Principal Short-Term 

Findings of the National 

Fire and Fire Surrogate 

Study

James McIver, Karen Erickson, and Andrew Youngblood

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Forest Service

Pacifi c Northwest 

Research Station

General Technical Report 

PNW-GTR-860

April 2012

DEPAR TMENT OF AGRICULT URE
Authors

James McIver is a senior research associate professor and Karen Erickson is a 

faculty research assistant, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, Oregon 

State University, 372 S 10th Street, Union, OR 97883; Andrew Youngblood is a 

research forester, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Northwest 

Research Station, Forestry and Range Sciences Laboratory, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La 

Grande, OR 97850.

Disclaimer

The use of trade or fi rm name in this publication is for reader information and 

does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product 

or service.

The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of 

multiple use management of the Nation’s forest resources for sustained yields of wood, 

water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the 

States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National 

Grasslands, it strives—as directed by Congress—to provide increasingly greater service 

to a growing Nation.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and 

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, 

sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic 

information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income 

is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all 

programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of 

program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET 

Center at (202) 720–2600 (voice and TDD). To fi le a complaint of discrimination, write 

USDA, Director, Offi ce of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 

20250–9410 or call (800) 795–3272 (voice) or (202) 720–6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal 

opportunity provider and employer.
Abstract

McIver, James; Erickson, Karen; Youngblood, Andrew. 2012. Principal 

short-term fi ndings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate study. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. PNW-GTR-860. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacifi c Northwest Research Station. 210 p.

Principal fi ndings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study are 

presented in an annotated bibliography and summarized in tabular form by site, 

discipline (ecosystem component), treatment type, and major theme. Composed 

of 12 sites, the FFS is a comprehensive multidisciplinary experiment designed 

to evaluate the costs and ecological consequences of alternative fuel reduction treatments in seasonally dry forests of the United States. The FFS has a 

common experimental design across the 12-site network, with each site a fully 

replicated experiment that compares four treatments: prescribed fi re, mechanical treatments, mechanical + prescribed fi re, and an unmanipulated control. 

We measured treatment cost and variables within several components of the 

ecosystem, including vegetation, the fuel bed, soils, bark beetles, tree diseases, 

and wildlife in the same 10-ha experimental units. This design allowed us to 

assemble a fairly comprehensive picture of ecosystem response to treatment 

at the site scale, and to compare treatment response across a wide variety of 

conditions. Results of 206 technical articles on short-term fi ndings are summarized here, with the following general conclusions: (1) For most sites, treatments 

modifi ed stand structures and fuels to the point where posttreatment stands 

would be expected to be much more resistant to moderate wildfi re. (2) For the 

great majority of ecosystem components, including the vegetation, soils, and 

animal species, short-term responses to treatments were subtle and transient. 

(3) Comparison of fi re risk reduction and ecological effects between 1-year 

and several years posttreatment suggests that while effects tend to dampen 

with time, fi re risk increases, owing to treatment-induced collapse of burned 

portions of stands. (4) Each multivariate analysis conducted has demonstrated 

that critical components of these ecosystems are strongly linked, suggesting 

that managers would be prudent to conduct fuel reduction work with the entire 

ecosystem in mind. (5) Multisite analyses generally show strong site-specifi c 

effects for many ecosystem components, which reduces the broad applicability 

of fi ndings, and suggests that practitioners might do well to employ adaptive 

management at the local or regional scale. (6) Mechanical treatments do not 

serve as surrogates for fi re for the great majority of ecosystem components, 

suggesting that fi re could be introduced and maintained as a process in these 
systems whenever possible. (7) For research to best inform management on fuel 

reduction strategies through time, longer measurement times posttreatment are 

needed, as well as repeated applications of treatments; short-term results of the 

FFS are insuffi cient to comment on long-term ecosystem trajectories. 

Keywords: Fuel reduction, prescribed fi re, forest thinning, dry forests. 
Contents

1 Introduction

3 FFS Study Design

5 Chronology

11 FFS Outreach

20 Findings

20 Treatment Effectiveness

25 Highlights of Findings

140 English Equivalents

141 Literature Cited
1

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Introduction

Prescribed fi re and thinning have been the most commonly used fuel reduction 

practices in seasonally dry forests of the United States since the 1970s (Agee and 

Skinner 2005). These practices are popular because forest managers realize that 

frequent disturbance is necessary to maintain stand structure in pine-dominated 

forests of southeastern and western North America (Arno et al. 1997, Biswell et 

al. 1973, Van Lear and Waldrop 1989, Weaver 1943). Historically, low-intensity 

surface fi res burned frequently in these forests and tended to reduce the quantity of 

fuels, break up their spatial continuity, and discourage the establishment of shrubs 

and fi re-intolerant tree species, leading eventually to stands dominated by larger 

diameter trees (Brockway et al. 2005, Youngblood et al. 2004). Fire suppression, 

preferential harvest of large-diameter trees, stand conversion, and livestock grazing 

over the past 100 to 150 years, among other factors, have shifted fuel bed conditions 

over millions of hectares in the Southeast and the West (Agee 1993, Brockway et 

al. 2005, Parsons and DeBenedetti 1979, Stephens and Ruth 2005). As a result, 

recent wildfi res in seasonally dry forests have tended to be larger and more severe, 

even in areas that have no history of stand-replacement fi res (Hessburg and Agee 

2003, Knapp et al. 2005, Parsons and DeBenedetti 1979). This scenario explains 

why prescribed fi re and thinning are increasingly used by managers in seasonally 

dry forests to change the only factor in the fi re formula they can: the quantity and 

spatial continuity of fuels (Agee and Skinner 2005). 

Prescribed fi re has been the most attractive fuel reduction practice for ecologically minded forest managers, for the obvious reason that it is most likely 

to emulate the natural process that it is designed to replace (McRae et al. 2001). 

Unfortunately, when forest managers attempt to apply prescribed fi re, they are often 

constrained by social, economic, and administrative issues, such that the window 

of opportunity for its application is often narrowed or eliminated (Brunson and 

Shindler 2004, Winter et al. 2002). As a result, fuel reduction surrogates such as 

forest thinning or mastication have become more attractive (Crow and Perera 2004). 

The assumption is that if managers can use mechanical treatments to reduce fuels 

and accomplish the same stand structure goals as those obtained by prescribed fi re, 

the constraints and risks posed by the application of fi re can be avoided. The only 

problem with this idea is that we know very little about how mechanical treatments 

compare with prescribed fi re, particularly in terms of ecological effects and their 

interactions (Weatherspoon 2000). Furthermore, because few multisite studies have 

been conducted, we have little confi dence in how the comparison between alternative fuel reduction methods might play out when repeated in different forests having 

different conditions (Waldrop and McIver 2006). These considerations provided the 
2

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

incentive behind the genesis and development of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study (McIver and Weatherspoon 2010). 

The FFS was designed primarily to evaluate how alternative fuel reduction 

treatments infl uence a multitude of ecological effects at 12 sites nationwide (fi g. 

1). The study also included analysis of the cost of fuel reduction treatments and 

their social acceptability. As of 31 December 2010, short-term results of this study 

had been published in 206 technical articles, including several multisite syntheses, 

and organized collections in four journals. The primary purpose of this report is 

to summarize the principal fi ndings published in these technical articles in a way 

that allows the reader to understand the consequences of alternative fuel reduction treatments across many dry forest types for a wide array of key ecological 

Figure 1—Location of the 12 national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study sites, showing relevant national forests (black shaded areas), 

forest type, fi re-return interval (FRI, mean and range in years), and elevation range (m). For sites located on state or private lands, 

relevant national forests are given in parentheses. Lighter shading indicates “representative land base,” or the area to which FFS results 

can be most directly applied for each site. Representative land bases are derived from Level III ecoregions (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2007). (From McIver and Weatherspoon 2010, used with permission of the authors and publisher.)
3

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

variables. We fi rst describe the design of the FFS study as a multisite, multivariate, 

comparative experiment. We present a chronology of the project, from its inception 

in 1996 to the conclusion of its short-term phase in 2010. We summarize the considerable outreach effort, including activities such as tours, local presentations, and 

workshops, in addition to more formal products such as national conferences and 

scientifi c publications. We then present the principal short-term fi ndings, starting 

with a summary of treatment effectiveness at the site level (fi rst-order effects), then 

continuing with highlights of ecological effects summarized by treatment, management theme, discipline, and site. These highlights are linked to the core of this 

report, an annotated bibliography provided in table 14 of all fi ndings, arranged fi rst 

by site and then by discipline.

FFS Study Design

The FFS study was conducted in seasonally dry forests administered by the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service, National Park Service, state 

parks, universities, and private industry at 12 sites across the United States, fi ve 

in the East, and seven in the Western interior (fi g. 1). An additional site in New 

Mexico was dropped from the network because of the loss of several experiment 

units to wildfi res in 2002 and 2003. Of the fi ve sites in the Eastern United States, 

two in the Appalachian region are hardwood-dominated (Central Appalachian 

Plateau and Southern Appalachian Mountains), featuring forests composed of a 

variety of oaks, maples, and hickories (Waldrop et al. 2008). The Gulf Coastal Plain 

site is dominated by longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.), a conifer species with 

a fi re-dependent ecology (Outcalt 2005). The Southeastern Piedmont site is situated in a forest that has grown back in cotton fi elds abandoned in the 19th century, 

and is dominated by loblolly (P. taeda L.) and shortleaf (P. echinata Mill.) pines, 

with hardwoods in the understory and in the swales (Phillips and Waldrop 2008). 

Finally, the Florida Coastal Plain site has a sparse overstory of slash pine (P. elliottii

Engelm.) and longleaf pine, and an understory dominated by saw palmetto (Serenoa 

repens (Bartram) Small) (Outcalt and Foltz 2004). While the details of management 

history of the eastern sites differ considerably, stand structures generally refl ect 

considerable burning and clearing over the past 250 years (McCarthy 1995). Each 

of the seven western sites is dominated by conifer species, principally ponderosa 

pine (P. ponderosa P. & C. Lawson) and Douglas-fi r (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco). Sites differ considerably in productivity, refl ected by a range in annual 

precipitation from at least 160 cm at the Southern and Central Sierra Nevada sites in 

California (Stephens and Moghaddas 2005b) to less than 50 cm at the Southwestern 

Plateau in northern Arizona (Hurteau et al. 2010). Located on national park lands, 

the Southern Sierra Nevada site had never been logged (Knapp et al. 2005), but the 
4

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

other six western sites have stand structures that refl ect a history of logging, from 

the early part of the 20th century through the 1980s (table 1). In all of these forests, 

the largest trees were logged earlier in the 20th century, with more recent prescriptions focused on thinning from below (Dodson et al. 2008, Metlen and Fiedler 

2006, Ritchie 2005, Youngblood et al. 2006). 

Fuel reduction treatments were applied between 1998 and 2004 at all 12 sites. 

Eleven sites received four treatments: prescribed fi re only (burn), some form of 

thinning applied as a mechanical treatment only (mechanical), a combination of 

mechanical treatment applied fi rst followed by prescribed (mechanical + burn), 

and an untreated or unmanipulated treatment (control). At the Southern Sierra 

Nevada site (National Park Service), no mechanical treatments were allowed, thus 

the two active treatments were early and late-season burns (table 1). Treatment was 

replicated at all 12 sites three or four times at the stand level. These replicates are 

referred to as “experimental units” and most statistical analyses were conducted at 

this scale. Each unit was at least 10 ha, with the perimeter surrounded by a buffer of 

at least 50 m that received a similar treatment. All pre- and posttreatment measurements were taken in reference to a set of points established on a 40- to 60-m grid in 

the interior of each unit. 

The detailed prescriptions for mechanical fuel reductions and underburning 

were unique to each site, but the common objective for all treatments was to achieve 

stand and fuel conditions such that, if subjected to a head fi re under the 80th percentile weather conditions, at least 80 percent of the basal area of the dominant and 

co-dominant trees would survive (80/80 rule). Clearly, because the alternative fuel 

reduction treatments would be expected to infl uence stands and fuel beds in fundamentally different ways, we did not expect posttreatment stands to look the same 

for all treatments. Rather, the 80/80 rule was designed as a guide that fi re management offi cers and silviculturists could use to envision the kinds of treatments we 

wanted (Stephens et al. 2009). In addition, we anticipated that sites differed in 

the extent to which local managers would “push the envelope” with respect to the 

burn treatment in particular, and so the 80/80 rule also tended to dampen potential 

among-site variation of this kind. For mechanical treatments, managers at each 

site used a biomass or saw-log removal system that was locally applicable to that 

site, but always with the 80/80 rule in mind. Burning was conducted in the fall or 

spring based on common local practices, or both seasons at the Southern Sierra 

Nevada site. At western sites, the combination mechanical + burning treatment was 

implemented with at least a full season between cutting and burning for fuels added 

during mechanical harvesting to dry before burning. While the method of application of prescribed fi re was fairly uniform throughout the 12 sites, the mechanical 

The 80/80 rule 

served as a minimum 

treatment target and 

provided a common 

basis for designing 

treatments across the 

network of sites.
5

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

treatments were more variable. At most sites, mechanical harvesters were used to 

thin trees. At the Central Sierra Nevada site, trees less than 25 cm in diameter were 

mechanically masticated to further break down the fuel bed. At the Florida Coastal 

Plain site, the saw palmetto understory was masticated, leaving the sparse overstory 

untouched. At the Southern Appalachian Mountains site, all tree stems greater 

than 1.8 m height and less than 10.2 cm diameter were felled, as well as all shrubs, 

regardless of size. 

The core experimental design for the FFS study included common treatments 

and response variables, and minimum replication standards and plot sizes. Ecological variables are interpreted within six ecosystem components or disciplines 

(table 2): (1) vegetation, including trees, shrubs, forbs, and grasses; (2) the relevant 

fuel bed, comprising the forest fl oor, woody fuels, and live fuels (particularly for 

the Eastern sites); (3) soils and the forest fl oor, with a focus on carbon, nitrogen, 

exchangeable ions, and bulk density; (4) fauna, including small mammals, birds, 

and macroinvertebrates; (5) bark beetles on pine-dominated sites; and (6) root 

diseases and dwarf mistletoe. Most variables were measured the year before sites 

were treated, and for as many years as possible after treatment (1 to 4 years). 

Several statistical methods were used for analysis, including general linear models 

for univariate analyses, structural equation modeling for multivariate questions, 

and meta-analyses for multisite comparisons. The FFS study was also designed to 

measure costs of alternative fuel reduction treatments, and estimates of these were 

made for each of the 12 sites. Some sites also measured productivity of the principal 

machines used (e.g., Blue Mountains), and one site (Central Sierra Nevada) assessed 

the social acceptance of the various fuel reduction methods. 

Chronology

Although the national FFS study was carried out in large part within the period 

during which the project received funding from the Joint Fire Science Program 

(2000–2006), research activity associated with the project occurred between 1996 

and 2010 (table 3). In this section, we summarize the chronology of the FFS from its 

inception in 1996 to publication of the fi nal short-term results in late 2010. 

The idea for an experiment that would directly compare the ecological effects of 

alternative fuel reduction methods was proposed almost simultaneously by two different teams of scientists. At the Pacifi c Southwest Research Station’s Silviculture 

Lab in Redding, California, Phil Weatherspoon and Carl Skinner began to envision 

a comparative experiment in early 1996 after having evaluated separately the effects 

of both prescribed fi re and its mechanical surrogates (Weatherspoon and Skinner 

1995) and having proposed, in cooperation with a number of other scientists and 

land managers, California-based FFS-type studies. In February 1996, James McIver 
6

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 Table 1—Management history and treatment information for 12 study sites of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate study Site name and location Past management history Year and type of treatment Northeastern Cascades, Okanogan- Logged in the 1930s and precommercial Mechanical (2001): felled, limbed, and bucked with Wenatchee National Forest, central thinned in the 1970s; 

fi res excluded since chain saws, yarded with helicopters, residue left on site.

Washington (Dodsen et al. 2008) the early 1900s; heavily grazed in the early Burn (2004): underburned in the spring with backing 20th century. and strip head 

fi res.

Blue Mountains, Wallowa-Whitman Harvested in the early 20th century and as Mechanical (1998): felled, limbed, and bucked with 

National Forest, northeastern Oregon recently as 1986; 

fi res excluded since the single-grip harvesters, yarded with forwarders, residue

(Youngblood et al. 2006) early 1900s; grazed; most trees 60 to 90 left on site. Burn (2000): underburned in the fall with  years old. strip head 

fi res.

Northern Rocky Mountains, Lubrecht Logged in the early 20th century; 

fi res Mechanical (2002): felled, limbed, and bucked with 

Experimental Forest, University of suppressed since the early 1900s; single-grip harvesters, yarded with forwarders, residue

Montana, western Montana grazed since the early 1900s. left on site. Burn (2002): underburned in the spring with(Metlen and Fiedler 2006) strip head 

fi res. 

Southern Cascades, Klamath National Railroad logged in the 1920s; sanitation Mechanical (2001): felled with feller-bunchers, whole tree

Forest, northeastern California and salvage logged since the 1920s. yarded with skidders. Burn (2001): underburned in the(Ritchie 2005) fall with strip head 

fi res.

Central Sierra Nevada, Blodgett Railroad logged in early 20th century; Mechanical (2002): felled, limbed, and bucked trees

Experimental Forest, University sanitation and salvage logged in the greater than 25 cm in diameter with chain saws, lopped 

of California-Berkeley, central mid-1970s; commercial harvested recently and scattered tops and limbs, yarded with skidders, California (Stephens and with various methods. masticated 70 percent of trees less than 25 cm inMoghaddas 2005a) diameter. Burn (2002): underburned in the fall with  backing and strip head 

fi res.

Southern Sierra Nevada, Sequoia Fires suppressed since the early 20th century. Burn (2002, 2003): fall and spring underburns with strip

National Park, south-central head 

fi res.

California (Knapp et al. 2005)
7

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Table 1—Management history and treatment information for 12 study sites of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate study (continued)Site name and location Past management history Year and type of treatmentSouthwestern Plateau, Kaibab and Harvested; grazed; limited low thinned in Mechanical (2003): felled, limbed, and bucked trees

Coconino National Forests, northern the early 1990s. greater than 13 cm in diameter with chain saws, felledArizona (Converse et al. 2006b) and lopped smaller trees. Burn (2003): underburned in the fall with backing and strip head 

fi res.

Central Appalachian Plateau, Vinton Forests largely cut over during the 1800s; Mechanical (2001): felled, limbed, and bucked with

Furnace Experimental Forest, Mead/ human-ignited 

fi res common prior to early chain saws. Burn (2001): underburned in the spring

Westvaco Corporation and Ohio 1880s; 

fi res suppressed since the early 1900s. with strip head 

fi res.

State Forest lands, southern Ohio (Waldrop et al. 2008) Southern Appalachian Mountains, Forests largely cut over during the 1800s; Mechanical (2001–2002): felled trees and all shrubs with 

Green River Game Lands, state of human-ignited 

fi res common prior to early chain-saws. Burn (2003, 2006): underburned in the winter

North Carolina, western North 1880s; 

fi res suppressed since the early 1900s. with ignitions by hand and by helicopter with strip head

Carolina, western North Carolina 

fi res and spot 

fi res.

(Waldrop et al. 2008)

Southeastern Piedmont, Clemson Land cleared and farmed for cotton and Mechanical (2000–2001): felled with feller-bunchers,

Experimental Forest, Clemson other row crops from 1800 to 1930; forests whole tree yarded with skidders, residue left on site. BurnUniversity, western South Carolina reestablished in 1930 to 1950. (burn only 2001 and 2004, mechanical + burn 2002 and(Phillips and Waldrop 2008) 2005): underburned in the winter with ignitions by hand with strip head 

fi res.

Gulf Coastal Plain, Auburn Naturally regenerated mixed pine managed Mechanical (2002): felled with feller-bunchers, limbed

University, Solon Dixon Experimental for timber and naval stores by private with chain saws, whole tree yarded with skidders. Burn Forest, southern Alabama families from 1880s to 1981; burned (2002): underburned with strip head 

fi res.

(Outcalt 2005) infrequently.

Florida Coastal Plain, Myakka River Underburned frequently during the past Mechanical (2002): chopped with aerator pulled by rubber

State Park, west-central Florida 15 years. tired tractor. Burn (2000, 2001): underburned in the spring(Outcalt and Foltz 2004) with strip head 

fi res.
8

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 Table 2—Discipline or component studied in the national Fire and Fire Surrogate study, including variable group, measurement scale, measurement intervals, and sites where measured Component Variable group Measurement scale Measurement interval Sites Site characterization Slope, aspect, global position, Unit Pretreatment All topographic position, elevation Weather Precipitation, temperature Control core plots Throughout study All

Vegetation Trees, shrubs, grasses, forbs, Plot within unit Pretreatment, several All density, cover, richness, patchiness, posttreatment and spatial patternFuels Litter, duff, shrub biomass, Transects on grid Pretreatment, several All woody fuel within unit posttreatmentSoil characterization Depth, texture, classifi cation Unit Pretreatment All

Soil properties Carbon and nitrogen dynamics, Plots within unit Pretreatment, several All major cations and ions, pH, soil posttreatment bulk density and soil strengthAvian fauna Songbird density, richness, nest Unit Pretreatment, several All density, diversity/behavior of posttreatment bark-gleaning taxaMammalian fauna Small mammal density, richness Unit Pretreatment, several Western sites; Southern posttreatment Appalachian MountainsBark beetles Activity in pine trees Unit Pretreatment, several Western sites posttreatmentDiseases Root disease, dwarf mistletoe Unit Pretreatment, several All posttreatmentEconomics Treatment cost, machine productivity Site Posttreatment AllSociopolitical Social acceptance of treatments Region Posttreatment Central Sierra Nevada
9

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Table 3—Chronology of key events in the development of the national Fire and Fire 

Surrogate (FFS) study, 1996 though 2010

Date Event

February 1996 Weatherspoon and Skinner called for FFS study in Sierra Nevada

February 1996 McIver and Youngblood proposed FFS study to U.S. Department of 

 Agriculture-National Research Initiative (Blue Mountains site)

October 1997 Weatherspoon discussed the potential for national FFS with Conard

November 1997 Joint Fire Science Program (JFSP) established

June 1998 JFSP funded preproposal to design FFS

June 1998 Pretreatment data collection initiated and mechanical treatments applied 

 at Blue Mountains site

September 1998 Steering committee began developing national FFS experiment proposal

December 1999 First proceedings paper published

January 2000 Steering committee submitted FFS proposal to JFSP

February 2000 JFSP funded FFS

April 2000 Pretreatment data collection began at most sites

Spring 2000 Treatment implementation phase began for most sites

May 2000 Financial agreements signed between JFSP and FFS research institutions

October 2000 Database manager hired and database development began

Spring 2001 First round of posttreatment data collection began at most sites

June 2002 First master’s thesis published

Spring 2004 First round of treatments completed at 12 sites

October 2004 First journal paper published

June 2005 First Ph.D. dissertation published

May 2006 Initial funding completed and fi nal reports submitted to JFSP

November 2006 First national FFS symposium held in San Diego, California

May 2008 First collection of 12 papers published in Forest Ecology and Management

March 2009 Second collection of fi ve papers published in Ecological Applications

December 2009 Second national symposium held in Savannah, Georgia

February 2010 Third collection of 12 papers published in Forest Science

December 2010 Fourth collection of seven papers published in Open Environmental Sciences
10

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

and Andrew Youngblood, of the Pacifi c Northwest Research Station’s La Grande, 

Oregon, Forestry Sciences Lab, submitted a proposal to the USDA National 

Research Initiative entitled, “Alternative fuel reduction methods in Blue Mountain 

dry forests,” which was subsequently funded in September 1996. That proposal 

described methods that were similar to those eventually adopted by the FFS steering committee, allowing the Blue Mountains to be included as one of 11 initial FFS 

sites. The idea for a national FFS study germinated at a national “Fuels research 

proposal workshop” held in November 1997. The fi re scientists and fi re managers 

attending this workshop were asked to identify high-priority fi re research needs 

that would provide input to the interagency committee drafting the Congressionally 

mandated Fire Sciences Plan. This plan would guide the initial decisionmaking of 

the new Joint Fire Science Program (JFSP; U.S. Department of the Interior and the 

USDA Forest Service; established in early 1998) in allocating new federal funding to address the most pressing fi re science and management issues of the day. 

At this workshop, Weatherspoon proposed a multiple-site FFS-type project to be 

implemented in California or, if interest and support warranted, in several locations 

across the Western United States. A number of attendees considered this proposed 

project to have substantial merit, and several suggested that it be expanded to a 

national scale. At the conclusion of the workshop, a group of attendees interested in 

the FFS-type proposal met to discuss next steps. Signifi cantly, the group included 

Susan Conard, chairperson of the interagency drafting committee and soon thereafter chairperson of the JFSP Governing Board, who strongly supported the vision of 

a national FFS-type study. Based in part on this group’s discussion, Weatherspoon 

and Skinner organized an initial FFS meeting in January 1998 to begin the process 

of defi ning and designing this national study.

It is certainly fortuitous that the JFSP emerged at the same time that several 

scientists were envisioning an FFS-type project, because it is unlikely that other 

granting agencies could have supported such an ambitious national project. In 

September 1998, Weatherspoon and the FFS steering committee received a planning grant from the JFSP to design a national multisite, multidisciplinary FFS study 

that would evaluate the economics and ecological consequences of prescribed fi re 

and its mechanical surrogates in seasonally dry forests of the United States. Shortly 

thereafter, McIver and Youngblood presented the design of their previously funded 

experiment at the Blue Mountains site in northeastern Oregon, and suffi cient portions of the design were adopted by the national FFS steering committee, resulting 

in the Blue Mountains site becoming the initial FFS site. The FFS design was 

completed in December 1999, and in February 2000, the JFSP decided to fund the 

national experiment. 
11

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Pretreatment data collection began in May 1998 for the Blue Mountains site. 

Data collection began in April 2000 for eight additional sites, three in the East, and 

fi ve in the West. The two remaining eastern sites (Southern Appalachian Mountains 

and Gulf Coastal Plain) were funded by the National Fire Plan, and pretreatment 

data collection began in 2001 using the same protocols as sites funded by the JFSP. 

In the West, the Central Sierra Nevada site also began data collection in 2001. 

Treatment implementation began in 1998 (Blue Mountains site), and the fi rst round 

was completed with the prescribed burns at the Northeastern Cascades site in 2004. 

By the end of the JFSP-funded period (April 30, 2006), most of the eastern sites 

had applied a second or third prescribed fi re. The fi rst round of posttreatment data 

collection (after all treatments were implemented) began in 2001 and continued 

through 2004. Additional years of posttreatment data were also collected at most 

sites, continuing through the summer of 2006. Site-level analysis began within 

a few months after the fi rst round of treatments had been implemented (by early 

2002), and the earliest articles with short-term results were published beginning 

in late 2002. By the end of the JFSP-funded period, 100 data papers were published, including 24 theses and dissertations, 32 proceedings or general technical 

reports, and 44 peer-reviewed journal articles. By the end of 2010, this number had 

increased to 206 total publications, including 113 journal articles. Although the 

analysis phase of the initial study is largely fi nished, outreach continues as scientists conduct fi eld tours and present papers on short-term results at conferences and 

workshops. 

FFS Outreach

Early in 2001, within 8 months of funding, principal investigators of the FFS study 

developed a “Communications Plan,” which served as an outreach guide for each 

site and the network as a whole. This plan identifi ed all potential audiences and 

prescribed content and medium for products and activities aimed at those audiences 

throughout the study period. The primary audience throughout the network and 

the study period was the natural resource land manager, primarily federal, but also 

state, local, and private. An important secondary audience was the “active” public, 

those individuals in the private sector who take a keen interest in natural resource 

issues. Finally, the tertiary audience was other scientists/educators, because in 

reality, much of the information that natural resource managers use is acquired 

through the traditional educational process, delivered to them through universities 

or through continuing education programs.

From October 2000 through the end of 2010, a total of at least 644 products 

were delivered, including 206 technical articles, 111 invited oral presentations, 68 

tours, 174 posters/presentations at conferences, and 20 major workshops (table 4). 
12

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 Table 4—Summary of principal outreach products and activities of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate study, by media and site National Fire and Fire Surrogate study sites

Products:  Brochure 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 15 Data request 5 5 Database 1 1 National conference papers 23 23 Poster 2 2 Publications 20 12 14 4 15 8 4 30 18 22 9 4 10 36 206 Slide show/PowerPoint 2 2 Study plan 1 1 Web site 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8Activities:  Contributed talk/paper 2 1 3 Invited speaker presentation 3 6 9 5 42 9 1 7 2 4 2 7 14 111 Newspaper/magazine article 1 1 1 3 Poster 4 2 4 23 3 5 5 3 1 50 Presentation 3 4 21 13 1 3 1 1 1 11 59 Slide show/PowerPoint 9 23 15 16 2 65 Tours/site visits 3 2 16 15 3 5 5 2 15 2 68 TV/radio broadcast 1 1 2 Workshop/training 1 1 8 4 2 1 1 2 20 Total 29 30 56 24 104 37 7 94 47 55 34 19 10 98 644

Northeastern Cascades

Blue Mountains

Northern Rocky 

Mountains

Southern Cascades

Central Sierra Nevada

Southern Sierra 

Nevada

Southwestern Plateau

Central Appalachian 

Plateau

Southern Appalachian 

Mountains

Southeastern Piedmont

Gulf Coastal Plain

Florida Coastal Plain

Regional

Network 

Total
13

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Note that the actual number of delivered products is considerably higher, because 

with the exception of technical articles, table 4 does not contain any outreach delivered after the funding period ended (May 2006). Nonetheless, although it is very 

diffi cult to measure the actual impact of any given research project, FFS principal 

investigators invested a signifi cant amount of time and energy in outreach to deliver 

the vast amount of information collected to the intended audiences.

Toward the end of the study period, FFS principal investigators held a series 

of four regional workshops across the country (Youngblood et al. 2007). To each 

workshop we invited key individuals representing our primary audience (natural 

resource land managers), and we used participatory evaluation as a means of 

assessing the effi cacy of our outreach effort. We asked four overarching questions at 

each workshop: (1) Who needs fuel reduction information? (2) What information do 

they need? (3) Why do they need it? and (4) How can it best be delivered to them? 

Participants helped to determine key users of fuel reduction information, identifi ed 

the most important pieces of information needed by them, and made recommendations on how best to deliver the information to the key users. While each regional 

workshop was to some extent idiosyncratic in terms of output, a common theme 

identifi ed by most participants was that the most effective means of outreach 

would be to open and maintain direct communication lines between scientists and 

managers working in the fuel reduction arena. Certainly, information tended to be 

delivered most effectively and most effi ciently to those land managers who had the 

opportunity to work directly with scientists at the study sites themselves, throughout the treatment implementation, posttreatment measurement, and science delivery 

processes.

Much of the expense of experimental research is personnel. A substantial 

amount of work is needed to accomplish project objectives, such as planning, 

surveying, measuring, managing data, analysis, writing, and outreach. An implicit 

yet critically important aspect of such research is the training of future professionals, especially to the extent that the work is performed by students and junior staff 

at various stages of career development. Thus the USDA Forest Service and the 

Department of the Interior, through funding distributed by the JFSP, are in effect 

training professionals for future work in their agencies, the private sector, universities, and other professional fi elds. Across the FFS network, dozens of students 

were engaged in the process of research, including undergraduate, graduate, and 

postdoctoral. We have no way of tracking the dozens of undergraduate students 

who were involved in FFS. Successful graduate students, however, left behind a 

record of their work in their master’s theses, doctoral dissertations, and journal 

articles; all of these were assigned FFS publication numbers and are summarized 
14

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

in the bibliography. A total of 41 postgraduate students completed research associated with FFS sites, including 4 postdoctoral scientists, 8 doctoral students, and 27 

master’s students (table 5). Two students published papers while in degree programs 

but did not fi nish degrees. Of the 32 individuals about whom we have information, 

8 have found permanent work with state or federal agencies, 4 are university faculty 

members, and 6 are professionals within the private sector. Clearly, the FFS study 

has been a fertile training ground for natural resource professionals, especially 

those working in forestry, silviculture, and fi re-related fi elds. 

Any outreach program that supports a scientifi c research project must have a 

core of information to draw upon, preferably published in peer-reviewed outlets. 

Although the journal article is generally considered the gold standard for technical 

communication and peer validation, in recent years, articles placed in collections of 

proceedings, general technical reports, and graduate student theses typically receive 

some form of peer review, and therefore can also be included in the core of the 

knowledge base for a research project. For the FFS study, a total of 206 technical 

articles were published between 1999 and 2010, including 111 in scientifi c journals, 

27 master’s theses, 8 Ph.D. dissertations, and 46 in collections of proceedings or in 

technical reports (table 6). Of the peer-reviewed journal papers, 33 were published 

as collections in four journals: Forest Ecology and Management vol. 255 (2008), 

Ecological Applications vol. 19 (2009), Forest Science vol. 56 (2010), and Open 

Environmental Sciences vol. 4 (2010).

Because the FFS study included common research protocols across sites for 

the same ecological component or scientifi c discipline (table 2), we grouped technical articles into these ecological components or disciplines by site to provide easy 

access to those wanting to compare responses within a discipline among sites or 

ecoregions (table 7). Similarly, we grouped the collection of technical articles into 

second-order or more applied themes of common interest, such as treatment effect 

size, heterogeneity of treatment effects with treatment units, and implications for 

nonnative or exotic plants (table 8). Many of these technical papers refl ect the multisite, multivariate design of the FFS study, which builds a more confi dent knowledge 

base when it comes to when, where, and how to plan a fuel reduction program. Key 

multisite articles include those focusing on soils and carbon, vegetation, fuels, wildlife, economics, outreach, and multiple variables. Key multivariate articles consider 

such related topics as prescribed fi re, fuels, and spatial heterogeneity; fuels, fi re 

behavior, and bark beetles; soil, microbes, and vegetation; fi re, patchiness, invertebrates; and fuels, fi re, carbon, and risk reduction. 

Finally, three contributions can be considered syntheses, having drawn upon 

information from several FFS sites in addition to other literature in an effort to 

FFS study results were 

featured in four special 

issues of refereed 

journals.
15

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Table 5—Number of graduate students and postdoctoral scientists completing studies between 2002 and 2008 using the national Fire and Fire Surrogate study platform as a training venue for furthering their professional experience  Continued Post- State or federal University ProfessionalFire and Fire Surrogate study site in school doctorate agencies faculty or private Unknown TotalNortheastern Cascades 1 1 1 3 6Blue Mountains 1 1 2 1 5Northern Rocky Mountains 3 1 4Central Sierra Nevada 2 1 1 4Southern Sierra Nevada 1 1 2Southwestern Plateau 1 1Central Appalachian Plateau 1 1 1 3Southern Appalachian Mountains 1 1Southeastern Piedmont 2 2 1 1 3 3 12Gulf Coastal Plain 1 1 2Florida Coastal Plain 1 1

 Total 10 4 8 4 6 9 41
16

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860Table 6—Number of technical papers based on the national Fire and Fire Surrogate study, published between 2004 and 2010, by 

ecosystem component or scientifi c discipline and publication type General Synthesis or Ecosystem component Proceedings/ technical Masters Ph.D. literatureor discipline Journal book chapters report thesis dissertation review Popular TotalOverstory vegetation 17 8 1 26Understory vegetation 12 2 2 1 1 1 19Fuels and fi re behavior 13 11 2 2 1 29

Soils 17 7 4 1 29Vertebrates 26 2 10 3 1 1 43Invertebrates 8 1 2 1 12Bark beetles 3 1 1 5Pathology and fungi 4 1 5 10Economics 1 1 1 1 1 5Sociology 1 1 1 3Multivariate 5 7 1 1 14General study description 4 6 1 1 Total 111 46 5 27 8 3 6 206
17

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Table 7—Reference number of papers from the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study, published between 2004 and 2010, by site, ecoregion, and ecosystem component or scienti

fi c discipline (see table 14 for reference listing) 

FFS site Northeastern East Cascades 1–3 4, 5 6–8 9, 10 11, 12 13–19 20 Cascades SlopesBlue Mountains Blue Mountains 21 23, 24 25, 26 27 28 29–31 33 32Northern Rocky Middle Rockies 34 35–39 40 41–43 44, 45 46 47  Mountains Southern Cascades East Cascades 48 49 50 51  SlopesCentral Sierra Sierra Nevada 52–54 55 56–58 59–61 62, 63 64, 65 66  NevadaSouthern Sierra Nevada 67 68–70 71 72 73 74  Sierra NevadaSouthwestern Plateau Arizona Plateau 75–78 Central Appalachian Western 79–88 89, 90, 94–98 99–103 104 105–107 108 Plateau Allegheny Plateau 92, 93Southern Appalachian Blue Ridge 144 114, 149 150–157 158–160  Mountains 145–148Southeastern Piedmont Piedmont 109 110 111–113 115–118 119–127 128, 129 130, 131 Gulf Coastal Plain Southeast Plains 135–137 138–143 206 Florida Coastal Southern Coastal 132 133 134  Plain PlainRegional (2 to 4 sites) NA 161 91 162 163, 164 165 166, 167 168–170 Network (multisite) NA 22, 171 172 173, 174 175–180 181–185 186, 187 188, 189 199–205 190–198NA = not applicable.

U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency

Level III Ecoregion

Overstory vegetation

Understory vegetation

 re behavior fi Fuels and 

Soils

Vertebrates

Inverts

Bark beetles

Pathology and fungi

Economics

Sociology

Multivariate

Study description
18

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 Table 8—Reference number of papers from the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study, published between 2004 and 2010, by site, forest type, and theme (see table 14 for reference listing) FFS site 

Northeastern Pine, mixed 2–4,10–12, 1–5, 6–8, 19 5 11–18 4 8, 11–12 5 Cascades conifer 19, 20 10, 12,  19, 20Blue Mountains Pine, mixed 21, 23–24, 21, 24–26, 26, 33 23–24, 28, 24, 27 21, 23, 31 25 conifer 26–28, 28, 32–33 29, 31 24, 28 31–33Northern Rocky Pine, mixed 34–47 34, 36–39, 36–39, 36, 41 34, 36, 44 35, 37, 37 36, 41 Mountains conifer 41, 43, 44, 41 38, 39 39 46, 47Southern Cascades Mixed conifer 50, 51 48–51 48 Central Sierra Mixed conifer 52–56, 58, 52–61, 53, 61, 59, 64, 57, 58 63–65 55 54, 56, 66 Nevada 59, 61–65 63–65 64 65 63Southern Sierra Mixed conifer 67, 68, 67 69, 70, 72, 73 67 67, 68 67 Nevada 70–74 73Southwestern Plateau Pine 78 75–78 75–77 Central Appalachian Hardwood 79–82, 79, 81, 79–81, 84, 99 92 102 83, 87 Plateau 86, 88, 90, 82, 84–86, 85, 89,  92–97, 99, 89, 90, 92, 90, 98,  101–104, 93, 95, 96, 101,107 106, 108 98–103, 105,  106, 108

Forest type

Fire vs. 

surrogate

Effect size

Effect of 

duration

Heterogeneity

Restoration

Species 

adaptation

Exotic plants

Tradeoffs

Regional

Application
19

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Table 8—Reference number of papers from the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study, published between 2004 and 2010, by site, forest type, and theme (see table 14 for reference listing) (continued)FFS site Southern Hardwood 146, 147, 114, 144, 144, 147, 144, 147 146, 145 Appalachian 149, 152, 148, 150– 149, 151 151–153  Mountains 155–159 152, 154– 160Southeast Piedmont 109–112, 109–113, 110, 111, 126 119, 123, 118, 120, 130, 131 Piedmont pine 115–119, 115, 117– 115, 118, 126, 130, 124  122, 123, 118, 121, 128 131  125–131 128–131Gulf Coastal Longleaf 137, 142, 135–137, 135, 139 137 138, 140 206  Plain pine 206 139–143Florida Coastal Slash pine 132 132 133, 134  PlainRegional Variable 91, 91, 162– 161, 162, 170 162 167 (2 to 4 sites) 162–169 168, 170 164, 167,  170Network (12) Variable 171, 172, 22, 171, 172, 175, 201, 202 22, 171, 181, 184 172, 202, 187–189, 22, 175, 171–173, 174, 176– 172, 174, 179, 180, 172, 175, 203 203 176, 187, 181, 182,  178, 180– 176–183, 182, 183, 177, 202 194 185, 186,  182, 184, 188, 190– 187, 194, 189, 204 186–200, 199, 201, 197, 199,  202, 203, 203, 205 201, 203  205

Forest type

Fire vs. 

surrogate

Effect size

Effect of 

duration

Heterogeneity

Restoration

Species 

adaptation

Exotic plants

Tradeoffs

Regional

Application
20

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

focus on major subject areas of nontarget botanicals, vertebrates, and prescribed fi re 

season of burn. These syntheses were all designed with land manager input, which 

was used not only to determine content, but also to insure that the products were 

built in a form readily useable by natural resource managers.

Findings

The principal short-term fi ndings of the FFS study reported here are all extracted 

from research published in theses, dissertations, proceedings, general technical reports, or in peer-reviewed journals (table 6). We start by describing the 

effectiveness of the prescribed treatments in terms of the stated short-term goal 

of fuel reduction. This provides not only a glimpse of fi rst-order effects that are 

important for natural resource managers, but also sets the stage for interpretation 

of the second-order effects that are the primary focus of FFS research. Obviously, 

if treatments are poorly implemented, any second-order effect would have little 

practical value. Next we present a summary of key fi ndings, organized by treatment, management theme, discipline, and site. While some textual interpretation 

is provided, key fi ndings are organized into a set of annotated tables, such that the 

reader can more easily link statements to the published literature. We hope that the 

organization of fi ndings in several ways (by treatment theme, discipline, and site) 

will cover a wider range of needs of our intended audience. Finally, we provide an 

annotated list of all 401 fi ndings that we extracted from the 206 published articles, 

organized fi rst by site (ecoregion), then by discipline (ecological component, sociology, or economics). Each publication is classifi ed based on site, principal discipline, 

and publication type. The full citation is provided for each article, and each fi nding 

is also linked to supporting literature outside the FFS. A searchable database of 

all fi ndings, their supporting literature, and PDFs of all 206 articles is posted on 

the Fire Research and Management Exchange System (FRAMES) Web site (www.

frames.gov/ffs). 

Treatment Effectiveness

The fi rst mark of a successful manipulative experiment is that all treatments must 

be implemented such that target variables are changed in predictable ways, as 

close to prescription as possible. In the case of the FFS study, target variables were 

components of stand structure and the fuel bed associated with fuel reduction. In 

general, to meet the 80/80 requirement, we aimed for reductions in the density and 

basal area of living trees and total woody fuel mass. Most sites had good success in 

meeting short-term fuel reduction objectives for the various treatments. 

When applied as distinct treatments, both prescribed fi re and mechanical 

treatments had reasonably consistent short-term effects on stand structure and fuels 

We provide an 

annotated list of 401 

fi ndings extracted 

from 206 published 

articles.
21

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Table 9—Immediate effect of treatment implementation on live tree density, basal area, snag density, and total fuel mass for the 12 sites in the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study, for burn (B), mechanical (M), and mechanical + burn (M+B) treatments (↑ = increase; ↓ = decrease; 0 = no trend change for indicated variable, with trend indicated by nonoverlapping standard errors)  Live tree density Basal area Snag density Total fuel massFFS site B M M+B B M M+B B M M+B B M M+B

Northeast Cascades 0 ↓ ↓ 0 ↓ ↓ 0 0 0 ↓ ↑ 0

Blue Mountains 0 ↓ ↓ 0 ↓ ↓ ↑ 0 0 ↓ 0 ↓Northern Rocky Mountains 0 ↓ ↓ 0 ↓ ↓ ↑ 0 ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓

Southern Cascadesa 0 ↓ ↓ 0 ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓ 0 ↓

Central Sierra Nevada 0 ↓ ↓ 0 ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓ 0 ↓

Southern Sierra Nevadab ↓ NA NA ↓ NA NA ↑ NA NA ↓ NA NA

Southwestern Plateau 0 ↓ ↓ 0 ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓ 0 ↓ 0 ↓Central Appalachian Plateau 0 ↓ ↓ 0 ↓ ↓ 0 ↓ ↓ 0 ↑ 0Southern Appalachian Mountains 0 0 ↓ 0 0 0 ↑ 0 ↑ ↓ 0 0

Southeastern Piedmont 0 ↓ ↓ 0 0 ↓ ↑ 0 ↑ ↓ 0 0Gulf Coastal Plain 0 ↓ ↓ 0 ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ 0 0 ↓Florida Coastal Plain 0 0 0 0 0 ↑ ↑ 0 0 0 0 0

NA = not applicable.a Pretreatment data not available for Southern Cascades site; effect trends are estimated with the use of control units.b Mechanical treatments not implemented at Southern Sierra Nevada site in Sequoia National Park; trajectories combine spring + fall burns.
22

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

across the FFS network (Schwilk et al. 2009). As expected, fi re alone had little 

infl uence on live stand structure (tree density, basal area), but tended to increase the 

density of small snags, and for the western sites in particular, decrease the mass of 

woody fuels (table 9). Mechanical treatment, on the other hand, had nearly opposite 

effects on stand structure and fuels, resulting in lower live tree density, basal area, 

and snag density (at some sites), but either did not infl uence or increased woody fuel 

mass. The only exception to these general patterns was at the Florida Coastal Plain 

site, where fuel treatments were designed only to target the understory.

A somewhat less consistent picture emerges when we examine short-term 

effects of treatments when applied in combination (fi rst mechanical, then prescribed 

fi re). While the combined treatment affected live tree parameters in almost the 

same way as for the mechanical treatment, there were distinct differences between 

western and most eastern FFS sites in effects on snags and total fuel mass. Among 

western sites, snag density tended to either remain unchanged or decreased after 

the mechanical + burn treatment, while among the four eastern sites at which 

overstory treatment was emphasized, three sites experienced increased snag 

density. Furthermore, while the combined mechanical + burn treatment decreased 

woody fuel mass at nearly every western site, only at the Gulf Coastal Plain site did 

the combination of mechanical and fi re treatments have this effect. Interestingly, 

in terms of treatment effectiveness, the Gulf Coastal Plain site was similar to the 

western sites, while the other eastern sites were more variable. 

In terms of predicted posttreatment fi re behavior, fi re performance analyses 

conducted at six western sites (excluding Northeastern Cascades) strongly indicated 

that the mechanical + burn treatment was the most effective treatment in these dry 

forest systems (Stephens et al. 2009). This is not surprising; only the combination 

treatment resulted in short-term stand structure and fuel bed conditions—reduced 

live tree density, live basal area, and fuel mass—that would be expected to substantially infl uence future fi re behavior. In contrast, at the Central Appalachian Plateau 

and Southeast Piedmont sites, both eastern sites at which potential fi re behavior 

analyses were conducted, burning was the most effective treatment, possibly 

because slash created by the mechanical treatment had not suffi ciently dried by the 

time fi res were applied (Iverson et al. 2003, Mohr and Waldrop 2006). In terms of 

fuel treatment effectiveness therefore, the combination mechanical + burn most 

closely resembled the mechanical treatment for these two eastern sites.

Fire performance 

analysis conducted 

at six western sites 

indicated that the 

mechanical + burn 

treatment was the most 

effective treatment. 
23

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Table 10—Principal distinctions among three fuel reduction treatments 

compared in the national Fire and Fire Surrogate study

Treatment Summary of effects

Burn Burn treatments had little effect on live stand structure, but increased 

 small snag density and decreased woody fuel mass. Fuel reduction 

was greater with fall burns than spring burns at western sites. Burning alone was more effective in fuel reduction than the combined 

mechanical + burn treatment in the east, especially when slash was 

not dry when fi re was applied. Costs in the West were higher than 

the Southeast owing to drier conditions resulting in higher risk of 

fi re escapes and greater smoke production. More people in California 

favored fi re as a fuel reduction practice, but many worried about the 

risk of escape. For ecological effects, burns: 

• Were most similar to the combined mechanical + burn treatments

• Retained more carbon in the soil than mechanical or no 

treatments

• Can enhance short-term productivity, but at the expense of 

nutrient standing stocks

• Decreased soil moisture, which favored more xeric plant species

• Favored shorter lived, herbaceous plant species

• Caused short-term decreases in shrub cover, but stands recovered 

to initial levels 2 to 4 years after burning

• Altered surface-dwelling beetle species compositions, increasing 

the abundance of rare species

• Altered feeding guild structure of arthropod communities

• Increased bark beetle activity, which in turn attracted barkforaging birds including passerines and woodpeckers

• Increased patchiness, leading to heterogeneity in nutrients and 

increased stand-level plant species richness

• Created forest heterogeneity similar to wildfi res owing to spatial 

variation in topographic and biotic factors

Mechanical Mechanical treatments decreased basal area and stand density, but 

 had little effect on surface fuels. Mechanical treatments were similar 

to the untreated control in fuel and fi re risk reduction, resulting in 

more severe modeled fi re behavior and tree mortality than treatments 

that included burns. At several sites, mechanical treatments returned 

revenue that helped to offset the cost of other treatment activities, 

including fi re. In a broad survey in California, the majority of people 

believed mechanical treatments to be an acceptable method to reduce 

fuels, and also trusted the land managers to implement them properly. For ecological effects, mechanical treatments: 

• Were not a surrogate for fi re for the great majority of ecological 

variables

• Produced results similar to the untreated control for most 

variables

• Altered carbon and nitrogen dynamics in different ways than did 

burning 

• Created or maintained more mesic conditions for plant responses

• Had little effect on arthropod species
24

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Table 10—Principal distinctions among three fuel reduction treatments 

compared in the national Fire and Fire Surrogate study (continued)

Treatment Summary of effects

Mechanical (cont.) • Had no effect on bark beetles or bark-foraging bird species at 

western sites

• Attracted foliage-gleaning and canopy-nesting bird species at 

some eastern sites

• Did not alter within-stand patchiness

Mechanical + burn Mechanical + burn treatments decreased basal area and stand density

 similarly to the mechanical treatments, but there were distinct 

differences between western and most eastern FFS sites in effects on 

snags and total fuel mass. Snag density was unchanged or decreased 

after treatment at western sites, while snag density increased at three 

eastern sites. Mechanical + burn treatments were less effective than 

burn treatments at eastern sites because fuels were not consumed 

by fi res after mechanical treatments. For ecological effects, the 

mechanical + burn treatments:

• Were more similar to burn treatments for most ecological 

variables, with generally greater magnitude of change for 

soils, plants, invertebrates (particularly bark beetle activity), 

and vertebrates

• Likely were the most effective treatments in increasing resiliency 

of the overstory structure and composition

• Diverged more from the other treatments in soil chemistry 

response with increased time after treatments

• Favored herbaceous species, including exotic and 

transformer species

• Created potential tradeoffs such as changes in down woody 

debris or large snags, and changes in natives plant species or 

exotic plant species
25

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Highlights of Findings

Alternative treatments—

As expected, alternative fuel reduction treatments had markedly different effects on 

most ecological variables, across the spectrum of ecosystem components that were 

studied (table 10). This is largely because fi re has unique effects on ecosystems, and 

these effects cannot be simulated by changing forest structure in any other way. 

Consumption by fi re stores more carbon in the soil, increases mineral soil exposure, 

decreases soil moisture, enhances short-term productivity, and favors more xeric 

plant species. Changes in vegetation structure, and the patchiness of these effects 

within stands, can have measurable effects on invertebrates and small vertebrates, 

in terms of abundance, species composition, and species richness at the stand level. 

First-order fi re effects attract bark beetles and reduce a tree’s ability to repel bark 

beetle attacks, which cause further modifi cation of resources, in turn attracting 

bark-foraging birds. In the short term, ground and foliage-nesting birds are discouraged by changes in vegetation structure, and together with changes in bird foraging 

guilds, bird species composition can diverge between fi re and mechanically treated 

stands. The dominance of fi re effects causes the mechanical + burn treatment to 

sort with the burn-only treatment, while the mechanical-only treatment tends to 

sort with the unmanipulated control for the great majority of ecological variables. 

Social acceptance of fuel reduction treatments was quite high in the one survey performed in California, although prescribed fi re is preferred as a restoration 

treatment, and mechanical treatments are rated as less risky in terms of fi re escape 

and smoke production. In some forest stands, harvest of merchantable trees before 

burning clearly mitigated the costs of fuel reduction, and so market conditions 

permitting, the combination mechanical + burn treatment offers the fastest avenue 

to restoration of large structure in seasonally dry forests. 

Themes— 

In terms of “second-order” ecological effects, the most conspicuous patterns 

observed throughout the FFS network were that FFS treatments generally caused 

subtle and transient short-term effects, and that these effects were markedly different depending on whether fi re was applied (table 11). Because of its capricious 

nature, fi re also tended to enhance within-stand heterogeneity, which in turn infl uenced other variables such as herbaceous plant and invertebrate species richness. 

