Prepared in cooperation with the National Park Service

Water-Quality Data Collected to Determine the Presence, 

Source, and Concentration of Lead in the Drinking Water 

Supply at Pipe Spring National Monument, Northern Arizona

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Open-File Report 2013–1029
Cover: Photograph of Kaibab Paiute Tribe drinking water storage tank near Pipe Spring National 

Monument. Photograph taken by National Park Service Resource Manager Amber Van Alfen.
Water-Quality Data Collected to Determine the 

Presence, Source, and Concentration of Lead 

in the Drinking Water Supply at Pipe Spring 

National Monument, Northern Arizona

By Jamie P. Macy, U.S. Geological Survey; David Sharrow, National Park Service; and 

Joel Unema, U.S. Geological Survey

Prepared in cooperation with the National Park Service

Open-File Report 2013–1029

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013

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Suggested citation:

Macy, J.P., Sharrow, D., and Unema, J., 2013, Water-quality data collected to determine the presence, source, 

and concentration of lead in the drinking water supply at Pipe Spring National Monument, northern Arizona. U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 2013-1029, 16 p.
iii

Contents

Abstract ..........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................1

Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................3

Previous Investigations........................................................................................................................3

Description of Study Area ...........................................................................................................................4

Geology ..................................................................................................................................................4

Stratigraphy ..................................................................................................................................4

Geologic Structure ......................................................................................................................4

Hydrogeology ...............................................................................................................................4

Water-Supply Systems.........................................................................................................................6

Methods ..........................................................................................................................................................8

Quality Assurance.................................................................................................................................9

Water-Quality Results ................................................................................................................................12

Rock Composition Results..........................................................................................................................13

Summary........................................................................................................................................................14

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................14

Figures

1. Map showing study area and wells, springs, and rock sample locations, Pipe

Spring National Monument area, northern Arizona .................................... 2

2. Map showing surface geology and geologic structure, Pipe Spring National

Monument area, northern Arizona ...................................................... 5

3. Stratigraphic columnar section, Pipe Spring National Monument area,

northern Arizona ........................................................................... 6

4. West-east section showing stratigraphy of the Vermilion Cliffs, the Moccasin

Monocline, and the west branch of the Sevier Fault, northern Arizona ............ 7

5. Photographs of stratigraphic units and outcrops where rock composition

samples were collected .................................................................. 12

Tables

1. Physical properties and chemical analyses of water samples from selected

municipal wells, springs, and water distribution checkpoints around Pipe

Spring National Monument, northern Arizona .......................................... 10

2. Sample locations, stratigraphic reference, lead isotopic ratios, and lead

concentration analysis from rock samples around Pipe Spring National

Monument area, northern Arizona ...................................................... 13
iv

Conversion Factors and Datums

Conversion Factors

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain

Length

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Area

acre 0.004047 square kilometer (km2)

Volume

gallon (gal) 3.785 liter (L) 

gallon (gal) 0.003785 cubic meter (m3) 

Flow rate

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06309 liter per second (L/s)

Hydraulic conductivity

foot per day (ft/d) 0.3048 meter per day (m/d)

Hydraulic gradient

foot per mile (ft/mi) 0.1894 meter per kilometer (m/km)

SI to Inch/Pound

Multiply By To obtain

Volume

milliliter (mL) 0.03381402 ounce, fluid (fl. oz)

liter (L) 33.82 ounce, fluid (fl. oz)

liter (L) 1.057 quart (qt)

liter (L) 0.2642 gallon (gal)

Mass

gram (g) 0.03527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32

Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (μS/cm at 

25 °C).

Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given either in milligrams per liter (mg/L) 

or micrograms per liter (μg/L).

Datums

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 

(NAVD 88).

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83).

Elevation, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.
Water-Quality Data Collected to Determine the 

Presence, Source, and Concentration of Lead 

in the Drinking Water Supply at Pipe Spring 

National Monument, Northern Arizona

By Jamie P. Macy, U.S. Geological Survey; David Sharrow, National Park Service; and Joel 

Unema, U.S. Geological Survey

Abstract 

Pipe Spring National Monument in northern Arizona 

contains historically significant springs. The groundwater 

source of these springs is the same aquifer that presently is 

an important source of drinking water for the Pipe Spring 

National Monument facilities, the Kaibab Paiute Tribe, and the 

community of Moccasin. The Kaibab Paiute Tribe monitored 

lead concentrations from 2004 to 2009; some of the analytical 

results exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

action level for treatment technique for lead of 15 parts per 

billion. The National Park Service and the Kaibab Paiute 

Tribe were concerned that the local groundwater system that 

provides the domestic water supply might be contaminated 

with lead. Lead concentrations in water samples collected by 

the U.S. Geological Survey from three springs, five wells, two 

water storage tanks, and one faucet were less than the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency action level for treatment 

technique. Lead concentrations of rock samples representative 

of the rock units in which the local groundwater resides were 

less than 22 parts per million. 

