

Experiments to enhance 

understanding of biological processes 

such as recruitment, transplantation 

work, etc.

19
Management Working Group Report

The membership of this working group was assigned four tasks: 1) Summarize the management 

plans used in fisheries that harvest Corallium spp.; 2) Compile information on Corallium spp. 

fisheries; 3) Develop recommendations needed to enhance management and the conservation of 

the Corallium spp. resource; and 4) Compile information on the industry concerns associated 

with potential CITES listing and approaches to resolve these difficulties. Based on the groups’ 

experience and the materials they had at hand, it was decided that the group would focus on 

items 1, 3, and, to a lesser degree, 4. The business of addressing item 2 was deferred till the next 

international workshop. 

To address the first task, management measures were surveyed across the membership of the working 

group. The intent was to generate a list of measures that could be used in a survey to query the 

management of Corallium spp. fisheries worldwide. Aspects of management included jurisdictions, 

permits, quotas, gear, size limits, reporting, observers, fishery dependent and fishery independent 

monitoring program, and enforcement. The locations of fisheries present in the working group 

included Spain, Hawaii, Taiwan, Morocco, and Italy. In addition, the group considered high-seas 

fisheries and the recent Appendix-III listing of four Corallium and Paracorallium spp. in China. 

The intent of the Table 1 is to serve as starting point for further data collection on management, and 

to provide a context for the next international workshop planned for Italy in 2009. The working 

group discussed a wide range of management strategies for fisheries, ranging from those directed 

at deep water Corallium spp. to those focused on shallow resources. Gears used in the harvest of 

deep coral included tangle nets, submersibles, and divers. Monitoring of coral resources ranged 

from a minimum level of data derived from periodic landings to fishery independent surveys from 

long term monitoring. 

20
Table 1. List of management measures in Corallium spp. fisheries from membership of the 

management working group. 

 Management measures Hawaii Spain Taiwan Italy IT 

Sardinia Morocco China High Sea

Corallium harvest banned No No No No No No Yes No

Within country 

jurisdictions state/

prefectural

 Exclusive rights 

(cultural, claim rights) ?

 Established fishing areas Yes Yes inner/

outer waters Yes ? Yes Yes NA No

 Coral bed closure for 

recovery (rotation) Yes No No ? Yes Yes NA No

 Establish refugia for 

Corallium spp. 

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 

(MPAs) Yes ? No

Permits/licenses issued Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes NA No

 License validity expires 1-2 years 1 year/

renewable 1 year 1 year 1 year 1 year NA NA

 License restrictions

Person 

& bed 

specific

Diver Vessel ? Yes Boat NA No

 Vessel restriction None None None ? Yes <50 ton 

gross wt NA No

 Time of day restrictions 

(surveillance) None

Fishing 

permitted 

from sunrise 

to sunset

None No Daytime NA No

 Allowed fishing days/

year 

Season 1 May-30 

October 220 ? Season None NA No

Quotas in place Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes NA No

21
 Dead Corallium spp. 

part of quota NA NA Yes No No NA NA No

Harvest season 1 July - 30 

June 

1 May - 30 

October Yes No No NA No

 Purpose for established 

season

Monitor 

fishery

Weather 

suitable

Weather 

suitable

To limit 

the fishing 

time

NA NA No

Gear 

Select sub/

ROV Scuba only Tangle nets Select/scuba

Scuba 

only Scuba only NA Tangle nets

Minimum size Yes Yes No No Yes No NA No

Reporting Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes NA ?

 Report landings Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes NA ?

 Report gross weight Yes Yes Yes No Yes No NA ?

 Report composition live, 

dead, fossil NA NA Yes No No NA NA ?

 Report depth/location Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes NA ?

 Report operation time/

dives Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes NA ?

 Interval of reporting 

required Daily Daily Daily No Yes Daily NA ?

 Report number of 

colonies Yes No No No No No NA No

 Report sales Yes Yes Yes No No Yes NA ?

Observers used in fishery No No Yes No No No/Surveys NA No

22
To address task 3 “Develop recommendations to enhance management,” the working group 

tried to capture the variability in Corallium spp. fisheries worldwide. It was recognized that 

the management measures to be employed can be fishery specific. Measures that can be readily 

implemented in the shallow coral fishery of the Mediterranean may not be possible in the deep coral 

fisheries of the Pacific. So the group opted to identify a range of suitable management measures 

that should be considered for any Corallium spp. fishery. The minimum and maximum level of 

management for each management measure was proposed in Table 2 to describe the range in 

Corallium spp. fisheries. Selection of management measures for any fishery is the responsibility 

of their management authority, and the purpose of this table is to provide a range of options that 

can improve conservation and monitoring of the industry and its resource. The working group 

further proposes that Corallium spp. fisheries should strive to implement management practices 

that enhance the status (the resource yield and the wider ecology) on a sustainable basis.

 Level of observer 

coverage

NA NA Every boat 

once a year

NA NA NA NA NA

Spatial monitoring No No Yes No No No NA ?

Fishery independent 

monitoring program

PulseResearchPulseResearch None Very Pulse 

Funding

PulseResearchPulseResearch NA No

Reports of bycatch in 

coral fishery NA NA Observer 

Reports No No bycatch None NA No

 Corallium spp. bycatch in 

other fisheries None None None No bycatch None None ? No

Enforcement CG and 

Fisheries Coast Guard CG & Fisheries CG Coast Guard

Marine 

Authority ? No

 Penalties Fine Fine

Confiscation 

of gear/lose 

license

Mild

Mild to 

Strong is 

fine

Marine 

Authority ? No

23
Table 2. Range of management measures (minimum and maximum) used in Corallium spp. 

fisheries. 

Management measures Minimum measures Maximum measures

Corallium spp. harvest banned NA

Within country jurisdictions 

state/prefectural

Jurisdictions should be defined, 

including any exceptions

 Exclusive rights (cultural, finder 

claim rights)

If allowed – define the process for 

defining these rights

 Established fishing areas

Knowing where the fishing is 

happening/homogenizing internalexternal waters

Define boundaries and density of coral 

in fishing areas

 Coral bed closure for recovery 

(rotation)

Based on the growth rate of the 

species being harvested

 Establish refugia for Corallium

spp. 

Areas known to have corals set aside 

a reproductive reserve

To preserve reproductive, dispersal, 

gene flow the wider ecology

Permits/licenses issued Number of permits based on best 

available science

Permits based on a resource assessment 

to ensure sustainability. 

 License validity expires Validity should serve as a means of 

re-evaluating the fishery

Expiration dependent on quota 

monitoring 

 License restrictions To control the rate of fishing, and 

number of resources exploited

 Vessel restriction A means to control the location and the 

fleet size

 Time of day restrictions 

(surveillance) A means to improve surveillance

 Allowed fishing days/year A means to control effort

Quotas in place Quota based on best available data, 

(e.g. prior fishery landings)

Bed specific quotas based on survey 

data

 Dead Corallium spp. part of quota Should know the percentage of dead Include dead in the quota as 

appropriate

Harvest season Not required, but a limit on number of 

days/year suggested

Not necessary if permit and quota 

controls in place

24
 Purpose for established season NA NA

Gear Impacts of gear should consider 

growth rate & quota control Selective harvest only

Min size When present observers collect size 

information Yyes

Reporting Yes Yyes

 Report landings Yes Yes

 Report gross weight Yes Yes

 Report composition live, dead, 

fossil Yes Yes

 Report depth/location Yes Yes

 Report operation time/dives Yes Yes, need to generate CPUE

 Interval of reporting required Daily Daily

 Report number of colonies No Yes

 Report size of landed colonies No Yes

 Report sales Yes Yes

Observers used in fishery Not needed if other controls are in 

place. Yes

 Level of observer coverage NA At levels determined necessary

Spatial Monitoring Limiting vessel size/range VMS 

Fishery independent monitoring 

program

Cost-shared data collection through 

industry

Establish long term monitoring of 

demographics and ecology

Reports of bycatch in coral 

fishery Determining there is no bycatch Selective harvest only

 Corallium spp. bycatch in other 

fisheries Identify and quantify If present eliminate

Enforcement Yes, document all fishing (legal & 

illegal)

Compliance of legal fleet and 

preventions of illegal fishing 

 Penalties Low fiscal impact (fines) Loss of permit, confiscation of vessel, 

jail term. 

25
For item 4 “Compile industry concerns associated with potential listing (...),” the working group 

identified a few concerns that were voiced to membership by industry prior to attending the 

workshop. The most common concerns were the species identification problem and determining 

the source of the coral. Because this workshop had a working group dedicated to this topic, it was 

left to that group, and discussion in this group was limited to issues of stockpiling, impacts to 

trade of legal coral operations, and problems of personal effects jewelry moving across borders. 

To address the stockpile issue, it was proposed that this coral would have to be registered/certified 

as pre-Convention material for use in trade. The nature of this “certification process” was not 

discussed, although it was noted that black coral is already listed by CITES and continues to 

be traded legally, andt could serve as an example of what would be involved with a Corallium 

spp. listing. Listing under CITES would result in some level of inconvenience to the shipping 

and movement of industry material. It is not clear how jewelry sold and then returned across 

international borders for repairs will be accommodated under a CITES listing. The European Union 

was identified as a place with multiple coral fisheries and no internal border control, presenting a 

special circumstance for monitoring the traffic of the coral resource. Examining the 20 year history 

of the trade of black coral and other products regulated by CITES would provide insight as to the 

level of impact we could expect on the industry if Corallium spp. were listed. 

Proposed next steps for 2009 workshop in the Mediterranean region:

1) Have the history of Corallium spp. landings for each fishery submitted in advance of the 

workshop to address item 2.

2) Use the tables in this report to survey management measures in established coral fisheries 

world wide prior to the next workshop. 

Working Group Participants: 

Frank Parrish (Chair), Dridi Abdelmajid, Chih-Shin Chen, Kuo-Yao Hung, Georgios Tsounis, 

Joyce Wu, Abdelaziz Zoubi

26
CITES Working Group Report

General points

Although a number of CITES implementation issues were referred to the group to consider, it was 

felt that many of these were generic to trade in CITES specimens and few were unique to trade in 

Coralliidae. As such, many of these issues were ones with which Management Authorities (MAs) 

and enforcement officials (EOs) had to deal with routinely, even if they were not all straightforward. 

Those issues for which Coralliidae posed special problems, notably in the identification of worked 

specimens in trade, were also ones which related to trade in black corals, which had been listed on 

CITES for >20 years. Indeed, some of the approaches suggested here for red corals, might also be 

usefully extended to improve implementation of trade in black corals.

1. Identification:

A) How feasible is it to identify Coralliidae only to the level of genus (and differentiate 

it from other precious corals), and what implications does this have for the CITES 

listing and conservation of the species?

a. The WG concluded that, where worked specimens were concerned, it may only 

be possible to identify such specimens to the level of the Family Coralliidae. As 

there were two genera within the Family, and future taxonomic revision may create 

more, it was not possible to readily identify worked specimens to genus level. This 

proposal should be incorporated in any listing proposal to form the justification 

required by Res Conf. 12.3 Part XIV.e.i for the use of higher taxon names on permits.

b. Where raw or dead corals (sensu Res Conf. 11.10) were concerned, the group felt 

that the standard presumption should be that these be identified to species level. 

However, it was also recognized that on occasions this may be difficult and thus 

identification to Family level may on occasions be justified. However, should the 

Family be listed on Appendix-II at COP 15, the extent to which identification to 

species level might be possible might be best referred to a decision directed to the 

Standing/Animals Committee to examine further prior to COP 16 (this approach 

would also be valuable for black corals and to revise guidance on stony corals in 

Notification 2003?/020). Knowing the country of origin of dead corals narrows 

down the likely range of species in trade.

c. Given the difficulties of identifying worked specimens to genus and species level, 

an Appendix-II listing of Coralliidae will be easier for MAs and EOs to implement 

than the current App-III listing of four Corallium and Paracorallium spp. 

d. Coralliidae powder is also in trade and may be used for traditional medicines and 

other purposes. As this product is labeled it is, by definition, readily recognizable 

(Res Conf 9.6) and so should be subject to CITES controls. In the absence of any 

label, identification of Coralliidae powder is likely to be impractical.

B) Can we justify a listing based on the findings that adequate science is available only 

for a single species, and other species are included based on the look alike criteria?

a. Yes – this is a routine approach in CITES. However, the previous listing proposal 

did not use the look-alike criterion when proposing the genus Corallium.

27
b. How do you deal with jewelry or other products that include multiple species of 

Coralliidae and/or with other CITES specimens? This is a routine issue for CITES 

Parties to address – for example, specimens in trade may comprise carvings with 

inlay of ivory and hawksbill turtle shell and can be traded on single permits – 

therefore we do not foresee any insurmountable difficulties arising from any listing 

of Coralliidae in this respect.

2. Origin of species in trade:

A) Recommend strategies to address interpretation inconsistencies surrounding 

Coralliidae and Introduction from the Sea and potential implications.

a. Introduction from the Sea (IFTS) is an issue which goes beyond Coralliidae alone 

and is being addressed through a working group of the Standing Committee. Whether 

permits should be issued by the state of landing or by the flag state of a fishing vessel 

remains to be resolved. Nevertheless, IFTS remains a problematic issue, notably 

regarding which body should be responsible for making non-detriment findings and 

how multiple fleets exploiting one resource might be addressed.

b. However, it was unclear to the group how much coral was being harvested on the 

high seas and how big a problem this might be in practice. The relevant RFMO 

for the Mediterranean has closed fisheries on the high seas and so this is not an 

issue there; this would only be an issue for Pacific countries. The CITES Working 

Group looked to the Management Working Group to discuss the role of RFMOs 

in the Pacific. We recommend that information is sought as to the extent to which 

Coralliidae are taken from the high seas. 

c. The CITES WG recommends that Coralliidae is brought to the attention of the 

IFTS WG as an example of a taxon that is currently being exploited on the high 

seas and for which some resolution or guidance is likely to be required (if listed on 

Appendix-II). Such guidance needs also to advise on the process for making nondetriment findings.

B) Discuss problems and solutions regarding illegal harvest of Coralliidae species, and 

steps to effectively confirm that specimens in trade were legally obtained and provide 

options for a suitable approach to address pre-Convention specimens. 

a. Traders, when applying for permits, will have to demonstrate to the MA that their 

specimens were legally obtained. 

b. Dealing with pre-Convention specimens, including stockpiles of raw and/or worked 

red corals, is an issue that is not restricted to Coralliidae and is one for individual 

MAs to consider and address within their own jurisdiction based on their analysis 

of volumes in trade and any risks.

c. Options include countries conducting inventories to track/monitor pre-Convention 

stockpiled coral that is traded or inviting voluntary declarations of stockpile 

quantities. Nevertheless, there will be difficulties in tracking the movements of 

specimens into and from such stockpiles and this approach may not be practical in 

all situations.

28
d. Preventing illegally taken specimens from being ‘laundered’ through stockpiles 

may be difficult and illegal take is best prevented by appropriate management of 

fisheries and landings rather than subsequently.

e. The WG also agreed that a listing should not provide an exemption for fossilized 

corals (cf Scleractinia). Defining and distinguishing fossilized coral is likely to be 

difficult and the proportion of genuinely fossilized Coralliidae in trade is likely to 

be low. Where specimens of long-dead corals are in trade (e.g. C. rubrum known 

as ‘sciacca’) these should still require permits but non-detriment findings are likely 

to be simple.

3. Administrative burden:

A) Discuss measures that would address the potential administrative burden including 

increased paperwork load from issuing trade documents for all Coralliidae species 

and new reporting requirements that might result if Coralliidae is listed. Develop an 

approach to address Coralliidae jewelry that is purchased by tourists and/or a person 

possession, and identify an acceptable method for the allowable personal exemption, 

including a discussion of the number of allowable pieces, and what considerations 

need to be taken into account for the differences in weight and/or size between pieces.

a. The use of the personal effects exemption provides a means to avoid permit issue 

for many tourist souvenirs (though not all Parties use this approach).

b. The CITES WG recommends that any future listing proposal use the same 

personal effects limit (for inclusion in Res Conf 13.7) as raised at COP 14 (report 

of Committee I Report 14 Rev. 1) which was: up to a maximum of seven specimens 

of finished items or 1 kilogram (2.2lbs) including any ancillary mounting per 

person, whichever is the lesser. Where a specimen is comprised of multiple pieces 

of [Coralliidae], it should be treated as one specimen.

c. There is also the option for MAs to provide semi-completed certificates to traders 

dealing in large numbers of specimens, thus further easing administrative burdens.

d. The WG also agreed that consistent reporting is necessary. CITES guidance 

currently recommends reporting dead corals by weight, the second preference 

being number of specimens. One suggestion discussed was to use weight for raw 

coral and number of specimens for worked coral (because items of jewelry may 

comprise materials other than coral). The working group would support the issue 

of better guidance for reporting items in trade being raised at the next COP, as this 

affects many species not just Coralliidae.

B) Identify national issues that would need to be addressed including new enforcement 

officers and training programs if the species were regulated through CITES including 

what tools does a law enforcement officer (EO) need to identify Coralliidae? Evaluate 

difficulties in enforcement if the species were listed, and approaches to resolve these 

issues.

a. Key enforcement issues were the need to detect wildlife products in trade, inspect 

and identify the content of these shipments and, where appropriate, validate 

permits. Subsequently, respond to any violations through national law. All of these 

29
required access to appropriate ID guides and expertise including, where necessary, 

expert witnesses to support investigations and prosecutions. None of these issues 

are unique to Coralliidae. 

b. The group discussed what an enforcement officer would be tasked with doing; 

ultimately he/she is tasked with detecting violations of national law including 

those which support CITES. Identification is necessary to undertake the previous 

tasks and this becomes increasingly difficult if identification to species is required. 

Useful tools to assist EO’s in this respect are:

i. ID guide based on morphological characteristics; 

ii. Contact list of experts to call and confirm;

iii. Specimen reference collections.

c. Other enforcement issues included checking large volume shipments where a 

sampling approach would have to be used. It was noted that most inspections are 

of imports, less so on exports.

d. Training for EOs in identification is valuable, including an overview of various uses 

of the product, how products are manufactured (a possible key to identification), 

different characteristics of species etc.

e. The ID guide is being developed with the goal of producing a tool that can be used 

effectively with little training. Virtual online training is another option. 

f. ID material is needed in multiple languages, especially in the languages of those 

countries most involved in the trade (the guide will be produced in official CITES 

languages but would need funding for translation into other languages such as 

Chinese, Japanese, and Italian).

g. Training kits with photographs and sample specimens would be another useful aid 

to enforcement officials.

h. It is desirable to have an ID guide ready to accompany any listing proposal to 

address any identification questions regardless of the fact that Res. Conf. 11.19 

only requests Parties to provide such guidance within a year of a listing proposal 

being accepted.

5. Linking Science and Management needs for CITES and Enforcement Authorities

A) Evaluate the type of information that would be needed by scientific authorities to 

establish an export quota and make a non-detriment finding

a. Identifying and evaluating the information needs for NDFs is a role for Scientific 

Authorities (the 2008 Mexican non-detriment finding workshop provided useful 

guidance on approaches to NDFs).

b. However, the WG noted that there are taxonomic issues relating to NDFs. If trade 

and/or harvest of Coralliidae are recorded only at the genus or family level, NDFs 

should still be attempted to the species level. It should be recognized that this also 

depends upon available biological and taxonomic information.

c. The group also recommended that NDFs for Coralliidae should take an ecosystem 

approach. It is important to ensure that non-selective fisheries do not damage the 

role in the ecosystem provided by these species.

d. NDFs should also take into consideration any bycatch of Coralliidae from fisheries 

targeting other species, which should be monitored by harvesting countries. It is 

30
not clear where and how much bycatch (if any) is occurring and whether or not this 

enters trade.

BENEFITS OF A CITES APPENDIX-II LISTING FOR CORALLIIDAE

1. It would require exporting countries to make a determination, based on available scientific 

data, that trade is not detrimental to the survival of the species. 

2. It would provide trade data not currently available; fill some (but not all) gaps in knowledge 

in regards to the international volume of trade in Coralliidae, its destinations and market 

flows and stockpiled volumes in each country. It would highlight areas where scientific and 

trade research should be conducted to better inform management and enforcement.

3. Identification of worked specimens in trade at Family level would in practice be simpler than 

implementing the current Appendix-III listing of four species. 

4. It would provide the option for Significant Trade Review if required and allow adjustments as 

necessary based on findings. 

5. It would raise awareness with the general public, industry, and other stakeholders that 

sustainability is a concern with this resource. The aim of a listing would be to prevent 

unsustainable use of the resource which would ultimately benefit the long term viability of 

the industry that depends on it. Nevertheless, those whose livelihood may depend on the red 

coral trade may feel threatened by any listing (but their livelihoods might be equally at risk 

by doing nothing to ensure the sustainability of the resource).

6. The group noted that for any listing to be effective it is imperative for CITES authorities to 

collaborate with relevant fishery management bodies. Whilst CITES provides a mechanism 

to control international trade, it is fishery management that ultimately determines the 

sustainability of exploitation of this resource.

Working Group Participants: 

Vin Fleming (Chair), Jonathan Barzdo, Khaki Chan, Richard Chan, Ernie Cooper, Tony 

Montgomery, Laura Noguchi, Julia Roberson (rapporteur), Soyo Takahashi, Said Taleb, Susan 

Torntore, Alfred Wong, Yu Rui Zhou.

31
32
white papers and regional 

reports

33
Precious Corals in a Global Marketplace

Susan J. Torntore, PhD

University of Idaho, Moscow ID 83844-3183 USA

1. Introduction

Corallium rubrum, from the Mediterranean, has been made into beads and used by diverse cultures 

around the world for millennia and this is the species that is the benchmark or the gem standard 

that has defined the term “precious coral” for millennia. Today, however, the definition of precious 

corals has expanded to not only incorporate other of the “newer” Corallium species such as C. 

elatius, C. secundum, C.japonicum, and C. konojoi, but several other types of unrelated corals such 

as “bamboo” and “sponge” corals, black corals, gold corals, and blue corals. I propose that many 

of these precious gem corals not only reflect but enhance Corallium rubrum’s history, cultural 

identity and meanings in a rapidly changing global fashion marketplace. I discuss precious coral in 

this paper as beads and as jewels, as items of dress and as a commodity that began in a long-term, 

extensive cross-cultural trade originating in the Mediterranean region, particularly in Italy.

Historically, Corallium rubrum or precious red coral as an organic material has carried different 

meanings based on its physical properties, such as its ancient use in the entire Mediterranean area 

as an amulet against the evil eye.1

 Red coral and stones, such as ruby, cornelian, and bloodstone, 

have been widely and historically associated with blood and amuletic power in Europe, Central 

and Western Asia, and Africa. Coral sprigs worn as amulets around his neck were used to protect 

the newborn Christ Child in many 15th and 16th century European paintings of the Madonna and 

Child. Corallium rubrum’s Greek and Roman mythological association with Medusa’s blood and 

fertility2 translated into its early Christian religious symbolism as the blood of Hebrew sacrifice or 

of Christ, as the fire of redemption, and as the “tree of life.” In the Middle Ages, coral beads were 

greatly in demand for rosaries not only because of coral’s magical and protective properties, but 

its red color, which connected it to the rose and rose garden as the spiritual identity of the Virgin 

Mary in medieval Christian iconography. 

From the time of classical Rome, Italy has been the center of Mediterranean trade, as well as the 

center of coral harvesting, manufacturing, and the trade of coral. Coral beads had high decorative 

and cultural value in dressing and adorning the body throughout Europe from the 10th through 17th 

centuries, with all of these important meanings. It was used for jewelry because it was so plentiful, 

and is seen in numerous paintings worn as necklaces, brooches, bracelets, hair ornaments, and 

mixed with other gems and jewels such as pearls. Outside of Europe, at this same time, coral was 

greatly favored and widely worn in India, Persia, and China. Marco Polo mentions his surprise 

at the great amount of coral used in Tibet. In North Africa, especially in Morocco, and in Arabia, 

coral was worn in large amounts by women in their jewelry. 

From the classic Roman age, C. rubrum had a high economic value as an important commodity 

in the wide-ranging and centuries-long Mediterranean luxury trade, travelling the silk and spice 

34
routes between Europe, India, China, and the Middle East. Coral beads were a major Roman 

export to India through the sixth century, where it was traded for pearls, other gems, spices, and 

pepper. In the medieval luxury spice trade coral was categorized as a spice and held a prominent 

place in the commercial life of the Middle Ages. After the early 16th century, coral placed first in 

exports to the East, and was an essential commodity in all trade with India, where it was traded for 

diamonds. Coral beads were a primary export commodity from Italy that were transformed into a 

powerful currency for trade with West Africa in the period of European expansion and were used 

in the European-West African slave trade. 

The value and trade of coral beads and jewelry in our contemporary global marketplace have 

been influenced by these historical meanings and traditions, and I have proposed that today’s 

very different commercial markets for various types of corals reflect C. rubrum’s historic trade, 

use, and meanings. Today, the Pacific Corallium species and other types of red and pink corals 

travel in the wake of C. rubrum’s significance and also hold an important place in these markets. 

Coral beads have high value because they are worn in specific and special ways. Contemporary 

market categories are based on the production of different beads that result from different physical 

properties of coral, and each has diverse needs based on different interpretations of coral’s historical 

meanings within the contemporary perspective of coral as a highly valued organic material.

2. The Italian Coral Industry—Corallium Bead Production in Torre del Greco

Since the 17th century, most of the Mediterranean coral has been fashioned into beads in an Italian 

industry centered in Torre del Greco, which is in southern Italy in the province of Campania, on the 

southwestern coast of the Gulf of Naples. Torre del Greco has long been known as a coral town, as 

“the world’s capital of coral,” and their economy depends almost exclusively on the transformation 

and trade of coral. Coral bead making and exporting in Torre del Greco is a multi-million dollar 

industry. Today, Torre del Greco competes with Taiwan and Japan as one of the most important 

locations in the world for the production of coral beads. In 2000, according to industry reports, 

Italy accounted for 90% of red coral commerce and the production of coral objects worldwide. 

Torre del Greco is Italy’s leading exporter of coral beads and coral products like jewelry, and 

Italy’s coral industry consists of, for the most part, a high-quality, high value-added commodity 

chain, a luxury production and trade. In 2000, 80% of coral objects and beads made in Torre del 

Greco were exported throughout the world from over 320 active businesses and workshops. This 

is changing, and Asscocoral, the association of the Italian coral industry, reported in 2007 that the 

coral sector included 250 active businesses and 2,500 workers (Notiziario 2007). The reality of 

Corallium’s Appendix II listing will have a major impact in numerous socio-cultural and socioeconomic contexts, not just in Italy but in Asia.

Based on my fieldwork observations in 2000, the two most prevalent C. species worked in Torre 

del Greco are C. rubrum and C. elatius, although I also noted the presence of C. japonicum, C. 

konojoi and C. secundum. According to more current sources, 70% of the raw Corallium processed 

in the Italian industry is from Pacific sources, specifically exported from Japanese and Taiwanese 

markets (FAO 2007; Santangelo, personal communication, March 2009). Mediterranean and Pacific 

varieties of Corallium have very different physical characteristics that play a role in limiting or 

pre-determining the final products of coral beads. I have summarized some of these characteristics 

in Table 5. The oldest and most well-known species is Corallium rubrum, and this prized red coral 

is called Sardegna in Torre del Greco, Italy, and Taiwan. As a gem, C. rubrum is uniformly red, and 

35
various shades of red are found. Natural color can span a wide range of hues from the most coveted 

deep oxblood red to an orange-red that is still highly prized. 

Newer Corallium species from the Pacific Ocean come in a wide spectrum of colors ranging from 

pure white through shades of pink, salmon, and orange to a very dark ox-blood red. In comparison 

to Corallium rubrum, Pacific corals are larger in size and dimension, more compact in structure, 

and thus easier to handle. They can be more highly polished and more perfectly shaped, but they 

do not have uniform coloration throughout either surface or interior. Pacific corals are important 

in the Italian coral sector because Mediterranean coral is so scarce. By the end of the 19th century, 

enormous quantities of raw Pacific coral from Japan began to be exported into Italy. This crisis 

led to changes in the structure of the coral industry. Torrese coral businessmen went to India to 

sell manufactured coral goods from Torre del Greco, and to Japan to buy raw coral for working in 

Torre del Greco. This direct, international, commercial trade in coral kept business alive, and is a 

way of doing business that still characterizes the Torrese coral industry today. Scuba diving has 

increased tremendously the expenses and price of the raw coral pulled from the Mediterranean 

and international regulations related to harvesting and trade of endangered species also restrict 

the supplies of raw coral from the Mediterranean. So the bulk of the raw coral in Torre del Greco 

is now imported from Pacific waters via Japan and Taiwan, and many beads and other pieces of 

worked coral for jewelry are imported from Taiwan. Taiwan also now supplies large quantities of 

coral beads, much quicker and cheaper, for international markets formerly supplied by Torre del 

Greco manufacturers. However, Torre del Greco is known for the high quality of their products, 

and as a luxury production center. 

A coral bead must go through up to 12 stages of production before it is finished (see Tables 1 and 

2). Bead production is highly labor-intensive, still very much a process of working by hand with 

mechanization replacing hand tools in some steps. Essentially, however, methods of production 

of coral bead making today are the same as those used in the past. The nature of a piece of raw 

coral strongly determines the choice of finished products and, consequently, the finished product 

determines how the coral is processed and the beads produced. After harvesting, the raw coral is 

first washed to soften and remove a good portion of the brownish crust or skin called coensarc. The 

coral is then separated according to its size, color, and form or shape. Larger “bushes” or branches 

of raw coral are separated from the trunk at their intersections and the branches cut crosswise 

into smaller, uniform pieces (Fig. 1). In this step, damaged areas can also be removed or cut and 

separated. Selection at this point can be quite laborious and the waste can be enormous, depending 

on the type of coral. Pacific coral especially can arrive out of the water covered in knots, rot, and 

blemishes. This step is considered the most important in the entire process of coral production. 