The distinctiveness of fi re as a mechanism for change also led to habitat changes 

for both plants and animals, and generally favored species that were adapted to 

more xeric conditions. The combination mechanical + burn treatment had generally 

additive effects, and therefore caused the most signifi cant short-term effects for 

most ecological variables. The attractiveness of the mechanical + burn treatment as 
26

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 Table 11—Principal short-term fi ndings of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate study by theme and major ecosystem component (see table 14 for reference listing) Invertebrates Relevant Bark Vertebrate fungal Theme Finding treatments Trees Understory Fuels Soils beetles biodiversity biodiversity Fire vs. For the great majority of variables, Fire vs. 2, 3, 21, 4, 23, 24, 26, 40, 56, 10, 41–43, 46, 51, 11, 12, 27, 19, 28, 64, surrogate mechanical treatments did not no fi re 34, 52–54, 35–39, 55, 58, 94–97, 50, 59, 61, 130, 131, 44, 45, 63, 65, 106, 128, serve as surrogates for fi re, with 79–82, 90–93, 109, 111, 112, 99, 101–103, 206 78, 104, 119, 129, 158, 159, mechanical treatments resulting in 86, 88, 110, 172 146, 147, 115–118, 132, 122, 123, 166, 167, 206 effects similar to untreated controls 109, 137, 162, 174 149, 163, 164, 125–127, for most ecological variables, while 171, 206 176–178, 180 142, 152, the burn and mechanical + burn 155–157, 165, treatments resulted in similar effects 181, 182, 184

Effect Ecological effects of fi re and fi re All 1–3, 21, 4, 5, 24, 6–8, 25, 10, 41, 43, 46, 51, 12, 44, 63, 19, 28, 64, 

 size surrogate treatments were generally 22, 34, 48, 36–39, 55, 26, 49, 50, 59–61, 74, 130, 72, 75–78, 65, 73, 105,  subtle and transient, suggesting that 52–54, 79, 67, 89–93, 56–58, 68, 71, 99–103, 131 121, 139–143, 106, 128, 129,  these kinds of treatments resemble 81, 82, 109, 110, 70, 95–98, 115, 117, 118, 150–152, 158–160, the magnitude of historical 84–86, 109, 144, 172 111–114, 132, 163, 164, 154–157, 166, 167 disturbances in seasonally 135–137, 148, 162, 176–180 165, 181, 183 dry forest ecosystems 171 174Effect In most cases, ecological variables All 53, 79–81, 36, 37, 39, 26, 28, 41, 61, 101, 75–77, 19, 64, duration tended to return to pretreatment 85, 135, 67, 89, 90, 147, 162 115, 118, 139, 151, 107, 107, conditions after several years, 161 110, 144, 149, 164, 182, 183 128, 167 including key components of the 172 175, 179,  fuel bed 180East vs. Eastern sites differed from western All 22 162 175, 176  West sites in several important ways,  suggesting the need to consider  issues such as carbon sequestration  and the frequency of repeated burns  and mechanical entriesSpecies Species generally responded to All 24 130, 131 11, 12, 27, 13–18, 64, adaptation treatments in a manner consistent 44, 63, 72, 65, 73, 134 with their life history 119, 123, 126, characteristics; most native 133, 138, 140, species demonstrated positive 151, 153, responses consistent with 181, 184 adaptation to frequent, low-  intensity fi re 
27

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Table 12—Principal short-term fi ndings of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study by discipline and 

ecosystem components (see table 14 for reference listing)

Discipline and 

ecosystem 

component Finding Key papers

Overstory At all 12 FFS sites, all active fuel reduction treatments changed forest structure, with 22, 81, 

 vegetation burning treatments leading to greater reduction in surface fuels, and thinning treatments 86, 138, 

 leading to greater reductions in tree density. Complementary effects of thinning and 169, 171,

 burning made the combination mechanical + burn treatment the most effective at meeting 204

 short-term fuel reduction objectives. But although each of the active treatments was 

 effective in shifting diameter distributions toward larger trees, no single entry is suffi cient 

 to restore historical structure.

Understory Although all FFS treatments tended to increase cover and richness of herbaceous plants, 37, 55, 

 vegetation treatments that included fi re favored more xeric species, through decreases in litter and 110, 172

 increases in exposure of mineral soil. Most threatened endangered and sensitive plant 

 species were favored by fi re, probably because fi re suppression over the years has been 

 the primary mechanism for their decline. Mechanical + burn treatments had the greatest 

 short-term effects at multiple scales, increasing the dominance of both herbaceous natives 

 and exotic “transformer” species; there will often be tradeoffs between the desire for rapid 

 restoration of historical native conditions and the need to limit establishment and rapid 

 growth of weedy species. Landscape context, or the proximity of proposed treatments to 

 nearby roads, wildland-urban interface, or previous plant invasions, will infl uence exotic 

 plant invasion and thus the effectiveness of treatments.

Fuels and Most sites met short-term fuel reduction objectives, as measured by posttreatment stand 8, 26, 

 fi re behavior structure and fuel bed variables. Burns had little infl uence on live stand structure, but 52, 68, 

 increased small snag density and decreased fuel mass. Mechanical treatments had nearly 98, 174

 the opposite effect, decreasing live tree density, basal area, and snag density with little 

 change or an increase in woody fuel mass. The combination mechanical + burn treatments

 were the most effective at meeting stand structure and fuel objectives, having generally 

 additive effects. Fire performance analyses conducted at six western sites strongly 

 indicated that mechanical + burn treatments was most effective in reducing short-term 

 fi re risk. For two eastern sites at which potential fi re behavior analyses were conducted 

 (Central Appalachian Plateau and Southeastern Piedmont), the most effective treatment 

 was burn alone, because slash created by the mechanical treatment was not consumed 

 or had not suffi ciently dried by the time burns were applied. Repeat entries of both 

 mechanical and burn treatments will be necessary to meet long-term restoration objectives.

Soils Soils varied considerably among the 12 FFS sites, representing six soil orders and over 176, 177, 

 50 named soil series. Eastern and western sites responded differently to fuel reduction 178, 179, 

 treatments in terms of nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) storage, suggesting different 180, 200

 management approaches; strategies that maximize C gain by minimizing N loss may 

 be more applicable in western forests where C and N are tightly linked but not in those 

 eastern forests where atmospheric N deposition has decoupled C and N cycles. While 

 burning tended to decrease total ecosystem C, these losses were offset by increasing 

 C uptake in the years following fi re. Mechanical + burn treatments tended to generate 

 the highest fi re severity, and produced the greatest magnitude of effects, although overall 

 treatment effects were generally modest and transient for most variables, including soil 

 microbes, microarthropods, soil enzyme activity, soil N, soil C, cations, and soil

 compaction. Mechanical treatments did not serve as surrogates for fi re in terms of 

 soils, owing to distinctly different primary effects, and also the tendency for fi re to 

 produce more spatial heterogeneity in fuels, which leads to patchiness in soil variables. 

 Few long-term experimental studies exist to help understand links among fi re, the soil, 

 microbes, plants, and ecosystem function.
28

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Table 12—Principal short-term fi ndings of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study by discipline and 

ecosystem components (see table 14 for reference listing) (continued)

Discipline and 

ecosystem 

component Finding Key papers

Vertebrates Effects of fuel reduction treatments on vertebrate species varied among species, but were 165, 181, 

 generally subtle, transient, and different for fi re versus mechanical treatments. Fire-adapted 182, 183,

 birds including many cavity-nesters and bark-foragers tended to respond most favorably to 184

 treatments including fi re, and tended to forage on larger than average trees. Mechanical + 

 burn treatments had the greatest effect on smaller and more sedentary vertebrates such as 

 reptiles and amphibians through decreases in litter and increases in mineral soil exposure 

 and herbaceous vegetation. Because effects tended to be site-specifi c, adaptive management 

 at the local level may be most useful in understanding vertebrate responses to treatments.

Invertebrates Short-term impacts of treatments on litter arthropods were subtle, but treatments that 64, 73, 

 included burning altered feeding guild composition and increased richness in the two 159, 160

 western sites at which they were studied. Burning increased within-stand heterogeneity 

 in arthropod habitat through decreased litter depth and increased mineral soil exposure 

 and herbaceous vegetation cover, all of which were patchy at small scales. Compared to 

 burning, mechanical treatments had lower impacts and favored species similar to controls.

Bark beetles Four western sites exhibited bark beetle effects after treatment. In each case, incidence of 33, 46, 

 bark beetles was directly related to the application of fi re, and to fi re severity, with tree 51, 74

 mortality generally restricted to smaller trees. Mortality of larger trees occurred after 

 mechanical + burn treatments where cured logging slash was concentrated and resulted in 

 increased fi re intensity. There was no evidence at any site of bark beetle attacks spreading 

 to adjacent green trees, which was probably owing to a combination of high tree vigor in 

 residual stands and low background populations of bark beetles.

Fungi and Each site at which fungi were studied, researchers reported high fungal species richness, 15, 19, 

 pathology including many previously unreported species, and species of potential importance for 28, 167

 biological control. At the Blue Mountains site, ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with plant 

 roots responded negatively to fi re in the short term, with greater effects in stands where 

 logging slash left in the woods increased fi re severity. At the Southeastern Piedmont site, 

 incidence of the forest pathogen Leptographium was reduced by treatments, but rebounded 

 within 5 years. At the Northeastern Cascades site, the mechanical + burn treatment caused 

 the greatest reduction in incidence of dwarf mistletoe, and modeling suggested that the 

 effect may last 20 years.

Operational In general, the lower the value of harvested product in a fuel reduction project, the more 29, 31,

 economics advantage there was to use “purpose-built” machines designed specifi cally for a particular 187

 operation. On federal lands, giving contract offi cers more fl exibility to decide on the details 

 of a fuel reduction operation (e.g., whether to remove small trees, or whether to treat slash 

 on site) makes senses given market volatility. Financial analyses of costs and revenues of 

 fuel reduction treatments provided only a partial picture; a complete cost-benefi t analysis 

 involves both short- and long-term ecological effects and monetary values assigned to 

 nonmarket issues.

Sociology Surveys conducted at the Central Sierra Nevada site indicated that while most respondents 189, 190, 

 and outreach understood the need for fuel reduction, fewer individuals found mechanical treatments to be 199

 as acceptable as fi re for fuels management. Forest managers tend to favor the use of existing

 electronic platforms within which to place information, favored the synthesis of technical 

 papers by topic, and emphasized the value of one-on-one contact with researchers. Multisite, 

 multivariate studies like the FFS are challenging to execute, and success depends on several 

 key features: adequate funding, design, partnerships, collegiality among researchers, 

 standardization, data management, and outreach.
29

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

a rapid means of achieving forest restoration goals, however, is tempered somewhat 

by tradeoffs in effects, as the combination treatment tended to increase cover of 

exotics and decrease cover of coarse woody debris, which offers key habitat for both 

invertebrates and vertebrates. Finally, because of differences in overall site productivity, most eastern sites were distinctly different from western sites, especially in 

soil, fuel, and vegetation effects. 

Ecosystem components— 

The most substantial short-term effects were observed for those ecosystem components that were the target for fuel reduction treatments in the fi rst place: vegetation (overstory and understory) and the fuel bed (table 12). This is not surprising, 

because both mechanical and burning treatments are designed to change stand 

structure (both living and dead trees), and the components of the fuel bed that 

infl uence fi re behavior (herbaceous vegetation, surface woody fuels). For most 

other components of the ecosystem, however, observed effects were more subtle, 

suggesting that fuel reduction treatments are relatively benign, at least as currently 

implemented. This is partly because these kinds of treatments leave an intact forest 

behind. But it is also because many fl ora and fauna are adapted to low-intensity 

fi re, and to the extent that thinning treatments mimic natural disturbances such 

as wind-throw, are also adapted to low-intensity mechanical treatments. Even for 

disturbance agents such as bark beetles, which can drastically accelerate changes 

in forest structure because of their capacity for rapid increase, effects were very 

modest, suggesting that managers can apply these kinds of treatments without fear 

of unintended consequences. Individual fi res have unique characteristics and effects 

because of temporal and spatial variation, however, suggesting that mechanical 

treatments are not surrogates for many ecological variables, and repeated application of mechanical treatments without fi re would likely result in conditions 

divergent from those occurring in fi re-adapted systems where fi re is a common 

disturbance event. 

Sites—

Overall, treatment implementation was remarkably successful for nearly all sites, 

with most treatments applied on schedule, and with enough intensity to achieve 

fi rst-order effects that approached management objectives (table 13). There were 

some distinct differences in treatment effectiveness, however, mostly related to 

forest type (eastern hardwood forests compared to western conifer forests), and 

to the type of machines used for thinning (cut-to-length compared to whole-tree 

harvest systems; see table 1). As a group, eastern sites were more dissimilar from 

one another, with the two hardwood sites (Central Appalachian Plateau and 
30

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 Northeastern Cascades East Cascades Slopes Hand-felling and helicopter yarding met thinning prescriptions, but a spring burn under cool moist conditions failed to reduce 

fi re risk in treated stands. Although treatment effects were 

marked in some cases, they were generally overwhelmed by considerable within-site variability in topography, soils, and 

fi re history. Mechanical + burn treatments had by far the greatest 

in

fl uence on the ecosystem, resulting in the highest quality habitat for cavity nesting birds, the 

greatest increases in both native and exotic plant species richness, and the greatest reduction in the incidence of dwarf mistletoe.

2, 4, 8, 9, 

10, 11, 12, 19 

Blue 

Mountains

Blue Mountains Cut-to-length logging system (harvester + forwarder) met thinning prescriptions with net revenue 

gain, and fall burns initially reduced 

fi re risk and reduced fuel mass for up to 4 years. Treatment 

effects on the ecosystem were generally subtle, but differed between mechanical and burn treatments, with thinned stands generally having effects similar to untreated stands. Although treatment effects were sometimes confounded by variation in soils, mechanical + burn treatments had the greatest overall in

fl uence on the ecosystem, resulting in the highest quality habitat for 

nuthatches, the greatest changes in both native and exotic understory plant species, the highest incidence of bark beetle attack and tree death, the greatest reduction in coarse woody debris, and the most reduction in duff mass and 

fi ne root biomass.

21, 24, 26, 

27, 28, 29, 31, 33

Northern 

Rocky Mountains

Middle Rockies Cut-to-length logging system (harvester + forwarder) met thinning prescriptions, and a spring 

prescribed 

fi re reduced fuel mass and 

fi re risk. Because of patchiness of 

fi re severity, burning 

increased spatial heterogeneity of surface fuels and total inorganic nitrogen, which in turn led to higher plant species richness at the stand level up to 2 years after treatment. Treatment effects on the ecosystem were generally subtle, but differed between mechanical and burn treatments, with thinned stands generally having effects similar to untreated stands. The mechanical + burn treatment was the most effective in creating stand conditions that could resist moderate wild

fi re, 

and resulted in habitat changes for small mammals and birds, the greatest increases in both native and exotic plant species richness, and changes in processes associated with decomposition.

34, 36, 37, 

39, 41, 45

Table 13—Principal short-term 

fi ndings of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study by site and ecoregion (see table 14 for 

reference listing)

 U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency FFS site Level III ecoregion Findings References
31

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Southern 

Cascades

East Cascades Slopes Trees cut with a feller-buncher and skidded whole, a system that met thinning prescriptions, and a 

fall prescribed 

fi re were successful for reducing fuel mass and 

fi re risk. The mechanical + burn 

treatment was the most effective in creating stand conditions that would reduce the probability of crown 

fi re. Burning increased bark beetle-caused tree mortality (both pine and 

fi r), with 

mortality concentrated in the smaller diameter trees. For soils, thinning did not serve as a surrogate for 

fi re, with notable changes owing to burning in soil pH, total inorganic nitrogen, 

soil carbon, and microbial actions and these changes could lead to differences in tree growth in the intermediate term.

48, 49, 50, 

51 

Central 

Sierra Nevada 

Sierra Nevada Trees >25 cm in diameter were hand-felled, limbed and bucked, then yarded by skidder. Trees 

<25 cm were masticated on site, and with these mechanical practices thinning prescriptions were achieved; a relatively intense late fall prescribed 

fi re reduced surface fuel mass and treatments 

including 

fi re were successful at reducing projected 

fi re risk. The mechanical + burn treatment 

was the most effective in creating stand conditions that would enhance 

fi re resiliency, but also 

had the greatest impact on ecological conditions, by reducing coarse woody debris, altering soil carbon and nitrogen conditions, increasing exposed mineral soil, increasing the density of 

fi r and 

pine seedlings, and increasing the cover and richness of exotic plant species. Logging and burning both increased spatial heterogeneity, which may have played a role in increasing both plant and arthropod species richness in treated stands. In general, observed soil chemical effects of burning would be expected to enhance short-term stand productivity.

52, 53, 54, 

55, 56, 60, 61, 63, 64

Southern 

Sierra Nevada

Sierra Nevada No mechanical treatments were applied, but both spring and fall burns reduced total fuel loads 

and projected 

fi re risk. Native plant species richness increased after both spring and fall burns 

and burning off-season (spring) was not measurably detrimental to native plants. There was no difference in effects between spring and fall burns on tree mortality, pine bark beetle incidence, and ground arthropod or small mammal populations; fall burns however, consumed more total fuel mass and coarse woody debris, and had a more dramatic effect on soil abiotic conditions, mineral soil carbon, total inorganic nitrogen, and microbial activity, whereas spring burns caused higher incidence of 

fi r bark beetles. Both spring and fall burning substantially increased withinstand heterogeneity, indicating that prescribed 

fi res in Sierra Nevada forests can mimic wild

fi res 

in the creation of spatial mosaics. 

68, 69, 71, 

72, 73, 74

Table 13—Principal short-term 

fi ndings of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study by site and ecoregion (see table 14 for 

reference listing) (continued)

 U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency FFS site Level III ecoregion Findings References
32

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 Southwest Plateau Arizona Plateau Trees >13 cm in diameter were hand-felled, limbed and bucked, then yarded by skidder. Trees <13 cm were felled, limbed and scattered, and with these mechanical practices thinning prescriptions were achieved. A fall prescribed 

fi re reduced surface fuel mass when applied 

without prior thinning, but mechanical + burn treatments had about the same total fuel mass as controls; overall, the three active treatments only slightly reduced projected 

fi re risk. Most 

soil properties either were unchanged by treatment or showed subtle effects: vegetation carbon declined in all treatments, dead wood increased in the two treatments including thinning, and the remaining soil properties were unchanged, including soil nitrogen, total ecosystem carbon, soil pH, total inorganic nitrogen, soil carbon:nitrogen ratio, and soil bulk density. Burning increased deer mouse abundance, but reduced pine chipmunk abundance. Bluebird home-range size was 50 percent bigger in thin-only units compared to controls, but 30 percent smaller in the mechanical + burn units. 

75, 77, 78

Central 

Appalachian Plateau

West Allegheny Plateau Trees were felled by hand and yarded by skidders to landings. Mechanical treatments met all 

prescription elements. Dormant season prescribed 

fi res followed and burned under prescribed 

intensity. All active treatments changed forest structure and the surface fuel bed. The mechanical + burn treatment produced the coolest burns, probably because additional slash had not dried suffi ciently before 

fi re. Even on more favorable xeric sites, oak regeneration remained at a 

competitive disadvantage 4 years after treatment, suggesting that repeated hot 

fi res may be 

necessary to restore hardwood forests to oak dominance. On mesic sites, oak reestablishment is more problematic. In general, treatment effects on the soil, forest 

fl oor, understory vegetation, and 

tree species were modest and transient.

79, 81, 84, 

85, 86, 89, 92, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102

Southern 

Appalachian Mountains

Blue Ridge All trees and ericaceous shrubs >1.4 m high were cut and left on site, as per prescription; dormantseason burns were then conducted to top-kill suppressed trees and reduce shrub cover. For some 

ecological variables (e.g., reptiles and amphibians), fuel treatments had subtle effects; for other variables (pollinator species richness, overall bird diversity, understory plant species richness and cover), the combined mechanical + burn treatments had the greatest magnitude effects.

146, 151, 

152, 153, 154, 158, 159, 167

Table 13—Principal short-term 

fi ndings of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study by site and ecoregion (see table 14 for 

reference listing) (continued)

 U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency FFS site Level III ecoregion Findings References
33

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Southeastern 

Piedmont

Piedmont Trees were thinned from below, and yarded by skidders to landings. Mechanical treatments 

successfully met all prescription elements. Dormant-season 

fi res followed and burned under 

prescribed intensity. In general, treatment effects on ecological variables were modest and transient, including components of the fauna (birds, spiders, beetles), the 

fl ora (understory and 

overstory richness), and the soils (carbon, nitrogen, bulk density). Thinning did not serve as a surrogate for 

fi re for most ecological variables, including bats, understory plant species richness, 

microbial activity and rates, foliage-gleaning and canopy nesting birds, and lizard and reptile abundance.

110, 111, 

113, 117, 119, 124, 127, 129, 130, 165, 166, 167

Gulf Coastal 

Plain

Southeast Plains Thinning from below and underburning were implemented within prescription to produce 

predicted changes in tree density, tree basal area, and down woody fuels. Slash removal after thinning but before burning decreased residual tree mortality owing to 

fi re. Thinning was most 

effective for reducing mid-story hardwoods, while burning was more effective at reducing understory hardwoods; therefore, the combination treatment would most rapidly achieve longleaf pine restoration goals. Small mammals were differentially affected by fuel reduction treatments.

135, 138, 

139, 140, 141

Florida 

Coastal Plain

Southern Coastal Plain Mastication of saw palmetto understory successfully met fuel reduction prescription. Burns during 

the growing season met prescribed intensity; 

fl anking 

fi res were the most successful in avoiding 

crown scorch. Fire treatments lowered soil moisture levels below that favorable to microbial activity. 

132, 133, 136, 137 

Table 13—Principal short-term 

fi ndings of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study by site and ecoregion (see table 14 for 

reference listing) (continued)

 U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency FFS site Level III ecoregion Findings References
34

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Southern Appalachian Mountains) tending to sort together for many variables, 

while the three pine sites tended to express more idiosyncratic effects. Despite 

substantial differences in productivity and forest structure, the seven western sites 

expressed similar effects for many variables. For some variables, there were consistent effects across both eastern and western sites (e.g., response of native and exotic 

herbaceous vegetation), and in these cases, managers in most dry forest systems can 

predict with reasonable confi dence what will happen when they apply treatments. 

But one of the most important fi ndings of this study is that for some ecological 

variables that were analyzed across the FFS network, “site” often explained the 

most variation in response to treatment. Examples include multisite analyses on 

small mammal populations (Converse et al. 2006a) and avian nest survival (Farris 

et al. 2010a). This means that, in some cases, managers may be unable to predict 

responses for some variables at the local level unless site-specifi c data are available, 

especially for variables that are distant from fi rst-order effects (e.g., small mammals 

or birds). The best tool available to understand response well enough to construct 

management plans for the future will therefore be adaptive management conducted 

at the local level. 

Likely the most important part of this report is table 14, a detailed listing of 

principal science fi ndings summarized in the previously mentioned tables, with 

each science fi nding listed by individual reference number and arranged by site, 

discipline, and treatment. This table is directly linked to tables 7, 8, 11, 12, and 13 

by the reference number. Included in table 14 is an indication of supporting literature from other sources, where available.
35

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

1 Harrod, R.J.; Povak, N.A.; Peterson, D.W. 2007. 

Comparing the effectiveness of thinning and prescribed 

fi re for modifying structure in dry 

coniferous forests. In: Butler, B.W.; Cook, W., comps. Proceedings, the 

fi re environment-innovations, 

management, and policy. Proceedings RMRSP-46CD. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 329–346.

Northeastern Cascades

Overstory vegetation

B 2 Relatively cool spring burns raised 

canopy height but increased density of small dead trees.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

1 Harrod et al. 2007. Northeastern 

Cascades

Overstory vegetation

B 2 Effectiveness of spring burns can 

be limited by cool, wet conditions in the northeastern Cascades.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

1 Harrod et al. 2007. Northeastern 

Cascades

Overstory vegetation

M 2 Tree stocking and canopy fuels 

were reduced to less than 50 percent of pretreatment values after mechanical treatments, but activity fuels, which would be expected to increase 

fi re intensity, were left.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

2 Hessburg, P.F.; Povak, N.A.; Salter, R.B. 2010. 

Thinning and prescribed 

fi re effects on snag 

abundance and spatial pattern in an eastern Cascade Range dry forest, Washington, USA. Forest Science. 56(1): 74–87.

Northeastern Cascades

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Seventyfi ve percent of snags had 

evidence of bark beetle attacks across all units before and after treatments.

Innes et al. (2006) observed that a single prescribed 

fi re had no 

effect on the spatial distribution of snags.

2 Hessburg et al. 2010. Northeastern 

Cascades

Overstory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2 Red turpentine beetle occurrence 

increased after burn treatments.

Other studies have reported increases in red turpentine beetle activity after prescribed 

fi res (Fettig 

et al. 2008, Ganz et al. 2003, Schwilk et al. 2006), but incidence of tree mortality in these studies was low. 

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
36

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 2 Hessburg et al. 2010. Northeastern Cascades Overstory vegetation B, M+B 2 Snag abundance for the smaller size classes increased after burn and mechanical + burn treatments, but snag abundance in the largest size classes declined and clumpiness in snag distribution was retained. Some studies have reported declines in snag densities after single prescribed 

fi res (Bagne 

et al. 2008, Machmer 2002). Other studies have reported snag retention rates similar to this study (Stephens and Moghaddas 2005b, Youngblood et al. 2006).

2 Hessburg et al. 2010. Northeastern 

Cascades

Overstory vegetation

M 2 Snag numbers declined after 

mechanical treatments, and snag spatial distributions shifted from clumped to random.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

3 Harrod, R.J.; Peterson, D.W.; Povak, N.A.; Dodson, 

E.K. 2009. Thinning and prescribed 

fi re effects on 

overstory tree and snag structure in dry coniferous forests of the interior Paci

fi c Northwest. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 258(5): 712–721.

Northeastern Cascades

Overstory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2 Snag density increased after 

burn treatments, but tree density or canopy fuel loading were unchanged. The burns were less intense than desired, perhaps leading to fewer structural changes.

Stephens and Moghaddas (2005b) found that burn treatments resulted in a greater number of new snags compared to thinning or no treatment.

3 Harrod et al. 2009. Northeastern 

Cascades

Overstory vegetation

M, M+B

1, 2 Tree density and canopy bulk 

density were reduced, and canopy base height was increased the most by mechanical treatments.

This result is consistent with other FFS sites (Schwilk et al. 2009).

3 Harrod et al. 2009. Northeastern 

Cascades

Overstory vegetation

M+B 1, 2 Fire hazard was reduced the most 

by mechanical + burn treatments because of the complementary effects on canopy and surface fuels, although this treatment also increased the density of standing dead trees.

Fulé et al. (2002) found that thinning reduced canopy fuels and modeled 

fi re severity.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
37

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

4 Dodson, E.K.; Peterson, D.W.; Harrod, R.J. 2008. 

Understory vegetation response to thinning and burning restoration treatments in dry conifer forests of the eastern Cascades, USA. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3130–3140.

Northeastern Cascades

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Understory plant cover and species 

composition were unchanged by any of the treatments.

Stable understory plant cover and species composition after fuel reduction treatments was reported by Abella and Covington (2004), Metlen and Fielder (2006), and Metlen et al. (2004).

4 Dodson et al. 2008. Northeastern 

Cascades

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Plant life forms differed 

substantially in their response to treatments, with forbs having much greater richness response than grasses or shrubs.

Other studies have reported differing responses among plant life forms (Collins et al. 2007, Metlen and Fiedler 2006, Metlen et al. 2004, Moore et al. 2006).

4 Dodson et al. 2008. Northeastern 

Cascades

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2, 9 Native plant species richness 

increased after mechanical + burn treatments, with greater response where species richness was initially low.

Pretreatment condition was important for understanding interannual changes in understory variables (Fulé et al. 2005, Vose and White 1991). Both increases in understory richness (Metlen and Fiedler 2006, Wienk et al. 2004) and decreases in understory richness (Collins et al. 2007, Fulé et al. 2005, Metlen et al. 2004) were reported after fuel reduction treatments. Wayman and North (2007) reported that thin + burn treatments have the most dramatic effects on the understory.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
38

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 4 Dodson et al. 2008. Northeastern Cascades Understory vegetation M+B 2, 9 Exotic plant species were relatively uncommon, but cover and richness of these species increased more after the mechanical + burn treatments. Slight increases in the number of exotic plant species after fuel reduction treatments, especially after thin + burn treatments, were reported by Collins et al. (2007), Dodson and Fiedler (2006), and Griffi s et al. (2001). No 

effect of fuel reduction treatments on exotic species richness was found by Fornwalt et al. (2003) and Wayman and North (2007).

5 Dodson, E.K.; Peterson, D.W. 2010. Dry coniferous 

forest restoration and understory plant diversity: the importance of community heterogeneity and the scale of observation. Forest Ecology and Management. 260(10): 1702–1707.

Northeastern Cascades

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

10 Effects of fuel reduction treatments 

on understory plant species richness was examined at several spatial scales using “additive diversity partitioning.” 

No other studies have reported similar 

fi ndings.

5 Dodson and Peterson 2010. Northeastern 

Cascades

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

2 Understory plant species richness 

did not differ among treatments at quadrat and plot scales.

Abella and Covington (2004), Metlen and Fiedler (2006), and Nelson et al. (2008) reported negligible treatment effects on understory vegetation at small scales.

5 Dodson and Peterson 2010. Northeastern 

Cascades

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

2 Understory plant species richness 

and risk of local species extirpation remained unchanged after mechanical and burn treatments. 

Halpern and Spies (1995) and Battles et al. (2001) reported that disturbances can increase disturbanceadapted species by decreasing or extirpating late-successional species. 

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
39

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

5 Dodson and Peterson 2010. Northeastern 

Cascades

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

2, 6 Herbaceous species richness at 

the stand level increased after fuel reduction treatments because of increased community heterogeneity within stands.

Both thinning and burning treatments produced patchiness in fuels and soil exposure within stands (Agee and Lolley 2006), thus promoting heterogeneity in environmental conditions, which probably led to increases in plant species richness at the stand scale.

5 Dodson and Peterson 2010. Northeastern 

Cascades

Understory Vegetation

M+B 6 Understory heterogeneity increased 

the most after mechanical + burn treatments because of colonization by species that were absent before the treatments.

Dodson et al. (2007) reported a similar pattern and suggested that seasonally dry forests support species that are adapted to frequent low-severity disturbances.

6 Kopper, K.E. 2002. Meta-analysis design and 

interpretation: a case study of prescribed 

fi re effects 

on fuel loadings in ponderosa pine ecosystems. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. 36 p. M.S. thesis.

Northeastern Cascades

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 2 Preplanned meta-analyses allow 

more 

fl exibility in choice between 

mixed- and 

fi xed-effects models, 

demonstrating that meta-analysis will always be more effective for planned multisite studies like the FFS, compared to quantitative analysis of independent studies.

Gurevitch and Hedges (1999) stated that mixed-effects models incorporate random variation, thus making them more appealing for ecological applications.

6 Kopper 2002. Northeastern 

Cascades

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 2 Although more than 40 journal 

articles speci

fi cally addressed 

fuel reduction in ponderosa pine forests, only eight published articles contained adequate statistical summary information for metaanalysis of organic (combined litter and duff) or downed woody fuel reduction after prescribed 

fi re.

Eight studies served as the basis for preliminary meta-analysis of fuel bed effects after prescribed burning in ponderosa pine forests (Busse et al. 2000, Davis et al. 1964, Kalabokidis and Wakimoto 1992, 

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
40

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 Kauffman and Martin 1989, Kovacic et al. 1986, Landsberg et al. 1984, Sackett and Haase 1998, and Sweeney and Biswell 1961). 7 Lolley, M.R. 2005. Wildland fuel conditions and effects of modeled fuel treatments on wildland 

fi re 

behavior and severity in dry forests of the Wenatchee Mountains. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. 145 p. M.S. thesis.

Northeastern Cascades

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 2 Mass of tree tops and branches and 

the depth and mass of forest 

fl oor 

declined after burning but likely resulted in little change to potential fi re behavior.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

8 Agee, J.K.; Lolley, M.R. 2006. Thinning and 

prescribed 

fi re effects on fuels and potential 

fi re 

behavior in an eastern Cascades forest, Washington. Fire Ecology. 2(2): 142–158.

Northeastern Cascades

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 2 Spring burning decreased slash 

fuels and the depth and mass of forest 

fl oor, but early greenup of 

herbaceous fuels had a dampening effect on 

fi re spread and likely 

resulted in little change to potential fi re behavior.

Knapp et al. (2005) and Stephens and Moghaddas (2005a) reported that spring burns reduced woody fuels but overall had mixed effects because of moisture levels of herbaceous fuels.

8 Agee and Lolley 2006. Northeastern 

Cascades

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

M 2, 7 Canopy closure and canopy bulk 

density declined and canopy base height increased after mechanical treatments, yet these treatments increased slash fuels, which led to increased projected surface 

fi re 

potential under extreme weather conditions.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

9 Dolan, E. 2002. Soil and site variability in the 

northeast Wenatchee Mountains. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. 83 p. M.S. thesis.

Northeastern Cascades

Soils B, M, 

M+B

Although site conditions included steep, highly variable topography, and eight soil types, including young, thin soils lacking an A horizon and mature, deep soils with multiple Bt horizons, most variation in soil type was explained by current vegetation rather than by topography.

Phillips et al. (1996) discussed factors behind the development and persistence of soil variability.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
41

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

10 Hatten, J.; Zabowski, D.; Scherer, G.; Dolan, E. 2005. 

A comparison of soil properties after contemporary wild

fi re and 

fi re suppression. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 220(1–3): 227–241.

Northeastern Cascades

Soils B 1, 2 Chemical or physical soil properties 

did not differ between unburned stands and burned stands. Site factors, such as slope, aspect, erosion, and differential deposition appear to have far greater in

fl uence 

on soil properties than 

fi re.

Choromanska and DeLuca (2001) and Covington and Sackett (1984) found about 50–percent reduction in O-horizon depth. Typically, 

fi re raises 

pH of forest soils (DeBano et al. 1998). Kraemer and Hermann (1979) and Wagle and Kitchen (1972) found no differences in extractable phosphorus between burned and unburned plots. Grier (1975) reported that base cations decreased after a wild

fi re. Monleon et 

al. (1997) found that burning caused changes in nitrogen availability.

10 Hatten et al. 2005. Northeastern 

Cascades

Soils B 2 Hydrophobicity did not differ 

between unburned and burned stands. 

DeBano (2000) and Huffman et al. (2001) reported little increased hydrophobicity after low-intensity 

fi res.

11 Lyons, A.L.; Gaines, W.L.; Lehmkuhl, J.F.; Harrod, 

R.J. 2008. Short-term effects of 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate 

treatments on foraging tree selection by cavitynesting birds in dry forests of central Washington. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3203–3211.

Northeastern Cascades

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 5, 7 Cavity-nesting birds were more 

likely to be observed foraging in treated stands, especially those after mechanical + burn treatments, and these birds foraged in larger trees in treated stands. Fuel reduction treatments that remove smaller trees and retain larger trees and snags will improve foraging habitat for cavity-nesting birds, particularly nuthatches and woodpeckers.

Large trees are known to be favored by cavitynesting birds (Lundquist and Manuwal 1990). Treatments that accelerate the development of large trees, such as the FFS treatments, would likely create better foraging habitat for 

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
42

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 cavity-nesting birds (Dickson et al. 2004). Work by Kotliar et al. (2002) focused on the effects of severe 

fi res on cavity nesters, while Gaines et al. (2007, 2010) and Zebehazy et al. (2004) studied the entire avian community response to FFS treatments. No experimental studies have focused on the response of cavity nesters to low-intensity FFS treatments.

12 Gaines, W.; Haggard, M.; Begley, J.; Lehmkuhl, J.; 

Lyons, A. 2010. Short-term effects of thinning and burning restoration treatments on avian community composition, density, and nest survival in the eastern Cascades dry forests, Washington. Forest Science. 56(1): 88–99.

Northeastern Cascades

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B, 

1, 2 Abundance of bird species (except 

chipping sparrow) increased with fuel reduction treatment, and daily survival rates of nesting guilds were similar for treated vs. untreated stands. Spring burning likely was responsible for any lack of treatment effect for chipping sparrow.

Gaines et al. (2007) found that chipping sparrows increased in treated stands. Mixed results for mountain chickadee response to treatment have been reported (Finch et al. 1997, Gaines et al. 2007). Enhanced habitat conditions and abundance of whiteheaded woodpecker after fuel reduction treatment were reported by Gaines et al. (2007). Medin and Booth (1989) showed positive in

fl uence of 

treatment on olive-sided fl ycatcher. Treatments that reduce canopy 

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
43

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

cover may enhance western bluebird habitat (Wightman and Germaine 2006).

12 Gaines et al. 2010. Northeastern 

Cascades

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B 

1, 5, 7 Cavity and foliar nesting bird 

species used trees that were larger in diameter than the stand average, regardless of treatment, suggesting that management activities that promote larger trees will favor these species.

Large trees are important for nesting and foraging for mountain chickadees (Lyons et al. 2008). Large trees are important as habitat for cavity-nesting species (Bull et al. 1997, Dickson et al. 2004, Lundquist and Manuwal 1990).

13 Hoff, J.A. 2002. Fungal diversity in woody roots of 

east-slope Cascade ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) 

and Douglasfi r (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Pullman, WA: Washington State University. 76 p. M.S. thesis.

Northeastern Cascades

Pathology and fungi

B, M, M+B

5 Findings for this thesis can be 

found in papers Nos. 14 and 15.

14 Hoff, J.A.; Klopfenstein, N.B.; Tonn, J.R.; McDonald, 

G.I.; Zambino, P.J.; Rogers, J.D.; Peever, T.L.; Carris, L.M. 2004b. Roles of woody root-associated fungi in forest ecosystem processes: recent advances in fungal identi

fi cation. Res. Pap. RMRS-RP-47. Fort Collins, 

CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 6 p.

Northeastern Cascades

Pathology and fungi

B, M, M+B

5 Most belowground species of 

endophytic fungi in western dry forest ecosystems are largely unknown, yet likely have important ecological functions.

Smith et al. (2005) report on the response of ectomycorrhizal fungi to fuel reduction treatments in ponderosa pine forests of northeastern Oregon. Most other work with ectomycorrhizal fungi is focused on other forest ecosystems (Cullings et al. 2000, Johannesson and Stenlid 1999).

15 Hoff, J.A.; Klopfenstein, N.B.; McDonald, G.I.; 

Tonn, J.R.; Kim, M.S.; Zambino, P.J.; Hessburg, P.F.; Rogers, J.D.; Peever, T.L.; Carris, L.M. 2004a. Fungal endophytes in woody roots of Douglasfi r (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). Forest Pathology. 34(4): 255–271.

Northeastern Cascades

Pathology and fungi

B, M, M+B

5 A total of 27 genera of endophytic 

fungi were found inhabiting large woody roots of healthy Douglasfi r 

and ponderosa pine 

Park et al. (2001) demonstrated that Byssochlampys niveainhibited growth of important forest.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
44

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 trees in the northeastern Cascades, including the potential biological control agent Byssochlampys nivea, found in more than 20 percent of root isolates. pathogens such as Phytophthora cinnamomi and inhibited egg hatching of certain nematodes. Ramsey (2005) reported that B. nivea was common in several eastern Cascade sites in central Washington

15 Hoff et al. 2004a. Northeastern 

Cascades

Pathology and fungi

B, M, M+B

5 Fungal species composition 

and diversity were uncorrelated with either tree host or plant association, suggesting that the type of microenvironment that occurs in a particular dry forest may be more important than plant species; therefore, seasonally dry forests that differ in temporal heterogeneity of environmental conditions would be expected to host more fungal species.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

16 Ramsey, A.C. 2005. Ecology of fungal endophytes 

in Douglasfi r and ponderosa pine roots in eastern Washington. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. 75 p. M.S. thesis.

Northeastern Cascades

Pathology and fungi

B, M, M+B

5 The potential biological control 

agent Byssochlampys nivea was 

isolated.

Hoff et al. (2004a) found this fungal species at the Northeastern Cascades FFS site.

17 Goetz, J.; Dugan, F.M. 2006. Alternaria malorum: 

a mini-review with new records for hosts and pathogenicity. Paci

fi c Northwest Fungi. 1: 1–8.

Northeastern Cascades

Pathology and fungi

B, M, M+B

5 The pathogenic fungus Alternaria 

malorum, once thought to be rare, is a common fungus associated with ponderosa pine roots.

Dugan et al. (2005) and Schnellhardt and Heald (1936) isolated Alternaria malorumand suggested that this species was common.

18 Goetz, J.R., III. 2006. Fungal endophytes isolated 

from large roots of Douglasfi r (Pseudotsuga 

menziesii) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). Pullman, WA: Washington State University. 116 p. M.S. thesis.

Northeastern Cascades

Pathology and fungi

B, M, M+B

5 The pathogenic fungus Alternaria 

malorum, once thought to be rare, is a common fungus associated with ponderosa pine roots.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
45

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

19 Hessburg, P.F.; Povak, N.A.; Salter, R.B. 2008. 

Thinning and prescribed 

fi re effects on dwarf 

mistletoe severity in an eastern Cascade Range dry forest, Washington. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(7): 2907–2915.

Northeastern Cascades

Pathology and fungi

B, M, M+B

1, 2, 3 Dwarf mistletoe severity 

was reduced the most after mechanical + burn treatments, followed by mechanical and then burn treatments. Stand growth projections suggested that reductions would persist for about 20 years.

Conklin and Armstrong (2001) reported that well-implemented, periodic burns could reduce dwarf mistletoe severity in southwestern forests.

20 Agee, J.K.; Lehmkuhl, J.F., comps. 2009. Dry forests 

of the Northeastern Cascades Fire and Fire Surrogate project site, Mission Creek, Okanogan-Wenatchee National Forest. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-577. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Paci

fi c Northwest Research Station. 158 p.

Northeastern Cascades

General and study description

B, M, M+B

1, 2 This paper provides the study plan 

for the Northeastern Cascades FFS study site.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

21 Youngblood, A.; Metlen, K.L.; Coe, K. 2006. 

Changes in stand structure and composition after restoration treatments in low elevation dry forests of northeastern Oregon. Forest Ecology and Management. 234(1–3):143–163.

Blue Mountains

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Unique sets of understory plant 

species (indicator species) that characterized each treatment were identi

fi ed.

Metlen et al. (2006) also identi

fi ed indicator 

species for different fuel reduction treatments.

21 Youngblood et al. 2006. Blue 

Mountains

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2, 9 Short-term ecosystem 

consequences of fuel reduction treatments were modest. Quadratic mean diameter was higher and stand basal area was lower after mechanical treatments than after burn treatments. Seedling density was lower, coarse woody debris was less, and numbers of invasive species higher after burn treatments compared to mechanical treatments.

Metlen et al. (2004, 2006) reported that understory plant community responses to treatments indicated that most species were adapted to frequent lowintensity 

fi res. Changes 

were more subtle than changes observed after wild

fi re (Crawford et 

al. 2001, Griffi s et al. 2001, Passovoy and Fulé 2006).

21 Youngblood et al. 2006. Blue 

Mountains

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2, 9 Fire-tolerant understory plant 

species increased in cover after burn treatments, especially on fi ne-textured soils. Understory

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
46

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 plant communities contained fewer shade-tolerant, moist-site species but more rhizomatous species after mechanical treatments than after other treatments. Abundance of species common on shallow, coarse-texture soils increased after mechanical + burn treatments. 21 Youngblood et al. 2006. Blue 

Mountains

Overstory vegetation

M+B 2, 9 The basal area reduction target 

was met with mechanical + burn treatments, yet the number of invasive plant species increased and volume and number of large woody debris was reduced.

Torgersen (2002) reported similar volumes and numbers of logs after thinning and after burning. Knapp et al. (2005) and Stephens and Moghaddas (2005b) reported similar declines in log resources after burning.

22 Youngblood, A. 2010. Thinning and burning in dry 

coniferous forests of the western United States: effectiveness in altering diameter distributions. Forest Science. 56(1): 46–59.

Network Overstory 

vegetation

B, M, M+B

2 Meta-analysis across all seven 

western FFS sites involving 57,000 live trees indicated that the fuel reduction treatments increased mean stand diameters.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

22 Youngblood 2010. Network Overstory 

vegetation

M+B 2 Mechanical + burn treatment 

effects on stand structure were additive, affecting trees on both ends of the diameter distribution.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

22 Youngblood 2010. Network Overstory 

vegetation

B, M 2, 4 Meta-analysis across all seven 

western FFS sites indicated that the thin treatment affected the diameter distribution by removing more of the larger trees while the burn treatment affected the diameter distribution by removing more of the smaller trees.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
47

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

22 Youngblood 2010. Network Overstory 

vegetation

B, M, M+B

2, 8 Although burn, mechanical, and 

mechanical + burn treatments were successful in shifting size distributions to larger trees, no single entry will mitigate nearly a century of 

fi re exclusion in 

seasonally dry forests of the interior Western United States.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

23 Metlen, K.L. 2002. Undergrowth vegetation response 

to fuel reduction treatments in the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 74 p. M.S. thesis.

Blue Mountains

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 8, 9 Findings for this thesis can be 

found in paper No. 24.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

24 Metlen, K.L.; Fiedler, C.E.; Youngblood, A. 2004. 

Understory response to fuel reduction treatments in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon. Northwest Science. 78(3): 175–185.

Blue Mountains

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 8, 9 A full assessment of understory 

response (both diversity and cover) to treatment likely would require several more years of posttreatment data.

Scherer et al. (2000) found higher understory plant species diversity several years after a low thinning. Understory plant cover increased for 8 years after treatment in ponderosa pine forests (McConnell and Smith 1970). Lehmkuhl (2002) reported increased plant species richness several years after burning in clearcuts in coastal Washington.

24 Metlen et al. 2004. Blue 

Mountains

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Mechanical treatments did not 

serve as a surrogate for 

fi re; forb 

cover and plant species richness but not diversity declined after mechanical treatments while shrub and total cover declined after burn treatments.

Johnson (1998) reported similar short-term results after wild

fi res 

and suggested that most native plant species in these ecosystems are adapted to lowintensity disturbances such as thinning and surface 

fi re. Nieppola 

(1992) and Scherer et al. (2000) reported that 

fi re 

treatments reduced plant species richness. 

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
48

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 24 Metlen et al. 2004. Blue Mountains Understory vegetation B, M+B 1, 2 The magnitude of effects was greater for mechanical + burn treatments than for burn treatments, even though both treatments had similar responses. No other studies have reported similar 

fi ndings.

24 Metlen et al. 2004. Blue 

Mountains

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 2, 5 Short-term response of understory 

plants was generally modest, with a trend toward increased evenness after burn treatments. Individual species responded to treatments in a manner consistent with their life-history characteristics. Resiliency of the understory plant community to 

fi re and the effect of 

burning on individual plant species demonstrated their adaptation to frequent low-intensity 

fi re.

Grant and Loneragan (2001) reported that fi re treatments tended to increase evenness because of reductions in the cover of common plants. No other studies have reported increased evenness after surface burning in interior West ponderosa pine forests.

25 Matzka, P.; Kellogg, L. 1999. Thinning with 

prescribed 

fi re and timber harvesting mechanization 

for forest restoration: a review of past and present research. In: Proceedings, 1999 international mountain logging and 10th Paci

fi c Northwest skyline 

symposium. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University: 293–302. 

Blue Mountains

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

M 2, 10 Logging operations research 

expanded on earlier work in mixedconifer forests and provided new knowledge for the management of these stands.

Brown (1995), working in mixed-conifer forests, reported that the fuel reduction treatments conducted by using a combination of singlegrip harvester and a small cable yarder (skyline system) on 

fl at ground was 

economically feasible. Drews et al. (1998) reported that costs for yarding in mixedconifer forests were higher with cable yarding than with a cut-to-length harvester/forwarder system.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
49

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

26 Youngblood, A.; Wright, C.S.; Ottmar, R.D.; McIver, 

J.D. 2008. Changes in fuelbed characteristics and resulting 

fi re potentials after fuel reduction 

treatments in dry forests of the Blue Mountains, northeastern Oregon. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3151–3169.

Blue Mountains

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B 

1, 2, 3 The number of down logs was less 

after burn and mechanical + burn treatments than after mechanical treatments.

Burning reduced several measures of coarse woody debris at the Central Sierra FFS site (Stephens and Moghaddas 2005b). Log mass and cover were reduced with burning, especially with fall burns compared to spring burns, while the density of logs was unchanged at the Southern Sierra FFS (Knapp et al. 2005).

26 Youngblood et al. 2008. Blue 

Mountains

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B 

1, 2, 3 Surface fuel bed mass was reduced 

by burn treatments. Three years after applying 

fi re, total fuel loads 

(mass) was reduced by about 66 percent with the burn treatment and about 50 percent with the mechanical + burn treatment.

Knapp et al. (2005) and Stephens and Moghaddas (2005a) reported greater change in various fuel bed components after fuel reduction treatments. Fulé et al. (2005) reported comparable fuel loadings after burn treatments, with surface fuels reduced to about 33 percent the mass of untreated stands 5 years after treatment. Fulé et al. (2005) also reported that fuel mass 5 years after their combination thin and burn treatment was similar to their untreated fuel mass because of the accumulation of 

fi rekilled trees.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
50

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 26 Youngblood et al. 2008. Blue Mountains Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 2, 3 Burn treatments initially reduced 

fi re risk, yet after 3 years, treatments converged for various measures of 

fi re risk, indicating 

that a single entry resulted in only transient effectiveness.

Pollet and Omi (2002), working in the Tahoe Basin, and Stephens et al. (2009) working at several western FFS study sites, showed greater overall reduction in 

fi re risk, while Agee 

and Lolley (2006) achieved more modest fi re risk reduction in the northeastern Cascades.

26 Youngblood et al. 2008. Blue 

Mountains

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

M 2, 3 Thinning slash increased fuel mass 

initially, but these fuels declined in mass to pretreatment levels after 6 years.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

27 Rothenbach, C.A. 2007. The response of nuthatches 

(Sitta spp.) to restorative treatments in ponderosa pine ecosystems of northeastern Oregon. Prince George, BC: University of Northern British Columbia. 112 p. M.S. thesis.

Blue Mountains

Vertebrates M+B 1, 5 Foraging habitat suitability for 

both white-breasted and pygmy nuthatches improved more after mechanical + burn treatments than other treatments because these birds prefer large partially burned trees; habitat for red-breasted nuthatches remained unchanged.

Balda et al. (1983), Csuti et al. (1997), and Kingery and Ghalambor (2001) reported that pygmy nuthatches prefer open stands. Morrison et al. (1989) reported that nuthatch food was generally more abundant in stands treated by both thinning and burning.

28 Smith, J.E.; McKay, D.; Brenner, G.; McIver, 

J.; Spatafora, J.W. 2005. Early impacts of forest restoration treatments on the ectomycorrhizal fungal community and 

fi ne root biomass in a mixed conifer 

forest. Journal of Applied Ecology. 42(3): 526–535.

Blue Mountains

Pathology and fungi

B, M, M+B

1, 8, 9 The ectomycorrhizal fungal 

community was composed of a large number of infrequently detected species. The distribution of Cenococcum species, Pilodermaspecies, Rhizopogon salebrosus,

and Wilcoxina rehmii) before and after treatments showed that some ectomycorrhizal fungi species survived or rapidly reestablished after fuel reduction treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
51

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

28 Smith et al. 2005. Blue 

Mountains

Pathology and fungi

B, M+B, C

1, 2 Ectomycorrhizal fungi species 

richness, live root biomass, and duff levels were reduced by burn treatments; these responses tended to be greater after mechanical + burn treatments because thinning slash likely led to higher 

fi re 

severity.

Korb et al. (2003) found no effect of restoration treatments, including fi re, on the proportion of tree roots colonized by ectomycorrhizal fungi. Jonsson et al. (1999) reported little change in ectomycorrhizal fungi richness after low-intensity wild

fi res 

that did not consume the litter layer. In contrast, Stendell et al. (1999) reported that abundant ectomycorrhizal fungi were reduced by a highintensity prescribed 

fi re 

that consumed the litter layer.

29 Coulter, E.D. 1999. Hungry Bob harvest production 

study: mechanical thinning for fuel reduction in the Blue Mountains of northeast Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 96 p. M.S. thesis.

Blue Mountains

Economics M 8 For operational fuel reduction 

projects with cut-to-length mechanical logging systems, purpose-built harvesters and forwarders were more effi cient than 

converted machines (e.g., excavator modi

fi ed to harvester).

Matzka and Kellogg (2000) re

fi ned this 

fi nding after modeling, and predicted that as long as the sawlog component of an operation exceeded 10 percent, purpose-built harvesters were more effi cient.

30 Matzka, P.J.; Kellogg, L.D. 2000. An economic model 

for evaluating factors affecting biomass reduction and forest restoration. In: Proceedings, Council of Forest Engineering/Canadian Woodlands Forum Conference. Kelowna, B.C.: [Publisher unknown]. 5 p.

Blue Mountains

Economics M Purpose-built single-grip harvesters 

generated more revenue per unit time than retro

fi tted machines, 

except when saw-logs fell below 10 percent of total volume.

Dodson-Coulter (1999) showed that purposebuilt harvesters and forwarders were more effi cient than modi

fi ed 

machines.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
52

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 31 Matzka, P.J. 2003. Thinning with prescribed 

fi re and 

timber harvesting mechanization for fuels reduction and forest restoration. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 228 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Blue Mountains

Economics B, M, 

M+B

1, 7, 8 With a cut-to-length harvesting 

system, single grip harvesters and forwarding machines varied considerably in production rates. The type of harvested material was important for explaining variation in harvester production, whereas the distance and number of stops were important for the forwarder. Results demonstrated that fuel reduction projects that require the processing of more down wood material would yield higher net revenues and cost less per acre with purpose-built machines.

Drews et al. (1998) reported similar results from a cutto-length system in a high-elevation mixedconifer forest. McIver et al. (2003) reported costs and revenues for a mixed-conifer fuel reduction project. Holtzscher and Landford (1996) reported tree diameter effects on cost and productivity of cutto-length systems.

31 Matzka 2003. Blue 

Mountains

Economics B, M, 

M+B

1, 7, 8 Net revenues from thinning 

averaged $315 per acre, while costs of prescribed 

fi re averaged $51 

per acre, demonstrating that the thinning operation paid the costs of fuel reduction.

No other studies have reported the costs and revenue of an operational-scale fuel reduction project.

31 Matzka 2003. Blue 

Mountains

Economics B, M, 

M+B

1, 7, 8 Douglasfi r (Pseudotsuga 

menziesii) required about 10 percent more time to process per diameter than ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), suggesting that 

tree species will in

fl uence harvest 

costs in fuel reduction projects.

Raymond and Moore (1989) reported that differences in production based on tree species was related to differences among limb sizes.

32 McIver, J.D.; Youngblood, A.; Niwa, C.; Smith, 

J.; Ottmar, R.; Matzka, P. 2000b. Alternative fuel reduction methods in Blue Mountain dry forests: an introduction to the Hungry Bob project. In: Neuenschwander, L.F.; Ryan, K.C.; Goldberg, G.E., eds. Proceedings, crossing the millennium: integrating spatial technologies and ecological principles for a new age in 

fi re management, 

1999 Joint Fire Science conference. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho Press, online version: 282–286.

Blue Mountains

General and study description

B, M, M+B

1, 2 This paper describes the FFS study 

design: no 

fi ndings presented.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
53

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

33 Youngblood, A.; Grace, J.B.; McIver, J.D. 2009. 

Delayed conifer mortality after fuel reduction treatments: interactive effects of fuel, 

fi re intensity, 

and bark beetles. Ecological Applications. 19(2): 321–337.

Blue Mountains

Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1, 2, 3 Red turpentine beetles and woodboring beetles caused most of 

the tree mortality attributable to insects.

No studies have implicated red turpentine or woodboring beetles as mortality agents after prescribed surface 

fi re 

in natural ponderosa pine stands. Rappaport et al. (2001) attributed ponderosa pine mortality to red turpentine beetles in a 17–year-old plantation, Fettig et al. (2006) implicated red turpentine beetle in stands where logging residues were chipped and retained on site, and Cognato et al. (2005) found red turpentine beetle mortality in a native pine of China.