Introduction 

Pipe Spring National Monument (PISP) is a 40-acre 

tract of land within the Kaibab Paiute Indian Reservation in 

northern Arizona at the base of the Vermillion Cliffs north of 

Grand Canyon (fig. 1). Several springs, such as West Cabin, 

Tunnel, and Spring Room Springs, discharge from a local 

aquifer within the Navajo Sandstone and upper facies of 

the Kayenta Formation, and are known collectively as PISP 

(Sharrow, 2009). The springs have historically provided 

water for Native American settlement and farming, and later 

ranching and settlement. PISP was established in 1923 to 

preserve the remote historic ranching site that developed 

around the springs (Sharrow, 2009). The area around PISP 

has remained rural, where communities are small and widely 

separated. Water from the local aquifer is used by the National 

Park Service (NPS), the Kaibab Paiute Tribe (KPT), the 

Cattleman’s Association, and the non-tribal community of 

Moccasin. Discharge from the springs within PISP is shared 

by the NPS, the KPT, and the Cattlemen’s Association under 

a historical agreement. These three parties also maintain 

water-supply wells that withdraw groundwater from the local 

aquifer. Routine water analysis of lead concentrations in tap 

water between 2004 and 2009 by the KPT indicated elevated 

concentrations of lead that exceeded the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency action level for treatment technique 

(USEPA TT) for lead of 15 μg/L. In response to these findings, 

groundwater samples were collected in 2009 from the KPT 

water-supply well. Lead concentrations exceeded the USEPA 

TT before purging the well, but were less than the USEPA 

TT after purging the well. Groundwater geochemical results 

from a previous investigation by the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) of groundwater recharge, age, flowpaths, and water 

and rock interaction also indicated concentrations of lead near 

or greater than the current USEPA TT (Truini, 1999).

Lead is a toxic metal that was used for many years in 

products used in and around homes. Lead is a soft, malleable 

metal and is considered a heavy metal. Lead is used in paints, 

building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets, weights, 

and plumbing materials. Lead is often used in the solder 

or flux used in water service lines. A prohibition on lead in 

plumbing supplies has been in effect since 1986, and “lead 

free” pipe, solder, and flux are used to install or repair public 

and residential water systems (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2009). Lead, however, does get into drinking-water 

systems and can cause health issues. Infants and children who 

drink water containing lead in excess of the action level could 

experience delays in their physical or mental development. 

Children could show slight deficits in attention span and 

learning abilities. Adults who drink water containing lead over 

many years could develop kidney problems or high blood 

pressure (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009).
2 Water-Quality Data Collected to Determine Lead in Drinking Water, Pipe Spring National Monument, Northern Arizona

men13-2103_fig01

South Moc casin Wash

South Moccasin Wash

PVC well

Moccasin Spring

NPS monitoring well

Rocks 1-4

West Cabin Spring

Tunnel Spring

Rocks 10&11

NPS facility water

Rock 7

Rocks 5&6

Rock 8

Rock 9

NPS supply well

Tribal storage tank Old NPS supply well

Pipe Spring National Monument

Moccasin

Kaibab

Tribal supply well

NPS storage tank

Juniper

Red Hills

Tribal irrigation well

Kaibab-Paiute Tribal Administration

Kaibab-Paiute 

monitoring well

Spring Room Spring

Main Spring

Study

area

ARIZONA

UTAH

Kaibab-Paiute

Indian Reservation

Kaibab

Plateau Uinkaret

 Plateau

V e

r

m

i l l i o n C l i f f s

389

PIPE SPRING ROAD

Moccasin Canyon

Moccasin Mountain

112°48'W 112°47'W 112°46'W 112°45'W 112°44'W 112°43'W

36°56'N

36°55'N

36°54'N

36°53'N

36°52'N

36°51'N

0 0.5 1 2 MILES

0 0.5 1 2 KILOMETERS

Base map modified from U.S. Geological Survey 1:100,000-scale digital data North American Datum, 1983

EXPLANATION

Pipe Spring National Monument

Spring sampled for water chemistry

Spring location

Well or water supply sampled for water chemistry

Well location

Rock sampled for chemistry

Figure 1. Study area and wells, springs, and rock sample locations, Pipe Spring National Monument area, northern 