Once further sorted, pieces are cut into smaller, more uniform and manageable shapes and sizes 

or “bead blanks” on an electric diamond saw blade under water and these blanks are then sorted 

into more refined groups by color and diameter based on final end use (Fig. 2). The coral pieces 

specifically intended to be made into beads (as opposed to flat cabochons or carved/incised pieces) 

are separated and sorted by diameter by passing them through a series of large bronze-bottomed 

sieves or riddles with graded holes to divide them into their various sizes.

Beads are first roughly shaped using an electric carborundum grinding wheel with the coral piece 

held tight and shaped by hand in a large wooden pliers (Fig. 3). This step simply takes off or 

rounds off and smoothes out the rough edges and removes remainders of crust or coensarc to 

expose the hard exoskeleton. In some cases, like frange or the rougher, cylindrically shaped beads 

36
called fabbrica, this might be the only stage of shaping, although they may be further refined and 

polished. It is important to note here that today it is possible to purchase coral pieces from Japan 

and China (specifically Taiwan) already prepared to this stage. It is also possible to import finished 

beads from these locations. Many workshops and independent producers import both beads and 

the roughly-shaped Pacific coral blanks and then finish them as needed in Torre del Greco. This 

alternative solves many problems for smaller Italian workshops and artisans, including the high 

price and unpredictable supply of raw coral, the subsequent difficulty of keeping raw coral in 

stock, and the low price of the coral blanks. These rough blanks can be produced in Asian locations 

very inexpensively and in large quantities, making the final Italian product less expensive for the 

producer and more cost effective in the marketplace.

Fig. 1. Cutting coral into bead blanks. The raw coral 

branches are cut crosswise with an electric diamondedged circular saw; water is used to cool the saw blade 

and keep coral dust down.Torre del Greco, May 2000, 

S.J. Torntore.

Fig. 2. Corallium elatius branches cut into smaller, 

uniform shapes called bead blanks. Torre del Greco, 

May 2000, S.J. Torntore.

Fig. 3. Rough shaping of the coral bead 

blanks using an electric carborundum 

grinding wheel with the coral piece 

held in a large wooden pliers. Torre del 

Greco, May 2000, S.J. Torntore.

37
Larger beads and all of those with other forms (cylindrical, oval, barrel, flat, etc.) are shaped 

individually by hand. Rough coral bead blanks are held in wooden pliers, or put onto an iron 

needle in a wooden stick (if the hole has been drilled), and each surface is ground down on a 

large, vertically mounted electric carborundum grindstone, which also uses water to facilitate the 

process. Smaller beads are placed onto a wooden stick with resin gum so that they can be more 

easily shaped in all three-dimensions, and the shape of larger beads will also be refined this same 

way. Smaller spherical beads, called pallini, make up the bulk of production and export in Torre 

del Greco. They are produced by a machine in which two large grindstones of carborundum are 

used—one is mounted horizontally underneath a rotating round bronze disk that has a pattern of 

numerous small holes cut into it and is like a flat round sieve or riddle (Fig. 4). Batches of the 

small rough pieces of coral are pushed by hand into the holes of the disk, the second horizontal 

grindstone is lowered above the disk, and it is turned on. The holes keep the coral pieces in place 

while the grindstones shape them to match the size of the round hole, and the vibrations of the 

machine assure that the coral pieces jump around enough to get ground on all sides and make a 

perfectly rounded bead.

After all of the shaping steps, holes are drilled by hand using a very fine diamond drill bit with 

water (Fig. 5). This step requires a great deal of expertise, precision, and skill, and is done by 

specialists. Each bead is drilled one at a time, halfway through each side to make a straighter hole 

and prevent breakage. When they arrive at this stage, the coral beads have a milky or cloudy film 

covering the surface, so the beads are submersed and soaked in a solution of water and hydrogen 

peroxide to cleanse or “purify” their color. They are then polished in a large barrel tumbler where 

the abrasive action of pumice mixed with detergent and water gives the beads a clear shiny surface.

Objects like coral cabochons or incised pieces then go directly to a goldsmith or jewelry workshop 

to be mounted in gold, platinum, or silver, and readied for sale, or go to the venue that placed 

the order for them. Coral beads instead go through one additional major step before mounting 

processes or sales. The stringing process is the final step of production and one of the most timeconsuming. It is completely accomplished by hand by women working at a factory workshop or 

Fig. 4. Making small, spherical pallini beads by machine. Torre del 

Greco, May 2000, S.J. Torntore.

38
at home. Finished strands are braided or knotted together. The bundles of beads are packaged for 

general wholesale distribution as beads, or made into various styles of necklaces or other items 

for three different markets. As an example of how time-consuming the process is, it takes between 

10.5 and 14.5 days to produce one kilo of the small beads called pallini (see Table 3 for a chart of 

accumulated time related to the various stages of bead production).

Coral beads are named according to their shape and size (see Table 4). In some cases, they are also 

referred to by a specific finish or characteristic, such as the term fabbrica for the roughly finished 

imperfect beads of different shapes. The chart in Table 4 identifies the major characteristics of 

the most common terms and coral beads that I observed in workshops, retail shops, or as worn. 

Every piece and scrap of coral is utilized in some form, and the smallest little scrap is drilled with 

a hole and made into the beads called spezzati, for instance, to satisfy a specific market demand or 

custom. Pallini are the bulk of the production in Torre del Greco, and one of the products that is 

primarily mechanized; frange and spezzati are second in production amounts.

3. Italian Corallium Coral Jewelry Markets

Different beads are made for different markets. Very particular destinations and target markets 

were identified by coral producers in Torre del Greco for specific types of coral beads and bead 

products. I have categorized these specific markets under the larger headings of Fashion, Ethnic, 

and Tourist markets. These categories are based on differing characteristics of beads and jewelry, 

as well as the terms that were used by manufacturers, jewelers, exporters, and retailers, and they 

are also based on the differing values of coral and coral beads.

The fashion market category is based on current, constantly changing fashions and styles. In this 

market category, coral beads are strung in carefully graduated sets, based on the historic parure or 

matching set, or combined with carved or incised coral pieces or gold and platinum beads. This 

market prefers highly refined beads that require a great deal of hand work to shape, polish, and 

match. Imperfections in coral are not tolerated, unless the “ethnic look” is fashionable, as it is right 

now, and then slight variations may add character to a piece. Mediterranean coral is the preferred 

color and type within this market, although pink and red Pacific corals are also sold. 

Fig. 5. Drilling the holes in coral beads. 

Here the shaped bead is mounted into 

a vice which slides back and forth 

onto the stationary diamond drill bit to 

make the half hole. A mirror is attached 

above the drill bit so that the artisan can 

control placement of the holes. As in 

many other production steps, water is 

used to control heat and dust. Torre del 

Greco, May 2000, S.J. Torntore.

39
The spherical pallini twisted into multiple strand necklaces called torchons or torsades are the 

most popular type of bead for the fashion market. This style consists of several strands of small 

pallini twisted together into a choker or collarbone length necklace, with a decorative clasp. The 

more expensive corals are made into high quality beads that are then mounted and combined 

with other high quality expensive materials like 18-24 kt gold, platinum, diamonds, pearls, and 

other precious stones. In Italian and European fashion markets, these seemingly unchanging styles 

are considered classic styles and purchased in the same way that pearl necklaces are made and 

purchased—small details like size of beads, length or number of strands, or material and style of 

clasp may change each season or every couple of years. Although perhaps somewhat of a cliché 

in the Italian fashion market today, they are easily read as something that is expensive and classy, 

worn by a certain level of society like gold and genuine diamonds and expensive pearls are worn 

and understood in the United States. In Torre del Greco, coral beads in this market category hold 

the highest value overall for bead producers.

The ethnic market relates to all of the uses outside out the fashion market, and excluding the tourist 

market. It also includes all of those markets where coral beads are used for non-fashion functions. 

Beads directed to ethnic markets are very different than the fashion market beads in shape, size, 

and texture—they are larger in many cases, and less refined in shape and texture. The fabbrica

or rough-textured type of bead in different sizes and shapes, such as the barilotti and cannettine 

beads, are the most common. A strand of fabbrica barilotti that were very roughly shaped, with 

numerous holes and inclusions, were described as popular for a Mexican market in 2000 (Torntore 

2002). The branch coral beads called frange are also sometimes sold as part of this market.

The West African, and particularly Nigerian market, for example, prefers larger cannette and 

barilotti shapes, in some of the lighter shades of pink or orange Pacific corals, in a wide range 

of sizes. Darker Sardegna red coral is also prevalent in the Nigerian market. Beads directed to 

specific ethnic markets in Nigeria, for instance, include Pacific and Mediterranean corals worn by 

the Kalabari Ijo ethnic group of the Niger Delta area. In the ethnic market, as in many cultures, 

coral beads are worn as personal adornment, but they are not simply a matter of individual taste. 

According to Dr. Joanne Eicher (1998), coral beads have become an important vehicle through which 

the Kalabari Ijo ethnic group store, exchange, display, and transmit wealth, status, and prestige. 

They are a symbol of Kalabari identity and cultural survival. Some of the Pacific Corallium coral 

beads used by Nigerians also represent a large secondary resale market that I discovered here in 

the U.S. In the last 10 years of tough economic times in Nigeria, many of these family beads have 

come back into the global market, and have been stolen or sold from Nigerian family collections to 

Hausa traders and then re-sold to American bead dealers who may reshape them for other markets 

such as Buddhist Tibetan monk refugees or folk jewelry collectors in the U.S. The ethnic market 

category encompasses diverse cultural settings around much of the world. In this category, beads 

made for Italian and European ethnic markets include specific regional uses for traditional or folk 

purposes based on historical uses, such as the wedding necklaces worn by Polish women with 

their folk costume. It includes locations such as India, the Middle East, and Asia. The Southwest 

American Indian jewelry sector is also a large portion of this ethnic market, where coral has been 

combined for many decades with turquoise and silver. 

The tourist market caters to producing and selling less expensive souvenir types of items. One of 

the coral items most described as part of the American tourist market was inexpensive costume 

jewelry necklaces of branch coral beads called frange, and simple, inexpensive necklaces made 

40
from waste coral pieces called spezzatti. Although these types of beads are all produced from coral 

pieces that would otherwise be thrown out as unworkable, they represent a significant amount of 

time to cut, polish, drill, and string. Italian or European tourists may buy something that looks 

fashionable, like a torchon necklace, instead of a more inexpensive souvenir-type of item. However, 

their purpose was to purchase it as a sentimental or souvenir of their vacation or trip rather than 

as an investment or classic fashion accessory. The pale pink pelle d’angelo or angel-skin colors 

of Pacific coral made into costume jewelry or simple, inexpensive 3-4 strand necklaces are also 

commonly popular with American tourists. Sponge coral started out in this market, but now has 

come into its own in all of the various niches from high end to tourist. 

It should be noted that there is an extensive cross-over between all of these markets, especially 

when, as is the case right now, the “ethnic look” is fashionable. This current “ethnic look” includes 

many of the features from both ethnic and tourist market categories of coral beads—rough fabbrica

beads in larger cannette and barilotti shapes, and the use of bright red Pacific corals instead of the 

more subtle Mediterranean colors. Bamboo corals have also come into all of the fashion market 

niches, as shown by many high end bamboo pieces in fashion magazines or on the runway. The 

current look also includes high fashion necklaces with multiple rows of frange mixed with amber, 

turquoise, silver, and metallic coins that imitate specific ethnic looks such as Moroccan or Berber 

jewelry. All of these coral beads have been seen for the past 10-12 years on the fashion runway, in 

fashion-related magazines, and in jewelry ads.

Florence, Italy is one of the largest markets for coral for both a local Italian fashion and tourist 

market and the international tourist market. Unmounted and mounted beads are sold in many highend shops along the Ponte Vecchoio, such as U. Gherardi, and others. Coral jewelry is also sold in 

many of the smaller, lower-end tourist shops. I found that, in many of these shops, all red coral is 

touted or promoted by vendors as “Italian” (i.e., Mediterranean or C. rubrum) even though in most 

cases it comes from Japan or Pacific waters. This is because Mediterranean Corallium rubrum is 

the most familiar and famous coral in terms of color and recognition—it is the coral that is used 

as the “gold standard” for all other corals in terms of color, name, and quality, both historically 

and today, in the fashion, ethnic and in tourist markets. The color of Mediterranean coral has been 

beloved and most prevalent for several centuries. In addition, place is related to the associations 

of coral beads, in several respects—coral comes from the sea and is a natural product related to 

familiar marine environments like that of Mediterranean sea or related to memories of a seaside 

vacation; coral comes from Italy and all things Italian are popular today, especially in the United 

States, and so therefore are imbued with a certain quality. 

In this sense, Pacific Corallium corals as Italian coral beads can be seen to be simultaneously global 

and local, playing on the connotation of “Italian” with high style and exquisite craftsmanship in the 

production of luxury items, and the connotation of coral as Italian because the beads are produced 

in and exported from Italy. In this way, the notion “Made in Italy” or “Italian” also increases 

the market value of low quality or “waste coral” beads, such as frange, as popular tourist items 

purchased by Americans, for instance. Beads such as these, as I found out, are advertised as made 

of Italian or Mediterranean coral whether they are or not. Italian tourists purchase the coral beads 

not because they are Italian per se, but because they have specific meanings related to an Italian 

concept of seasonal jewelry in addition to the sentimental value they have when purchased on 

vacation at the seashore.

41
Coral and coral beads have high investment value in different circles, an important aspect of their 

value. This is found in Italy and Europe where there is an understanding and appreciation of coral 

as a luxury commodity. In certain circles, coral beads and jewelry are purchased solely for their 

market value, purchased for the number of grams of coral and weight of the gold, not for their 

fashionableness or style, or for the creative expression or handwork that they represent. The value 

of the coral and gold will only increase over time, so in this sense they are an investment, not 

strictly a piece of jewelry to be cherished and shown off every time it is worn. The raw coral is so 

expensive and scarce, and it is so expensive to continue production by hand in the face of mounting 

Asian competition. On one hand, it means commercializing the product even more, raising the 

retail sales price to reflect the real costs of production and design, and, as in the fashion industry, 

positioning a quality product by creating a name for it. When worn as status symbols, coral jewelry 

has the power to communicate a person’s economic status and display prestige in many diverse 

cultural and social contexts. 

If we look at all of the factors I have mentioned, coral beads come with a high value in terms of 

their preciousness as an organic material. As they move through time and space and through various 

cultural settings, coral beads are examples of complex networks and relationships, and illustrate 

varied players or actors. Coral, as a natural material, holds value through intrinsic physical or 

aesthetic qualities such as color, hardness, size, shape, and the amount of skill required to work 

it, as well as its relative or comparative rarity and scarcity as a natural material. This rarity is a 

source of value in and of itself, and this value is compounded by the degree of difficulty to obtain 

the material or objects made from it, and the distance they must travel as well as the sense of how 

exotic they are. 

Wearing coral beads and jewelry of a certain value and design can indicate power and status in 

terms of wealth, but also in coral’s form and workmanship, and the perception of taste. Material 

wealth is often measured in terms of prestige goods like coral beads destined for conspicuous 

display or display of ethnic identity and tradition. Certainly the availability of coral and coral 

beads is intertwined with price and value, with scarcity, rarity, and supply. We can see how the cost 

of coral beads relates to labor, production processes, and a specific Italian model of business and 

production. The value of this global product is determined not only by supply and demand, but 

by perceptions of rarity, and is shaped by manufacturers, merchants, and consumers. Economic 

value is added at each step in the process of production, and the greatest increase comes when the 

beads are mounted and prepared as a piece of jewelry or sold as a string of beads in a retail outlet 

or export sale for three primary markets. The value of coral is not necessarily dependent on supply 

and demand, and the meanings related to coral are not necessarily contingent on the superficial 

sources of its price. Much of the value of coral comes from its history and the meanings associated 

with it as an organic material from the Mediterranean.

4. A Snapshot of the Coral Industry in Taiwan4

Four Corallium corals from Pacific sources around Taiwan and Japan are the primary species used 

in the Taiwan industry: japonicum, elatius, secundum, and konojoi. Red C. japonicum (the newer 

classification of Paracorallium japonicum was not used in Taiwan) is called “Aka” or “Oxblood” 

and colors ranged from the deep dark red color to somewhat lighter reds. Pink C. elatius corals are 

called “Momo” and found in an extensive range of colors from orange-yellow to brick red, and 

peachy red to salmon pink. Momo was described as the type of coral used in greatest quantity for 

42
production. Another type of pink coral is used with a more subtle pink hue or a mixed dark-and-light 

coloration, called “Sensei” or “Deep Sea.” Found near Midway Island, in deeper waters than C. 

elatius, it was unclear whether this coral is C. secundum or C. sp. nov (Midway deepsea coral)—I 

heard both classifications. A white coral with small red spots, C. konojoi, is called “Shiro” or 

“Konjoi.” I did not observe this coral in any great supply in shops or production, and was told that 

harvests had been reduced more recently. The lightest pale pink color, described as C. secundum, 

is called “Angel Skin,” “Miss,” or “Misu,” and this was said to have become very rare and more 

valuable than the lighter C. elatius or C.konojoi colors.

A type of C. elatius that is frequently harvested and used in production was called “eroded coral” 

or “Mushi.” This coral is a type of older, dead coral in which the exoskeleton has become very 

porous and is full of sponge-like holes. The amount of erosion or damage to the coral depends on 

how long it has been lying dead on the sea floor. Much of the eroded coral was worked as jewelry or 

carvings even with the sponge-like texture, and was somewhat expensive; some beads and carved 

pieces were highly porous and some had minimal holes. There was also another type of nonliving coral used particularly in carvings, called “volcano coral,” in which the coral exoskeleton 

was completely encased in lava from underwater volcanic eruptions. Both of these types of coral 

require additional processing to remove the layers of lava or the more-damaged outer layers of 

erosion to get to the colored material inside. 

The harvest of eroded and lava-covered “volcano” corals in Taiwanese waters today was reported as 

80-90% of the Taiwanese total catch compared to the take of live corals. It was noted that available 

quantities of raw materials are limited, but industry respondents were confident that the fisheries 

were well-managed through the vessel tracking system used by the Taiwanese government. In 

fact, producers in Taipei and fishermen interviewed in the fishing port of Su-Ao discussed the 

Taiwanese practice of selective harvesting. The fishermen explained that they use their GPS and 

triangulate with different readings on GPS and sonar to identify appropriate mounds of eroded 

or volcano coral or live coral and then selectively dredge for their target without taking anything 

else. Producers primarily purchase raw corals from commercial middlemen or from fishermen they 

know and have worked with in the past. Based on landed reports at each port, the middlemen buy 

the raw corals at port and then sell it to the producers. 

According to the Taiwanese producers, the three most important coral production sectors in the 

world are Taiwan, Italy, and Japan. Taiwan had no coral industry to speak of until it was introduced 

by Japan as part of their Asian-Pacific colonial expansion during WWII. Although the Taiwanese 

coral industry is approximately only 60-70 years old in comparison to the centuries-long history of 

the Italian coral sector, coral production is considered an important “traditional work” in Taiwan. 

As it was explained, Japan was looking for cheap labor and so taught the Taiwanese to fish and 

work coral for a Japanese market. Once introduced, Taiwan’s coral industry developed quickly. 

In 1993(?), the Industrial Development Bureau noted that the peak of Taiwan’s coral production 

was from 1966-1979, and that during this time period, Taiwan’s total production accounted for 

80% of world production. Historically, the centers of production and sale were the Pescadores 

Archipelago, the port of Su-Ao in NE Taiwan, and Kaohsiung in western Taiwan. Statistically, it 

was reported in 1993(?) that during the peak period there were over 10,000 participating in the 

industry, including over 1,000 factories of various sizes and over 500 stores selling coral products. 

Taiwanese producers noted that the sector today includes 2,000-3,000 companies/workshops/

factories and over 30,000 people who work with coral and depend on the coral sector in some way 

43
for their livelihood. This means the Taiwanese coral sector currently might be two-to-three times 

larger than at what is considered its peak. 

The bulk of the production process is accomplished through a cottage industry or informal 

economy consisting of a very long production chain with numerous people working on products 

from raw material to commercial point. The larger Taiwanese companies work the entire chain of 

production from raw through finished product. Smaller, individual workshops may purchase raw 

coral and process it to some stage before they sell it to a jewelry producer or larger coral company, 

or they may contract with a larger coral producer for materials to process by the piece to some 

stage (bead blanks, finished beads, cabochons, or carved items). Most of the coral production and 

commercialization takes place within a model of small to medium (SMEs) family businesses, as 

in the Italian coral sector. Families working coral today go back three to four generations, and the 

three or four largest companies are all family-owned and -run.

There are two major divisions of production for finished coral products in the Taiwanese industry: 1) 

the production of smooth/polished coral beads, cabochons, and small carved/incised items for use 

in jewelry and religious items such as prayer beads or rosaries, and 2) the production of decorative 

coral carvings and sculpture as objects of art for Asian consumers, collectors, and museums. A subdivision of this latter category is that of mounted branches of polished “trees” of raw coral as an 

object of natural beauty. A third major division is the production of semi-finished coral products, 

such as rough-cut bead blanks, for sale to domestic and international coral producers. Workshops or 

factories in Italy, for example, purchase these unfinished blanks for processing in order to shorten 

the Italian value-added chain, cut Italian production and labor costs, and maximize profits. 

The breakdown of coral production in Taiwan was estimated at approximately 60% people and 40% 

mechanization in a highly labor-intensive chain. Even the use of mechanization requires a great 

deal of hands-on experience and knowledge in order to work the coral. Some of the machinery used 

for coral production has been developed and/or adapted from that of the Japanese pearl industry—

such as the machine that drills holes in the beads from both ends at once. The machinery used 

to cut the coral branches, make the bead blanks, and refine the bead shapes appears very similar 

to those used by the Italian coral sector; coral is processed under running water by hand using 

diamond and carborundum grinders and cutting wheels. In general, methods of processing include 

the major steps of production found in the Italian industry:

1) Washing to remove the raw coral’s crust or outer skin and expose the colored exoskeleton; 

2) Cutting the main branches by hand to rough out bead shapes or branch shapes based on 

pre-determined uses for each piece of raw coral; 

3) Shaping to further refine shapes for both smooth/jewelry or carving types of production 

(this is one step where Taiwanese production diverts from Italian—the majority of bead 

production is by machine rather than hand, and smaller bead shapes, such as tiny rice 

kernels, are sourced out to small workshops in Vietnam or China for final production of 

beads and stringing). From this point on, coral to be carved goes to a “dry” workbench for 

incision by hand with both electric and non-electric tools such as drills and chisels; 

4) Sanding or tumbling on both types of production to refine the surface of the final product;

5) Polishing is the final step to create the lustrous surface, done by hand using a polishing 

compound and small polishing wheel or processing the pieces in hydrochloric acid.

44
While I observed a great range in quality and price of Taiwanese products (smooth and incised 

jewelry pieces, beads, cabochons, and small carvings) in both Hong Kong and Taipei, I saw a large 

proportion of high quality, high priced, exquisitely carved and finished pieces used for jewelry and 

as decorative objects of art in the larger retail shops and museums in Taipei. The vast quantity of 

carved and incised coral pieces (whether used in jewelry or as decorative art) produced in Taiwan 

is the major difference between the Italian and Asian production and markets. Carved roses (for a 

Euro-American market) and peonies (for an Asian market) are by far the most commonly carved 

pieces observed for sale. Buddhist religious figures and images from religious myths are a common 

theme in pieces carved for Asian markets, and numerous traditional “auspicious” designs relating 

to good fortune—birds, fishes, insects, gourds, and coins—and the Chinese zodiac were observed. 

Many rings, brooches, and necklaces were made of smooth, highly polished coral cabochons or 

beads combined with small diamonds and/or pearls in both yellow and white gold settings. Coral 

beads were also combined with black onyx and what was labeled as black coral, and numerous 

pieces in shops used contrasting colors of coral together in the same piece. 

Taiwanese coral industry output consists primarily of exports of raw coral and decorative products. 

The majority of Taiwan’s coral products are exported, but Taiwanese and Chinese domestic 

consumer markets are increasing. In general, the two main target markets for Taiwanese Corallium

coral products are a higher-end, luxury market and an international tourist market for lower quality 

products. The largest markets for Taiwan coral are China, Japan, Korea, Italy, the United States, and 

Europe. Major domestic sales points for coral products are tourist areas, jewelry stores, museums, 

and local art/craft shops. Approximately 90% of Taiwanese coral is exported—10% of this is raw 

and 90% is processed or finished in some form. In contrast to both the Italian and Japanese coral 

industries, producers stated that the Taiwanese sector is much larger and while still labor-intensive, 

labor in Taiwan is much cheaper and therefore many products do not have to be expensive, high 

quality products. 

Taiwan is also the largest exporter of raw Corallium materials and semi-processed, semi-finished 

products such as bead blanks to Italy and Japan. For approximately 20 years, Taiwan had been 

exporting a minimal amount of Corallium materials and products to China, especially for religious 

and cultural uses in Tibet. However, within the last five years, approximately 50% of the total 

exported Corallium materials and products are going to China, where a domestic jewelry market is 

currently booming in larger cities. China has also begun exporting large quantities of raw Corallium

corals and processing them into beads at even lower labor costs for the global market, in direct 

competition with Taiwan. One of the results of this has been a higher valuation of coral in Taiwan 

(most likely resulting from reduced quantities of supply through harvest limitations and increased 

demand). In addition, the CITES Appendix-III listing has fostered the idea that China has now 

become a range state for Corallium corals, even though there is, technically, from the Taiwanese 

perspective, no harvesting of Corallium corals in Chinese waters and minimal production in China 

compared to Taiwan. China also harvests and produces a major percentage of the non-Corallium

coral products on the market, such as bamboo and sponge coral beads. 

While producers said that they do not see many changes in trade today, the Taiwanese coral 

sector is working very hard to maintain the tradition of coral work and further commercialize 

their products outside of their current market sectors. Producers are strategically working to raise 

market competiveness by emphasizing quality design and production, and encouraging creation 

and marketing of products that can be exported into a more global marketplace by following 

45
contemporary trends in design and style rather than relying on traditional Asian styles. The top 

three coral companies are also working to promote coral as a component of jewelry, to increase the 

value of coral as a gem combined with other gems and precious materials such as gold, platinum, 

and pearls. These companies and several smaller workshops regularly exhibit their work at the 

major jewelry and gem shows in Hong Kong, New York, Tucson, and Vicenza. 

Family companies are working to promote coral pieces related to Asian culture, religion, and art, 

to add meaning and value to products for Asian export and Asian tourist markets in Taiwan. They 

are also creating new meanings and Taiwanese domestic markets, where there has not been a 

tradition of wearing or use of coral, just fishing and production for export; in the last four-to-five 

years domestic demands are increasing. Many Chinese come to Taiwan to purchase coral jewelry 

and many Asian Buddhists come to purchase coral chips for offering as prayers at the temple. 

Another push for local markets has been Taiwanese government programs to promote domestic 

products, crafts, and arts—coral jewelry is now featured next to the more traditional jade jewelry 

in the airports and Taiwanese tourist shops. Two of the largest companies are also working hard 

to educate the public about coral—what it is, where it comes from, differences between types of 

corals—through demonstrations, museum exhibits, knowledgeable sales staff, and small in-store 

displays. 

5. Other Types of Red-to-Pink Coral in Fashion Production

The decrease in the harvesting of gem-quality Corallium corals in recent years has led to 

a proliferation of other species that can be made to resemble the Corallium corals, and to the 

enhancing or bleaching and dyeing of lower quality Corallium corals to create the desired product 

that resembles the gold standard. According to Prost (2001), it has been reported by dealers in 

the U.S. that a large portion of the new coral entering the market is color-enhanced. Estimates 

were as high as 90-95% on the market. Based on my own observations, I would agree with these 

estimates, and further note that the color-enhanced corals referred to above are both dyed bamboo 

and color-enhanced, resin- or polymer-impregnated sponge corals. I have not yet observed any 

color-enhanced Corallium corals in this market, but they have been reported (Smith et al. 2007).

Bamboo corals (Keratoisis and Lepidisis genera) are so named because of their growth structure—

the branches resemble bamboo canes. This coral is a combination of calcium carbonate or 

calcareous material in the internodes with longitudinal parallel striations, and a proteinaceous or 

horny brown gorgonin material in the dark nodes with a concentric-radial structure. Bamboo corals 

occur in shades of white to pale yellow or grayish brown, and are very successfully dyed in various 

colors using aniline dyes to imitate the colors of Corallium species. If the gorgonin is removed, or 

the diameter and size of the branch is large enough, it is possible to make a bead or cabochon that 

hides the brown gorgonin. But its presence doesn’t seem to detract from its use or deter its beauty 

to the consumer. 

The “sponge coral,” Melithaea ocracea, is incredibly popular right now for jewelry. This soft coral 

has a very abrasive and somewhat brittle skeleton, and the spongy appearance gives this coral its 

name. It is usually an orangey-red color, with interspersed reticulation, stripes, or internodes of 

a soft brown/beige or yellowish color—giving it a variegated appearance. It is sometimes dyed a 

darker red, or sometimes seen in a yellowish and red coloration that resembles an apple (it may be 

that this second type of sponge coral is another M. spp.). To be used for jewelry, it is impregnated 

46
with a resin or polymer to give it a smooth appearance and consolidate the structure so it can be 

polished and shaped.