33 Youngblood et al. 2009. Blue 

Mountains

Multivariate B, M+B 1 Fire was the greatest source of 

mortality in small-diameter trees, while posttreatment windstorms caused the greatest mortality of large trees.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

33 Youngblood et al. 2009. Blue 

Mountains

Multivariate B, M+B 1 Fire in the mechanical + burn 

treatment burned hotter than in the burn treatment owing to the higher levels of surface fuels generated by the thinning operation.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

33 Youngblood et al. 2009. Blue 

Mountains

Multivariate M+B 2 Structural equation modeling 

showed that bark-beetle-caused tree mortality was greatest after the mechanical + burn treatment compared with other treatments. Delayed mortality of large-diameter

No other studies have experimentally linked bark-beetle-caused tree mortality to fuel loads, fi re intensity, and 

fi re 

severity. Levels of 

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
54

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 ponderosa pine from bark beetles and wood borers was directly related to surface 

fi re severity 

and bole charring, which in turn depended on 

fi re intensity, which 

in turn was greater where thinning increased slash fuels.

mortality caused by bark beetles were consistent with work from northern Arizona (Zausen et al. 2005).

34 Fiedler, C.E.; Metlen, K.L.; Dodson, E.K. 2010. 

Restoration treatment effects on stand structure, tree growth, and 

fi re hazard in a ponderosa pine/Douglasfi r forest in Montana. Forest Science. 56(1): 18–31.

Northern Rockies

Overstory vegetation

M+B 1, 2 The mechanical + burn treatment 

was the most effective in creating stand conditions that could resist moderate wild

fi re by increasing 

quadratic mean diameter, height to live crown, and tree growth rate, and lowering canopy cover and crown 

fi re potential compared to 

other treatments.

Youngblood et al. (2006) and Stephens and Moghaddas (2005a) reported that the mechanical + burn treatment increased quadratic mean diameter, thus demonstrating that a single thinning entry can increase average residual tree size. Canopy cover levels between 30 and 50 percent were considered adequate to create sustainable, 

fi re-resilient 

ponderosa pine stands (Hollenstein et al. 2001, van Wangtendonk 1996, Waltz et al. 2003). Growth response to thinning is well known, although burning can cause reductions in growth rate through root and cambial damage (Fajardo et al. 2007).

34 Fiedler et al. 2010. Northern 

Rockies

Overstory vegetation

M, M+B

8 Residual tree densities after 

mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments were within

Fiedler et al. (1988) listed recommendations for tree density to 

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
55

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

the recommended density for regenerating ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), suggesting that thinning is suffi cient to meet longterm restoration goals in western 

Montana.

achieve regeneration of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa).

35 Dodson, E.K. 2004. Monitoring change in exotic 

plant abundance after fuel reduction/restoration treatments in ponderosa pine forests of western Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 99 p. M.S. thesis.

Northern Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 9 Findings for this thesis can be 

found in papers Nos. 37 and 39.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

36 Metlen, K.L.; Fiedler, C.E. 2006. Restoration 

treatment effects on the understory of ponderosa pine/Douglasfi r forests in western Montana, USA. 

Forest Ecology and Management. 222(1-3): 355–369.

Northern Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M 1, 2 Overstory canopy cover was 

reduced after mechanical treatments leading to increased light levels on the forest 

fl oor but 

not after burn treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

36 Metlen and Fiedler 2006. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Forbs were the most responsive life 

form to fuel reduction treatments, and both species richness and cover increased after treatment, especially after mechanical + burn treatments.

Short-term shrub response to 

fi re has been 

documented in other dry forest or savannah ecosystems (Antos et al. 1983, MacKenzie et al. 2004, Metlen et al. 2004, Schoennagel et al. 2004).

36 Metlen and Fiedler 2006. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Sapling density was reduced by all 

three treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

36 Metlen and Fiedler 2006. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2, 3 Plant species richness at plot scale 

(1000 m2) was greater 3 years after 

burn, mechanical, and mechanical + burn treatments than before treatments, with the greatest increase after mechanical + burn treatments and the least increase after the burn treatments. 

Griffi s et al. (2001) reported similar treatment effects. Wienk et al. (2004) reported that species richness declined the 

fi rst year 

after thinning and then increased. Increasing species richness of forbs after burning was reported by Busse et al. (2000).

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
56

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 36 Metlen and Fiedler 2006. Northern Rockies Understory vegetation B, M+B 1, 2, 3 Evenness (Simpson’s Index) initially increased after the burning treatment, but treatment differences were not distinguishable 3 years later. No other studies have reported similar 

fi ndings.

36 Metlen and Fiedler 2006. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2, 3 Shrub richness and abundance at 

the 1-m2 scale was reduced initially 

by burning.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

36 Metlen and Fiedler 2006. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 6, 10 Responses of plants to the three 

treatments suggested that maximum heterogeneity and diversity at the landscape scale could be achieved by applying a mix of treatments. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

36 Metlen and Fiedler 2006. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

M+B 2, 8 Conditions most similar to those 

described for stand under natural disturbance regimes, with reduced conifer regeneration and increased native understory species richness and abundance, were created by mechanical + burn treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

37 Dodson, E.K.; Fiedler, C.E. 2006. Impacts of 

restoration treatments on alien plant invasion in Pinusponderosa forests, Montana, USA. Journal of Applied Ecology. 43(5): 887–897.

Northern Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M 1, 2, 9 Greater exotic and transformer 

plant species (species capable of altering environmental conditions) at 100-m2 and 1000-m2 scales 

were found after burn and after mechanical treatments than in untreated stands.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

37 Dodson and Fiedler 2006. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 3 Four transformer plant species 

(species capable of altering environmental conditions) were identi

fi ed as indicators after 

mechanical + burn treatments, while one species was identi

fi ed 

after mechanical treatments. No transformer plant species were identi

fi ed for burn and untreated 

conditions. Strong links between 

The ability of exotic species to persist several years after treatment may complicate restoration efforts and suggests the need to continue monitoring understory species dynamics (Halpern et al. 1999).

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
57

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

treatment and indicator species suggested the need to continue monitoring key transformer species, such as Canada thistle (Cirsium vulgare).

37 Dodson and Fiedler 2006. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 7, 9 There may be a tradeoff 

between the need to accomplish fuel reduction objectives in a timely manner and the risk of establishment of exotic transformer species (plant species capable of altering environmental conditions).

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

37 Dodson and Fiedler 2006. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

M+B 2, 9 Species richness and cover of exotic 

transformer species (plant species capable of altering environmental conditions) were greater after the mechanical + burn treatment than after other treatments at spatial scales of 1 m2, 100 m2, and 1000 

m2

.

Increased exotic species richness after burning (Fulé et al. 2005, Griffi s et al. 2001, Wienk et al. 2004) and after thinning (Haeussler et al. 2002, Thysell and Carey 2001) was previously reported, although the FFS study at the Northern Rocky Mountains site was conducted unusually in operational scale experiment units (Bennett and Adams 2004).

37 Dodson and Fiedler 2006. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

M+B 2, 9 Cover of transformer species 

(plant species capable of altering environmental conditions) was greatest after the mechanical + burn treatments, likely the result of increased 

fi re intensity and severity 

because cover of these species was positively correlated with tree crown scorch height and negatively correlated with tree density.

Increased cover of certain exotic species after combined treatments was reported by Griffi s et al. (2001) and Wienk et al. (2004).

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
58

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 38 Metlen, K.L.; Dodson, E.K.; Fiedler, C.E. 2006. Vegetation response to restoration treatments in ponderosa pine-Douglasfi r forests. In: Fire Effects Information System. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. www.fs.fed.us/database/ feis/research_project_summaries/Metlen06/all.html (Date accessed Jan. 23, 2012). Northern Rockies Understory vegetation B, M, M+B 1, 2, 9 Findings for this publication can be found in papers Nos. 37 and 39. 39 Dodson, E.K.; Metlen, K.L.; Fiedler, C.E. 2007. Common and uncommon understory species differentially respond to restoration treatments 

in ponderosa pine/Douglasfi r forests, Montana. 

Restoration Ecology. 15(4): 696–708.

Northern Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2 Short-lived species (annual 

and biennial) were favored by treatments that included burning.

Positive responses by short-lived plant species have been reported for thinning (McConnell and Smith 1965), burning (Laughlin et al. 2004, Merrill et al. 1980), and combined treatments (Fulé et al. 2005).

39 Dodson et al. 2007. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B, 

1, 2, 9 Species richness of common native 

plants was greater after mechanical treatments, while uncommon native species richness increased after burn, mechanical, and especially the mechanical + burn treatments.

Fire exclusion reduced understory plant richness in forests with frequent 

fi re regimes 

(Covington and Moore 1994, Fulé et al. 1997, Laughlin et al. 2004, Wienk et al. 2004).

39 Dodson et al. 2007. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 8, 9 Restoration treatments fostered 

native plant species richness by minimally affecting common species while bene

fi ting more 

uncommon disturbance-dependent species.

Uncommon native species may bene

fi t from 

restoration treatments that reestablish conditions and processes that are critical components of their evolutionary history (Fiedler et al. 1992, White and Jentsch 2001).

39 Dodson et al. 2007. Northern 

Rockies

Understory vegetation

M, M+B

2, 3 Graminoids were exclusively 

indicative of the mechanical treatment.

Griffi s et al. 2001 reported that graminoid richness can be promoted by burning.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
59

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

40 Gundale, M.J.; DeLuca, T.H. 2006. Temperature 

and source material in

fl uence ecological attributes 

of ponderosa pine and Douglasfi r charcoal. Forest Ecology and Management. 231(1–3): 86–93.

Northern Rockies

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 1 Charring temperature is a critical 

variable for production of charcoal that may enhance plant growth, suggesting that 

fi re intensity 

is important for predicting the extent to which site productivity is enhanced. Spatial heterogeneity in productivity was associated with the creation of charcoal at different temperatures, corresponding to spatial heterogeneity in fuels, 

fi re 

intensity, and 

fi re severity.

Zackrisson et al. (1996) suggested that charcoal may serve a key ecological function in boreal forests, with spatial variation in burning temperature responsible for creating differing levels of charcoal. 

40 Gundale and DeLuca 2006. Northern 

Rockies

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 1 Charcoal formed at high 

temperatures is more effective at adsorbing allelochemical compounds such as catechin (found in many weedy plant species), suggesting that the mechanism for enhancing plant growth may be sorption of nitri

fi cation-inhibiting 

compounds.

Catechin has been identi

fi ed from root 

exudates of spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa) (Bais et al. 2003), which in turn have been shown to have strong allelopathic effects on native plant species. Hille and den Ouden (2005) reported that naturally produced charcoal was less effective at adsorbing allelochemicals compared to arti

fi cial, 

“activated charcoal;” however these authors used “low temperature” natural charcoal produced at 450 degrees Celcius, compared to 800 degrees for the current study.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
60

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 41 Gundale, M.J.; DeLuca, T.H.; Fiedler, C.E.; Ramsey, P.W.; Harrington, M.G.; Gannon, J.E. 2005. Restoration treatments in a Montana ponderosa pine forest: effects on soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Forest Ecology and Management. 213(1–3): 25–38. Northern Rockies Soils B, M+B 1, 2 Burning caused many soil chemical changes in the upper levels of soil, yet heating on average was not suffi cient to alter soil microbe communities, nor to cause shifts in exchangeable ions such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, or in pH. Short-term losses of microbial biomass or shifts in microbial community structure have been reported (Choromanska and DeLuca et al. 2002, Korb et al. 2003), as have shifts in exchangeable ions 

(Klemmedson 1992).

41 Gundale et al. 2005. Northern 

Rockies

Soils M+B 1, 2, 3 Phospholipid fatty acids, owing 

to increased abundance of actinomycetes, increased 16 to 18 weeks after burning in mechanical + burn treatments. Carbon:nitrogen ratios in the O horizon were lower the 

fi rst year 

after burning in mechanical + burn treatments. Greater ammonium and nitri

fi cation levels in the O horizon 

lasted 3 years after burning. Decomposition rates were higher after mechanical + burn treatments.

Ammonium concentrations increased between 2 and 20 times after 

fi re (Covington and 

Sackett 1992, DeLuca and Zouhar 2000, Kaye and Hart 1998, Monleon et al. 1997).

41 Gundale et al. 2005. Northern 

Rockies

Soils B, M+B 1, 6, 10 There was substantial spatial 

heterogeneity in burn severity within stands, and this led to patchiness of soil nutrient effects. Information on soil effects at the stand level may be more applicable to actual management operations than information from studies conducted on smaller, more homogeneous burn plots.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

42 Gundale, M.J.; DeLuca, T.H. 2007. Charcoal effects 

on soil solution chemistry and growth of Koeleria 

macrantha in the ponderosa pine/Douglasfi r ecosystem. Biology and Fertility of Soils. 43(3): 303–311.

Northern Rockies

Soils B, M+B 1 Charcoal produced in a 

fi re 

enhanced the growth of the native perennial grass Koeleria macrantha, probably through the sorption of

Zackrisson et al. (1996) and DeLuca et al. (2002) reported the capacity of charcoal to adsorb.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
61

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

nitri

fi cation-inhibiting compounds 

such as phenols.

phenolic compounds. DeLuca et al. (2006) showed that charcoal created during wild

fi res 

increased nitri

fi cation 

rates.

42 Gundale and DeLuca 2007. Northern 

Rockies

Soils B, M+B 1 Charcoal produced at low 

temperature in a laboratory setting had different properties than charcoal created during a wild

fi re, 

suggesting that temperature and oxygen concentration may be important in producing charcoal with growth-enhancing effects.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

43 Burgoyne, T.A.; DeLuca, T.H. 2009. Short-term 

effects of forest restoration management on nonsymbiotic nitrogenfi xation in western Montana. 

Forest Ecology and Management. 258(7): 1369–1375.

Northern Rockies

Soils B, M, 

M+B

1 Nitrogenfi xation rates (0.26 kg 

N·ha-1·yr-1) would likely require 

40 to 100 years to replenish soil nitrogen lost through wild

fi re or 

through whole-tree harvest.

Soil nitrogen loss was estimated at 230 kg N·ha-1 after standreplacing wild

fi re (Wan 

et al. 2001) and 100 kg N·ha-1 after whole-tree 

harvesting (Wei et al. 1997). 

43 Burgoyne and DeLuca 2009. Northern 

Rockies

Soils B, M, 

M+B

2 Nitrogenfi xation rates were 

slightly higher overall in control stands compared to treated stands. The overall low nitrogenfi xation rates were likely the result of environmentally dry conditions in these forests.

Wei and Kimmins (1998) reported similar results, while Jurgensen et al. (1992) reported nitrogenfi xation rates in mineral soil were lower in treated stands 6 years after treatment. Chen and Hicks (2003) reported high rates of nitrogen 

fi xation in 

decaying roots of oldgrowth stands.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
62

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 43 Burgoyne and DeLuca 2009. Northern Rockies Soils B, M+B 2 Nitrogen 

fi xation rates were nearly 

nonexistent in root systems of stumps or 

fi re-killed trees, but rates 

were not affected by treatment in mineral soil or decomposing roots.

Wei and Kimmins (1998) reported higher rates of nitrogen 

fi xation 

in woody roots of 

fi rekilled trees than in 

mineral soil.

44 Woolf, J.C. 2003. Effects of thinning and prescribed 

burning on birds and small mammals. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 126 p. M.S. thesis.

Northern Rockies

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Golden mantled ground squirrels, 

deer mice, and yellow-pine chipmunks were more abundant after burn treatments while redbacked voles were more abundant without burning.

Deer mice were reported to favor burned areas (Ream 1981). Redbacked voles were reported to prefer more mesic, closed-canopy conditions (Foresman 2001). Other studies have shown mixed response of chipmunks to burning (Ahlgren 1966).

44 Woolf 2003. Northern 

Rockies

Vertebrates B, M+B 2, 5 Bird communities showed little 

short-term response to fuel reduction treatments, yet blackbacked woodpecker and olivesided 

fl ycatchers, both considered 

sensitive (U.S. Forest Service classi

fi cation) were found only after 

burn treatments.

Black-backed woodpeckers are attracted to burned stands, especially when bark beetles are actively colonizing trees (Hutto 1995, Murphy and Lehnhausen 1998).

44 Woolf 2003. Northern 

Rockies

Vertebrates B, M+B 5 Red-breasted nuthatches and 

mountain chickadees used untreated sites most often, while black-backed woodpeckers, hairy woodpeckers, and white-breasted nuthatches foraged in burned units more frequently. Most bird species preferred large-diameter trees for foraging.

Altered foraging behavior of barkforaging birds after mechanical fuel reduction treatments was reported by Szaro and Balda (1979) and Weikel (1997). No other studies have compared bark foraging behavior in burned and unburned units.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
63

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

45 Pierson, J.C.; Mills, L.S.; Christian, D.P. 2010. 

Foraging patterns of cavity-nesting birds in 

fi resuppressed and prescribe-burned ponderosa pine 

forests in Montana. Open Environmental Sciences. 4: 41–52.

Northern Rockies

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1 Most cavity-nesting bird species 

foraged selectively on the largest trees in treated and untreated stands.

Other studies have reported that many cavity-nesting bird species select the largest trees for foraging (Gunn and Hagan 2000, Lundquist and Manuwal 1990, Saab and Dudley 1998, Villard and Beninger 1993).

45 Pierson et al. 2010. Northern 

Rockies

Vertebrates B, M+B 1 Cavity-nesting birds, including 

black-backed woodpeckers, hairy woodpeckers, and white-breasted nuthatches, responded positively to burn treatments.

Gaines et al. (2007) reported that more redbreasted nuthatches were found in untreated stands than in burned or thinned stands. Whitebreasted nuthatches and black-backed woodpeckers were found more often in burned forests (Gaines et al. 2007, Smucker et al. 2005).

46 Six, D.L.; Skov, K. 2009. Response of bark beetles 

and their natural enemies to 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate 

treatments in mixed-conifer forests in western Montana. Forest Ecology and Management. 258(5): 761–772.

Northern Rockies

Bark beetles B, M, 

M+B

1 Tree mortality resulting from bark 

beetles was greatest after burn treatments and was positively in

fl uenced by 

fi re severity.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

46 Six and Skov 2009. Northern 

Rockies

Bark beetles B, M+B 1 Douglasfi r, pine engraver, and 

western pine beetle populations increased after burn treatments, but adjacent green trees were not attacked. Failure of bark beetles to spread likely resulted from low numbers in the background beetle populations and high tree vigor.

Variability in the tendency of bark beetles to move to adjacent green trees likely results from tree vigor and the number of host trees available to support ampli

fi cation of bark 

beetle population (Peterson and Arbaugh 1989). Movement of bark beetles into

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
64

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 green trees after the Yellowstone 

fi res in 

1988 likely resulted from the large number of 

fi re-weakened trees 

and prolonged drought after the 

fi res (Amman 

and Ryan 1991). Fettig and McKelvey (2010) reported that the amount of bark beetle-caused tree mortality increased on unburned split plots compared to adjacent burned split plots 3 to 5 years after burning.

46 Six and Skov 2009. Northern 

Rockies

Bark beetles B, M+B 2 Increased resin 

fl ow in burned trees 

late in the growing season did not affect bark beetle attack success.

Increased resin 

fl ow 

in 

fi re-damaged trees 

may increase resistance to bark beetle attack (Feeney et al. 1998, Perrakis and Agee 2006).

47 Gundale, M.J. 2005. Nitrogen cycling and spatial 

heterogeneity following 

fi re and restoration 

treatments in the ponderosa pine/Douglasfi r 

ecosystem. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 166 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Northern Rockies

Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Findings for this dissertation can be 

found in papers Nos. 40 and 42.

48 Miesel, J.R.; Boerner, R.E.J.; Skinner, C.N. 2008. 

Mechanical restoration of California mixedconifer forests: Does it matter which trees are cut? Restoration Ecology. 17(6): 784–795.

Southern Cascades

Overstory vegetation

M 2 Different thinning treatments may 

lead to soil differences that may affect growth rates of residual trees and growth and survivorship of newly established seedlings.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
65

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

48 Miesel et al. 2008. Southern 

Cascades

Overstory vegetation

M 7 In a size-preference thinning 

treatment, inorganic nitrogen availability, soil organic carbon content, phenol oxidase activity and forest 

fl oor carbon:nitrogen ratio 

were greater than a pine-preference thinning treatment. Conversely, forest 

fl oor nitrogen and soil pH 

were greater in the pine-preference treatment.

Spatial distribution of the remaining trees may also in

fl uence soil pH 

and inorganic nitrogen. Concentrations of inorganic nitrogen were greater in cut openings where more than 

fi ve 

trees were removed in a lodgepole pine stand in Wyoming than in uncut stands. Gap size did not affect ammonium (Parsons et al. 1994).

49 Schmidt, D.A.; Taylor, A.H.; Skinner, C.N. 2008. 

The in

fl uence of fuels treatment and landscape 

arrangement on simulated 

fi re behavior, southern 

Cascade Range, California. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3170–3184.

Southern Cascades

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 2 At the landscape level, fuel 

reduction treatment type, amount, and arrangement of fuels had important effects on both 

fi re 

spread and 

fi re intensity. In this 

landscape, there was the potential to reduce high-intensity 

fi re 

behavior while treating only some areas by relying on strategically placed fuel treatments when these treatments were arranged by using Finney’s optimal SPLATs design.

Little research has evaluated whether differences in the effectiveness of standscale fuel treatments scale up to forest landscapes, or how the spatial arrangement of treatment units in

fl uence 

the effectiveness of treatments to reduce fi re risk across forested landscapes (Finney 2001, Loehle 2004).

49 Schmidt et al. 2008. Southern 

Cascades

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

M+B 2 Simulated 

fi re behavior at the 

stand level demonstrated that the mechanical + burn treatment was the most effective in reducing future surface and crown 

fi re 

behavior.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

50 Miesel, J.; Skinner, C.; Boerner, R. 2006. Impact of 

fi re on soil resource patterns in mixed-conifer forests in the southern Cascade range of northern California. In: Dickinson, M.B., ed. Proceedings, 

fi re in eastern 

oak forests: delivering science to land managers. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-1. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 290.

Southern Cascades

Soils B, M+B 1, 2 Soil pH and total inorganic nitrogen 

increased after burn treatments, while there was no change in nitrogen mineralization and acid phosphatase activity was reduced.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
66

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 50 Miesel et al. 2006. Southern Cascades Soils B 2 The carbon:nitrogen ratio increased and soil organic carbon declined after burn treatments. The carbon:nitrogen ratio and soil organic carbon remained unchanged after mechanical + burn treatments, while chitinase activity declined. No other studies have reported similar 

fi ndings.

51 Fettig, C.; Borys, R.; Dabney, C. 2010. Effects of 

fi re 

and 

fi re surrogate treatments on bark beetle-caused 

tree mortality in the southern Cascades, California. Forest Science. 56(1): 60–73.

Southern Cascades

Bark beetles B, M, 

M+B

1 Bark beetle-caused tree mortality 

was concentrated in the smaller diameter classes.

McHugh and Kolb (2003) reported that mortality 3 years after fi re was greatest in the smallest diameter trees. In contrast, Kolb et al. (2007) reported a “U-shaped” distribution of ponderosa pine mortality with greater mortality of both smalland large-diameter trees compared to mediumdiameter trees. 

51 Fettig et al. 2010. Southern 

Cascades

Bark beetles M, 

M+B

1, 2 Bark beetle attacks resulted in 

higher rates of 

fi r mortality after 

mechanical + burn treatments than after mechanical treatments during both sample periods, but not cumulatively during the 4–year period.

Stand susceptibility to bark beetle attack can be reduced by reducing tree density (Fettig et al. 2007). Sartwell (1971) suggested that slow growth preceded mortality of nearly all trees killed by mountain pine beetle in the Paci

fi c Northwest and 

suggested thinning to reduce tree competition and increase individual tree growth. Others have reported that restoration treatments, 

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
67

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

including thinning and a combination of thinning and burning, improved tree vigor, growth, and decreased the likelihood of bark beetle attacks on individual trees (Feeney et al. 1998, Kolb et al. 1998, Sala et al. 2005, Skov et al. 2005, Stone et al. 1999, Wallin et al. 2004, 2008, Zausen et al. 2005).

51 Fettig et al. 2010. Southern 

Cascades

Bark beetles B, M, 

M+B

2 Rates of bark beetle-caused tree 

mortality, cumulatively over the 4–year study period, were higher and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) mortality was greater 2 years after burn treatments than other treatments. Bark beetle-caused mortality after the mechanical treatments did not differ from the untreated stands.

Oester et al. (2005) compared different thinning strategies and found the highest levels of bark beetle-caused mortality in untreated stands. 

52 Stephens, S.L.; Moghaddas, J.J. 2005a. Experimental 

fuel treatment impacts on forest structure, potential fi re behavior, and predicted tree mortality in a California mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 215(1–3): 21–36.

Central Sierra Nevada

Overstory vegetation

M 1 Modeled 

fi re behavior and tree 

mortality was greater after the mechanical and the control treatments than after treatments that included 

fi re as a surface fuel 

treatment.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

52 Stephens and Moghaddas 2005a. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Overstory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2 The combined litter and duff fuel 

load, average 

fi re line intensity, rate 

of spread, and predicted mortality declined after burn treatments.

Tinker and Knight (2000) reported that more standing dead trees that could become coarse woody debris (logs) remained after burning treatments than after combined thinning and burning treatments.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
68

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 52 Stephens and Moghaddas 2005a. Central Sierra Nevada Overstory vegetation M, M+B 1, 2 Crown bulk density was reduced 19 percent after mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments. Similar reductions in crown fuels after thinning treatments were reported in northeast Oregon (McIver et al. 2003) and Arizona (Fulé et al. 2001). 53 Kobziar, L.; Moghaddas, J.; Stephens, S.L. 2006. 

Tree mortality patterns following prescribed 

fi res in 

a mixed conifer forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 36(12): 3222–3238.

Central Sierra Nevada

Overstory vegetation

B, M+B 1 Predictions of tree mortality after 

fi re were developed for use with modeling programs BEHAVE or FOFEM. Low mortality of largediameter white 

fi r (Abies concolor) 

likely occurred because trees were relatively young and resilient to 

fi re. Preburn canopy cover 

and mortality of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) after the burn 

were linked. Mortality of tanoak (Lithocarpus densifl orus) after burns was modeled for the 

fi rst 

time. 

Other work has shown that combinations of tree characteristics and direct injuries provide the best prediction of post

fi re 

tree mortality (McHugh and Kolb 2003, Peterson and Arbaugh 1986, Regelbrugge and Conard 1993, Ryan and Reinhardt 1988, Saveland and Neuenschwander 1990; Stephens and Finney 2002). Stephens and Finney (2002) reported that duff consumption was an important predictor of white fi r (Abies concolor) mortality. Susceptibility of incense cedar to bole char was previously reported by Powers and Oliver (1990).

53 Kobziar et al. 2006. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

2 Mortality of tanoak (Lithocarpus 

densifl orus) and California black 

oak (Quercus kelloggii) was greater after burn treatments than other 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
69

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

treatments, while mortality of sugar pine (Pinus. lambertiana) and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa) was the least after burn treatments. 

53 Kobziar et al. 2006. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

3 The most reliable predictors of 

short-term tree mortality were tree diameter and total crown damage. Bark beetles did not play a role in either immediate or delayed tree mortality.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings. 

54 Moghaddas, J.J.; Stephens, S.L.; York, R.A. 2008. 

Initial response of conifer and California black oak seedlings following fuel reduction activities in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3141–3150.

Central Sierra Nevada

Overstory vegetation

B, M 1, 2 Douglas 

fi r (Pseudotsuga 

menziesii) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) seedling density increased after both burn and mechanical treatments. Seedling density for all tree species combined increased after both burn and mechanical + burn treatments. Establishment of true 

fi rs (Abies

spp.) was inconsistent across burn treatments. 

van Mantgem et al. (2006) reported that true 

fi r seedlings easily 

established in both burned and unburned sites. 

54 Moghaddas et al. 2008. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 7 California black oak (Quercus 

kelloggii) and sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) seedlings likely will not survive treatments used to reduce 

fi re hazard.

Numbers of sugar and ponderosa pine seedlings were low in dense mixed-conifer stands in the Sierra Nevada (Ansley and Battles 1998, van Mantgem et al. 2004). 

55 Collins, B.M.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Stephens, S.L. 2007. 

Initial changes in forest structure and understory plant communities following fuel reduction activities in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 239(1–3): 102–111.

Central Sierra Nevada

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2 The three fuel reduction treatments 

decreased residual tree and seedling density, canopy cover, tree volume, and basal area. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

55 Collins et al. 2007. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2 The three treatments increased 

light penetration into the stands. Exposure of mineral soil increased after burn and mechanical + burn treatments. Increased exposure of mineral soil and increased light favored forbs and graminoids.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
70

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 55 Collins et al. 2007. Central Sierra Nevada Understory vegetation M, M+B 1, 2 Cover and richness of exotic plant species increased after the mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments. Using change in live tree volume as a proxy for severity, mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments represented the greatest disturbance severity. Exotic plant species richness increased after mechanical + burn treatments in western Montana (Metlen and Fiedler 2006). Severity of silvicultural treatment, regardless of the inclusion of fi re, was linked to increases 

in exotic plant richness (Battles et al. 2001). Little increase in exotic plant species richness and cover after burn treatments, as reported by Knapp et al. (2007), suggests that mechanical treatments may create more favorable seedbed for invasive species than burn treatments.

55 Collins et al. 2007. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2, 9 Native plant species richness 

declined after burn and mechanical + burn treatments. Shrub cover declined after the mechanical treatment. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

56 Stephens, S.L.; Moghaddas, J.J. 2005b. Fuel 

treatment effects on snags and coarse woody debris in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 214(1–3): 53–64.

Central Sierra Nevada

Fuels and fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Volume of stand dead (snags) did 

not differ among treatments for all decay classes. Density of snags greater than 15 cm was higher after burn and mechanical + burn treatments.

Morrison and Raphael (1993) found similar patterns of snag recruitment.

56 Stephens and Moghaddas 2005b. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Fuels and fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 1, 2 Coarse woody debris, especially 

the more decayed larger logs, declined in number after burn and mechanical + burn treatments. 

Reduced number of logs after burn and thin + burn treatments was reported by North

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
71

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Mechanical treatments had no effect on coarse woody debris.

et al. (2002). Work by Covington and Sackett (1992) and Stephens and Finney (2002) showed that between 70 and 99 percent of rotten coarse woody debris was consumed during burn treatments, suggesting that 

fi re-prone forests 

likely contained low levels of rotten coarse woody debris under natural 

fi re regimes.

56 Stephens and Moghaddas 2005b. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 7 Depending upon management 

objectives, dry forest managers may need to balance the bene

fi ts of burn 

treatments for 

fi re risk reduction 

with the loss of rotten coarse woody debris, an important resource for some wildlife species.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

57 Moghaddas, J.J.; Stephens, S.L. 2007b. Fire 

performance in traditional silvicultural and 

fi re 

surrogate treatments in Sierran mixed conifer forests: a brief summary. In: Powers, R.F., ed. Proceedings of the 2005 national silviculture workshop, restoring 

fi re-adapted ecosystems. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

PSW-GTR-203. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Paci

fi c Southwest 

Research Station: 251–260.

Central Sierra Nevada

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

M+B 2, 8 Mechanical + burn treatments 

tended to reduce surface fuels, increase height to live crown, decrease crown density, and retain the largest trees. These characteristics may be critical for enhancing 

fi re resiliency.

Similar characteristics may best satisfy fuel reduction objectives (Agee and Skinner 2005).

58 Stephens, S.; Rapp, V. 2008. Chainsaws or 

driptorches: How should 

fi re risk be reduced? 

Fire Science Brief 6. Boise, ID: Joint Fire Science Program. 6 p.

Central Sierra Nevada

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 1, 2 Predicted tree mortality, 

fi reline 

intensity, and rate of spread were lowest after burn and mechanical + burn treatments. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

58 Stephens and Rapp 2008. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B

1, 8 Fuel reduction treatments reduced 

fi re risk and increased what resembled historical forest structure compared to the untreated stands.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
72

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 59 Moghaddas, E.E.Y.; Stephens, S.L. 2007a. Thinning, burning, and thin-burn fuel treatment effects on soil properties in a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 250(3): 156–166. Central Sierra Nevada Soils B, M, M+B 1, 2 Net rates of nitri

fi cation, nitrogen 

mineralization, and bulk density did not differ among treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

59 Moghaddas and Stephens 2007a. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Soils B, M+B 1, 2 Burn treatments created soil 

chemical conditions that would be expected to enhance short-term productivity, but standing stocks of most nutrients were depleted.

Caldwell et al. (2002) reported lower losses of carbon. Gundale et al. (2005) reported lower losses of carbon and less consumption of the forest 

fl oor after spring 

burns. Loss of nitrogen in the forest 

fl oor was 

lower in work reported by Covington and Sackett (1984), Murphy et al. (2006), and Nissley (1980), and similar to that observed by Feller (1989).

59 Moghaddas and Stephens 2007a. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Soils M+B 1, 2 Inorganic nitrogen increased more 

after mechanical + burn treatments than other treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

59 Moghaddas and Stephens 2007a. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Soils B 2 Mineral soil carbon concentration 

and cation exchange capacity declined after burn treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

59 Moghaddas and Stephens 2007a. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Soils B, M, 

M+B

2, 6 Discontinuous fuels and variation 

in fuel consumption associated with skid trails led to spatial heterogeneity in soil pH and inorganic nitrogen.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

60 Moghaddas, E.E.Y.; Stephens, S.L. 2008. Mechanized 

fuel treatment effects on soil compaction in Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer stands. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3098–3106.

Central Sierra Nevada

Soils M, 

M+B

2 Mastication equipment used in the 

mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments caused no detectable changes in soil bulk density or compaction off skid trails.

Few studies have examined the effects of onsite mastication of nonmerchantable material as part of a 

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
73

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

fuel reduction treatment on soil compaction (Gundale et al. 2005, Hatchett et al. 2006, Moghaddas and Stephens 2007a).

60 Moghaddas and Stephens 2008. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Soils M+B 2 Soil strength (kilopascals) 

increased on skid trails after the mechanical + burn treatment, especially in sandy loam soils near the surface.

Hatchet et al. (2006) observed soil compaction at 10 and 25-cm depths and suggested that compaction was dispersed a broad distance from any trail and was limited to a narrow range of soil depth on sandy soils. Ampoorter et al. (2007) observed that machine traffi c led to increased soil strength in sandy soils at 20- to 50-cm depths. Vazquez et al. (1991) reported that soil strength was a more sensitive indicator of soil compaction than bulk density after observing large increases in strength and only minor increases in bulk density.

61 Stephens, S.L.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Hartsough, B.R.; 

Moghaddas, E.E.Y.; Clinton, N.E. 2009b. Fuel treatment effects on stand-level carbon pools, treatment-related emissions, and 

fi re risk in a Sierra 

Nevada mixed-conifer forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 39(8): 1538–1547.

Central Sierra Nevada

Soils B, M+B 1, 2 Burn and mechanical + burn 

treatments released more carbon dioxide (CO2) than mechanical 

treatments. 

Burning duff accounted for large emissions of carbon dioxide (Clinton et al. 2006).

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
74

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 61 Stephens et al. 2009b. Central Sierra Nevada Soils M, M+B 1, 2 Aboveground carbon was reduced by both mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments. No other studies have reported similar 

fi ndings.

61 Stephens et al. 2009b. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Soils B 3 Management actions designed to 

increase wild

fi re resistance may 

be justi

fi ed for long-term carbon 

sequestration when wild

fi re 

severity continues to increase. 

Hurteau and North (2009) reported that untreated stands store more carbon but were at greater risk to highseverity wild

fi re.

62 Apigian, K.O. 2005. Forest disturbance effects on 

insect and bird communities: insectivorous birds in coast live oak woodlands and leaf litter arthropods in the Sierra Nevada. Berkeley, CA: University of California Berkeley. 178 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Central Sierra Nevada

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1 Findings for this dissertation can be 

found in paper No. 64.

63 Amacher, A.J.; Barrett, R.H.; Moghaddas, J.J.; 

Stephens, S.L. 2008. Preliminary effects of 

fi re and 

mechanical fuel treatments on the abundance of small mammals in the mixed-conifer forest of the Sierra Nevada. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3193–3202.

Central Sierra Nevada

Vertebrates B, M+B 1, 2 Deer mice increased after both burn 

and mechanical + burn treatments. Deer mice decreased after the mechanical treatment.

Deer mice have been reported to increase after fuel reduction treatments (Beck and Vogl 1972, Bock and Bock 1983, Carey and Wilson 2001, Fantz and Renken, 2005, Greenberg et al. 2006, Klenner and Sullivan 2003, Kyle and Block 2000, Muzika et al. 2004, Perry and Thill 2005, Suzuki and Hayes 2003, Tester 1965) or remain essentially unchanged (Cole et al.1998; Converse et al. 2006a, 2006b; Craig et al. 2006; Monroe and Converse 2006; Moses and Boutin 2001; Waters and Zabel 1998). Recent work has failed to detect 

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
75

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

changes in deer mouse populations associated with changes in coarse woody debris (Craig et al. 2006, Smith and Maguire, 2004). Other small mammal populations responded positively to predator exclusion (Klemola et al. 2000, Norrdahl et al. 2002, Yunger 2004).

63 Amacher et al. 2008. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

5, 7 Brush mouse abundance was 

positively correlated with canopy cover, but negatively correlated with low tanoak and riparian cover.

Brush mice often are captured in dense brush or under low tree branches in stands with high canopy cover (Block et al. 2005, Grinnell and Storer 1924, Holbrook 1978, Jameson 1951, Kalcounis-Ruppell and Millar 2002, Wilson 1968).

64 Apigian, K.O.; Dahlsten, D.L.; Stephens, S.L. 2006b. 

Fire and 

fi re surrogate treatment effects on leaf litter 

arthropods in a western Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 221(1-3): 110–122.

Central Sierra Nevada

Invertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Predator beetle populations 

declined after burn treatments, while other beetle guilds were unaffected.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

64 Apigian et al. 2006b. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Invertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2, 3 Fuel reduction treatments had 

subtle or moderate and transient effects in the short term on litter arthropods.

Baker et al. (2004) suggested that similar fuel reduction treatment effects on beetle fauna were transient.

64 Apigian et al. 2006b. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Invertebrates B, M+B 1, 2, 5, 6 Burning treatments increased the 

abundance of rare surface-dwelling beetle species. Many of these species responded to increased

Higher carabid beetle species richness after burning treatments was reported by Beaudry

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
76

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 heterogeneity in burned stands represented by increased exposure of mineral soil. et al. (1997) and Villa- Castillo and Wagner (2002); other beetle species have not been studied. 65 Apigian, K.O.; Dahlsten, D.L.; Stephens, S.L. 2006a. Biodiversity of Coleoptera and the importance of habitat structural features in a Sierra Nevada mixed- conifer forest. Environmental Entomology. 35(4): 

964–975.

Central Sierra Nevada

Invertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2, 5, 6 Species richness of grounddwelling beetles was represented by 

nearly 300 species.

No other studies have documented beetle biodiversity in the Sierra Nevada, and few studies have explored beetle biodiversity in the Western United States.

65 Apigian et al. 2006a. Central Sierra 

Nevada

Invertebrates B, M, 

M+B

6 The ground-dwelling beetle fauna 

distribution occurred in 

fi ne-scale 

patches that were smaller than forest stands. Causes of patchiness are as yet unknown.

Niemela et al. (1996) observed carabid beetle communities structured on a 

fi ne spatial scale of 

10 to 15 m.

66 Yasuda, D. 2008. Embracing “new information”: 

a manager’s perspective. Fire Science Manager’s Viewpoint. 6. Boise, ID: Joint Fire Science Program. 4 p.

Central Sierra Nevada

Sociology B, M, 

M+B

10 An opinion piece focusing 

on a discussion of the initial FFS 

fi ndings and management 

implications.

67 Knapp, E.E.; Schwilk, D.W.; Kane, J.M.; Keeley, J.E. 

2007. Role of burning season on initial understory vegetation response to prescribed 

fi re in a mixed 

conifer forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 37(1): 11–22.

Southern Sierra Nevada

Understory vegetation

B 2, 10 Plant species richness increased 

after both fall and spring burn treatments. Burns conducted in the spring after at least 120 years of fi re exclusion did not cause greater mortality of understory species compared to fall burns because fuel moisture in the spring was suffi cient to mitigate potential 

phenological effects. Managers may want to consider spring burning to mitigate effects on the understory.

Rapid recovery of understory plant species after burning was reported by Harvey et al. (1980) and Metlen et al. (2004). Increased plant species richness after burns was reported across different seasonally dry forest ecosystems (Brockway and Lewis 1997, Busse et al. 2000, Sparks et al. 1998).

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
77

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

67 Knapp et al. 2007. Southern 

Sierra Nevada

Understory vegetation

B 2, 3 Understory vegetation composition 

and structure remained similar several years after spring and fall burns were conducted. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

67 Knapp et al. 2007. Southern 

Sierra Nevada

Understory vegetation

B 2, 7, 9 Data from three sites suggested that 

the highest levels of fuel reduction disturbance can lead to increased abundance and richness of exotic plant species, at the expense of native plant species. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

67 Knapp et al. 2007. Southern 

Sierra Nevada

Understory vegetation

B 2, 9 Increased plant species richness 

after burning treatments was attributed to an increase in the number of native species.

Keeley et al. (2003) observed that burning led to an increase in the number of exotic plant species.

68 Knapp, E.E.; Keeley, J.E.; Ballenger, E.A.; Brennan 

T.J. 2005. Fuel reduction and coarse woody debris dynamics with early season and late season prescribed 

fi re in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer 

forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 208(1–3): 383–397.

Southern Sierra Nevada

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 2 Burning did not reduce the number 

of coarse woody debris (logs); however, log length, cover, volume, and mass were reduced because logs were partially consumed by fi re. 

Mutch and Parsons (1998) reported similar down woody fuel loads elsewhere in the Sierra Nevada. In contrast, Kauffmann and Martin (1989) observed higher down woody fuel loads in the northern Sierra Nevada. 

68 Knapp et al. 2005. Southern 

Sierra Nevada

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 7 More of the full fuel bed was 

consumed in fall burns than in spring burns. Spring burns may be bene

fi cial when fuel loads are high 

because the erosion potential may be lower and more area is left in patches that can be recolonized by fi re-sensitive species.

When fuel moisture is high, consumption of coarse woody debris is usually low because energy is needed to drive off excess moisture before consumption can occur (Brown et al. 1985). A modeling study by Hargrove et al. (2000) predicted

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
78

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 high patchiness with high fuel moisture levels. Similar levels of patchiness after fall burns were observed by Kilgore (1973). No other studies have reported similar 

fi ndings 

for spring burns in the Sierra Nevada.

69 Knapp, E.E.; Keeley, J.E. 2006. Heterogeneity in 

fi re severity within early season and late season prescribed burns in a mixed-conifer forest. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 15(1): 37–45.

Southern Sierra Nevada

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 6 Despite high fuel loading and 

continuity in current stands owing to decades of 

fi re suppression, 

prescribed 

fi re can still create forest 

heterogeneity similar to wild

fi re. 

Factors that in

fl uence patchiness 

in 

fi re effects include slope, live 

tree basal area, density of pine, percentage cover of bare ground and rock, smaller diameter surface woody fuel, and fuel moisture.

Although Slocum et al. (2003) also reported high burn patchiness with higher fuel moisture, no other study has described heterogeneity in prescribed 

fi re effects in 

forest systems, nor has other work identi

fi ed 

causal factors.

70 van Mantgem, P.J.; Schwilk, D.W. 2009. Negligible 

in

fl uence of spatial autocorrelation in the assessment 

of 

fi re effects in a mixed conifer forest. Fire Ecology. 

5(2): 116–125.

Southern Sierra Nevada

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 2 Quanti

fi cation of large-scale 

fi re effects can be hampered by autocorrelation in small-scale samples, causing problems when results are extrapolated to larger scales. Certain measures of forest conditions lack autocorrelation. 

Potential effects of autocorrelation should be routinely checked in ecological studies (Legendre and Legendre 1998).

70 van Mantgem and Schwilk 2009. Southern 

Sierra Nevada

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 6 If high patch variability is common, 

pre

fi re treatments to increase 

heterogeneity will likely be unnecessary.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

71 Hamman, S.T.; Burke, I.C.; Knapp, E.E. 2008. Soil 

nutrients and microbial activity after early and late season prescribed burns in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 256(3): 367–374.

Southern Sierra Nevada

Soils B 2 Late-season burns had greater 

effects on soil abiotic conditions, mineral soil carbon levels, total inorganic nitrogen, and microbial activity compared to early season

Other studies have reported an intermediate response to early-season burns compared with late-season burns. 

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
79

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

burns. Total soil nitrogen pools, fl uxes, and soil respiration rates were not affected by burn season. Fire severity had the greatest impact on soil variables.

Variation in responses by burning season was attributed to greater fuel consumption and fi re intensity during late-season burns. (Ferrenberg et al. 2006, Knapp et al. 2007, Schwilk et al. 2006).

72 Monroe, M.E.; Converse, S.J. 2006. The effects of 

early season and late season prescribed 

fi res on small 

mammals in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 236(2-3): 229–240.

Southern Sierra Nevada

Vertebrates B 2 Despite profound changes in 

microhabitat features after burning (e.g., decreased coarse woody debris and increased bare mineral soil), burning did not adversely affect small mammal populations. Season of burn did not affect deer mouse densities or age ratios, lodgepole chipmunk densities, or total small mammal biomass, suggesting that neither burning in general nor early season burns will adversely in

fl uence native small 

mammal populations.

More substantial prescribed 

fi re effects on 

deer mouse populations have been reported (Fisher and Wilkinson 2005, Jones 1992, Kaufman et al. 1990).

72 Monroe and Converse 2006. Southern 

Sierra Nevada

Vertebrates B 5 Interannual variation in small 

mammal populations explained most of the variability in model results.

Interannual variation in deer mouse populations may be caused by seed masting events, predation, or competition (Brady and Slade 2004, Pearce and Venier 2005, Wolff 1996).

73 Ferrenberg, S.M.; Schwilk, D.W.; Knapp, E.E.; Groth, 

E.; Keeley, J.E. 2006. Fire decreases arthropod abundance but increases diversity: early and late season prescribed 

fi re effects in a Sierra Nevada 

mixed-conifer forest. Fire Ecology. 2(2): 79–102.

Southern Sierra Nevada

Invertebrates B 2 Arthropod community structure 

was not affected by burn season but was affected by differences in fuel loading and vegetation and habitat heterogeneity because of burning. 

Hanula and Wade (2003) reported a decrease in diversity after multiple burns.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
80

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 73 Ferrenberg et al. 2006. Southern Sierra Nevada Invertebrates B 2, 5, 6 Arthropod abundance was lower and diversity was higher after burn treatments than before treatments. A mosaic of habitats created by burns may have a positive effect on arthropod diversity. All burns altered the feeding guild structure of the arthropod communities. Apigian et al. (2006) reported that burning forest increased arthropod diversity by favoring previously rare species and decreasing the abundance of more common species. Forest arthropod diversity declined after 

fi re 

because of a loss of optimal habitat (Okland et al. 1996, Yanovsky and Kiselev 1996, York 2000), whereas 

fi re may 

be important in creating diverse habitat mosaics that result in a bene

fi t to 

various arthropods and feeding guilds (Buddle et al. 2000, Gandhi et al. 2001, Moretti et al. 2004). 

74 Schwilk, D.W.; Knapp, E.E.; Ferrenberg, S.M.; 

Keeley, J.E.; Caprio, A.C. 2006. Tree mortality from fi re and bark beetles following early and late season prescribed 

fi res in a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer 

forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 232(1–3): 36–45.

Southern Sierra Nevada

Bark beetles B 2 Tree mortality (all tree species) 

or bark beetle attack on pines did not differ between early- and lateseason burns.

Similar mortality rates were reported by Thies et al. (2005). Fettig et al. (2010) reported no difference in tree mortality rates attributed to bark beetles after early- and lateseason burns.

74 Schwilk et al. 2006. Southern 

Sierra Nevada

Bark beetles B 2 The probability of bark beetle 

attack on 

fi rs (Abies spp.) was 

greater after an early-season burn.

Fire effects may be more severe in early season burns compared to late-season burns (Harrington 1987, 1993; McHugh et al. 2003; Swezy and Agee 1991).

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
81

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

74 Schwilk et al. 2006. Southern 

Sierra Nevada

Bark beetles B 2 Tree mortality, especially in the 

smallest tree size class, was related to 

fi re intensity. 

Mortality after 

fi re may 

not return to background rates for 5 or more years (Mutch and Parsons 1998, van Mantgem et al. 2003).

75 Converse, S.J.; Dickson, B.G.; White, G.C.; Block, 

W.M. 2004. Estimating small mammal abundance on fuels treatment units in southwestern ponderosa pine forests. In: van Riper, C., III; Cole, K.L., eds. The Colorado Plateau: cultural, biological, and physical research. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press: 113–120.

Southwestern Plateau

Vertebrates M 2, 3 Protocols for estimating small 

mammal abundance within the program MARK were enhanced by using robust estimates rather than indices of population size and increased trapping efforts on a grid. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

76 Converse, S.J. 2005. Small mammal responses to 

forest restoration and fuel reduction. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University. 231 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Southwestern Plateau

Vertebrates M 2, 3 Findings for this dissertation can be 

found in paper No. 77.

77 Converse, S.J.; White, G.C.; Block, W.M. 2006b. 

Small mammal responses to thinning and wild

fi re 

in ponderosa pine-dominated forests of the southwestern United States. Journal of Wildlife Management. 70(6): 1711–1722.

Southwestern Plateau

Vertebrates M 2, 3 Wild

fi re produced a positive 

response in deer mice and an unpredicted negative response for least chipmunks.

Positive responses of deer mice to both prescribed 

fi re and 

wild

fi re are well 

documented (Ahlgren 1966, Bock and Bock 1983, Krefting and Ahlgren 1974, Kyle and Block 2000, Martell 1984, Tester 1965).

77 Converse et al. 2006b. Southwestern 

Plateau

Vertebrates M 2, 3 Thinning of stands composed 

of small, closely spaced trees may result in the greatest shortterm response of deer mice and chipmunks.

Deer mice usually respond positively to thinning (Carey and Wilson 2001, Suzuki and Hayes 2003, Wilson and Carey 2000). Chipmunk species also are known to respond positively to thinning (Carey 2000, 2001; Carey and Wilson 2001; Hadley and Wilson 2004; Sullivan et al. 2001; Wilson and Carey 2000).

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
82

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 78 Hurteau, S.; Sisk, T.; Dickson, B.; Block, W. 2010. Variability in nest density, occupancy, and home range size of western bluebirds after forest treatments. Forest Science. 56(1): 131–138. Southwestern Plateau Vertebrates B, M, M+B 1, 2 Western bluebird home range sizes were larger after burn treatments than other treatments. In contrast, home range sizes were 1.5 times larger after thinning and 30 percent smaller after the combined mechanical + burn treatment. No other studies have reported similar 

fi ndings. Restorationbased thinning and burning treatments that decreased ponderosa pine density and increased herbaceous cover and bare ground also increased invertebrate abundance and diversity, and may increase habitat quality for cavitynesting birds (Germaine and Germaine 2002, Wightman and Germain 2006).

78 Hurteau et al. 2010. Southwestern 

Plateau

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Western bluebird nest density 

was higher after fuel reduction treatments even though treatments reduced snags.

Horton and Mannan (1988) reported that a reduced number of snags led to increased nest occurrence.

79 Rebbeck, J.; Long, R.; Yaussy, D. 2004. Survival of 

hardwood seedlings and saplings following overstory thinning and prescribed 

fi res in mixed-oak forests 

of southern Ohio. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-GTR-73. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 275–284.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Sapling and seedling mortality were 

higher after mechanical + burn treatments than other treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

79 Rebbeck et al. 2004. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 3 Hardwood seedling survival, 

4 months after fuel reduction treatments, ranged from 87 percent after thinning to 20 percent after burning. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

80 Yaussy, D.A.; Dickinson, M.B.; Bova, A.S. 2004. 

Prescribed surfacefi re tree mortality in southern 

Ohio: equations based on thermocouple probe

Central Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

B 1, 3 Equations for bark thickness and 

crown volume, including bole locations below 1.37 m in height, 

Hengst and Dawson (1994) and Hilt et al. (1983) developed bark 

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
83

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

temperatures. In: Yaussy, D.A.; Hix, D.M.; Long, R.P.; Goebel, P.C., eds. Proceedings, 14th central 

hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTRNE-316. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station: 67–75

were developed for 13 hardwood species to predict the ability of a tree to survive the heat during a fi re. Equations link tree death with fi re behavior and thermocouple data.

thickness equations for tree species in the central hardwoods region based on diameter outside bark at 1.37 m in height. 

81 Albrecht, M.A.; McCarthy, B.C. 2006. Effects of 

prescribed 

fi re and thinning on tree recruitment 

patterns in central hardwood forests. Forest Ecology and Management. 226(1–3): 88–103.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2 Burning treatments initially 

increased seedling densities and shifted tree regeneration dominance toward shade-intolerant tree species.

Shifts in dominance to early successional species beneath silvicultural openings also were reported by Jenkins and Parker (1998).

81 Albrecht and McCarthy 2006. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2, 3 Density of Acer rubrum (red maple) 

recovered to pretreatment levels four growing seasons after burn, mechanical, and mechanical + burn treatments. Density of Quercus alba (white oak) and Q. prinus

(chestnut oak) seedlings declined, while density of Q. velutina (black oak) seedlings increased after treatments.

Arthur et al. (1998) and Swan (1970) reported a strong resprouting response from established Acer rubrum (red maple) after 

fi re, although 

repeated surface 

fi res 

are reported to reduce resprouting (Van Lear and Watt 1993).

81 Albrecht and McCarthy 2006. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

M, M+B

2 Four growing seasons after 

treatment, oak regeneration remained at a competitive disadvantage with high densities of early successional tree species present in xeric and intermediate portions of thinned stands.

Similar dynamics in tree species composition were reported after 

fi re 

in closed-canopy oak forests (Arthur et al. 1998, Kuddes-Fischer and Arthur 2002) and forests where 

fi re 

occurred immediately before or following thinning treatments (Franklin et al. 2003, Johnson 1974, McGee et al. 1995, Van Lear 

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
84

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 and Waldrop 1989, Wendel and Smith 1986). In contrast, oak regeneration has responded positively to a surface 

fi re when stands 

were thinned several years before burning (Brose and Van Lear 1998, Kruger and Reich 1997).