Arizona. (NPS, National Park Service.)
Introduction 3

For most contaminants, U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (USEPA) sets an enforceable regulation called a 

maximum contaminant level (MCL). However, because 

lead contamination of drinking water often results from 

corrosion of the plumbing materials belonging to water system 

customers, USEPA established a treatment technique rather 

than an MCL for lead. The treatment technique regulation 

for lead (referred to as the Lead and Copper rule) requires 

water system managers to control the corrosivity of the 

water (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). The 

regulation also requires water systems to collect tap samples 

from sites served by the system that are more likely to have 

plumbing materials containing lead. If more than 10 percent 

of tap water samples exceed the lead action level of 15 parts 

per billion, then water system managers are required to 

take additional actions including: (1) taking further steps to 

optimize the corrosion control treatment (for water systems 

serving 50,000 people that have not fully optimized corrosion 

control); (2) educating the public about lead in drinking water 

and actions consumers can take to reduce their exposure to 

lead; (3) replacing the portions of lead service lines (lines 

that connect distribution mains to customers) under the 

water system’s control (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2009). 

This investigation was undertaken to address concerns 

that the groundwater system that supports Pipe Spring and 

provides the domestic water supply for PISP, and adjacent 

communities on the Kaibab Paiute Indian Reservation could 

have elevated levels of lead. The USGS in cooperation with 

the NPS developed a study to determine the presence, source, 

and concentrations of lead in the local water supply for PISP, 

the KPT, the Cattleman’s Association, and the community 

of Moccasin. Water-quality data results from this study will 

provide the NPS, the KPT, the Cattleman’s Association, and 

the community of Moccasin with information to determine if 

the source and presence of the elevated lead concentrations 

are from the infrastructure and water supply wells, and (or) 

are naturally occurring within the rocks of the local aquifer. 

The results from this study will complement a study by the 

Indian Health Services for the KPT, which also focused 

on the presence and concentration of lead in the wells and 

infrastructure of the Tribal water-supply distribution system. 

Purpose and Scope

The purpose of this report is to (1) describe the waterquality analysis results that were collected and analyzed for 

lead and other constituents, (2) determine the presence of lead 

in the water-supply wells, (3) determine if the source of lead 

is from the infrastructure and water-supply wells and (or) is 

naturally occurring within the rocks of the local aquifer, and 

(4) confirm if the concentrations of lead from water samples 

from wells and springs exceed the USEPA TT.

This report presents water-quality analysis results from 

sampling of wells, springs, and selected distribution points 

from the water-supply infrastructure. Lead chemistry analysis 

of rock samples that are associated with the local aquifer also 

are presented in this report. 

Previous Investigations

In a USGS groundwater study (Truini, 1999), 

geochemical analytical results yielded lead concentrations 

from Spring Room Spring at 20 μg/L, Moccasin Community 

well at 20 μg/L, NPS Culinary well at 12 μg/L, West Cabin 

Spring at 10 μg/L, and Moccasin Spring at 10 μg/L. Lead was 

undetectable at concentrations less than 10 μg/L in samples 

from Tunnel Spring, the NPS Monitoring well, and the Tribal 

Irrigation well. The USGS National Water Quality Laboratory 

detection limit, at the time of this study (Truini, 1999), 

was 10 μg/L, which is only slightly less than the current 

USEPA TT. 

Routine monitoring of lead concentrations between 

2004 and 2009 by the KPT determined that 10.4 percent 

of 77 tap-water samples exceeded the USEPA TT of 15 

μg/L (Olsen, Water Program Manager, Kaibab Paiute Tribe, 

written commun., 2009). In response to these findings, 

groundwater-quality samples were collected by the KPT at 

the well heads from the NPS supply well, the Tribal supply 

well, and the Moccasin Community Well on July 22, 2009. 

Lead concentrations in water-quality analytical results, 

collected before purging the wells, exceeded the USEPA TT

and were 16 (NPS supply well), 21 (Tribal supply well), 

and 22 μg/L (Moccasin Community Well) (U.S. Department 

of Health and Human Services, Indian Health Services, 

2010). After the wells were purged, the lead concentrations 

decreased to 6.8 (NPS supply well), 12 (Tribal supply well), 

and 5.6 (Moccasin Community Well) μg/L (U.S. Department 

of Health and Human Services, Indian Health Services, 

2010). Possible sources of the elevated lead concentrations 

that were considered included (1) natural or anthropogenic 

contamination of the groundwater, (2) contamination 

in the well, pump, or plumbing at the well site, and 

(3) contamination in the storage or distribution system 

(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Indian 

Health Services, 2010). Contamination in the plumbing system 

is possible because lead is commonly a component of the 

metal used to solder together pipes from the infrastructure. 