6. Corallium Identification—Raw vs. Gem Corals

Historically, the term “precious coral” referred to C. rubrum as the primary famous and high value 

jewelry coral in production and trade. The term expanded to incorporate the Pacific Corallium

corals as they were added to the market, such as C. elatius, C. secundum, C. japonicum, C. konojoi, 

and C. sp. nov. Today, the use of this term has been further expanded to incorporate any of the 

unrelated coral genera in trade for jewelry and fashion markets, such as the Isididae family of 

“bamboo” corals and the Melithaea genera of “sponge” corals. Indeed, the concept of precious 

corals as gems today also encompasses the Antipatharian black thorny corals, the Gorgonian black 

corals, the golden corals made from these black corals, the true gold corals such as the Hawaiian 

Gerardia species, and the blue Heliopora species. The term precious coral is commonly used 

in gemological industry references to categorize gem corals, for example, in the same way that 

“precious” and “semi-precious” are used to categorize diamonds, emeralds, and other stones or 

minerals used commercially for jewelry and embellishment of dress.3

In practice, there are different methods for identifying species of Corallium corals which depend 

on whether the coral specimens are still in a raw state or have been worked or processed into beads, 

cabochons, or carvings. Raw and whole dried specimens of Corallium are relatively easily identified 

to the genus and species levels by specialists using an electron microscope. Implementation of this 

method is based upon SEM examination and identification of the coenenchymal sclerites found 

in the crust of the raw coral or SEM examination of skeletal axis formation and axial pits or 

polyp base openings (see particularly the work of Bayer and Cairns). It should be noted that the 

three key features of these types of diagnostic examination are specialized knowledge, expensive 

instrumentation, and the presence of the coenenchymal tissue. Raw Corallium species are also 

identified based on colony size, morphological properties in the skeleton such as holdfast size 

and structure, branching characteristics (i.e., tree- or fan-like branching, branch number, length 

and weight, types of twig and terminal ends) and dimensionality or planar structure related to 

curvature and branching (i.e., branching in one plane or three-dimensionally), amount and types of 

bifurcation, cross-section characteristics (i.e., shape, diameter size, color change, canal formation 

and location, presence of radial, concentric or spicular structures), or skeletal color and locations 

of color variations. 

Many of these morphological features can be observed and examined visually by eye, with coral 

in situ, and without additional instrumentation in the lab when full raw branches or branching 

structures are available. However, once the coenenchymal tissue or crust has been removed 

and the branches have begun to be cut and polished in the production process, identification by 

morphological features changes. This process might be referred to as the gemological identification 

of the coral, which includes examination of such features as optical properties (luster, translucency 

or opacity, density, and color), hardness (based on Mohs’ scale), specific gravity, refractive index, 

skeletal mineral phases (calcite or aragonite) and organic/inorganic content (gorgonin, keratin, 

etc.), luminescence, solubility, characteristic inclusions, or surface and cross-section features (i.e., 

parallel longitudinal striations on the surface, pitting, central canal, color changes, etc.; see Table 

5 for a listing of some of these properties for Corallium corals). 

47
Most of the gemological references describe two specific “fingerprint” characteristics for Corallium

corals that can be readily identified in hand: 

1. A solid texture with few, extremely small cavities or pitting visible on the external 

polished surface;

2. Parallel longitudinal striations on the surface of the branches of the coral, and scalloped 

structures in cross-section.

These two “fingerprint” characteristics are readily apparent under microscopic examination. They 

are natural features of the coral as organic substances and are a result of the growth patterns 

of Corallium corals. Although bamboo corals also exhibit the longitudinal striations and a solid 

texture similar to Corallium corals, the presence of the black gorgonin substance of the nodes 

precludes its identification as a possible Corallium coral. Sponge coral’s porous structure and the 

distinctive two-color reticulated pattern also precludes being mistaken for a Corallium.

Key tests for the identification of Corallium corals, according to the Gemological Institute of 

America’s Gem Identification Lab Manual (2005), include refractive index (1.486-1.658), 

birefringence (0.172—accompanied by a birefringence blink), and magnification to confirm the 

presence of the key structures noted above. Further, Smith et al. (2007) found that Raman analysis 

can conclusively determine the natural origin of the red-to-pink colors of Corallium corals because 

carotene, their natural coloring agent, has a signature Raman spectrum. Other experimental research 

is being conducted on precious or gem corals to further identify corals to genera and species 

once they have been worked, through microscopic gemological properties—skeletal composition 

(i.e., chemical, crystallographic, and mineralization processes), molecular structure, as well as 

coloration (Kaczorowska et al. 2003; Rolandi et al. 2005; Bocchio et al. 2006; Smith et al. 2007). 

Using both destructive and non-destructive methods of experimentation, they are investigating 

corals through various methods of elemental analysis, spectroscopy (FTIR, Raman, infrared, 

nuclear magnetic resonance, X-ray photoelectron), and other sophisticated scientific analytical 

methods. These studies have made serious progress in characterizing and classifying precious 

corals and in finding non-destructive or non-invasive methods to distinguish not only species but 

natural from artificial gems without destroying the sample. 

For example, Kaczorowska et al (2003) conclude not only that analysis of the micro-reflected spectra 

obtained through FTIR and Raman spectometry “may be an important step in creating databases 

containing detailed information about particular coral species,” but that they are a “method of 

choice for investigating valuable objects containing corals as a rapid and non-destructive technique 

useful in practical applications (jewelry, archeology, and collection).” Rolandi et al. (2005) state 

that because specific gravity is so dependent on a coral’s porosity it is not a good identification tool. 

Instead, they recommend use of refractive indices (as determined by the distant vision method) 

and both FTIR and Raman spectrometry as useful indicators of species: “With the use of both 

methods the characterization of genera and species of Cnidaria that have gem potential has been 

shown to be possible.” Bocchio et al. (2006) have shown that Cnidaria species have either calcitic 

or aragonitic skeletons, thereby extending the data of Rolandi et al and providing clear distinctions 

between Octocorallia (mostly calcitic) and Hexacorallia (mostly aragonitic) corals. As mentioned 

above, Smith et al. (2007) investigated methods to determine the origin of coral colors in pink-tored corals to identify whether a piece is colored naturally or was color-treated or dyed. In exploring 

both destructive and non-destructive procedures, their conclusions agree with previous studies that 

specific non-invasive or non-destructive methods can be used to categorize not only color origin 

but closely identify precious corals: “A careful R.I. reading, S.G. determination, and infrared (IR) 

48
spectroscopy—combined with observation of specific growth-structures—may provide clues to 

the particular species of the coral.” I would conclude this quick and superficial look at these studies 

by suggesting that a next step might be creation of a matrix or table that pulls together the data 

from these studies on genera and species of all of the precious corals.

In addition to all of these very expensive and sophisticated methods of analysis, there are simple and 

inexpensive techniques which can be utilized in the field or lab to determine general identification 

characteristics in order to distinguish Corallium or calcareous corals from imitations made of 

glass or plastic, for example, or to determine the presence of a dye or use of a resin coating 

with various precious corals. I have experimented with many of these methods and recommend 

their effectiveness and usefulness in many settings when field substantiation or corroboration of 

suspicions are required. For example, as a calcite, the coral will react on contact with a drop of 

hydrochloric acid and display a strong effervescence; muriatic acid is readily available for this use 

(O’Donoghue 2006; Torntore personal experimentation). Calcareous shell used to imitate coral 

will also effervesce with hydrochloric acid, but the structure of a shell in cross-section or on the 

surface is different than coral. Vinegar, as an acid, will also cause calcitic corals to effervesce; the 

use of acids is destructive to coral and will damage the coral’s surface.

Swabbing the surface of a coral bead or cabochon with acetone (or nail polish remover) or, 

sometimes, vinegar, can detect the use of an aniline dye to color coral, or a swab or short soak with 

water will detect use of a water-soluble dye used to enhance color. Chipping or splitting a bead to 

examine its interior will also frequently show the lack of dye penetration, but traces of dye or more 

deeply colored areas may also be visible under magnification, using a hand lens, in small cavities, 

defects, or pre-existing surface cracks to allow detecting artificial coloration without damaging the 

piece. Another area that can be readily examined without damage to detect color or dye penetration 

variations is the cross-section of beads around their stringing hole. In the laboratory, IR and Raman 

spectroscopy methods can be used to identify dye molecules used for color enhancement (Smith 

et al. 2007). 

Plastics can be detected by gently prodding the surface of the bead or cabochon with the heated 

tip of a small sewing needle or dissecting pin to melt it. Plastics also give off an acrid odor when 

heated, and conchiolin corals give off a characteristic protein or burning hair odor when heated. 

Some resin coatings can also be detected with this method. Acrylic resin coatings or acrylic polymer 

consolidation materials (such as those used for sponge coral) can also be swabbed with a small 

amount of rubbing alcohol which will mar or melt the surface of the resin. Acetone or a product 

like Jasco® epoxy remover can also be used as a swab or soak to detect the use of resin coatings 

or impregnated consolidation polymers. 

49
Table 1. General Categories of Coral Production.

Pacific coral

(Japan & Formosa)

Japonicum, Elatius, 

Secundum, etc. 

La scelta del corallo 

grezzo

Washing & selection 

for: form, color, size

Mediterranean coral

(Italy & N.Africa)

Corallium rubrum

Spalliatura

First cutting of largest trunks

Tagliatura 

Branches cut into smaller, 

uniform sizes

Selezione

Selection for quality, color, & 

final types of use

Crivellatura

Sorting process using a sieve 

w/graded holes, based on 

diameter of pieces

Aggarbatura

Rough shaping based on 

final type of use

raw coral (Corallo Greggio) general coral Preparation Steps LISCIO--Rotondo 

Beads and frange

LISCIO--Tondo 

Cabochons

INCISIO

Carving & engraving

processes

Lucidatura

Final polishing 

Pulitura 

Using hydrogen peroxide to 

“cleanse” and brighten color

Montaggio

Mounting & finishing 

After shaping & 

incision processes:

Table 2. Coral Bead Production Process.

Pacific coral

(Japan & Formosa)

Japonicum, Elatius, 

Secundum, etc.

1. La scelta del 

corallo grezzo

Washing & selection 

for: form, color, size

Mediterranean coral

(Italy & N.Africa)

Corallium rubrum

2. Spalliatura

First cutting of largest trunks

3. Tagliatura 

Branches cut into smaller, 

uniform sizes

4. Selezione

Selection for quality, color, & 

final types of use

5. Crivellatura

Sorting process using a sieve 

w/graded holes, based on 

diameter of pieces

6. Aggarbatura

Rough shaping based on 

final type of use

raw coral (Corallo Greggio) general coral Preparation Steps LISCIO--Rotondo (BeAdS)

7. Sgrossatura or Spianatura

Roughing out bead shapes

8. Rociatura or Arrotondatura

Final bead shaping

9. Foratura (a mezzo buco)

Drilling holes, half each side

11. Lucidatura

Final polishing of the beads 

w/soap & pumice

10. Pulitura 

Using hydrogen peroxide to 

“cleanse” and brighten color

12. Infilatura

Stringing beads by shape, color, 

size, quality, end use

LISCIO--Rotondo 

(FRANGE)

6. Foratura

7. Pulitura 

8. Lucidatura

9. Infilatura

The two flow charts in Tables 1 and 2 on bead production are based on Stampacchia and De Chiara (2000), in 

Torntore (2002).

50
Table 3. Time required to complete each production phase in making coral beads.

Production phase Technology

Time to work

1 kg of raw 

coral**

Accumulated time in hours to make pallini 

(8 mm) from

1 kg raw coral

Min-max Industriale Artigianale

CUTTNG

Spalliatura

Tagliatura

Circular saw with 

diamond blade 1.5-2 hours 2 2

SORTING (by diameter)

Crivellatura

Crivellatrice 1.5 hours 3.5 3.5

ROUGH SHAPING

Aggarbatura

Carborundum 

grindstone 4 hours 7.5 7.5

ROUGHBEAD SHAPE

Sgrossatura

Spinatura

Sgrossatrice .5 hour

8 23.5

Manually 1-3 days

FINALBEAD SHAPE

Rociatura

(Arotondatura)

Rociatrice 1.5 hour

Carborundum 9.5 39.5

grindstone 1-3 days

DRILLING HOLES

Foratura Macchine foratrici 1-2 days 21.5 51.5

POLISHING

Lucidatura

Buratto 1-2 days

(+16=37.5)* 67.5

Manually depends

MOUNTING

With gold

Montaggio con l’oro

Manually 5 days 61.5 (+40=77.5)* 107.5

FINAL POLISHING

Pulitura

Sgrassatura

Spazzole elettriche 

ed abrasivi

(electric brush and 

abrasives)

1 day 69.5

(+8=85.5)* 115.5

TOTAL 85.5 - 115.5 

hours 69.5 (+ 64)* (85.5)* hours 115.5 hours

*Numbers in parentheses equal the number of industriale/hours with lucidatura step added in.

**Calculations based on processing 1 kilogram of raw coral to make a product of middle to low quality, in the form 

of pallini of 8 mm diameter. Different levels of technology are given—by hand or by machine. The term industriale

refers to process using machines in production phases; artigianale refers to tasks accomplished manually, by hand.

From Stampacchia and De Chiara (2000, pp. 242-243), in Torntore (2002).

51
From Torntore (2002)

4 This section is based on preliminary research conducted in Taiwan over five days in March 2009, after attending the 

First International Workshop on Corallium Science, Management, and Trade, in Hong Kong. It was conducted under 

sponsorship of WWF-Canada and was related to preparation of the “Precious Coral Identification Guide.” I gathered 

data through several channels: conducting formal and informal interviews, shopping and observation at the Taipei Jade 

Market, attending a special meeting of the Taiwan Jewelry Industry Association, traveling to the coral fishery port of 

Su-Ao in northeastern Taiwan, visiting three coral museums (two in Taipei and one in Su-Ao), and visiting several 

large coral jewelry shops and workshops in Taipei.

Table 4. This chart and list identifies the major characteristics of the most common Corallium coral beads as produced in Torre del Greco.

frange twig or branch tips, hole at one end (5-50 mm long)

spezzati small chips or fragments of coral with holes

barocchetti small, short, irregular barrel-shaped pieces of coral, holes lengthwise

cupolini small thick rounded twigs, holes in middle of lengthwise direction

cannettine straight cylindrical shape, holes lengthwise, smaller diameter & length

cannette larger rounded cylindrical shape

barilotti straight, barrel-shaped, holes lengthwise, variable diameter & length

olivetti olive-shaped, various sizes, holes lengthwise, always described as “oldfashioned”

Fabbrica “factory coral,” any shape, rough-polished with imperfections & holes

lenticchie small, flat, rounded disk-shape like lentils, holes in center

rondele small, short, flat shape, center hole

pallini smallest round beads (2-10 mm)

tondo larger spherical/round beads

52
Table 5. Characteristics of Corallium coral species used in fashion markets

Species Trade name Location and habitat Color Morphological characteristics-- Raw Morphological characteristics-- Worked

Corallium rubrum Sardegna (Italy)

than 50 m). qualities at depths lower depth of 30 to 200 m (better (historically); found at eastern coast of Spain of France (historically); Tunisia); southern coast (Morocco, Algeria and Sardinia; North Africa coasts of Italy; Sicily; Mediterranean Sea: western 

consistent color throughoutare rare); mostly uniform, and white (pink and white very dark red to pale pink various shades of red, from Generally uniformly red, with 

100-150 gr. weight of each branch between cm wide x 1-15 mm diameter; branch of 20-25 cm long x 10-15 branching structure with average Three-dimensional or tree-like 

Sinuous canals in direction of axisstones, etc. designate lower quality. branch structure. Pits, pock marks, striated pattern. Extends parallel to striations on surface give ribbed or remnants of central canal. Longitudinal Clusters of pinholes in cross-section are 

Corallium rubrum Sciacca (Italy)

m; fished from 1875-1887 banks at depths of 150-200 found in three layers of considered a “dead” coral; (near town of Sciacca); southwestern coast of Sicily Mediterranean Sea off the 

occasionally yellowish marks from intense to pale shades, Salmon or orange pink, 

sizes and weights to Sardegna branches than Sardegna; similar Tree-like branching with longer 

Corallium japonicum 

red blood oxblood(Japan),“Aka sango” “Aka” (Taiwan)“Moro” (Italy)

m found at depths of 80-300 Okinawa, and Taiwan; islands of Japan, Viet Nam, Pacific waters around 

where branches intersect.colors may have red spots of white. White and lighter with interior longitudinal core Dark to very dark orangey red, From white to intense red. 

of each branch 200 gr. x 12 mm diameter; average weight with average branch of 25 cm long Fan-shaped branching structure 

materialwork; numerous imperfections and waste Vitreous structure or surface. Difficult to 

Corallium elatius 

Taiwan)“Momo” (Japan, Satsuma (Italy); Cerasuolo or 

m found at depths of 150-300 Philippines, Okinawa; islands of Japan, Taiwan, Pacific waters around 

Pale pink to deep red.spots at branch intersections. around branch structure; white changes in lengthwise and color; waves and subtle “anima” in color; inconsistent longitudinal core of white; colors, with interior Bright red, salmon, orange 

large diameter branches. of each branch 500 gr. Extremely x 25 mm diameter; average weight with average branch of 35 cm long Fan-shaped branching structure 

around a central white area.light and dark pink layers, often located striations if highly polished; sinuous Best to incise, shape, polish; hard to see parallel to branch structure (hard to see).Dense, compact structure. Striations 

53
Table 5. Characteristics of Corallium coral species used in fashion markets (Continued)

Corallium elatius[NOTE: There is confusion in the literature as to whether “angel skin” is C. elatius or C. secundum]

“Boké” (Japan); “Angel skin” (English); Pelle d’angelo (Italy)

Hawaii, Taiwan

Pink and pale colors, with interior longitudinal core of white; “anima” in color; inconsistent color; waves and subtle changes in lengthwise and around branch structure; white spots at branch; Pale pink colors of various intensities; white to pale, soft rosy pink; intense, deep pink

Fan-shaped branching structure with average branch of 12 cm long x 12 mm diameter; average weight of each branch 200 gr. 

Very dense structure. Striations parallel to branch in cross-section. In C. species, striations can appear as faint concentric or radial lines; sinuous light and dark pink layers, often located around a central white area.

Corallium konojoi Bianco (Italy); “Shiro” (Japan) 

Pacific waters around islands of Japan, Chinese island of Hainan, Okinawa; found at depths of 80-200 m 

White; white with red or pink spots 

Fan-shaped branching structure with average branch of 12 cm long x 12 mm diameter; average weight of each branch 200 gr. 

Corallium secundum [NOTE: There is confusion in the literature as to whether “angel skin” is C. elatius or C. secundum]

Pelle d’angelo (Italy); “Boké” (Japan); “Angel skin” (English) ;“Miss” (Taiwan)

Hawaii, SE Japan, Taiwan

Pale pink colors of various intensities; White to pale, soft rosy pink; small orange spots

Fan-shaped branching structure with average branch of 12 cm long x 12 mm diameter; average weight of each branch 200 gr. 

Very dense structure. Striations parallel to branch in cross-section. In C. species, striations can appear as faint concentric or radial lines; sinuous structure with small orange spots

Corallium secundum (?)

Rosato or Midway

Pacific waters around Midway Island; found at depths of 400-600 m; discovered in 1965 

White; spotted or veined pink; light pink 

Fan-shaped branching structure with average branch of 25 cm long x 15 mm diameter; average weight of each branch 200 gr. 

Not classified (?) Garnet 

Pacific waters around Hawaiian and Midway islands; found at depths of 700-900 m; discovered in 1970 

Deep or intense pink and violet pink colors with garnet red veining 

Fan-shaped branching structure with average branch of 25 cm long x 15 mm diameter; average weight of each branch 200 gr. 

Corallium sp. nov (?)Not classified (?)

 “Deep sea”“Sensei”(Taiwan)“New Coral”

Pacific waters around Hawaiian and Midway islands; found at depths 800-1500 m; discovered in 1979 

Bright pink with strong red markings (never solid color) 

Fan-shaped or series of primary and secondary parallel branches with average branch of 30 cm long x 10 mm diameter; average weight of each branch 150 gr. 

Very dense structure. Striations parallel to branch in cross-section. In C. species, striations can appear as faint concentric or radial lines

Compiled from: Ascione (1998); Balletta and Ascione (1992); Cicogna and Cattaneo-Vietti (1993); Iacobelli Coralli (http://www.iacobellicoralli.com/iacora12b.htm); Liverino (1998); Pedersen (2004); (Rolandi et al (2005); Torntore (2002); Torntore (personal comm., 3/09, Taiwan) 

54
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AGTA.

Australian Gemmologist (April 2004) Quarterly News Release From the AG. (E. M. Committe, 

Ed.) Retrieved June 5 2005, from Updating jewellry corals: http://www.austgem.gil.com.au/

agnews.html.

Ascione C (1998) Rosso corallo: Due secoli di corallo e cammei da Torre del Greco del Greco. 

Napoli, Enzo Albano.

Balletta F, Ascione C (1992) I gioielli del mare: Coralli e cammeri a Torre del Greco. Napoli, Dick 

Peerson and Torre del Greco, Assessorato all’Artigianato.

Bienfang P, Trapido-Rosenthal H (2007) Chapter 11: Precious corals. In: Oceanography 331 

Living Resources of the Sea. Retreived February 27, 2008 from http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/

oceanography/courses_html/OCN331. 

Bocchio R, Bracco S, Brajkovik A, Comotti A, Rolandi V (2006) Gem corals: X-ray diffraction, 

solid state NMR, elemental analysis. The Australian Gemmologist, 22:524-532.

Cairns SD (2005) Deep-water corals: A primer. National Museum of Natural History (abstract). 

Smithsonian Institution.

Cattaneo-Vietti R, Cicogna F (1993) Introduction, and Red coral: A Mediterranean resource. In: 

Cicogna F, Cattaneo-Vietti R (eds) Il corallo rosso in Mediterraneo: Arte, storia e scienza. Centro 

Lubrense Seplorazioni Marine (CLEM), Massa Lubrense, p xvi-xvii, 3-9. 

Chii Lih Coral (2007) Treasured beauty of the deep. Chii Lih Coral Company, Ltd., Taipei, Taiwan.

Cicogna F, Cattaneo-Vietti R (eds) (1993) Il corallo rosso in Mediterraneo: Arte, storia e scienza. 

Massa Lubrense, Centro Lubrense Esplorazioni Marine (CLEM).

Cipriani C, Borelli A (1986) Simon and Schuster’s guide to gems and precious stones. In: Lyman 

K (ed) Simon and Schuster, New York.

DEFRA-UK (n.d.) Defra, UK Wildlife and Countryside. Retrieved March 7, 2006, from on-line 

identification guide for CITES-listed coral: http://www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/resprog/

findings/coral/index.htm.

Editorial Management Committee (2004) From The Australian Gemmologist: Updating Jewelry 

Corals. The Australian Gemmologist, http://www.austgem.gil.com.au/agnews.html, retrieved 

6/5/2005. 

55
Eicher JB (1998) Beaded and bedecked Kalabari of Nigeria. In: Sciama LD, Eicher JB (eds) Beads 

and bead makers: Gender, material culture and meaning. Berg Publishers, New York and Oxford, 

p 95-116.

FAO (2007) Appendix K: FAO Red/pink corals. In: Report of the second ad hoc expert advisory 

panel for the assessment of proposals to amend Appendices I and II of CITES concerning 

commercially-exploited aquatic species. FAO Fisheries Report No. 833, Rome, March 26-30, p 

123-133.

FAO Catalogues: Species of the World, F (n.d.) FIGIS - FAO/SIDP Species Identification Sheet: 

Corallium rubrum. Retrieved April 18, 2006, from Species Fact Sheet. Corallium ruburm: http://

www.fao.org/figis/servlet/species?qid=sp 31005 F3611&xp tool=print&bsize=999.

FAO (2004) Identifying listed species in trade: FAO Fisheries report R741. Retrieved April 18, 

2006, from FAO Corporate Document Repository: http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5751e/

y5751e07.htm.

Gemological Institute of America (2005) Gem identification lab manual. Gemological Institute of 

America, Carlsbad, CA.

Hurlbut CS, Kammerling RC (1991) Gemology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc, New York.

Industrial Development Bureau (1993) The beauty of coral. Taiwan: Ministry of Economic Affairs.

Kaczorowska B, Hacura A, Kupka T, Wrzalik R, Talik E, Pasterny G, et al. (2003) Spectroscopic 

characterization of natural corals. Anaytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 377(6):1032-1037.

Nassau K (Fall 1999) An overview of gemstone treatments. Gems and Gemology, p 95-96.

Liverino B (1989) Red coral: Jewel of the sea. Translated by Johnson JH. Bologna, Analisi.

Liverino B (1989) Il corallo: Esperienze e ricordi di un corallaro. Napoli, Analisi.

Liverino B (1998) Il corallo: Dalle origini ai nostri giorni. Napoli, Arte Tipographia Editrice.

Notiziario Marketpress (June 7, 2007) SOS Torre del Greco mondo politico internazionale diviso. 

http://www.marketpress.info/notiziario_det.php?art=34992.

O’Donoghue M (2003) Gems: Their sources, descriptions and identification. In: O’Donoghue M 

(ed) Butterworth-Heinemann, Burlington, MA.

O’Donoghue MJ (2003) Identification of gemstones. Butterworth Heinemann, New York.

Pedersen MC (2004) Gem and ornamental materials of organic origin. Elsevier ButterworthHeinemann, Burlington, MA.

56
Pederson MC (2008) Coral. In: Gem and ornamental material of organic origin. Amsterdam, 

Elsevier Butterworth Press, p 192-218. 

Prost MA (2001) In the red: Coral’s reds and pinks are in demand but threatened habitats are 

putting a crimp on supply. Colored Stone, July/August, http://www.colored-stone.com/stories/

jul01/markets.cfm.

Rolandi V, Brajkovic A, Adamo H, Bocchio R, Landonio M (2005) Gem corals; classification and 

spectroscopic features. The Australian Gemmologist 22(7):285-297.

Schumann W (2001) Gemstones of the world: Revised and expanded edition. Sterling Publishing 

Co, Inc., New York, New York.

Smith CP, McClure S, Eaton-Magana S, Condo DM (2007) Pink-to-red coral: A Guide to 

determining origin of color. Gemological Institute of America. Gems & Gemology 43(1):4-15. 

Stampacchia P, de Chiara A (2000) Il settore dei coralli, cammei ed oreficeria a Torre del Greco. 

Torre del Greco: Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Dipartimento di Economica 

Aziendale, Napoli, and Assessorato alle Attività Economiche. 

Torntore SJ (1999) The Italian coral horn as an object of ontimate cultural expression and meaning. 

Unpublished master’s thesis. University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota.

Torntore SJ (2002) Italian coral beads: Characterizing their value and role in global trade and crosscultural exchange. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Minnesota, St.Paul, Minnesota.

Torntore SJ (2004) Precious red coral: Markets and meanings. Beads: Journal of the Society of 

Bead Researchers 16:3-16.

Walton J (1959) Coral: Classification of species, method of formation and characteristics. The 

Gemmologist 28(335):105-116.

Walton L, Trigerstar Geoscience (2004) Field identification of gemstones. Yukon, Canada, Yukon 

Geological Survey Energy Mines and Resources.

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Read PG). Butterworth Heinemann, Boston.

57
ENDNOTES

1 See Torntore (1999) for a history of C. rubrum’s use as amulet and full references.

2 See Torntore (1999, 2002, 2004) for full references.

3 Bienfang and Trapido-Rosenthal (2007) are the only source in either marine science or 

gemological references I found that separates commercial jewelry corals into “precious” 

and “semi-precious” categories. According to their taxonomy, precious corals include commercial Corallium species, several gold corals in the family Primnoidae and the Gerardia

sp., bamboo corals in family Isisiidae (Acanella spp.) and Lepidisisidae (Lepidisis olapa), 

and the black Antipatarian corals. The corals listed in their semi-precious category are also 

used primarily for jewelry but not as highly valued because of their abundance and high 

porosity compared to the “precious” corals. These include stylasterine corals and Allopora, 

blue Heliopora corals, the organ pipe corals (Tubipora), and several Melitodiidae corals. 

58
59
The Fishery and Trade of Corallium of East Asia

Joyce Wu, Soyo Takahashi 

TRAFFIC East Asia 

1. Introduction

Corallium species are the most valuable precious corals, distributed at deep water rocky bottom habitats, 

typically aggregating on banks and seamounts, under ledges, and in and around caves in the Mediterranean 

Sea, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Western Pacific Ocean and Eastern Pacific Ocean (CITES COP 14, 

Proposal 21). Corallium has been traded for more than 5000 years (CITES COP 14, Proposal 21). From 

the time of Ancient Rome, Corallium was mainly exported from Italy to India (Torntore 2002). In the late 

1800s, Italy started to import Western Pacific Corallium from Japan, and then re-exported to Asia and 

Africa (Torntore 2002). After the 1870s, the center for Corallium harvesting and processing had expanded 

to Asia, such as Japan and Taiwan (Lai 2006). 

According to the FAO’s fishstat data, Taiwan and Japan are the only two areas with Corallium production 

since 1964 and 1983, respectively. Four Pacific Corallium species have been listed as CITES Appendix-III 

species by China, since July 2008. To date, no attempt has been made to draw the dynamics of Corallium

trade in the world or in East Asia. The CITES species trade data for 2008 is not yet available at WCMC 

(World Conservation Monitoring Center), the CITES trade data maintenance center. And no harmonized 

system code has been designed for Corallium species. Thus, the dynamics of Corallium trade is be difficult 

to draw. 

This article reviews the harvesting and trade status of Corallium in the key Corallium trade centres of 

East Asia, based on the public accessible data such as Customs records and FAO data. The importance of 

having more complete trade dynamics for better Corallium resource management is also assessed. 

2. Corallium trade with East Asia

Currently, there is no specific Harmonized System Code (HS Code) for any commodity of Corallium

species or precious coral. The most relevant commodity code under the Harmonized System is 0508.00 for 

unworked, powder or waste of coral, shell of mollusks, crustaceans or echinoderms and cuttlebone, and 

9601.90 for worked and articles of other animal materials (the latter code is rather general when compared 

with the 9601.10, which is assigned specifically to worked and articles of ivory) (Table 1). 