82 Joesting, H.M.; McCarthy, B.C.; Brown, K.J. 2007. 

The photosynthetic response of American chestnut seedlings to differing light conditions. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 37(9): 1714–1722.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2 The light compensation point, 

quantum effi ciency, leaf mass 

per area, and leaf nitrogen concentration per unit leaf area (Narea) did not differ among 

treatments.

Increased leaf nitrogen concentration per unit leaf area (Narea) with 

more available light or decreased percentage of canopy closure was reported by Abrams and Mostoller (1995), Ellsworth and Reich (1992), Kubiske and Pregitzer (1996), Naidu and DeLucia (1998), and Wayne and Bazzaz (1993).

82 Joesting et al. 2007. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

M 2 American chestnut (Castanea 

dentate) seedlings reached lightsaturating rates of photosynthesis after mechanical treatments at an irradiance level about 33 percent higher than seedlings in untreated stands. 

Net photosynthesis rates increased with light availability in American chestnut (Castanea dentate) seedlings grown in pots at four levels of irradiance (Wang et al. 2006).

82 Joesting et al. 2007. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

M 2 American chestnut (Castanea 

dentate) seedlings had greater maximum rates of photosynthesis, dark respiration rate, and daily 

Griffi n (1989) found that some degree of canopy openness increased the survival of American

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
85

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

carbon gain per seedling after the mechanical treatment than seedlings lacking mechanical treatment.

chestnut sprout clusters, and a relatively closed canopy resulted in an increase in sprout mortality.

83 Chiang, J.M.; Brown, K.J. 2007. Improving the 

budburst phenology subroutine in the forest carbon model PnET. Ecological Modeling. 205(3-4): 515–526.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B 

10 Plant phenology was an important 

variable in estimating ecosystem carbon balance, because it affected net annual primary production. Predicting budburst phenology for any given year is therefore important in modeling carbon production. Current carbon simulation models use growing degree days (GDD) to predict the date of budburst. In this work, GDD was a poor predictor of the date of budburst. 

84 Iverson, L.R.; Hutchinson, T.F.; Prasad, A.M.; Peters, 

M.P. 2008. Thinning, 

fi re, and oak regeneration 

across a heterogeneous landscape in the eastern U.S: 7-year results. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(7): 3035–3050.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

M+B 2 Density of large oak (Quercus spp.) 

and hickory (Carya spp.) seedlings 

(50 to 140 cm in height) increased after mechanical + burn treatments. A second set of 

fi res created 

additional landscape heterogeneity by causing additional tree mortality, and thus canopy openness, across the moisture gradient.

Hutchinson et al. (2005) reported that multiple fi res without thinning did not stimulate oak (Quercus spp.) regeneration. In contrast, Dey and Hartman (2005) reported that oak and hickory (Carya spp.) 

were favored by multiple burns.

84 Iverson et al 2008. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

M+B 2 On dry or intermediate sites with 

at least 5,000 oak (Quercus spp.) and hickory (Carya spp.) seedlings 

per hectare, mechanical + burn treatments that left 8.5 to 19 percent canopy cover and included at least two burns promoted oak and hickory regeneration to be competitive over about 50 percent of the area. Under similar treatments on more mesic sites, however, little or no oak and hickory regeneration developed.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
86

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 84 Iverson et al 2008. Central Appalachian Plateau Overstory vegetation B, M+B 2, 6 Advance regeneration of red maple 

(Acer rubrum) and American tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), 

tree species that commonly compete with oak (Quercus spp.) 

and hickory (Carya spp.) seedlings, 

became abundant after the initial mechanical or burn treatments; however, a second burn reduced densities of the oak competitors. 

Albrecht and McCarthy (2006) reported that oak (Quercus spp.) 

and hickory (Caryaspp.) seedlings failed to respond to thinning and prescribed 

fi re and 

suggested that additional fi res would likely be necessary to reduce abundance and size of competitors.

85 Chiang, J.M.; McEwan, R.W.; Yaussy, D.A.; 

Brown, K.J. 2007. The effects of prescribed 

fi re and 

silvicultural thinning on the aboveground carbon stocks and net primary production of overstory trees in an oak-hickory ecosystem in southern Ohio. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(5/6): 1584–1594.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

B, M+B 2 Burning increased the mortality 

rate of red maple (Acer rubrum) 

in the overstory, but oak (Quercus

spp.) mortality also increased after the burn treatments. Stem growth measurements suggested that burns coincided with the initiation of growth in oaks, which may have created vulnerability in these species.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

85 Chiang et al. 2007. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

M, M+B

2, 3 Mechanical treatments removed 

about 30 percent of the aboveground biomass and increased recruitment of red maple (Acer rubrum) but had little effect on oak (Quercus spp.) recruitment. 

Aboveground net primary production declined brie

fl y.

Recruitment of red maple (A. rubrum) and lack of oak (Quercusspp.) recruitment with thinning treatments was likely a result of insuffi cient oak advanced regeneration in the midstory (Abrams 1992, 1998; Hutchinson et al. 2005; McEwan et al. 2005).

86 Hutchinson, T.F.; Long, R.P.; Ford, R.D.; Sutherland, 

E.K. 2008. Fire history and the establishment of oaks and maples in second-growth forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 38(5): 1184–1198.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

B 1 Dendrochronology was used to 

examine stand dynamics and past disturbances. The current overstory was the result of stand initiation

Evidence that 

fi re was 

a frequent disturbance event in the centraloak (Quercus spp.)

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
87

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

that occurred between about 1845 and 1900. Little oak (Quercus spp.) 

recruitment has occurred since about 1925. Twenty-six 

fi res were 

documented from 1870 to 1933; thereafter, only two 

fi res were 

identi

fi ed.

hardwood region prior to organized 

fi re control 

and it occurred in the dormant season was reported from other dendrochronological studies including McEwan et al. (2007), Shumway et al. (2001), and Sutherland (1997).

86 Hutchinson et al. 2008. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

B, M+B 2 Most red maples (Acer rubrum) 

established after the cessation of fi res. In several units, the last major fi re was followed immediately by a large pulse of red maple establishment and the cessation of oak (Quercus spp.) recruitment.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

87 Giuliani, R.; Brown, K.J. 2008. Within-canopy 

sampling of global irradiance to describe downwelling light distribution and infer canopy strati

fi cation in a broadleaf forest. Tree Physiology. 

28(9): 1407–1419.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Overstory vegetation

M 10 Vertical photosynthetic photon 

fl ux 

sampling in broadleaf forests after mechanical treatments and in the undisturbed top canopy did not adequately represent the shaded and penumbral values. The reliability and sensitivity of the inversion of the Monsi-Saeki method (an exponential model) were suffi cient 

to capture canopy structural differences in mechanically treated and untreated stands. This new canopy sampling and data analysis procedure may provide a fast, reliable, and inexpensive method to characterize tree crown structure and to predict plant growth and forest dynamics, and could be applied whenever vegetation absorbed radiation is a main driving force for forest canopy processes.

This 

fi nding is 

consistent with Parker et al. (2002). 

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
88

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 88 Chiang, J.M.; Brown, K.J. 2010. The effects of thinning and burning treatments on within-canopy variation of leaf traits in hardwood forests of southern Ohio. Forest Ecology and Management. 260(6): 1065–1075. Central Appalachian Plateau Overstory vegetation B, M, M+B 1 Leaf mass area (LMA) increased in the lower canopy after both mechanical and burn treatments, but no treatments affected LMA in the upper canopy. Similar fuel reduction treatments may affect forest net primary productivity. No other studies have reported similar 

fi ndings.

89 Huang, J.; Boerner, R.E.J. 2007. Effects of 

fi re 

alone or combined with thinning on tissue nutrient concentrations and nutrient resorption in Desmodium nudifl orum. Oecologia. 153(2): 233–243.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 2 Plant nutrient resorption was 

unaffected by burn or mechanical + burn treatments.

Similar results were reported by Boerner et al. (1988), while Latty et al. (2004) found different results.

89 Huang and Boerner 2007. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 2, 3 Soil nitrogen and phosphorus 

availability was reduced both in the short- and long-term at least 3 years) by both burn and mechanical + burn treatments.

Soil nutrient pools were often reduced over the long term by 

fi re 

(Monleon et al. 1997, Vance and Henderson 1984).

89 Huang and Boerner 2007. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 2, 3 Foliar nutrient concentration, 

measured at 2 months and 4 years after treatment, declined after burn and mechanical + burn treatments.

Other work has shown that 

fi res either 

increased or had no effect on foliar nutrient concentrations (Adams and Rieske 2003, Christensen 1997, Gilliam 1988, Kruger and Reich 1997, Reich et al. 1990).

90 Huang, J. 2007. Ecological responses of two forest 

understory herbs to changes in resources caused by prescribed 

fi re alone or in combination with 

restoration thinning. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University. 191 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 3 Understory light availability and 

soil nutrient availability shortly after burn or mechanical + burn treatments were the most important environmental drivers of ecological conditions for the forb ticktrefoil (Desmodium nudifl orum) and Bosc’s panicgrass (Dichanthelium boscii [Panicum boscii]).

Lambers et al. (1998) also documented a link between light levels and speci

fi c leaf area. The 

direct, positive response of leaf nutrient content on maximum leaf photosynthetic capacity has been elsewhere (Evans 1989, Field and Mooney 1986, Reich et al. 1994).

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
89

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

90 Huang 2007. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 2 Plant biomass, leaf mass ratio, 

individual seed mass, and total seed production increased in the 

fi rst 

growing season after a second burn as part of the mechanical + burn treatment in ticktrefoil (Desmodium nudifl orum), while speci

fi c leaf area 

and plant height decreased. There were no changes to leaf area ratio and seed germination rate.

Other work has reported a lack of treatment effect on seed production (Werner and Platt 1976).

90 Huang 2007. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Understory vegetation

M+B 2 Individual plants of ticktrefoil 

(Desmodium nudifl orum) were 62 percent larger after the mechanical + burn treatment during the fourth growing season after the 

fi rst 

burn than were plants where no fuel reduction was conducted. Mechanical + burn treatments also decreased root mass ratio and increased leaf mass ratio and speci

fi c root length.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

90 Huang 2007. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 2, 3 Short-term nutrient levels and 

ramet biomass increased in Bosc’s panicgrass (Dichanthelium boscii

[Panicum boscii]) after mechanical 

and mechanical + burn treatments. Nutrient levels and ramet biomass declined with time since treatment.

Marino et al. (1997) also reported increased number of leaves per ramet after increasing light.

90 Huang 2007. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 2, 3 Speci

fi c leaf area of ticktrefoil 

(Desmodium nudifl orum) declined in the fourth growing season after the 

fi rst burn treatments. 

Speci

fi c leaf area of oak 

(Quercus spp.) increased 

or remained unchanged after 

fi re (Boerner et al. 

1988, Reich et al. 1990).

91 Phillips, R.; Hutchinson, T.; Brudnak, L.; Waldrop T. 

2007. Fire and 

fi re surrogate treatments in mixed-oak 

forests: effects on herbaceous layer vegetation. In: Butler, B.W.; Cook, W., comps. Proceedings, the 

fi re 

environment—innovations, management, and policy. RMRS-P-46CD. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 475–485.

Regional Understory 

vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2 At the Central Appalachian Plateau 

site, herbaceous cover and plant species richness increased more after burn treatments than other treatments, indicating 

fi re effects 

were unique disturbances that were not mimicked by alterations of the forest structure alone.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
90

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 91 Phillips et al. 2007. Regional Understory vegetation B 2 Herbaceous layers did not respond to burn-only treatments at the Southern Appalachian Mountain site. A single low-intensity 

fi re resulted in little differences in herbaceous and shrub cover after 4 years (Kuddes-Fischer and Arthur 2002).

91 Phillips et al. 2007. Regional Understory 

vegetation

M+B 2 Plant species cover and richness 

increased after mechanical + burn treatments at the Southern Appalachian Mountains site. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

92 Huang, J.; Boerner, R.E.J.; Rebbeck, J. 2007. 

Ecophysiological responses of two herbaceous species to prescribed burning, alone or in combination with overstory thinning. American Journal of Botany. 94(5): 755–763.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2 Photosynthetic performance, 

plant biomass, seed number, and mean seed mass of two understory plants, ticktrefoil (Desmodium nudifl orum) and Bosc’s panicgrass 

(Dichanthelium boscii [Panicum

boscii]) increased after burn and mechanical + burn treatments. Photosynthetic performance and plant biomass response was greatest after mechanical + burn treatments.

Enhanced leaf photosynthesis in oak (Quercus spp.) seedlings 

after 

fi re was reported 

by Reich et al. (1990).

92 Huang et al. 2007. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

2, 8 Ticktrefoil (Desmodium nudifl orum) responded more to the restoration treatments than did Bosc’s 

panicgrass (Dichanthelium boscii[Panicum boscii]), thus ticktrefoil was more plastic to changes in the light environment than Bosc’s panicgrass.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

93 Huang, J.; Boerner, R.E.J. 2008. Shifts in 

morphological traits, seed production, and early establishment of Desmodium nudifl orum following 

prescribed 

fi re, alone or in combination with forest 

canopy thinning. Botany. 86(4): 376–384.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2 Total biomass, seed size and 

seed production, and thus overall fi tness of ticktrefoil (Desmodium

nudifl orum) was enhanced with 

burn and especially mechanical + burn treatments.

Werner and Platt (1976) reported that plants growing on manipulated sites produced smaller and less numerous seeds. Reproductive output of herbaceous plant species increased after 

fi re (Wrobleski and 

Kauffman 2003).

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
91

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

93 Huang and Boerner 2008. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2 Leaf area ratio and seedling 

establishment remained unchanged after burn and thin + burn treatments. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

94 Yaussy, D.; Rebbeck, J.; Iverson, L.; Hutchinson, T.; 

Long, R. 2003. Comparison of a low-tech vs. a hightech method to evaluate surface 

fi re temperatures. 

In: Van Sambeek, J.W.; Dawson, J.O.; Ponder, F., Jr.; Loewenstein, E.F.; Fralish, J.S., eds. Proceedings, 13th central hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. NC-234. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 295.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 1 Maximum temperatures recorded 

by thermocouples and temperaturesensitive paints, used to monitor spatial and temporal characteristics of landscape-scale burns, were highly correlated.

Previous studies have used temperaturesensitive paints as a surrogate for 

fi re 

intensity (Abrahamson and Abrahamson 1996, Cole et al. 1992, Franklin et al. 1997, Gibson et al. 1990). Heyward (1938), Miller et al. (1955), and Sackett and Haase (1992) used electronic thermocouples to measure soil temperatures during fi res.

95 Iverson, L.R.; Yaussy, D.; Rebbeck, J.; Hutchinson, 

T.; Long, R.; McCarthy, B.; Riccardi, C.; Prasad, A. 2003. Spatial and temporal distribution of 

fi re 

temperatures from prescribed 

fi res in the mixed oak 

forests of southern Ohio. In: Van Sambeek, J.W.; Dawson, J.O.; Ponder, F., Jr.; Loewenstein, E.F.; Fralish, J.S., eds. Proceedings, 13th central hardwood 

forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-234. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Research Station: 293–294.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 1, 2 Simulations indicated that 

fi res 

were generally cooler with a slower rate of spread in valleys, with hotter, faster 

fi res on higher ground.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

95 Iverson et al. 2003. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 1, 2 Mixed oak (Quercus spp.) stands 

burned cooler in the mechanical + burn treatments than stands in the burn-only treatment units. Additional slash resulting from the thinning may not have dried suffi ciently to increase 

fi re intensity and thus inhibited movement 

of 

fl ames.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
92

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 96 Iverson, L.R.; Prasad, A.M.; Hutchinson, T.F.; Rebbeck, J.; Yaussy, D.A. 2004. Fire and thinning in an Ohio oak forest: grid-based analyses of 

fi re 

behavior, environmental conditions, and tree regeneration across a topographic moisture gradient. In: Spetich, M.A. Proceedings, upland oak ecology symposium: history, current conditions, and sustainability. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-73. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 190–197.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 1, 2 The integrated moisture index 

(IMI), a geographic information system-derived index categorizing landscapes into three moisture regimes, was related to many of the measured variables: Sites modeled as topographically wetter had more soil moisture, lower 

fi re and 

seasonal soil temperatures, less light penetration, and less oak and hickory regeneration.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

96 Iverson et al. 2004. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

M+B 2 Light, soil moisture, and growing 

season soil temperature were greater after mechanical + burn treatments than untreated sites in mixed-oak (Quercus spp.) forests. 

These environmental changes had no short-term effect on oak and hickory (Carya spp.) regeneration.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

97 Iverson, L.R.; Yaussy, D.A.; Rebbeck, J.; Hutchinson, 

T.F.; Long, R.P.; Prasad, A.M. 2004. A comparison of thermocouples and temperature paints to monitor spatial and temporal characteristics of landscapescale prescribed 

fi res. International Journal of 

Wildland Fire. 13(3): 311–322.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 1 Maximum temperatures recorded 

by thermocouples and temperaturesensitive paints, used to monitor spatial and temporal characteristics of landscape-scale burns, were highly correlated.

Previous studies used temperature-sensitive paints as a surrogate for 

fi re intensity 

(Abrahamson and Abrahamson 1996, Cole et al. 1992, Franklin et al. 1997, Gibson et al. 1990). Heyward (1938), Miller et al. (1955), and Sackett and Haase (1992) used electronic thermocouples to measure soil temperatures during fi res.

97 Iverson et al. 2004. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 1 Electronic thermocouples coupled 

with data loggers provided more information for assessing 

fi re 

behavior than temperature-sensitive paints.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
93

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

98 Graham, J.B.; McCarthy, B.C. 2006. Forest 

fl oor 

fuel dynamics in mixed-oak forests of south-eastern Ohio. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 15(4): 479–488.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 2 Litter depth declined with burn 

treatments, duff depth increased after mechanical treatments, and duff depth was lower after mechanical + burn treatments.

Similar reductions in litter were reported by Elliot and Vose (2005).

98 Graham and McCarthy 2006. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

M, M+B

2, 3 Forest 

fl oor fuel dynamics varied 

over time; changes in large, sound fuels (1,000-hour time-lag fuels) and coarse woody debris persisted longer than changes to 

fi ne fuels 

(litter, duff, 1-hour, 10-hour, and 100–hour time-lag fuels) or large, unsound fuels.

Similar values for fi ne and large woody fuels were reported by McCarthy and Bailey (1994) and Smith and Heath (2002).

99 Boerner, R.E.J.; Brinkman, J.A. 2004. Spatial, 

temporal, and restoration treatment effects on soil resources in mixed-oak forests of southeastern Ohio. Yaussy, D.A.; Hix, D.M.; Long, R.P.; Goebel, P.C., eds. Proceedings, 14th central hardwood forest 

conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-NE-316. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station: 241–254.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Soils M+B 1, 2 Available phosphorus and soil 

pH increased after some but not all mechanical + burn treatments as a result of differences in fi re behavior. Patchiness in pH increased and patchiness in available phosphorus decreased after mechanical + burn treatments while nitrogen mineralization rates were unchanged.

A similar increase in pH was observed in nearby watersheds (Boerner et al. 2004). A similar lack of change in nitrogen mineralization rates was reported nearby (Boerner et al. 2004), but other work documented an increase in nitrogen availability after 

fi re or 

fi re plus 

cutting activity (Wagle and Kitchen 1972, Webb et al. 1991).

99 Boerner and Brinkman 2004. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 6 Mean soil properties varied more 

between study sites separated by many kilometers than between neighboring watersheds.

Similar scale-dependent variation has been reported (Boerner et al. 2003, 2004; Boerner and Brinkman 2003).

100 Boerner, R.E.J.; Brinkman, J.A.; Smith, A. 2005. 

Seasonal variations in enzyme activity and organic carbon in soil of a burned and unburned hardwood forest. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 37(8): 1419–1426.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Soils B, M+B 2 Non-metric multidimensional 

scaling ordination resulted in no clear separation of burned and unburned sample areas based on soil organic carbon and enzyme

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
94

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 activity. When soil activity was limited to late summer and early autumn, burned and unburned areas were separated on the basis of differences in soil organic carbon and L-glutaminase activity. 100 Boerner et al. 2005. Central Appalachian Plateau Soils B, M+B 2 Soil enzyme activity did not differ among sample dates in except L-glutaminase, which demonstrated 

a distinct maximum activity in spring.

Season variations in L-glutaminase were reported by Ratsin et al. (1998).

101 Boerner, R.E.J.; Brinkman, J.A.; Yaussy, D.A. 2007. 

Ecosystem restoration treatments affect soil physical and chemical properties in Appalachian mixed-oak forests. In: Buckley, D.S.; Clatterbuck, W.S., eds. Proceedings, 15th central hardwood forest conference. 

e-Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-101. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 107–115.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Soil compaction was not affected 

by any fuel reduction treatment.

Soil bulk density did not change after vegetation treatments in mixed-oak (Quercusspp.) forests (Matson and Vitousek 1981). Soil compaction after harvesting practices was reported by Berger et al. (2004) and Rummer et al. (1997).

101 Boerner et al. 2007. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Soils B, M+B 2, 3 Soil pH increased, phosphorus 

availability decreased, and available calcium, potassium, and aluminum were unaffected for the 

fi rst 3 years 

after burn treatments.

Soil pH increased after single 

fi res (Blankenship 

and Arthur 1999) and after multiple 

fi res 

(Boerner et al. 2004, Eivazi and Bayan 1996) in mixed-oak (Quercusspp.) forests.

102 Giai, C.; Boerner, R.E.J. 2007. Effects of ecological 

restoration on microbial activity, microbial functional diversity, and soil organic matter in mixed-oak forests of southern Ohio, USA. Applied Soil Ecology. 35(2): 281–290.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Acid phosphatase activity increased 

after mechanical treatments remained unchanged after burn and mechanical + burn treatments.

Similar results were reported for other ecosystems (Boerner et al. 2007).

102 Giai and Boerner 2007. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Chitinase activity and substrates 

used by either soil fungi or soil bacteria did not differ among 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
95

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

treatments, while phenol oxidase varied among sites. Total substrate use by bacteria was greater after burn and mechanical + burn treatments than mechanical-only treatments.

103 Miesel, J.R. 2009. Restoring mixed-conifer forests 

with 

fi re and mechanical thinning: effects on soil 

properties and mature conifer foliage. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University. 209 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Findings for this dissertation can 

be found in papers Nos. 48, 50 and 177.

104 Streby, H.M.; Miles, D.B. 2010. Assessing ecosystem 

restoration alternatives in eastern deciduous hardwood forests using avian nest survival. Open Environmental Sciences. 4: 31–40.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1 Nest success of shrub-nesting avian 

species increased after mechanical treatments.

Lower nesting success of ground- and shrubnesting species in burned stands was reported by Sperry et al. (2008).

104 Streby and Miles 2010. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1 Nest success of understory nesting 

species increased after mechanical + burn treatments but not after burn or mechanical treatments.

Others have reported that nest success was poorly related to speci

fi c 

treatments (Artman and Downhower 2003, Duguay et al. 2001, Robinson and Robinson 2001).

105 Riccardi, C.L.; McCarthy, B.C.; Long, R.P. 2004. Oak 

seed production, weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) populations, and predation rates in mixed-oak forests of southeast Ohio. In: Yaussy, D.A.; Hix, D.M.; Long, R.P.; Goebel, P.C., eds. Proceedings, 14th

central hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-316. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station: 10–20.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Invertebrates B, M+B 2 Sound oak (Quercus spp.) acorn 

numbers, representing the lowest acorn weevil depredation, were greater after burning treatments. Both burn and mechanical + burn treatments increased seed production and decreased acorn weevil predation rates.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings. Wright (1986) found evidence of prescribed 

fi re 

controlling acorn weevils.

105 Riccardi et al. 2004. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Invertebrates M+B 2 Oak (Quercus spp.) species 

produced more acorns after mechanical + burn treatments than other treatments. 

Healy et al. (1999) and McCarthy and Quinn (1989) suggested that seed production is in

fl uenced more by 

individual tree and annual variation than by thinning. 

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
96

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 106 Lombardo, J.A.; McCarthy, B.C. 2008. Forest management and curculionid weevil diversity in mixed oak forests of southeastern Ohio. Natural Areas Journal. 28(4): 363–369. Central Appalachian Plateau Invertebrates B, M, M+B 1, 2 Acorn weevil diversity increased after fuel reduction treatments. Neither overall abundance nor the abundance of the two major acorn infesting weevil genera was affected by treatments. Moretti et al. (2004) reported that burning did not change the abundance of Curculionids although species richness declined. Bellocq et al. (2005) reported that thinning did not affect acorn predation by 

insects.

107 Giai, C. 2009. Fire, exotic earthworms and plant litter 

decomposition in the landscape context. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University. 151 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Invertebrates B, M, 

M+B

3 Soil-nutrient dynamics and 

microbial communities differed more by site characteristics and landscape position than by shortterm fuel reduction treatment effects.

The role of spatial heterogeneity in soils was reported by Dolan (2002).

108 McQuattie, C.J.; Rebbeck, J.; Yaussy, D.A. 2004. 

Effects of 

fi re and thinning on growth, mycorrhizal 

colonization, and leaf anatomy of black oak and red maple seedlings. In: Yaussy, D.A.; Hix, D.M.; Long, R.P.; Goebel, P.C., eds. Proceedings, 14th central 

hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTRNE-316. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station: 200–208.

Central Appalachian Plateau

Multivariate M+B 1 Ectomycorrhizal structures were 

the dominant form of fungal colonization on oak (Quercusspp.) roots. Endomycorrhizal structures were observed in June after mechanical + burn treatments. Endomycorrhizal colonization of maple (Acer spp.) roots was not affected by treatments.

Similar levels of endomycorrhizal colonization were reported for sugar maple (Acer saccharum) (Cooke et al. 1992, DeBellis et al. 2002, Klironomos 1995).

108 McQuattie et al. 2004. Central 

Appalachian Plateau

Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Oak (Quercus spp.) leaf thickness 

increased after burn, mechanical, and mechanical + burn treatments. Oak leaf blade thickness and starch grains in chloroplasts, measured in August, were greater after mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments than after burn treatments. 

Increased leaf blade thickness, attributed to increased mesophyll thickness, was reported by Ashton and Berlyn (1992) and Igboanugo (1992). Numerous starch grains in leaf chloroplasts due to high photosynthesis were reported by Ashon and Berlyn (1992).

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
97

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

109 Phillips, R.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Chapman, G.L.; Mohr, 

H.H.; Callaham, M.A.; Flint, C.T. 2004. Effects of fuel-reduction techniques on vegetative composition of Piedmont loblolly-shortleaf pine communities: preliminary results of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate study. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 12th biennial southern silvicultural research 

conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 44–47.

Southeast Piedmont

Overstory vegetation

B 1, 2 Tree stem densities were reduced 

more with burn treatments than other treatments. Basal area was reduced the most with mechanical + burn treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

109 Phillips et al. 2004. Southeast 

Piedmont

Understory vegetation

B, M+B 1, 2 Burning caused distinct 

compositional shifts in the understory vegetation relative to unburned units.

Miller et al. (1999) and Scherer et al. (2000) reported similar shifts in understory vegetation after burns. 

110 Phillips, R.J.; Waldrop, T.A. 2008. Changes in 

vegetation structure and composition in response to fuel reduction treatments in the South Carolina Piedmont. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3107–3116.

Southeast Piedmont

Understory Vegetation

B, M, M+B

1 Mechanical treatments failed to 

serve as surrogates for 

fi re, as 

burning tended to favor species that preferred more xeric conditions, whereas thinning tended to favor more mesic hardwood species.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

110 Phillips and Waldrop 2008. Southeast 

Piedmont

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2, 3 Burning treatments promoted 

more rapid changes in the understory compared to mechanical treatments, with forb and shrub cover increasing initially and grass cover increasing in the 

fi rst 3 years 

after treatments were applied.

Sparks et al. (1998) and Wade et al. (1989) reported that burning increased the cover of herbaceous vegetation. Halpern (1988) predicted that thinning followed by burning would elicit a faster understory response than just thinning treatments. Zenner et al. (2006) showed that understory response was dependent on intensity of thinning.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
98

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 110 Phillips and Waldrop 2008. Southeast Piedmont Understory vegetation M 2, 3 Changes in overstory and understory structure after fuel reduction treatments were made more complex by a southern pine beetle outbreak that killed high numbers of trees after mechanical treatments and trees in untreated areas. Shifts in understory composition were moderated by retention of high proportions of 

hardwoods 3 years after mechanical treatments.

Shelton and Murphy (1997) and Miller et al. (1999) reported that understory response tended to be greater with greater reductions in hardwood cover.

111 Mohr, H.H.; Waldrop, T.A.; Rideout, S.; Phillips, 

R.J.; Flint, C.T. 2004. Effectiveness of 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate treatments for controlling wild

fi re 

behavior in Piedmont forests: a simulation study. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 12th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 71–73.

Southeast Piedmont

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Using the program BehavePlus to 

model the behavior of a future 

fi re, 

predicted values of 

fl ame heights 

were shorter, rates of spread were slower, and scorch heights was lower after burn treatments than after other treatments. 

Andrews et al. (2002) predicted that 

fl ame 

heights would be highest for thinning and thinning plus burning treatments.

111 Mohr et al. 2004. Southeast 

Piedmont

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

M, M+B

2, 3 Using the program BehavePlus to 

model the behavior of a future 

fi re, 

predicted values of 

fi re intensity 

would increase in the 

fi rst growing 

season after mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

112 Waldrop, T.A.; Glass, D.W.; Rideout, S.; Shelburne, 

V.B.; Mohr, H.H.; Phillips, R.J. 2004. An evaluation of fuel-reduction treatments across a landscape gradient in the Piedmont forests: preliminary results of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate study. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 12th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 54–59.

Southeast Piedmont

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Mass of forest 

fl oor and woody 

fuels were reduced by burn treatments, and slash fuels increased after mechanical treatments. These patterns varied with landscape position, with litter mass reduction occurring only on mesic sites after burns.

A basis for characterizing positions on the landscape that represent different soilmoisture classes, known as Landscape Ecosystem Classi

fi cation System, 

was described by Jones (1991).

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
99

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

113 Mohr, H.H.; Waldrop, T.A. 2006. A simulation of 

wild

fi re behavior in Piedmont forests. In: Conner, 

K.F., ed. Proceedings, 13th biennial southern 

silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-92. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 507–509.

Southeast Piedmont

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 2 Flame length and scorch height 

were predicted within the program BehavePlus2 to be lower without any fuel reduction treatment or after mechanical treatments, while windspeed was predicted to be higher, and thus move 

fi re faster 

in untreated areas or after burn treatments.

Andrews et al. (2002) developed the BehavePlus2 wild

fi re 

modeling program.

114 Brudnak, L.; Waldrop, T.A.; Phillips, R.J. 2010. 

Use of a thermocouple-datalogger system to evaluate overstory mortality. In: Stanturf, J.A., ed. Proceedings, 14th biennial southern silvicultural 

research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-121. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 515–517.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B 2 Flaming front temperature, heat 

duration, and post

fi re overstory 

tree mortality were assessed in oak (Quercus spp.) woodlands by 

using thermocouples. Duration and average 

fl ame temperature 

explained 43 percent of tree mortality after the burn, while total heat output explained 45 percent of variation in tree mortality after the second burn.

Jones et al. (2006) developed a model that accounted for ratedependent features of temperature and heat duration and their relation to tree mortality. Loomis (1973) and Regelbrugge (1994) reported that most fi re-induced mortality occurred within 2 years after burning.

115 Lione, D. 2002. Effects of prescribed burning and 

thinning as fuel reduction treatments on the soils of the Clemson Experimental Forest. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 87 p. M.S. thesis.

Southeast Piedmont

Soils M, 

M+B

1, 2, 3 Findings for this thesis can be 

found in paper No. 118.

116 Callaham, M.A.; Anderson, P.H.; Waldrop, 

T.A.; Lione, D.J.; Shelburne, V.B. 2004. Litter decomposition and soil respiration responses to fuel-reduction treatments in Piedmont loblolly pine forests. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 12th

biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 25–29.

Southeast Piedmont

Soils B, M, 

M+B

1 Carbon was lost at a similar 

rate in burn, mechanical, and mechanical + burn treatments. Nitrogen concentrations were highly variable after mechanical and burn treatments, whereas nitrogen concentrations were less variable over time in untreated stands. Soil respiration was reduced after burn treatments. One year after mechanical treatment, decomposition was slower (higher carbon:nitrogen ratio), suggesting that more carbon would be stored in the forest 

fl oor after mechanical 

treatments than in unmanaged stands.

Blair et al. (1992) demonstrated that nitrogen and other nutrients can move in and out of litter as conditions change and become more or less favorable for decomposing organisms. Lower respiration after burning, reported by (Singh and Gupta 1977), may be due to higher soil temperature and lower moisture.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
100

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 117 Shelburne, V.B.; Boyle, M.F.; Lione, D.J.; Waldrop, T.A. 2004. Preliminary effects of prescribed burning and thinning as fuel reduction treatments on the Piedmont soils of the Clemson Experimental Forest. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 12th biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 35–38. Southeast Piedmont Soils B, M, M+B 1, 2 Mechanical and burn treatments were fundamentally different, and soil nutrient effects were the most pronounced after mechanical + burn treatments. Carbon:nitrogen ratios increased after mechanical + burn treatments, while soil bulk density increased after both mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments. Proportional 

nitri

fi cation, carbon:nitrogen ratio 

in the O horizon, and nitrogen in the A/Bt horizon decreased after burn-only treatments.

Froelich (1978) found that logging with heavy machinery causes soil compaction in the 

fi rst few trips into 

a stand. Monleon et al. (1997) observed immediate decreases in mineralization after burning, but saw a return to pretreatment levels within one year. Grogan et al. (2000) found that volatilization caused short-term losses of nitrogen after 

fi re.

118 Boerner, R.E.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Shelburne, V.B. 2006. 

Wild

fi re mitigation strategies affect soil enzyme 

activity and soil organic carbon in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 36(12): 3148–3154.

Southeast Piedmont

Soils M, 

M+B

1, 2, 3 Soil organic carbon declined the 

fi rst year after mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments, and the effect persisted for at least 4 years. Soil organic carbon was reduced only in the fourth year after burn treatments. 

Carter et al. (2002) reported short-term losses of soil organic carbon after clearcut harvesting. Gholz and Fisher (1982) and Knoepp et al. (2004) reported declines in soil organic carbon after combinations of mechanical and burn treatments that involved more intense harvest practices. Repeated burns generally have had little impact on soil organic carbon (McKee 1982, Moehring et al. 1966, Richter et al. 1982). Wilson et al. (2002) reported that soil organic carbon varied more from landscape position than the effects of 

fi re.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
101

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

118 Boerner et al. 2006. Southeast 

Piedmont

Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 7 If the management objective for 

these southern forests is timber production, thinning may be an appropriate practice because of rapid nutrient turnover rate, while burning may be more appropriate if the management objective is to store carbon in the soil.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

118 Boerner et al. 2006. Southeast 

Piedmont

Soils B, M+B 2, 3 Soil carbon:nitrogen ratio increased 

in the 

fi rst year after burn and 

mechanical + burn treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

118 Boerner et al. 2006. Southeast 

Piedmont

Soils B, M, 

M+B

2, 3 Microbial activity, measured as 

soil enzyme activity, increased the fourth year after mechanical treatments with a more subtle increase in the 

fi rst year.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings. Boerner et al. (2000) and Boerner and Brinkman (2003) reported contrasting results from oak (Quercus spp.) forests.

119 Kilpatrick, E.S. 2002. The effects of prescribed 

burning and thinning as fuel reduction treatments on herpetofauna in the upper Piedmont of South Carolina. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 66 p. M.S. thesis.

Southeast Piedmont

Vertebrates B, M 1, 5 Findings for this thesis can be 

found in paper No. 123.

120 Zebehazy, L.A. 2002. Avian and arthropod 

community responses to fuel reduction treatments in the upper Piedmont of South Carolina. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 86 p. M.S. thesis.

Southeast Piedmont

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

7 Findings for this thesis can be 

found in paper No. 124.

121 Kubacz, D.B. 2003. Effects of 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate 

treatments on small mammals in the South Carolina Piedmont. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 73 p. M.S. thesis.

Southeast Piedmont

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2 Findings for this thesis can be 

found in paper No. 123.

122 Kilpatrick, E.S.; Kubacz, D.B.; Guynn, D.C., Jr.; 

Lanham, J.D.; Waldrop, T.A. 2004. The effects of prescribed burning and thinning on herpetofauna and small mammals in the upper Piedmont of South Carolina: preliminary results of the National Fire

Southeast Piedmont

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1 No differences among treatments 

in small mammal abundance were detected, despite 9,600 trap nights. More snake species were caught after mechanical treatments than

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
102

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 and Fire Surrogate study. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 12th biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 18–22. after burn treatments, although the difference was most likely the result of random encounters of traps rather than treatment. The green anole (Anolis carolinensis) was captured more frequently after the mechanical + burn treatments than after burn treatments or in untreated stands. The 

fi ve-lined 

skink (Eumeces fasciatus) was 

captured more frequently after mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments than in untreated areas.

123 Zebehazy, L.A.; Lanham, J.D.; Waldrop, T.A. 2004. 

Seasonal avifauna responses to fuel reduction treatments in the upper Piedmont of South Carolina: results from phase 1 of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate study. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 12th biennial southern silvicultural research 

conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 82–86.

Southeast Piedmont

Vertebrates B, M 1, 5 Foliage-gleaning and canopynesting species were detected more 

often after mechanical treatments than after burn treatments or in untreated areas. Generally, breeding bird abundance, richness, and evenness did not differ among treatments.

Ingold and Galati (1997) reported that goldencrowned kinglets (Regulus strapa) decreased with treatments that opened canopies. Rodewald et al. (1999) reported that pine warblers (Dendroica pinus) increased with reductions in understory cover.

124 Leput, D.W. 2004. Eastern red bat (Lasiurus borealis) 

and eastern pipistrelle (Pipistrellus subfl avus) 

maternal roost selection: implications for forest management. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 86 p. M.S. thesis.

Southeast Piedmont

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

7 Eastern red bat (Lasiurus borealis) 

females preferred to roost in mature hardwood trees surrounded by open, hardwood-dominated stands, while eastern pipistrelles (Pipistrellus subfl avus) preferred to roost 

in live oak (Quercus virginianaMill.) foliage surrounded by tall, large-diameter trees. Fuel reduction treatments that shifted stands from hardwood to conifer dominance likely would not be bene

fi cial to 

eastern red bat maternal roosting, habitat quality for eastern pipistrelles but would likely increase roosting.

Hutchinson and Lacki (2000) and Mager and Nelson (2001) reported similar roost selection behavior of eastern red bats. Menzel et al. (1999) and Vielleux et al. (2003) reported similar roosting behavior in eastern pipistrelles.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
103

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

125 Kilpatrick, E.S. 2006. Responses of vertebrate fauna 

to prescribed 

fi re and fuel reduction treatments 

in the southern Piedmont. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 198 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Southeast Piedmont

Vertebrates B 1 Findings for this dissertation can be 

found in paper No. 127.

126 Loeb, S.C.; Waldrop, T.A. 2008. Bat activity 

in relation to 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate treatments 

in southern pine stands. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3185–3192.

Southeast Piedmont

Vertebrates M, 

M+B

1, 5, 8 Habitat features such as available 

foraging areas and corridors for commuting increased with mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments; these practices may help preserve biodiversity of managed forests in the Piedmont region.

Similar studies have shown that bats, especially larger bodied species, tend to avoid dense forest stands (Brigham et al. 1997, Ellison et al. 2005, Erickson and West 2003). Thinned stands had higher bat activity than unthinned stands (Humes et al. 1999).

127 Kilpatrick, E.S.; Lanham, J.D.; Waldrop, T.A. 2010. 

Effects of fuel reduction treatments on avian nest density in the upper Piedmont of South Carolina. Open Environmental Sciences. 4: 70–75.

Southeast Piedmont

Vertebrates B 1 Declining population levels of early 

successional avian species may be reversed by increasing the relative area of upland Piedmont forest receiving burn treatments. 

Relative abundance of early successional songbird species may increase with forest burning (Dickson 1981).

128 Vickers, M.E. 2003. Spider (Araneae) responses to 

fuel reduction in a Piedmont forest in upstate South Carolina. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 115 p. M.S. thesis.

Southeast Piedmont

Invertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2, 3 Abundance of funnel, dwarf, and 

wolf spiders initially decreased after burn treatments but recovered after 2 years. No other spider taxa were affected.

Other studies have reported no affect or only a short-term affect after fuel reduction treatments (Haskins and Shaddy 1986, Merrott 1976, New and Hanula 1998).

129 Staeben, J.C. 2003. The effects of 

fi re and 

fi re 

surrogate forest management practices on coleopterans in the Clemson Experimental Forest. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 90 p. M.S. thesis.

Southeast Piedmont

Invertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Abundance and diversity of beetles 

did not differ among fuel reduction treatments. 

Holliday (1991) found higher numbers of ground beetles. Muona and Rutanen (1994) suggested that land management treatments that increase complexity may lead to increased richness of carabid beetles.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
104

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 130 Boyle, M.F. 2002. Short-term response of bark beetles to fuel reduction treatments in the upper Piedmont. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 87 p. M.S. thesis. Southeast Piedmont Bark beetles B, M, M+B 1, 2, 5, 10 Findings for this thesis can be found in paper No. 131. 131 Boyle, M.F.; Hedden, R.L.; Waldrop, T.A. 2004. Impact of prescribed 

fi re and thinning on host 

resistance to the southern pine beetle: preliminary results of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate study. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 12th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 60–64.

Southeast Piedmont

Bark beetles B, M, 

M+B

1, 2, 5, 10 Abundance of southern pine beetle 

did not differ among treatments. Total resin 

fl ow was inversely 

correlated with beetle activity on a per-tree basis, and resin fl ow was positively correlated with the percentage of latewood. Thus, treatments that increase the relative proportion of latewood may increase stand resistance to southern pine beetle.

Strom et al. (2002) found that progeny of pines that had previously escaped southern pine beetle attack had greater resin 

fl ow than 

unattacked pines from the same area. Zobel (1995) reported that the amount of latewood was an important factor for high resin 

fl ow 

and tree growth, and thinning may increase stand resistence to bark beetles.

132 Moody, J.M. 2002. Fire and alternative fuel 

treatments on soil nitrogen: a case study of Myakka River State Park. Tallahassee, FL: Florida A&M University. 52 p. M.S. thesis.

Florida Coastal Plain

Soils M+B 1, 2 Nitrate production was greater after 

the mechanical + burn treatments. Ammonium production was greater after the burn-only treatments. Soil moisture levels were below levels favorable to soil microbial activity and there was a relatively high carbon:nitrogen ratio.

Matson and Vitousek (1981) reported that soil moisture and temperature were higher in clearcuts than undisturbed forests and this led to higher nitrogen mineralization and nitri

fi cation rates 

in clearcuts. Plymale et al. (1987) suggested that soil moisture was a strong controller of nitrogen mineralization.

133 Reetz, M.J.; Farley, E.; Contreras, T.A. 2008. 

Evidence for Bachman’s sparrow raising brownheaded cowbirds to 

fl edging. Wilson Journal of 

Ornithology. 120(3): 625–627.

Florida Coastal Plain

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

5 First recorded evidence of a brownheaded cowbird chick raised to 

fl edging by Bachman’s sparrow.

Friedman (1963) noted only three records of brown-headed cowbird parasitism of Bachman’s 

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
105

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

sparrow nests, and other studies have failed to corroborate the parasitism (Kilgo and Moorman 2003, Perkins et al. 2003, Tucker et al. 2006).

134 Frank, J.H.; Foltz, J.L.; Almquist, D.T. 2005. The 

female of Oxybleptes meridionalis (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Staphylininae) and range extension for Oxybleptes. Florida Entomologist. 88(2): 199–200.

Florida Coastal Plain

Invertebrates B, M, 

M+B

5 The range of the rove beetle 

(Oxybleptes meridionalis) was extended across the Florida Peninsula based on 6 females and 20 males. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

135 Outcalt, K.W. 2003. Developing management options 

for longleaf communities of the Gulf Coastal Plain. In: Kush, J.S., comp. Proceedings, 4th Longleaf 

Alliance regional conference, longleaf pine: a southern legacy rising from the ashes. Longleaf Alliance Report No. 6. Andalusia, AL: The Longleaf Alliance: 126–129.

Gulf Coastal Plain

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

2, 3 Slash that was removed prior 

to burning minimized tree mortality and would increase costeffectiveness over time as growing season burns would require less site preparation.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

136 Outcalt, K.W.; Foltz, J.L. 2004. Impacts of growingseason prescribed burns in the Florida pine 

fl atwoods 

type. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 12th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 30–34.

Gulf Coastal Plain

Overstory vegetation

B, M+B 2 Crown scorch ranged from 16 to 83 

percent with the lowest percentage occurring when 3 years of fuel accumulation were burned during the growing season by using mostly fl anking 

fi res.

Boyer (1993), Haywood et al. (2001), and Robbins and Myers (1992) reported that, over the long term, growing-season fuel reduction treatments could become more effective as live woody fuels are reduced and herbaceous fuels increase after repeated burns .

137 Outcalt, K.W. 2005. Restoring structure and 

composition of longleaf pine ecosystems of the Gulf Coastal Plains. In: Kush, J.S., comp. Proceedings, 5th Longleaf Alliance regional conference. Longleaf 

Alliance Report No. 8. Andalusia, AL: The Longleaf Alliance: 97–100.

Gulf Coastal Plain

Overstory vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 2, 8 Burning was most effective in 

controlling understory hardwoods, whereas mechanical treatments reduced the number of large midstory hardwoods, indicating that mechanical + burn treatments may be the quickest way to restore structure and composition.

Komarek (1977) and Landers et al. (1989) reported that young hardwoods were susceptible to top kill by 

fi re, and 

frequent 

fi res can keep 

hardwood sprouts at low stature in longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) stands.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
106

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 138 Rompré, G. 2003. Successful nesting of the sharp- shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus) in a longleaf pine stand in southern Alabama. Alabama Birdlife. 49(1): 10–13. Gulf Coastal Plain Vertebrates B, M, M+B

5 A sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter 

striatus) nest with male, female, and four hatchlings was found in a longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) 

stand in southern Alabama.

Stratford and Tucker (2002) suggested the recent extension of breeding records may be in response to restoration efforts in longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystems.

139 Rall, A.E. 2004. Effects of longleaf pine management 

practices on the herpetofauna of south Alabama. Auburn, AL: Auburn University. 61 p. M.S. thesis.

Gulf Coastal Plain

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2, 3 Community-level effects on 

amphibians and reptiles did not differ among treatments. 

Current amphibian monitoring projects extend for 6 to 21 years (Pechmann et al. 2001).

140 Sharp, N.W. 2005. Demography of small mammal 

populations in longleaf pine undergoing restoration. Auburn, AL: Auburn University. 84 p. M.S. thesis.

Gulf Coastal Plain

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2, 5 Survival of golden mice 

(Ochrotomys nuttalli) declined after burn treatments. Small mammal recruitment was affected by both habitat alteration within stands, and the availability of immigrants from source habitat outside stands.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

141 Sharp, N.W.; Mitchell, M.S.; Grand, J.B. 2009. 

Sources, sinks, and spatial ecology of cotton mice in longleaf pine stands undergoing restoration. Journal of Mammalogy. 90(6): 1440–1448.

Gulf Coastal Plain

Vertebrates B 2 Habitat quality for cotton mice 

(Peromyscus gossypinus) increased 

after mechanical + burn and mechanical + herbicide treatments. Habitat quality after mechanicalonly treatments was similar to untreated stands. Bottomland hardwood forests adjacent to longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) 

stands may have served as a source of immigrants.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

142 Steen, D.A.; McGee, A.E.R.; Hermann, S.M.; Stiles, 

J.A.; Stiles, S.H.; Guyer, C. 2010. Effects of forest management on amphibians and reptiles: generalist species obscure trends among native forest associates. Open Environmental Sciences. 4: 24–30.

Gulf Coastal Plain

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1 Total amphibian species richness 

was unaffected by treatments, but richness of amphibian fauna known to be associated with longleaf pine forests increased after active treatments.

Means et al. (2004) suggested that effects studies should focus on those amphibian species that are found to be associated with longleaf

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
107

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

pine (Pinus palustris) stands; otherwise, treatment effects may be masked by generalist species.

142 Steen et al. 2010. Gulf Coastal 

Plain

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2 Total lizard and snake species 

richness and richness of lizard and snake species associated with longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) forests did not differ among treatments. 

Mushinsky (1985, 1992) reported that richness of lizard and snake species increased after 

fi re. 

143 Robinson, W.D.; Rompré, G. 2010. Nest survival 

of understory birds in longleaf pine forests exposed to 

fi re and 

fi re-surrogate treatments. Open 

Environmental Sciences. 4: 63–69.

Gulf Coastal Plain

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2 Treatment plot size was too small 

to draw conclusions, but there was some evidence that nest mortality rates of eastern towhee were higher in treated stands than in untreated stands.

Rotella et al. (2007) reported that the minimum size area for sampling for nest predation in longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) stands was 100 ha. 

144 Phillips, R.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Simon, D.M. 2010. 

Third-year responses of understory woody regeneration to fuel reduction treatments in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. In: Stanturf, J.A., ed. Proceedings, 14th biennial southern silvicultural 

research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–121. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 289–293.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Understory vegetation

B, M, M+B

2, 3, 8 Density of shade-intolerant tree 

species 3 years after treatment increased the most after mechanical + burn treatments, and shrub cover had decreased the most. Burning favored oak (Quercus) species. Repeated entries likely will be needed to restore stands to presettlement conditions.

Dolan and Parker (2004) and Hutchinson et al. (2005) reported increased density of shade-tolerant tree species after burning.

145 Phillips, R.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Simon, D.M. 2006. 

Assessment of the FARSITE model for predicting 

fi re 

behavior in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 13th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-92. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 521–525.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 10 The 

fi re behavior and growth 

simulator FARSITE was calibrated for the Southern Appalachian Mountains by using postburn data. Adjustments led to realistic rates of spread, although predicted fl ame lengths were excessive. Fuel moistures and the presence of ericaceous shrubs proved diffi cult 

to simulate.

Grupe (1998) showed that FARSITE was sensitive to small spatial variations in fuel models (areas that occupied only 10 percent of the landscape) and these could affect the predicted average rate of spread, 

fl ame length, 

and 

fi re-line intensity.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
108

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 146 Gambrell, H.E.; Waldrop, T.A.; Wang, G.G. [In press]. Fuel dynamics across southern Appalachian landscapes. In: 15th biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. Southern Appalachian Mountains Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B

1, 5 Leaf litter and 

fi ne woody fuel 

did not differ across different topographic positions while the mass of coarse woody debris was greater on northeast-facing slopes than other topographic positions.

Waldrop et al. (2007) and Kolaks et al. (2003) reported similar slope effects on fuel mass. Clinton (2004) reported that cover of ericaceous shrubs on north slopes could account for greater fuel mass because volatile chemicals in the shrubs contribute to decay resistence.

147 Waldrop, T.; Phillips, R.; Simon, D. 2010. Fuels and 

predicted 

fi re behavior in the southern Appalachian 

Mountains after 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate treatments. 

Forest Science. 56(1): 32–45.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B

1, 3 Litter and simulated 

fi re behavior 

were decreased for 1 year after burn treatments but returned to pretreatment levels by the third year. Vertical fuels declined and litter and woody fuels increased after mechanical treatments, and simulated 

fi re behavior was more 

intense for 5 years. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

147 Waldrop et al. 2010. Southern 

Appalachian Mountains

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

M+B 1, 8 Flame temperatures were higher 

and the mass of woody fuel consumed greater after combined mechanical + burn treatments than other treatments. Mechanical + burn treatments were the most effective in reducing simulated 

fi re 

behavior and meeting restoration objectives.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

148 Mohr, H.H.; Waldrop, T.A.; Simon, D.M. 2010. 

Using BEHAVEPlus for predicting 

fi re behavior in 

southern Appalachian hardwood stands subjected to fuel reduction treatments. In: Stanturf, J.A., ed. Proceedings, 14th biennial southern silvicultural 

research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-121. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 565–567.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B

2 Wildland 

fi re behavior was 

predicted by using the model BEHAVEPlus. Potential posttreatment 

fi re intensities 

were highest for mechanical-only treatments, intermediate for burnonly treatments, and lowest for the mechanical + burn treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
109

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

149 Coates, T.A.; Shelburne, V.B.; Waldrop, T.A.; Smith, 

B.R.; Hill, H.S., Jr.; Simon, D.M. 2010. Forest soil response to fuel reduction treatments in the southern Appalachian Mountains. In: Stanturf, J.A., ed. Proceedings, 14th biennial southern silvicultural 

research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-121. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 283–287.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 3 Forest 

fl oor carbon:nitrogen ratio 

was lower during the 

fi rst year after 

mechanical + burn treatments, but was no different from other treatments after 4 years. Soil extractable iron and pH 4 years after mechanical treatments was lower than untreated stands.

Johnson and Curtis (2001), Knoepp and Swank (1993), and Wells et al. (1979) reported that most forest 

fl oor 

variables in eastern deciduous forests change little in response to fuel reduction treatments.

150 Tomcho, A.L. 2004. Effects of prescribed 

fi re 

and understory removal on bird communities in a southern Appalachian forest. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 72 p. M.S. thesis.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2 Findings for this thesis can be 

found in paper No. 153.

151 Greenberg, C.H.; Otis, D.L.; Waldrop, T.A. 2006. 

Response of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) to 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate fuel reduction 

treatments in a southern Appalachian hardwood forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 234(103): 355–362.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2, 3 Age structure and male-female ratio 

of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) were not affected by fuel reduction treatments. Average adult body mass declined least during the 

fi rst year after mechanical 

treatments than other treatments. Population levels increased equally the 

fi rst year after treatments, while 

population levels increased more after mechanical + burn treatments than other treatments during the second season. 

Wolff (1985) reported similar adult body masses. Ford et al. (1999) and Keyser et al. (2001) reported similar Peromyscusspecies abundance in both burned and unburned hardwood forest 

fl oors. Kirkland 

et al. (1996) reported a lower abundance of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) in stands with little shrub cover after burning than in unburned stands. Krefting and Ahlgren (1974) reported higher densities of Peromyscusspecies in burned mixed-conifer-hardwood stands than unburned stands.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
110

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 151 Greenberg et al. 2006. Southern Appalachian Mountains Vertebrates B, M, M+B 5 The proportion of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) captured near coarse woody debris did not differ from that captured in open areas, indicating that they did not use coarse woody debris preferentially or change their use patterns in response to fuel reduction treatments. Greenberg (2002) found that white-footed mice 

(Peromyscus leucopus) preferentially used coarse woody debris, but relative densities of mice were similar among sites with different levels of coarse woody debris loading. Others have reported that white-footed mice use coarse woody debris preferentially for travel, orientation, foraging, nesting and refuge sites (Kirkland 1990, McCay 2000, Tallmon and Mills 1994).