Natural contamination is considered to be a source of 

contamination, but the geologic strata in the study area are not 

known to contain high concentrations of lead or other heavy 

metals. Additionally, industrial sources of lead contamination 

are not present in the area. Besides the sources previously 

listed, it is possible that water samples could have been 

inadvertently contaminated at the time of collection or may 

have been subject to laboratory errors. 
4 Water-Quality Data Collected to Determine Lead in Drinking Water, Pipe Spring National Monument, Northern Arizona

Description of Study Area 

Geology 

The existence of the springs at PISP is the result of local 

stratigraphy, geologic structure, and landforms that control 

the movement, direction, and discharge of groundwater in the 

study area (Levings, 1974; Ingles, 1990, 1997; Truini, 1999; 

Billingsley and others, 2004; Truini and others, 2004). PISP 

is located west of the Sevier Fault and lies at the intersection 

of the northern parts of the Uinkaret and Kaibab Plateaus on 

the southwestern part of the Colorado Plateau physiographic 

province. Although the region is dominated by nearly flat 

Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary strata, there are notable 

faults and folding in the vicinity of PISP (fig. 2; Billingsley 

and others, 2004). 

Stratigraphy

Stratigraphic layers exposed in the vicinity of PISP are 

shown in a stratigraphic column in figure 3 and are described 

by Billingsley and others (2004). These layers constitute a 

thick sequence of Triassic and Jurassic age sediments that can 

cover an interval ranging from 980 to 1,970 ft thick. Given 

the relatively small range of land-surface elevation in the park 

of 200 ft, the number of strata of interest would be limited; 

however, the 1,500-ft offset of the Sevier Fault exposes 

several more stratigraphic layers in and near the park.

The oldest exposed layer near PISP is the Shnabkaib 

Member of the Moenkopi Formation, which is widely exposed 

on the eastern side of the Sevier Fault and is considered 

to be a barrier to groundwater movement (figs. 2 and 3; 

Levings, 1974; Ingles, 1990, 1997; Truini, 1999; Truini and 

others, 2004). The Chinle and Moenave Formations overlie 

the Shnabkaib Member in places to the east of the Sevier Fault 

(figs. 2 and 3; Billingsley and others, 2004).

The most prominent rock layer at PISP is the red 

sandstone and mudstone of the Kayenta Formation (fig. 3). At 

PISP, the Navajo Sandstone is exposed as a thin, light-colored 

remnant that caps the top of the upper sandstone beds of the 

Kayenta Formation (fig. 3). Groundwater in the local aquifer 

resides in the Navajo Sandstone and Kayenta Formation. 

Bedding planes, faults, and fractures within the rocks provide 

primary and secondary groundwater porosity (Levings, 1974; 

Ingles, 1990, 1997; Truini and others, 2004). 

Geologic Structure

The Sevier Fault is the dominant structure within the 

study area, extending for more than 100 mi to the north and 

south. Displacement on the normal Sevier Fault in the study 

area is 1,500–2,000 ft down and to the west (Billingsley and 

others, 2004). It is believed that the Sevier Fault has been 

active for 12–15 million years coincident with the initiation 

of the extension of the Basin and Range Province to the west 

(Lund and others, 2008). The west segment of the Sevier 

Fault branches from the main segment just north of PISP. 

Groundwater movement in the local aquifer is bounded by 

the west segment of the Sevier Fault (referred to as the West 

Branch by Truini, 1999) in the north and central parts of 

the study area, and the Sevier Fault in the southern part of 

the study area (Truini and others, 2004). The Sevier Fault 

influences the movement of groundwater in the local aquifer in 

the three ways: 

1. Associated with the west segment of the Sevier Fault is an 

east dipping monocline named the Moccasin Monocline 

(figs. 2 and 4). The Moccasin Monocline descends 

the eastern side of Moccasin Mountain providing a 

continuous connection of permeable Navajo Sandstone 

for groundwater movement from the higher terrain down 

to the valley (Truini, 1999; Billingsley and others, 2004; 

Truini and others, 2004). 

2. At the base of the Moccasin Monocline is a small syncline 

that parallels the strike of the monocline (fig. 2). The 

syncline forms a trough-shaped local aquifer roughly 

6 mi long and 6 mi or less wide, with PISP at its 

southern terminus (Billingsley and others, 2004). Along 

the syncline is the location of many of the springs and 

productive wells in the area. Erosion has exposed the 

southern terminus permeable rock in this syncline at PISP 

(figs. 2 and 4; Sharrow, 2009).

3. The offset of the Sevier Fault brings relatively 

impermeable Moenkopi Formation to the surface as a 

barrier to eastward movement of groundwater across the 

fault (fig. 4; Truini, 1999; Truini and others, 2004; 

Martin, 2007).