60
Table 1. Harmonized System Code for coral related commodities

Harmonized System Code for coral related commodities

0508.00 Coral and similar materials, unworked or simply prepared but not otherwise worked; shells of molluscs, crustaceans or echinoderms 

and cuttlebone, unworked or simply prepared but not cut to shape; powder and waste thereof

9601.90 Worked Other Animal Carving Material, and Articles of These Materials

HK HS code for coral related commodities

0508.00.90 Coral and Similar materials, unworked or simply prepared but not otherwise worked, shells of molluscs, crustaceans or echinoderms 

and cuttle-bone, unworked or simply prepared but not cut to shape, other than powder and waste

9601.90.00 Worked Bone, Tortoise-Shell., Horn, Antlers, Coral, Mother-of-Pearl and Other animal carving material, and articles of These 

Materials, NESOI

CN HS code for coral related commodities

0508.00.10 Powder & Waste of Coral, Shells of Molluscs, Crustaceans, etc.

0508.00.90 Coral; Shells of Molluscs, Crustacenans, etc.

9601.90.00 Animal Carving Material (excl. Ivory)

JP HS code for coral related commodities

import

0508.00.100 Coral and similar materials, unworked or simply prepared but not otherwise worked, powder and waste thereof

9601.90.100 Worked Bekko and coral, and articles of Bekko or coral

export

0508.00.200 Coral and similar materials, unworked or simply prepared but not otherwise worked, powder and waste thereof

9601.90. 000 Worked bone, tortoise-shell, horn, antlers, coral, mother-of-pearl and other animal carving material, and articles of these materials 

(including articles obtained by moulding)

TW HS code for coral related commodities

0508.00.11.004 Coral and similar material

0508.00.12.003 Powder and waste of coral and similar material (incl. for Chinese drugs)

9601.90.41.007 Worked coral materials

9601.90.42.006 Articles of coral

Generally, customs judiciaries in East Asia, such as Hong Kong, mainland China, Japan and Taiwan have 

followed the HS coding system with at least two customs commodity codes including coral materials and 

products. Hong Kong has two 8-digit commodity codes that are most similar to the global HS codes, but 

specify the code of 9601.90.00 to animal materials of bone, tortoise-shell, horn, antler, coral, motherof-pearl and others (Table 1). Customs judiciary in mainland China has three 8-digit commodity codes, 

include two codes starting with 0508; both cover coral and other categories of animal materials, but 

separate the powder and waste from other types of raw material. The other code is 9601.90.00, and covers 

the same category of materials, animal carving materials, exclude ivory, as the code for Hong Kong and 

global.

Customs judiciaries of Japan have four 9-digit commodity codes (Table 1); the codes of 0508.00.100 

and 0508.00.200 represent import and export, respectively, for the commodities of unworked, powder 

and waste of coral and similar materials. The code of 9601.90.000 is used for export of worked products 

61
of bone, tortise-shell, horn, antler, coral, mother-of-pearl and others. However, for import, the code of 

9601.90.100 is more specific where it is limited to coral and bekko products only. 

Customs judiciary in Taiwan uses four commodity codes for coral and related materials. Two codes start 

with 0508, and are for raw and powder coral, and two codes start with 9601, and are for worked and 

finished coral products. 

However, no single customs commodity code mentioned above is specific to Corallium species. Thus, 

direct comparison for Corallium trade among Hong Kong, mainland China, Japan and Taiwan is not 

possible. 

At the current stage, the only customs data that might be able to provide some insight of Corallium trade 

is the Japan customs commodity code 9601.90.100 which is “worked and products of Bekko or Coral” 

(Table 1). Bekko refers to all marine turtle shell products in Japan. Since all marine turtles (Caretta 

caretta, Chelonia mydas, Dermochelys coriacea, Eretmochelys imbricate, Lepidochelys spp. and Natator

spp.) are CITES Appendix-I species, and all trade would be recorded with UNEP, the data under this code 

would only include a very limited amount of Bekko products. The UNEP data shows that Japan imported 

a small amount of carvings, bones, carapaces, leather products, derivatives and live specimens of Caretta 

caretta, Chelonia mydas and Eretmochelys imbricate from France, Portugal, Canada, Italy, Austria, 

mainland China and others, between 2002 and 2007; but no imports from Taiwan. Thus, Japan’s import 

record under the customs code of 9601.90.100, with Taiwan, would not include Bekko (marine turtle) 

products. Since Japan customs include worked and products of Bekko and Coral under one commodity 

code, it’s reasonable to assume that the coral commodities could be included in this code, as products 

with similar usages as Bekko. Those coral commodities under the customs code of 9601.90.100 

would be precious coral, used as jewelry and ornaments.

Table 2. Japan customs import data of 9601.90.100, worked and products of Bekko or Coral (Kg).

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 %

Australia 0 0%

Cameroon 8 0%

China 

mainland 17 304 101 4,606 138 5,802 275 44%

France 1 0%

Germany 0 0 0 0%

Hong Kong 34 17 47 0 98 25 1%

India 0 0 0%

Italy 12 17 2 2 2 2 2 0%

Korea 

Republic 0 21 56 688 3%

Thailand 0 0%

Taiwan 2,559 2,450 2,523 9 4,105 20 1,665 52%

USA 26 1 10 0%

Viet Nam 0 0 0%

Total 2,622 2,788 2,694 4,707 4,344 6,513 1,977 100%

Source: Japan Customs statistics

62
According to Japan Customs’ data, Japan imported precious coral from 1977 to 6513 kg from between 

2002 and 2008, mainly sourced from Taiwan and mainland China (Table 2). If one compares Japan’s 

import data of worked coral products with Taiwan’s export data of worked and article coral (Fig. 1), the 

data of 2004 and 2006 matches well, but the data of 2002, 2005 and 2007 shows a big gap. Although this 

difference may not link to illegal trade, it shows insufficiencies with data management and indicates a 

challenge for good trade monitoring and regulation.

Fig. 1. Customs data comparison between export from Taiwan and import to Japan.

Source: Japan and Taiwan customs data.

Note: Volume of TW export to JP was added up from two customs commodity codes 9601.90.41.007 worked coral materials and 

9601.90.42.006 articles of coral.

Table 3. Taiwan coral export – worked coral and articles of coral (Kg).

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 %

Cuba 276 196 85 266 0 0 0 1%

Germany 109 227 192 155 74 116 85 1%

Spain 494 377 370 246 179 212 15 2%

Hong Kong 2,286 503 913 557 3,097 1,173 622 8%

Italy 3,640 8,326 3,995 2,348 3,599 3,428 1,199 24%

Japan 5,886 3,329 2,848 4,313 4,084 3,642 1,443 23%

USA 2,599 5,361 4,147 3,560 3,261 2,194 1,804 21%

Viet Nam 4,410 3,896 2,272 3,209 317 2,221 3,575 18%

others 807 430 459 472 1397 240 167 4%

TOTAL 20,507 22,645 15,281 15,126 16,008 13,226 8,910

Source: Taiwan customs (data include customs commodity code of 9601.90.41.007 for worked coral and 9601.90.42.006 

for articles of coral.

According to Taiwan customs export data (Table 3), Italy, Japan, the USA, Viet Nam and Hong 

Kong are the main destinations for worked and article coral. For imports (Table 4), Taiwan imported 

worked and article coral from Viet Nam, Hong Kong, Japan, Myanmar and mainland China.

63
Table 4. Taiwan coral import – worked coral and articles of coral (Kg).

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 %

Mainland China 158 996 1,067 1,296 268 931 342 12%

Hong Kong 3,320 2,191 950 968 2,600 846 1 22%

Indonesia 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,932 4%

Italy 149 161 207 220 69 165 32 2%

Japan 78 8,682 158 288 319 90 363 15%

Myanmar 0 0 0 0 9,490 0 0 14%

Philippines 0 0 37 0 0 0 1,580 2%

USA 23 21 0 14 128 293 281 1%

Viet Nam 1,244 2,366 2,102 2,394 3,575 1,528 1,300 25%

OTHER 0 141 61 122 0 1 50 1%

TOTAL 4,973 14,662 4,588 5,412 16,451 3,901 6,956 100%

Source: Taiwan customs (data include customs commodity code of 9601.90.41.007 for worked coral and 9601.90.42.006 

for articles of coral.

Italy, Japan and the U.S. are the traditional markets for Corallium and/or precious coral products, 

but not Viet Nam. Further breaking down the data for the import and export of worked and articles 

of coral (Fig. 1 a, b, c and d) shows that Viet Nam is an important partner for Taiwan’s worked coral 

trade, but not for articles of coral. Some information from researchers and traders has suggested that 

Viet Nam would play a role for the Taiwan coral processing industry. Although this is a reasonable 

explanation, further study on the trade volume and products needs to be done to confirm this. 

According to traders, Hong Kong hosts the largest jewelry exhibitions in Asia annually. Many coral 

jewelry trades from Taiwan also join the exhibitions and trade coral in Hong Kong annually. This 

indicates Hong Kong’s unique role as an exhibition and trade centre of coral jewelry, given that 

Hong Kong is not a harvest and processing location for precious coral, including Corallium.

64
Fig. 2. The main trade partners for Taiwan’s coral import and export on worked and articles of coral.

Source: Taiwan customs data (2001-2008)

3. Corallium harvest regulation in East Asia

Corallium species are listed in Category I under China’s rare species protection law since 1988, with strict 

regulation. Since July 5, 2008, China further issued a proclamation for the enhancement of Corallium

regulation. This regulation prohibits the harvest, export and re-export of Corallium. Trade of Corallium

is allowed in China under authorized licenses, and the import of Corallium to China has to be processed 

with prior approval.

Corallium harvest regulation in Taiwan was renewed in January 2009. Vessels harvesting Corallium

are regulated by license. Harvest zone and maximum harvest days per year are also restricted under 

the regulation. VMS (Vessel Monitoring System) emission, daily logbooks, designated landing ports, 

centralized auction markets and observer programmes are used to monitor the fishery and to enforce the 

regulation. Fifty-six vessels are licensed to harvest Corallium legally under the new regulation. Harvest 

65
and export quantities are limited to 200 and 120 kilograms, respectively, per vessel per year. Confiscation 

of fishing gear and the suspension of Corallium harvest license would be imposed for violation of the 

Corallium regulation in Taiwan.

Corallium harvest is also regulated in Japan, by the prefectural governors (Kochi, Okinawa, 

Kagoshima, Nagasaki), according to the fishery rule for adjustment under the Fishery Law and 

Conservation Policy for Marine Resource. In Japan, both fishermen and vessels are regulated by 

license for legal harvest. Legal harvest zone for Corallium fishery are designated. The rule does 

not limit the Corallium harvest season or quota in Japan. A new penalty for violation of Fishery 

Law has been effective since April 1, 2008. Any violator will be punished with the maximum 

penalties of 2 million JPY or three years imprisonment, or both.

4. Conclusion

East Asia is significant in Corallium trade, with Taiwan and Japan as historical players, and Hong 

Kong and mainland China rising in importance in the Corallium trade. However, the available data 

is not able to show the quantity and status of trade. East Asia is also an important Corallium source 

area, with different levels of harvest regulation in mainland China, Taiwan and Japan. However, 

the enforcement result is not available and the impact on harvest and trade were not evaluated in 

this report.

5. Recommendations

	Encourage all states and markets involved with the harvest, processing and trade of Coralllium

species to develop species and products specific harmonized system codes for monitoring 

the trade on the raw, rough worked, semi-finished and finished Corallium commodities. The 

better the trade monitoring, the better resource management could be made sustainable. This 

would be very important for conservation of Corallium species, as well as the fishermen, 

workers and traders who depends on Corallium for living.

	For a comprehensive understanding of the Corallium trade, in addition to the record and 

monitoring of imports, exports and re-exports of all Corallium commodities, the domestic 

trade of Corallium in East Asia should also be surveyed, recorded and monitored.

	Encourage all states and areas involved with Corallium harvest to keep detailed records of 

Corallium fisheries. The data should be species specific, and public access to the fishery and 

trade data should be maximized, subject to meeting a confidentiality requirement. 

	Corallium is precious not only to the jewelry industry, but it is also precious to the 

environment. People are interested in Corallium from differing aspects, including biologists, 

conservationists, history and culture researchers, social workers and government authorities 

from different countries. These people should all work together to conquer the nature 

challenge, reveal the precious coral mysteries of the sea and work out a management for its 

sustainability. 

66
REFERENCES

Anonymous (2007) CITES Conference of Party 14 Proposal 21. CITES.

Lai JH (2006) Coral Kingdom: Industry of Coral Gems in Taiwan. CCCB Coral Museum, ILan, 

Taiwan, 160 p.

Torntore SJ (2002) Italian Coral Beads: Characterizing their Value and Role in Global Trade and 

Cross-Cultural Exchange. PhD dissertation, St. Paul. University of Minesota, 259 p.

67
Biology of Japanese Corallium and Paracorallium

N. Iwasaki1, H. Hasegawa2, T. Suzuki3, M. Yamada4

1 Usa Marine Biological Institute, Kochi University, Usa-cho, Tosa, Kochi, Japan

2 College of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University, Kakuma, Kanazawa, Japan 

3 Faculty of Science, Kochi University, Akebono-cho, Kochi, Japan

4 Nakaminato Laboratory for Marine Radioecology, National Institute of Radiological Sciences, 

Isozaki-cho, Hitachinaka, Japan

1. Distribution

Japanese red coral (Paracorallium japonicum), pink coral (Corallium elatius) and white coral 

(Corallium konojoi) are distributed and harvested in waters near Japan. 

Japanese red coral (P. japonicum): distributed on the rocky bottom at a depth of 76 m to 280 m in 

Sagami Bay, Pacific coast of Japan, in the waters from the Ogasawara Islands to Taiwan and off 

the coast near the Goto Islands, Nagasaki, with a height of up to 30 cm (Kishinouye 1903, Seki 

1991, Kishinouye 1904).

Pink coral (C. elatius): distributed on the rocky bottom at a depth of 100 m to 276 m in the waters 

near Wakayama, Pacific coast of Japan, from the Ogasawara Islands to the northern South China 

Sea and off the Goto Islands, Nagasaki, with a height of up to 1 meter (Kishinouye 1903, 1904, 

Nonaka et al. 2006).

White coral (C. konojoi): distributed on the rocky bottom at a depth of 76 m to 276 m in the waters 

of Wakayama, Pacific coast of Japan, in the waters from the Ogasawara Islands to the northern 

South China Sea and off the Goto Islands, Nagasaki, with a height of up to 30 cm (Kishinouye 

1903, Kishinouye 1904, Nonaka et al. 2006, Seki 1991).

2. Taxonomy

In 2003, when the family Coralliidae was subdivided into two genera, Corallium and Paracorallium, 

Japanese red coral was classified into Paracorallium (Bayer and Cairns 2003). The genus 

Paracorallium is characterized by autozooids seated in axial deep pits with beaded margins; and 

by longitudinal grooves on the surface of the axis. However, the pits supposedly characteristic 

of the genus are not observed in Japanese red coral in Kochi. And the beaded margins were not 

mentioned in the first report on Japanese red coral either while a pit under each polyp was clearly 

demonstrated in it (Kishinouye 1903). Considering these facts, careful examination is necessary to 

confirm whether Japanese red coral belongs to the genus Paracorallium.

It is suggested that pink and white corals should be each divided into two groups according 

to branching structures and widths (Nonaka et al. 2006). But more work must be done before 

determining whether they are different species or intraspecific variations. 

68
Mitochondrial DNA sequences of the corals have been analyzed to solve the problem mentioned 

above. As a preliminary research, genetic relationships among precious corals were analyzed by 

small-subunit ribosomal RNA (srRNA) (Uda, Suzuki and Iwasaki, unpublished). Two types of 

srRNA sequences were obtained from several samples of Japanese red coral, while the only one 

identical sequence was obtained from several samples of pink and white corals. Comparison of 

these sequences indicated that the difference is at most 3.0%. Therefore, Japanese red, pink and 

white corals can be regarded as one group.

3. Reproduction and growth

Biological and ecological information on precious corals harvested in Japan is very little. The 

genital organs of Japanese red, pink and white corals develop in the siphonozooids (Kishinouye, 

1904). Kishinouye (1904) examined eggs and spermatids of Japanese red coral collected in March 

and in September. The eggs and spermatids in March were larger in number and bigger in size than 

in September, leading Kishinouye to the conclusion that the reproduction season for the red coral 

was spring.

To estimate the growth rate, we took a new approach using synchrotron infrared rays, in addition 

to Toluidine blue staining method and the radiogenic lead-210 (210Pb) age determination method 

(Iwasaki, Yamada and Hasegawa, unpublished). Stained with Toluidine blue, the axial calcareous 

skeleton of Japanese red coral demonstrated the organic matrix. Observation of the matrix indicates 

that the radial growth rate of Japanese red coral, if one ring is formed annually, is 0.15±0.04 mm/

year. The lead-210 method shows that of pink coral is 0.15 mm/year.

When thin axial sections of Japanese red and pink corals were radiated with the synchrotron infrared 

micro-beam from the center in the outward direction or in their growth direction, continuous 

infrared absorption spectra were obtained. At certain wave numbers, changes in absorbance were 

recorded. The cycle of fluctuation in Japanese red coral ranges from 170 to 250 μm, while that 

of pink coral ranges from 130 to 140 μm. Since those figures are roughly in accordance with the 

distances between the growth rings of Japanese red coral demonstrated with the staining method 

and the radial growth rates of pink coral with the lead-210 method, they should be the yearly 

fluctuation. Synchrotron radiation is found to be a useful tool for measuring the growth rate.

4. Fishery

Japanese red, pink and white corals are harvested in Kochi, Kagoshima and adjacent waters of 

Okinawa. Fishing methods vary in different localities. In Kochi, fishermen drag traditional nets with 

stone weights on the sea floor, catching the pieces broken off entangled in the nets. In Kagoshima 

and off Okinawa, manned or unmanned underwater vehicles are used. 

Coral fisheries in Japan are authorized by prefectural governors and fishing methods, areas and 

periods are different in prefectures. In a case of manned or unmanned underwater vehicles, 

fishermen follow self-imposed minimum size limits that allow them to harvest corals only above 

a certain size. 

69
5. Sustainable use and research needs

Japanese red, pink and white corals are not included in the list of endangered species of animals in 

Japan (Red List issued by the Ministry of Environment in 2006). On the other hand, Japanese red 

coral is considered to be at risk for declining in number, although not an endangered species, in 

“Basic Data of Rare Wild Aquatic Organisms in Japan” published by the Fisheries Agency. 

In order to assess the amount of precious coral resources and fishing pressure on them, and realize 

sustainable use of them, it is essential to have knowledge on the density, biomass and life history 

of precious corals. We have just started the research that should have been done much earlier.

REFERENCES

Bayer FM, Cairns SD (2003) A new genus of the scleraxonian family Coralliidae (Octocorallia: 

Gorgonacea). Proc Biol Soc Wash 116:222-228.

Kishinouye K (1903) Preliminary note on the Coralliidae of Japan. Zool Anz 26:623-626.

Kishinouye K (1904) Notes on the natural history of corals. J Imper Fish Bureau 14(1-31):31-39 

(in Japanese).

Nonaka M, Katherine MM, Uchida S (2006) Capture, study and display of precios corals. 

Proceedings of the 10th international coral reef symposium, p 1821-1831.

Seki K (1991) Study of precious coral diver survey with open circuit air SCUBA diving at 108m. 

Ann Physiol Anthrop 10:189-1991.

70
What We Have Learned About Red Coral and What We Need to Learn for

its Rational Management

Giovanni Santangelo1, Lorenzo Bramanti1, Ilaria Vielmini1, Mimmo Iannelli2

1

University of Pisa Dep. Zoology Via Volta 4 I-56126 Pisa Italy

2

University of Trento Dep. Mathematics Via Sommarive 14 I-38050 (Povo) Trento Italy 

1. A long history 

The precious coral red coral Corallium rubrum (L 1758), is a long-lived, slow-growing precious 

gorgonian endemic to Mediterranean and neighbouring Atlantic rocky bottoms (Weinberg 1978, 

Zibrowius et al. 1984), where it dwells between 20 and 350 meter depth. The bright red, calcareous 

axial skeleton of this sea fan represents highly valuable raw material for carving art objects and 

jewellery. As early as pre-dynastic Egypt, down to nowadays, this species has been widely traded. 

The harvesting, wholesaling and carving of this precious coral has traditionally been centred in 

Torre del Greco (Naples, Italy) since the early nineteenth century, but over the last few decades 

coral craftsmen have taken up their activity in diverse Mediterranean and East Asian countries. 

Overall, these activities involving several thousand people worldwide (Cicogna and CatteneoVietti 1993, Santangelo et al. 2004), depend on the supply of Corallium rubrum (and on the supply 

of other coral species from the Pacific Ocean, too). In general, the lack of suitable harvesting 

strategies and adequate enforcement has resulted in a “pulse” fishing mode, which has also been 

fostered by ever-more efficient professional diving techniques (Santangelo et al. 1993, Santangelo 

and Abbiati 2001, Tsounis et al. 2007). 

2. Population biology

Red coral is an aposymbiotic modular Anthozoan (Octocorals, Gorgonians, Coralliidae) whose 

diet is mainly composed of organic detritus and small zooplankton (Tsounis et al. 2006b). Colonies 

are gonochoric and during a limited time-period in early summer release planulae, which mainly 

settle near their parent colonies (Weinberg 1979, Santangelo et al. 2003, Bramanti et al. 2005) and 

reproduction is mainly sexual (Santangelo et al. 2003, Bramanti et al. 2005, Tsounis et al. 2006a). 

The species is structured into genetically different, isolated, self-seeding populations (Abbiati et al. 

1993, Costantini et al. 2007). As red coral is long-lived (>100 years: Garrabou et al. 2002, Roark 

et al. 2006) and sexual maturity is reached early (Santangelo et al. 2003, Torrents et al. 2005), 

several reproductive generations coexist within the same population. Colonies exhibit low growth 

rates (Garrabou and Harmelin 2002, Marschal et al. 2004, Bramanti et al. 2005), and the size/

age structure of current coastal populations shows a dominance of small/young colonies. In such 

populations, older colonies have become progressively rarer, exhibiting dramatically decreasing 

survival rates (Santangelo and Abbiati 2001, Tsounis et al. 2007). 

Different populations have different life-histories (due, in the case of exploited species, also to 

different harvesting pressures) leading to different densities, size-age structures, recruitment and 

growth rates. The specific structure depends also on their specific habitats (Gili and Coma 1998). A 

cohort of newly settled colonies in a 25-meter deep horizontal cave near Marseille (Fr.), followed 

71
for 22 years (Garrabou and Harmelin 2002), revealed highly parsimonious population dynamics: 

high survival (ca 52% and 41.4% of colonies survived over 10 and 22 years, corresponding to 

4.8% and 2.7 % mortality y-1, respectively), yet low colony average basal diameter growth rates

(0.24±0.05 mm/year) and low recruitment rates (recruits were only 4.5 % of the whole population, 

on average). Studies focussed on colony growth rate (basal diameter) during the first 4 years of 

colony life on other populations (Calafuria and Portofino MPA, Ligurian Sea, Italy), showed higher, 

similar values (0.62±0.19 Bramanti et al. 2007, and 0.62 mm/y-1 Cerrano et al. 1999, respectively). 

The Calafuria population shows faster population dynamics: only 3.5% of colonies survived up to 

the 10th diameter class (corresponding to an age of about 14-15 years) and recruits were 31.47% 

of the overall population (Santangelo et al. 2007). The Calafuria population is crowded, dwells 

on a plankton-rich, vertical cliff and is periodically harvested, while the Marseille population 

lives, undisturbed, in a sheltered cave, partially isolated from other populations and with a limited 

plankton supply. Differences in recruitment and survival rates were also found in other shallowwater populations (Elba Island in Italy and Isle Medes MPA and Cap de Creus in Spain, Tsounis et 

al. 2006, Bramanti et al. 2007, Vielmini et al. in prep.). 

Recently (late summer 1999 and 2003) a new source of mortality has been added to over fishing: 

some shallow-water populations in the North-Western Mediterranean suffered, in the upper portion 

of their bathimetric distribution, anomalous mortality events associated with a sharp temperature 

increase (Garrabou et al. 2001, Bramanti et al. 2005, Torrents 2007). As a thorough evaluation of 

the impact, in terms of mortality, of such events on long-lived species requires a long-time series 

of data collected before and after the event, few studies of the long-term effects of mass mortality 

exist (Linares et al. 2005, Cupido et al. 2008). However, a demographic approach, based on sound 

72

Fig. 1. The shallow (20–45 meter deep) population of Calafuria (NW Mediterranean Liguria Sea 

Italy). Colonies are crowded (33 col. dm–2 ) have few branches and the average diameter is 

4.6±1.12 mm. More than 50% of these colonies are affected by boring sponges, greatly reducing 

their economic value.
population data, may provide a good prediction of the mass mortality impact on population dynamics. 

Population dynamic models, based on sound demographic data, may provide reliable simulations of 

population trends overtime, as can be seen in the following paragraph.

3. Population modelling 

In a recent paper, Tsounis et al. (2007) applied the Beverton and Holt maximum yield per recruit 

model (Beverton and Holt 1957) to a Spanish red coral coastal population (Cap de Creus – Costa 

Brava). This simplex and conservative model indicates only the time at which one cohort reached 

its maximal biomass (a trade-off between the colony biomass growth and the loss due to natural 

mortality) and thus can be harvested gaining the maximum yield. However, the reproductive output 

occurring in a real red coral population, in which several reproductive generations co-exist, cannot 

be included into the model. Such reproductive output is highly relevant, mostly for populations of 

modular organisms like red coral which reproductive output increases exponentially with colony 

size (Santangelo et al. 2003). More complex dynamic models, class (or life-stage) structured, in 

which both mortality and reproductive output are included (Caswell 2001) can project population 

trends overtime under different reproduction rates and mortality pressures. Conservation biology applies 

such demographic models to assess population performance, to highlight the causes of poor performance, 

73

Fig. 2. The size-age structured model representing the complex dynamics of red 

coral populations.
74

Fig. 3. The transition matrix (Caswell 2001). L is the population growth rate.

Fig. 4. This control function, based on experimental, field data recorded in the shallow 

Calafuria coral population, shows an increase of the ratio number of recruits/ number 

of larvae produced for low colony density, and a decrease for higher densities. 

This finding is a clue for density-dependence in crowded red coral shallow- water 

populations like the Calafuria one.
75

Fig. 5. Simulation of the effects of increased survival of larger-older colonies (classes 

5-13). Recruitment saturation is reached after about 30 years of enforcement. Different classes are represented by different colours.

Fig. 6. Simulation of the effects of a single mass mortality event as occurred in late-summer 1999. A: mortality values are those reported for the Calafuria population (Bramanti 

et al. 2005); B: mortality values are those reported for the Marseille population (Garrabou et al. 2001). Both populations completely recover after about 15 years.

Fig. 7. Repeated mortality events with a 3 year periodicity could lead both populations to 

extinction.
to indicate suitable management strategies and to forecast population viability (Ebert 1999, Fujwara and 

Caswell 2001, Beissinger and Mccullough 2002). 

The features of red coral populations – their semi-closed reproductive structure and discrete 

reproductive period, together with an exhaustive life-history data set of one coastal population 

(Calafuria, Ligurian Sea, Italy) – have enabled us to simulate the population trends over time by means 

of a discrete, age-structured, non-linear demographic model, which combines survival and fecundity 

parameters (Santangelo et al. 2007). In the following we show some simulations of the trends of a 

shallow-water population under different mortality pressures due to harvesting and mass mortality. 

It is worth to remember that: 1) simulations are only efforts to project population trends overtime 

and not forecast: “a forecast is an attempt to predict what will happen; a projection is an attempt 

to describe what could happen“ (Bessinger and McCullough 2002); 2) these simulations refer 

to a shallow-water, dense local population (Calafuria-Italy) composed by small colonies in 

which recruitment density/dependence really occurs (Santangelo et al. 2007). All the figures here 

presented are redrawn after Santangelo, Bramanti, Iannelli: Population dynamics and conservation 

biology of overexploited Mediterranean red coral J. Th. Biol. 444; 2007.

The model (Fig. 2) represents the life-cycle of the population structured in different size-age 

classes; the Leslie-Lewis transition matrix (Fig. 3) allows, on the basis of abundance, survival 

and reproduction rates of each class to project the population structure over time (Figs. 5, 6, 7). 

Figure 4 represents the density-dependence of recruitment, really found in the crowded population 

studied (Caley et al. 1996). Simulation in Figure 5 represents the effect of an increase of population 

survival due to protection, which leads to recruitment- saturation (no further new individual can 

add to the population). Simulations in Figures 6 represents the response of the population to single 

anomalous mortality events, like those recorded at Calafuria and Marseille in 1999 (Fig. 6a and 

6b., respectively): these simulations are based on the mortality data reported in Bramanti et al. 

2005 and in Garrabou et al. 2001, respectively. Figure 7 indicates that an increased frequency of 

anomalous mortality events could lead local populations to extinction. Further details are reported 

in Santangelo et al. 2007. 

Both model and simulations here shown are examples of what we can do on the basis of reliable 

demographic data. Similar models (presumably without any density-dependence) will be set out 

also on deep-dwelling red coral populations, when their density, size/age structure, reproductive 

features and mortality rates will be known.

Also if researches are still in progress about demography of shallow-water populations and there 

is now a good knowledge on some of them, some questions are still opened, in particular: is there 

any control of population density on colony growth rate? Is the present status of some of these 

populations, showing extremely high densities (up to 3.000 small colonies/ m2

), small size and 

early age at first reproduction original or due to the high fishing pressure they suffered in the past? 

We recently found some reproductive, female colonies with an height of 1 cm (Vielmini et al. in 

prep.). Some of these populations (as those in Portofino and Medes MPAs) are now protected, 

some other are subject to some sporadically harvesting (e.g. Calafuria population) and some other 

is still suffering overharvesting (Cap de Creus), we do not know if past overfishing have induced 

drastic changes in their structures (further discussion on this topic is reported in Bramanti et al. 

2009). 

76
77

But the real, deep, dramatic lack of knowledge concerns the deep-dwelling populations which are 

those with the highest economic value. Some data on the size structure of Spanish (Costa Brava) 

fishing crops have been reported by Garcia-Rodriguez and Massò in 1986 (Garcia-Rodriguez and 

Massò 1986). More recently, a ROV survey, carried out off Cap de Creus (Spain) revealed a different 

size-structure in populations dwelling in deeper areas (60-230 m) not affected by mass mortalities 

and less pressed by harvesting, but even such structures seems to be far from ancient times (Rossi et al. 

2008). Some other ROV surveys have been made on deep-dwelling populations by professional fishermen 

and by researchers; those made by Massimo Scarpati in Sardinia showed coral populations, living between 

90 and 120 meter depth, composed by large (>30 cm in height) colonies. Unfortunately such populations 

were not examined, until now, by statistical and demographic tools. An other ROV survey, carried out off 

Calabria coasts (South of Italy) between 50-200 meter depth, revealed the dominance of small colonies 

(50% of colonies were smaller than 10 cm in height) and low density (1-90 col. m-1) (Angiolillo et al. 