152 Greenberg, C.H.; Tomcho, A.L.; Lanham, J.D.; 

Waldrop, T.A.; Tomcho, J.; Phillips, R.J.; Simon, D. 2007. Short-term effects of 

fi re and other fuel 

reduction treatments on breeding birds in a southern Appalachian upland hardwood forest. Journal of Wildlife Management. 71(6): 1906–1916.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Vertebrates M+B 1, 2 Many bird species did not change 

in abundance with treatments. Species richness, total bird density and abundance in some species, including indigo buntings (Passerina cyanea) and eastern 

bluebirds (Sialia sialis), increased 1 or 2 years after mechanical + burn treatments. Eastern woodpewees (Contopus virens) increased immediately after mechanical + burn treatments. Hooded warblers (Wilsonia citrina), black-and-white warblers (Mniotilta varia), and 

worm-eating warblers (Helmitheros vermivorus) declined temporarily in some or all treatments. High snag availability, open conditions, and a higher density of 

fl ying insects in 

the mechanical + burn treatment likely contributed to increased bird density and species richness.

Hejl (1994) reported that bird response to fi re varies according to 

fi re severity and 

the corresponding postburn conditions. Campbell et al. (2007b) reported an increased density of 

fl ying insects 

and visibility after mechanical + burn treatments.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
111

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

153 Greenberg, C.H.; Miller, S.; Waldrop, T.A. 2007. 

Short-term response of shrews to prescribed 

fi re and 

mechanical fuel reduction in a Southern Appalachian upland hardwood forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 243(2–3): 231–236.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

5 Relative abundance of all shrews, 

including northern short-tailed shrews (Blarina brevicauda), 

smokey shrews (Sorex fumeus), pygmy shrews (S. hoyi), 

and southeastern shrews (S. longirostris) was lower in the mechanical + burn treatments than other treatments, but differed only from the mechanical treatments where the leaf litter depth was high. Low-intensity fuel reduction treatments, with little change in canopy cover or leaf litter depth, have little impact on shrews, while high-intensity treatments that reduce shading and leaf litter depth can result in short-term declines in shrew abundance.

Ford et al. (1999) reported that a highintensity burn in a xeric pitch pine (Pinus rigida) forest did not affect the relative abundance of masked shrews (Sorex cinereus), smokey shrews, pygmy shrews, and northern shorttailed shrews. Ford et al. (1997) reported a linkage between leaf litter depth and abundance of northern short-tailed shrews and smokey shrews. Ford and Rodrigue (2001) reported that shrew abundance did not change after partial overstory removal.

154 Greenberg, C.H.; Waldrop, T.A. 2008. Short-term 

response of reptiles and amphibians to prescribed fi re and mechanical fuel reduction in a southern Appalachian upland hardwood forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(7): 2883–2893.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2 Relative abundance of salamanders, 

amphibians, lizards, and reptiles was not changed by fuel reduction treatments. High-intensity burning could be used to increase reptile abundance.

Floyd et al. (2002), Ford et al. (1999), and Keyser et al. (2004) reported that burning did not affect relative abundance of salamanders. Floyd et al. (2002) reported that reptiles were not affected by burning, while Keyser et al. (2004) reported that reptile abundance increased with burning owing to reduced leaf litter, more bare ground, and higher light levels that facilitate movement and thermoregulation (Russel et al. 1999, Renken 2006).

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
112

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 155 Matthews, C.E. 2008. Long-term response of herpetofauna and soricid populations to 

fi re and fuel 

reduction treatments in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University. 57 p. MS thesis.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Findings for this thesis can be 

found in papers Nos. 156 and 157.

156 Matthews, C.E.; Moorman, C.E.; Greenberg, C.H.; 

Waldrop, T.A. 2009. Response of soricid populations to repeated 

fi re and fuel reduction treatments in the 

southern Appalachian Mountains. Forest Ecology and Management. 257(9): 1939–1944.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Abundance of shrews did not differ 

among treatments.

Several studies have reported little or no response by shrews to minor habitat disturbances (Ford et al. 1999, Ford and Rodrigue 2001, Greenberg and Miller 2004).

156 Matthews et al. 2009. Southern 

Appalachian Mountains

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Southeastern shrews (Sorex 

longirostris) declined in abundance the 

fi rst year after mechanical + 

burn treatments because leaf litter, duff depth, and canopy cover were decreased, thereby decreasing ground-level moisture. Abundance rebounded the second year after treatments.

Dense herbaceous cover and deep leaf litter favor southeastern shrews (Sorex longirostris) (French 1980).

157 Matthews, C.E.; Moorman, C.E.; Greenberg, C.H.; 

Waldrop, T.A. 2010. Response of reptiles and amphibians to repeated fuel reduction treatments. Journal of Wildlife Management. 74(6): 1301–1310.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Both reptile and amphibian 

communities were unchanged by mechanical or burn treatments. Salamander abundance declined and lizard abundance increased after mechanical + burn treatments.

Reduction in overstory canopy cover may negatively affect salamanders (Harpole and Hass 1999; Petranka et al. 1993, 1994; Pough et al. 1987), and retention of full canopy cover may positively affect salamanders (Harpole and Hass 1999, Homyack and Hass 2009, Knapp et al. 2003). Little or no change in salamander abundance occurred after burns (Floyd 2003, Ford et al. 1999, 

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
113

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Greenberg and Waldrop 2008, Moseley et al. 2003). Salamander abundance remained unchanged after midstory canopy removal with herbicides (Harpole and Haas 1999, Homyack and Haas 2009, Knapp et al. 2003). A single burn increased abundance of reptiles and had no effect on numbers of amphibians in the short term (Ford et al. 1999, Greenberg and Waldrop 2008).

158 Campbell, J.W.; Hanula, J.L.; Waldrop, T.A. 2007a. 

Effects of prescribed 

fi re and 

fi re surrogates on 

fl oral 

visiting insects of the Blue Ridge Province in North Carolina. Biological Conservation. 134(3): 393–404.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Invertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Floral visitors increased in 

abundance and species richness after mechanical + burn treatments that reduced the density of overstory trees and increased the amount of herbaceous plant growth. Plant pollinator abundance and species diversity increased more after mechanical + burn treatments than other treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

159 Campbell, J.W.; Hanula J.L.; Waldrop, T.A. 2007b. 

Observations of Speyeria diana (Diana Fritillary) utilizing forested areas in North Carolina that have been mechanically thinned and burned. Southeastern Naturalist. 6(1): 179–182.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Invertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Male Diana fritillaries (Speyeria 

diana) were observed feeding on sourwood (Oxydendrum arboretum) after mechanical + burn treatments, likely a result of greater cover of herbaceous plants than other treatments.

Thill et al. (2004) reported that the Diana fritillary increased in abundance after thinning and burning because of a greater abundance of nectar resource.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
114

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 160 Greenberg, C.H.; Forrest, T.G.; Waldrop, T. 2010. Short-term response of ground-dwelling arthropods to prescribed 

fi re and mechanical fuel reduction in a 

southern Appalachian upland hardwood forest. Forest Science. 56(1):112–121.

Southern Appalachian Mountains

Invertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2 Abundance, dry biomass of all 

species, or species composition of ground-dwelling arthropods did not differ in the short-term among fuel reduction treatments. Hymenoptera (predominantly Formicidae) dry biomass was greater with mechanical + burn treatments than mechanical treatments.

Apigian et al. (2006) reported taxon-speci

fi c 

changes in relative abundance in response to fuel reduction treatments. Negligible or very transient reductions in relative abundance or richness of macroarthropods after 

fi re was reported 

by Abbott et al. (2003), New and Hanula (1998), and Siemann et al. (1997). More substantial impacts were reported by Hanula and Wade (2003), Moretti et al. (2006), and Paquin and Coderre (1997).

161 Waldrop, T.A.; Yaussy, D.A. 2007. Delayed 

mortality of eastern hardwoods after prescribed fi re. In: Stanturf, J.A., ed. Proceedings, 14th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-121. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 609–612.

Regional Overstory 

vegetation

B, M, M+B

3 Tree mortality continued for 4 

years after burning, probably owing to prior tree health. Accurate assessment of stand response to treatments requires several years of posttreatment monitoring.

Delayed tree mortality may be related to drier soils after treatments when forest 

fl oor depth 

is decreased and the amount of sunlight reaching the forest 

fl oor 

is increased (Waldrop et al. 2002).

162 Phillips, R.J.; Waldrop, T.A. [In press]. Fuel loading 

after fuel reduction treatments and impacts from natural disturbances. In: Proceedings, 15th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station.

Regional Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B

1, 2, 3 An ice storm in 2005 increased 

fi ne 

fuels by 13 m3·ha-1 after mechanical 

treatments and in untreated stands; 2 years later, 

fi ne fuel mass 

remained greater than after burn and mechanical + burn treatments. Fire behavior may be managed, and the detrimental effects of natural disturbances reduced, by fuel reduction treatments.

Estimates of biomass input resulting from ice storms include 5.1 m3·ha-1 (Rebertus et 

al. 1997), 19.4 m3·ha-1

(Bruderle and Steams 1985), and 33.6 m3·ha-1

(Hooper et al. 2001).

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
115

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

162 Phillips and Waldrop [In press]. Regional Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B

2, 3 Fine fuel mass, 8 years after treatment, was lower after mechanical 

+ burn treatments than other fuel reduction treatments, and 

fi ne 

fuel mass after mechanical treatments did not differ from untreated stands. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

162 Phillips and Waldrop [In press]. Regional Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B

2, 4 After 8 years, predicted future 

fi re behavior was lowest after mechanical treatments at the Southeastern Piedmont site, and after mechanical + burn treatments at the southern Appalachian Mountains site.

Fire behavior projections likely may change rapidly in both types of forests, because fuels tend to accumulate rapidly after each 

fi re 

entry (Wade et al. 2000). Examining interactions over time among multiple natural and human-induced disturbances can provide valuable information for land managers relevant to long-term restoration goals (Lundquist 2007).

163 Coates, T.A. 2006. Response of forest soil resources 

to fuel reduction in the southeastern Piedmont and southern Appalachian Mountains. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 91 p. M.S. thesis.

Regional Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Findings for this thesis can be 

found in papers Nos. 164 and 179.

164 Coates, T.A.; Boerner, R.E.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Yaussy, 

D.A. 2008. Soil nitrogen transformations under alternative management strategies in Appalachian forests. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 72(2): 558–565.

Regional Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Nitrogen transformation rates were 

2 to 10 times higher at the Central Appalachian Plateau site than at the Southern Appalachian Mountains site, likely owing to the presence of ericaceous shrubs including mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia L.) and rhododendron (Rhododendron

spp.).

Decomposition and soil organic matter consumption rates were lower in forests with dense ericaceous understories because the litter contained high levels of recalcitrant tannins and phenols (DeLuca et al. (2002, Waterman and Mole 1994). 

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
116

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 164 Coates et al. 2008. Regional Soils B, M, M+B 1, 2, 3 Extractable total inorganic nitrogen (N), N mineralization, and nitrifi cation increased during the 

fi rst 

year after mechanical treatments at the Central Appalachian Plateau site and total inorganic nitrogen was greater in the third year after mechanical and mechanical + 

fi re 

treatments at the Southern Appalachian Mountains site.

Total inorganic nitrogen and nitrogen transformation rates typically increase after burning, and eastern forests generally have lower rates of nitrogen transformation than western forests (Wan et al. 2001).

164 Coates et al. 2008. Regional Soils B, M+B 2 Mineralization rates initially declined after burn treatments at the 

Central Appalachian Plateau site but were unaffected at the Southern Appalachian Mountains site.

No other studies have reported similar 

fi ndings.

165 Kilpatrick, E.S.; Waldrop, T.A.; Lanham, J.D.; 

Greenberg, C.H.; Contreras, T.H. 2010. Short-term effects of fuel reduction treatments on herpetofauna from the southeastern United States. Forest Science. 56(1): 122–130.

Regional Vertebrates B, M+B 1, 2 Lizard and reptile abundances 

were higher after the burn and mechanical + burn treatments at the Southern Appalachian Mountains and Southeastern Piedmont sites, and were best predicted by native herbaceous cover.

Burning in many southeastern forests increased light penetration to the forest 

fl oor and stimulated herbaceous cover 

(Conner et al. 2002, Wilson et al. 1995, Wood et al. 2004). Burning provided greater heat for basking by lizards and reptiles (Perison et al. 1997, Zug 1993). Fire is generally a positive process for native reptiles and amphibians (Johnson and Hale 2000).

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
117

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

165 Kilpatrick et al. 2010. Regional Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2 Lizard and reptile abundance was 

higher after burn and mechanical + burn treatments at the Southeastern Piedmont and Southern Appalachian Mountains sites than other fuel reduction treatments, and this increased abundance was linked to higher native herbaceous cover after treatment.

Increased lizard and reptile abundance was linked to increased insolation in burned units, which increased heat available at the forest 

fl oor used by 

these poikilothermic animals for basking and attainment of necessary active body temperatures (Perison et al. 1997, Phelps and Lancia 1995).

166 Zwart, D.C. 2004. Effects of fuel reduction treatments 

on the incidence of two root pathogens of forest trees. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 114 p. M.S. thesis.

Regional Pathology and 

fungi

B, M, M+B

1, 2 The plant-killing diseases Phytophthora heveae and P. cinnamomi

were pathogenic to white pine (Pinus strobes), mountain laurel 

(Kalmia latifolia), and rhododendrons (Rhododendron spp.), yet 

fuel reduction treatments had no effect on the incidence of the root pathogens Leptographium spp. and 

Phytophthora spp.

These plant diseases tend to be resistant to disturbances including fuel reduction treatments (Erwin and Ribeiro 1996).

167 McLaughlin, I.M. 2008. Effects of fuel reduction 

treatments on species of Phytophthora and 

Leptographium in forest ecosystems. Clemson, SC: 

Clemson University. 162 p. M.S. thesis. 

Regional Pathology and 

fungi

B, M, M+B

1, 2, 3 Incidence of the forest tree 

pathogen Leptographium species in roots of southern pine trees was initially lower after fuel reduction treatments at the Southeastern Piedmont site, but rebounded to pretreatment levels after 5 years.

Otrosina et al. (1997) reported the presence of Leptographium species in tree roots was associated with high stand basal area and suggested that reducing basal area may help maintain lower levels of this pathogen.

167 McLaughlin 2008. Regional Pathology and 

fungi

B, M, M+B

2, 10 Incidence of the forest tree 

pathogen Phytophthora species in soils did not differ among fuel reduction treatments at the Southern Appalachian Mountains site.

Phytophthora species were shown to be resilient to various fuel reduction treatments (Hansen and Sutton 2005, Marks et al. 1975).

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
118

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 168 Knapp, E.E.; Stephens, S.L.; McIver, J.D.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Keeley, J.E. 2004. Fire and 

fi re 

surrogate study in the Sierra Nevada: evaluating restoration treatments at Blodgett Forest and Sequoia National Park. In: Murphy, D.D.; Stine, P.A., eds. Proceedings, Sierra Nevada science symposium 2002: science for management and conservation. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-193. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Paci

fi c 

Southwest Research Station: 79–85.

Regional Multivariate B 1, 2 Fewer small trees were killed, 

less fuel was consumed, and more heterogeneous patterns of effects resulted after spring burns than after fall burns at the Southern Sierra Nevada site. Fuel loads were reduced from 150.0 to 101.9 tons·ha-1

by using mechanical treatments at the Central Sierra Nevada site.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

169 Yaussy, D.A.; Waldrop, T.A. 2009. Fire and 

fi re surrogate study: annotated highlights from oak-dominated 

sites. In: Hutchinson, T.F., ed. Proceedings, 3rd

fi re 

in eastern oak forests conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-46. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 40–50.

Regional Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1 Annotated highlights of short-term 

fi ndings from Central Appalachian Plateau and Southern Appalachian Mountains sites are provided.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

170 Waldrop, T.A.; Boerner, R.E.J.; Yaussy, D.A. [In 

press]. Restoration treatments in eastern hardwoods: impacts and interactions of multiple ecosystem components. In: 15th biennial southern silvicultural 

research conference. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station.

Regional Multivariate M+B 2, 3, 8 Stand-level shifts toward restoration were greater after mechanical 

+ burn treatments than other treatments at both the Central Appalachian Plateau and Southern Appalachian Mountains sites, yet overstory and understory vegetation remained too dense, soils were largely unaffected, and bird species richness showed only ephemeral changes. Treatments should be repeated if the management goal is to replicate historical structure and function.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

171 Waldrop, T.A.; Yaussy, D.A.; Phillips, R.J.; 

Hutchinson, T.A.; Brudnak, L., Boerner, R.E.J. 2008. Fuel reduction treatments affect stand structure of hardwood forests in western North Carolina and southern Ohio, USA. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3117–3129.

Network Overstory 

vegetation

M+B 1, 2 Overstory stand structure was modifi ed more by mechanical + burn 

treatments that included two burns than other fuel reduction treatments at both the Central Appalachian Plateau and Southern Appalachian Mountains sites, yet no set of treatments restored stand structure to historical conditions.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
119

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

171 Waldrop et al. 2008. Network Overstory 

vegetation

B, M, M+B

8, 10 Results from the two study sites 

in the Appalachian Mountains indicated the rapid sprouting and growth of undesirable eastern species, and suggested the need for frequently repeated treatments during the restoration phase.

Van Lear (1998) reported that burns conducted after yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) was established favored oak (Quercus) establishment. Zenner et al. (2006) reported that intensive harvesting may be necessary to cause marked changes in the understory, especially in the forb and grass components.

172 Bartuszevige, A.M.; Kennedy, P.L. 2009. Synthesis 

of knowledge on the effects of 

fi re and thinning 

treatments on understory vegetation in U.S. dry forests. Special Report 1095. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press. 159 p.

Network Understory 

vegetation

B, M, M+B

1, 10 Information on the effects of fuel 

reduction treatments in seasonal dry forests is presented by region and by plant functional group and plant species.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

172 Bartuszevige and Kennedy 2009. Network Understory 

vegetation

B, M, M+B

2, 9 Landscape context, or the proximity 

of proposed treatments to nearby roads, wildland-urban interface, or previous plant invasions, will in

fl uence the effectiveness of 

treatments.

Exotic or nonnative invasive plant species richness increased after mechanical + burn treatments (Collins et al. 2007, Dodson et al. 2008, Dodson and Fiedler 2006, Griffi s et al. 2001, Metlen and Fiedler 2006, Nelson et al. 2008).

172 Bartuszevige and Kennedy 2009. Network Understory 

vegetation

B, M, M+B

3 Long-term studies are needed to 

capture fully understory response to treatments.

Busse et al. (2000) and Laughlin et al. (2008) reported lasting longterm effects after fuel reduction treatments, while Fulé et al. (2002) failed to detect similar long-term effects.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
120

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 172 Bartuszevige and Kennedy 2009. Network Understory vegetation B, M, M+B 8 Multiple or repeated treatments will be required to restore understory structure and bring forests back into the historical range of variability. Multiple entries are needed to restore under- stories to the historical range of variability (Harrington and Ed- wards 1999, Metlen and Fiedler 2006, Waldrop et al. 2008). Laughlin et al. (2008) reported that multiple burns conducted over 11 years 

were needed to restore historical understory community structure in a southwestern forest.

172 Bartuszevige and Kennedy 2009. Network Understory 

vegetation

B, M, M+B

8 Many rare, threatened, and 

endangered plant species are adapted to 

fi re and often respond 

positively to burns. 

Rare, threatened, and endangered plant species often maintain their population level through repeated exposure to fi re (Menges et al. 2006, Norden and Kirkman 2004, Satterthwaite et al. 2002).

173 Kennard, D.K.; Outcalt, K.W.; Jones, D.; O’Brien, 

J.J. 2005. Comparing techniques for estimating 

fl ame 

temperature of prescribed 

fi res. Fire Ecology. 1(1): 

75–84.

Network Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 10 Simple 

fi re behavior observations 

taken during burns and indicators of 

fi re severity taken after the burn 

were inexpensive and revealed useful differences among 

fi res.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

173 Kennard et al. 2005. Network Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 10 Thermocouples provided the most 

detailed spatial and temporal information on temperatures during a burn. Pyrometers were the most effective in characterizing spatial heterogeneity in temperatures during a 

fi re. Calorimeters 

generally were disadvantageous owing to lack of precision and high labor cost.

Perez and Moreno (1998) reported that calorimeters were more precise than pyrometers, while Wally et al. (2006) reported that pyrometers outperformed calorimeters as a cheap method for describing relative temperature regimes

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
121

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

that are a function of both temperature and residence time.

173 Kennard et al. 2005. Network Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 10 Thermocouples, pyrometers, and 

calorimeters all underestimated maximum 

fl ame temperatures, yet 

several devices were useful for characterizing other metrics of 

fi re 

behavior.

Iverson et al. (2004) noted the relative imprecision of thick thermocouples for capturing fast short-term temperature dynamics.

174 Stephens, S.L.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Edminster, C.; 

Fiedler, C.E.; Haase, S.; Harrington, M.; Keeley J.E.; Knapp, E.E.; McIver, J.D.; Metlen, K.; Skinner, C.N.; Youngblood, A. 2009a. Fire treatment effects on vegetation structure, fuels, and potential 

fi re severity 

in western U.S. forests. Ecological Applications. 19(2): 305–320.

Network Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Potential 

fi re severity under severe 

fi re weather conditions was reduced by using burn, mechanical, or mechanical + burn treatments with whole tree harvest systems. Fire resistance was increased when the largest trees within the stands were retained.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

174 Stephens et al. 2009a. Network Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

M, M+B

1, 2 Potential for crown 

fi re was reduced 

by using mechanical or mechanical + burn treatments with whole tree harvest systems.

Similar results were reported by Graham (2003), Ritchie et al. (2007), and Skinner et al. (2004).

174 Stephens et al. 2009a. Network Fuels and 

fi re 

behavior

B, M+B 2 The torching index increased 

after burn and mechanical + burn treatments, which reduced vulnerability of individual trees.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

175 Boerner, R.E.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Skinner, C.N.; Callaham, M.A.; Brinkman, J.A.; Smith, A. 2004. Ecosystem restoration and wild

fi re management treatments 

affect soil organic matter and microbial activity in four contrasting forests. In: Yaussy, D.A.; Hix, D.M.; Long, R.P.; Goebel, P.C., eds. Proceedings, 14th central hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

NE-316. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station: 499.

Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

3, 4, 8 Short-term changes in soil 

microbial activity after fuel reduction treatments varied among sites, and were more closely related to soil organic carbon than to variation in vegetation, climate, or geology.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
122

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 176 Boerner, R.E.J.; Huang, J.; Hart, S.C. 2008c. Impacts of 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate treatments on ecosystem 

nitrogen storage patterns: similarities and differences between eastern and western North America. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 38(12): 3056–3070.

Network Soils M, B, 

M+B

1, 2 Losses of vegetation nitrogen were 

greatest after mechanical + burn treatments, intermediate after mechanical treatments, and were weakest after burn treatments. 

Clinton et al. (1996) and Mann et al. (1988) reported estimates of nitrogen loss in vegetation after clearcutting that were about 30 to 50 percent higher than FFS estimates. 

176 Boerner et al. 2008c. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

2, 4 Total nitrogen did not decline more 

than 15 percent after any of the fuel reduction treatments at any site. Western sites lost relatively more nitrogen after treatment than did eastern sites.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

176 Boerner et al. 2008c. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

4 Total ecosystem nitrogen averaged 

4480 kg·ha-1 across the FFS 

network, with about 80 percent in the soil, 9 percent each in vegetation and forest 

fl oor, and 

2 percent in dead wood. Ten sites showed the same pattern of nitrogen distribution among ecosystem components; the Central Sierra Nevada and Southern Sierra Nevada sites had relatively more nitrogen in vegetation.

Finer et al. (2003) reported similar patterns of nitrogen distribution among ecosystem components. Clinton et al. (1996), Finer et al. (2003), Gessel et al. (1973), Johnson et al. (1982) reported similar differences among various sites in the range of nitrogen in the vegetation.

176 Boerner et al. 2008c. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

4 Management strategies that 

maximize ecosystem carbon gain by minimizing nitrogen loss may be an important focus for western forests, where carbon and nitrogen are tightly linked, but may be less important in eastern forests where atmospheric nitrogen deposition has decoupled carbon and nitrogen cycles.

Clinton et al. (1996) reported that more nitrogen was captured by atmospheric deposition than by regrowth 2 years after clearcutting in eastern deciduous forests. Gessel et al. (1973), Johnson et al. (1997), and Hart et al. (2006) reported that most western forests were nitrogen limited and thus logging residues retained may

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
123

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

be important to preserve nitrogen needed for vegetation regrowth.

177 Boerner, R.E.J.; Giai, C.; Huang, J.; Miesel, J.R. 

2008d. Initial effects of 

fi re and mechanical thinning 

on soil enzyme activity and nitrogen transformations in eight North American forest ecosystems. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 40(12): 3076–3085.

Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Soil carbon:nitrogen ratios 

increased after mechanical treatments, while forest 

fl oor 

carbon:nitrogen ratios decreased after burn, mechanical, and mechanical + burn treatments.

Black and Harden (1995) reported increased soil carbon:nitrogen ratios after 

fi re, while Antos 

et al. (2003) reported decreased ratios.

177 Boerner et al. 2008d. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Phenol oxidase activity was 

lower after burn treatments than after other treatments, and was lower at the Southern Cascades, Blue Mountains, and Central Appalachian Plateau sites. 

Boerner and Brinkman (2003) and Boerner et al. (2004, 2007) reported that interannual variation in phenol oxidase may eclipse treatment effects and may lead to con

fl icting treatment 

effects.

177 Boerner et al. 2008d. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Phosphatase levels differed 

between pre- and postmechanical + burn treatments at most sites across the FFS network. Microclimate of the forest 

fl oor was changed more 

by mechanical + burn treatments than other treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

177 Boerner et al. 2008d. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

2 Phosphatase activity was reduced 

by burn and mechanical + burn treatments in four of 

fi ve western 

sites, while this enzyme was reduced only by the mechanical + burn treatments at the Central Appalachian Plateau site.

Saa et al. (1993) reported reductions in phosphatase activity after 

fi re in seasonally 

dry conifer forests in Europe.

177 Boerner et al. 2008d. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

2, 8 Large-scale restoration treatments 

used in the FFS study produced only subtle effects on soil microbial activity and nitrogen transformations.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
124

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 178 Boerner, R.E.J.; Huang, J.; Hart, S. 2008b. Fire, thinning, and the carbon economy: effects of 

fi re 

and 

fi re surrogate treatments on estimated carbon 

storage and sequestration rate. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(1): 3081–3097.

Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Total ecosystem carbon storage 

(de

fi ned as the sum of carbon in 

aboveground vegetation, forest fl oor, dead wood, and mineral soil to 30 cm) across the FFS network was greater at eastern sites than at western sites.

Heath et al. (2003) reported similar values for average carbon stored in eastern and western forests. Hurtt et al. (2002) and Turner et al. (1995) reported that eastern forests were the largest carbon sink, where regrowth after 

fi re, harvesting, 

or land use changes caused rapid carbon uptake, while the second largest carbon sink was in western forests, where 

fi re suppression 

led to increased detrital carbon. Values for soil carbon reported by Dixon et al. (1994), Heath et al. (2003), and Turner et al. (1995) were higher because these studies estimated soil carbon to 1 m depth.

178 Boerner et al. 2008b. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

2 Total ecosystem carbon across the 

FFS network did not differ among treatments, although total carbon initially increased after burns at the Blue Mountains site and decreased initially at the Southern Cascades, Central Sierra Nevada, and Northern Rocky Mountains sites. Total ecosystem carbon declined after mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments in the 

fi rst year 

after treatments but was partially offset by enhanced net carbon uptake during the next 1 to 3 years.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
125

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

178 Boerner et al. 2008b. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

2 Vegetation carbon across the FFS 

network declined after mechanical and mechanical + burn treatments. Forest 

fl oor carbon across the 

network declined after burn and mechanical + burn treatments. Across the network, dead wood and soil organic carbon did not differ among treatments.

Page-Dumroese et al. (2003) reported that the forest 

fl oor carbon pool 

was the most susceptible carbon component for losses after 

fi res. Hall 

et al. (2006) reported that the forest 

fl oor 

carbon pool returned to pretreatment levels unless vegetation biomass was reduced for extended periods of time. Moehring et al. (2006) and Richter et al. (1982) reported that soil organic carbon was unaffected by fuel reduction treatments, while Wilson et al. (2002) reported that it varied more by landscape position than by treatment.

179 Boerner, R.E.J.; Coates, A.T.; Yaussy, D.A.; Waldrop 

T.A. 2008a. Assessing ecosystem restoration alternatives in eastern deciduous forests: the view from belowground. Restoration Ecology. 16(3): 425–434.

Network Soils B, M+B 2 Soil organic carbon content, 

carbon:nitrogen ratios, and overall microbial activity (measured as acid phosphatase activity) did not differ after burn and mechanical + burn treatments at the Central Appalachian Plateau site. These same measures declined after burn, mechanical, and mechanical + burn treatments at the Southern Appalachian Mountains site. Only the effect on microbial activity persisted into the fourth year after treatment.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
126

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 179 Boerner et al. 2008a. Network Soils B, M, M+B 2, 3 Soil organic carbon increased and both carbon:nitrogen ratios and microbial activity decreased after mechanical treatments at the Central Appalachian Plateau site, yet these measures returned to pretreatment levels by the fourth year after treatments. No other studies have reported similar 

fi ndings.

180 Boerner, R.E.J.; Huang, J.; Hart, S.C. 2009. Impacts 

of 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate treatments on forest soil 

properties: a meta-analytical approach. Ecological Applications. 19(2): 338–358.

Network Soils B, M+B 1, 2 Mineral soil exposure across the 

FFS network was greater after burn and mechanical + burn treatments than in untreated areas. 

Klepac et al. (1999) and Rummer et al. (1997) reported higher levels of soil exposure after mechanical treatments than those found across the FFS network.

180 Boerner et al. 2009. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

1, 2, 3 Overall, treatment effects on soil 

properties across the FFS network were modest and transient. More site-by-treatment-by-year effects were detected after mechanical + burn treatments than after burn or mechanical treatments. Some changes persisted longer after mechanical + burn treatments, such as greater soil exposure and more calcium, and decreased total inorganic nitrogen.

No other studies have reported similar 

fi ndings.

180 Boerner et al. 2009. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

2 Soil bulk density, soil organic 

carbon, and carbon:nitrogen ratio were unaffected by treatments across the FFS network.

Agee (1993) and Moehring et al. (1966) reported that soil bulk density was unchanged after low-severity 

fi res. 

Matson and Vitousek (1981) reported little or no change in soil bulk density after timber harvesting, while Rummer et al. (1997) found increased bulk density after harvesting in hardwood forests.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
127

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

180 Boerner et al. 2009. Network Soils B, M+B 2 The greatest changes in soil pH, 

total inorganic nitrogen, soil organic carbon content, and soil carbon:nitrogen ratios were related to 

fi re severity at the Northern 

Rocky Mountains, Central Sierra Nevada, and Southern Sierra Nevada sites, and these changes explained most of the variation in standardized effect sizes among sites.

Wan et al. (2001) reported that 

fi re severity was 

a factor in explaining variation in soil chemical effects.

180 Boerner et al. 2009. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

2, 3 Across the FFS network, net 

mineralization, a measure of soil productivity, was unaffected by burn, mechanical, and mechanical + burn treatments.

Net mineralization often increased after single fi res (Boerner et al. 2006, Raison 1979, Wan et al. 2001).

180 Boerner et al. 2009. Network Soils B, M, 

M+B

2, 3 Soil total inorganic nitrogen levels 

across the FFS network initially increased after burn, mechanical, and mechanical + burn treatments, but the effect did not persist.

Soil total inorganic nitrogen levels decline after 

fi re (Covington 

et al. 1991, Covington and Sackett 1992). Soil total inorganic nitrogen levels were relatively unchanged after prescribed burns with low 

fi re severity (Wan et al. 2001. 

181 Converse, S.J.; White, G.C.; Farris, K.L.; Zack, S. 

2006a. Small mammals and forest fuel reduction: national-scale responses to 

fi re and 

fi re surrogates. 

Ecological Applications. 16(5): 1717–1729.

Network Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1 Total small mammal biomass was 

best predicted by an informationtheoretic model with treatment type as the top ranked variable (untreated vs. treated). Higher small mammal biomass occurred after burn, mechanical, and mechanical + burn treatments.

Overall increased abundance in small mammal communities was linked to increased habitat complexity (Carey and Harrington 2001, Goodwin and Hungerford 1979).

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
128

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 181 Converse et al. 2006a. Network Vertebrates B, M, M+B 2 Small mammal taxa did not differ among burn, mechanical, and mechanical + burn treatments. Critical features of small mammal habitat, such as understory vegetation and coarse woody debris, respond differently to alternative fuel reduction treatments (Carey and Harrington 2001, Kyle and Block 2000). 

181 Converse et al. 2006a. Network Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2, 5, 10 Individual species and genera 

of small mammals across the FFS network did not respond consistently to treatments, indicating a high degree of site speci

fi city. Adaptive management 

methods may help to reduce the uncertainty in choosing treatments that are locally optimal for meeting management objectives for small mammals.

Deer mouse and chipmunk populations increased after forest thinning (Hadley and Wilson 2004) and burning (Kyle and Block 2000).

182 Kennedy, P.L.; Fontaine, J.B. 2009. Synthesis of 

knowledge on the effects of 

fi re and 

fi re surrogates 

on wildlife in U.S. dry forests. Special Report 1096. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 132 p.

Network Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1 Information on the effects of fuel 

reduction treatments in seasonal dry forests is presented by region and by animal taxa. Information is more available for birds and small mammals than for reptiles, amphibians, and large mammals. Fire-effects information is categorized by 

fi re severity and 

time since 

fi re.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

182 Kennedy and Fontaine 2009. Network Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1, 3, 10 Wildlife species responded to both 

year and site effects, thus it was not possible to predict responses for many species. Future experimental research should focus on longer term studies in which large experimental plots are used.

The strongest factor in explaining variation in response to treatment was site, thus adaptive management methods may help to reduce the uncertainty in choosing treatments that are locally optimal for meeting 

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
129

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

management objectives for wildlife (Converse et al. 2006).

182 Kennedy and Fontaine 2009. Network Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2 Most wildlife species that were 

fi re-adapted responded favorably to burn treatments.

Wildlife species that were 

fi re dependent 

responded favorably to fi re, with or without mechanical treatment (Saab et al. 2007, Saab and Dudley 1998).

183 Farris, K.L.; Converse, S.J.; Zack, S.; Robinson, 

W.D.; Amacher, A.J.; Contreras, T.; Gaines, W.L.; Kilpatrick, E.S.; Lanham, J.D.; Miles D.; Rompré, G.; Sieving, K.E.; Pierson, J.C. 2010a. Short-term effects of 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate treatments on 

avian nest survival: a national-scale analysis. Open Environmental Sciences. 4: 53–62.

Network Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

2 Daily nest survival of ground, 

shrub, tree, and snag-nesting bird species across the FFS network are described. Avian species generally failed to respond to treatments. Only two species had best 

fi t 

models that included treatment effects.

Siegal and DeSante (2003) reported that American robins (treenesters) had higher abundances in thinned stands than in untreated stands.

183 Farris et al. 2010a. Network Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

3 Larger plot sizes and longer 

timeframes would provide better information on passerine bird response to fuel reduction treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

184 Farris, K.L.; Zack, S.; Amacher, A.J.; Pierson, J.C. 

2010b. Microhabitat selection of bark-foraging birds in response to 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate treatments. 

Forest Science. 56(1): 100–111.

Network Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

1 Bark-foraging birds generally responded positively to fuel reduction 

treatments at western sites. Woodpeckers (Picoides spp.) increased in 

abundance after burn and mechanical + burn treatments while the red-breasted nuthatch, mountain chickadee, and brown creeper did not respond consistently.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
130

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 184 Farris et al. 2010b. Network Vertebrates B, M, M+B 5 Tree and snag diameter were the strongest and most consistent features that in

fl uenced barkforaging birds across all treatments.

Adams and Morrison (1993), Raphael and White (1984), and Weikel and Hayes (1999) reported that barkforaging birds responded positively to increased average tree diameters. Bark-foraging birds, especially woodpeckers, are consistently linked to large-diameter snags (Bull et al. 1997) in both burned and unburned forests where they feed primarily on bark and wood-boring beetles (Murphy and Lehnhausen 1998).

185 Robinson, W.D. 2010. The challenges of studying 

vertebrates in habitat treatment plots. Open Environmental Sciences. 4: 21–23.

Network Vertebrates B, M, 

M+B

10 Experimental wildlife studies are 

often hampered by small treatment plot sizes, but reliable information can be obtained by focusing on intensive behavioral work and by making well-documented data sets available for future meta-analyses.

New modeling methods are more suitable for working with data sets hampered by small sample size (Steby and Miles 2010). Use of cameras at nests may increase information about how treatments in

fl uence 

predator success (Klug et al. 2010, Weatherhead et al. 2010). Resampling methods may provide new insights (Simon 1992).

186 Chalmers, S.R.; Hartsough, B.R. 2001. Thinning and 

prescribed 

fi re as methods to reduce fuel loading-a 

cost analysis. In: Thinnings, a valuable forest management tool proceedings of an international conference. (CD-ROM). Pointe-Claire, QC: Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada.

Network Economics M, 

M+B

1, 10 In a cost analysis of fuel reduction 

methods, mechanical treatments were likely cost-neutral or income-generating. Costs of burn treatments will likely be determined by expert opinion. Costs of mechanical

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
131

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

treatments will likely be determined by measuring production or schedule hours, operation costs, and the volume of wood removed.

187 Hartsough, B.R.; Abrams, S.; Barbour, R.J.; Drews, 

E.S.; McIver J.D.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Schwilk, D.W.; Stephens, S.L. 2008. The economics of alternative fuel reduction treatments in western United States dry forests: 

fi nancial and policy implications from the 

National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study. Forest Policy and Economics. 10(6): 344–354.

Network Economics B, M, 

M+B

1 On federal lands, giving contract 

offi cers and administrators fl exibility to decide on the details of fuel reduction (e.g., whether to remove small trees or treat on site) makes sense given the volatility of both dimension lumber and chip markets.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

187 Hartsough et al. 2008. Network Economics M, 

M+B

1 Net costs of mechanical treatments 

varied owing to market conditions at the time of harvest, but in general, revenue gained by bringing products to market lowered the net costs of fuel reduction.

Haynes et al. (1998) reported that stumpage prices in the Western United States varied by more than six-fold.

187 Hartsough et al. 2008. Network Economics B, M, 

M+B

3, 7 Financial analyses of costs 

and revenues of fuel reduction treatments provided only a partial picture; a complete cost-bene

fi t 

analysis involves both short- and long-term ecological effects and monetary values assigned to nonmarket issues.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

187 Hartsough et al. 2008. Network Economics B, M+B 4 Costs for burn treatments at the 

western FFS sites generally were higher than at southeastern sites because burning conditions were drier in the West, resulting in higher risk of 

fi re escaping and 

greater smoke production.

Cleaves et al. (2000) reported that prescribed fi re costs in the Southern United States were substantially lower than costs reported at FFS sites.

188 Youngblood, A.; Bigler-Cole, H.; Fettig, C.J.; Fiedler, 

C.; Knapp, E.E.; Lehmkuhl, J.F.; Outcalt, K.W.; Skinner, C.N.; Stephens, S.L.; Waldrop, T.A. 2007. Making 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate science available: a 

summary of regional workshops with clients. Gen. Tech. Rep. 727. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Paci

fi c Northwest 

Research Station. 59 p.

Network Sociology B, M, 

M+B

1, 2, 7 Participatory evaluation was used 

to design four regional workshops to identify effective and effi cient 

means of communicating FFS results to clients. Most manager participants favored the use of existing electronic platforms (e.g., 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
132

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 Tech. Rep. 727. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Paci

fi c Northwest 

Research Station. 59 p.

FRAMES, FEIS) within which to place FFS information, favored the synthesis of scienti

fi c publications 

by topic (e.g., prescribed 

fi re) 

and discipline (e.g., wildlife), and emphasized the value of one-on-one contacts with researchers.

189 McCaffrey, S.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Stephens, S.L. 2008. 

Different interest group views of fuels treatments: survey results from 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate treatments 

in a Sierran mixed conifer forest, California, USA. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 17(2): 224–233.

Network Sociology B, M, 

M+B

1 Most individuals had more 

acceptable opinions of burning as a treatment, and this pattern applied as well to mechanical treatments for those groups having more experience with logging.

Monroe et al. (2006) reported the importance of effective outreach for educating and informing the public about the value of fuel reduction programs.

189 McCaffrey et al. 2008. Network Sociology B, M, 

M+B

1, 7 Most respondents understood and 

valued the role of fuel reduction treatments for reducing wild

fi re 

hazard, yet fewer individuals found mechanical treatments to be as acceptable as burn treatments.

A majority of the public generally found fuel reduction treatments acceptable (Blanchard 2003, Brunson and Shindler 2004, Winter et al. 2005).

189 McCaffrey et al. 2008. Network Sociology B, M+B 1, 7, 10 Few people were concerned about 

smoke production as a prescribed fi re issue, while more were concerned about risks of losing control of burns.

Brunson and Shindler (2004) reported that smoke was not considered by many to be a problem associated with prescribed 

fi re.

190 Weatherspoon, C.P. 2000. A proposed long-term 

national study of the consequences of 

fi re and 

fi re 

surrogate treatments. In: Neuenschwander, L.F.; Ryan, K.C.; Goldberg, G.E., eds. Proceedings, crossing the millennium: integrating spatial technologies and ecological principles for a new age in 

fi re management, 1999 Joint Fire Science 

conference. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho Press: 117–126.

Network General 

and study description

B, M, M+B

1, 2 The need for the proposed FFS 

study is discussed and the study design is described.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
133

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

191 McIver, J.D.; Youngblood, A.; Niwa, C.; Ottmar, 

R.; Smith, J. 2000a. Hypotheses on the ecological effects of alternative fuel reduction methods. In: Proceedings, Society of American Foresters 1999 national convention. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 552–555.

Network General 

and study description

B, M, M+B

1, 2 Initial hypotheses of FFS treatment 

responses are listed and discussed.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

192 Edminster, C.B.; Weatherspoon, C.P.; Neary, D.G. 

2000. The 

fi re and 

fi re surrogates study: providing 

guidelines for 

fi re in future watershed management 

decisions. In: Ffolliott, P.F.; Baker, M.B., Jr.; Edminster, C.B.; Dillon, M.C.; Mora, K.L., tech. coords. Proceedings, land stewardship in the 21st

century: the contributions of watershed management. RMRS-P-13. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 312–315.

Network General 

and study description

B, M, M+B

1, 2 The proposed FFS study is 

described in the context of watershed management.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

193 McIver, J.; Weatherspoon, P.; Edminster, C. 2001. 

Alternative ponderosa pine restoration treatments in the western United States. In: Vance, R.K.; Edminster, C.B.; Covington, W.W.; Blake, J.A., comps. Proceedings, ponderosa pine ecosystems restoration and conservation: steps toward stewardship. RMRS-P-22. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 104–109.

Network General 

and study description

B, M, M+B

1, 2 The proposed FFS study is 

described in the context of ponderosa pine restoration.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

194 Youngblood, A.; Metlen, K.L.; Knapp, E.E.; Outcalt, 

K.W.; Stephens, S.L.; Waldrop, T.A.; Yaussy, D. 2004. Implementation of the 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate study, a 

national research effort to evaluate the consequences of fuel reduction treatments. In: Peterson, C.E.; Maguire, D.A., eds. Proceedings, balancing ecosystem values: innovative experiments for sustainable forestry. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-635. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Paci

fi c Northwest Research Station: 315–321.

Network General 

and Study description

B, M, M+B

1, 2, 3, 4 Height to live crown ratio was not 

increased within the 

fi rst year after 

treatment at several FFS sites, yet a network-wide response was expected 3 years after treatments. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

195 McIver, J.D.; Boerner, R.E.J.; Hart, S.C. 2008. The 

national 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate study: ecological 

consequences of alternative fuel reduction methods in seasonally dry forests. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8–9): 3075–3080.

Network General 

and study description

B, M, M+B

1, 2 This paper introduced a set of 11 

papers that discuss short-term results of the national FFS study, including 4 papers on vegetation, 2 papers on fuels, 2 papers on soils, and 3 papers on wildlife.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
134

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 196 McIver, J.; Stephens, S.L.; Youngblood, A. 2009. The national 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate study: ecological 

consequences of fuel reduction methods in seasonally dry forests. Ecological Applications. 19: 283–284.

Network General 

and study description

B, M, M+B

1, 2 This paper introduced a set of 

four papers that discuss shortterm results of the national FFS study, including multisite papers on vegetation, 

fi re performance, 

and soils, and a multivariate paper linking delayed tree mortality to bark beetles and 

fi re severity.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

197 McIver, J.D.; Fettig, C.J. 2010. Ecological 

consequences of alternative fuel reduction treatments in seasonally dry forests: the national 

fi re and 

fi re 

surrogate study. Forest Science. 56(1): 2–3.

Network General 

and study description

B, M, M+B

1, 2, 3 This paper introduced a set of 

11 papers that discuss shortterm results of the national FFS study, including 1 paper on the development of the study; 3 papers on changes in stand structure, fuels, or 

fi re behavior; 2 papers on 

bark beetle dynamics; and 5 papers on vertebrate and invertebrate community response.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

198 McIver, J.D.; Weatherspoon, C.P. 2010. On 

conducting a multisite, multidisciplinary forestry research project: lessons from the national 

fi re and 

fi re surrogate study. Forest Science. 56(1): 4–17.

Network General 

and study description

B, M, M+B

1, 2 The national FFS study was 

designed to improve understanding of ecosystem response to alternative fuel reduction treatment in dry forests of the United States and allow comparison of treatment responses across a wide variety of conditions. The FFS is one example of a complex multidisciplinary management experiment focused on natural resource issues. Seven key features of the FFS were necessary to achieve success: adequate funding, design, partnerships, organization, standardization, data management, and outreach.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

199 Hart, S.C.; DeLuca, T.H.; Newman, G.S.; MacKenzie, 

M.D.; Boyle, S.I. 2005. Postfi re vegetative dynamics 

as drivers of microbial community structure and function in forest soils. Forest Ecology and Management. 220(1–3): 166–184.

Network Multivariate B, M+B 2, 3 Low-intensity 

fi res caused 

transient changes in soil microbial communities across the FFS network of sites. More permanent changes would be predicted

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
135

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

if understory plant species composition changed. Few longterm studies have examined links among 

fi re, plant and microbial 

communities, and ecosystem function.

200 Waldrop, T.A.; McIver, J. 2006. The national 

fi re 

and 

fi re surrogate study: early results and future 

challenges. In: Conner, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 13th

biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-92. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 526–530.

Network Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1 The national FFS study was designed to provide information on 

the effects of alternative fuel reduction treatments in dry forests. Different types of analyses were planned, including univariate comparisons at a single site, univariate comparisons at multiple sites, multivariate comparisons at a single site, and multivariate comparisons across multiple sites.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

201 Boerner, R.E.J. 2005. Soil, 

fi re, water, and wind: 

How the elements conspire in the forest context. In: Dickinson, M.B., ed. Proceedings: 

fi re in eastern 

oak forests: delivering science to land managers. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-NRS-P-1. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 104–122.

Network Multivariate B, M+B 2, 3, 6 Fires in oak (Quercus spp.)-dominated forests occur primarily during the dormant season, and generally are of low intensity. Principal 

effects of these 

fi res included (1) 

direct soil heating, which alters soil properties and kills soil organisms; (2) volatilization and ash convection of nitrogen, phosphorus, and cations; (3) mineral soil exposure, which may lead to sheet erosion if slope is suffi cient; (4) subtle and transient changes in nitrogen availability, organic carbon, and soil microorganisms; (5) complex effects owing to heterogeneous geomorphology of most oak-dominated forests.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

202 Gundale, M.J.; Metlen, K.L.; Fiedler, C.E.; DeLuca, 

T.H. 2006. Nitrogen spatial heterogeneity in

fl uences 

diversity following restoration in a ponderosa pine forest, Montana. Ecological Applications. 16(2): 479–489.

Northern Rocky Mountains

Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1, 6, 8 Net increase in species richness 

was correlated with total inorganic nitrogen standard deviations 1 and 2 years after restoration treatments, supporting the resource heterogeneity hypothesis. Within

Baer et al. (2004) reported the in

fl uence of nitrogen heterogeneity on 

diversity in the context of burn treatments,yet found no link between

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
136

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 burn treatments, total inorganic ni- trogen heterogeneity was positively correlated with 

fi ne fuel consumption, a variable re

fl ecting burn 

severity.

total inorganic nitrogen heterogeneity and diversity. The resource heterogeneity hypothesis was supported by work showing that species composition was dissimilar on different resource patches (Fitter 1982, Inouye and Tilman 1995, Reynolds et al. 1997, Sulkava and Huhta 1998, Vivian-Smith 1997). 

202 Gundale et al. 2006. Network Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1, 6, 9 Native and exotic plant species 

responded positively to increased heterogeneity in total inorganic nitrogen after burn treatments.

Burnett et al. (1997) and Nichols et al. (1998) described factors that caused heterogeneity at different patch scales.

203 Schwilk, D.W.; Keeley, J.E.; Knapp, E.E.; McIver, 

J.; Bailey, J.D.; Fettig, C.J.; Fiedler, C.E.; Harrod, R.J.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Outcalt, K.W.; Skinner, C.N.; Stephens, S.L.; Waldrop, T.A.; Yaussy, D.A.; Youngblood, A. 2009. The national 

fi re and 

fi re 

surrogate study: effects of fuel reduction methods on forest vegetation structure and fuels. Ecological Applications. 19(2): 285–304.

Network Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1, 2, 7, 9 Across the network of FFS sites, 

key ecological variables including fewer and larger diameter trees, less surface fuel mass, and greater herbaceous species richness were obtained after mechanical + burn treatments, but this set of treatment also favored alien species invasion at some sites.

Riegel et al. (1995) and Wayman and North (2007) reported understory vegetation responded favorably to light and suggested that a change in forest 

fl oor microclimate 

improved conditions for herbaceous species and thereby increased species richness. Alien species often responded to disturbance (Collins et al. 2007, Dodson and Fiedler 2006, Keeley et al. 2003, Kerns et al. 2006). Increases of alien species may be shortlived when soil disturbance is ephemeral (Keeley and McGinnis 2007).

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
137

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

203 Schwilk et al. 2009. Network Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

2 Across the network of FFS sites, 

treatments that included burns were more effective at creating snags, killing seedlings, elevating height to live crown, and reducing surface woody fuels than treatments lacking burns.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

203 Schwilk et al. 2009. Network Multivariate M, 

M+B

2 Across the network of FFS sites, 

mechanical treatments were more effective at reducing overstory tree density and basal area, and increasing quadratic mean tree diameter in the 

fi rst year after 

treatment than treatments lacking a mechanical component. 

Burns conducted under relatively cool conditions do not thin large trees (Miller and Urban 2000). Burning may increase mineral soil exposure and initiate tree regeneration (Moghaddas et al. 2008) and germination of herbaceous species (Moghaddas and Stephens 2007a). Burning caused patchiness, which may increase species richness (Connell 1978, Pickett 1980).

203 Schwilk et al. 2009. Network Multivariate B, M+B 2, 3 Across the network of FFS sites, 

shrub cover generally declined after burn treatments and then recovered to previous levels 2 to 4 years after burning.

Shrub growth after burn treatments was linked to increased light in the openings of the overstory canopy and species-speci

fi c 

resprouting capabilities (Knapp et al. 2007).

204 Knapp, E.E.; Estes, B.L.; Skinner, C.N. 2009. 

Ecological effects of prescribed 

fi re season: a 

literature review and synthesis for managers. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-224. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Paci

fi c 

Southwest Research Station. 80 p.

Network Multivariate B 10 Burning may be conducted at 

times of the year when 

fi res were 

infrequent historically, leading to concerns about potential adverse effects on vegetation and wildlife. In regions and vegetation types where considerable differences

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
138

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860 in fuel consumption exist among burning seasons, the effects of prescribed 

fi re season appears, 

for many ecological variables, to be driven more by 

fi re intensity 

differences among seasons than by phenology or growth stage of organisms at the time of 

fi re. Most 

species in ecosystems that evolved with 

fi re appear resilient to one or a 

few out-of-season (i.e., external to the historical 

fi re regime window) 

prescribed burns.

204 Knapp et al. 2009. Network Multivariate B 10 Where fuel consumption differs 

little among seasons, the effect of phenology or growth stage is typically more apparent, because it is not overwhelmed by 

fi re intensity 

differences.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

204 Knapp et al. 2009. Network Multivariate B 10 There is compelling evidence that 

growing-season burns in eastern pine and pine-oak woodland lead to shifts in the understory plant community relative to dormantseason 

fi re.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

205 Grace, J.B.; Youngblood, A.; Scheiner, S.M. 2009. 

Structural equation modeling and ecological experiments. In: Miao, S.; Carstenn, S.; Nungesser, M., eds. Real world ecology: large-scale and longterm case studies and methods. New York: Springer Science+Business Media: 19–45. Chapter 2.

Network Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 Structural equation modeling is 

a framework representing a wide range of models that emphasizes the study of pathways to learn about causal processes. It can be used to evaluate theoretically speci

fi ed 

models rather than null hypotheses, and can contribute to a system-level understanding by informing the simultaneous functioning of multiple processes. 

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Table 14—Principal citations of the national Fire and Fire Surrogate (FFS) study with their 

fi ndings, by site, discipline, treatment, and theme, with 

supporting literature (treatment codes: B = burn, M = mechanical, M+B = mechanical + burn; theme codes: 1 = 

fi re vs. surrogates, 2 = effect size, 3 = 

effect duration, 4 = regional, 5 = species adaptation, 6 = heterogeneity, 7 = tradeoffs, 8 = restoration, 9 = exotics, 10 = application) (continued)

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
139

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

205 Grace et al. 2009. Network Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1, 2 As an example of structural equation modeling, work from the Blue 

Mountains FFS site was used to demonstrate causal pathways for large tree mortality. Delayed mortality of large-diameter ponderosa pine from bark beetles and wood borers was directly related to surface 

fi re severity and bole charring, 

which in turn depended on 

fi re 

intensity, which in turn was greater where thinning increased slash fuels.