Hydrogeology 

Studies of the relation between spring discharge and 

the local aquifer near PISP have been conducted because of 

concerns about decreasing spring discharges. In the mid-1970s 

the NPS began to measure the discharge from the springs at 

PISP on a regular basis and began to notice a steady decrease 

(Sharrow, 2009). The decrease in spring discharge became 

more apparent by 1990, and a series of investigations were 

undertaken to better understand the groundwater system 

feeding the springs and to determine the cause for the decrease 

in spring discharge (Ingles, 1990, 1997; Truini, 1999; Truini 

and others, 2004; Martin, 2007; Sharrow, 2009). Truini (1999) 

used a survey of water-surface elevations, water chemistry, 

isotope characteristics, and geology to draw the following 

conclusions about groundwater flow:

1. Groundwater movement is north to south through 

fractured and consolidated rock on the western side of 

the Sevier Fault and the west segment (“Branch”) of 

the Sevier Fault. This is indicated by low water-surface 

elevations in springs and wells from north to south, and 

also by increasing sulfate concentrations, which indicates 

greater contact with the underlying Kayenta Formation.
Description of Study Area 5

men13-2103_fig02

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FF

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F

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F

F FF F FF

F

F F F

F F F

M

M M M

M

S

M

S

M

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M

S

S

M

S

S

S S

S

S

M

M

M M

S

M

S S

M

S

M

S

A'

A

M

occasin

Monocline

Pipe Spring

National Monument

Sevier Fault

Jk

Jk

Jk

Jk

Jk

Jkt

Jmd

Jmd

Jmd

Jms

Jms

Jms

Jmw

Jmw

Jn

Jn

Jn

Jn

Qd

Qd

West Segm

e

nt of S

evier

Fa ult

Jnl

Jnl

Qes

Qes

Qa1

Qae

Qae

Qs

Qa1

Qa2

Qa2

Qae

Qae

Qes

Qa2

Qa1

Qa1

Qtr

Qtr

TRmm

TRms

TRcs

TRcp

TRmu

112°48'W 112°47'W 112°46'W 112°45'W 112°44'W 112°43'W

36°56'N

36°55'N

36°54'N

36°53'N

36°52'N

36°51'N

0 0.5 1 2 MILES

0 1 2 0.5 KILOMETERS

Base map modified from U.S. Geological Survey 1:100,000-scale digital data, North American Datum, 1983

Geology mapped by Billingsley and others, 2004

Jk

Jkt

Jmd

Jms

Jmw

Jn

Jnl

Qa1

Qa2

Qa3

Qae

Qd

Qes

Qtr

TRcp

TRcs

TRmm

TRms

TRmu

M Syncline certain

M Syncline concealed

F Fault certain

F Fault concealed

Qs

Moenave Formation (Lower Jurassic)

Chinle Formation (Upper Triassic)

Owl Rock and Petrified Forest Members

Shinarump Member

Moenkopi Formation (Middle (?) and Lower Triassic)

EXPLANATION

Surficial Deposits Sedimentary Rocks

Monocline certain 

Monocline concealed

S

S

Stream-channel alluvium (Holocene)

Eolian san sheet deposits (Holocene)

Eolian sand dune deposits (Holocene)

Talus and rock fall deposits (Holocene)

Mixed eolian and fluvial deposits (Holocene)

Young alluvial fan deposits (Holocene)

Intermediate alluvial fan deposits (Holocene)

Old alluvial fan deposits (Pleistocene)

Navajo Sandstone (Lower Jurassic)

Tenney Canyon Tongue of the 

Kayenta Formation (Lower Jurassic)

Lamb Point Tongue of the 

Kayenta Formation (Lower Jurassic)

Kayenta Formation (Lower Jurrassic)

Dinosaur Canyon Member

Springdale Sandstone Member

Whitmore Point Member

Upper Red Member

Shnabkaib Member

Middle Red Member

Figure 2. Surface geology and geologic structure, Pipe Spring National Monument area, northern Arizona

(modified from Billingsley and others, 2004).
6 Water-Quality Data Collected to Determine Lead in Drinking Water, Pipe Spring National Monument, Northern Arizona

2. Two sets of springs (at PISP and the community of 

Moccasin, fig. 1) and at least 15 wells share this common 

aquifer.

3. The elevation gradient along the aquifer (measured from 

the Tribal Irrigation Well, 4 mi north of Moccasin Spring, 

fig. 1) ranges from 20 to 70 ft/mi.

4. Water throughout the groundwater system appears to 

share a common recharge area as indicated by similarities 

in oxygen/deuterium isotopic concentrations.

5. The estimated travel time for groundwater from north to 

south is about 800 years. (Carbon dating produced a wide 

range of water ages between 50 and 9,000 years, and 

800 years was selected as a reasonable estimated value.) 