2009). Generally a tight, inverse relationship between size and density of colonies, with smaller size 

and higher densities was found at shallower depths (Bavestrello et al. 2009). Some further recent data, 

gathered by examining fishing crops harvested between 93 and 107 m depth in Western Sardinia in 2007 

and 2008 revealed a constant size structure with similar modal classes (10 mm of diameter and 40 g of dry 

weight) together with some exceptional colony of about 500 g (Pedoni et al. 2009). 

At present no exhaustive data on age/size structure, colony growth rate, reproduction, recruitment, 

population growth rate and mortality of deep-dwelling populations is already known.

In the following we will address three basic points for the study of red coral population dynamics: 1) Colony 

growth rate and age assessment; 2) Reproduction features and reproductive output; and 3) Recruitment 

rates. Research on deep-dwelling populations should be addressed towards these points.

4. Colony growth rate assessment 

C. rubrum is known to be a long-lived species, but how “long” its life span can be is still controversial 

and the object of research. The assessment of the annual growth rate of red coral colonies is essential to 

assign them to different age classes and to determine the age structure of the populations. Three different 

Fig. 8. A Direct measurement of growth on colonies of known age; B dark bands by petrographic method; C 

Growth rings by organic matrix staining methiod. SNS = semi-natural substrate.
78

methods have been applied (up to now) to determine the age of coral colonies (the first two supplied 

by sclerochronology): 1) Petrographic method (Garcia Rodriguez and Massò 1988, Abbiati et al. 1992, 

Santangelo et al. 1993); 2) Organic matrix staining of thin sections from the base of colonies (Marschal et 

al. 2004, Torrents et al. 2007), which allows one to read annual growth rings; 3) Direct measurements of 

new settled colonies of known age, a not destructive approach to the study of colony growth rate, based 

Fig. 9. The release of red coral planulae described by Lacaze-Duthiers (1864).

Table 1. Static Life-history table of a red coral population (Calafuria-Italy) in which 

all the main demographic parameters are reported (after Santangelo et al. 2007, 

modified). 
on artificial or semi-natural substrates on which new settled colonies can be followed during their growth 

for a determined time interval (Cerrano et al. 1999, Garrabou and Harmelin 2002, Bramanti et al. 2005).

In 1986, Garcia-Rodriquez and Massò proposed a petrographic method (Fig. 8.B) based on the count, under 

polarized light, of dark bands on thin-sections from the base of C. rubrum colonies (Garcia-Rodriquez and 

Massò 1986). Unfortunately, as the dark bands highlighted by this method were not annual, colony age 

was underestimated. Only in recent years, a new, more reliable method to determine the annual colony 

growth rate was set out by Marschal et al. (2004). Such “organic matrix staining method” allowed to read 

growth rings Fig. 8.C) which were checked to be annual by calcein labelling in vivo. The method is 

based on two different features of the red coral skeleton, i.e., skeleton density and concentration 

of organic matrix, respectively. Decalcification and staining with Toulidine-blue of the remaining 

organic matrix allowed the researchers to highlight the annual growth rings. In contrast with other 

gorgonian species (e.g. Grigg 1974), growth rings were never observed in the central region of the 

red coral axial skeleton. The first growth ring always appeared at some distance from the centre 

probably because of the mechanism involved in calcium deposition change during growth in the 

first 3-4 years of growth (Marschal et al. 2004). 

Reliable measures of colony growth rate were also made by directly following new settled colonies 

on ad hoc settlement plates during some years and then measuring them (Fig. 8.A) (Garrabou and 

Harmelin 2002, Bramanti et al. 2005, these papers will be examined again in section 6). This 

last method, slow but not destructive, allowed to determine the colony growth rate along the first 

years of red coral life-cycle (1-4); as growth cannot be determined by the organic matrix stainingmethod during that period, the two methods give complementary information on annual growth 

rate in different phases of red coral life span. The colonies studied by Garrabou and Harmelin 

settled on limestone plates located in an horizontal, 25 long- cave, showed a lower growth rate 

than those studied by Bramanti and colleagues (0.24±0.05 and 0,62±0.19 mm/y of basal diameter, 

respectively). These values overlap the colony growth rate measured by Cattaneo and colleagues 

on the natural substrate at Portofino (Cerrano et al. 1999). On the basis of the overall findings 

we can assess that the growth in diameter is higher during the first 3-4 years, than, progressively 

decreases with age. Other parameters, as colony weight (increasing exponentially with age) are 

better descriptors of colony growth (Santangelo et al. 1993).

5. Reproduction 

The basic features of red coral reproduction have been described (and drawn in a magnificent 

way!) by Lacaze-Duthiers (1864) (Fig. 8). A further description of reproduction was given by 

Vighi (1972) and the reproductive structure of a shallow population was described by Santangelo 

and colleagues (Santangelo et al. 2003). Torrents and colleagues determined the age at maturity 

of a French red coral population (Torrents et al. 2005). Moreover Torrents identified some effects 

of environmental stress on colony reproductive output (Torrents 2007). The study of population 

reproductive structure is basic for demographic studies. In particular sex ratio, size/age at sexual 

maturity, fertility (the percentage of fertile female colonies) and fecundity (the average number of 

planulae each female colony produces) must be determined. Fecundity of colonies in each size/

age class is calculated as the number of fertile polyps of each colony multiplied by the fecundity 

of each polyp (Table 1) (Santangelo et al. 2003). In Table 1 is reported the life-history table of the 

Calafuria population set out by Santangelo and colleagues in which reproduction data are included 

(Santangelo et al. 2004, 2007). 

79
Assessment of colony and population reproductive output is necessary to set out “static” life 

history tables (Ebert 1999) in which data on density, fertility and fecundity of each age class 

are reported (Table 1). The only papers on red coral reproduction (in addition to a section of the 

beautiful, historical Lacaze-Duthiers’ book of 1864) are the paper of Vighi (1972), Santangelo and 

colleagues (Santangelo et al. 2003), Torrents (Torrents et al. 2005, Torrents 2007) and Tsounis and 

colleagues (Tsounis et al. 2006). Obviously small colonies have a lower individual reproductive 

output than larger ones having more polyps, but they are so numerous in coastal populations that 

their overall reproductive output is high. If we examine the life-table in Table 1 we can observe that the 

main part of planulae (74%) is produced by the first 3 reproductive classes, which, also if composed by 

smaller colonies are the more abundant. The survival of shallow populations, harvested and subject to 

anthropogenetic disturbance, could be due to their small size/young age at first reproduction and to the 

larval output of the numerous smaller/younger colonies. On the basis of these findings the reproductive 

output of shallow-populations, like that of Calafuria, cannot be defined as “low.” Moreover we must to 

consider that, also if the number of planulae produced is high, the number of recruits is lower depending 

on population density (Fig. 4) and the ratio between number of eggs produced and the number of recruits 

found in the population is small: 18.2 planulae produced only 1 recruit, or in other words, only 5.5% of 

planulae survive becoming recruits. 

RECRUITMENT DENSITY (recruits/dm2)

Semi natural substrate in a cave 

near Marseille Semi natural substrate on a vertical cliff

1,3 recruits/dm2

 (Garrabou and 

Harmelin 2002, 1st year) 6.24±4.26 recruits/dm2

 (Bramanti et al. 2005) Calafuria.

0.178 recruits/dm2

 (Garrabou and Harmelin 2002, 

years 2-22)

0.4-0.6 recruits/dm2 (Cerrano et al. 1999 Monaco)

1.6±1.96 recruits/dm2 (Medes)

1.1±1,4 recruits/dm2 (Elba Island)

(Bramanti et. al 2007)

6. Recruitment 

Recruitment (the supply of new individuals to a population by means of reproduction) is one of the main 

processes determining both population structure and dynamics (Caley 1996). For demographic studies it 

is extremely important to identify recruits. Recruitment rates can greatly vary in space and time, moreover 

it is necessary to distinguish between natural and methodological variability. There are few studies on 

the recruitment process in red coral populations, here we examined the few papers in which data on red 

coral recruitment are reported: Cerrano et al. 1999, Garrabou and Harmelin 2002, Bramanti et al. 2003, 

Bramanti et al. 2005, Bramanti et al. 2007 (Table 2). Some preliminary data have been reported by Cerrano 

and colleagues (Cerrano et al. 1999), which found, on artificial substrates set out off Monaco an average 

density of 0.4-0.6 recruits dm2. A wider description of red coral recruitment process was reported by 

80

Table 2. Recruitment density measured in different habitats and in different areas.
Garrabou and Harmelin (2002). The population studied settled on semi-natural limestone plates located 

in a horizontal, 25m long cave, a peculiar, partially isolated environment. Red coral planulae reached 

only seldom the inner part of the cave in which the settlement plates were located, thus recruitment was 

only occasional. This “pulse” recruitment occurred once around 1979 (when 52 settlers were found); after 

that time recruitment events were sparse and only few settlers (1-5) added to the original population in 

each occasion. The findings reported in that paper are sketc.hed in Fig. 10: in A the “net recruitment rate” 

(the difference between the number of died individuals and the new settlers in the same year) is reported, 

while in B the trends over 22 years of the “new settled population” are reported. As can be seen the netrecruitment rate is negative in the majority of years; this finding, confirmed by the densities reported in 

Table 2 (left column) indicates that, during the 22 years of the experiment the new settled population 

reduced and could even extinguish if a new abundant larval input will not reach again (like in 1979) the 

inside of the cave.

More recently Bramanti and colleagues (Bramanti et al. 2003, Bramanti et al. 2005) studied red coral 

recruitment of Calafuria population and successively (Bramanti et al. 2007) in the populations of 

Medes Islands (Spain) and Elba (Italy). They used semi-natural settlement plates made of Carraramarble of a size (10x10 cm) suitable for macro photographs. On such macro photographs recruits 

were easily identified. Tiles were fixed on the vaults of the crevices in which red coral colonies 

dwell just before the reproductive period. The whole procedure was patented by the authors. 

As can be seen in Fig. 10 C and D the new settled population showed positive net-recruitment 

values and positive population trends during the 4 years of the experiment. Overall the findings 

from Bramanti and colleagues indicate a high variability in recruitment rates between different 

populations and years with highest recruitment values (Table 2) and positive net-recruitment in the 

shallow Calafuria population (Fig. 10). 

81

Fig. 10. Different trends of new settled populations: net recruitment (recruitmentmortality) A: in a deep, horizontal cave (Marsiglia), C: on a vertical cliff (Calafuria LI). 

B and D: the two population trends.
7. Recovery from disturbance

The only data we have gathered on recovery are those collected at Medes Islands MPA, which show 

a significant dominance of larger colonies, as compared with those collected in a neighbouring, 

unprotected area. Despite the lack in both populations of colonies beyond the 15th size class, their 

current size distributions differ, the average colony eight being significantly higher at the Medes 

Islands MPA (F=1.39; n=820; P < 0.0005). This last finding strongly suggests some positive effect 

of the red coral harvesting ban in force at Medes for the last 15 years. 

Exhaustive data on recovery after a fishing stop will be gathered by studying the NW Sardinian 

deep-water population which has been closed to fishing since several years. 

8. Fishing 

Fishing data revealed a reduction of about 2⁄3 of the overall Mediterranean fishing crop during the 

period 1978-2005. This reduction occurred in the period 1982-1984, than the production remained 

roughly constant. A peak in coral yield, due to the discovery of Alboran banks was recorded in 

1983. In general, the lack of suitable harvesting strategies and adequate enforcement has resulted 

in a boom and bust fishing mode as occurred in Morocco (peak in 1988 and collapse in 1990) or 

in a constant decline (Tunisia 1981-1990) (Santangelo et al. 1993). Official red coral fishing data 

have been drawn from the FAO Yearbook fishery statistics (FAO 2007). As such data are usually 

provided by red coral wholesalers, and illegal fishing and black-market trade are common, they 

certainly underestimate the overall Mediterranean yield, but, unfortunately, they are the only data 

available (Santangelo and Abbiati 2001).

Change in size-structure of fishing yields with a shift towards smaller size was also underscored by 

comparing the frequency distribution of colony size (basal diameter) in two Spanish fishing crops 

collected in the same area (Cap de Creus) in 1984 (Garcia-Rodriquez and Massò 1986) and 2002. 

Although both curves are significantly skewed (P < 0.01%), the value of the skewness coefficient, 

G1 (Snedecor and Cochran 1989), for the most recent crop (2002) is about 1⁄2 that of the older one 

(1.45 and 2.25, respectively). Such difference is due to the lack of larger colonies in recent fishing 

crops, as the size classes 16-26 have been depleted by selective fishing (from Santangelo et al. 

submitted).

Concerning fishing of the Mediterranean red coral two main points must be underlined:

1) Trawling (i.e. fishing with highly destructive devices called St. Andrew’s Cross and Ingegno) 

have been banned from the Mediterranean since 1994 (this was due to Italian researchers involved 

at that time in a common Italian preliminary research project on red coral; for details see Cicogna 

and Cattaneo 1993). 

2) In Sardinia (the region of Italy in which the main part of the Italian coral is harvested) both 

Ingegno and St. Andrew’s Cross have been banned since 1989 and fishing was allowed by SCUBA 

diving and by pick only. Sardinia Region issued ad hoc laws on red coral fishing, which are more 

restrictive than the national one; in 2006, 38 coral fishing licences were released; in 2007, coral 

fishing was stopped, and in 2008 it was again allowed with the following limits: 

82
• Number of licenses limited to 20.

• Daily weight allowed for each licence: 2.5 kg.

• Minimal colony size (diameter): 10 mm (a 20 % variability is allowed)

• Minimal fishing depth: 80 m.

• Fishing period: 1 June – 15 October

• In several areas coral fishing is banned.

There is a clear will of Sardinian authorities to induce professional fishermen to harvest only 

few larger, high valuable colonies (applying a minimal colony size of 10 mm instead of 7 mm as 

in other Mediterranean countries, small individual quotas, and a minimal fishing depth). Large, 

healthy colonies have an economic value about 20 folds higher than smaller ones. Many divers use 

ROV to find such larger colonies before diving.

9. Recommendations for management approaches 

Some shallow-water populations like the Calafuria one are composed only by small, overcrowded 

colonies and seem to possess a good, albeit slow, recovery capability – a feature typical of longlived species with populations provided of early sexual maturity, several reproductive generations 

and high reproductive output. For such populations, a single anomalous mortality event may have 

limited effects on survival. Some other shallow populations (like that at Cap the Creus) showed a 

population size-structure depleted of larger colonies (those > 0.7 mm in basal diameter, the legal 

size), lower densities and lower recruitment rates – clear symptoms of recent overexploitation 

(Tsounis et al. 2006, Vielmini et al. in prep.) Moreover, as over-fishing is now coupled with 

anomalous mortality events, such co-occurrence could dramatically diminish the resilience of 

populations living in shallow water. There is no real risk of global extinction for this species, due 

to its early sexual maturity, wide bathymetric and geographic distribution range, comprehensive of 

several MPAs. Nevertheless, an increased frequency of anomalous mortality events, superimposed 

to overharvested shallow populations, could lead some of them to local extinction. Thus such 

shallow-water populations should be protected.

The future of red coral harvesting is thus linked to deep-dwelling populations; their exploitation 

needs careful management based on sound population and fishing data, reliable analysis of 

demographic trends which will allow to establish minimal colony size and culling exploitation 

plans. Some years ago rotating harvesting strategies, which could be effective if applied at a national 

or local scale, have been suggested for red coral by Caddy (Cicogna and Cattaneo-Vietti 1993). 

Otherwise the Mediterranean most precious living resource could be commercially extinguished, 

and an age-old artistic tradition could be irretrievably lost in the near future. Only well-deliberated 

policies of sustainable fishing (and real enforcement), in which harvesting will be matched to 

population growth rates (Dobson 1998, Grigg 2001), can provide the conservation of exploitable 

populations of the Mediterranean red coral. 

10. Research needs 

No exhaustive research project on the Mediterranean red coral has ever been funded by EU, FAO or 

other international authorities. Italian authorities funded two small, preliminary research projects in 

1991-93 and 1996-97. After these researches have been promoted, two books and several scientific 

papers, dealing mainly with shallow populations, have been published. Due to the lack of funding 

83
in the following years only few scientific papers, dealing again with shallow-water populations, 

have been further published. 

There is a great need of research on deep-dwelling, exploited (or exploitable) populations, carried 

out at a Mediterranean scale. Suitable data on spatial structure, colony growth rate, size/age 

and sexual structure, reproductive output and recruitment, natural mortality and recovery in the 

different populations are needed. Moreover fishing historical data too must be carefully examined. 

All this could allow (with the help of suitable demographic models, Fujiwara and Caswell 2001) 

both rational harvesting and conservation of this precious Mediterranean resource. 

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86
The Status of Corallium spp. in Hawaii and the U.S. Pacific: Population 

Status, Trends and Threats, Fisheries, Trade, Management, Enforcement and 

Conservation

Frank A. Parrish1, Richard W. Grigg2, Joshua K. DeMello3, Anthony D. Montgomery4

1 Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, NOAA

2

Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii 

3

 Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council 

4

Division of Aquatic Resources, State of Hawaii

1. Information on the regions Corallium spp. populations

A. Area of distribution and habitat types

The two commercially sought Corallium spp. known from the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) 

of the U.S. Pacific Islands are Corallium secundum (pink coral) and Corallium regale (red coral). 

Many other Corallium spp., and one species of Paracorallium, have been reported from the 

Hawaiian Archipelago including C. abyssale (Bayer 1956), C. ducale (Bayer 1955), C. Kishinouyei 

(Bayer 1996), C. niveum (Bayer 1956), C imperiale (Bayer 1955), C. laauense (Bayer 1956), and 

Paracorallium tortuosum (Bayer 1956), none of which have been commercially harvested in the 

past. Identifications of Corallium spp. can be difficult and the genus is currently being reviewed 

by researchers worldwide. Field identification is complicated by the corals’ growth into similar 

shaped fans of comparable sizes with a variety of color shades. Field surveys using submersibles 

in 2003 in the remote Northwestern Hawaiian Islands raised questions about in-situ identifications 

between C. laauense and C. regale and the name C. laauense was used in place of C. regale to 

report findings in publications by Parrish and Baco 2007, and Parrish 2007. C. laauense historically 

identified from the channel waters off Laau Pt on the Island of Molokai is paler in color than the 

more widely found red coral C. regale. Subsequent discussions determined that the name C. regale

must be used to refer to what appears to be red coral for consistency until modified by a published 

taxonomic analysis. The Hawaiian Archipelago has been the subject of multiple expeditions using 

submersibles. Except for a few dives in the Line Islands conducted in 2005 the rest of the U.S. 

Pacific Islands are un-surveyed. The waters around Guam, CNMI, American Samoa, Howland and 

Baker Island have not been visited by research submersibles. 

Corallium spp. can be found as an isolated individual colony but usually occurs in patchy 

distributions known as “coral beds.” Colonization and growth of the coral colonies require exposed 

substrate subject to strong bottom current (Grigg 1993). The coral can be found growing both on 

carbonate and basalt/manganese substrates with C. secundum typically seen in uniform low relief 

bottom, and C. regale seen in habitats of variable relief (Parrish 2007). Corallium beds are usually 

dominated by one of the two taxa. Patches of Corallium spp. have been visually identified at 17 

sites throughout the full length of the Hawaiian Archipelago (Grigg 1975, 1976, 1993, Parrish and 

Baco 2007). An unknown species of Corallium was harvested in abundance from a region NW of 

Midway atoll referred to as the Midway grounds (Grigg 1993). In-situ coral research surveys have 

yet to be conducted in that area.

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B. Abundance, size structure and condition

The Makapu’u coral bed off Oahu, Hawaii is the most diverse and well studied of the coral beds in 

the Hawaiian Archipelago. Located in the Kaiwi Channel (350-450 m) between the islands of Oahu 

and Molokai the bed comprises an area of about 3.6 km2

 of C. secundum at a mean density of 0.22 

colonies per square meter (Grigg 1988). Being the most accessible coral bed in the archipelago 

much of what is known about Hawaiian Corallium spp. is based on the Makapu’u population. C. 

secundum and C. regale are gonochoristic (Grigg 1993, Waller and Baco 2007) and are estimated 

to reach reproductive maturity at 12–13 years (Grigg 1993). These species are relatively long 

lived, with some of the oldest colonies observed within Makapu’u Bed about 0.7 m in height and 

approximately 80 years old (Grigg 1988). Recent radiometric work indicates greater longevity 

with C. secundum growing at half the rate previously thought (Roark et al. 2006). Populations 

of C. secundum are thought to be recruitment limited, although in favorable environments such 

as Makapu’u populations are relatively stable, suggesting that recruitment and mortality are in 

a steady state (Grigg 1993). Visual surveys of the Makapu’u bed using submersibles indicate C.

secundum colonies average 15–20 years of age (Grigg 1993). Based on historical growth rates with 

a natural mortality rate in absence of fishing pressure was estimated at 6% (Grigg 1984, 1993). 

Population trends analyzing fishing pressure found that the coral abundance remained similar after 

a period of harvesting pressure that reduced the biomass by extracting older/larger corals (Grigg 

2002). Submersible surveys conducted in different coral beds indicate that the composition, density 

and patch size of Corallium spp. can vary greatly (Grigg 1975, 1976, Parrish 2007). 

C. Threats 

Damage from fishing gear

Damage to Corallium spp. populations due to unintended impacts from fisheries are thought to be 

minimal in the U.S. Pacific Islands. Although mobile bottom-tending gear (e.g. trawls, dredges) 

were banned from the mid 60s to the mid 70s, Soviet and Japanese trawlers worked the south end of 

the Emperor Chain (e.g. Coco Seamount, Milwaukee Seamount, Colahan Seamount) and some of 

the seamounts at the north end of the Hawaiian Archipelago, including those later included as part 

of the U.S. exclusive economic zone (e.g. Hancock Seamount, Seamount 10, Seamount 11, Ladd 

Seamount) (Uchida and Tagami 1984). The primary fishing target was Pseudopentaceros wheeleri

(armorhead) and Beryx spp. (alfonsinos) (Uchida and Tagami 1984). In 2003, submersible dives 

at Seamount 11 found a large area with coral stumps and no new colonization (Baco pers. obs). It 

could not be determined if this affected area was the result of mobile bottom-tending gear used in 

the early 1970s but if so, recovery clearly requires decades.

Bottom longlines are not permitted in the Pacific Islands Region. Pelagic longlining set for tuna and 

swordfish is permitted and is the region’s largest fishery. Longlines must be set at least 25 miles, 

and in most cases 50–75 miles from emergent parts of the Hawaiian Archipelago (WPFMC 1991). 

This regulation was adopted to prevent conflicts with the coastal trolling fishery but it also reduces 

the possibility that the gear will affect deep corals on the slopes and seamounts of the Hawaiian 

Ridge. One exception is Cross Seamount located ~100 miles south of Oahu. A popular fishing site 

for monofilament handline fishing and some longline activity, it has accumulated numerous large 

fragments of monofilament line draped over the summit (Parrish and Baco 2007). 

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Bottom-set traps have been used to catch lobster and shrimp in the Hawaiian Archipelago. The 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands trap fishery for Panulirus marginatus (Hawaiian spiny lobster) 

and Scyllarides squammosus (slipper lobster) is now closed, but had always operated in waters 

shallower than deep coral habitat (Polovina 1994, DiNardo and Moffitt 2007). Trap fishing for the 

deepwater shrimp Heterocarpus laevigatus and Heterocarpus ensifer is a small-scale pulse fishery 

limited to the main Hawaiian Islands that has landed 680 metric tons since the fishery’s inception 

in 1984 (PIFSC unpub. data). The shrimp trapping overlaps the depth range of deep corals (Ralston 

and Tagami 1992, Moffitt and Parrish 1992), but actual impacts to deep corals have not been 

documented. 

Coral Harvesting 

As elsewhere in the world the skeleton of Pacific Corallium spp. is sought as raw material for the 

jewelry industry. This material is obtained from harvesting in U.S. waters and imports from foreign 

coral fisheries. Corallium spp. are the primary target species of the Hawaiian precious coral fishery. 

Harvested Corallium spp. coexist with other commercially harvested corals in the same depth zone 

including gold coral (Gerardia spp.), bamboo coral (Isididae) and other species (Grigg 1984). 

Coral harvesting has been subject to management under both federal and state regulations since the 

1980s. Precious corals were fished initially using nonselective tangle net dredges, but regulations 

now require the use of selective methodologies such as a submersible or remote operated vehicle. 

The U.S. fishery and coral fishing by foreign fleet in adjacent international waters will be addressed 

in detail in the fishery section below. 

Mineral Prospecting 

Oil or gas exploration does not occur in the Pacific Islands Region. Historically, some research 

has focused on the prospect of mining manganese nodules that are formed at abyssal depths. 

Recently, interest in cobalt-rich manganese mining has resurged and large areas of the Pacific 

seabed, some of which include U.S. Pacific Islands and seamounts, are part of the potential mining 

areas (International Seabed Authority www.isa.org.jm/en/seabedarea/default. Further studies of 

these cobalt-rich regions to determine deep-coral abundance and potential mining impacts should 

be considered a high priority.

D. Conservation areas (e.g. MPAs)

U.S. State and Federal waters in the Pacific Islands are closed to trawling and dredging—the 

fishing techniques most destructive to deep corals. The only area that is specifically closed to 

protect deep corals was WESTPAC Bank (located N.W. of Nihoa) in the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands. It was set aside by the Western Pacific Fishery Managements Council’s Precious Coral 

FMP as a refuge from coral harvesting. Visual surveys of the bed using a submersible confirmed 

Corallium secundum was reasonably abundant at the WESTPAC bed (Parrish 2007). Despite some 

interest, domestic precious coral fishing has never occurred in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. 

In 2001 the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve was established by 

Executive Order (No. 13178 and No. 13196) and prohibited most commercial fishing, including all 

harvesting of deep corals in the Reserve. In 2006, the NWHI was proclaimed a national monument 

by Presidential Order under the Antiquities Act of 1906 and renamed Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument. In early 2009, three additional National Marine Monuments were established 

89
by Presidential order. The three included a monument for the U.S. Line and Phoenix Islands, 

Rose Atoll, and the three islands of the Northern Marianas along with the Marianas Trench. Prior 

to the designation as monuments many of these areas were subject to restrictions on fishing due 

to their status as National Wildlife Refuges administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

or fishing regulations implemented by the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council and the 

National Marine Fisheries Service. Outside of the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone some resources 

are managed through known fisheries such as the longline and purse-seine fisheries while other 

resources are unregulated and unmonitored. 

E. Monitoring and research programs

The presence of a managed precious coral fishery prompted the need for a research and monitoring 

program for Hawaii’s deep corals. As a result deep coral research moved from its historical focus 

on taxonomy (Grigg and Bayer 1976), to one of population assessments and estimates of age and 

growth (Grigg 1965, 1975, 1988, 1993, 2002). In recent years, management research has expanded 

to include work assessing the connectivity of coral taxa across the Hawaiian Archipelago (Baco 

and Shank 2005, Baco et al. 2006) and ecological associations between corals and other fauna 

(Parrish et al. 2002, Parrish 2006). In the process of conducting this research study sites are 

established, thermographs are deployed, and colonies are marked for future re-measurement, all of 

which contributes to a data stream that monitors the deep coral ecosystem. 

Mapping Research

Advances in multi-beam sonar mapping have provided detailed bathymetry and backscatter 

imagery products for the Hawaiian Archipelago and are increasingly including other portions of 

the U.S. Pacific (Miller et al. 2003, Parke and Wang 2005). These products provide a bathymetric 

context for coral surveys and assist in the inference of the presence of deep corals. 

F. Information Gaps and research needs

Population information on Corallium spp. is limited and the ability to identify biomass decline 

requires monitoring over time. In no circumstances has an assessment of absolute abundance been 

conducted for any of the coral beds. The cumulative visual observations from submersible surveys 

conducted at the Makapu’u coral bed is the best assessment conducted to date (Grigg 1993). The 

sessile and conspicuous nature of the corals make them easy to survey assuming one has ample 

access to appropriate technology (sub, ROV, AUV) that can work in the depth and high current 

environment of the coral beds. Only a few areas that have been subject to coral harvesting have 

any pre-exploitation data making the development of populations trends from an un-impacted 

state difficult. There are un-harvested beds that may serve as points of comparison but the varying 

environmental influences (e.g. temperature, flow, oxygen) between areas on coral growth and 

survivorship are poorly understood. Historical and anecdotal information can give an idea about 

the maximum colony size, but not detailed data about the population structure. At the minimum 

for harvested species there should be studies to develop and refine demographic data including 

growth, longevity, recruitment and dispersion limits.

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2. Nature of Corallium fisheries

Like many places the Corallium harvest in the Pacific Islands region tends to be a “pulse-fishery” 

with episodes of intense fishing separated by long periods of dormancy. The activity of domestic 

harvesting of Corallium is a function of the industry’s appraisal of the market and the economic 

viability to harvest corals under the established fishery management regulations. The pulses in the 

foreign Corallium fishery that historically operated in the adjacent international waters reflect of 

the history of resource discovery and then depletion (Grigg 1993).

A. Type of fisheries 

All harvesting of Corallium spp. in the Pacific Islands is commercial in nature either the result 

of dedicated coral harvesting operations or a bycatch product of trawl fisheries (except in the 

U.S. EEZ). The deep depth and remote location of Corallium spp. resources requires a significant 

capital investment for ship time and collecting gear effectively excluding harvesting for artisanal 

or subsistence use. 

B. Estimated number of coral harvesters

The size of the foreign fleet operating in the region has varied widely over history depending on 

the discovery of coral resources. In 1978, the “coral rush” to harvest the Corallium spp. discovered 

at Midway Grounds (Emperor Seamounts) involved more than 100 boats from Japan and Taiwan 

working the area until 1984 when the resource was depleted (Grigg 1993). Currently no foreign 

coral harvesting is known to be occurring in the region. All domestic harvesters of Corallium spp. 

in Hawaii function under a federal permit and the regulations require landing and sales reports be 

filed (see appended forms). Since the 1980 implementation of the FMP, there has never been more 

than one harvester operating simultaneously. 