Youngblood et al. (2009) reported the structural equation modeling pathway leading to large tree mortality.

206 Campbell, J.W.; Hanula, J.L.; Outcalt, K.W. 2008. 

Effects of prescribed 

fi re and other plant community restoration treatments on tree mortality, bark 

beetles, and other saproxylic Coleoptera of longleaf pine, Pinus palustris Mill., on the coastal plain of 

Alabama. Forest Ecology and Management. 254: 134–144.

Gulf Coastal Plain

Multivariate M+B 1, 7 Mechanical + burn treatment 

caused the highest mortality of trees, with 

fi re being the primary 

cause of death; most mortality occurred within 1 year after treatment.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

206 Campbell et al. 2008. Gulf Coastal 

Plain

Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1, 7 Beetle species richness was highest 

in stands receiving both mechanical and burn treatments.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

206 Campbell et al. 2008. Gulf Coastal 

Plain

Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1, 7 Bark beetle response was variable 

among species, but number generally increased when stands were burned; most other beetles were less responsive to 

fi re.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

206 Campbell et al. 2008. Gulf Coastal 

Plain

Multivariate B, M, 

M+B

1, 7 Abundance of wood-boring beetles 

increased with increasing numbers of dead trees.

No other studies have reported similar fi ndings.

Number Citation Site Discipline Treatment Theme Finding Supporting literature
140

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

English Equivalents

When you know: Multiply by: To get:

Centimeters (cm) .394 Inches

Meters (m) 3.28 Feet

Hectares (ha) 2.47 Acres

Square meters (m2

) 10.76 Square feet

Cubic meters per hectare (m3/ha) 14.29 Cubic feet per acre

Kilograms per hectare (kg/ha) .893 Pounds per acre

Tons per hectare (t/ha) 893 Pounds per acre
141

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Literature Cited

Abbott, I.; Burbidge, T.; Strehlow, K.; Mellican, A.; Wills, A. 2003. Logging 

and burning impacts on cockroaches, crickets and grasshoppers, and spiders in 

Jarrah forest, Western Australia. Forest Ecology and Management. 174(1–3): 

383–399.

Abella, S.R.; Covington, W.W. 2004. Monitoring an Arizona ponderosa pine 

restoration: sampling effi ciency and multivariate analysis of understory 

vegetation. Restoration Ecology. 12(3): 359–367.

Abrahamson, W.G.; Abrahamson, J.R. 1996. Effects of a low-intensity winter 

fi re on long-unburned Florida sand pine scrub. Natural Areas Journal. 16(3): 

171–183.

Abrams, M.D. 1992. Fire and the development of oak forests. Bioscience. 42(5): 

346–353.

Abrams, M.D. 1998. The red maple paradox. Bioscience. 48(5): 355–364.

Abrams, M.D.; Mostoller, S.A. 1995. Gas exchange, leaf structure and nitrogen 

in contrasting successional tree species growing in open and understory sites 

during a drought. Tree Physiology. 15(6): 361–370.

Adams, E.M.; Morrison, M.L. 1993. Effects of forest stand structure and 

composition on red-breasted nuthatches and brown creepers. Journal of Wildlife 

Management. 57(3): 616–629.

Adams, A.S.; Rieske, L.K. 2003. Prescribed fi re affects white oak seedling 

phytochemistry: implications for insect herbivory. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 176(1–3): 37–47.

Agee, J.K. 1993. Fire ecology of the Pacifi c Northwest forests. Washington, DC: 

Island Press. 493 p. 

Agee, J.K.; Lehmkuhl, J.F., comps. 2009. Dry forests of the northeastern 

Cascades Fire and Fire Surrogate project site, Mission Creek, OkanoganWenatchee National Forest. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-577. Portland, OR: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Northwest Research 

Station. 158 p.

Agee, J.K.; Lolley, M.R. 2006. Thinning and prescribed fi re effects on fuels and 

potential fi re behavior in an eastern Cascades forest, Washington. Fire Ecology. 

2(2): 142–158.
142

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Agee, J.K.; Skinner, C.N. 2005. Basic principles of forest fuel reduction 

treatments. Forest Ecology and Management. 211(1/2): 83–96. 

Ahlgren, C.E. 1966. Small mammals and reforestation following prescribed 

burning. Journal of Forestry. 64(9): 614–618.

Albrecht, M.A.; McCarthy, B.C. 2006. Effects of prescribed fi re and thinning 

on tree recruitment patterns in central hardwood forests. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 226(1–3): 88–103.

Amacher, A.J.; Barrett, R.H.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Stephens, S.L. 2008.

Preliminary effects of fi re and mechanical fuel treatments on the abundance of 

small mammals in the mixed-conifer forest of the Sierra Nevada. Forest Ecology 

and Management. 255(8/9): 3193–3202.

Amman, G.D.; Ryan, K.C. 1991. Insect infestation of fi re-injured trees in the 

Greater Yellowstone Area. Res. Note INT-398. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 9 p.

Ampoorter, E.; Goris, R.; Cornelis, W.M.; Verheyen, K. 2007. Impact of 

mechanized logging on compaction status of sandy forest soils. Forest Ecology 

and Management. 241(1–3): 162–174.

Andrews, P.L.; Bevins, C.; Carlton, D. 2002. BehavePlus fi re modeling system, 

Version 1.0.0. [Fort Collins, CO]: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Systems for Environmental 

Management. 108 p.

Ansley, J.S.; Battles, J.J. 1998. Forest composition, structure, and change in an 

old-growth mixed conifer forest in the northern Sierra Nevada. Journal of the 

Torrey Botanical Society. 125(4): 297–308.

Antos, J.A.; McCune, B.; Bara, C. 1983. The effect of fi re on an ungrazed 

western Montana grassland. American Midland Naturalist. 110(2): 354–364.

Antos, J.A.; Halpern, C.B.; Miller, R.E.; Cromack, K., Jr.; Halaj, M.G. 2003. 

Temporal and spatial changes in soil carbon and nitrogen after clearcutting and 

burning of an old-growth Douglas-fi r forest. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-552. Portland, 

OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Northwest Research 

Station. 19 p.

Apigian, K.O. 2005. Forest disturbance effects on insect and bird communities: 

insectivorous birds in coast live oak woodlands and leaf litter arthropods in the 

Sierra Nevada. Berkeley, CA: University of California Berkeley. 178 p. Ph.D. 

dissertation.
143

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Apigian, K.O.; Dahlsten, D.L.; Stephens, S.L. 2006a. Biodiversity of Coleoptera 

and the importance of habitat structural features in a Sierra Nevada mixedconifer forest. Environmental Entomology. 35(4): 964–975.

Apigian, K.O.; Dahlsten, D.L.; Stephens, S.L. 2006b. Fire and fi re surrogate 

treatment effects on leaf litter arthropods in a western Sierra Nevada mixedconifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 221(1–3): 110–122.

Arno, S.F.; Smith, H.Y.; Krebs, M.A. 1997. Old growth ponderosa pine and 

western larch stand structures: infl uences of pre-1900 fi res and fi re exclusion. 

Res. Pap. INT-RP-495. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Intermountain Research Station. 20 p.

Arthur, M.A.; Paratley, R.D.; Blankenship, B.A. 1998. Single and repeated fi res 

affect survival and regeneration of woody and herbaceous species in an oak-pine 

forest. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 125(3): 225–236.

Artman, V.L.; Downhower, J.F. 2003. Wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina) 

nesting ecology in relation to prescribed burning of mixed-oak forest in Ohio. 

The Auk. 120(3): 874–882.

Ashton, P.M.S.; Berlyn, G.P. 1992. A comparison of leaf physiology and anatomy 

of Quercus (Section Erythrobalanus-Fagaceae) species in different light 

environments. American Journal of Botany. 81(5): 589–597.

Baer, S.G.; Blair, J.M.; Collins, S.L.; Knapp, A.K. 2004. Plant community 

response to resource availability and heterogeneity during restoration. Oecologia. 

139(4): 617–629.

Bagne, K.E.; Purcell, K.L.; Rotenberry, J.T. 2008. Prescribed fi re, snag 

population dynamics, and avian nest site selection. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 255(1): 99–105.

Bais, H.P.; Vepachedu, R.; Gilroy, S.; Callaway, R.M.; Vivanco, J.M. 2003. 

Allelopathy and exotic plant invasion: from molecules and genes to species 

interactions. Science. 301(5638): 1377–1380.

Baker, S.C.; Richardson, A.M.M.; Seeman, O.D.; Barmuta, L.A. 2004. Does 

clearfell, burn and sow silviculture mimic the effect of wildfi re? A fi eld study 

and review using litter beetles. Forest Ecology and Management. 199(2/3): 

443–448.
144

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Balda, R.P.; Gaud, W.S.; Brawn, J.D. 1983. Predictive models for snag 

nesting birds. In: Davis, J.W.; Goodwin, G.A.; Ockenfels, R.A., tech. coords. 

Proceedings, snag habitat management. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-99. Fort Collins, 

CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station: 216–222.

Bartuszevige, A.M.; Kennedy, P.L. 2009. Synthesis of knowledge on the effects of 

fi re and thinning treatments on understory vegetation in U.S. dry forests. Special 

Report 1095. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press. 159 p.

Battles, J.J.; Shlisky, A.J.; Barrett, R.H.; Heald, R.C.; Allen-Diaz, B.H. 2001.

The effects of forest management on plant species diversity in a Sierran conifer 

forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 146(1–3): 211–222.

Beaudry, S.; Duchesne, L.C.; Cote, B. 1997. Short-term effects of three forestry 

practices on carabid assemblages in a jack pine forest. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Research. 27(12): 2065–2071.

Beck, A.M.; Vogl, R.J. 1972. The effects of spring burning on rodent populations 

in a brush prairie savanna. Journal of Mammalogy. 53(2): 336–346.

Bellocq, M.I.; Jones, C.; Dey, D.C.; Turgeon, J.J. 2005. Does the shelterwood 

method to regenerate oak forests affect acorn production and predation? Forest 

Ecology and Management. 205(1–3): 311–323.

Bennett, L.T.; Adams, M.A. 2004. Assessment of ecological effects due to forest 

harvesting: approaches and statistical issue. Journal of Applied Ecology. 41(4): 

585–598.

Berger, A.L.; Puettmann, K.J.; Host, G.E. 2004. Harvesting impacts on soil 

and understory vegetation: the infl uence of season of harvest and within-site 

disturbance patterns on clear-cut aspen stands in Minnesota. Canadian Journal of 

Forest Research. 34(10): 2159–2168.

Biswell, H.H.; Kallender, J.R.; Komarek, R.; Vogl, J.; Weaver, H. 1973.

Ponderosa fi re management. Misc. Publ. No. 2. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers 

Research Station. 49 p.

Black, T.A.; Harden, J.W. 1995. Effect of timber harvest on soil carbon storage at 

Blodgett Experimental Forest, California. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 

25(8): 1385–1396.

Blair, J.M.; Crossley, D.A.; Callaham, L.C. 1992. Effects of litter quality and 

microarthropods on N dynamics and retention of exogenous 15N in decomposing 

litter. Biology and Fertility of Soils. 12(4): 241–252.
145

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Blanchard, B.P. 2003. Community perceptions of wildland fi re risk and fi re hazard 

reduction strategies at the wildland-urban interface in the northeastern United 

States. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts. 121 p. M.R.P. thesis.

Blankenship, B.A.; Arthur, M.A. 1999. Soil nutrient and microbial response to 

prescribed fi re in an oak-pine ecosystem in eastern Kentucky. In: Stringer, J.W.; 

Loftis, D.L.; Lacki, M.; Barnes, T.; Muller, R.A., eds. Proceedings, 12th central 

hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-24. Asheville, NC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 39–50.

Block, W.M.; Ganey, J.L.; Scott, P.E.; King, R. 2005. Prey ecology of Mexican 

spotted owls in pine-oak forests of northern Arizona. Journal of Wildlife 

Management. 69(2): 618–629.

Bock, C.E.; Bock, J.H. 1983. Responses of birds and deer mice to prescribed 

burning in ponderosa pine. Journal of Wildlife Management. 47(3): 836–840.

Boerner, R.E.J. 2005. Soil, fi re, water, and wind: How the elements conspire in the 

forest context. In: Dickinson, M.B., ed. Proceedings: fi re in eastern oak forests: 

delivering science to land managers. Gen. Tech Rep. GTR-NRS-P-1. Newtown 

Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research 

Station: 104–122.

Boerner, R.E.J.; Brinkman, J.A. 2003. Fire frequency and soil enzyme activity in 

southern Ohio oak-hickory forests. Applied Soil Ecology. 23(2): 137–146.

Boerner, R.E.J.; Brinkman, J.A. 2004. Spatial, temporal, and restoration 

treatment effects on soil resources in mixed-oak forests of southeastern Ohio. 

Yaussy, D.A.; Hix, D.M.; Long, R.P.; Goebel, P.C., eds. Proceedings, 14th central 

hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-NE-316. Newtown Square, 

PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research 

Station: 241–254.

Boerner, R.E.J.; Brinkman, J.A.; Smith, A. 2005. Seasonal variations in enzyme 

activity and organic carbon in soil of a burned and unburned hardwood forest. 

Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 37(8): 1419–1426.

Boerner, R.E.J.; Brinkman, J.A.; Yaussy, D.A. 2007. Ecosystem restoration 

treatments affect soil physical and chemical properties in Appalachian mixedoak forests. In: Buckley, D.S.; Clatterbuck, W.S., eds. Proceedings, 15th central 

hardwood forest conference. e-Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-101. Asheville, NC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 107–115.
146

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Boerner, R.E.J.; Coates, A.T.; Yaussy, D.A.; Waldrop, T.A. 2008a. Assessing 

ecosystem restoration alternatives in eastern deciduous forests: the view from 

belowground. Restoration Ecology. 16(3): 425–434.

Boerner, R.E.J.; Decker, K.L.M.; Sutherland, E.K. 2000. Prescribed burning 

effects on soil enzyme activity in a southern Ohio hardwood forest: a landscape 

scale analysis. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 32(7): 899–908.

Boerner, R.E.J.; Giai, C.; Huang, J.; Miesel, J.R. 2008d. Initial effects of fi re 

and mechanical thinning on soil enzyme activity and nitrogen transformations in 

eight North American forest ecosystems. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 40(12): 

3076–3085.

Boerner, R.E.J.; Huang, J.; Hart, S.C. 2008b. Fire, thinning, and the carbon 

economy: effects of fi re and fi re surrogate treatments on estimated carbon 

storage and sequestration rate. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(1): 

3081–3097.

Boerner, R.E.J.; Huang, J.; Hart, S.C. 2008c. Impacts of fi re and fi re surrogate 

treatments on ecosystem nitrogen storage patterns: similarities and differences 

between eastern and western North America. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Research. 38(12): 3056–3070.

Boerner, R.E.J.; Huang, J.; Hart, S.C. 2009. Impacts of fi re and fi re surrogate 

treatments on forest soil properties: a meta-analytical approach. Ecological 

Applications. 19(2): 338–358.

Boerner, R.E.J.; Lord, T.R.; Peterson, J.C. 1988. Prescribed burning in the 

oak-pine forest of the New Jersey pine barrens: effects on growth and nutrient 

dynamics of two Quercus species. American Midland Naturalist. 120(1): 

108–119.

Boerner, R.E.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Shelburne, V.B. 2006. Wildfi re mitigation 

strategies affect soil enzyme activity and soil organic carbon in loblolly pine 

(Pinus taeda) forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 36(12): 3148–3154.

Boerner, R.E.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Skinner, C.N.; Callaham, M.A.; Brinkman, 

J.A.; Smith, A. 2004. Ecosystem restoration and wildfi re management 

treatments affect soil organic matter and microbial activity in four contrasting 

forests. In: Yaussy, D.A.; Hix, D.M.; Long, R.P.; Goebel, P.C., eds. Proceedings, 

14th central hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-316. Newtown 

Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern 

Research Station: 499.
147

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Boyer, W.D. 1993. Season of burn and hardwood development in young longleaf 

pine stands. In: Brissette, J.C., ed. Proceedings, 7th biennial southern silvicultural 

research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SO-93. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station: 511–515.

Boyle, M.F. 2002. Short-term response of bark beetles to fuel reduction treatments 

in the upper Piedmont. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 87 p. M.S. thesis.

Boyle, M.F.; Hedden, R.L.; Waldrop, T.A. 2004. Impact of prescribed fi re and 

thinning on host resistance to the southern pine beetle: preliminary results of 

the National Fire and Fire Surrogate study. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 

12th biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–

71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Research Station: 60–64.

Brady, M.J.; Slade, N.A. 2004. Long-term dynamics of a grassland rodent 

community. Journal of Mammalogy. 85(3): 552–561.

Brigham, R.M.; Grindal, S.D.; Firman, M.C.; Morissette, J.L. 1997. The 

infl uence of structural clutter on activity patterns of insectivorous bats. Canadian 

Journal of Zoology. 75(1): 131–136.

Brockway, D.G.; Lewis, C.E. 1997. Long-term effects of dormant-season 

prescribed fi re on plant community diversity, structure and productivity in a 

longleaf pine wiregrass system. Forest Ecology and Management. 96(1/2): 

167–183.

Brockway, D.G.; Outcalt, K.W.; Tomczak, D.J.; Johnson, E.E. 2005. Restoration 

of longleaf pine ecosystems. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-SRS-83. Asheville, NC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 34 p.

Brose, P.H.; Van Lear, D.H. 1998. Responses of hardwood advance regeneration 

to seasonal prescribed fi res in oak-dominated shelterwood stands. Canadian 

Journal of Forest Research. 28(3): 331–339.

Brown, C. 1995. The DEERHORN case study: a production and cost analysis of 

a single-grip harvester and small cable yarder performing a thinning/salvage 

operation in eastern Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 123 p. M.F. 

paper.
148

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Brown, J.K.; Marsden, M.A.; Ryan, K.C.; Reinhardt, E.D. 1985. Predicting 

duff and woody fuel consumed by prescribed fi re in the northern Rocky 

Mountains. Res. Pap. INT–337. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 23 p. 

Brudnak, L.; Waldrop, T.A.; Phillips, R.J. 2010. Use of a thermocoupledatalogger system to evaluate overstory mortality. In: Stanturf, J.A., ed. 

Proceedings, 14th biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. SRS-121. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Southern Research Station: 515–517.

Bruederle, L.P.; Stearns, F.W. 1985. Ice storm damage to a southern Wisconsin 

mesic forest. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 112(2): 167–175.

Brunson, M.W.; Shindler, B.A. 2004. Geographic variation in social acceptability 

of wildland fuels management in the western United States. Society and Natural 

Resources. 17(8): 661–678.

Buddle, C.M.; Spence, J.R.; Langor, D.W. 2000. Succession of boreal forest 

spider assemblages following wildfi re and harvesting. Ecography. 23(4): 424–

436.

Bull, E.L.; Parks, C.G.; Torgersen, T.R. 1997. Trees and logs important to 

wildlife in the interior Columbia River basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-391. 

Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Northwest 

Research Station. 55 p.

Burgoyne, T.A.; DeLuca, T.H. 2009. Short-term effects of forest restoration 

management on non-symbiotic nitrogen-fi xation in western Montana. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 258(7): 1369–1375.

Burnett, M.R.; August, P.V.; Brown, J.H.; Killingbeck, K.T. 1997. The infl uence 

of geomorphological heterogeneity on biodiversity. I. A patch-scale perspective. 

Conservation Biology. 12(2): 363–370.

Busse, M.D.; Simon, S.A.; Riegel, G.M. 2000. Tree-growth and understory 

responses to low-severity prescribed burning in thinned Pinus ponderosa forests 

of central Oregon. Forest Science. 46(2): 258–268.

Caldwell, T.G.; Johnson, D.W.; Miller, W.W.; Qualls, R.G. 2002. Forest fl oor 

carbon and nitrogen losses due to prescription fi re. Soil Science Society of 

America Journal. 66(1): 262–267.
149

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Callaham, M.A.; Anderson, P.H.; Waldrop, T.A.; Lione, D.J.; Shelburne, 

V.B. 2004. Litter decomposition and soil respiration responses to fuel-reduction 

treatments in Piedmont loblolly pine forests. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 

12th biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–

71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Research Station: 25–29.

Campbell, J.W.; Hanula, J.L.; Outcalt, K.W. 2008. Effects of prescribed fi re and 

other plant community restoration treatments on tree mortality, bark beetles, and 

other saproxylic Coleoptera of longleaf pine, Pinus palustris Mill, on the coastal 

plain of Alabama. Forest Ecology and Management. 254: 134–144.

Campbell, J.W.; Hanula, J.L.; Waldrop, T.A. 2007a. Effects of prescribed fi re 

and fi re surrogates on fl oral visiting insects of the Blue Ridge Province in North 

Carolina. Biological Conservation. 134(3): 393–404.

Campbell, J.W.; Hanula, J.L.; Waldrop, T.A. 2007b. Observations of Speyeria 

diana (Diana Fritillary) utilizing forested areas in North Carolina that have been 

mechanically thinned and burned. Southeastern Naturalist. 6(1): 179–182.

Carey, A.B. 2000. Effects of new forest management strategies on squirrel 

populations. Ecological Applications. 10(1): 248–257.

Carey, A.B. 2001. Experimental manipulation of spatial heterogeneity in Douglasfi r forests: effects on squirrels. Forest Ecology and Management. 152(1–3): 

13–30.

Carey, A.B.; Harrington, C.A. 2001. Small mammals in young forests: 

implications for management for sustainability. Forest Ecology and Management. 

154(1/2): 289–309.

Carey, A.B.; Wilson, S.M. 2001. Induced spatial heterogeneity in forest canopies: 

responses of small mammals. Journal of Wildlife Management. 65(4): 1014–1027.

Carter, M.C.; Dean, T.J.; Zhou, M.; Messina, M.G.; Wang, Z. 2002. Short-term 

changes in soil C, N, and biota following harvesting and regeneration of loblolly 

pine (Pinus taeda L.). Forest Ecology and Management. 164(1–3): 67–88.

Chalmers, S.R.; Hartsough, B.R. 2001. Thinning and prescribed fi re as methods 

to reduce fuel loading—a cost analysis. In: Thinnings, a valuable forest 

management tool proceedings of an international conference. (CD-ROM). 

Pointe-Claire, QC: Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada.
150

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Chen, H.; Hicks, W. 2003. High asymbiotic N2 fi xation rates in woody root 

after six years of decomposition: controls and implications. Basic and Applied 

Ecology. 4(5): 479–486.

Chiang, J.M.; Brown, K.J. 2007. Improving the budburst phenology subroutine in 

the forest carbon model PnET. Ecological Modelling. 205(3/4): 515–526.

Chiang, J.M.; Brown, K.J. 2010. The effects of thinning and burning treatments 

on within-canopy variation of leaf traits in hardwood forests of southern Ohio. 

Forest Ecology and Management. 260(6): 1065–1075.

Chiang, J.M.; McEwan, R.W.; Yaussy, D.A.; Brown, K.J. 2007. The effects 

of prescribed fi re and silvicultural thinning on the aboveground carbon stocks 

and net primary production of overstory trees in an oak-hickory ecosystem in 

southern Ohio. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(5/6): 1584–1594.

Choromanska, U.; DeLuca, T.H. 2001. Prescribed fi re alters the impact of wildfi re 

on soil biochemical properties in a ponderosa pine forest. Soil Science Society of 

America Journal. 65(1): 232–238.

Choromanska, U.; DeLuca, T.H. 2002. Microbial activity and nitrogen 

mineralization in forest mineral soils following heating: evaluation of post-fi re 

effects. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 34(2): 263–271.

Christensen, N.L. 1977. Fire and soil-plant nutrient relations in a pine-wiregrass 

savanna on the coastal plain of North Carolina. Oecologia. 31(1): 27–44.

Cleaves, D.A.; Martinez, J.; Haines, T.K. 2000. Infl uences on prescribed burning 

activity and costs in the National Forest System. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-37. New 

Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research 

Station. 34 p.

Clinton, B.D. 2004. Rhododendron maximum L. In: Francis, J.K., ed. Wildland 

shrubs of the United States and its territories: thamnic descriptions: vol. 1. Gen. 

Tech Rep. IIFT-GTR-26. San Juan, PR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 

623–624.

Clinton, B.D.; Vose, J.M.; Swank, W.T. 1996. Shifts in aboveground and forest 

fl oor carbon and nitrogen pools after felling and burning in the southern 

Appalachians. Forest Science. 42(4): 431–441.
151

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Clinton, N.E.; Gong, P.; Scott, K. 2006. Quantifi cation of pollutants emitted 

from very large wildland fi res in southern California, USA. Atmospheric 

Environment. 40(20): 3686–3695.

Coates, T.A. 2006. Response of forest soil resources to fuel reduction in the 

southeastern Piedmont and southern Appalachian Mountains. Clemson, SC: 

Clemson University. 91 p. M.S. thesis.

Coates, T.A.; Boerner, R.E.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Yaussy, D.A. 2008. Soil nitrogen 

transformations under alternative management strategies in Appalachian forests. 

Soil Science Society of America Journal. 72(2): 558–565.

Coates, T.A.; Shelburne, V.B.; Waldrop, T.A.; Smith, B.R.; Hill, H.S., Jr.; 

Simon, D.M. 2010. Forest soil response to fuel reduction treatments in the 

southern Appalachian Mountains. In: Stanturf, J.A., ed. Proceedings, 14th

biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS121. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Research Station: 283–287.

Cognato, A.I.; Sun, J.; Anducho-Reyes, M.A.; Owen, D.R. 2005. Genetic 

variation and origin of red turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus valens LeConte) 

introduced to the People’s Republic of China. Agricultural and Forest 

Entomology. 7(1): 87–94.

Cole, K.L.; Klick, K.F.; Pavlovic, N.B. 1992. Fire temperature monitoring during 

experimental burns at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. Natural Areas Journal. 

12(4): 177–183.

Cole, E.C.; McComb, W.C.; Newton, M.; Leeming, J.P.; Chambers, C.L. 1998. 

Response of small mammals to clearcutting, burning, and glyphosate application 

in the Oregon Coast Range. Journal of Wildlife Management. 62(4): 1207–1216.

Collins, B.M.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Stephens, S.L. 2007. Initial changes in forest 

structure and understory plant communities following fuel reduction activities in 

a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 239(1–3): 

102–111.

Conklin, D.A.; Armstrong, W.A. 2001. Effects of three prescribed fi res on dwarf 

mistletoe infection in southwestern ponderosa pine. Forestry and Forest Health 

Report R3–01–02. Albuquerque, NM: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Southwestern Region. 17 p.

Connell, J.H. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science. 199: 

1302–1310.
152

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Conner, R.N.; Shackelford, C.E.; Schaefer, R.R.; Saenz, D.; Rudolph, C.D. 

2002. Avian community response to southern pine ecosystem restoration for redcockaded woodpeckers. Wilson Bulletin. 114(3): 324–332.

Converse, S.J. 2005. Small mammal responses to forest restoration and fuel 

reduction. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University. 231 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Converse, S.J.; Dickson, B.G.; White, G.C.; Block, W.M. 2004. Estimating small 

mammal abundance on fuels treatment units in southwestern ponderosa pine 

forests. In: van Riper, C., III; Cole, K.L., eds. The Colorado Plateau: cultural, 

biological, and physical research. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press: 

113–120.

Converse, S.J.; White, G.C.; Block, W.M. 2006b. Small mammal responses to 

thinning and wildfi re in ponderosa pine-dominated forests of the southwestern 

United States. Journal of Wildlife Management. 70(6): 1711–1722.

Converse, S.J.; White, G.C.; Farris, K.L.; Zack, S. 2006a. Small mammals 

and forest fuel reduction: national-scale responses to fi re and fi re surrogates. 

Ecological Applications. 16(5): 1717–1729.

Cooke, M.A.; Widden, P.; O’Halloran, I. 1992. Morphology, incidence, and 

fertilization effects on the vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae of Acer saccharum

in a Quebec hardwood forest. Mycologia. 84(3): 422–430.

Coulter, E.D. 1999. Hungry Bob harvest production study: mechanical thinning for 

fuel reduction in the Blue Mountains of northeast Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon 

State University. 96 p. M.S. thesis.

Covington, W.W.; Moore, M.M. 1994. Postsettlement changes in natural fi re 

regimes and forest structure: ecological restoration of old-growth ponderosa pine 

forests. Journal of Sustainable Forestry. 2(1/2): 153–181.

Covington, W.W.; Sackett, S.S. 1984. The effect of a prescribed burn in 

southwestern ponderosa pine on organic matter and nutrients in woody debris 

and forest fl oor. Forest Science. 30(1): 183–192.

Covington, W.W.; Sackett, S.S. 1992. Soil mineral nitrogen changes following 

prescribed burning in ponderosa pine. Forest Ecology and Management. 54(1–4): 

175–191.

Covington, W.W.; DeBano, L.F.; Huntsberger, T.G. 1991. Soil nitrogen changes 

associated with slash pile burning in pinyon-juniper woodlands. Forest Science. 

37(1): 347–355.
153

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Craig, V.J.; Klenner, W.; Feller, M.C.; Sullivan, T.P. 2006. Relationships 

between deer mice and downed wood in managed forests of southern British 

Columbia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 36(9): 2189–2203.

Crawford, J.A.; Wahren, C.H.A.; Kyle, S.; Moir, W.H. 2001. Response of exotic 

plant species to fi res in Pinus ponderosa forests in northern Arizona. Journal of 

Vegetation Science. 12(2): 261–268.

Crow, T.R.; Perera, A.H. 2004. Emulating natural landscape disturbance in forest 

management—an introduction. Landscape Ecology. 19(3): 231–233.

Csuti, B.A. 1997. Atlas of Oregon wildlife: distribution, habitat, and natural 

history. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press. 492 p.

Cullings, K.W.; Vogler, D.R.; Parker, V.T.; Finley, S.K. 2000. Ectomycorrhizal 

specifi city patterns in a mixed Pinus contorta and Picea engelmannii forest in 

Yellowstone National Park. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 66(11): 

4988–4991.

Davis, J.R.; Ffolliott, P.F.; Clary, W.P. 1968. A fi re prescription for consuming 

ponderosa pine duff. Res. Note RM-115. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station. 4 p.

DeBano, L.F. 2000. The role of fi re and soil heating on water repellency in 

wildland environments: a review. Journal Hydrology. 231–232: 195–206.

DeBano, L.F.; Neary, D.G.; Ffolliott, P.F. 1998. Fire’s effects on ecosystems. New 

York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 333 p.

DeBellis, T.; Widden, P.; Messier, C. 2002. Effects of selective cuts on the 

mycorrhizae of regenerating Betula alleghaniensis and Acer saccharum

seedlings in two Quebec mixed deciduous forests. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Research. 32(6): 1094–1102.

DeLuca, T.H.; Zouhar, K.L. 2000. Effects of selection harvest and prescribed 

fi re on the soil nitrogen status of ponderosa pine forests. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 138(1–3): 263–271.

DeLuca, T.H.; Nilsson, M.-C.; Zackrisson, O. 2002. Nitrogen mineral and phenol 

accumulation along a fi re chronosequence in northern Sweden. Oecologia. 

133(2): 206–214.
154

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

DeLuca, T.H.; MacKenzie, M.D.; Gundale, M.J.; Holben, W.E. 2006. Wildfi reproduced charcoal directly infl uences nitrogen cycling in ponderosa pine forests. 

Soil Science Society of America Journal. 70(2): 448–453.

Dey, D.C.; Hartman, G. 2005. Returning fi re to Ozark Highland forest 

ecosystems: effects on advance regeneration. Forest Ecology and Management. 

217(1): 37–53.

Dickson, J.G. 1981. Effects of forest burning on songbirds. In: Wood, G.W., ed. 

Proceedings, prescribed fi re and wildlife in southern forests. Georgetown, SC: 

Belle W. Baruch Forest Science Institute, Clemson University: 67–72.

Dickson, B.G.; Block, W.M.; Sisk, T.D. 2004. Conceptual framework for studying 

the effects of fuels treatments on avian communities in ponderosa pine forests 

of northern Arizona. In: Van Riper, C., III; Cole, K.L., eds. Colorado Plateau: 

cultural, biological, and physical research. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona 

Press: 193–200.

Dixon, R.K.; Solomon, A.M.; Brown, S.; Houghton, R.A.; Trexier, M.C.; 

Wisniewski, J. 1994. Carbon pools and fl ux of global forest ecosystems. 

Science. 263(5144): 185–190.

Dodson, E.K. 2004. Monitoring change in exotic plant abundance after fuel 

reduction/restoration treatments in ponderosa pine forests of western Montana. 

Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 99 p. M.S. thesis.

Dodson, E.K.; Fiedler, C.E. 2006. Impacts of restoration treatments on alien plant 

invasion in Pinus ponderosa forests, Montana, USA. Journal of Applied Ecology. 

43(5): 887–897.

Dodson, E.K.; Metlen, K.L.; Fiedler, C.E. 2007. Common and uncommon 

understory species differentially respond to restoration treatments in ponderosa 

pine/Douglas-fi r forests, Montana. Restoration Ecology. 15(4): 696–708.

Dodson, E.K.; Peterson, D.W. 2010. Dry coniferous forest restoration and 

understory plant diversity: the importance of community heterogeneity and the 

scale of observation. Forest Ecology and Management. 260(10): 1702–1707.

Dodson, E.K.; Peterson, D.W.; Harrod, R.J. 2008. Understory vegetation 

response to thinning and burning restoration treatments in dry conifer forests of 

the eastern Cascades, USA. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 

3130–3140.
155

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Dodson-Coulter, E. 1999. Hungry Bob harvest production study: mechanical 

thinning for fuel reduction in the Blue Mountains of northeast Oregon. Corvallis, 

OR: Oregon State University. 96 p. M.S. thesis.

Dolan, E. 2002. Soil and site variability in the northeast Wenatchee Mountains. 

Seattle, WA: University of Washington. 83 p. M.S. thesis.

Dolan, B.J.; Parker, G.R. 2004. Understory response to disturbance: and 

investigation of prescribed burning and understory removal treatments. In: 

Spetich, M.A., ed. Proceedings, upland oak ecology symposium: history, current 

conditions, and sustainability. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-73. Asheville, NC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 285–291.

Drews, E.; Hartsough, B.; Doyal, J.; Kellogg, L. 1998. Comparison of forwarder 

DTL and skyline yarder CTL systems in a natural eastern Oregon stand. In: 

Schiess, P.; Krogstad, F., eds. Proceedings, harvesting logistics: from woods to 

market. Annual conference of the Council of Forest Engineering. [Location of 

publisher unknown]: [Publisher unknown]: 34–40.

Dugan, F.M.; Lupien, S.L.; Hernandez-Bello, M.; Peever, T.L.; Chen, W. 

2005. Fungi resident in chickpea debris and their suppression of growth and 

reproduction of Didymella rabiei under laboratory conditions. Journal of 

Phytopathology. 153(7/8): 431–439.

Duguay, J.P.; Wood, P.B.; Nichols, J.V. 2001. Songbird abundance and avian 

nest survival rates in forests fragmented by different silviculture treatments. 

Conservation Biology. 15(5): 1405–1415.

Edminster, C.B.; Weatherspoon, C.P.; Neary, D.G. 2000. The fi re and fi re 

surrogates study: providing guidelines for fi re in future watershed management 

decisions. In: Ffolliott, P.F.; Baker, M.B., Jr.; Edminster, C.B.; Dillon, M.C.; 

Mora, K.L., tech. coords. Proceedings, land stewardship in the 21st century: the 

contributions of watershed management. RMRS-P-13. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 

312–315.

Eivazi, F.; Bayan, M.R. 1996. Effects of long-term prescribed burning on the 

activity of selected soil enzymes in an oak-hickory forest. Canadian Journal of 

Forest Research. 26(10): 1799–1804.

Elliott, K.J.; Vose, J.M. 2005. Effects of understory prescribed burning on 

shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.)/mixed-hardwood forests. Journal of the 

Torrey Botanical Society. 132(2): 236–251.
156

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Ellison, L.E.; Everette, A.L.; Bogan, M.A. 2005. Examining patterns of bat 

activity in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, by using walking point 

transects. Southwestern Naturalist. 50(2): 197–208.

Ellsworth, D.S.; Reich, P.B. 1992. Leaf mass per area, nitrogen content and 

photosynthetic carbon gain in Acer saccharum seedlings in contrasting forest 

light environments. Functional Ecology. 6(4): 423–435.

Erickson, J.L.; West, S.D. 2003. Associations of bats with local structure and 

landscape features of forested stands in western Oregon and Washington. 

Biological Conservation. 109(1): 95–102.

Erwin, D.C.; Ribeiro, O.K. 1996. Phytophthora diseases worldwide. St. Paul, MN: 

American Phytopathological Society Press. 562 p.

Evans, J.R. 1989. Photosynthesis and nitrogen relationships in leaves of C3 plants. 

Oecologia. 78(1): 9–19.

Fajardo, A.; Graham, J.M.; Goodburn, J.M.; Fiedler, C.E. 2007. Ten-year 

responses of ponderosa pine growth, vigor, and recruitment to restoration 

treatments in the Bitterroot Mountains, Montana, USA. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 243(1): 50–60.

Fantz, D.K.; Renken, R.B. 2005. Short-term landscape-scale effects of forest 

management on Peromyscus spp. mice within Missouri Ozark forests. Wildlife 

Society Bulletin. 33(1): 293–301.

Farris, K.L.; Converse, S.J.; Zack, S.; Robinson, W.D.; Amacher, A.J.; 

Contreras, T.; Gaines, W.L.; Kilpatrick, E.S.; Lanham, J.D.; Miles D.; 

Rompré, G.; Sieving, K.E.; Pierson, J.C. 2010a. Short-term effects of fi re and 

fi re surrogate treatments on avian nest survival: a national-scale analysis. Open 

Environmental Sciences. 4: 53–62.

Farris, K.L.; Zack, S.; Amacher, A.J.; Pierson, J.C. 2010b. Microhabitat 

selection of bark-foraging birds in response to fi re and fi re surrogate treatments. 

Forest Science. 56(1): 100–111.

Feeney, W.R.; Kolb, T.E.; Covington, W.W.; Wagner, M.R. 1998. Infl uence of 

thinning and burning restoration treatments on presettlement ponderosa pines 

at the Gus Pearson Natural Area. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 28(9): 

1295–1306.
157

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Feller, M.C. 1989. Estimation of nutrient losses to the atmosphere from slash 

burns in British Columbia. In: MacIver, D.C.; Auld, H.; Whitewood, R., eds. 

Proceedings, 10th conference of fi re and forest meteorology. Ottawa, ON: 

Environment Canada: 126–135.

Ferrenberg, S.M.; Schwilk, D.W.; Knapp, E.E.; Groth, E.; Keeley, J.E. 2006.

Fire decreases arthropod abundance but increases diversity: early and late season 

prescribed fi re effects in a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest. Fire Ecology. 

2(2): 79–102.

Fettig, C.; Borys, R.; Dabney, C. 2010. Effects of fi re and fi re surrogate treatments 

on bark beetle-caused tree mortality in the southern Cascades, California. Forest 

Science. 56(1): 60–73.

Fettig, C.J.; Borys, R.R.; McKelvey, S.R.; Dabney, C.P. 2008. Blacks Mountain 

Experimental Forest: bark beetle responses to differences in forest structure and 

the application of prescribed fi re in interior ponderosa pine. Canadian Journal of 

Forest Research. 38(5): 924–935.

Fettig, C.J.; Klepzig, K.D.; Billings, R.F.; Munson, A.S.; Nebeker, T.E.; 

Negrón, J.F.; Nowak, J.T. 2007. The effectiveness of vegetation management 

practices for prevention and control of bark beetle infestations in coniferous 

forests of the western and southern United States. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 238(1–3): 24–53.

Fettig, C.J.; McKelvey, S.R. 2010. Bark beetle responses to stand structure and 

prescribed fi re at Blacks Mountain Experimental Forest, California, USA: 5-year 

data. Fire Ecology. 6: 26–42.

Fettig, C.J.; McKelvey, S.R.; Cluck, D.L.; Smith, S.L.; Otrosina, W.J. 2010. 

Effects of prescribed fi re and season of burn on direct and indirect levels of 

tree mortality in ponderosa and Jeffrey pine forests in California, USA. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 260: 207–218.

Fettig, C.J.; McMillin, J.D.; Anhold, J.A.; Hamud, S.M.; Borys, R.R.; Dabney, 

C.P.; Seybold, S.J. 2006. The effects of mechanical fuel reduction treatments 

on the activity of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) infesting ponderosa pine. 

Forest Ecology and Management. 230(1–3): 55–68.

Fiedler, C.E.; Arno, S.F.; Carlson, C.E.; Harrington, M.G. 1992. Management 

prescriptions for restoring biodiversity in Inland Northwest ponderosa pine-fi r 

forests. Northwest Environmental Journal. 8: 211–213.
158

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Fiedler, C.E.; Becker, R.R.; Haghund, S.A. 1988. Preliminary guidelines for 

uneven-aged silvicultural prescriptions in ponderosa pine. In: Baumgartner, 

D.M.; Lotan, J.E., eds. Proceedings, Ponderosa pine: the species and its 

management. Pullman, WA: Washington State University Conferences and 

Institutes: 235–241.

Fiedler, C.E.; Metlen, K.L.; Dodson, E.K. 2010. Restoration treatment effects 

on stand structure, tree growth, and fi re hazard in a ponderosa pine/Douglas-fi r 

forest in Montana. Forest Science. 56(1): 18–31.

Field, C.; Mooney, H.A. 1986. The photosynthesis–nitrogen relationship in 

wild plants. In: Givnish, T.J., ed. On the economy of plant form and function. 

Proceedings of the 6th Maria Moors Cabot symposium: evolutionary constraints 

on primary productivity, adaptive patterns of energy capture in plants, Harvard 

Forest. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press: 25–55.

Finch, D.M.; Ganey J.L.; Yong, W.; Kimball, R.T.; Sallabanks, R. 1997.

Effects and interactions of fi re, logging, and grazing. In: Block, W.M.; Finch, 

D.M., eds. Songbird ecology in southwestern ponderosa pine forests: a literature 

review. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-292. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station: 103–136.

Finér, L.; Mannerkoski, H.; Piirainen, S.; Starr, M. 2003. Carbon and nitrogen 

pools in an old-growth, Norway spruce mixed forest in eastern Finland and 

changes associated with clear-cutting. Forest Ecology and Management. 

174(1–3): 51–63.

Finney, M.A. 2001. Design of regular landscape fuel treatment patterns for 

modifying fi re growth and behavior. Forest Science. 47(2): 219–228.

Fisher, J.T.; Wilkinson, L. 2005. The response of mammals to forest fi re and 

timber harvest in the North American boreal forest. Mammal Review. 35(1): 

51–81.

Fitter, A.H. 1982. Infl uence of soil heterogeneity on the coexistence of grassland 

species. Journal of Ecology. 70(1): 139–148.

Floyd, T.M. 2003. Effects of prescribed fi re on herpetofauna within hardwood 

forests of the upper Piedmont of South Carolina. Clemson, SC: Clemson 

University. 127 p. M.S. thesis.
159

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Floyd, T.M.; Russell, K.R.; Moorman, C.E.; van Lear, D.H.; Guynn, D.C., 

Jr.; Lanham, J.D. 2002. Effects of prescribed fi re on herpetofauna within 

hardwood forests of the Upper Piedmont of South Carolina: a preliminary 

analysis. In: Outcalt, K.W., ed. Proceedings, 11th biennial southern silviculture 

research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-48. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 123–127.

Ford, W.M.; Rodrigue, J.L. 2001. Soricid abundance in partial overstory removal 

harvests and riparian areas in an industrial forest landscape of the central 

Appalachians. Forest Ecology and Management. 152(1–3): 159–168.

Ford, W.M.; Laerm, J.; Barker, K.G. 1997. Soricid response to forest stand 

age in southern Appalachian cove hardwood communities. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 91(2/3): 175–181.

Ford, W.M.; Menzel, M.A.; McGill, D.W.; Laerm, J.; McCay, T.S. 1999. Effects 

of a community restoration fi re on small mammals and herpetofauna in the 

southern Appalachians. Forest Ecology and Management. 114(2/3): 233–243.

Foresman, K.R. 2001. The wild mammals of Montana. Lawrence, Kansas: 

American Society of Mammalogists. 278 p.

Fornwalt, P.J.; Kaufmann, M.R.; Huckaby, L.S.; Stoker, J.M.; Stohlgren, 

T.J. 2003. Non-native plant invasions in managed and protected ponderosa 

pine/Douglas-fi r forests of the Colorado Front Range. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 177(1–3): 515–527.

Frank, J.H.; Foltz, J.L.; Almquist, D.T. 2005. The female of Oxybleptes 

meridionalis (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Staphylininae) and range extension for 

Oxybleptes. Florida Entomologist. 88(2): 199–200.

Franklin, S.B.; Robertson, P.A.; Fralish, J.S, 1997. Small-scale fi re temperature 

patterns in upland Quercus communities. Journal of Applied Ecology. 34(3): 

613–630.

Franklin, S.B.; Robertson, P.A.; Fralish, J.S. 2003. Prescribed burning 

effects on upland Quercus forest structure and function. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 184(1–3): 315–335.

French, T.W. 1980. Sorex longirostris. Mammalian Species. 143(Nov. 20, 1980): 

1–3.

Friedmann, H. 1963. Host relations of the parasitic cowbirds. Bulletin of the 

United States National Museum. 233: 1–276.
160

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Froelich, H.A. 1978. Soil compaction from low ground-pressure, torsionsuspension logging vehicles on three forest soils. Forest Research Laboratory 

Research Paper 36. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 13 p.

Fulé, P.Z.; Covington, W.W.; Moore, M.M. 1997. Determining reference 

conditions for ecosystem management of southwestern ponderosa pine forests. 

Ecological Applications. 7(3): 895–908.

Fulé, P.Z.; McHugh, C.; Heinlein, T.A.; Covington, W.W. 2001. Potential fi re 

behavior is reduced following forest restoration treatments. In: Vance, R.K.; 

Edminster, C.B.; Covington, W.W.; Blake, J.A., comps. Proceedings, Ponderosa 

pine ecosystems restoration and conservation: steps towards stewardship. 

RMRS-P-22. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station: 28–35.

Fulé, P.Z.; Covington, W.W.; Smith, H.B.; Springer, J.D.; Heinlein, T.A.; 

Huisinga, K.D.; Moore, M.M. 2002. Comparing ecological restoration 

alternatives: Grand Canyon, Arizona. Forest Ecology and Management. 170(1–3): 

19–41.

Fulé, P.Z.; Laughlin, D.C.; Covington, W.W. 2005. Pine-oak forest dynamics fi ve 

years after ecological restoration treatments, Arizona, USA. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 218(1–3): 129–145.

Gaines, W.; Haggard, M.; Begley, J.; Lehmkuhl, J.; Lyons, A. 2010. Shortterm effects of thinning and burning restoration treatments on avian community 

composition, density, and nest survival in the eastern Cascades dry forests, 

Washington. Forest Science. 56(1): 88–99. 

Gaines, W.L.; Haggard, M.; Lehmkuhl, J.L.; Lyons, A.; Harrod, R.J. 2007.

Short-term response of land birds to ponderosa pine restoration. Restoration 

Ecology. 10(4): 670–678.

Gambrell, H.E.; Waldrop, T.A.; Wang, G.G. [In press]. Fuel dynamics across 

southern Appalachian landscapes. In: 15th biennial southern silvicultural research 

conference. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Southern Research Station.

Gandhi, K.J.K.; Spence, J.R.; Langor, D.W.; Morgantini, L.E. 2001. Fire 

residuals as habitat reserves for epigaeic beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae and 

Staphylinidae). Biological Conservation. 102(2): 131–141.
161

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Ganz, D.J.; Dahlsten, D.L.; Shea, P.J. 2003. The post-burning responses of 

bark beetles to prescribed burning treatments. In: Omi, P.N.; Joyce, L.A. 2003. 

Proceedings, Fire, fuel treatments, and ecological restoration. RMRS-P-29. Fort 

Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain 

Research Station: 143–158.

Germaine, H.L.; Germaine, S.S. 2002. Forest restoration treatment effects on the 

nest success of western bluebirds (Sialia mexicana). Restoration Ecology. 10(2): 

362–367.

Gessel, S.P.; Cole, D.W.; Steinbrenner, E.C. 1973. Nitrogen balance in forest 

ecosystems of the Pacifi c Northwest. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 5(1): 19–34.

Gholz, H.L.; Fisher, R.L. 1982. Organic matter production and distribution in 

slash pine (Pinus elliottii) plantations. Ecology. 63(6): 1827–1839.

Giai, C. 2009. Fire, exotic earthworms and plant litter decomposition in the 

landscape context. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University. 151 p. Ph.D. 

dissertation.

Giai, C.; Boerner, R.E.J. 2007. Effects of ecological restoration on microbial 

activity, microbial functional diversity, and soil organic matter in mixed-oak 

forests of southern Ohio, USA. Applied Soil Ecology. 35(2): 281–290.

Gibson, D.J.; Hartnett, D.C.; Merrill, G.L.S. 1990. Fire temperature 

heterogeneity in contrasting fi re prone habitats: Kansas tallgrass prairie and 

Florida sandhill. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 117(4): 349–356.

Gilliam, F.S. 1988. Interactions of fi re with nutrients in the herbaceous layer of a 

nutrient-poor coastal plain forest. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 115(4): 

265–271.

Giuliani, R.; Brown, K.J. 2008. Within-canopy sampling of global irradiance 

to describe downwelling light distribution and infer canopy stratifi cation in a 

broadleaf forest. Tree Physiology. 28(9): 1407–1419.

Goetz, J.; Dugan, F.M. 2006. Alternaria malorum: a mini-review with new 

records for hosts and pathogenicity. Pacifi c Northwest Fungi. 1: 1–8.

Goetz, J.R., III. 2006. Fungal endophytes isolated from large roots of Douglas-fi r 

(Pseudotsuga menziesii) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). Pullman, WA: 

Washington State University. 116 p.
162

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Goodwin, J.G., Jr.; Hungerford, C.R. 1979. Rodent population densities and food 

habits in Arizona ponderosa pine forests. Res. Pap. RM-214. Fort Collins, CO: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station. 12 p.

Grace, J.B.; Youngblood, A.; Scheiner, S.M. 2009. Structural equation modeling 

and ecological experiments. In: Miao, S.; Carstenn, S.; Nungesser, M., eds. Real 

world ecology: large-scale and long-term case studies and methods. New York: 

Springer Science+Business Media: 19–45. Chapter 2.

Graham, J.B.; McCarthy, B.C. 2006. Forest fl oor fuel dynamics in mixed-oak 

forests of south-eastern Ohio. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 15(4): 

479–488.

Graham, R.T., ed. 2003. Hayman Fire Case Study. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRSGTR-114. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station. 396 p.

Grant, C.D.; Loneragan, W.A. 2001. The effects of burning on the understorey 

composition of rehabilitated bauxite mines in Western Australia: community 

changes and vegetation succession. Forest Ecology and Management. 145(3): 

255–279.

Greenberg, C.H. 2002. Response of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) to 

coarse woody debris and microsite use in southern Appalachian treefall gaps. 

Forest Ecology and Management. 164(1–3): 57–66.

Greenberg, C.H.; Forrest, T.G.; Waldrop, T. 2010. Short-term response of 

ground-dwelling arthropods to prescribed fi re and mechanical fuel reduction in a 

southern Appalachian upland hardwood forest. Forest Science. 56(1): 112–121.

Greenberg, C.H.; Miller, S. 2004. Soricid response to canopy gaps created by 

wind disturbance in the southern Appalachians. Southeastern Naturalist. 3(4): 

715–732.

Greenberg, C.H.; Miller, S.; Waldrop, T.A. 2007. Short-term response of shrews 

to prescribed fi re and mechanical fuel reduction in a Southern Appalachian 

upland hardwood forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 243 (2/3): 231–236.

Greenberg, C.H.; Otis, D.L.; Waldrop, T.A. 2006. Response of white-footed 

mice (Peromyscus leucopus) to fi re and fi re surrogate fuel reduction treatments 

in a southern Appalachian hardwood forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 

234(1–3): 355–362.
163

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Greenberg, C.H.; Tomcho, A.L.; Lanham, J.D.; Waldrop, T.A.; Tomcho, 

J.; Phillips, R.J.; Simon, D. 2007. Short-term effects of fi re and other fuel 

reduction treatments on breeding birds in a southern Appalachian upland 

hardwood forest. Journal of Wildlife Management. 71(6): 1906–1916.

Greenberg, C.H.; Waldrop, T.A. 2008. Short-term response of reptiles and 

amphibians to prescribed fi re and mechanical fuel reduction in a southern 

Appalachian upland hardwood forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(7): 

2883–2893.

Grier, C.C. 1975. Wildfi re effects on nutrient distribution and leaching in a 

coniferous ecosystem. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 5(4): 599–607.

Griffi n, G.J. 1989. Incidence of chestnut blight and survival of American chestnut 

in forest clearcut and neighboring understory sites. Plant Disease. 73(2): 123–127. 

Griffi s, K.L.; Crawford, J.A.; Wagner, M.R.; Moir, W.H. 2001. Understory 

responses to management treatments in northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests. 

Forest Ecology and Management. 146(1–3): 239–245.

Grinnell, J.; Storer, T.I. 1924. Animal life in the Yosemite: an account of the 

mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians in a cross-section of the Sierra 

Nevada. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 752 p.

Grogan, P.; Burns, T.D.; Chapin, F.S., III. 2000. Fire effects on ecosystem 

nitrogen cycling in a Californian bishop pine forest. Oecologia. 122(4): 537–544.

Grupé, M.A. 1998. Assessing the applicability of the Terrestrial Ecosystem Survey 

for FARSITE. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico. 95 p. M.S. thesis.

Gundale, M.J. 2005. Nitrogen cycling and spatial heterogeneity following fi re and 

restoration treatments in the ponderosa pine/Douglas-fi r ecosystem. Missoula, 

MT: University of Montana. 166 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Gundale, M.J.; DeLuca, T.H. 2006. Temperature and source material infl uence 

ecological attributes of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fi r charcoal. Forest Ecology 

and Management. 231(1–3): 86–93.