Five springs were identified by Truini (1999) as 

discharging from the Pipe Spring aquifer, with four of the 

springs located within PISP (figs. 1 and 2). Tunnel Spring 

has the highest discharge of the five springs, which varies 

seasonally between 8 and 12 gal/min and has been decreasing 

for the past decade. West Cabin Spring is on the slope above 

and to the northwest of Tunnel Spring and has had a relatively 

constant discharge of 0.5–1.0 gal/min since 1976. Spring 

Room and Main Springs are located in or near Winsor Castle, 

but these springs dried up in 1999 and were not available for 

sampling during this study.

The other spring discharging from the local aquifer is 

Moccasin Spring, which is within the small community of 

Moccasin, 2.5 mi north-northwest of Pipe Spring (fig. 1). 

The spring discharges where Moccasin Wash cuts across the 

syncline at a right angle, and water flowing in fractures up 

gradient is pooled behind the sandy alluvium of the wash 

(Sabol, 2005). Water from this spring is used jointly by the 

residents of Moccasin and the KPT. 

Water-Supply Systems

The KPT and NPS have community water-supply 

wells about 1.6 mi north of PISP (fig. 1). The NPS well was 

originally drilled in 1975 and replaced in 2007 with a new 

well 200 ft to the south. The old well is used for monitoring. 

The KPT drilled their well in 1980 about 700 ft southwest of 

the NPS well. Although the NPS and Tribal supply wells are 

only about 700 ft apart, they supply two independent storage 

and distribution systems (Sharrow, 2009). The systems can be 

interconnected if either well is inoperative, but under ordinary 

circumstances the two systems are operated independently. 

The NPS well pumps water to a buried 500,000-gal metal 

storage tank located about 0.5 mi south of the NPS well. 

Water from the NPS well is then distributed to the south to 

NPS facilities at PISP, the Tribal-NPS partnership visitation 

center, and Tribal facilities. The Tribal facilities include 

men13-2103_fig03

Water bearing

TRIASSIC

NAVAJO SANDSTONE

ALLUVIUM

KAYENTA FORMATION

MOENAVE FORMATION

CHINLE FORMATION

MOENKOPI FORMATION

Petrified Forest Member

Shinarump Member

Schnabkaib Member

Modified from Harshbarger and others (1957)

Water bearing

in places

JURASSIC

Water bearing

in places

Water bearing

in places

QUATERNARY

Water bearing

Dinosaur Canyon Member

Figure 3. Stratigraphic columnar section, Pipe Spring National Monument area, northern Arizona.
Description of Study Area 7

men13-2103_fig04

Jn

Jn

Jk

Jk

Ql

Ql

Jms

Jms

Jmw

Jmd

^cp

Qd

Qa1

Qa1 Qa2 Qa2

Qa1

Qa2

Qd

Qd

Qae

Qae

Qs

Pkh

^ml

^mv

^mm

^ms

4,500

4,700

4,900

5,100

5,300

5,500

5,700

5,900

6,100

6,300

6,700

6,500

FEET

A

A'

SEVIER FAULT

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 4 Radio Towers VERMILION CLIFFS

MOCCASIN MONOCLINE

VERMILION CLIFFS

Pipe Spring National Monument

Young alluvial fan deposits (Holocene)

Qd

Qae

Eolian sand dune deposits (Holocene)

Mixed eolian and fluvial deposits (Holocene)

Qa1

Intermediate alluvial fan deposits 

(Holocene and Pleistocene(?)) Qa2

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Owl Rock and Petrified Forest Members, 

undivided

Upper red member (Middle(?) and Lower Triassic)

Harrisburg Member

Kaibab Formation (Lower Permian) Chinle Formation (Upper Triassic)

Moenkopi Formation (Middle(?) and Lower Triassic)

Moenave Formation (Lower Jurassic)

Pkh

^mu

^cp

^ms Shnabkaib Member (Lower Triassic)

^mm Middle red member (Lower Triassic)

^mv Virgin Limestone Member (Lower Triassic)

Lower red member and Timpoweap Member, 

undivided (Lower Triassic) ^ml

Navajo Sandstone (Lower Jurassic)

Dinosaur Canyon Member Jmd

Jn

Jk Kayenta Formation (Lower Jurassic)

Jms Springdale Sandstone Member

Jmw Whitmore Point Member

Landslide debris deposits 

(Holocene and Pleistocene)

Ql

SURFICIAL DEPOSITS

Qs Stream-channel alluvium (Holocene)

EXPLANATION

Figure 4. West-east section showing stratigraphy of the Vermilion Cliffs, the Moccasin Monocline, and the west 

branch of the Sevier Fault, northern Arizona (Billingsley and others, 2004).

the multipurpose building, the NPS-leased office building, 

the campground, Red Hills Village, Tribal Court building, 

Red Cliffs gas station and convenience store, and the Tribal 

administration building. The Tribal well pumps water to two 

metal storage tanks with a combined capacity of 100,000 gal 

on the hilltop about 1,000 ft northeast of the well (fig. 1). 