C. Types of gear used

Initially all harvesting, foreign and domestic, used dredges or what were called tangle nets. These were 

often sections of pipe or other source of weight with nets attached. The gear would be dragged along 

the bottom as the vessel drifted or motored to dislodge, entangle and recover the coral colonies. To 

reduce ecological damage and improve the sustainability of the Hawaii fishery, the University of Hawaii 

developed a selective harvesting system employing a manned submersible. Commercial harvesters (Maui 

Divers of Hawaii) used this system to make annual landings of Corallium spp. and other corals until the 

operation was discontinued in 1978 because of high insurance related operating costs. The Hawaiian 

Corallium fishery remained dormant until it was revived by American Deepwater Engineering (ADE). 

ADE used two one-person submersibles to exploit the only established commercial bed (Makapu’u bed) 

and an exploratory area (Keahole bed) in 1999–2000. Fishing activities ended due to marginal investment 

returns and loss of potential fishing ground due to the 2000 declaration of the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands as a Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve per Executive Order 13196 (Grigg 2002). In 2002, the Hawaii 

precious coral fishery management plan was amended to prohibit the use of nonselective gear (e.g. tangle 

nets, dredges) throughout the U.S. Pacific Islands management area.

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D. Landings

In the mid 1960s most of the Corallium landings came from the Milwaukee Banks and surrounding 

seamounts in the Emperor Seamount chain 800 km northwest of Midway Island in the Hawaiian 

Archipelago (Grigg 1993). Harvests of Corallium secundum peaked at 150 t in 1969, but remained low for 

the next few years until an un-described deep water species (Midway coral, Corallium sp.) was discovered 

at 900–1500 m depth. Landings climbed to 300 t in 1981 (Grigg 1993) flooding the market with Midway 

coral, and prices fell making coral fishing less economically viable. Landings dropped to ~84 t, causing 

an increase in demand and the fishing persisted annually until yield dropped to 20–30 t and ended with 

3 t in 1988 (FAO 1983). Part of the 1988 harvest (500 kg C. secundum) was obtained from Hancock 

Seamount most of which were considered poor quality (Grigg 1993). In 1991, less than 3 t of precious 

coral production was recorded Pacific wide (FAO 1983, Grigg 1993), suggesting overexploitation of all 

known beds. 

The Hawaiian fishery for Corallium has been primarily limited to a single bed of pink coral (Corallium 

secundum) at 400 m off Makapu’u, Oahu. A total of 8227 kg of pink coral was removed between 1973 

and 1978 (Grigg 1993). Because the Hawaiian fishery is a single company, confidentiality rules prevent 

reporting of landings data. However, Grigg working closely with the industry has provided some historical 

record of what was harvested (Table 1). During the most recent episode (1999-2000) the permitted quota 

was not filled at either of the two beds where corals were collected. Grigg (2002), reported removal of 

60% of the allowed coral quota (1216 kg) at the Makapu’u Bed and 20% (211 kg) at the Keahole Bed. 

The Hawaiian precious coral fishery remains dormant today although a permit was issued in 2009 for 

Makapu’u coral bed. The permit holder is looking to use remote operated vehicles (ROV) as a harvesting 

tool.

Table 1. Harvesting history for kilograms of Corallium spp. in the Hawaiian precious coral fishery. 

Period of 

Harvest Company Gear C. secundum C. regale

1966-69 United fishing Dredge 1800 0

1973-1978 Maui Divers of 

Hawaii Submersible 6427 0

1988 Vessel Aukai Dredge 500 0

1999-2001 American Divers Submersible 1216 61

E. Locations open and closed to fishing

With the recent establishment of four National Marine Monuments in the U.S. Pacific Islands more 

areas are closed than are open to coral harvesting. Closure of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

protects the Corallium spp. beds that have been recently visually surveyed identified as far north 

as Seamount 11 (NW of Midway) (Parrish and Baco 2007). The presence of Corallium spp. in the 

Monuments of the Line and Phoenix Islands, Rose Atoll, and the Northern Marianas are unknown. 

Areas left open to commercial coral harvesting include the Main Hawaiian Islands, American 

92
Samoa, Guam, Rota, Tinian, and Saipan. Other than the Hawaiian Archipelago, the presence of 

Corallium spp. is undocumented in the rest of the U.S. Pacific Islands currently open to harvest.

F. Management regimes

Coral harvesting on high seas seamounts adjacent to the U.S. Pacific islands EEZ is subject to 

international fleets and is unregulated and unmonitored. International panels have been formed 

to begin assessing impacts to identify vulnerable marine ecosystems (VME) in international 

waters. Of particular interest are seamounts and their deep coral habitats. Currently there is little 

information other than the history of coral landings with which to evaluate the condition of deep 

corals in international waters. 

Fishery management in the U.S. Pacific Islands is the responsibility of the Western Pacific Fishery 

Management Council (WPFMC 2007). The council prepares and administers fishery management 

plans (FMPs) for conserving and managing fishery resources within the 3 to 200 mile U.S. 

exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The WPFMC and other U.S. regional management councils were 

empowered by the 1976 Fishery Conservation and Management Act (FCMA) (later called the 

Magnuson-Stevens Act (MSA)). Deep corals also occur within state and territorial waters, and can 

be governed by their laws and regulations. In Hawaii, both WPFMC and the State of Hawaii work 

to develop rules and regulations that are congruent and manage the fishery as a biological unit. The 

Precious Coral FMP classifies known coral beds within the Western Pacific region and designates 

the amount of corals that can be harvested from each bed. All the known coral beds are located in 

the Hawaiian Archipelago but the FMP includes provisions for exploratory fishing in other areas of 

the U.S. Pacific. The beds are classified as: 1) Established Beds, 2) Conditional Beds, 3) Refugia 

Beds, and 4) Exploratory Permit Areas. Established beds have a history of harvest for which 

fishery control points can be established such as maximum sustainable yield (MSY) or optimal 

yield (OY). Makapu’u and the Auau Channel (which is shallow black coral only) are the only 

designated Established precious coral Beds in the FMP. Conditional beds have MSYs estimated 

based on their perceived size relative to established beds. There are four conditional beds: Keahole 

Point, Kaena Point, Brooks Banks and 180 Fathom Bank. Weight quotas and colony size limits 

were implemented for Established and Conditional Beds. The WESTPAC Bed is designated as a 

refugia bed, where no harvest is permitted. With the designation of the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands as a National Marine Monument, the beds located within (Brooks Banks, 180 Fathom 

Bank and WESTPAC) are closed to harvesting. Exploratory permit areas were established for the 

unexplored portions of the U.S. EEZ. These include areas of Hawaii, Guam and CNMI, American 

Samoa, and all remaining U.S. Island Possessions. The allowable take for Exploratory Beds was 

arbitrarily set at 1000 kg as a cost-share incentive for exploration. Much of this exploratory area 

has since been set aside as National Marine Monuments prohibiting coral harvesting. 

G. Monitoring and enforcement of fisheries

All harvesting and sales of precious coral are reported in a standardized reporting logs (appended 

forms) and coral harvesting vessels and catch are subject to inspection by enforcement agents of 

the National Marine Fisheries Service and/or State of Hawaii. 

93
H. Problems with existing fisheries, including illegal harvest

Currently, there are no reports or rumors of illegal coral harvesting. However, in the past Japanese 

and Taiwanese coral draggers were very active in the Emperor Seamounts beginning in 1965 and 

continuing into the 70s and even the 80s, with sporadic reports of their entry into U.S. waters 

within the 200 mile EEZ (Grigg 1993). One documented event occurred in 1978 at Hancock 

Seamount just inside the 200 mile U.S. EEZ. A Coast Guard flight carrying NMFS enforcement 

agents photographed two Japanese coral draggers, the Hoku Maru and the Manpuku No.18. Much 

of the U.S. Pacific Island region is remote and unpopulated and such activity could go undetected. 

Given the slow growth of deep corals and low recruitment rates, even brief periods of illegal 

dredging could have lasting effects.

3. Extent of international trade

A. Type of products in trade, volumes of export and import, and origin

The U.S. is a large importer of precious corals, including un-worked coral as raw material for 

crafting jewelry. Corals are supplied to jewelry manufacturers as whole colonies, branches, or 

polished beads. The Hawaiian precious coral industry imports a portion of its raw material including 

Corallium spp. from international sources generating an estimated $30 million/year in revenue at 

the retail level (Grigg pers comm. 2009). In 2002 there was a spike in the export of Corallium spp. 

from Italy into the U.S. about five times higher than previous and following years. It is not known 

if this is marketing of a stockpile or discovery and harvesting of a new coral bed. Italy and China 

exported about 90% of all their precious corals to the U.S., where Italy’s contribution decreased 

from 50% in 2002 to less than 4% in 2006. Purchase of coral from Thailand has risen from 0.2% 

in 2001 to 5% in 2006. China and Taiwan sent 84% of 1,807,357 precious coral products into the 

U.S. in 2006. 

B. Number and type of industry representatives (buyers, jewelers, exporters, etc.)

In spite of various logistical and economic limitations over the past 50 years, the precious coral 

industry in the State of Hawaii has grown to $70 million annually and employs over 1000 people 

(Grigg pers comm. 2009). Hawaii has one large retailer, Maui Divers, as well as some small 

businesses selling Corallium products. It is undocumented how much of these products are 

imported rather than domestically harvested.

C. Information on value, retail, and wholesale prices 

Finally, the value of the resource itself, can vary between $100 and $1000/kg (Grigg 2002), and 

has always been marginally sufficient to produce sustainable profits for the industry. 

4. CITES considerations

A. Feasibility of implementing a CITES listing

Although an anecdotal proposal, both the FAO ad hoc Expert Advisory Panel as well as the CITES 

expert panel agreed on the significance of conserving the genus Corallium (CITES 2007). These 

94
models could be used to reduce yields and preserve habitat complexity and biodiversity. The 

conservative management plans conflict with short-term socioeconomic interests and decision 

makers therefore hesitate to implement them (Bearzi 2007). Ideally, conservation of Corallium

spp. resources should be undertaken at the local level but most places don’t have the resources 

needed to monitor and enforce regulation properly and the international fishery on the high seas 

remains largely unregulated. Despite the lack of needed resources locally-based management is 

likely the most effective solution to conserving Corallium spp, and the wider deep coral community. 

However, CITES can offer advantages for the management of a species. CITES was developed 

for the regulation of trade and is largely a reaction to the lack of resource management on a broad 

scale. Coral fisheries have very unique dynamics unlike most fisheries. The harvested product has 

a long shelf life, can be processed in multiple countries and is manufactured into several types of 

products that are difficult to identify. Monitoring the trade of these types of products can provide 

useful data on the patterns and source of raw material. These patterns may provide useful insight 

on potential impacts of such harvest and highlight areas or regions of most concern. 

 B. Gaps and uncertainty concerning CITES

An international venue such a CITES is really the only means to bring attention to the issues of 

Corallium spp. worldwide. However there are real challenges to successful implementation of 

CITES, including:

- Species identification problems particularly for coral material that has been polished where 

many of the characters used for identification are removed.

- Inability to track the use of ground coral fragments in resin composites for jewelry pieces. 

- How to deal with coral stockpiled in warehouses from historical fishing. 

- An inability to determine the origin of coral.

- The impact of CITES regulation on shipping raw and worked products (including finished 

jewelry) of U.S. businesses that currently operate under regulation. 

- Concern that CITES will be adopted in place of implementing other local conservation 

efforts such as fishery management or enforcement.

C. CITES problems and solutions for black coral.

Black coral has been listed under CITES appendix two for more than two decades (1981) and 

a review of trade and enforcement records could indicate the degree of difficulty with listing 

of Corallium spp. Particularly, it would be beneficial to look at the volume of trade, seizures of 

material that is clearly illegal, and problems with moving finished jewelry in business and as 

personal effects. As trade in black coral has continued since the CITES listing a review of the 

impacts and effectiveness would bring insight to the challenges of listing the genera Corallium. 

95
REFERENCES

Baco-Talyor AR, Shank TM (2005) Population genetic structure of the Hawaiian Precious Coral 

Corallium lauuense using microsatellites. In: Freiwald A, Roberts JM (eds) Cold-water corals and 

ecosystems. Springer, Heidelberg, p 663-678.

Baco A, Clark AM, Shank TM (2006) Six microsatellite loci from the deep-sea coral Corallium 

lauuense (Octocorallia. Corallidae) from the islands and seamounts of the Hawaiian Archipelago. 

Mol Ecol Notes 6:147-149.

Bayer FM (1955) Contributions to the nomenclature, systematics, and morphology of the 

Octocorallia. Proc US Nat Museum 105:207-220.

Bayer FM (1956) Descriptions and re-descriptions of the Hawaiian Octocorals collected by the 

U.S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross 2. Gorgonacea: Scleraxonia. Pac Sci 10:67-95.

Bayer (1996) Three new species of precious coral (Anthozoa: Gorgonacea, Genus Corallium) from 

Pacific waters. Proc Biol Soc Wash 110:511-519.

Bearzi G (2007) Marine conservation on paper. Conserv Biol 21(1):1-3.

CITES (2007) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. 

Consideration of Proposals for Amendment of Appendices I and II. Conference of Parties 14, 

Proposal 21.

DiNardo GT, Moffitt RB (2007) The northwestern Hawaiian Islands Lobster Fishery: A targeted 

slipper lobster fishery. In: Lavalli KL, Spanier E (eds) The biology and fisheries of the slipper 

lobster. CRC Press, p 243-261.

FAO (1983) Technical consultation on red coral resources of the Western Mediterranean. FAO 

Fish Rep 306:1-142.

Grigg RW (1965) Ecological studies of black coral in Hawaii. Pac Sci 19:244-260.

Grigg RW (1975) Distributon and abundance of precious corals in Hawaii. In: Cameron BM, 

Campbell AR, Cribb RE, Jell JS, Jones OA, Mather P, Talbot FH (eds) Proceedings of the 2nd

International Coral Reef Symposium, 2. Great Barrier Reef Communications, Australia, p 235-

240.

Grigg RW (1976) Fisheries management of precious and stony corals in Hawaii. UNIHI 

-SEAGRANT, TR-77-03.

Grigg RW, Bayer FM (1976) Present knowledge of the systematics and zoogeography of the order 

Gorgonacea in Hawaii. Pac Sci 30(2):167-175.

Grigg RW (1984) Resource Management of Precious Corals: A Review and Application to Shallow 

Water Reef Building Corals. Mar Ecol 5(1):57-74.

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Grigg RW (1988) Recruitment limitation of a deep benthic hard-bottom octocoral population in 

the Hawaiian Islands. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 45:121-126.

Grigg RW (1993) Precious coral fisheries of Hawaii and the U.S. Pacific Islands. Mar Fish Rev 

55(2):50-60.

Grigg RW (2002) Precious corals in Hawaii: discovery of a new bed and revised anagement 

measures for existing beds. Mar Fish Rev 64(2):13-20.

Miller JE, Hoeke RK, Applegate TB, Johnson PJ, Smith J, Bevacqua S (2003) Bathymetric 

atlas of the northwestern Hawaiian Islands, Draft May 2003. National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration and Hawaii Mapping Research Group, p 65.

Moffitt RB, Parrish FA (1992) An assessment of the exploitable biomass of Heterocarpus laevigatus

in the Main Hawaiian Islands. Part 2: observations from a submersible. Fish Bull 90:476-482.

Parke MF, Wang HY (2005) Bathymetric Atlas of the Main Hawaiian Islands – Information for 

ecosystem assessment and monitoring. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, PIFSC 

Data Report DR-05-002.

Parrish FA, Abernathy K, Marshall GJ, Buhleier BM (2002) Hawaiian monk seals (Monachus 

schauinslandi) foraging in deep-water coral beds. Mar Mam Sci 18(1):244-258. 

Parrish FA (2006) Precious corals, and subphotic fish assemblages. Atoll Res Bull 543:425-438. 

Parrish FA, Baco AR (2007) State of deep coral ecosystems in the U.S. Pacific Islands Region: 

Hawaii and the U.S. Pacific territories. In: Lumsden SE, Hourigan TF, Bruckner AW, Dorr G (eds) 

The State of Deep Coral Ecosystems of the United States. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP3 Silver Spring, MD, 365 p.

Parrish FA (2007) Density and Habitat of three deep-sea corals in the lower Hawaiian chain. In: 

George RY, Cairns SD (eds) Conservation and adaptive management of seamount and deep-sea 

coral ecosystems. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, p 

185-194.

Polovina JJ (1994) The lobster fishery in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. In: Phillips BF, Cobb 

JS, Kittaka J (eds) Spiny lobster management. Blackwell Scientific publications, Oxford, p 83-90.

Ralston S, Tagami DT (1992) An assessment of the exploitable biomass of heterocarpus laevigatus 

in the main Hawaiian Islands. Part 1: Trapping surveys, depletion experiment, and length structure. 

Fish Bull 90:494-504.

Roark EB, Guilderson TP, Dunbar RB, Ingram BL (2006) Radiocarbon based ages and growth 

rates: Hawaiian deep sea corals. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 327:1-14.

Uchida RN, Tagami DT (1984) Groundfish Fisheries and research in the vicinity of seamounts in 

the North Pacific Ocean. Mar Fish Rev 46(2):1-17.

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Waller RG, Baco AR (2007) Reproductive morphology of three Hawaiian deep-water precious 

corals. Bull Mar Sci 81(3):371-391.

Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (1991) Final environmental impact 

statement, Pelagic Fishery of the western Pacific region. WESTPAC NOAA Admin Award 

NAO7FC0680.

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the Precious Coral Fisheries of the Western Pacific Region. Honolulu, HI.

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APPENDIX 

1 – Western Pacific Precious Coral Harvest Log Report

2 – Instructions Precious coral Harvest Log Report 

3 – Western Pacific Coral Sales Log Report

4 – Instructions Western Pacific Precious coral sales report

5 – Corallium Fishery Regulations for the Western Pacific Region

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101
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103
Corallium Fishery Regulations for the Western Pacific Region

The Fishery Management Plan (FMP) for the precious corals fisheries of the western Pacific region 

was implemented in September 1983 (48 FR 39229). It established the plan’s management unit 

species and management area, as well as classifying several known beds.

Amendment 1 to the FMP became effective July 21, 1988 (50 FR 27519) and applied the management 

measures of the FMP to the Pacific Remote Island Areas (Palmyra and Johnston Atolls, and Wake, 

Kingman, Jarvis, Baker, and Howland Islands) by incorporating them into a single Exploratory 

Permit Area, expanded the management unit species to include all species of the genus Corallium, 

and outlined provisions for the issuance of experimental fishing permits designed to stimulate the 

domestic fishery.

Amendment 2 to the FMP became effective January 22, 1991 (56 FR 3072, January 28, 1991) and 

defined overfishing for Established beds as follows: An Established bed shall be deemed overfished 

with respect to recruitment when the total spawning biomass (all species combined) has been 

reduced to 20% of its unfished condition. This definition applies to all species of precious corals 

and is based on cohort analysis of the pink coral, Corallium secundum.

The following Corallium regulations are listed in the Code of Federal Regulations (see 50 CFR 

665 for complete precious corals regulations):

Subpart B Western Pacific Fisheries General

Precious coral means any coral of the genus Corallium in addition to the following species of 

corals:

------------------------------------------------------------------------

 Common name Scientific name

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Pink coral (also known as red coral)...... Corallium secundum.

Pink coral (also known as red coral)...... Corallium regale.

Pink coral (also known as red coral)...... Corallium laauense.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Precious coral permit area means the area encompassing the precious coral beds in the management 

area. Each bed is designated by a permit area code and assigned to one of the following four 

categories:

 (1) Established beds. (i) Makapu’u (Oahu), Permit Area E-B-1, includes the area within a radius 

of 2.0 nm of a point at 21[deg] 18.0[min] N. lat., 157[deg] 32.5[min] W. long.

 (ii) Au’au Channel (Maui), Permit Area E-B-2, includes the area west and south of a point at 

21[deg] 10[min] N. lat., 156[deg] 40[min] W. long., and east of a point at 21[deg] N. lat., 157[deg] 

W. long., and west and north of a point at 20[deg] 45[min] N. lat., 156[deg] 40[min] W. long.

 (2) Conditional beds. (i) Keahole Point (Hawaii), Permit Area C-B-1, includes the area within a 

radius of 0.5 nm of a point at 19[deg]46.0[min] N. lat., 156[deg]06.0[min] W. long.

 (ii) Kaena Point (Oahu), Permit Area C-B-2, includes the area within a radius of 0.5 nm of a point 

at 21[deg]35.4[min] N. lat., 158[deg]22.9[min] W. long.

104
 (iii) Brooks Bank, Permit Area C-B-3, includes the area within a radius of 2.0 nm of a point at 

24[deg] 06.0[min] N. lat., 166[deg]48.0[min] W. long.

 (iv) 180 Fathom Bank, Permit Area C-B-4, N.W. of Kure Atoll, includes the area within a radius 

of 2.0 nm of a point at 28[deg]50.2[min] N. lat., 178[deg]53.4[min] W. long.

 (3) Refugia. Westpac Bed, Permit Area R-1, includes the area within a radius of 2.0 nm of a point 

at 23[deg] 18[min] N. lat., 162[deg]35[min] W. long.

 (4) Exploratory areas. (1) Permit Area X-P-H includes all coral beds, other than established beds, 

conditional beds, or refugia, in the EEZ seaward of the State of Hawaii.

 (ii) Permit Area X-P-AS includes all coral beds, other than established beds, conditional beds, or 

refugia, in the EEZ seaward of American Samoa.

 (iii) Permit Area X-P-G includes all coral beds, other than established beds, conditional beds, or 

refugia, in the EEZ seaward of Guam.

 (iv) Permit Area X-P-PI includes all coral beds, other than established beds, conditional beds, or 

refugia, in the EEZ seaward of the U.S. Pacific Island possessions.

 (v) Permit Area X-P-CNMI includes all coral beds, other than established beds, conditional beds, 

or refugia, in the EEZ seaward of points 3 nautical miles from the shoreline of the CNMI.

Subpart F Precious Corals Fisheries

Sec. 665.81 Permits.

 (a) Any vessel of the United States fishing for, taking, or retaining precious coral in any precious 

coral permit area must have a permit issued under Sec. 665.13.

 (b) Each permit will be valid for fishing only in the permit area specified on the permit. Precious 

Coral Permit Areas are defined in Sec. 665.12.

 (c) No more than one permit will be valid for any one vessel at any one time.

 (d) No more than one permit will be valid for any one person at any one time.

 (e) The holder of a valid permit to fish one permit area may obtain a permit to fish another permit 

area only upon surrendering to the Regional Administrator any current permit for the precious 

corals fishery issued under Sec. 665.13.

 (f) General requirements governing application information, issuance, fees, expiration, replacement, 

transfer, alteration, display, sanctions, and appeals for permits for the precious corals fishery are 

contained in Sec. 665.13.

Sec. 665.82 Prohibitions.

In addition to the general prohibitions specified in Sec. 600.725 of this chapter and in Sec. 665.15, 

it is unlawful for any person to:

 (a) Use any vessel to fish for, take, retain, possess or land precious coral in any precious coral 

permit area, unless a permit has been issued for that vessel and area as specified in Sec. 665.13 and 

that permit is on board the vessel.

 (b) Fish for, take, or retain any species of precious coral in any precious coral permit area:

 (1) By means of gear or methods prohibited by Sec. 665.88.

 (2) In refugia specified in Sec. 665.12.

 (3) In a bed for which the quota specified in Sec. 665.84 has been attained.

 (4) In violation of any permit issued under Sec. 665.13 or Sec. 665.17.

 (5) In a bed that has been closed pursuant to Sec. Sec. 665.85 or 

665.90.

 (c) Take and retain, possess, or land any live pink coral or live black coral from any precious coral 

105
permit area that is less than the minimum height specified in Sec. 665.86 unless:

 (1) A valid EFP was issued under Sec. 665.17 for the vessel and the vessel was operating under 

the terms of the permit; or

 (2) The coral originated outside coral beds listed in this paragraph, and this can be demonstrated 

through receipts of purchase, invoices, or other documentation.

Sec. 665.83 Seasons.

The fishing year for precious corals begins on July 1 and ends on June 30 the following year, 

except at the Makapu’u and Au’au Channel Beds, which have a two-year fishing period that begins 

July 1 and ends June 30, two years later.

Sec. 665.84 Quotas.

 (a) General. The quotas limiting the amount of precious coral that may be taken in any precious 

coral permit area during the fishing year are listed in Table 1 of this part. Only live coral is counted 

toward the quota. The accounting period for all quotas begins July 1, 1983.

 (b) Conditional bed closure. A conditional bed will be closed to all nonselective coral harvesting 

after the quota for one species of coral has been taken.

 (c) Reserves and reserve release. The quotas for exploratory areas will be held in reserve for 

harvest by vessels of the United States in the following manner:

 (1) At the start of the fishing year, the reserve for each of the three exploratory areas will equal the 

quota minus the estimated domestic annual harvest for that year.

 (2) As soon as practicable after December 31 each year, the Regional Administrator will determine 

the amount harvested by vessels of the United States between July 1 and December 31 of that year.

Sec. 665.85 Closures.

 (a) If the Regional Administrator determines that the harvest quota for any coral bed will be 

reached prior to the end of the fishing year, or the end of the 2-year fishing period at Makapu’u Bed 

or Au’au Channel Bed, NMFS shall publish a notice to that effect in the Federal Register and shall 

use other means to notify permit holders. Any such notice must indicate the reason for the closure, 

the bed being closed, and the effective date of the closure.

 (b) A closure is also effective for a permit holder upon the permit holder’s actual harvest of the 

applicable quota.

Sec. 665.86 Size restrictions.

The height of a live coral specimen shall be determined by a straight line measurement taken 

from its base to its most distal extremity. The stem diameter of a living coral specimen shall be 

determined by measuring the greatest diameter of the stem at a point no less than 1 inch (2.54 cm) 

from the top surface of the living holdfast.

 (a) Live pink coral harvested from any precious coral permit area must have attained a minimum 

height of 10 inches (25.4 cm).

Sec. 665.87 Area restrictions.

Fishing for coral on the WestPac Bed is not allowed. The specific area closed to fishing is all waters 

within a 2-nm radius of the midpoint of 23[deg]18.0[min] N. lat., 162[deg]35.0[min] W. long.

106
Sec. 665.88 Gear restrictions.

Only selective gear may be used to harvest coral from any precious coral permit area.

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108
Mediterranean Red Coral

Abdelmajid Dridi

Fishery Biologist, Royaume du Maroc, Institut National de Recherche Halieutique, 2 Rue Tiznit, 

Casablanca, Morroco

1. Introduction

Red coral, Corallium rubrum, is an endemic marine animal of the Mediterranean. This animal makes 

cylindrical arborescent colonies of red color, is equipped with tentacles directed in all directions, 

and populates rocks, sandy and volcanic sites, and overhangs the roofs of caves. 

Red coral contributes to the biodiversity of marine flora. Moroccan Mediterranean coasts have 

the privilege to still shelter fields of this species which has been very appreciated for a long time. 

However, this typically Mediterranean species is also observed along the Moroccan Atlantic side 

– in particular in the area ranging between Tangier and Larache. There also exist other areas in the 

south of Morocco, which can shelter red coral and will be the subject of later prospections. 

The exploitation of red coral in Morocco shows rather original economic characteristics by 

comparison to other maritime resources. It is a rare resource, in great demand within the jewelry 

industry, and not easily renewable. 

109

Distribution map of red coral.
Since its discovery in the Moroccan Mediterranean, red coral has been subjected to an intense and 

irresponsible exploitation – of which the harmful effects became very apparent and showed that the 

output seems not to be adequate with the renewal of this resource, which is characterized by very 

slow growth. However, a new strategy of exploitation and a better valuation of the resource were 

established to ensure the protection and durability of this resource. 

2. History of coral exploitation

In Morocco, the exploitation of coral started in the 1970s by foreigners in the zone of Al Hoceima. 

During these years, the exploitation of coral was done by 2-10 boats (corailleurs), some of which 

were chartered. 

During the 1980s, the zone of Al Hoceima was the most prosperous zone for red coral exploitation 

(8.6 tons in 1985) which was completely exported in a raw, unworked state. In 3-4 years, the 

production decreased.

During the 1990s, coral landings continued to fall, with the number of trips from 1991-1992 

numbering between 9-23 trips per month. The catch per trip shows a variability ranging between 

2 and 6 kg.

In 1992, out of the 146 trips carried out, 80% were in the area of Tofino with a catch of 3.4 kg/trip, 

and 20% of the trips were in the area of Topos with a harvest of 2.1 kg/trip. The average harvest 

was 3 kg/trip. 

In demographic structure, the Mediterranean area was not interesting anymore because the collected 

colonies became very small sizes. Consequently, their commercial value fell, which encouraged 

the 13 units exploiting the coral to change their zone of activity from M’diq and then towards the 

Atlantic zone.

In 2004, the national fleet again became active in the Al Hoceima zone after a 12 year hiatus. 

This recovery started in the zone of Topo, which is a coastal area with 6 nautical miles in the 

Al Hoceima West. After one year of exploitation at this site, the outputs showed a fall which 

pushed the operators to be directed again towards the broad one with approximately 25 nautical 

Al Hoceima miles in the area known as Tofino. The latter was the subject of a study through an 

evaluation campaign carried out in 2003 by two coral boats. 

3. Characteristics of the red coral of the Mediterranean

Red coral is a sessile species, completely dependent on the microcirculations of the currents as 

vectors of food, and it is a passive filterer which traps the small planktonic prey in its tentacles and 

paralyses them with its nematocysts. The species is able to assimilate the dissolved organic matter 

of sea water (Allemand 1993a).

The skeleton of red coral is made primarily (85% of the wet weight) of calcium carbonate in the 

form of calcite. It also includes 5% of other elements such as Mg, Fe, K, SO4, P2O5, SiO2, Pb, Zn 

(Maté 1986), and an organic matrix (Allemand et al. 1993b). 

110
The more or less dense red color of the coral is due to carotenoid pigments and not to ferric oxides 

as it is sometimes believed (Merlin and Dele 1983).