Gundale, M.J.; DeLuca, T.H. 2007. Charcoal effects on soil solution chemistry 

and growth of Koeleria macrantha in the ponderosa pine/Douglas-fi r ecosystem. 

Biology and Fertility of Soils. 43(3): 303–311.
164

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Gundale, M.J.; DeLuca, T.H.; Fiedler, C.E.; Ramsey, P.W.; Harrington, M.G.; 

Gannon, J.E. 2005. Restoration treatments in a Montana ponderosa pine forest: 

effects on soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 213(1–3): 25–38.

Gundale, M.J.; Metlen, K.L.; Fiedler, C.E.; DeLuca, T.H. 2006. Nitrogen spatial 

heterogeneity infl uences diversity following restoration in a ponderosa pine 

forest, Montana. Ecological Applications. 16(2): 479–489.

Gunn, J.S.; Hagan, J.M., III. 2000. Woodpecker abundance and tree use in 

uneven-aged managed, and unmanaged, forest in northern Maine. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 126(1): 1–12.

Gurevitch, J.; Hedges, L.V. 1999. Statistical issues in ecological meta-analyses. 

Ecology. 80(4): 1142–1149.

Hadley, G.L.; Wilson, K.R. 2004. Patterns of small mammal density and survival 

following ski-run development. Journal of Mammalogy. 85(1): 97–104.

Haeussler, S.; Beford, L.; Leduc, A.; Bergeron, Y.; Kranabetter, J.M. 2002.

Silvicultural disturbance severity and plant communities of the southern 

Canadian boreal forest. Silva Fennica. 36(1): 307–327.

Hall, S.A.; Burke, I.C.; Hobbs, N.T. 2006. Litter and dead wood dynamics 

in ponderosa pine forests along a 160–year chronosequence. Ecological 

Applications. 16(6): 2344–2355.

Halpern, C.B. 1988. Early successional pathways and the resistance and resilience 

of forest communities. Ecology. 69(6): 1703–1715.

Halpern, C.B.; Spies, T.A. 1995. Plant species diversity in natural and managed 

forests of the Pacifi c Northwest. Ecological Applications. 5(4): 913–934.

Halpern, C.B.; Evans, S.A.; Nielson, S. 1999. Soil seed banks in young, closedcanopy forests of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington: potential contributions to 

understory reinitiation. Canadian Journal of Botany. 77(7): 922–935. 

Hamman, S.T.; Burke, I.C.; Knapp, E.E. 2008. Soil nutrients and microbial 

activity after early and late season prescribed burns in a Sierra Nevada mixed 

conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 256(3): 367–374.
165

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Hansen, E.M.; Sutton, W. 2005. Persistence of Phytophthora ramorum after 

eradication efforts in Oregon tanoak forests. In: Frankel, S.J.; Shea, P.J.; Haverty, 

M.I., tech. coords. Proceedings, 2nd sudden oak death science symposium: 

the state of our knowledge. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-196. Albany, CA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Southwest Research Station: 

516.

Hanula, J.L.; Wade, D.D. 2003. Infl uence of long-term dormant-season burning 

and fi re exclusion on ground-dwelling arthropod populations in longleaf pine 

fl atwoods ecosystems. Forest Ecology and Management. 175(1–3): 163–184.

Hargrove, W.W.; Gardner, R.H.; Turner, M.G.; Romme, W.H.; Despain, 

D.G. 2000. Simulating fi re patterns in heterogeneous landscapes. Ecological 

Modelling. 135(2/3): 243–263.

Harpole, D.N.; Haas, C.A. 1999. Effects of seven silvicultural treatments on 

terrestrial salamanders. Forest Ecology and Management. 114(2/3): 349–356.

Harrington, M. 1987. Ponderosa pine mortality from spring, summer, and fall 

crown scorching. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 2(1): 14–16.

Harrington, M.G. 1993. Predicting Pinus ponderosa mortality from dormant 

season and growing-season fi re injury. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 

3(2): 65–72.

Harrington, T.B.; Edwards, M.B. 1999. Understory vegetation, resource 

availability, and litterfall responses to pine thinning and woody vegetation 

control in longleaf pine plantations. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 29(7): 

1055–1064.

Harrod, R.J.; Peterson, D.W.; Povak, N.A.; Dodson, E.K. 2009. Thinning and 

prescribed fi re effects on overstory tree and snag structure in dry coniferous 

forests of the interior Pacifi c Northwest. Forest Ecology and Management. 

258(5): 712–721.

Harrod, R.J.; Povak, N.A.; Peterson, D.W. 2007. Comparing the effectiveness of 

thinning and prescribed fi re for modifying structure in dry coniferous forests. In: 

Butler, B.W.; Cook, W., comps. Proceedings, the fi re environment—innovations, 

management, and policy. RMRS-P-46CD. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 329–346.

Hart, S.C.; DeLuca, T.H.; Newman, G.S.; MacKenzie, M.D.; Boyle, S.I. 2005. 

Post-fi re vegetative dynamics as drivers of microbial community structure and 

function in forest soils. Forest Ecology and Management. 220(1–3): 166–184.
166

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Hart, S.C.; Selmants, P.C.; Boyle, S.I.; Overby, S.T. 2006. Carbon and nitrogen 

cycling in southwestern ponderosa pine forests. Forest Science. 52(6): 683–693.

Hartsough, B.R.; Abrams, S.; Barbour, R.J.; Drews, E.S.; McIver J.D.; 

Moghaddas, J.J.; Schwilk, D.W.; Stephens, S.L. 2008. The economics of 

alternative fuel reduction treatments in western United States dry forests: 

fi nancial and policy implications from the National Fire and Fire Surrogate 

Study. Forest Policy and Economics. 10(6): 344–354.

Harvey, H.T.; Shellhammer, H.S.; Stecker, R.E. 1980. Giant sequoia ecology: 

fi re and reproduction. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National 

Park Service. 1983 p.

Haskins, M.F.; Shaddy, J.H. 1986. The ecological effects of burning, mowing, 

and plowing on ground-inhabiting spiders (Araneae) in an old-fi eld ecosystem. 

Journal of Arachnology. 14(1): 1–13.

Hatchett, B.; Hogan, M.P.; Grismer, M.E. 2006. Mechanical mastication thins 

Lake Tahoe forest with few adverse impacts. California Agriculture. 60(2): 

77–82.

Hatten, J.; Zabowski, D.; Scherer, G.; Dolan, E. 2005. A comparison of soil 

properties after contemporary wildfi re and fi re suppression. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 220(1–3): 227–241.

Haynes, R.W. 1998. Stumpage prices, volume sold, and volumes harvested from 

the national forests of the Pacifi c Northwest Region, 1984 to 1996. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. PNW-GTR-423. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacifi c Northwest Research Station. 91 p.

Haywood, J.D.; Harris, F.L.; Grelen, H.E.; Pearson, H.A. 2001. Vegetative 

response to 37 years of seasonal burning on a Louisiana longleaf pine site. 

Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 25(3): 122–130.

Healy, W.M.; Lewis, A.M.; Boose, E.F. 1999. Variation of red oak acorn 

production. Forest Ecology and Management. 166(1–3): 1–11.

Heath, L.S.; Smith, J.E.; Birdsey, R.A. 2003. Carbon trends in U.S. forestlands: 

a context for the role of soils in forest carbon sequestration. In: Kimble, J.M.; 

Heath, L.S.; Birdsey, R.A.; Lal, R., eds. The potential of U.S. forest soils to 

sequester carbon and mitigate the greenhouse effect. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis 

Publishers, CRC Press: 35–45.
167

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Hejl, S.J. 1994. Human-induced changes in bird populations in coniferous forests 

in western North America during the past 100 years. In: Jehl, J.R., Jr.; Johnson, 

N.K., eds. A century of avifaunal change in western North America. Studies in 

Avian Biology. 15: 232–246.

Hengst, G.E.; Dawson, J.O. 1994. Bark properties and fi re resistance of selected 

tree species from the central hardwood region of North America. Canadian 

Journal of Forest Research. 24(4): 688–696.

Hessburg, P.F.; Agee, J.K. 2003. An environmental narrative of Inland Northwest 

United States forests, 1800–2000. Forest Ecology and Management. 178(1/2): 

23–59.

Hessburg, P.F.; Povak, N.A.; Salter, R.B. 2008. Thinning and prescribed fi re 

effects on dwarf mistletoe severity in an eastern Cascade Range dry forest, 

Washington. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(7): 2907–2915.

Hessburg, P.F.; Povak, N.A.; Salter, R.B. 2010. Thinning and prescribed fi re 

effects on snag abundance and spatial pattern in an eastern Cascade Range dry 

forest, Washington, USA. Forest Science. 56(1): 74–87.

Heyward, F. 1938. Soil temperatures during forest fi res in the longleaf pine region. 

Journal of Forestry. 36(5): 478–491.

Hille, M.; den Ouden, J. 2005. Charcoal and activated carbon as adsorbate of 

phytotoxic compounds—a comparative study. Oikos. 108(1): 202–207.

Hilt, D.E.; Rast, E.D.; Bailey, H.J. 1983. Predicting diameters inside bark for 10 

important hardwood species. Res. Pap. NE-531. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 7 p.

Hoff, J.A. 2002. Fungal diversity in woody roots of east-slope Cascade ponderosa 

pine (Pinus ponderosa) and Douglas-fi r (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Pullman, WA: 

Washington State University. 76 p. M.S. thesis.

Hoff, J.A.; Klopfenstein, N.B.; McDonald, G.I.; Tonn, J.R.; Kim, M.S.; 

Zambino, P.J.; Hessburg, P.F.; Rogers, J.D.; Peever, T.L.; Carris, L.M. 

2004a. Fungal endophytes in woody roots of Douglas-fi r (Pseudotsuga 

menziesii) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). Forest Pathology. 34(4): 

255–271.
168

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Hoff, J.A.; Klopfenstein, N.B.; Tonn, J.R.; McDonald, G.I.; Zambino, P.J.; 

Rogers, J.D.; Peever, T.L.; Carris, L.M. 2004b. Roles of woody rootassociated fungi in forest ecosystem processes: recent advances in fungal 

identifi cation. Res. Pap. RMRS-RP-47. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 6 p.

Holbrook, S.J. 1978. Habitat relationships and coexistence of four sympatric 

species of Peromyscus in northwestern New Mexico. Journal of Mammalogy. 

59(1): 18–26.

Hollenstein, K.; Graham, R.L.; Shepperd, W.D. 2001. Biomass fl ow in western 

forests: simulating the effects of fuel reduction and presettlement restoration 

treatments. Journal of Forestry. 99(10): 12–19.

Holliday, N.J. 1991. Species responses of carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) 

during post-fi re regeneration of boreal forest. The Canadian Entomologist. 

123(6): 1369–1389.

Holtzscher, M.A.; Landford, B.L. 1997. Tree diameter effects on cost and 

productivity of cut-to-length systems. Forest Products Journal. 47(3): 25–30.

Homyack, J.A.; Haas, C.A. 2009. Long-term effects of experimental forest 

harvesting on abundance and reproductive demography of terrestrial 

salamanders. Biological Conservation. 142(1): 110–121.

Hooper, M.C.; Arii, K.; Lechowicz, M.J. 2001. Impact of a major ice storm on an 

old-growth hardwood forest. Canadian Journal of Botany. 79(1): 70–75.

Horton, S.P.; Mannan, R.W. 1988. Effects of prescribed fi re on snags and cavitynesting birds in southeastern Arizona pine forests. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 

16(1): 37–44.

Huang, J. 2007. Ecological responses of two forest understory herbs to changes 

in resources caused by prescribed fi re alone or in combination with restoration 

thinning. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University. 191 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Huang, J.; Boerner, R.E.J. 2007. Effects of fi re alone or combined with thinning 

on tissue nutrient concentrations and nutrient resorption in Desmodium 

nudifl orum. Oecologia. 153(2): 233–243.

Huang, J.; Boerner, R.E.J. 2008. Shifts in morphological traits, seed production, 

and early establishment of Desmodium nudifl orum following prescribed fi re, 

alone or in combination with forest canopy thinning. Botany. 86(4): 376–384.
169

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Huang, J.; Boerner, R.E.J.; Rebbeck, J. 2007. Ecophysiological responses of two 

herbaceous species to prescribed burning, alone or in combination with overstory 

thinning. American Journal of Botany. 94(5): 755–763.

Huffman, E.L.; MacDonald, L.H.; Stednick, J.D. 2001. Strength and persistence 

of fi re-induced soil hydrophobicity under ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine, 

Colorado Front Range. Hydrological Processes. 15(15): 2877–2892.

Humes, M.L.; Hayes, J.P.; Collopy, M.W. 1999. Bat activity in thinned, 

unthinned, and old-growth forests in western Oregon. Journal of Wildlife 

Management. 63(2): 553–561.

Hurteau, M.; North, M. 2009. Fuel treatment effects on tree-based forest carbon 

storage and emissions under modeled wildfi re scenarios. Frontiers in Ecology 

and the Environment. 7(8): 409–414.

Hurteau, S.; Sisk, T.; Dickson, B.; Block, W. 2010. Variability in nest density, 

occupancy, and home range size of western bluebirds after forest treatments. 

Forest Science. 56(1): 131–138.

Hurtt, G.C.; Pacala, S.W.; Moorcroft, P.R.; Caspersen, J.; Shevliakova, E.; 

Houghton, R.A.; Moore, B., III. 2002. Projecting the future of the U.S. carbon 

sink. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of 

America. 99(3): 1389–1394.

Hutchinson, J.T.; Lacki, M.J. 2000. Selection of day roosts by red bats in mixed 

mesophytic forests. Journal of Wildlife Management. 64(1): 87–94.

Hutchinson, T.F.; Long, R.P.; Ford, R.D.; Sutherland, E.K. 2008. Fire history 

and the establishment of oaks and maples in second-growth forests. Canadian 

Journal of Forest Research. 38(5): 1184–1198. 

Hutchinson, T.F.; Sutherland, E.K.; Yaussy, D.A. 2005. Effects of repeated 

prescribed fi res on the structure, composition, and regeneration of mixed-oak 

forests in Ohio. Forest Ecology and Management. 218(1–3): 210–228.

Hutto, R.L. 1995. Composition of bird communities following stand-replacement 

fi res in Northern Rocky Mountain (U.S.A.) conifer forests. Conservation 

Biology. 9(5): 1041–1058.

Igboanugo, A.B.I. 1992. Characteristics of leaf structure and photosynthetic 

apparatus within the crown of systematically shaded Quercus petraea and 

Nothofagus procera seedlings. Biologia Plantarum. 34(5/6): 401–407.
170

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Ingold, J.L.; Galati, R. 1997. Golden-crowned kinglet (Regulus satrapa). In: 

Poole, A.; Gill, F., eds. The birds of North America. No. 301. Philadelphia, 

PA: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, DC: The American 

Ornithologists’ Union. 28 p.

Innes, J.C.; North, M.P.; Williamson, N. 2006. Effect of thinning and prescribed 

fi re restoration treatments on woody debris and snag dynamics in a Sierran 

old-growth, mixed conifer forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 36(12): 

3183–3193.

Inouye, R.S.; Tilman, D. 1995. Convergence and divergence of old-fi eld vegetation 

after 11 yr of nitrogen addition. Ecology. 76(6): 1872–1887.

Iverson, L.R.; Hutchinson, T.F.; Prasad, A.M.; Peters, M.P. 2008. Thinning, 

fi re, and oak regeneration across a heterogeneous landscape in the eastern U.S: 

7-year results. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(7): 3035–3050.

Iverson, L.R.; Prasad, A.M.; Hutchinson, T.F.; Rebbeck, J.; Yaussy, D.A. 

2004. Fire and thinning in an Ohio oak forest: grid-based analyses of fi re 

behavior, environmental conditions, and tree regeneration across a topographic 

moisture gradient. In: Spetich, M.A., ed. Proceedings, upland oak ecology 

symposium: history, current conditions, and sustainability. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS73. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Research Station: 190–197.

Iverson, L.R.; Yaussy, D.; Rebbeck, J.; Hutchinson, T.; Long, R.; McCarthy, 

B.; Riccardi, C.; Prasad, A. 2003. Spatial and temporal distribution of fi re 

temperatures from prescribed fi res in the mixed oak forests of southern Ohio. 

In: Van Sambeek, J.W.; Dawson, J.O.; Ponder, F., Jr.; Loewenstein, E.F.; Fralish, 

J.S., eds. Proceedings, 13th central hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

NC-234. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North 

Central Research Station: 293–294.

Iverson, L.R.; Yaussy, D.A.; Rebbeck, J.; Hutchinson, T.F.; Long, R.P.; 

Prasad, A.M. 2004. A comparison of thermocouples and temperature paints to 

monitor spatial and temporal characteristics of landscape-scale prescribed fi res. 

International Journal of Wildland Fire. 13(3): 311–322.

Jameson, E.W., Jr. 1951. Local distribution of white-footed mice, Peromyscus

maniculatus and P. boylei, in the northern Sierra Nevada, California. Journal of 

Mammalogy. 32(2): 197–203.
171

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Jenkins, M.A.; Parker, G.R. 1998. Composition and diversity of woody vegetation 

in silvicultural openings of southern Indiana forests. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 109(1–3): 57–74.

Joesting, H.M.; McCarthy, B.C.; Brown, K.J. 2007. The photosynthetic response 

of American chestnut seedlings to differing light conditions. Canadian Journal of 

Forest Research. 37(9): 1714–1722.

Johannesson, H.; Stenlid, J. 1999. Molecular identifi cation of wood-inhabiting 

fungi in an unmanaged Picea abies forest in Sweden. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 115(2/3): 203–211.

Johnson, A.S.; Hale, P.E. 2000. The historical foundations of prescribed burning 

for wildlife: a southeastern perspective. In: Ford, W.M.; Russell, K.R.; Moorman, 

C.E., eds. Proceedings, the role of fi re in nongame wildlife management and 

community restoration: traditional uses and new directions. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

NE-288. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Northeastern Research Station: 11–23.

Johnson, C.G. 1998. Vegetation response after wildfi res in national forests of 

northeastern Oregon. R6–NR-ECOL-TP-06–98. Portland, OR: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Northwest Region. 128 p. plus appendices.

Johnson, D.W.; Curtis, P.S. 2001. Effects of forest management on soil carbon and 

N storage: meta analysis. Forest Ecology and Management. 140(2/3): 227–238.

Johnson, D.W.; West, D.C.; Todd, D.E.; Mann, L.K. 1982. Effects of sawlog 

vs. whole-tree harvesting on the nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium 

budgets of an upland mixed oak forest. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 

46(6): 1304–1309.

Johnson, D.W.; Susfalk, R.B.; Dahlgren, R.A. 1997. Nutrient fl uxes in forests 

of the eastern Sierra Nevada mountains, United States of America. Global 

Biogeochemical Cycles. 11(4): 673–681.

Johnson, P.S. 1974. Survival and growth of northern red oak seedlings following 

a prescribed burn. Res. Note NC-177. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 3 p.

Jones, S.M. 1991. Landscape ecosystem classifi cation for South Carolina. In: 

Mengel, D.L.; Tew, D.T., eds. Proceedings, ecological land classifi cation: 

applications to identify the productive potential of southern forests. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. SE-68. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 59–68.
172

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Jones, C.A. 1992. Review of the effects of fi re on Peromyscus and Podomys. 

Florida Scientist. 55(2): 75–84.

Jones, J.L.; Webb, B.W.; Butler, B.W.; Dickinson, M.B.; Jimenez, D.; Reardon, 

J.; Bova, A.S. 2006. Prediction and measurement of thermally induced cambial 

tissue necrosis in tree stems. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 15(1): 3–17.

Jonsson, L.; Dahlberg, A.; Nilsson, M.-C.; Zackrisson, O.; Kårén, O. 1999. 

Ectomycorrhizal fungal communities in late-successional Swedish boreal forests, 

and their composition following wildfi re. Molecular Ecology. 8(2): 205–215.

Jurgensen, M.F.; Graham, R.T.; Larsen, M.J.; Harvey, A.E. 1992. Clearcutting, woody residue removal, and nonsymbiotic nitrogen fi xation in forest 

soils of the Inland Pacifi c Northwest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 22(8): 

1172–1178.

Kalabokidis, K.D.; Wakimoto, R.H. 1992. Prescribed burning in unevenaged stand management of ponderosa pine/Douglas-fi r forests. Journal of 

Environmental Management. 34(3): 221–235.

Kalcounis-Ruppell, M.C.; Millar, J.S. 2002. Partitioning of space, food, and time 

by syntopic Peromyscus boylii and P. californicus. Journal of Mammalogy. 83(2): 

614–625.

Kauffman, J.B.; Martin, R.E. 1989. Fire behavior, fuel consumption, and forestfl oor changes following prescribed understory fi res in Sierra Nevada mixed 

conifer forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 19(4): 455–462.

Kaufman, D.W.; Finck, E.J.; Kaufman, G.A. 1990. Small mammals and 

grassland fi res. In: Collins, S.L.; Wallace, L.L., eds. Fire in North American 

tallgrass prairies. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press: 46–80.

Kaye, J.P.; Hart, S.C. 1998. Ecological restoration alters nitrogen transformations 

in a ponderosa pine-bunchgrass ecosystem. Ecological Applications. 8(4): 

1052–1060.

Keeley, J.E.; McGinnis, T.W. 2007. Impact of prescribed fi re and other factors on 

cheatgrass persistence in a Sierra Nevada ponderosa pine forest. International 

Journal of Wildland Fire. 16(1): 96–106.
173

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Keeley, J.E.; Lubin, D.; Fotheringham, C.J. 2003. Fire and grazing impacts 

on plant diversity and alien plant invasions in the southern Sierra Nevada. 

Ecological Applications. 13(5): 1355–1374.

Kennard, D.K.; Outcalt, K.W.; Jones, D.; O’Brien, J.J. 2005. Comparing 

techniques for estimating fl ame temperature of prescribed fi res. Fire Ecology. 

1(1): 75–84.

Kennedy, P.L.; Fontaine, J.B. 2009. Synthesis of knowledge on the effects of 

fi re and fi re surrogates on wildlife in U.S. dry forests. Special Report 1096. 

Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 132 p.

Kerns, B.K.; Thies, W.G.; Niwa, C.G. 2006. Season and severity of prescribed 

burn in ponderosa pine forests: implications for understory native and exotic 

plants. Ecoscience. 13(1): 44–55

Keyser, P.D.; Sausville, D.J.; Ford, W.M.; Mengak, M.T.; Brose, P.; Van Lear, 

D.H. 2001. Fire impacts to small mammals in Piedmont oak-shelterwoods. In: 

Eversole, A.G.; Wong, K.C.; Chamberlain, M.; Galvez, J.I., eds. Proceedings, 

55th annual conference of Southeast Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 

Tallahassee, FL: Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies: 

375–381. Vol. 55.

Keyser, P.D.; Sausville, D.J.; Ford, W.M.; Schwab, D.J.; Brose, P.H. 2004. 

Prescribed fi re impacts to amphibians and reptiles in shelterwood-harvested oakdominated forests. Virginia Journal of Science. 55(4): 159–168.

Kilgo, J.C.; Moorman, C.E. 2003. Patterns of cowbird parasitism in the southern 

Atlantic Coastal Plain and Piedmont. Wilson Bulletin. 115(3): 277–284.

Kilgore, B.M. 1973. Impact of prescribed burning on a sequoia-mixed conifer 

forest. In: Proceedings of the 12th annual Tall Timbers fi re ecology conference. 

Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timber Research Station: 345–375.

Kilpatrick, E.S. 2002. The effects of prescribed burning and thinning as fuel 

reduction treatments on herpetofauna in the upper Piedmont of South Carolina. 

Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 66 p. M.S. thesis.

Kilpatrick, E.S. 2006. Responses of vertebrate fauna to prescribed fi re and 

fuel reduction treatments in the southern Piedmont. Clemson, SC: Clemson 

University. 198 p. Ph.D. dissertation.
174

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Kilpatrick, E.S.; Kubacz, D.B.; Guynn, D.C., Jr.; Lanham, J.D.; Waldrop, 

T.A. 2004. The effects of prescribed burning and thinning on herpetofauna and 

small mammals in the upper Piedmont of South Carolina: preliminary results 

of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate study. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 

12th biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–

71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Research Station: 18–22.

Kilpatrick, E.S.; Lanham, J.D.; Waldrop, T.A. 2010. Effects of fuel reduction 

treatments on avian nest density in the upper Piedmont of South Carolina. Open 

Environmental Sciences. 4: 70–75.

Kilpatrick, E.S.; Waldrop, T.A.; Lanham, J.D.; Greenberg, C.H.; Contreras, 

T.H. 2010. Short-term effects of fuel reduction treatments on herpetofauna from 

the southeastern United States. Forest Science. 56(1): 122–130.

Kingery, H.E.; Ghalambor, C.K. 2001. Pygmy nuthatch (Sitta pygmaea). In: 

Poole, A.; Gill, F., eds. The birds of North America. No. 567. Philadelphia, 

PA: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, DC: The American 

Ornithologists’ Union. 32 p.

Kirkland, G.L., Jr. 1990. Patterns of initial small mammal community change 

after clearcutting of temperate North American forests. Oikos. 59(3): 313–320.

Kirkland, G.L., Jr.; Snoddy, H.W.; Amsler, T.L. 1996. Impact of fi re on small 

mammals and amphibians in a central Appalachian deciduous forest. American 

Midland Naturalist. 135(2): 253–260.

Klemmedson, J.O. 1992. Decomposition and nutrient release from mixtures of 

Gambel oak and ponderosa pine leaf litter. Forest Ecology and Management. 

47(1–4): 349–361.

Klemola, T.; Koivula, M.; Korpimäki, E.; Norrdahl, K. 2000. Experimental 

tests of predation and food hypotheses for population cycles of voles. 

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Biological Sciences. 267: 351–356.

Klenner, W.; Sullivan, T.P. 2003. Partial and clear-cut harvesting of high-elevation 

spruce-fi r forests: implications for small mammal communities. Canadian 

Journal of Forest Research. 33(12): 2283–2296.

Klepac, J.; Reutebuch, S.E.; Rummer, R. B. 1999. An assessment of soil 

disturbance from fi ve harvesting intensities. Presentation Paper 99–5052. St. 

Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 17 p.
175

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Klironomos, J.N. 1995. Arbuscular mychorrhizae of Acer saccharum in different 

soil types. Canadian Journal of Botany. 73(11): 1824–1830.

Klug, P.E.; Jackrel, S.L.; With, K.A. 2010. Linking snake habitat use to nest 

predation risk in grassland birds: the dangers of shrub cover. Oecologia. 162(3): 

803–813.

Knapp, E.E.; Estes, B.L.; Skinner, C.N. 2009. Ecological effects of prescribed 

fi re season: a literature review and synthesis for managers. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

PSW-GTR-224. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c 

Southwest Research Station. 80 p.

Knapp, E.E.; Keeley, J.E. 2006. Heterogeneity in fi re severity within early season 

and late season prescribed burns in a mixed-conifer forest. International Journal 

of Wildland Fire. 15(1): 37–45.

Knapp, E.E.; Keeley, J.E.; Ballenger, E.A.; Brennan, T.J. 2005. Fuel reduction 

and coarse woody debris dynamics with early season and late season prescribed 

fi re in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 

208(1–3): 383–397.

Knapp, E.E.; Schwilk, D.W.; Kane, J.M.; Keeley, J.E. 2007. Role of burning 

season on initial understory vegetation response to prescribed fi re in a mixed 

conifer forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 37(1): 11–22.

Knapp, E.E.; Stephens, S.L.; McIver, J.D.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Keeley, J.E. 

2004. Fire and fi re surrogate study in the Sierra Nevada: evaluating restoration 

treatments at Blodgett Forest and Sequoia National Park. In: Murphy, D.D.; 

Stine, P.A., eds. Proceedings, Sierra Nevada science symposium 2002: science 

for management and conservation. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-193. Albany, CA: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Southwest Research 

Station: 79–85.

Knapp, S.M.; Hass, C.A.; Harpole, D.N.; Kirkpatrick, R.L. 2003. Initial effects 

of clearcutting and alternative silvicultural practices on terrestrial salamander 

abundance. Conservation Biology. 17(3): 752–762.

Knoepp, J.D.; Swank, W.T. 1993. Site preparation burning to improve southern 

Appalachian pine-hardwood stands: nitrogen responses in soil, soil water, and 

streams. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 23(10): 2263–2270.

Knoepp, J.D.; Vose, J.M.; Swank, W.T. 2004. Long-term soil responses to site 

preparation burning in the southern Appalachians. Forest Science. 50(4): 

540–550.
176

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Kobziar, L.; Moghaddas, J.; Stephens, S.L. 2006. Tree mortality patterns 

following prescribed fi res in a mixed conifer forest. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Research. 36(12): 3222–3238.

Kolaks, J.E.; Cutter, B.E.; Loewenstine, E.F.; Grabner, K.W.; Hartman, G.; 

Kabrick, J.M. 2003. Fuel loading in the central hardwoods. In: Proceedings, 2nd

international wildland fi re ecology and fi re management congress. Boston, MA: 

American Meteorology Society. 6 p.

Kolb, T.E.; Holmberg, K.M.; Wagner, M.R.; Stone, J.E. 1998. Regulation of 

ponderosa pine foliar physiology and insect resistance mechanisms by basal area 

treatments. Tree Physiology. 18(6): 375–381.

Kolb, T.E.; Agee, J.K.; Fulé, P.Z.; McDowell, N.G.; Pearson, K.; Sala, A.; 

Waring, R.H. 2007. Perpetuating old growth ponderosa pine. Forest Ecology 

and Management. 249(3): 141–157.

Komarek, E.V., Sr. 1977. A quest for ecological understanding; the Secretary’s 

review. Misc. Publ. 5. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station. 140 p.

Kopper, K.E. 2002. Meta-analysis design and interpretation: a case study of 

prescribed fi re effects on fuel loadings in ponderosa pine ecosystems. Seattle, 

WA: University of Washington. 36 p. M.S. thesis.

Korb, J.E.; Johnson, N.C.; Covington, W.W. 2003. Arbuscular mycorrhizal 

propagule densities respond rapidly to ponderosa pine restoration treatments. 

Journal of Applied Ecology. 40(1): 101–110.

Kotliar, N.B.; Hejl, S.J.; Hutto, R.L.; Saab, V.A.; Melcher, C.P.; McFadzen, 

M.E. 2002. Effects of fi re and post-fi re salvage logging on avian communities in 

conifer-dominated forests of the western United States. Studies in Avian Biology. 

25: 49–64.

Kovacic, D.A.; Swift, D.M.; Ellis, J.E.; Hakonson, T.E. 1986. Immediate effects 

of prescribed burning on mineral soil nitrogen in ponderosa pine of New Mexico. 

Soil Science. 141(1): 71–76.

Kraemer, J.F.; Hermann, R.K. 1979. Broadcast burning: 25-year effects on forest 

soils in the western fl anks of the Cascade Mountains. Forest Science. 25(3): 

427–439. 

Krefting, L.W.; Ahlgren, C.E. 1974. Small mammals and vegetation changes after 

fi re in a mixed conifer-hardwood forest. Ecology. 55(6): 1391–1398.
177

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Kruger, E.L.; Reich, P.B. 1997. Responses of hardwood regeneration to fi re in 

mesic forest openings. Part I: Post-fi re community dynamics. Canadian Journal 

of Forest Research. 27(12): 1822–1831.

Kubacz, D.B. 2003. Effects of fi re and fi re surrogate treatments on small mammals 

in the South Carolina Piedmont. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 73 p. M.S. 

thesis.

Kubiske, M.E.; Pregitzer, K.S. 1996. Effects of elevated CO2 and light availability 

on the photosynthetic light response of trees of contrasting shade tolerance. Tree 

Physiology. 16(3): 351–358.

Kuddes-Fischer, L.M.; Arthur, M.A. 2002. Response of understory vegetation 

and tree regeneration to a single prescribed fi re in oak-pine forests. Natural 

Areas Journal. 22(1): 43–52.

Kyle, S.C.; Block, W.M. 2000. Effects of wildfi re severity on small mammals 

in northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests. In: Moser, W.K.; Moser, C.F., eds. 

Proceedings, fi res and forest ecology: innovative silviculture and vegetation 

management. Tall Timbers fi re ecology conference proceedings No. 21. 

Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 163–168.

Lambers, H.; Chapin, F.S., III; Pons, T.L. 1998. Plant physiological ecology. 2nd

ed: NY: Springer Science+Business Media. 604 p.

Landers, J.L.; Byrd, N.A.; Komarek, R. 1989. A holistic approach to managing 

longleaf pine communities. In: Farrar, R.S, Jr., ed. Proceedings, mangement of 

longleaf pine. Gen. Tech. Rep. SO-75. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station: 135–167.

Landsberg, J.D.; Cochran, P.H.; Finck, M.M.; Martin, R.E. 1984. Foliar 

nitrogen content and tree growth after prescribed fi re in ponderosa pine. Res. 

Note PNW-412. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Pacifi c Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 16 p.

Latty, E.F.; Canham, C.D.; Marks, P.L. 2004. The effects of land-use history 

on soil properties and nutrient dynamics in northern hardwood forests of the 

Adirondack Mountains. Ecosystem. 7(2): 193–207.

Laughlin, D.C.; Bakker, J.D.; Stoddard, M.T.; Daniels, M.L.; Springer, 

J.D.; Gildar, C.N.; Green, A.M.; Covington, W.W. 2004. Toward reference 

conditions: wildfi re effects on fl ora in an old-growth ponderosa pine forest. 

Forest Ecology and Management. 199(1): 137–152.
178

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Laughlin, D.C.; Bakker, J.D.; Daniels, M.L.; Moore, M.M.; Casey, C.A.; 

Springer, J.D. 2008. Restoring plant species diversity and community 

composition in a ponderosa pine-bunchgrass ecosystem. Plant Ecology. 

197(1): 139–151.

Legendre, P.; Legendre, L. 1998. Numerical ecology. Amsterdam, The 

Netherlands: Elsevier Science B.V. 853 p.

Lehmkuhl, J.F. 2002. The effects of spring burning and grass seedling in 

forest clearcuts on native plants and conifer seedlings in coastal Washington. 

Northwest Science. 76(1): 46–60.

Leput, D.W. 2004. Eastern red bat (Lasiurus borealis) and eastern pipistrelle 

(Pipistrellus subfl avus) maternal roost selection: implications for forest 

management. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 86 p. M.S. thesis.

Lione, D. 2002. Effects of prescribed burning and thinning as fuel reduction 

treatments on the soils of the Clemson Experimental Forest. Clemson, SC: 

Clemson University. 87 p. M.S. thesis.

Loeb, S.C.; Waldrop, T.A. 2008. Bat activity in relation to fi re and fi re surrogate 

treatments in southern pine stands. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 

3185–3192.

Loehle, C. 2004. Applying landscape principles to fi re hazard reduction. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 198(1–3): 261–267.

Lolley, M.R. 2005. Wildland fuel conditions and effects of modeled fuel 

treatments on wildland fi re behavior and severity in dry forests of the Wenatchee 

Mountains. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. 145 p. M.S. thesis.

Lombardo, J.A.; McCarthy, B.C. 2008. Forest management and curculionid 

weevil diversity in mixed oak forests of southeastern Ohio. Natural Areas 

Journal. 28(4): 363–369.

Loomis, R.M. 1973. Estimating fi re-caused mortality and injury in oak-hickory 

forests. Res. Pap. NC-94. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 6 p.

Lundquist, J.E. 2007. The relative infl uence of diseases and other small-scale 

disturbances on fuel loading in the Black Hills. Plant Disease. 91(2): 147–152.
179

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Lundquist, R.W.; Manuwal, D.A. 1990. Seasonal differences in foraging habitat 

of cavity-nesting birds in the southern Washington Cascades. In: Morrison, M.L.; 

Ralph, C.J.; Verner, J.; Jehl, J.R., Jr., eds. Avian foraging: theory, methodology, 

and applications. Studies in Avian Biology. 13: 218–225.

Lyons, A.L.; Gaines, W.L.; Lehmkuhl, J.F.; Harrod, R.J. 2008. Short-term 

effects of fi re and fi re surrogate treatments on foraging tree selection by 

cavity-nesting birds in dry forests of central Washington. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 255(8/9): 3203–3211.

Machmer, M. 2002. Effects of ecosystem restoration treatments on cavity-nesting 

birds, their habitat, and their insectivorous prey in fi re-maintained forests of 

southeastern British Columbia. In: Laudenslayer, W.F.; Shea, P.J.; Valentine, 

B.E.; Weatherspoon, C.P.; Lisle, T.E., tech. cords. Proceedings, ecology and 

management of dead wood in western forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-181. Albany, 

CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Southwest Research 

Station: 121–133.

MacKenzie, M.D.; DeLuca, T.H.; Sala, A. 2004. Forest structure and organic 

horizon analysis along a fi re chronosequence in the low elevation forests of 

western Montana. Forest Ecology and Management. 203(1–3): 331–343.

Mager, K.J.; Nelson, T.A. 2001. Roost site selection by eastern red bats (Lasiurus 

borealis). American Midland Naturalist. 145(1): 120–126.

Mann, L.K.; Johnson, D.W.; West, D.C.; Cole, D.W.; Hornbeck, J.W.; Martin, 

C.W.; Riekerk, H.; Smith, C.T.; Swank, W.T.; Tritton, L.M.; Van Lear, D.H. 

1988. Effects of whole-tree and stem-only clearcutting on postharvest hydrologic 

losses, nutrient capital, and regrowth. Forest Science. 34(2): 412–428.

Mantgem, P.J. van; Schwilk, D.W. 2009. Negligible infl uence of spatial 

autocorrelation in the assessment of fi re effects in a mixed conifer forest. Fire 

Ecology. 5(2): 116–125.

Marino, P.C.; Eisenberg, R.M.; Cornell, H.V. 1997. Infl uence of sunlight and soil 

nutrients on clonal growth and sexual reproduction of the understory perennial 

herb Sanguinaria canadensis L. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 124(3): 

219–227.

Marks, G.C.; Kassaby, F.Y.; Fagg, P.C. 1975. Variation in population levels 

of Phytophthora cinnamomi in Eucalyptus forest soils of eastern Victoria. 

Australian Journal of Botany. 23(3): 435–449.
180

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Martell, A.M. 1984. Changes in small mammal communities after fi re in 

northcentral Ontario. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 98(2): 223–226.

Matson, P.A.; Vitousek, P.M. 1981. Nitrogen mineralization and nitrifi cation 

potentials following clearcutting in the Hoosier National Forest, Indiana. Forest 

Science. 27(4): 781–791.

Matthews, C.E. 2008. Long-term response of herpetofauna and soricid populations 

to fi re and fuel reduction treatments in the southern Appalachian Mountains. 

Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University. 57 p. M.S. thesis.

Matthews, C.E.; Moorman, C.E.; Greenberg, C.H.; Waldrop, T.A. 2009.

Response of soricid populations to repeated fi re and fuel reduction treatments in 

the southern Appalachian Mountains. Forest Ecology and Management. 257(9): 

1939–1944.

Matthews, C.E.; Moorman, C.E.; Greenberg, C.H.; Waldrop, T.A. 2010. 

Response of reptiles and amphibians to repeated fuel reduction treatments. 

Journal of Wildlife Management. 74(6): 1301–1310.

Matzka, P.J. 2003. Thinning with prescribed fi re and timber harvesting 

mechanization for fuels reduction and forest restoration. Corvallis, OR: Oregon 

State University. 228 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Matzka, P.; Kellogg, L. 1999. Thinning with prescribed fi re and timber harvesting 

mechanization for forest restoration: a review of past and present research. In: 

Proceedings, 1999 international mountain logging and 10th Pacifi c Northwest 

skyline symposium. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University: 293–302.

Matzka, P.J.; Kellogg, L.D. 2000. An economic model for evaluating factors 

affecting biomass reduction and forest restoration. In: Proceedings, technologies 

for new millennium forestry, joint meeting of Council of Forest Engineering and 

Canadian Woodlands Forum. Corvallis, OR: Council of Forest Engineering. 5 p.

McCaffrey, S.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Stephens, S.L. 2008. Different interest group 

views of fuels treatments: survey results from fi re and fi re surrogate treatments 

in a Sierran mixed conifer forest, California, USA. International Journal of 

Wildland Fire. 17(2): 224–233.

McCarthy, B. 1995. Eastern old-growth forests. Ohio Woodland Journal. 1: 8–10.

McCarthy, B.C.; Bailey, R.R. 1994. Distribution and abundance of coarse woody 

debris in a managed forest landscape of the central Appalachians. Canadian 

Journal of Forest Research. 24(7): 1317–1329.
181

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

McCarthy, B.C.; Quinn, J.A. 1989. Within- and among-tree variation in fl ower 

and fruit production in two species of Carya (Junglandaceae). American Journal 

of Botany. 76(7): 1015–1023.

McCay, T.S. 2000. Use of woody debris by cotton mice (Peromyscus gossypinus) 

in a southeastern pine forest. Journal of Mammalology. 81(2): 527–535.

McConnell, B.R.; Smith, J.R. 1965. Understory response three years after 

thinning pine. Journal of Range Management. 18(3): 129–132.

McConnell, B.R.; Smith, J.R. 1970. Response of understory vegetation to 

ponderosa pine thinning in eastern Washington. Journal of Range Management. 

23(3): 208–212.

McEwan, R.W.; Muller, R.N.; McCarthy, B.C. 2005. Vegetation-environment 

relationships among woody species in four canopy-layers in an old-growth mixed 

mesophytic forest. Castanea. 70(1): 32–46.

McEwan, R.W.; Hutchinson, T.F.; Long, R.P.; Ford, R.D.; McCarthy, B.C. 

2007. Temporal and spatial patterns in fi re occurrence during the establishment 

of mixed-oak forests in eastern North America. Journal of Vegetation Science. 

18(5): 655–664.

McGee, G.G.; Leopold, D.J.; Nyland, R.D. 1995. Understory response to 

springtime prescribed fi re in two New York transition oak forests. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 76(1–3): 149–168.

McHugh, C.W.; Kolb, T.E. 2003. Ponderosa pine mortality following fi re in 

northern Arizona International Journal of Wildland Fire. 12(1): 7–22.

McHugh, C.W.; Kolb, T.E.; Wilson, J.L. 2003. Bark beetle attacks on ponderosa 

pine following fi re in northern Arizona. Environmental Entomology. 32(3): 

510–522.

McIver, J.; Weatherspoon, P.; Edminster, C. 2001. Alternative ponderosa pine 

restoration treatments in the western United States. In: Vance, R.K.; Edminster, 

C.B.; Covington, W.W.; Blake, J.A., comps. Proceedings, ponderosa pine 

ecosystems restoration and conservation: steps toward stewardship. RMRS-P-22. 

Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain 

Research Station: 104–109.

McIver, J.; Youngblood, A.; Stephens, S.L. 2009. The national fi re and fi re 

surrogate study: ecological consequences of fuel reduction methods in seasonally 

dry forests. Ecological Applications. 19(2): 283–284.
182

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

McIver, J.D.; Adams, P.W.; Doyal, J.A.; Drews, E.S.; Hartsough, B.R.; 

Kellogg, L.D.; Niwa, C.G.; Ottmar, R.; Peck, R.; Taratoot, M.; Torgersen, 

T.; Youngblood, A. 2003. Environmental effects and economics of mechanized 

logging for fuel reduction in northeastern Oregon mixed-conifer stands. Western 

Journal of Applied Forestry. 18(4): 238–249.

McIver, J.D.; Boerner, R.E.J.; Hart, S.C. 2008. The national fi re and fi re 

surrogate study: ecological consequences of alternative fuel reduction methods in 

seasonally dry forests. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3075–3080.

McIver, J.D.; Fettig, C.J. 2010. Ecological consequences of alternative fuel 

reduction treatments in seasonally dry forests: the national fi re and fi re surrogate 

study. Forest Science. 56(1): 2–3.

McIver, J.D.; Weatherspoon, C.P. 2010. On conducting a multisite, 

multidisciplinary forestry research project: lessons from the national fi re and fi re 

surrogate study. Forest Science. 56(1): 4–17.

McIver, J.D.; Youngblood, A.; Niwa, C.; Ottmar, R.; Smith, J. 2000a. 

Hypotheses on the ecological effects of alternative fuel reduction methods. In: 

Proceedings, Society of American Foresters 1999 national convention. Methesda, 

MD: Society of American Foresters: 552–555.

McIver, J.D.; Youngblood, A.; Niwa, C.; Smith, J.; Ottmar, R.; Matzka, P. 

2000b. Alternative fuel reduction methods in Blue Mountain dry forests: an 

introduction to the Hungry Bob project. In: Neuenschwander, L.F.; Ryan, K.C.; 

Goldberg, G.E., eds. Proceedings, crossing the millennium: integrating spatial 

technologies and ecological principles for a new age in fi re management, 1999 

Joint Fire Science conference. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho Press, online 

version: 282–286.

McKee, W.H., Jr. 1982. Changes in soil fertility following prescribed burning on 

Coastal Plain pine sites. Res. Pap. SE-234. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 23 p.

McLaughlin, I.M. 2008. Effects of fuel reduction treatments on species of 

Phytophthora and Leptographium in forest ecosystems. Clemson, SC: Clemson 

University. 162 p. M.S. thesis.
183

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

McQuattie, C.J.; Rebbeck, J.; Yaussy, D.A. 2004. Effects of fi re and thinning 

on growth, mycorrhizal colonization, and leaf anatomy of black oak and red 

maple seedlings. In: Yaussy, D.A.; Hix, D.M.; Long, R.P.; Goebel, P.C., eds. 

Proceedings, 14th central hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTRNE-316. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Northeastern Research Station: 200–208.

McRae, D.J.; Duchesne, L.C.; Freedman, B.; Lynham, T.J.; Woodley, S. 2001.

Comparisons between wildfi re and forest harvesting and their implications in 

forest management. Environmental Reviews. 9(4): 223–260.

Means, D.B.; Dodd, C.K., Jr.; Johnson, S.A.; Palis, J.G. 2004. Amphibians and 

fi re in longleaf pine ecosystems: response to Schurbon and Fauth. Conservation 

Biology. 18(4): 1149–1153.

Medin, D.E.; Booth, G.D. 1989. Responses of birds and small mammals to singletree selection logging in Idaho. Res. Pap. INT-408. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 11 p.

Menges, E.S.; Quintana Ascencio, P.F.; Weekley, C.W.; Gaoue, O.G. 2006. 

Population viability analysis and fi re return intervals for an endemic Florida 

scrub mint. Biological Conservation. 127(1): 115–127.

Menzel, M.A.; Krishon, D.M.; Carter, T.C.; Laerm J. 1999. Notes on tree roost 

characteristics of the northern yellow bat (Lasiurus intermedius), the Seminole 

bat (L. seminolus) the evening bat (Nycticeius humeralis) and the eastern 

pipistrelle (Pipistrellus subfl avus). Florida Scientist. 62(Part 3/4): 185–193. 

Merrill, E.H.; Mayland, H.F.; Peek, J.M. 1980. Effects of a fall wildfi re on 

herbaceous vegetation on xeric sites in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness, Idaho. 

Journal of Range Management. 33(5): 363–367.

Merrett, P. 1976. Changes in the ground-living spider fauna after heathland fi res in 

Dorset. Bulletin of the British Arachnological Society. 3(8): 214–221.

Metlen, K.L. 2002. Undergrowth vegetation response to fuel reduction treatments 

in the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 

74 p. M.S. thesis.

Metlen, K.L.; Dodson, E.K.; Fiedler, C.E. 2006. Vegetation response to 

restoration treatments in ponderosa pine-Douglas-fi r forests. In: Fire Effects 

Information System. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

research_project_summaries/Metlen06/all.html. (January 23, 2012).
184

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Metlen, K.L.; Fiedler, C.E. 2006. Restoration treatment effects on the understory 

of ponderosa pine/Douglas-fi r forests in western Montana, USA. Forest Ecology 

and Management. 222(1–3): 355–369.

Metlen, K.L.; Fiedler, C.E.; Youngblood, A. 2004. Understory response to fuel 

reduction treatments in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon. Northwest 

Science. 78(3): 175–185.

Miesel, J.R. 2009. Restoring mixed-conifer forests with fi re and mechanical 

thinning: effects on soil properties and mature conifer foliage. Columbus, OH: 

Ohio State University. 209 p. Ph.D. dissertation.

Miesel, J.R.; Boerner, R.E.J.; Skinner, C.N. 2008. Mechanical restoration of 

California mixed-conifer forests: Does it matter which trees are cut? Restoration 

Ecology. 17(6): 784–795.

Miesel, J.; Skinner, C.; Boerner, R. 2006. Impact of fi re on soil resource patterns 

in mixed-conifer forests in the southern Cascade Range of northern California. 

In: Dickinson, M.B., ed. Proceedings, fi re in eastern oak forests: delivering 

science to land managers. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-1. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 290.

Miller, C.; Urban, D.L. 2000. Modeling the effects of fi re management 

alternatives on Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forests. Ecological Applications. 

10(1): 85–94.

Miller, R.B.; Stout, J.D.; Lee, K.E, 1955. Biological and chemical changes 

following scrub burning on a New Zealand hill soil. New Zealand Journal of 

Science and Technology. 37: 390–313.

Miller, D.A.; Leopold, B.D.; Conner, L.M.; Shelton; M.G. 1999. Effects of pine 

and hardwood basal areas after uneven-aged silviculture treatments on wildlife 

habitat. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 23(3): 151–157.

Moehring, D.M.; Grano, C.X.; Bassett J.R. 1966. Properties of forested loess 

soils after repeated prescribed burns. Res. Note SO-40. New Orleans, LA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 

4 p.

Moghaddas, E.E.Y.; Stephens, S.L. 2007a. Thinning, burning, and thin-burn 

fuel treatment effects on soil properties in a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest. 

Forest Ecology and Management. 250(3): 156–166.
185

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Moghaddas, E.E.Y.; Stephens, S.L. 2008. Mechanized fuel treatment effects on 

soil compaction in Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer stands. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 255(8/9): 3098–3106.

Moghaddas, J.J.; Stephens, S.L. 2007b. Fire performance in traditional 

silvicultural and fi re surrogate treatments in Sierran mixed conifer forests: a brief 

summary. In: Powers, R.F., ed. Proceedings, 2005 national silviculture workshop, 

restoring fi re-adapted ecosystems. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-203. Albany, CA: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Southwest Research 

Station: 251–260.

Moghaddas, J.J.; Stephens, S.L.; York, R.A. 2008. Initial response of conifer 

and California black oak seedlings following fuel reduction activities in a Sierra 

Nevada mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3141–

3150

Mohr, H.H.; Waldrop, T.A. 2006. A simulation of wildfi re behavior in Piedmont 

forests. In: Conner, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 13th biennial southern silvicultural 

research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-92. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 507–509.

Mohr, H.H.; Waldrop, T.A.; Rideout, S.; Phillips, R.J.; Flint, C.T. 2004.

Effectiveness of fi re and fi re surrogate treatments for controlling wildfi re 

behavior in Piedmont forests: a simulation study. In: Connor, K.F., ed. 

Proceedings, 12th biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. SRS-71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Southern Research Station: 71–73.

Mohr, H.H.; Waldrop, T.A.; Simon, D.M. 2010. Using BEHAVEPlus for 

predicting fi re behavior in southern Appalachian hardwood stands subjected 

to fuel reduction treatments. In: Stanturf, J.A., ed. Proceedings, 14th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-121. Asheville, 

NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 

565–567.

Monleon, V.J.; Cromack, K., Jr.; Landsberg, J.D. 1997. Short and long-term 

effects of prescribed underburning on nitrogen availability in ponderosa pine 

stands in central Oregon. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 27(3): 369–378.
186

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Monroe, M.C.; Pennisi, L.; McCraffrey, S.; Mileti, D. 2006. Social science to 

improve fuels management: a synthesis of research related to communicating 

with homeowners about fuels management efforts. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-267. 

St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central 

Research Station. 42 p.

Monroe, M.E.; Converse, S.J. 2006. The effects of early season and late season 

prescribed fi res on small mammals in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. 

Forest Ecology and Management. 236(2/3): 229–240.

Moody, J.M. 2002. Fire and alternative fuel treatments on soil nitrogen: a case 

study of Myakka River State Park. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Agriculture and 

Mechanical University. 52 p. M.S. thesis.

Moore, M.M.; Casey, C.A.; Bakker, J.D.; Springer, J.D.; Fulé, P.Z.; Covington, 

W.W.; Laughlin, D.C. 2006. Herbaceous vegetation responses (1992–2004) 

to restoration treatments in a ponderosa pine forest. Rangeland Ecology and 

Management. 59(2): 135–144.

Moretti, M.; Obrist, M.K.; Duelli, P. 2004. Arthropod biodiversity after 

forest fi res: winners and losers in the winter fi re regime of the southern Alps. 

Ecography. 27(2): 173–186.

Moretti, M.; Duelli, P.; Obrist, M.K. 2006. Biodiversity and resilience of 

arthropod communities after fi re disturbance in temperate forests. Oecologia. 

149(2): 312–327.

Morrison, M.L.; Raphael, M.G. 1993. Modeling the dynamics of snags. 

Ecological Applications. 3(2): 322–330.

Morrison, M.L.; Dahlsten, D.L.; Tait, S.M.; Heald, R.C.; Milne, K.A.; Rowney, 

D.L. 1989. Bird foraging on incense-cedar and incense-cedar scale during 

winter in California. Res. Pap. PSW-RP-195. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Southwest Forest and Range Experiment 

Station. 10 p.

Moseley, K.R.; Castleberry, S.B.; Schweitzer, S.H. 2003. Effects of prescribed 

fi re on herpetofauna in bottomland hardwood forests. Southeastern Naturalist. 

2(4): 475–486.

Moses, R.A.; Boutin, S. 2001. The infl uence of clear-cut logging and residual leave 

material on small mammal populations in aspen-dominated boreal mixedwoods. 

Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 31(3): 483–495.
187

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Muona, J.; Rutanen, I. 1994. The short-term impact of fi re on the beetle fauna in 

boreal coniferous forest. Annales Zoologici Fennici. 31(1): 109–121.

Murphy, E.C.; Lehnhausen, W.A. 1998. Density and foraging ecology 

of woodpeckers following a stand-replacement fi re. Journal of Wildlife 

Management. 62(4): 1359–1372.

Murphy, J.D.; Johnson, D.W.; Miller, W.W.; Walker, R.F.; Blank, R.R. 2006. 

Prescribed fi re effects on forest fl oor and soil nutrients in a Sierra Nevada forest. 

Soil Science. 171(3): 181–199.

Mushinsky, H.R. 1985. Fire and the Florida sandhill herpetofaunal community: 

with special attention to responses of Cnemidophorus sexlineatus. Herpetologica. 