Water from the Tribal well primarily is used to supply the 

water needs at Kaibab and Juniper villages, totaling 47 homes, 

and the Tribal park and community center near Kaibab.

By virtue of the water supply system being located 

on an Indian Reservation, regulatory responsibility for 

drinking-water supplies is through the USEPA directly rather 

than through the State. The NPS system is classified as a 

Transient Non-Community Water System, a public water 

system that provides water to a place such as a gas station 

or campground where people do not remain for long periods 

of time (Sharrow, 2009). The Tribal system is classified as a 

Very Small Community Water System, a public water system 

that supplies water to the same population year-round and that 

serves 25–500 people (Sharrow, 2009).

The USGS operates three real-time monitoring wells 

in the vicinity of PISP (fig. 2). The longest period of 

record dating from 1976 is available for the Kaibab-Paiute 

monitoring well (station No. 365403112452801), which 

is 1 mi northwest of the water-supply wells. This well 

was equipped for real-time monitoring in 2010. The NPS 

monitoring well (station No. 365236112442501) was drilled in 

1989 and manually monitored until 2004 when the real-time 

telemetry was installed, and is located about 1 mi south of the 

water-supply well. Real-time monitoring was installed in the 

PVC well (station No. 365602112460201) in 2010 to provide 

information from the aquifer 1.5 mi north of the community of 

Moccasin near the northern end of the local aquifer.
8 Water-Quality Data Collected to Determine Lead in Drinking Water, Pipe Spring National Monument, Northern Arizona

Methods 

Collection and analysis of water-quality data and rock 

composition were designed to help identify the presence, 

source, and concentrations of lead in the water-supply 

systems for PISP, the KPT, the Cattleman’s Association, and 

the community of Moccasin. From February 7 to 9, 2011, 

water-quality samples were collected from 10 sites. A single 

water-quality sample was collected on June 3, 2010, as part 

of a separate USGS investigation (Bills and others, 2010), 

and results from the analysis were included as part of this 

study. Counting the sample from one site collected by Bills 

and others (2010) plus samples collected from 10 sites for 

this study, 11 sites were sampled including 5 wells, 3 springs, 

2 storage tanks, and 1 faucet at the NPS facilities at PISP. Of 

the five wells sampled, two wells were the water-supply wells 

for for PISP and the KPT, one well was an old NPS supply 

well, and two wells were observation wells. The two water 

storage tanks were part of the infrastructure in connection 

to the NPS and Kaibab Paiute water-supply systems. A 

single faucet was sampled at PISP, which was part of the 

infrastructure connected to the NPS supply well and the NPS 

storage tank. The source of the three springs that were sampled 

is the same local aquifer as the source of drinking supply at 

PISP. 

All analytical results were compared to the USEPA 

drinking-water standards. Maximum contaminant levels 

(MCLs) are the primary regulations, and are legally 

enforceable standards that apply to public water systems 

(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). MCLs 

protect drinking-water quality by limiting the concentrations 

of specific contaminants that can adversely affect public 

health. Secondary maximum contaminant levels (SMCLs) 

provide guidelines for the control of contaminants that may 

cause cosmetic effects (such as skin or tooth discoloration) 

or aesthetic effects (such as taste, odor, or color) in drinking 

water (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). The 

USEPA recommends compliance with SMCLs for public 

water systems; however, compliance is not enforced. 

Treatment technique (TT) is a required process intended to 

reduce the level of contaminant in drinking water and the 

action level at which that treatment technique is required is 

the action level treatment technique (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2009).

Water-chemistry samples were collected and analyzed for 

major ions, nutrients, and trace elements. Field measurements 

were done in accordance with standard USGS protocols 

documented in the USGS National Field Manual for the 

Collection of Water-Quality Data (U.S. Geological Survey, 

variously dated). Field measurements include pH, specific 

conductance, temperature, barometric pressure, dissolved 

oxygen, alkalinity, and discharge rates at springs. Field 

alkalinities were determined using incremental equivalence 

(Rounds, 2006). Major ion, nutrient, trace element, and 

alkalinity samples were filtered through a 0.45-μm pore size 

filter and preserved with 2.0 mL of 7.7N HNO3 according 

to sampling and analytical protocol. Laboratory analyses 

for samples were done at the USGS National Water Quality 

Laboratory (NWQL) according to techniques described in 

Fishman and Friedman (1989), Fishman (1993), Struzeski and 

others (1996), American Public Health Association (1998), 

Garbarino (1999), Garbarino and others (2006), and Patton 

and Kryskalla (2011). 