The reproduction of red coral was well studied by Vighi (1972). The sexes are separate; the maturity 

of female gametes lasts 2 years, while those of the male gonads last 1 year. Reproduction takes 

place from May to September. Sexual maturity is early and it is acquired at the end the age of 2 

years, even though the branches are still very small and only 2 to 3 cm (Vighi 1972).

The repopulation of the coral is ensured by the larva, called “planula,” released at the period of 

20-30 days. The larva, which has a 1-2 mm length ciliated blister, will swim at the sea waters, and 

because its lifespan is considered short, it tends to be fixed very quickly after being emitted. In the 

laboratory, it remains alive 10 days (Grillo and Chessa 1992).

Somewhat recent studies (Abbiati et al. 1993, 1995) showed that genetic flow between the 

geographically isolated populations is reduced and populations tend to be genetically different.

In Morocco, the red coral of Al Hoceima is characterized by a discontinuous distribution with wide 

gaps, and surfaces whose abundance is more or points large, with very accessible depths at 40 m 

to TOPO and beyond 90 m in TOFINO (Dridi and Slimani 2003).

111

Map 1. Prospection zone
4. Prospection surveys of the coral fields 

In order to allow the renewal activity of exploiting the coral, the INRH carried out, in partnership 

with the profession represented by the Association of Inshore Fishing and of Coral in Morocco, a 

survey on board two coral ships from August 15 to September 9, 2003.

The results of this evaluation survey are summarized as follows (see Map 1):

• The areas of Xauen and Tofino (A) are zones with sandy predominance not showing any trace 

of red coral.

• The Tofino zone (B) is characterized by strong currents. It presents a relatively important 

surface (56 km2) to approximate rocky predominance (8.3 km2) in the Centre sector. It is a 

concentrated zone of red coral. The best yield results from between 80 m and 90 m depth (see 

Map 2).

• The red coral has a homogeneous demographic structure with an intermediate size of 11.36 cm 

and an aggregate distribution. 

• For responsible exploitation, it is recommended to spread out exploitation over 4 to 5 years, by 

fixing an annual quota.

5. The fleet exploiting coral

The fleet operating in the coral fields is specialized, and consists of small units provided with a 

decompression box on board and equipped with a capacity of 50 TJB. 

112

Map 2. Zones of Tofino
At the beginning of exploitation, the number of coral boats was variable, oscillating between 2 and 

10 boats all of which were chartered and of foreign nationality. During the 1980s, the number of 

coral boats rose to 17 units, only to decrease to 13 in 1991 and to become fixed at 10 boats in 1992 

(freezing of investment). These boats fished in depths ranging from 30 to 80 meters.

6. Evaluation of red coral potential

The fact that red coral is a limited resource, of great longevity and of very slow growth, requires 

rational and adequate exploitation in harmony with the producing capacity of this ecosystem. 

Red coral has undergone an intensity of harvest and very strong pressure by boats exploiting this 

resource (Figure 1) since its discovery.

By taking into consideration that the exploitation of red coral knows a great failure of the declarations it 

was necessary in 2003 to propose a quota which could decrease the pressure of harvesting this species.

7. Regulation

A. International regulation

Red coral is protected by two international regulations, relative convention with the conservation 

of the wild life and the natural environment of Europe (convention of Bern of 19/09/79) and 

the Protocol relating to the surfaces especially protected from the Mediterranean and biological 

diversity from the Mediterranean.

Evolution des quantiés de corail déclarées et 

exportées

0

3

6

9

12

1990 1991 1992 2004 2005 2006 2007

quantitée en tonnes

Quantité déclarée (en tonnes) Quantité exporté (tonnes)

fermeture de la zone 

méditerranéenne

1993-2004

113

Fig. 1. Evolution of red coral production
Morocco ratified the Convention of Bern (see BO n°5054 of 7-11-2002) and signed the Protocol 

of Barcelona 10/06/1995. 

Morocco ratified the Convention of Bern (see BO n°5054 of the 7-11-2002) and signed the Protocol 

of Barcelona the 10/06/1995. 

B. National regulation

In 1916, red coral was qualified under Moroccan legislation on maritime wrecks (dahir of March 

23, 1916, article 1) and belongs in entirety to article 7 and is subject to a number of conditions. This 

old legislation dating from the colonial period is exceeded since it is the subject of a regulatory 

exploitation and not of accidental lucky finds. 

Considering the need for a regulation specifically aimed at the organization of exploitation of red 

coral, in 1992 the Ministry of Fisheries started a text project which took into account the various 

suggestions and observations of all speakers (INRH, of the professionals, Ministry for Finances).

Among the undertaken measures:

In 2005, with the aim of organizing coral exploitation in accordance with international regulation 

and its safeguards, the Ministry of Fisheries promulgated decree n° 2-04-26 of 6 hija 1425 (January 

17, 2005), which fixed the conditions and procedures of harvesting coral. 

This text fixed the general terms of coral fishing, taking into account the need for rational exploitation 

of this resource by fixing fishing effort through limitation of the number of ships, harvested quotas 

by ship, and periods of fishing per zone. 

Moreover, it stipulates that access to fishing is limited only to ship-owners able to justify the 

possibility of total treatment in Morocco of the harvested coral, either directly, in a transformation 

unit, or by a contract of delivery to a third owner or owner of such a unit. 

Fishing is organized at the maritime region located in Al Hoceima through the decree of the Ministry 

of Agriculture, Rural Development, and Fisheries n° 2.655-06 of 21 choual 1427 (November 13, 

2006), which regulates the exploitation of red coral by quota.

114
REFERENCES

Abbiati M, Santangelo G, Novelli S (1993) Genetic variation within and between two Tyrrhenian 

populations of the Mediterranean alcyonarian Corallium rubrum. Marine Ecology Progress Series 

95:245-250.

Abbiati M, Santangelo G, Novelli S (1995) Caratterizzazione della structura genetica delle 

populazioni di corallo rosso del Golfo del Leone (Mediterraneo occidentale). Sociéta Italiana di 

Ecologia 16:437-439.

Allemand D (1993a) The Biology and skeletogenesis of the Mediterranean red coral. Precious 

Corals & Octocoral Research 2:19-39.

Allemand D, Cuif JP, Watabe N, Oishi M, Kawaguchi T (1993b) The organic matrix of skeletal 

structures of the Mediterranean red coral, Corallium rubrum. In: Biomineralization 93, Monaco17, 

20.11.1993-7th International Symposium on Biomineralisation, p 102.

Dridi A, Slimani A (2003) Rapport de la campagne de prospection par plongé des champs de corail 

rouge (Corallium rubrum, L.1758) a El Hoceima en Méditerranée, INRH, p 3-7.

Grillo MC, Chessa LA (1992) Développement larvaire de corallium rubrum, dans Rapports et 

procès-verbaux des réunions de la CIESMM 33:40.

Maté P, Revenga S, Masso C (1986) Estudio preliminar de la composicion quimica del coral rojo 

(Corallium rubrum L.) de distintas zonas del Mediterraneo espanol. Boletin Instituto Espanol de 

Oceanografia 3(4):53-60.

Merlin JC, Dele ML (1983) Etude par spectroscopie Raman de résonance de la pigmentation des 

squelettes calcaires de certains coraux. Dans Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France 108(2): 

289-301. 

Vighi M (1972) Etude sur la reproduction de Corallium rubrum. Vie Milieu 23:21-32.

115
116
An Overview of the Main Marine Resources (Commercial and NonCommercial Groups) in the Moroccan Mediterranean

Abdelaziz Zoubi 

Head Division of Biostatistics and the Information System

(with the collaboration with scientists at the regional Centers of INRH at Nador and Tangier) 

National Institute for Fisheries Research (inrh), 2 Rue Tiznit, Casablanca, Morocco

1. Introduction

The Moroccan Mediterranean coast shelters varied resources, made up by commercial marine 

species composed by pelagic species, demersals, red coral, and shellfish resources, along with other 

non commercial zoological groups such as marine mammals, turtles, and more. These resources 

are distributed along the Mediterranean coast with an abundance that varies throughout the area.

2. Research Programmes of INRH 

The research activities of the Moroccan Institute of Fisheries (INRH), at the Mediterranean, are 

carried out by its regional centres in Tangier and Nador. 

Scientific activities relate to the study of the biology of highly valued commercial species and 

the cartography of their abundance, socio-economic analysis of their fisheries, the assessment 

of principally exploited stocks, the follow-up of the suitability of the environment and the 

oceanographic parameters of Mediterranean water and the study of marine biodiversity.

The follow-up of the state of the principally exploited stocks is carried out by sampling landings, 

by data-gathering the level of exploitation (statistics, activity of fishing), through biological data 

on the followed species (size frequency, maturity, etc.), and surveys on board Research Vessels. 

Other data are collected from other Administrations (ONP and DPM), relating to the fleets and 

their activities (number of days of fishing and/or fishing effort, captures and value). Additional 

investigations are led with fishing professionals, in particular artisenal fishers, to improve fishing 

statistics.

The ongoing research programs established by the INRH concern the study of large pelagic 

fisheries, small pelagic fisheries, the follow-up of trawl fishing, octopus fisheries, shrimp fisheries, 

shellfish, red coral, marine biodiversity – done by the regular follow-up of mammals and marine 

turtle strandings on both sides of the Straits of Gibraltar, and the interactions between cetaceans 

and fisheries. These programs aim to evaluate biodiversity and preserve the populations of these 

cetaceans. To achieve these goals, the INRH undertook actions for the installation of the network 

for monitoring cetaceans and strandings.

117
3. Main Exploited Fisheries Resources

With regard to demersals (see Map 1), the resources are the subject of multi-specific exploitation, 

mainly by trawlers (114 units) and artisenal fleets (2600 boats). With an average production of 

approximately 9000 tons, the landings are composed of a multitude of species (seabreams, red 

mullet, pink shrimp, hake, octopus, horse mackerel, and cuttlefish).

The small pelagics are exploited by approximately 147 units, using specific gear for fishing, but 

multi-species (sardine, anchovy, horse mackerel, mackerel), targeting particularly sardine (14000 

tons), with a total fish production of about 30 600 tons.

The majority of long-liners carry on their activity at the Strait of Gibraltar and also at the ports of 

Nador and Al Hoceïma; the traps target species of swordfish and blue fin tuna, which are mostly 

exported to foreign markets – particularly European markets. The average capture of blue fin tuna, 

espadon and small tuna species for the period 2006-2007 are in intervals of 2400-3000 T, 1500-

2000 T and 1722 T, respectively.

Swordfish is targeted by a coastal fleet made up of approximately 350 units, of which approximately 

69% are based in the harbour of Tangier. These long-liners have an average size of approximately 

13 m, an average horse power of 80 CV and an average TJB of 7. These units, which target 

primarily swordfish, carried out a production of about 1400 tons. Principal fishing zones of this 

species are in the Strait of Gibraltar. The principal ports of landings for this species are Tangier, 

Nador, Al Hoceïma. This species is captured by drifting gill nets, traps, and purse seines.

The tuna-like species are captured mainly by purse seines and in lesser degree by traps. Marketing 

of these species is done on a local scale. They are intended either for local fresh consumption or 

for processing industries. Only 8% of these species are captured in the Mediterranean – the main 

production (92%) is carried out in the Atlantic.

4. Exploitation of Mediterranean Red Coral

At the beginning of the Eighties, the exploitation of red coral in the Moroccan Mediterranean 

was done by foreigners through authorizations from the Ministry of fisheries. In 1984, two boats 

chartered by Moroccans began fishing red coral in the Al Hoceïma zone. 

Coral exploitation began in the coastal zone of Topo, located at 5 to 6 nautical miles from Al 

Hoceïma west. After one year of exploitation, harvesting activities shifted to approximately 

25 nautical miles north of Al Hoceïma in the area known as Tofino where the activity lasted 

approximately a year (2002).

Since 2002, exploitation of Mediterranean red coral has been carried out by ten vessels. In order to 

follow the evolution of this exploitation, the INRH started a series of scientific surveys in 2002, as 

well as the follow-up of this commercial exploitation.

Thus, two diving surveys were carried out in 2002 and 2003. The first aimed at the exploration of 

red coral fields in the maritime district of Nador and the second focused on the study of red coral 

stocks and the estimation of the potentialities of this resource in the region of Al Hoceïma.

118
The prospections in the East part used the acoustic technique to identify rocks likely to be carrying 

red coral, as well as observations by diving in search of the corals.

Red coral exploitation started again in May 2004 in the zone of Tofino by 10 boats which were 

authorized with individual quotas of 500 kg of red coral. The coral harvesters were declared to the 

port authority of Al Hoceïma.

During 2004, the declared harvested quantity was about 1450 kg, and only 510 kg during the first 

7 months of 2005. The captures are destined entirely for export.

Surveys of red coral 

In order to determine the new zones likely to shelter coral and to estimate their production potential, 

from February-March 2007, the INRH proceeded using a prospection network at the level of the 

geographically delimited rocky zones.

Biological sampling was carried out on coral samples, collected at the time of the dives. These 

dives are carried out in a systematic way, after identification of the rocks likely to carry coral. The 

number of dives per zone is decided according to the extent of the rocks carrying the coral.

The results of the dives carried out within zones of Topo (5 dives), of Sidi H’seine (10 dives) and 

one dive in the zone of Fix-Iris are shown in Map 2. 

119

Map 1. Localisation of main exploited fish stocks.
There was the identification of new fields of red coral, especially in the littoral zone of Sidi H’seine, 

which constitutes a major stage in the estimation of this resource potential in the Moroccan 

Mediterranean.

Moreover, the surveyed band in Cala Iris zone showed signs of coral presence which requires 

further prospection.

Demographic structure of red coral 

 

For demographic structure, sampling was undertaken in the region Topo-Cala Iris; the samples of 

colonies were measured in individual sizes. 

The size structure of colonies in the zones of Sidi H’seine and Topo-Cala Iris were between 3 and 

13 cm, with a predominance of small sizes ranging from 6 to 7 cm. The mean sizes in both zones 

were 7.25 cm and 6.4 cm, respectively. The yields given by station and zone are provided in Table 

1.

Other zones surveyed were located at the strait of Gibraltar, which led to the identification of some 

sites with fields of corals (Map 3). More dives are needed to quantify the regional yields of these 

species.

Table 1. Yield/hour of red coral in the prospected zone.

N° 

Stations Yields (dry weight kg/30 min)

Zone of Nador Zone of Sidi 

H’seine Zone of Topo-Cala Iris Zone of Jebha

1 0 1.8 7.0 0

2 0 2.5 0.0

3 4.3 5.0

4 1.7 1.7

5 0.2 2.7

6 5.0

7 0.4

8 9.1

In the north Atlantic region, a closure of the coral fields for about 10 years has helped the recovery 

of the stocks there, and so their exploitation has started again.

120
5. Other Non-Commercial Zoological Groups

Also observed in this zone are zoological groups including marine mammals, dolphins, marine 

turtles, and others.

There were many observations of the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), the large dolphin 

(Tursiops truncatus), and to a lesser extent of the blue and white dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba). 

The simultaneous presence of three species of dolphins constitutes a remarkable fact here in the 

Moroccan Mediterranean.

The species Caretta caretta is mentioned in Mediterranean Morocco. The luth turtle (Dermochelys 

coriacea) is known to fishermen and present along the littoral Mediterranean, but nesting information 

is rare. 

6. Resource Management

For demersal fisheries, the 40 mm mesh size is used; fishing is prohibited in the coastal zone less 

than 3 miles at the east of Al Hoceïma city and less than 80 m of depth west of the city. Fish size is 

controlled at landings; for small pelagics, the number of individuals is measured by kg.

For the large pelagic fisheries, there is the minimum commercial size for swordfish of 125 cm to 

the fork (or 25 kg of weight) with a rate of tolerance of 15%; the minimum mesh size of 400 mm 

and a maximum length of 2.5 km; the Prohibition of fishing in the zone ranging between Cape 

121

Map 2. The identified zone of red coral at the Moroccan Mediterranean. 
Spartel and Saidia for the period from October 15 to November 15. For blue fin tuna, there is the 

Prohibition of fishing from November 15 to May 15. For coral resources, the main management 

measures are the establishment of a rotational system of exploitation and the control of harvest.

For the case of octopus, the ministry decree stipulates that the commercial size expressed in weight 

for the octopus species is 300g by individual for eviscerated octopus and a weight of 400g for non 

eviscerated ones.

Taking into account the beneficial effect of marine reserves for safeguarding and preserving marine 

resources, a zone of eco-management was established in the zone of Bokkoya in the Moroccan 

Mediterranean. This area is located near the town of Al Hoceïma, approximately 150 km in the East 

of the Strait of Gibraltar, and is of great terrestrial and marine biological value, which contributes 

greatly to the preservation of vulnerable resources of the region.

REFERENCES

Rapport sur la zone maritime d’Al Hoceïma (1992) Note conjointe établie par le Ministère des 

pêches maritimes et la Direction des eaux et forêts, 341 p. 

INRH (2007) Rapport national du Maroc. 10ème Session du CSC. Nocosia (Cyprus).

INRH (2008) National report on main exploited resources. 11th session of SAC (GFCM). 

Marrackech (Morocco) 1-5 December 2008. INRH. 

INRH (2009) Synthesis report on the moroccan marines resources at the Mediterranean. Report 

prepared for Supreme Council for the preservation of National fisheries resources.

122

Map 3. Zone of red coral identified at the Gibraltar site.
Fishery Management of the Mediterranean Red Coral: 

A Call for a Paradigm Shift

Georgios Tsounis1, Sergio Rossi2, Josep-Maria Gili1

1

Insitut de Ciències de Mar, Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, 08003 Barcelona, Spain. 2

Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona), Edifici Cn Campus UAB, 

Cerdanyola del Vallés (Barcelona) 08193, Spain

1. Introduction

The Mediterranean red coral (Corallium rubrum L. 1758, Gorgonacea, Octocorallia) has been 

used as jewelry since antiquity and is one the most valuable living marine resources (Tescione 

1976). It has been harvested for millennia with ever evolving harvesting methods, that, as in most 

fisheries, have become over-efficient. Today there is overwhelming evidence that almost all known 

red coral stocks are overexploited (FAO 1983, FAO 1988, Santangelo et al. 1993b, Santangelo and 

Abbiati 2001, Tsounis et al. 2007). However, management and conservation options are still being 

debated between the industry, decision makers and even ecologists. Although harvesting pressure, 

slow growth and isolation of the populations create an unfavorable situation, the threat of species 

extinction is not clear. On the other hand, local extinction of shallow water populations due to 

overharvesting and mass mortality events is likely, and economic extinction is certain to occur if 

management measures are not revised. 

The significance of red coral and other cold water coral species is becoming clearer thanks to 

a growing amount of research showing that not only tropical coral reefs, but also deep corals 

and precious corals act as ecosystem engineers, providing three-dimensional habitat structure and 

increasing biodiversity. As a consequence, the interest of long term habitat management contradicts 

traditional fishery management that allows for a severe modification of the population structure 

of the target species. Therefore, a paradigm shift is needed to ensure sustainable coral fisheries 

while maintaining diverse and productive marine habitats. Balanced population structures and 

connectivity between harvested and protected populations should be maintained, among other 

measures.

In order to inspire this revision of management and conservation measures, the following text 

summarizes and highlights relevant features of the ecology of red coral, describes the evolution 

and present state of the fishery in order to reveal its impact, and discusses future management 

options.

2. Biology of Corallium rubrum

The Mediterranean red coral (Corallium rubrum L. 1758, Gorgonacea, Octocorallia) is a sessile 

colonial cnidarian with an arborescent growth form (Figure 1) that can reach a size of 50 cm 

(Garrabou and Harmelin 2002), and belongs to the longest living inhabitants of its habitat, living 

for may be more than 100 years (Riedl 1984, García-Rodríguez and Massó 1986a). C. rubrum is 

a sciaphilic species that can be found in depths of 5 – 300 m, though more commonly at 30 – 200 

123
m (Carpine and Grasshoff 1975, Weinberg 1978, Riedl 1984, Rossi et al. 2008), and is distributed 

throughout the Mediterranean, though mainly in the western part, and at the neighboring Atlantic 

coasts (Marchetti 1965, Zibrowius et al. 1984, Chintiroglou and Dounas-Koukouras 1989). Its 

habitat preference is not well understood, but competition with other benthic species (Giannini 

et al. 2003) and a short dispersal distance (del Gaudio 2004, Constantini et al. 2007) seem to be 

influential factors. A bionomic study at the Costa Brava in Spain (Ros et al. 1984) shows that 1 km 

of shoreline corresponds to about 0.01 km2

 of coral habitat. 

Detailed information on the distribution of red coral is scarce. The Mediterranean is a temperate 

oligotrophic sea where some benthic communities show a diversity and complexity that is 

comparable to coral reefs (Margalef 1985, Ballesteros 2006). However, the typical habitat of red 

coral is the so called “coralligenous,” probably the most structured and species rich community of 

the Mediterranean benthos. It is situated in the semi dark sublittoral (Ros et al. 1984, True 1970, 

Laubier 1966), and extends from the lower level of photophilic algae and sea grasses to more than 

100 m depth, where calcareous macroalgae can survive. 

Figure 1: Corallium rubrum colony of ca. 15 cm height, at 55 m depth in

 a marine protected area. During an extensive two year survey at the Costa

 Brava (Spain), we measured 7600 colonies, but found only few corals of this size.

Photo: G. Tsounis

124

Fig. 1. Corallium rubrum colony of ca. 15 cm height, at 55 m depth in a marine protected area. During an extensive 

two year survey at the Costa Brava (Spain), 7600 colonies were measured, but only few corals of this size were found. 

Photo: G. Tsounis.
It is likely that C. rubrum plays a significant role in its habitat, as many coral species are important 

keystone species in various ecosystems: Corals provide three dimensional complexity to habitats, 

by structuring and stabilizing the ecosystem (Hiscock and Mitchell 1980, Mitchell et al. 1993) and 

thus significantly increasing biodiversity (True 1970, Dayton et al. 1974, Jones et al. 1994, Parrish 

et al. 2002).

The main biological characteristic of all Corallium species that makes their sustainable harvesting 

extraordinarily difficult to achieve, is their extremely slow growth. In the case of C. rubrum, long 

term experimental data show that it grows to colonies of 4 – 8 mm thickness and 1.3 – 7 cm in 

height in 22 years, with corresponding growth rates of 0.24 ± 0.05 mm year-1 in base diameter, and 

1.78 ± 0.7 mm year-1 in height (Garrabou and Harmelin 2002). The 22 year old corals developed 

only 1 – 8 branches, further stressing how long it takes for these organisms to provide habitat 

structure. However, since suspension feeders depend not only on seston concentration but also 

water movement in order to feed (Gili and Coma 1998), their energy input and consequently 

growth rates vary according to the habitat and geographic region. Higher diametric growth rates 

of 0.35 ± 0.15 mm year-1 have thus been measured in more exposed environments (with values 

ranging between 0.15 mm and 0.75 mm year-1, Marschal et al. 2004). Furthermore, the new aging 

methodology used in the latter study resulted in four times lower growth rates than previous data. 

Measuring actual growth of colonies in their habitat provides without doubt the most robust data, 

so that we can be confident that the maximum diametric growth rate of red coral, at least during 

its early life phase, is near 0.62 ± 19 mm year-1 (Bramanti et al. 2005). The recovery growth rate 

of partially harvested colonies, when harvesters break the colony above the base so that it can regrow has not yet been studied, although it can have important consequences for management.

Due to its slow growth and limited larval dispersion distance (del Gaudio et al. 2004, Calderon et 

al. 2006, Constantini et al. 2007), red coral cannot be regarded as an efficient colonizer of available 

substrate (except within the parental patch). Its reproductive capacity is relatively high though, 

as unlike other precious corals, red coral becomes sexually mature at an early age of 3 – 4 years 

(Santangelo et al. 2003, 

Tsounis et al. 2006b). 

C. rubrum populations 

certainly owe their 

resilience in large part to 

this feature, that sets this 

species apart from other 

Corallium species (Grigg 

1989), which in turn 

must be regarded as more 

vulnerable.

Fertility in red coral does 

not reach 100% before 

an age of 6 – 9 years 

(Santangelo et al. 2003, 

Tsounis et al. 2006b). The 

legal minimum of 7 mm 

in diameter corresponds 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

0-2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12 >12 

Size class [cm] 

Gonad number polyp-1 

Females

Males

Figure. 2: Gonad number per polyp of various colony height classes (± SD) 

 (grey bars: females; black bars: males) in Corallium rubrum colonies.

Data from: Tsounis et al. 2007b.

125

Fig. 2. Gonad number per polyp of various colony height classes (± SD) (grey 

bars: females; black bars: males) in Corallium rubrum colonies (Tsounis et al. 

2007b).
to ca. 11 year old 

colonies, depending 

on the growth 

rate, which varies 

according to habitat 

and geographic 

region (Bramanti 

et al. 2005, 2007). 

Thus the majority of 

the population has 

not yet reached full 

reproductive potential 

due to fishing 

pressure (Figure 2). 

A period of 3 years 

of reproductive 

contribution before 

harvest may not be 

a sufficiently long 

period to ensure 

high recruitment, if 

compared with black 

coral in Hawaii, which reaches maturity at 10 – 12.5 years, but is not fished until 20 years old. 

This is significant in modular, highly branched organisms such as corals, as a small fraction of the 

older, and therefore larger, colonies contribute the majority of the recruits (Miller 1996, Rossi et al. 

2008). In some species, up to 98% of the recruits are produced by the older half of the population 

(Babcock 1991, Coma et al. 1995, Sakai 1998, Beiring and Lasker 2000, Santangelo et al. 2007).

Another characteristic of red coral that has important implications on its population structure 

and exploitation, is the short larval dispersion distance: The free swimming phase of red coral 

larvae lasts only hours or days (Weinberg 1979). Not surprisingly therefore, recent genetic studies 

demonstrate the occurrence of genetic differences among populations even over short distances 

of less than 3 km (del Gaudio et al. 2005, Calderon et al. 2006, Constantini et al. 2007). In some 

overharvested areas the populations are therefore reduced to few isolated patches (Plujà 1999, 

Rossi et al. 2008).

Unlike growth, reproductive effort and physiological indicators of energy storage (lipid contents) 

vary only little within a geographic region (Tsounis et al. 2006b, Rossi and Tsounis 2007), but 

the sex ratio may vary between octocoral populations in the same region (Gori et al. unpublished 

data), and may have a significant effect on recruitment. Furthermore, population density, sex ratio 

and gonadal output vary significantly among regions in the Western Mediterranean (Bramanti 

et al. 2007). It is not yet clear however, whether these differences require substantially different 

management.

Natural mortality is low in Corallium rubrum, as there appear to be no natural predators. The only 

known threats are the parasitic boring spongae Spiroxya heteroclite and Cliona sarai, that affect 

Figure 3: Typical Corallium rubrum colony size class found nowadays 

at the Costa Brava (NE Spain). Photo: S. Rossi

126

Fig. 3. Typical Corallium rubrum colony size class found nowadays at the Costa Brava (NE 

Spain). Photo: S. Rossi.
the corals through perforation of their bases until they are perfused with holes and lose structural 

stability (Abbiati and Santangelo 1989, Bavestrello et al. 1993, Corriero et al. 1997). 

Another cause for increased mortality in C. rubrum are mass mortality events (Cerrano et al. 2000, 

Garrabou et al. 2001, 

Bramanti et al. 2005, 

2007). These have been 

reported as early as 1983 

in the French maritime 

province (FAO 1983), but 

still very little is known 

about the cause of these 

episodes. Although they 

manifest themselves 

during abnormally warm 

summers, it is not clear 

whether direct temperature 

tolerance or pathogenic 

agents or pollutants are 

causing the mortality 

events (Garrabou et 

al. 2001). The fact that 

Mediterranean suspension 

feeders suffer a seasonal 

trophic crisis due to low 

plankton abundance 

and water movement in 

summer (Coma et al. 

2000, Rossi and Tsounis 

2007), may represent a 

contributing factor. 

Mortality as a result of abrasion due to water movement, as observed in shallow water Antipatharian 

populations (Grigg 1976), is unlikely in Corallium species that dwell in deeper habitats and have 

a rigid skeleton so that branches never touch.

Other biological features, such as feeding, colony orientation, competition for space, activity 

rhythms, diet composition and feeding rates, as well as seasonality of metabolic products have 

been studied during the recent years, in an integral approach to understand the species biology and 

ecology (Rossi 2002, Giannini et al. 2003, Tsounis et al. 2006c, Picciano and Ferrier-Pagés 2007, 

Rossi and Tsounis 2007, Rossi and Gili 2007, Rossi et al. 2008, Rossi et al. 2009).

3. Population structure

To our knowledge, the only extensive study on the abundance of C. rubrum has been conducted at the 

Costa Brava, and indicates an extreme patchiness, with a total colony abundance on coralligenous 

hard substrate (20 – 50 m depth) of 3.42 ± 4.39 colonies m-2 (Tsounis et al. 2006a). Due to 

0 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

Relative frequency [%] 

Colony height [mm] 

Figure 4: Corallium rubrum colony height distribution of a protected population

 at the Medas Islands (grey bars), and commercial stocks (black bars), both at 

the Costa Brava (Spain). Data from: Tsounis et al. 2007 

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80- 

100 

110- 

130 

140- 

160 

170- 

190 

>200 

Marine Protected Area

Commercial Stocks

127

Fig. 4. Corallium rubrum colony height distribution of a protected population at 

the Medas Islands (grey bars), and commercial stocks (black bars), both at the 

Costa Brava (Spain) (Tsounis et al. 2007).
geographic variation, this study is certainly not 

representative for the whole Mediterranean. 

However, the only comparable data available 

are data on the abundance within patches, 

which varies considerably among geographic 

locations as well as between depths and 

habitats. Values recorded range between 1300 

colonies m-2 in Calafuria, Italy, 130 colonies 

m-2 at the Costa Brava (Spain), and 400 – 

600 colonies m-2 in France (Santangelo et al. 

1993a, Santangelo et al. 1999, Garrabou et al. 

2001, Tsounis et al. 2006a, Rossi et al. 2008). 

For other regions the presence / absence may 

be recorded, but in general there is a lack of 

data on its abundance.