41(3): 333–342.

Mushinsky, H.R. 1992. Natural history and abundance of southeastern fi ve-lined 

skinks, Eumeces inexpectatus, on a periodically burned sandhill in Florida. 

Herpetologica. 48(3): 307–312.

Mutch, L.S.; Parsons, D.J. 1998. Mixed conifer mortality and establishment 

before and after prescribed fi re in Sequoia National Park, California. Forest 

Science. 44(3): 341–355.

Muzika, R.M.; Grushecky, S.T.; Liebhold, A.M.; Smith, R.L. 2004. Using 

thinning as a management tool for gypsy moth: the infl uence on small mammal 

abundance. Forest Ecology and Management. 92(2/3): 349–359.

Naidu, S.L.; DeLucia, E.H. 1998. Physiological and morphological acclimation of 

shade-grown tree seedlings to late-season canopy gap formation. Plant Ecology. 

138(1): 27–40.

Nelson, C.R.; Halpern, C.B.; Agee, J.K. 2008. Thinning and burning result in 

low-level invasion by nonnative plants but neutral effects on natives. Ecological 

Applications. 18(3): 762–770.

New, K.C.; Hanula, J.L. 1998. Effect of time elapsed after prescribed burning in 

longleaf pine stands on potential prey of the red-cockaded woodpecker. Southern 

Journal of Applied Forestry. 22(3): 175–183.

Nichols, W.F.; Killingbeck, K.T.; August, P.V. 1998. The infl uence of 

geomorphological heterogeneity on biodiversity. II: A landscape perspective. 

Conservation Biology. 12(2): 371–379.
188

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Niemelä, J.; Haila, Y.; Punttila, P. 1996. The importance of small-scale 

heterogeneity in boreal forests: variation in diversity in forest-fl oor invertebrates 

across the succession gradient. Ecography. 19(3): 352–368.

Nieppola, J. 1992. Long-term changes in stands of Pinus sylvestris in southern 

Finland. Journal of Vegetation Science. 3(4): 475–484.

Nissley, S.D.; Zasoski, R.J.; Martin, R.E. 1980. Nutrient changes after prescribed 

surface burning of Oregon ponderosa pine stands. In: Martin, R.E.; Edmonds, 

R.L.; Faulkner, D.A.; Harrington, J.B.; Fuquay, D.M.; Stocks, B.J.; Barr, S., 

eds. Proceedings, 6th conference on fi re and forest meteorology. Bethesda, MD: 

Society of American Foresters: 214–219.

Norden, A.H.; Kirkman, L.K. 2004. Persistence and prolonged winter dormancy 

of the federally endangered Schwalbea americana L. (Scrophulariaceae) 

following experimental management techniques. Natural Areas Journal. 24(2): 

129–134.

Norrdahl, K.; Klemola, T.; Korpimäki, E.; Koivula, M. 2002. Strong seasonality 

may attenuate trophic cascades: vertebrate predator exclusion in boreal 

grassland. Oikos. 99(3): 419–430.

North, M.; Oakley, B.; Chen, J.; Erickson, H.; Gray, A.; Izzo, A.; Johnson, D.; 

Ma, S.; Marra, J.; Meyer, M.; Purcell, K.; Rambo, T.; Rizzo, D.; Roath, B.; 

Schowalter, T. 2002. Vegetation and ecological characteristics of mixed-conifer 

and red fi r forests at the Teakettle Experimental Forest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSWGTR-186. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c 

Southwest Research Station. 52 p.

Oester, P.T.; Emmingham, W.T.; Larson, P. 2005. Thinning alternatives for 

ponderosa pine: tools and strategies for family forest owners. Western Journal of 

Applied Forestry. 20(4): 216–223.

Økland, B.; Bakke, A.; Hågvar, S.; Kvamme, T. 1996. What factors infl uence 

the diversity of saproxylic beetles? A multi-scaled study from a spruce forest in 

southern Norway. Biodiversity and Conservation. 5(1): 75–100.

Otrosina, W.J.; Hess, N.J.; Zarnoch, S.J.; Perry, T.J.; Jones, J.P. 1997. Bluestain fungi associated with roots of southern pine trees attacked by the southern 

pine beetle, Dendroctonus frontalis. Plant Disease. 81(8): 942–945.
189

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Outcalt, K.W. 2003. Developing management options for longleaf communities of 

the Gulf Coastal Plain. In: Kush, J.S., comp. Proceedings, 4th Longleaf Alliance 

regional conference, longleaf pine: a southern legacy rising from the ashes. 

Longleaf Alliance Report No. 6. Andalusia, AL: The Longleaf Alliance: 

126–129.

Outcalt, K.W. 2005. Restoring structure and composition of longleaf pine 

ecosystems of the Gulf Coastal Plains. In: Kush, J.S., comp. Proceedings, 

5th Longleaf Alliance regional conference. Longleaf Alliance Report No. 8. 

Andalusia, AL: The Longleaf Alliance: 97–100.

Outcalt, K.W.; Foltz, J.L. 2004. Impacts of growing-season prescribed burns in 

the Florida pine fl atwoods type. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 12th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-71. Asheville, 

NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 

30–34.

Page-Dumroese, D.; Jurgensen, M.F.; Harvey, A.E. 2003. Fire and fi resuppression impacts on forest-soil carbon. In: Kimble, J.M.; Heath, L.S.; Birdsey, 

R.A.; Lal, R. eds. The potential of U.S. forest soils to sequester carbon and 

mitigate the greenhouse effect. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers, CRC Press: 

201–210.

Paquin, P.; Coderre, D. 1997. Deforestation and fi re impact on edaphic insect 

larvae and other macroarthropods. Environmental Entomology. 26(1): 21–30.

Park, J.O.; Hargreaves, J.R.; Cole, A.L.J.; Ghisalberti, E.L.; Gams, 

W.; Sivasithamparam, K. 2001. Cuticular disruption and mortality of 

Caenorhabditis elegans expose to culture fi ltrate of Byssochlamys nivea

Westling. Nematology. 3(4): 355–363.

Parker, G.G.; Davis, M.M.; Chapotin, S.M. 2002. Canopy light transmittance in 

Douglas fi r/western hemlock stands. Tree Physiology. 22(2/3): 147–157.

Parsons, D.J.; DeBenedetti, S.H. 1979. Impact of fi re suppression on a mixedconifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 2: 21–33.

Parsons, W.F.J.; Knight, D.H.; Miller, S.L. 1994. Root gap dynamics in 

lodgepole pine forest: nitrogen transformations in gaps of different size. 

Ecological Applications. 4(2): 354–362.

Passovoy, M.D.; Fulé, P.Z. 2006. Snag and wood debris dynamics following 

severe wildfi res in northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 223(1–3): 237–246.
190

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Pearce, J.; Venier, L. 2005. Small mammals as bioindicators of sustainable boreal 

forest management. Forest Ecology and Management. 208(1–3): 153–175.

Pechmann, J.H.K.; Estes, R.A.; Scott, D.E.; Gibbons, J.W. 2001. Amphibian 

colonization and use of ponds created for trail mitigation of wetland loss. 

Wetlands. 21(1): 93–111.

Pérez, B.; Moreno, J.M. 1998. Methods for quantifying fi re severity in shrublandfi res. Plant Ecology. 139(1): 91–101.

Perison, D.; Phelps, J.; Pavel, C.; Kellison, R. 1997. The effects of timber harvest 

in a South Carolina blackwater bottomland. Forest Ecology and Management. 

90(2/3): 171–185.

Perkins, D.W.; Vickery, P.D.; Shriver, W.G. 2003. Spatial dynamics of sourcesink habitats: effects on rare grassland birds. Journal of Wildlife Management. 

67(3): 588–599.

Perrakis, D.D.B.; Agee, J.K. 2006. Seasonal fi re effects on mixed-conifer forest 

structure and ponderosa pine resin properties. Canadian Journal of Forest 

Research. 36(1): 238–254.

Perry, R.W.; Thill, R.E. 2005. Small-mammal responses to pine regeneration 

treatments in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma, USA. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 219(1): 81–94.

Peterson, D.L.; Arbaugh, M.J. 1986. Postfi re survival in Douglas-fi r and 

lodgepole pine: comparing the effects of crown and bole damage. Canadian 

Journal of Forest Research. 16(6): 1175–1179.

Peterson, D.L.; Arbaugh, M.J. 1989. Estimating postfi re survival of Douglas-fi r 

in the Cascade Range. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 19(4): 530–533.

Petranka, J.W.; Eldridge, M.E.; Haley, K.E. 1993. Effects of timber harvesting 

on southern Appalachian salamanders. Conservation Biology. 7(2): 363–370.

Petranka, J.W.; Brannon, M.P.; Hopey, M.E.; Smith, C.K. 1994. Effects 

of timber harvesting on low elevation populations of southern Appalachian 

salamanders. Forest Ecology and Management. 67(1–3): 135–147.

Phelps, J.P.; Lancia, R.A. 1995. Effects of a clearcut on the herpetofauna of a 

South Carolina bottomland swamp. Brimleyana. 22: 31–45.

Phillips, J.D.; Perry, D.; Garbee, A.R.; Carey, K.; Stein, D.; Morde, M.B.; 

Sheehy, J.A. 1996. Deterministic uncertainty and complex pedogenesis in some 

Pleistocene dune soils. Geoderma. 73(3/4): 147–164.
191

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Phillips, R.; Hutchinson, T.; Brudnak, L.; Waldrop T. 2007. Fire and 

fi re surrogate treatments in mixed-oak forests: effects on herbaceous 

layer vegetation. In: Butler, B.W.; Cook, W., comp. Proceedings, the fi re 

environment—innovations, management, and policy. RMRS-P-46CD. Fort 

Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain 

Research Station: 475–485.

Phillips, R.J.; Waldrop, T.A. 2008. Changes in vegetation structure and 

composition in response to fuel reduction treatments in the South Carolina 

Piedmont. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3107–3116.

Phillips, R.J.; Waldrop, T.A. [In press]. Fuel loading after fuel reduction 

treatments and impacts from natural disturbances. In: Proceedings, 15th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station.

Phillips, R.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Chapman, G.L.; Mohr, H.H.; Callaham, M.A.; 

Flint, C.T. 2004. Effects of fuel-reduction techniques on vegetative composition 

of Piedmont loblolly-shortleaf pine communities: preliminary results of the 

National Fire and Fire Surrogate study. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 

12th biennial southern silvicultural research conference, Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Research Station: 44–47.

Phillips, R.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Simon, D.M. 2006. Assessment of the FARSITE 

model for predicting fi re behavior in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. 

In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 13th biennial southern silvicultural research 

conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-92. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 521–525.

Phillips, R.J.; Waldrop, T.A.; Simon, D.M. 2010. Third-year responses of 

understory woody regeneration to fuel reduction treatments in the Southern 

Appalachian Mountains. In: Stanturf, J.A., ed. Proceedings, 14th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–121. Asheville, 

NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 

289–293.

Pickett, S.T.A. 1980. Non-equilibrium coexistence of plants. Bulletin of the Torrey 

Botanical Club. 107(2): 238–248.
192

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Pierson, J.C.; Mills, L.S.; Christian, D.P. 2010. Foraging patterns of cavitynesting birds in fi re-suppressed and prescribe-burned ponderosa pine forests in 

Montana. Open Environmental Sciences. 4: 41–52.

Plymale, A.E.; Boerner, R.E.J.; Logan, T.J. 1987. Relative nitrogen 

mineralization and nitrifi cation in soils of two contrasting hardwood forests: 

effects of site microclimate and initial soil chemistry. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 21(1/2): 21–36.

Pollet, J.; Omi, P.N. 2002. Effects of thinning and prescribed burning on crown 

fi re severity in ponderosa pine. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 11(1): 

1–10.

Pough, F.H.; Smith, E.M.; Rhodes, D.H.; Collazo, A. 1987. The abundance 

of salamanders in forest stands with different histories of disturbance. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 20(1/2): 1–9.

Powers, R.F.; Oliver, W.W. 1990. Libocedrus decurrens Torr. Incense cedar. In 

Burns, R.M.; Honkala, B.H., eds. Silvics of North America. Vol 1: Conifers. 

Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service: 173–180.

Raison, R.J. 1979. Modifi cation of the soil environment by vegetation fi res, with 

particular reference to nitrogen transformations: a review. Plant and Soil. 51(1): 

73–108.

Rall, A.E. 2004. Effects of longleaf pine management practices on the 

herpetofauna of south Alabama. Auburn, AL: Auburn University. 61 p. M.S. 

thesis.

Ramsey, A.C. 2005. Ecology of fungal endophytes in Douglas-fi r and ponderosa 

pine roots in eastern Washington. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. 75 p. 

M.S. thesis.

Raphael, M.G.; White, M. 1984. Use of snags by cavity-nesting birds in the Sierra 

Nevada. Wildlife Monographs. 86: 1–84.

Rappaport, N.G.; Owen, D.R.; Stein, J.D. 2001. Interruption of semiochemicalmediated attraction of Dendroctonus valens (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) and 

selected nontarget insects by verbenone. Environmental Entomology. 30(5): 

837–841.

Raymond, K.; Moore, T. 1989. Mechanized processing and extraction of 

shortwood thinning. Rotorua, New Zealand: Report of Logging Industry 

Research Association. 14(5). 7 p.
193

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Ream, C.H. 1981. The effects of fi re and other disturbances on small mammals and 

their predators: an annotated bibliography. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-106. Ogden, UT: 

Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 55 p.

Rebbeck, J.; Long, R.; Yaussy, D. 2004. Survival of hardwood seedlings and 

saplings following overstory thinning and prescribed fi res in mixed-oak forests 

of southern Ohio. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-GTR-73. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 275–284.

Rebertus, A.J.; Shifl ey, S.R.; Richards, R.H.; Roovers, L.M. 1997. Ice storm 

damage to an old-growth oak-hickory forest in Missouri. American Midland 

Naturalist. 137(1): 48–61.

Reetz, M.J.; Farley, E.; Contreras, T.A. 2008. Evidence for Bachman’s sparrow 

raising brown-headed cowbirds to fl edging. Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 

120(3): 625–627.

Regelbrugge, J.C.; Smith, D.W. 1994. Postfi re tree mortality in relation to wildfi re 

severity in mixed oak forests in the Blue Ridge of Virginia. Northern Journal of 

Applied Forestry. 11(3): 90–97.

Regelbrugge, J.C.; Conard, S.G. 1993. Modeling tree mortality following 

wildfi re in Pinus ponderosa forest in the central Sierra Nevada of California. 

International Journal of Wildland Fire. 3(3): 139–148.

Reich, P.B.; Abrams, M.D.; Ellsworth, D.S.; Kruger, E.L.; Tabone, T.J. 1990.

Fire affects ecophysiology and community dynamics of central Wisconsin oak 

forest regeneration. Ecology. 71(6): 2179–2190.

Reich, P.B.; Walters, M.B.; Ellsworth, D.S.; Uhl, C. 1994. Photosynthesisnitrogen relations in Amazonian tree species. I: Patterns among species and 

communities. Oecologia. 97(1): 62–72.

Renken, R.B. 2006. Does fi re affect amphibians and reptiles in eastern U.S. 

oak forests? In: Dickinson, M.B., ed. Proceedings, fi re in eastern oak forests: 

delivering science to land managers. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-1. Newtown 

Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research 

Station: 158–166.

Reynolds, H.L.; Hungate, B.A.; Chapin, F.S., III; Antonio, C.M. 1997. Soil 

heterogeneity and plant competition in an annual grassland. Ecology. 78(7): 

2076–2090.
194

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Riccardi, C.L.; McCarthy, B.C.; Long, R.P. 2004. Oak seed production, weevil 

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) populations, and predation rates in mixed-oak 

forests of southeast Ohio. In: Yaussy, D.A.; Hix, D.M.; Long, R.P.; Goebel, P.C., 

eds. Proceedings, 14th central hardwood forest conference, Gen. Tech. Rep. 

NE-316. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Northeastern Research Station: 10–20.

Richter, D.D.; Ralston, C.W.; Harms, W.R. 1982. Prescribed fi re: effects on water 

quality and forest nutrient cycles. Science. 215(4533): 661–663.

Riegel, G.M.; Miller, R.F.; Krueger, W.C. 1995. The effects of aboveground 

and belowground competition on understory species composition in a Pinus 

ponderosa forest. Forest Science. 41(4): 864–889.

Ritchie, M.W. 2005. Ecological research at the Goosenest Adaptive Management 

Area in northeastern California. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-192. Berkeley, CA: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Southwest Research 

Station. 120 p. 

Ritchie, M.W.; Skinner, C.N.; Hamilton, T.A. 2007. Probability of tree survival 

after wildfi re in an interior pine forest of northern California: effects of thinning 

and prescribed fi re. Forest Ecology and Management. 247(1–3): 200–208.

Robbins, L.E.; Myers, R.L. 1992. Seasonal effects of prescribed burning in 

Florida: a review. Misc. publ. 8. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research, Inc. 

90 p.

Robinson, W.D. 2010. The challenges of studying vertebrates in habitat treatment 

plots. Open Environmental Sciences. 4: 21–23.

Robinson, W.D.; Robinson, S.K. 1999. Effects of selective logging on forest bird 

populations in a fragmented landscape. Conservation Biology. 13(1): 58–66.

Robinson, W.D.; Rompré, G. 2010. Nest survival of understory birds in longleaf 

pine forests exposed to fi re and fi re-surrogate treatments. Open Environmental 

Sciences. 4: 63–69.

Rodewald, P.G.; Withgott, J.H.; Smith, K.G. 1999. Pine warbler (Dendroica 

pinus). In: Poole, A.; Gills F., eds. The Birds of North America. No. 438. 

Philadelphia, PA: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, DC: The 

American Ornithologists’ Union. 28 p.
195

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Rompré, G. 2003. Successful nesting of the sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter 

striatus) in a longleaf pine stand in southern Alabama. Alabama Birdlife. 49(1): 

10–13.

Rotella J.J.; Taper, M.; Stephens, S.; Lindberg, M. 2007. Extending methods for 

modeling heterogeneity in nest-survival data using generalized mixed models. 

Studies in Avian Biology. 34: 34–44.

Rothenbach, C.A. 2007. The response of nuthatches (Sitta spp.) to restorative 

treatments in ponderosa pine ecosystems of northeastern Oregon. Prince George, 

British Columbia: University of Northern British Columbia. 112 p. M.S. thesis.

Rummer, B.; Carter, E.; Stokes, B.; Klepac, J. 1997. Strips, clearcuts, and 

deferment cuts: harvest costs and site impacts for alternative prescriptions in 

upland hardwoods. In: Meyer, D.A., ed. Proceedings, 25th annual hardwood 

symposium; 25 years of hardwood silviculture: a lock back and a look ahead. 

Memphis, TN: National Hardwood Lumber Association: 103–112.

Russell, K.R.; Van Lear, D.H.; Guynn, D.C., Jr. 1999. Prescribed fi re effects on 

herpetofauna: review and management implications. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 

27(2): 374–384.

Ryan, K.C.; Reinhardt, E.D. 1988. Predicting postfi re mortality of seven western 

conifers. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 18(10): 1291–1297.

Saa, A.; Trasar-Cepeda, M.C.; Gil-Sotres, F.; Carballas, T. 1993. Changes in 

soil phosphorus and acid phosphatase activity immediately following forest fi res. 

Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 25(9): 1223–1230.

Saab, V.A.; Dudley, J.G. 1998. Responses of cavity-nesting birds to standreplacement fi re and salvage logging in ponderosa pine/Douglas fi r. Res. PapRMRS-11. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky 

Mountain Research Station. 17 p.

Saab, V.; Block, W.; Russell, R.; Lehmkuhl, J.; Bate, L.; White, R. 2007. Birds 

and burns of the interior west: descriptions, habitats and management in western 

forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-712. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Northwest Research Station. 23 p.

Sackett, S.S.; Haase, S.M. 1992. Measuring soil and tree temperatures during 

prescribed fi res with thermocouple probes. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-131. 

Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Southwest 

Research Station.20 p.
196

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Sackett, S.S.; Haase, S.M. 1998. Two case histories for using prescribed fi re 

to restore ponderosa pine ecosystems in northern Arizona. In: Pruden, T.L.; 

Brennan, L.A., eds. Proceedings, 20th Tall Timbers fi re ecology conference, 

fi re in ecosystem management: shifting the paradigm from suppression to 

prescription. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 380–389.

Sala, A.; Peters, G.D.; McIntyre, L.R.; Harrington, M.G. 2005. Physiological 

responses of ponderosa pine in western Montana to thinning, prescribed fi re and 

burning season. Tree Physiology. 25(3): 339–348.

Sartwell, C. 1971. Thinning ponderosa pine to prevent outbreaks of mountain 

pine beetle. In: Baumgartner, D.M., ed. Precommercial thinning of coastal and 

intermountain forests in the Pacifi c Northwest. Pullman, WA: Washington State 

University: 41–52.

Satterthwaite, W.H.; Menges, E.S.; Quintana-Ascencio, P.F. 2002. Assessing 

scrub buckwheat population viability in relation to fi re using multiple modeling 

techniques. Ecological Applications. 12(6): 1672–1687.

Saveland, J.M.; Neuenschwander, L.F. 1990. A signal detection framework to 

evaluate models of tree mortality following fi re damage. Forest Science. 36(1): 

66–76.

Scherer, G.; Zabowski, D.; Java, B.; Everett, R. 2000. Timber harvesting 

residue treatment Part II: Understory vegetation response. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 126(1): 35–50.

Schmidt, D.A.; Taylor, A.H.; Skinner, C.N. 2008. The infl uence of fuels 

treatment and landscape arrangement on simulated fi re behavior, southern 

Cascade Range, California. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3170–

3184.

Schnellhardt, O.; Heald, F.D. 1936. The spore load of market wheat. Transactions 

of the American Microscopical Society. 55(3): 281–285.

Schoenagel, T.; Waller, D.M.; Turner, M.G.; Romme, W.H. 2004. The effect of 

fi re interval on post-fi re understorey communities in Yellowstone National Park. 

Journal of Vegetation Science. 15(6): 797–806.

Schwilk, D.W.; Keeley, J.E.; Knapp, E.E.; McIver, J.; Bailey, J.D.; Fettig, C.J.; 

Fiedler, C.E.; Harrod, R.J.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Outcalt, K.W.; Skinner, C.N.; 

Stephens, S.L.; Waldrop, T.A.; Yaussy, D.A.; Youngblood, A. 2009. The 

national fi re and fi re surrogate study: effects of fuel reduction methods on forest 

vegetation structure and fuels. Ecological Applications. 19(2): 285–304.
197

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Schwilk, D.W.; Knapp, E.E.; Ferrenberg, S.M.; Keeley, J.E.; Caprio, A.C. 

2006. Tree mortality from fi re and bark beetles following early and late season 

prescribed fi res in a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 232(1–3): 36–45.

Sharp, N.W. 2005. Demography of small mammal populations in longleaf pine 

undergoing restoration. Auburn, AL: Auburn University. 84 p. M.S. thesis.

Sharp, N.W.; Mitchell, M.S.; Grand; J.B. 2009. Sources, sinks, and spatial 

ecology of cotton mice in longleaf pine stands undergoing restoration. Journal of 

Mammalogy: 90(6): 1440–1448.

Shelburne, V.B.; Boyle, M.F.; Lione, D.J.; Waldrop, T.A. 2004. Preliminary 

effects of prescribed burning and thinning as fuel reduction treatments on 

the Piedmont soils of the Clemson Experimental Forest. In: Connor, K.F., ed. 

Proceedings, 12th biennial southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. SRS–71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Southern Research Station: 35–38.

Shelton, M.G.; Murphy, P.A. 1997. Understory vegetation 3 years after 

implementing uneven-aged silviculture in a shortleaf pine-oak stand. Res. Pap. 

SO-296. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Southern forest Experiment Station. 20 p.

Shumway, D.L.; Abrams, M.D.; Ruffner, C.M. 2001. A 400-year history of fi re 

and oak recruitment in an old-growth oak forest in western Maryland, U.S.A. 

Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 31(8): 1437–1443.

Siegel, R.B.; DeSante, D.F. 2003. Bird communities in thinned versus unthinned 

Sierran mixed conifer stands. Wilson Bulletin. 115(2): 155–165.

Siemann, E.; Haarstad, J.; Tilman, D. 1997. Short-term and long-term effects of 

burning on oak savanna arthropods. American Midland Naturalist. 137(2): 

349 –361.

Simon, J.L. 1992. Resampling: the new statistics. Arlington, VA: Resampling 

Stats, Inc. 261 p.

Singh, J.S.; Gupta, S.R. 1977. Plant decomposition and soil respiration in 

terrestrial ecosystems. The Botanical Review. 43(4): 449–528.

Six, D.L.; Skov, K. 2009. Response of bark beetles and their natural enemies to fi re 

and fi re surrogate treatments in mixed-conifer forests in western Montana. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 258(5): 761–772.
198

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Skinner, C.N.; Ritchie, M.W.; Hamilton, T.; Symons, J. 2004. Effects of 

thinning and prescribed fi re on wildfi re severity. In: Cooper, S., ed. Proceedings, 

25th annual forest vegetation management conference. Redding, CA: University 

of California, Shasta County Cooperative Forestry Extension: 80–91.

Skov, K.R.; Kolb, T.E.; Wallin, K.F. 2005. Difference in radial growth response 

to restoration thinning and burning treatments between young and old ponderosa 

pine in Arizona. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 20(1): 36–43.

Slocum, M.G.; Platt, W.J.; Cooley, H.C. 2003. Effect of differences in prescribed 

fi re regimes on patchiness and intensity of fi res in subtropical savannas of 

Everglades National Park, Florida. Restoration Ecology. 11(1): 91–102.

Smith, J.E.; Heath, L.S. 2002. A model of forest fl oor carbon mass for United 

States forest types. Res. Pap. NE-722. Newton Square, PA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station. 42 p.

Smith, J.E.; McKay, D.; Brenner, G.; McIver, J.; Spatafora, J.W. 2005.

Early impacts of forest restoration treatments on the ectomycorrhizal fungal 

community and fi ne root biomass in a mixed conifer forest. Journal of Applied 

Ecology. 42(3): 526–535.

Smith, T.G.; Maguire, C.C. 2004. Small-mammal relationships with down wood 

and antelope bitterbrush in ponderosa pine forests of central Oregon. Forest 

Science. 50(5): 711–728.

Smucker, K.M.; Hutto, R.L.; Steele, B.M. 2005. Changes in bird abundance after 

wildfi re: importance of fi re severity and time since fi re. Ecological Applications. 

15(5): 1535–1549.

Sparks, J.C.; Masters, R.E.; Engle, D.M.; Palmer, M.W.; Bukenhofer, G.A. 

1998. Effects of late growing-season and late dormant-season prescribed fi re 

on herbaceous vegetation in restored pine-grassland communities. Journal of 

Vegetation Science. 9(1): 133–142.

Sperry, J.H.; George, T.L.; Zack, S. 2008. Ecological factors affecting response 

of dark-eyed juncos to prescribed burning. Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 

120(1): 131–138.

Staeben, J.C. 2003. The effects of fi re and fi re surrogate forest management 

practices on coleopterans in the Clemson Experimental Forest. Clemson, SC: 

Clemson University. 90 p. M.S. thesis.
199

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Steen, D.A.; McGee, A.E.R.; Hermann, S.M.; Stiles, J.A.; Stiles, S.H.; Guyer, 

C. 2010. Effects of forest management on amphibians and reptiles: generalist 

species obscure trends among native forest associates. Open Environmental 

Sciences. 4: 24–30.

Stendell, E.R.; Horton, T.R.; Bruns, T.D. 1999. Early effects of prescribed fi re 

on the structure of the ectomycorrhizal fungal community in a Sierra Nevada 

ponderosa pine forest. Mycological Research. 103(10): 1353–1359.

Stephens, S.L.; Finney, M.A. 2002. Prescribed fi re mortality of Sierra Nevada 

mixed conifer tree species: effects of crown damage and forest fl oor combustion. 

Forest Ecology and Management. 162(2/3): 261–271. 

Stephens, S.L.; Moghaddas, J.J. 2005a. Experimental fuel treatment impacts 

on forest structure, potential fi re behavior, and predicted tree mortality in a 

California mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 215(1–3): 

21–36.

Stephens, S.L.; Moghaddas, J.J. 2005b. Fuel treatment effects on snags and 

coarse woody debris in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 214(1–3): 53–64.

Stephens, S.L.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Edminster, C.; Fiedler, C.E.; Haase, S.; 

Harrington, M.; Keeley J.E.; Knapp, E.E.; McIver, J.D.; Metlen, K.; 

Skinner, C.N.; Youngblood, A. 2009a. Fire treatment effects on vegetation 

structure, fuels, and potential fi re severity in western U.S. forests. Ecological 

Applications. 19(2): 305–320.

Stephens, S.L.; Moghaddas, J.J.; Hartsough, B.R.; Moghaddas, E.E.Y.; 

Clinton, N.E. 2009b. Fuel treatment effects on stand-level carbon pools, 

treatment-related emissions, and fi re risk in a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer 

forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 39(8): 1538–1547.

Stephens, S.; Rapp, V. 2008. Chainsaws or driptorches: How should fi re risk be 

reduced? Fire Science Brief 6. Boise, ID: Joint Fire Science Program. 6 p.

Stephens, S.L.; Ruth, L.W. 2005. Federal forest-fi re policy in the United States. 

Ecological Applications. 15(2): 532–542.

Stone, J.E.; Kolb, T.E.; Covington, W.W. 1999. Effects of restoration thinning on 

presettlement Pinus ponderosa in northern Arizona. Restoration Ecology. 7(2): 

172–182.

Stratford, J.A.; Tucker, J.W., Jr. 2002. Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus) 

nest in the east Gulf Coastal Plain of Alabama. Alabama Birdlife. 48:10–12.
200

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Streby, H.M.; Miles, D.B. 2010. Assessing ecosystem restoration alternatives 

in eastern deciduous hardwood forests using avian nest survival. Open 

Environmental Sciences. 4: 31–40.

Strom, B.L.; Goyer, R.A.; Ingram, L.L., Jr.; Boyd, G.D.L.; Lott, L.H. 2002. 

Oleoresin characteristics of progeny of loblolly pines that escaped attack by the 

southern pine beetle. Forest Ecology and Management. 158(1–3): 169–178.

Sulkava, P.; Huhta, V. 1998. Habitat patchiness affects decomposition and faunal 

diversity: a microcosm experiment on forest fl oor. Oecologia. 116(3): 390–396.

Sullivan, T.P.; Sullivan, D.S.; Lindgren, P.M.F. 2001. Stand structure and 

small mammals in young lodgepole pine forest: 10-year results after thinning. 

Ecological Applications. 11(4): 1151–1173.

Sutherland, E.K. 1997. History of fi re in a southern Ohio second-growth mixedoak forest. In: Pallardy, S.G.; Cecich, R.A.; Garrett, H.E.; Johnson, P.S., eds. 

Proceedings, 11th central hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-188. 

St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central 

Forest Experiment Station: 172–183.

Suzuki, N.; Hayes, J.P. 2003. Effects of thinning on small mammals in Oregon 

coastal forests. Journal of Wildlife Management. 67(2): 352–371.

Swan, F.R., Jr. 1970. Post-fi re response of four plant communities in south-central 

New York State. Ecology. 51(6): 1074–1082.

Sweeney, J.R.; Biswell, H.H. 1961. Quantitative studies of the removal of litter and 

duff by fi re under controlled conditions. Ecology. 42(3): 572–575.

Swezy, D.M.; Agee, J.K. 1991. Prescribed fi re effects on fi ne-root and tree 

mortality in old-growth ponderosa pine. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 

21(5): 626–634.

Szaro, R.C.; Balda, R.P. 1979. Effects of harvesting ponderosa pine on nongame 

bird populations. Res. Pap. RM-212. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station. 8 p. 

Tallmon, D.; Mills, L.S. 1994. Use of logs within home ranges of California redbacked voles on a remnant of forest. Journal of Mammalogy. 75(1): 97–101.

Tester, J.R. 1965. Effects of a controlled burn on small mammals in a Minnesota 

oak-savanna. American Midland Naturalist. 74(1): 240–243.
201

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Thies, W.G.; Westlind, D.J.; Loewen, M. 2005. Season of prescribed burn in 

ponderosa pine forests in eastern Oregon: impact on pine mortality. International 

Journal of Wildland Fire. 14(3): 223–231.

Thill, R.E.; Rudolph, D.C.; Koerth, N.E. 2004. Shortleaf pine-bluestem 

restoration for red-cockaded woodpeckers in the Ouachita Mountains: 

implications for other taxa. In: Costa, R.; Daniels, S.J., eds. Red-cockaded 

woodpecher: road to recovery. Blaine, WA: Hancock House Publishers: 657–671.

Thysell, D.R.; Carey, A.B. 2001. Manipulation of density of Pseudotsuga 

menziesii canopies: preliminary effects on understory vegetation. Canadian 

Journal of Forest Research. 31(9): 1513–1525.

Tinker, D.B.; Knight, D.H. 2000. Coarse woody debris following fi re and logging 

in Wyoming lodgepole pine forests. Ecosystems. 3(5): 472–483. 

Tomcho, A.L. 2004. Effects of prescribed fi re and understory removal on 

bird communities in a southern Appalachian forest. Clemson, SC: Clemson 

University. 72 p. M.S. thesis.

Torgersen, T.R. 2002. Characteristics of log resources in northeastern Oregon: 

case studies of four management treatments. In: Laudenslayer, W.F.; Shea, P.J.; 

Valentine, B.E.; Weatherspoon, C.P.; Lisle, T.E., tech. coords. Proceedings, 

ecology and management of dead woody in western forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

PSW-181. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c 

Southwest Research Station: 795–810.

Tucker, J.W., Jr.; Robinson, W.D.; Grand, J.B. 2006. Breeding productivity of 

Bachman’s sparrows in fi re-managed longleaf pine forests. Wilson Journal of 

Ornithology. 118(2): 131–137.

Turner, D.P.; Koerper, G.J.; Harmon, M.E.; Lee, J.J. 1995. A carbon budget 

for the forests of the conterminous United States. Ecological Applications. 5(2): 

421–436.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2007. http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/

ecoregions/na_eco.htm#Level%20III. (January 23, 2012).

Van Lear, D.H.; Waldrop, T.A. 1989. History, uses, and effects of fi re in the 

Appalachians. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-GTR-54. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 20 p.
202

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Van Lear, D.H.; Watt, J.M. 1993. The role of fi re in oak regeneration. In: Loftis, 

D.L.; McGee, C.E., eds. Proceedings, oak regeneration: serious problems, 

practical recommendation. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-84. Asheville, NC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment 

Station: 68–78.

van Mantgem, P.J.; Schwilk, D.W. 2009. Negligible infl uence of spatial 

autocorrelation in the assessment of fi re effects in a mixed conifer forest. Fire 

Ecology. 5(2): 116–125.

van Mantgem, P.J.; Stephenson, N.L.; Mutch, L.S.; Johnson, V.G.; Esperanza, 

A.M.; Parsons, D.J. 2003. Growth rate predicts mortality of Abies concolor in 

both burned and unburned stands. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 33(6): 

1029–1038.

van Mantgem, P.J.; Stephenson, N.L.; Keifer, M.; Keeley, J. 2004. Effects of 

an introduced pathogen and fi re exclusion on the demography of sugar pine. 

Ecological Applications. 14(5): 1590–1602.

van Mantgem, P.J.; Stephenson, N.L.; Keeley, J.E. 2006. Forest reproduction 

along a climatic gradient in the Sierra Nevada, California. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 225(1–3): 391–399.

Vance, E.D.; Henderson, G.S. 1984. Soil nitrogen availability following long-term 

burning in an oak-hickory forest. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 48(1): 

184–190.

Vazquez, L.; Myhre, D.L.; Hanlon, E.A.; Gallagher, R.N. 1991. Soil 

penetrometer resistance and bulk density relationships after long-term no tillage. 

Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 22(19/20): 2101–2117.

Vickers, M.E. 2003. Spider (Araneae) responses to fuel reduction in a Piedmont 

forest in upstate South Carolina. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 115 p. M.S. 

thesis.

Vielleux, J.P.; Whitaker, J.O.; Veilleux, S.L. 2003. Tree roosting ecology of 

reproductive female eastern pipistrelles, Pipistrellus subfl avus, in Indiana. 

Journal of Mammalogy. 84(3): 1068–1075.

Villa-Castillo, J.; Wagner, M.R. 2002. Ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) 

species assemblage as an indicator of forest condition in northern Arizona 

ponderosa pine forests. Environmental Entomology. 31(2): 242–252.
203

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Villard, P.; Beninger, C.W. 1993. Foraging behavior of male black-backed and 

hairy woodpeckers in a forest burn. Journal of Field Ornithology. 64(1): 71–76.

Vivian-Smith, G. 1997. Microtopographic heterogeneity and fl oristic diversity in 

experimental wetland communities. Journal of Ecology. 85(1): 71–82.

Vose, J.M.; White, A.S. 1991. Biomass response mechanisms of understory 

species the fi rst year after prescribed burning in an Arizona ponderosa pine 

community. Forest Ecology and Management. 40(3/4): 175–187.

Wade, D.D.; Weise, D.R.; Shell, R. 1989. Some effects of periodic winter fi re on 

plant communities on the Georgia Piedmont. In: Miller, J.H., comp. Proceedings, 

5th biennial southern silviculture research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SO-74. 

New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Forest Experimental Station: 603–611.

Wade, D.D.; Brock, B.L.; Brose, P.H.; Grace, J.B.; Hoch, G.A.; Patterson, 

W.A., III. 2000. Fire in eastern ecosystems. In: Brown, J.K.; Smith, J.K., eds. 

Wildland fi re in ecosystems: effects of fi re on fl ora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS 

GTR-42–vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Rocky Mountain Research Station: 53–96. Chapter 4.

Wagle, R.F.; Kitchen, J.H., Jr. 1972. Infl uence of fi re on soil nutrients in a 

ponderosa pine type. Ecology. 53(1): 118–125.

Waldrop, T.A.; Boerner, R.E.J.; Yaussy, D.A. [In press]. Restoration treatments 

in eastern hardwoods: impacts and interactions of multiple ecosystem 

components. In: 15th biennial southern silvicultural research conference. 

Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Research Station.

Waldrop, T.A.; Brose, P.H.; Welch, N.T.; Mohr, H.H.; Gray, E.A.; Tainter, 

F.H.; Ellis, L.E. 2002. High-intensity fi res may be unnecessary for stand 

replacement of Table Mountain pine: an overview of current research. In: 

Outcalt, K., ed. Proceedings, 11th biennial southern silvicultural research 

conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-48. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 137–142.

Waldrop, T.A.; Brudnak, L.; Rideout-Hanzak, S. 2007. Fuels on disturbed 

and undisturbed sites in the southern Appalachian Mountains, USA. Canadian 

Journal of Forest Research. 37(6): 1134–1141.
204

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Waldrop, T.A.; Glass, D.W.; Rideout, S.; Shelburne, V.B.; Mohr, H.H.; 

Phillips, R.J. 2004. An evaluation of fuel-reduction treatments across a 

landscape gradient in the Piedmont forests: preliminary results of the National 

Fire and Fire Surrogate study. In: Connor, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 12th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–71. Asheville, 

NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 

54–59.

Waldrop, T.A.; McIver, J. 2006. The national fi re and fi re surrogate study: early 

results and future challenges. In: Conner, K.F., ed. Proceedings, 13th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-92. Asheville, 

NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 

526–530.

Waldrop, T.; Phillips, R.; Simon, D. 2010. Fuels and predicted fi re behavior in the 

southern Appalachian Mountains after fi re and fi re surrogate treatments. Forest 

Science. 56(1): 32–45.

Waldrop, T.A.; Yaussy, D.A. 2007. Delayed mortality of eastern hardwoods 

after prescribed fi re. In: Stanturf, J.A., ed. Proceedings, 14th biennial southern 

silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-121. Asheville, NC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 609–612.

Waldrop, T.A.; Yaussy, D.A.; Phillips, R.J.; Hutchinson, T.A.; Brudnak, 

L., Boerner, R.E.J. 2008. Fuel reduction treatments affect stand structure of 

hardwood forests in western North Carolina and southern Ohio, USA. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3117–3129.

Wallin, K.F.; Kolb, T.E.; Skov, K.R.; Wagner, M.R. 2004. Seven-year results of 

thinning and burning restoration treatments on old ponderosa pines at the Gus 

Pearson Natural Area. Restoration Ecology. 12(2): 239–247.

Wallin, K.F.; Kolb, T.E.; Skov, K.R.; Wagner, M.R. 2008. Forest management 

treatments, tree resistance, and bark beetle resource utilization in ponderosa pine 

forests of northern Arizona. Forest Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3263–

3269.

Wally, A.; Menges, E.S.; Weekley, C.W. 2006. Comparison of three devices for 

estimating fi re temperatures in ecological studies. Applied Vegetation Science. 

9(1): 97–108.
205

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Waltz, A.E.M.; Fulé, P.Z.; Covington, W.W.; Moore, M.M. 2003. Diversity 

in ponderosa pine forest structure following ecological restoration treatments. 

Forest Science. 49(6): 885–900.

Wan, S.; Hui, D.; Luo, Y. 2001. Fire effects on nitrogen pools and dynamics in 

terrestrial ecosystems: a meta-analysis. Ecological Applications. 11(5): 1349–

1365.

Wang, G.G.; Baurele, W.L.; Mudder, B.T. 2006. Effects of light acclimation 

on the photosynthesis, growth, and biomass allocation in American chestnut 

(Castanea dentata) seedlings. Forest Ecology and Management. 226(1–3): 173–

180.

Waterman, P.G.; Mole, S. 1994. Analysis of phenolic plant metabolites. Oxford, 

United Kingdom: Blackwell Scientifi c Publications. 238 p.

Waters, J.R.; Zabel, C.J. 1998. Abundances of small mammals in fi r forests in 

northeastern California. Journal of Mammalogy. 79(4): 1244–1253.

Wayman, R.B.; North, M. 2007. Initial response of a mixed-conifer understory 

plant community to burning and thinning restoration treatments. Forest Ecology 

and Management. 239(1–3): 32–44.

Wayne, P.M.; Bazzaz, F.A. 1993. Birch seedlings responses to daily time courses 

of light in experimental forest gaps and shadehouses. Ecology. 74(5): 1500–1515.

Weatherhead, P.J.; Carfagno, G.L.F.; Sperry, J.H.; Brawn, J.D.; Robinson, 

S.K. 2010. Linking snake behavior to nest predation in a Midwestern bird 

community. Ecological Applications. 20(1): 234–241.

Weatherspoon, C.P. 2000. A proposed long-term national study of the 

consequences of fi re and fi re surrogate treatments. In: Neuenschwander, 

L.F.; Ryan, K.C.; Goldberg, G.E., eds. Proceedings, crossing the millennium: 

integrating spatial technologies and ecological principles for a new age in fi re 

management, 1999 Joint Fire Science conference. Moscow, ID: University of 

Idaho Press: 117–126.

Weatherspoon, C.P.; Skinner, C.N. 1995. An assessment of factors associated 

with damage to tree crowns from the 1987 wildfi res in Northern California. 

Forest Science. 41: 430–451.

Weaver, H. 1943. Fire as an ecological and silvicultural factor in the ponderosa 

pine region of the Pacifi c slope. Journal of Forestry. 41: 7–15.
206

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Webb, B.G.; Messina, M.G.; Guldin, J.M. 1991. Effects of prescribed burning 

and varying basal areas on nitrogen mineralization in an east Texas pine forest. 

In: Coleman, S.S.; Neary, D.G., comp. and eds. Proceedings, 6th biennial 

southern silvicultural research conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-70. Asheville, 

NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest 

Experiment Station: 418–430. Vol. I.

Wei, X.; Kimmins, J.P. 1998. Asymbiotic nitrogen fi xation in harvested and 

wildfi re-killed lodgepole pine forests in central interior of British Colombia. 

Forest Ecology and Management. 109(1–3): 343–353.

Wei, X.; Kimmins, J.P.; Peel, K.; Steen, O. 1997. Mass and nutrients in woody 

debris in harvested and wildfi re-killed lodgepole pine forests in central interior 

of British Colombia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 27(2): 148–155.

Weikel, J.M. 1997. Habitat use by cavity-nesting birds in young thinned and 

unthinned Douglas-fi r forests of western Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State 

University. 114 p. M.S. thesis.

Weikel, J.M.; Hayes, J.P. 1999. The foraging ecology of cavity-nesting birds in 

young forests of the northern Coast Range of Oregon. Condor. 101(1): 58–66.

Wells, C.G.; Campbell, R.E.; DeBano, L.F.; Lewis, C.E.; Fredriksen, R.L.; 

Franklin, E.C.; Froelich, R.C.; Dunn, P.H. 1979. Effects of fi re on soil: a stateof-knowledge review. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-7. Washington, DC: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service. 34 p.

Wendel, G.W.; Smith, H.C. 1986. Effects of a prescribed fi re in a central 

Appalachian oak-hickory stand. Res. Pap. NE-594. Broomall, PA: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment 

Station. 8 p.

Werner, P.A.; Platt, W.J. 1976. Ecological relationships of co-occurring 

goldenrods (Solidago, Compositae). American Naturalist. 110(976): 959–971.

White, P.S.; Jentsch, A. 2001. The search for generality in studies of disturbance 

and ecosystem dynamics. Progress in Botany. 62: 399–450.

Wienk, C.L.; Sieg, C.H.; McPherson, G.R. 2004. Evaluating the role of cutting 

treatments, fi re and soil seed banks in an experimental framework in ponderosa 

pine forests of the Black Hills, South Dakota. Forest Ecology and Management. 

192(2/3): 375–393.
207

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Wightman, C.S.; Germaine, S.S. 2006. Forest stand characteristics altered by 

restoration affect western bluebird habitat quality. Restoration Ecology. 14(4): 

653–661.

Wilson, D.E. 1968. Ecological distribution of the genus Peromyscus. Southwestern 

Naturalist. 13(3): 267–273.

Wilson, S.M.; Carey, A.B. 2000. Legacy retention versus thinning: infl uences on 

small mammals. Northwest Science. 74(2): 131–145.

Wilson, C.W.; Masters, R.E.; Bukenhofer, G.A. 1995. Breeding bird response to 

pine-grassland community restoration for red-cockaded woodpeckers. Journal of 

Wildlife Management. 59(1): 56–67.

Wilson, C.A.; Mitchell, R.J.; Boring, L.R.; Hendricks, J.J. 2002. Soil nitrogen 

dynamics in a fi re-maintained forest ecosystem: results over a 3-year burning 

interval. Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 34(5): 679–689.

Winter, G.; Vogt, C.; McCraffrey, S.M. 2005. Community views of fuels 

management on the Mark Twain National Forest and comparisons to other study 

sites. Unpublished report. On fi le with: USDA Forest Service, Northern Research 

Station, 1033 University Place, Suite 360, Evanston, IL 60201.

Winter, G.J.; Vogt, C.; Fried, J.S. 2002. Fuel treatments at the wildland-urban 

interface: common concerns in diverse regions. Journal of Forestry. 100: 15–21.

Wolff, J.O. 1985. Comparative population ecology of Peromyscus leucopus and 

Peromyscus maniculatus. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 63(7): 1548–1555.

Wolff, J.O. 1996. Population fl uctuations of mast-eating rodents are correlated with 

production of acorns. Journal of Mammalogy. 77(3): 850–856.

Wood, D.R.; Burger, L.W., Jr.; Bowman, J.L.; Hardy, C.L. 2004. Avian 

community response to pine-grassland restoration. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 

32(3): 819–828.

Woolf, J.C. 2003. Effects of thinning and prescribed burning on birds and small 

mammals. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 126 p. M.S. thesis.

Wright, S.L. 1986. Prescribed burning as a technique to manage insect pests of 

oak regeneration. In: Koonce, A.L., ed. Proceedings, prescribed burning in the 

midwest: state-of-the-art. Stevens Point, WI: University of Wisconsin: 91–96. 

Wrobleski, D.W.; Kauffman, J.B. 2003. Initial effects of prescribed fi re on 

morphology, abundance, and phenology of forbs in big sagebrush communities in 

southeastern Oregon. Restoration Ecology. 11(1): 82–90.
208

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Yanovski, V.M.; Kiselev, V.V. 1996. Response of the endemic insect fauna to 

fi re damage in forest ecosystems. In: Goldammer, J.G.; Furyaev, V.V., eds. Fire 

in ecosystems of boreal Eurasia. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Press. 

409–413.

Yasuda, D. 2008. Embracing “New Information”: a manager’s perspective. Fire 

Science Manager’s Viewpoint. 6. Boise, ID: Joint Fire Science Program. 4 p.

Yaussy, D.A.; Dickinson, M.B.; Bova, A.S. 2004. Prescribed surface-fi re 

tree mortality in southern Ohio: equations based on thermocouple probe 

temperatures. In: Yaussy, D.A.; Hix, D.M.; Long, R.P.; Goebel, P.C., eds. 

Proceedings, 14th central hardwood forest conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTRNE-316. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Northeastern Research Station: 67–75.

Yaussy, D.; Rebbeck, J.; Iverson, L.; Hutchinson, T.; Long, R. 2003. 

Comparison of a low-tech vs. a high-tech method to evaluate surface fi re 

temperatures. In: Van Sambeek, J.W.; Dawson, J.O.; Ponder, F., Jr.; Loewenstein, 

E.F.; Fralish, J.S., eds. Proceedings, 13th central hardwood forest conference. 

Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-234. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, North Central Research Station: 295.

Yaussy, D.A.; Waldrop, T.A. 2009. Fire and fi re surrogate study: annotated 

highlights from oak-dominated sites. In: Hutchinson, T.F., ed. Proceedings, 3rd

fi re in eastern oak forests conference. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-46. Newtown 

Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research 

Station: 40–50.

York, A. 2000. Long-term effects of frequent low-intensity burning on ant 

communities in coastal blackbutt forests of southeastern Australia. Austral 

Ecology. 25(1): 83–98.

Youngblood, A. 2010. Thinning and burning in dry coniferous forests of the 

western United States: effectiveness in altering diameter distributions. Forest 

Science. 56(1): 46–59.

Youngblood, A.; Bigler-Cole, H.; Fettig, C.J.; Fiedler, C.; Knapp, E.E.; 

Lehmkuhl, J.F.; Outcalt, K.W.; Skinner, C.N.; Stephens, S.L.; Waldrop, 

T.A. 2007. Making fi re and fi re surrogate science available: a summary of 

regional workshops with clients. Gen. Tech. Rep. 727. Portland, OR: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifi c Northwest Research 

Station. 59 p.
209

Principal Short-Term Findings of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate Study

Youngblood, A.; Grace, J.B.; McIver, J.D. 2009. Delayed conifer mortality after 

fuel reduction treatments: interactive effects of fuel, fi re intensity, and bark 

beetles. Ecological Applications. 19(2): 321–337.

Youngblood, A.; Max, T.; Coe, K. 2004. Stand structure in eastside old-growth 

ponderosa pine forests of Oregon and northern California. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 199(2–3): 191–217.

Youngblood, A.; Metlen, K.L.; Coe, K. 2006. Changes in stand structure 

and composition after restoration treatments in low elevation dry forests of 

northeastern Oregon. Forest Ecology and Management. 234(1–3):143–163.

Youngblood, A.; Metlen, K.L.; Knapp, E.E.; Outcalt, K.W.; Stephens, S.L.; 

Waldrop, T.A.; Yaussy, D. 2004. Implementation of the fi re and fi re surrogate 

study, a national research effort to evaluate the consequences of fuel reduction 

treatments. In: Peterson, C.E.; Maguire, D.A., eds. Proceedings, balancing 

ecosystem values: innovative experiments for sustainable forestry. Gen. Tech. 

Rep. PNW-GTR-635. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Pacifi c Northwest Research Station: 315–321.

Youngblood, A.; Wright, C.S.; Ottmar, R.D.; McIver, J.D. 2008. Changes 

in fuelbed characteristics and resulting fi re potentials after fuel reduction 

treatments in dry forests of the Blue Mountains, northeastern Oregon. Forest 

Ecology and Management. 255(8/9): 3151–3169.

Yunger, J.A. 2004. Movement and spatial organization of small mammals 

following vertebrate predator exclusion. Oecologia. 139(4): 647–654.

Zackrisson, O.; Nilsson, M.D.; Wardle, D.A. 1996. Key ecological function of 

charcoal from wildfi re in the boreal forest. Oikos. 77: 10–19.

Zausen, G.L.; Kolb, T.E.; Bailey, J.D.; Wagner, M.R. 2005. Long-term 

impacts of stand management on ponderosa pine physiology and bark beetle 

abundance in northern Arizona: a replicated landscape study. Forest Ecology and 

Management. 218(1–3): 291–305.

Zebehazy, L.A. 2002. Avian and arthropod community responses to fuel reduction 

treatments in the upper Piedmont of South Carolina. Clemson, SC: Clemson 

University. 86 p. M.S. thesis.
210

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-860

Zebehazy, L.A.; Lanham, J.D.; Waldrop, T.A. 2004. Seasonal avifauna 

responses to fuel reduction treatments in the upper Piedmont of South Carolina: 

Results from phase 1 of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate study. In: Connor, 

K.F., ed. Proceedings, 12th biennial southern silvicultural research conference. 

Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–71. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Southern Research Station: 82–86.

Zenner, E.K.; Kabrick, J.M.; Jenson, R.G.; Peck, J.E.; Grabner, J.K. 2006. 

Responses of ground fl ora to a gradient of harvest intensity in the Missouri 

Ozarks. Forest Ecology and Management. 222(1–3): 326–334.

Zobel, B.J.; Jett, J.B. 1995. Genetics of wood production. Berlin, Germany: 

Springer-Verlag. 337 p.

Zug, G.R. 1993. Herpetology: an introductory biology of amphibians and reptiles. 

San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 527 p.

Zwart, D.C. 2004. Effects of fuel reduction treatments on the incidence of two root 

pathogens of forest trees. Clemson, SC: Clemson University. 114 p. M.S. thesis.
Pacifi c Northwest Research Station

Web site http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/

Telephone (503) 808–2592

Publication requests (503) 808–2138

FAX (503) 808–2130

E-mail pnw_pnwpubs@fs.fed.us

Mailing address Publications Distribution

 Pacifi c Northwest Research Station

 P.O. Box 3890

 Portland, OR 97208–3890
U.S. Department of Agriculture

Pacifi c Northwest Research Station

333 SW First Avenue

P.O. Box 3890

Portland, OR 97208–3890

Offi cial Business

Penalty for Private Use, $300