Red coral abundance at the Costa Brava is 

inversely proportional to depth with deep 

habitats being characterized by a more 

scattered distribution, rather than dense 

patches observed in shallow water (Tsounis 

et al. 2006a, Rossi et al. 2008). This can have 

implications on the harvest of deep populations, 

as a low abundance may make exploitation 

unfeasible. In general, the extreme patchiness 

results in a such a high standard deviation, 

that abundance data are of no particular use 

for management. Abundance comparisons and 

identifying population decline are therefore 

not likely achievable in case of C. rubrum, 

and size/age structures give a better indication 

of population decline. This is in line with 

the argument that population size in modular 

organisms should take number of polyps rather 

than number of colonies into account.

The presently observed size frequency 

distribution in shallow water shows that 

unprotected populations at the Costa Brava 

consist mainly of small corals under 8 cm 

height (Figure 3), with an average height of 

3.1 ± 0.16 cm (Figure 4), and an average basal 

diameter and age of 4.8 ± 1.9 mm year-1 and 

7.5 years respectively (Tsounis et al. 2006a). In 

comparison, a protection of 15 years resulted 

in an average height of 4.2 ± 2.5 cm (Tsounis 

et al. 2006a). 

Fig. 5 Corallium rubrum demography at 60 – 250 m depth (ROV Survey, see: 

Rossi et al 2008).a: basal column diameter; b: maximum height. c: number of primary 

branches per colony in the three surveyed areas. (Mean ± SD).

128

Fig. 5. Corallium rubrum demography at 60 – 

250 m depth (ROV Survey, see: Rossi et al 2008). 

A): basal column diameter; B): maximum height. 

C): number of primary branches per colony in the 

three surveyed areas. (Mean ± SD).
The only two known demographic studies on red coral populations below 50 meters depth show 

that harvesting pressure is proportional to the degree of accessibility of the sites to divers (Rossi 

et al. 2008, Angiolillo et al. 2009). These populations have been heavily dredged until 1994, and 

most of them are still exposed to a considerable harvesting pressure. Populations below 50 m 

consequently consist of 10 – 16 cm tall colonies, that show a well developed branching pattern, 

but an average basal diameter of only 9 mm (see Figure 5; Rossi et al. 2008, Angioillo et al. 2009).

This is equivalent to just 4 – 8 years of growth above the minimum harvesting limit (see above).

The extremely young population structure is confirmed to be a direct result of over-harvesting 

(Santangelo et al. 1993b, Santangelo and Abbiati 2001, Tsounis et al. 2007). Consequently, even 

the oldest marine protected areas cannot serve as a base line for the study of the population structure 

of red coral. Inter-specific competition may further influence the population structure of red coral 

(FAO 1983, Giannini et al. 2003), however, to an insignificant degree in comparison to harvesting. 

Specimens in museums and private collections demonstrate that this species can reach a size of 

more than 50 cm, arguably 1 m (Bauer 1909, Barletta et al. 1968, Cicogna and Cattaneo-Vietti 

1993, Garrabou and Harmelin 2002), but we have no way of determining the percentage of these 

large colonies in a natural population. 

4. Fishery Management and Conservation

Evolution of the fishery

Intentional precious coral exploitation started about 5000 years ago in the Mediterranean, when 

iron hooks were used to harvest red coral (Grigg 1984). The “fishing” became much more efficient 

in about 4th century before Christ, when the Greeks or Arabs developed a wooden dredging device 

that was known as “ingegno,” or “Saint Andrew’s Cross” (Galasso 1998, 2001). It consisted of a 

wooden cross with nets attached, that was used to entangle red coral in the Mediterranean Sea. The 

industrial age saw the use of a metal made dredge called “barra italiana.” It is made of a heavy iron 

bar with nets attached along its length. Even with the most efficient coral dredges or tangle nets, it 

is estimated that only about 40% of the corals broken off the substrate are entangled and retrieved 

(WPRFMC 2007).

Fishery statistics before the 1980s were documented by various private or governmental 

organizations, and are summarized in Tescione (1976). As early as the 1800s the coral fishing fleets 

made substantial trips to foreign shores in search for new stocks. Industrial scale exploitation for red 

coral began in the 17th century, when the Kingdom of Naples employed hundreds of boats dredging 

or netting coral (Tescione 1973). In 1862 there were 347 boats fishing for corals, which in 1864 

rose to 1200 vessels, with 24 factories in Torre del Greco (Italy), and 17.000 persons employed in 

total (Tescione 1976, FAO 1983). Most fisheries depleted their stocks rapidly and moved on to new 

ones afterwards. This boom and bust exploitation, more similar to coal mining than to a fishery, 

made for unstable yields, with various peaks and drops (Santangelo et al. 1993b, Santangelo and 

Abbiati 2001). After its popularization in the 1950s, SCUBA diving quickly found its application 

in coral harvesting as it allowed to selectively pick large corals in protected crevices that were 

inaccessible to dredging. In light of the immense ecological damage that dredging inflicts on coral 

habitats (Thrush and Dayton 2002), coral dredging in EU waters was banned in 1994, however, 

long after a dramatic drop in yield (see below). SCUBA diving using advanced technology remains 

the exclusive exploitation method of C. rubrum today.

129
The last major peak recorded lists 100 

t per year in 1978, but after a dramatic 

drop, the reported landings remained 

below 30 t (Figure 6). In the 1980s 

France reported a production of about 

5 t per year by 40 licensed divers and 

1 t by dredging. Responding to the 

dramatic decrease of yields in the 

late 1970s and early 80s (Chouba and 

Tritar 1988, Santangelo and Abbiati 

2001), the Food and Agricultural 

Organization (FAO) hosted technical 

consultation meetings (FAO 1983, 

FAO 1988), which, however, resulted 

in few management changes, other 

than banning coral dredging.

The overall landings of red coral 

from the Mediterranean have been 

relatively stable at 25 – 30 t over the 

last 15 – 20 years. This is about 25% 

of what was landed in the late 1970s. 

However, there are no published data 

available on the size of landed corals. In absence of these data, a stable or rising yield does not 

necessarily indicate a sustainable fishery, since the size of landed coral might be decreasing. In 

fact, coast guard controls indicate that fishermen are forced to harvest ever smaller colonies (Hereu 

et al. 1999, Hereu et al. 2002, Linares et al. 2003, Fisheries department - Government of Catalunia 

pers. com.).

Economy and trade

Although Corallium rubrum is harvested all over the Mediterranean by independent divers, more 

than 90% of the harvest is processed in Italy since the 1800s. The specialized red coral jewelry 

industry situated in Torre del Greco, near Naples (Italy) is estimated to generate more than 230 

million $ per year (ASSOCORAL pers. com.). Nowadays only 30% of the processed corals are C. 

rubrum, as 70 – 80% are tropical Corallium species imported from Japan and Taipei (Castigliano 

and Liverino 2004). In fact, Italy has become a major importer of precious corals (CITES 2007).

C. rubrum is sold for relatively high prices: High quality raw colonies are sold for 1500 – 3000 $ 

per kg, while worked beads sell for 30 $ per gram. Finished necklaces (Figure 7) sell for as much 

as 20.000 $ (Torntore 2002).

It is however interesting to note that even thin juvenile branches are now bought for 230 – 300 

$/kg, while they were practically worthless some decades ago (FAO 1988, Tsounis et al. 2007). 

Prices for C. rubrum have risen from 100 – 900 $/kg to 230 – 1500 $/kg (FAO 1983, Moberg and 

Folke 1999). Unconfirmed information indicates that single, large C. rubrum colonies with a stem 

diameter of more than 4 cm are reportedly sold for as much as 45.000 Euro per colony. Catch [t] 

Year 

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 

France 

Italy 

Spain 

Total Mediterranean 

Data from FAO 

Figure 6: Corallium rubrum harvest in the Mediterranean. 

Data from FAO

130

Fig. 6. Corallium rubrum harvest in the Mediterranean. 

Data from FAO.
Modern fishery and its management

Modern management approaches are similar throughout the Mediterranean: Coral harvesting in 

territorial waters is controlled by a licensing system permitting a controlled number of divers 

to harvest coral. Harvest 

quota, as well as minimum 

size limits, are always 

used to further control the 

yield. Management only 

based on harvest quota is 

not effective in preventing 

overharvesting (Federal 

Register of Commerce 

2000), as immature 

corals can not be 

protected this way. 

While the management 

rules are similar in all 

fisheries, their degree 

of enforcement varies 

among countries.

Today’s main stocks are 

located at the Costa Brava 

(Spain), Corsica (France), 

Sardinia (Italy), Morocco 

and Algeria, although 

harvesting occurs as 

well in Sicily (Italy), 

Mallorca (Spain) and to 

a lesser extent in some 

other locations (Croatia, 

Albania, Greece).

Fishing effort varies 

among countries: 20 

Licenses are reported for 

the Island of Sardinia, 

(Italy), however with 

no data on population 

monitoring having 

been published. There 

currently are 16 licenses for all of Spain (Fisheries Department, Government of Catalunia). 9 – 11 

of these licenses are restricted to the Costa Brava. 90% of the harvesting effort concentrates on the 

Cap de Creus area, a sparsely inhabited Peninsula of 190 km2

 size with about 42 km of coastline, that 

is exposed to frequent northern gales. In contrast to the easily definable coral beds elsewhere (e.g. 

Hawaii), red coral habitat is very heterogeneously scattered, forming small patches in microhabitats 

Figure 7: Coralium rubrum jewelry. Photo: Marta Coll

131

Fig. 7. Coralium rubrum jewelry. Photo: Marta Coll.
(Tsounis et al. 2006a), so 

that above 60 m depth 

42 km of coastline may 

include less than 1 km2 

coralligenous habitat 

(Ros et al. 1984).

Corallium rubrum 

harvesting concentrates 

on the warmer summer 

months (May – 

October), removing 

most of the corals during 

a time they breed their 

larvae. This practice 

should be of little impact 

(Kwitt et al. 2004), but 

is an important fact to 

take into consideration 

in a socioeconomic 

analysis, since it means 

that most of the divers 

are effectively working 

part time, and have 

often invested into 

other businesses as well 

(Hotels, Aquaculture, 

etc.). At the Costa Brava (Spain) all divers are natives, and most of them older than 45 years. They 

usually form 2-3 person teams that dive together or in turns during the same trip). Fishing trips by 

European diving teams to North-Africa are common. In Sardinia 80% are non-natives, and divers 

usually dive alone using mixed gas, from boats that are crewed by one coxswain and one diver 

(Andaloro and Cicogna 1993).

The minimum harvesting size of 7 mm was introduced when it was already met voluntarily by 

SCUBA divers, since smaller corals were of little value to the industry (FAO 1983). Two studies 

determined a value for maximum sustainable yield (Figure 8), of 80 – 98 years (García-Rodríguez 

and Massó 1986b, Tsounis et al. 2007). García-Rodríguez and Massó (1986b) documented that 

colonies as young as 5 years were harvested (value adapted to today’s more conservative growth 

rates), and in response recommended a minimum size of 8.6 mm. This has to date not been adopted 

and 7 mm remains the minimum size of harvest until today (Except Algeria: 8 mm, CITES 2007). 

When harvesting at an age below MSY in order to obtain optimum yield, fishing effort needs to be 

sufficiently low. If the fishery is too efficient for the assumed effort, or the effort misjudged (e.g. 

due to poaching or forged statistics), the stocks can be harvested down to the targeted age at first 

capture. This is what can be observed in all studied stocks (Santangelo et al. 1993b, Santangelo and 

Abbiati 2001, Tsounis et al. 2007), and recent coast guard patrols indicate that licensed divers as 

well as poachers harvest colonies below the legal size limit (Hereu et al. 2002, Linares et al. 2003).

Poaching has in some regions proven to be a major threat to the survival of populations and is 

Figure 8: Yield per recruit curves for Corallium rubrum at various growth rates and mortalities

 (see Tsounis et al. 2007).

0 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

Age [years] 

Low growth + low mortality 

high growth + high mortality 

high growth + low mortality 

Low growth + high mortality 

Yield recruit-1 [g] 

132

Fig. 8. Yield per recruit curves for Corallium rubrum at various growth rates and 

mortalities (Tsounis et al. 2007).
known to occur even within marine protected areas. There is little published information (but see 

Cognetti 1989), but poaching has been confirmed at the Costa Brava and Italy, and is probably 

common throughout the Mediterranean. Unofficial estimates by fishermen themselves quote that 

there are as many or more poachers active in Spain than licensed divers. In some cases it seems that 

poachers sell their harvest through licensed divers. Improved enforcement is therefore necessary to 

manage shallow water populations.

Some regions appear to still be using rotation systems which were conceived in the middle ages 

(Tescione 1976). These systems allow for the complete depletion of one stock, that is then left to 

recover, while another stock is harvested. Apart from the impracticability of enforcing a region the 

necessary 50 or more years that juveniles need to grow to adequate size (the species can probably 

reach several hundred years, Tsounis et al. unpublished manuscript), this practice disrupts the gene 

flow through coral populations itself, but it also potentially interrupts migrations of other species 

that take refuge in coral populations, or benefit otherwise from its presence. Also, in absence of red 

coral larvae, other species like Leptosamia pruvoti can settle in critical numbers, and permanently 

impede the re-colonization of red coral (FAO 1983, Giannini et al. 2003).

No discoveries of new coral beds have followed the over-exploitation of known stocks in the 20th

century. Recent proposals by the industry to fund exploration of new stocks have been rejected 

by the government of Italy. The fishery has not extended its reach into deeper depths beyond 

150 m, as dredges are prohibited, and submersibles are not economic (Tsounis et al. unpublished 

manuscript). ROVs are occasionally used for scouting, but remotely controlled extraction does 

not appear to be feasible. It is furthermore not clear whether deep populations are commercially 

viable, since red coral appears to grow in low densities at these depths (Rossi et al. 2008). Most of 

all, recent research shows that deep populations consist of relatively young colonies, as they have 

not yet recovered from heavy dredging until the year 1994. 

Furthermore, exploiting the deeper populations of Mediterranean red coral can be problematic since 

they may be contributing to the recruitment of shallow water colonies: Red coral larvae tend to be 

negatively geotaxic at first, trying to settle near their parent colonies, but turn positively geotaxic 

at a later stage, rising up exploring adequate substrate (Weinberg 1979, FAO 1983). Furthermore, 

probably the only way deep populations can be harvested while shallow ones are protected is to 

increase size limits so that small shallow water corals are not harvested.

Regarding new stocks, there is anecdotal information about commercial diving teams running 

summer expeditions to harvest large red coral colonies growing on international seamounts. It 

is therefore advisable to identify whether intact populations still exist. The management and 

conservation of red coral populations in international waters is not regulated at this time. If these 

populations exist, it is possible they are the last natural populations that could serve as a baseline 

for ecological research. Some of these habitats could be protected by declaring them UNESCO 

World Heritage Sites in Danger. However in all cases of declaring precious coral communities in 

international areas as protected, there is the problem of enforcement. Trade control may thus be 

considered as a further measure.

Rearing red coral to provide the jewelry industry with unlimited resources has been tested with no 

notable success (Cicogna and Cattaneo-Vietti 1993). The slow growth rates imply that the risks 

of the operation are high, and investment return low. However, due to the long recovery time of 

133
devastated precious coral populations, it may be feasible to design programs that combine ex-situ 

or in-situ rearing with transplantation techniques (Rinkevich 1995, Edwards and Clarke 1998, 

Montgomery 2002, Dayton 2003, Rinkevich 2005). This could enable ecosystem managers to 

actively restore habitats that have suffered local extinction, and create a network of stepping stones 

that can ensure a sufficient gene flow and recruitment. First steps into this direction have been 

made (Bramanti et al. 2005), but it remains a largely unexplored field.

5. Threats

The central problem of the fishery is the depletion of almost all known stocks, without any 

indications that fishing activity might be reduced in the near future. The colony size of corals 

monitored in their habitat has been reduced to a level at which the reproductive potential of the 

population is significantly lower (Santangelo et al. 2003, Tsounis et al. 2007): 100% polyp fertility 

is reached at a colony height of 4 – 6 cm, while the average size of colonies within commercial 

stocks is about 3 cm. Furthermore, 96% have not yet grown 3rd order branches, resulting in few 

polyps per colony and thus a reduced recruitment potential. It has been observed that these 3 

cm height colonies liberate an average of 90 planula larvae, while a 10 cm height colony may 

liberate about 3000 planulae (Rossi et al. 2008). Alarming results from models by Santengelo et 

al. (2007) demonstrate that these young populations are not able to withstand the combination 

overharvesting and natural stress factors such as mass mortality events (Santangelo et al 2007, 

please see the contribution of G. Santangelo and colleagues in this volume).

Under normal circumstances fisheries suffer economical extinction before the ecological extinction 

of the target species may occur. However, several factors create a unusual and critical situation in 

the Mediterranean.

One reason is that since the introduction of composite coral manufacture a few decades ago (FAO 

1988, Smith et al. 2007), there no longer is a minimum size the industry can use. Even smallest 

pieces of coral can be ground to powder and formed into beads by mixing it with epoxy or other 

substances, although it is unlikely that high quality manufacturers offer this type of jewelry. Coral 

powder is also sold as a miracle cure against a variety of maladies (pers. obs.). Not surprisingly 

therefore, poachers and licensed divers have in fact been convicted of harvesting small coral in 

recent cases (Hereu et al. 2002, Linares et al. 2003).

Furthermore, the jewelry industry can continue to harvest C. rubrum, sustaining itself by multi 

species exploitation: Although 90% of all C. rubrum is processed in Torre del Greco (Italy), only 

about 30% of the coral jewelry produced is made of C. rubrum, as the demand is met by importing 

tropical Corallium species from Japan and Taipei (Castigliano and Liverino 2004). Similarly, the 

fishermen can continue fishing a species that is near extinction by using ever evolving technology 

(mixed gas diving and ROVs), while working part time in summer and maintain themselves by 

commercial diving or other activities.

Finally, genetic isolation as a consequence of the limited dispersal distance of red coral larvae is 

a further factor contributing to the risk of local extinction. Red coral populations are so widely 

dispersed in the Mediterranean that it is difficult to asses the risk of species extinction. The risk of 

local extinction of shallow water populations is substantial however, and the economic extinction 

almost certain, as argued above.

134
6. Conclusions

There is little doubt that the current form of the Corallium rubrum fishery is unsustainable and 

depleted almost all known stocks (FAO 1988, Santangelo et al. 1993, Santangelo and Abbiati 

2001, Tsounis 2007). Many shallow water populations are threatened by local extinction, while 

deep populations have not recovered from centuries of dredging, and would unlikely withstand a 

heavy harvesting pressure. 

Clearly, management should be revised. However, the objective of deep coral and precious coral 

management should go beyond avoiding local extinction, as precious corals stand out from many 

other known fisheries due to their significance as structure forming organisms. Traditional fishery 

management is aimed at an intensive exploitation of one target species, involving a significant 

modification of its population structure, while maintaining highest possible biomass production. 

Overfishing is in some cases defined as a biomass reduction of the target species population to 20 

– 30% of the base line (CITES 2007, WPRFMC 2007).

In contrast, habitat conservation intends to maintain a population structure of key species 

and ecosystem engineers that guarantees that these components can perform their function of 

maintaining a high biodiversity and production. In the case of red coral, protected populations are 

small, rather rare, and isolated. We therefore propose that precious coral fishery managers maintain 

a minimum of old colonies within commercial stocks, possibly through creating a network of 

microreserves, while poaching must be drastically reduced.

7. Management Recommendations

International efforts

1) Given the inadequate local management in the Mediterranean for the last decades, it is likely 

that the inclusion of Corallium rubrum into Appendix-II would limit poaching while providing 

important data. However, since the 31 known Corallium species are difficult to identify, such a 

listing may probably only be feasible for the whole family Coralliidae. This would make sense, as 

these species are all slow growing and intensively harvested, and thus likely meet the criteria for 

inclusion. 

However, a special application model for Corallium species would have to be designed, to allow 

for the unique situation of the industry and resource (for example to allow returns of jewelry under 

warranty for repairs). Decision makers can learn valuable lessons from the example of the thriving 

black coral fishery in Hawaii that is managed by strong local management (Grigg 2001, Grigg 

2004), although its resource (Antipathes spp.) is controlled through CITES Appendix-II. 

2) Identify potentially existing un-fished or intact populations and protect some of them, e.g. as 

UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Overharvested sites should be exempt from fishing. All other 

sites, or new sites, that show a moderate impact may be continued to be harvested under new 

guidelines and reduced licenses. This will require further research, and care must be taken that 

once new populations are identified, they are protected before a “coral rush” sets in. Further models 

for international precious coral habitat protection treaties may be the example of UN Vulnerable 

Marine Ecosystems (VMEs), that are designed by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization 

(NAFO). 

135
Local management

1) Apply strict control of coral fishing: Today the only published landings data list the weight and 

location of coral harvested. Some other data are furthermore available from authorities, but to our 

knowledge there is no information on harvested sizes. Authorities need to collect data on the size 

of the harvested coral. Data on the minimum and, more important, maximum size of harvested 

coral will give an additional indication of when the stocks are overharvested. Should fishermen 

consistently fail to harvest large corals, it is a sure indication that a stock is depleted. While this 

should be recorded locally by fishery authorities, the CITES convention appears to be able to 

provide size data through its trade control. In any case, continued monitoring of the stocks and 

protected population is advisable.

2) Increase enforcement against poaching. Trustworthy former coral divers could be employed 

as consultants for anti-poaching enforcement. Furthermore, in countries where only fines are 

given, penalties for poaching need to be increased. Unlicensed fishing is not penalized equal to 

poaching for wildlife on land in some countries. Protection of red coral through CITES would lead 

to stricter penalty measures at least in Spain, and would therefore strengthen, instead of replace 

local management.

3) The minimum size limit needs to be revised: An increase of the minimum allowable base 

limit should be at least 10 mm, and the colony must be branched to a certain degree in order to 

contain a minimum number of polyps that provide larvae. Since the morphology is subject of 

geographic variation, the minimum branching allowed for harvesting must be decided locally. This 

recommendation has been made to the Catalan authorities in 2003, but it is not yet implemented 

(Rossi and Gili 2004).

4) Research on how cold water corals, deep corals and precious corals act as ecosystem engineers 

and increase biodiversity and productivity of their habitat (an objective that is in part pursued 

by the HERMES European project and is soon to be tested locally in the INDEMARES-LIFE 

project). 

5) Research on the causes of mass mortality events. Furthermore, the recovery of population from 

mortality events, as well the growth of partially harvested colonies should be studied.

6) Increase research on the population structure and distribution of deep populations, and study the 

larval biology and dispersion limits between shallow and deep populations.

7) Create a network of micro-reserves to ensure gene-flow between deep and shallow populations 

and between populations along the coast. It is important that commercial stocks also contain microreserves, which must be monitored, and/or contain a minimum proportion of large colonies.

8) “Retirement plan:” Reduce number of fishing licenses where necessary, by not renewing licenses 

of retiring divers. After the surplus participants have exited the fishery and the target number of 

licenses is reached: When further divers retire, issue “apprenticeship licenses” for two seasons, 

where the young diver entering the business is allowed to work under supervision of the senior 

diver who is about to retire. If the final report of the retiring diver to the authorities recommends the 

apprentice, he is issued a full license, that then replaces the retiring diver. Furthermore, fishermen 

136
can be retrained to act as rangers by monitoring and maintaining a balanced population structure 

and microreserves, passing from being coral miners to becoming coral gardeners.

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APPENDIX

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LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Name Organization

Dridi Abdelmajid Fisheries Biologist, Laboratory of Prospection Demersal Resource 

(NIRH)

Put O. Ang Marine Science Laboratory, Department of Biology, The Chinese 

University of Hong Kong

Jonathan Barzdo CITES Secretariat

Andy Bruckner National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Khaki Chan Marine Conservation Officer, Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation 

Department, the Government of HKSAR

Richard Chan Senior Nature Conservation Officer of the Agriculture, Fisheries and 

Conservation Department, the Government of HKSAR

Chih-Shin Chen Assistant Professor, Institute of Marine Affairs and Resource 

Management, National Taiwan Ocean University

Ernie Cooper WWF-Canada Director, TRAFFIC & Wildlife Trade

Vin Fleming UK CITES Scientific Authority, Joint Nature Conservation 

Committee

Hiroshi Hasegawa College of Science and Engineering, Kanazawa University

Huang Hui Professor, The South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese 

Academy of Sciences

Kuo-Yao Hung Senior Technician, Fisheries Agency, Council of Agriculture, 

Executive Yuan, Taiwan

Nozomu Iwasaki Usa Marine Biological Institute, Kochi University

Connie Pui Ling Lau Marine Science Laboratory, Department of Biology, The Chinese 

University of Hong Kong

Jeremy Linneman The Ocean Foundation

YM Mak Fisheries Officer, Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation 

Department, the Government of HKSAR

147
Tony Montgomery Division of Aquatic Resources, Department of Land and Natural 

Resources

Laura Noguchi U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Division of Management Authority

Frank Parrish NOAA Fisheries’ Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu, 

Hawaii

Niphon Pongsuwan Senior Marine Biologist and Coral Researcher Phuket Marine 

Biological Center, Department of Coastal Resources

Glynnis Roberts National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Julia Roberson SeaWeb

Sergio Rossi Institut de Ciència I Tecnologia Ambientals ICTA, Universitat 

Autònoma de Barcelona UAB

Taleb Said CITES Delegate, Head of Cooperation Department, National Institute 

for Fisheries Research (INRH) 

Giovanni Santangelo Vice-director of the Center for the Study of Complex Systems of Pisa 

University (CISSC).

Soyo Takahashi Fisheries Programme officer of TRAFFIC EAST ASIA-JAPAN

Susan Torntore University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho

Georgios Tsounis Insitut de Ciències de Mar, Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta, 

Barcelona, Spain 

Russell J. Westergard Vice Consul U.S. Consulate General, Hong Kong

Alfred Wong CITES Officer, the Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation 

Department, the Government of HKSAR

Joyce Wu Programme Officer of TRAFFIC East Asia

Patrick Chung Wing Yeung Marine Science Laboratory, Department of Biology, The Chinese 

University of Hong Kong

Yurui Zhou Division of Fauna Affairs, CITES Management Authority of China

Abdelaziz Zoubi Head Division of Biostatistics and the Information System, National 

Institute for Fisheries Research (INRH)

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The First International Workshop on Corallium Science, Management and 

Trade: Lessons from the Pacific

 Agenda

Monday, March 16, 2009

9:00 – Opening ceremony

a. Welcome and opening remarks 

b. Meet and Greet

c. Adoption of the Agenda and working program (Andy Bruckner)

d. Logistics (Glynnis Roberts)

e. Timeline of U.S. conservation approaches for Corallium (Andy Bruckner) 

1. Background Presentations

a. Overview of Corallium biology, ecology and threats (Andy Bruckner)

b. Distinguishing various types of Corallium products (Susan Torntore)

c. Taxonomy and Identification (Ernie Cooper)

d. Overview of Corallium fisheries: harvest, management and conservation (Andy 

Bruckner)

10:30 – 10:45 Coffee Break 

2. Trends in the International Trade in Corallium

a. Sources, products and volume of U.S. imports (Andy Bruckner)

b. Corallium fishery and trade of East Asia (Joyce Wu, Soyo Takahashi)

3. Role of CITES as a conservation tool 

a. CITES as a conservation tool (Laura Noguchi)

b. CITES – a conservation mechanism for deep-sea corals (Julia Roberson)

c. CITES and Non-Detriment Findings (Vin Fleming)

12:00 – 13:00 Lunch 

4. Reports on Corallium in the Pacific: 

Summary of existing science, harvest, management, trade and conservation concerns

a. Management of fishery for precious coral in Taiwan. (Chih-Shin Chen)

b. Overview of the Hawaiian Precious Coral Fishery (Frank Parrish)

c. Hawaiian Black Coral Fishery: Other Connections to the Corallium Fisheries 

(Tony Montgomery)

d. Laws involved with coral and coral-like fauna protection and seafan diversity 

in Thailand. (Niphon Phongswan) 

18:00 – 19:00 Cocktail Reception 

19:00 – 21:00 Welcome Dinner 

149
Tuesday, March 17, 2009

9:00 – 10:30 Reports on Corallium in the Pacific: 

a. Biology of Japanese Corallium and Paracorallium (Nozomu Iwasaki and 

Hiroshi Hasegawa)

5. Regional report on Mediterranean Corallium: 

a. What we have learned about red coral and what we need to learn for its rational 

management. (Giovanni Santangelo)

b. Fishery Management of the Mediterranean Red Coral: A Call for a Paradigm Shift. 

(Sergio Rossi, Georgios Tsounis) 

10:30 – 10:45 Coffee Break 

c. An overview on the main marine resources (commercial and non commercial groups) 

at the Moroccan Mediterranean. (Abdelaziz Zoubi)

6. Working Group Goals and Objectives (Andy Bruckner)

a. Assignment to working groups

12:00 – 13:00 Lunch 

13:00 – 16:15 Working Group sessions 

Working Group 1: The Science Working Group 

This group will discuss the state of knowledge of the biology and population status and 

threats. 

Working Group 2: The Management Working Group 

This group will compile and assess information on existing national management. 

Working Group 3: The CITES Working Group (includes Identification)

This group will address implementation issues of a potential CITES listing, and

focus on taxonomy and identification.

16:15 – 16:30 Coffee Break 

16:30 – 18:00 Working Group sessions

Wednesday, March 18, 2009

9:00 – 11:00 Initial Working Group reports 

10:30 – 10:45 Coffee Break 

11:00 – 12:00 Working Group deliberations

150
12:00 – 13:00 Lunch 

13:30 – 16:15 Working Groups finalize reports

16:15 – 16:30 Coffee Break 

16:30 – 18:00 Working Groups finalize reports and presentations

Thursday, March 19, 2009

9:00 – 10:30 Group discussion and compilation of recommendations 

10:30 – 10:45 Conclusions and Next Steps

a. ID Guide: purpose and feedback (Ernie Cooper)

10:45 – 11:00 Closing ceremony 

11:00 – 12:00 Coffee Break 

12:00 – 13:00 Lunch 

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