Water-quality samples from water-supply wells were 

collected from a hose spicket near the wellhead prior to any 

water treatment, such as disinfection, softening, or filtration. 

Polyethylene tubing connected the hose spicket of a well 

to a splitter that directed water to a flow-through chamber, 

a sample line, and an overflow line. A Hydrolab minisonde 

multi-parameter probe was used in conjunction with a closed 

flow-through chamber to determine field parameters for 

pH, water temperature, specific conductance, and dissolved 

oxygen. All wells, except the PVC well, were purged using 

a portable pump or existing pumps in the water-supply wells 

for at least three well casing volumes and until field parameter 

readings stabilized for two readings at 15 min intervals: pH 

within ±0.1 units, temperature ±0.2°C, specific conductance 

±5 percent, and dissolved oxygen ±0.3 mg/L. Once the well 

was purged and the field parameters stabilized, water samples 

were collected from the sample line using USGS protocols 

for the specific types of analysis (U.S. Geological Survey, 

2006). The PVC well could not be purged for three well casing 

volumes because of the slow recovery of the well after one 

purge volume and therefore the well was only purged for one 

well casing volume.

Water samples collected from water tanks were 

collected as depth-integrated samples. A peristaltic pump 

with 1/8-in. silicone tubing was used to pump water from the 

bottom, middle, and top of the tank into a 4-L high-density 

polyethylene (HDPE) sample bottle. The silicone tubing was 

weighted at the end with a large rubber stopper and lowered 

into the water tanks from the access port on the top of the 

tank. Water was pumped through the tubing into a 4-L HDPE 

bottle from which water-chemistry samples were processed 

for shipment to the USGS National Water Quality Laboratory 

(NWQL) in Lakewood, Colorado. The water-chemistry sample 

from the faucet at PISP was collected directly from the faucet 

into a 4-L HDPE sample bottle and processed out of the 4-L 

HDPE bottle into smaller polyethylene bottles for shipment to 

NWQL (U.S. Geological Survey, 2006).

Water samples from springs were collected as close to 

the source as possible. Water was collected directly into a 4-L 

HDPE sampling bottle and then processed into smaller bottles 

for shipment to NWQL. Field parameters were measured at 
Methods 9

each site using individual probes for pH, water temperature, 

specific conductance, and dissolved oxygen. When no flow 

was present, but water was pooled, a peristaltic pump was 

used to pump water into a 4-L HDPE sampling bottle, and 

then samples were processed from that 4-L HDPE bottle for 

shipment to NWQL (U.S. Geological Survey, 2006).

Lead isotope water-chemistry samples were collected 

and planned for analysis in this study, but it was determined 

that the total lead concentrations in water samples was too 

low for accurate isotopic analysis (Thomas Bullen, Research 

Geochemist, U.S. Geological Survey, oral commun., 2011). 

Metals analyses were used to determine if the concentration 

of lead and other metals associated with the presence of lead 

might be from the plumbing system at PISP. Metals that were 

analyzed include barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, 

cobalt, copper, iron, lithium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, 

silver, strontium, thallium, tungsten, vanadium, and zinc. 

Rock samples were collected as part of this study to 

determine the lead concentration within the rocks associated 

with the local aquifer near PISP. Eleven rock samples were 

collected during the same time period as the water-quality 

samples from February 7 to 9, 2011 (fig. 1; table 1). Seven 

samples of the Navajo Sandstone and Kayenta Formation, 

which form the local aquifer, were analyzed. Rocks from the 

local aquifer are in continual contact with water from the 

local aquifer and the potential exists for lead to dissolve out 

of aquifer rocks and into the aquifer water. Other analyzed 

samples include three samples from the Moenkopi Formation, 

two of which were from the Shnabkaib Member and one 

from the middle red member. One sample of the Moenave 

Formation (fig. 5) also was collected. The Moenkopi and 

Moenave Formations are in continual contact with the local 

aquifer because they have been faulted near the surface by the 

west segment of the Sevier Fault. Because these formations 

are in contact with the local aquifer, lead could dissolve out 

of the rocks and potentially impact the local aquifer. Lead 

isotopic ratios were analyzed from rock samples in an attempt 

to characterize the type of lead present in the stratigraphic 

units. Lead isotopic ratios would have been compared to lead 

isotopic ratios in water-chemistry samples as an indicator 

of source rock, but the water chemistry samples were 

not analyzed for lead isotopes for the reasons previously 

described. Rock samples were prepared and analyzed for 

total lead concentration and lead isotopic ratios at Northern 

Arizona University (Ketterer and others, 1991; Halliday and 

others, 1998). 

Lead isotopic ratios of 206Pb/205Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, 

208Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, and 208Pb/206Pb were analyzed 

by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS) 

using a VG Axiom MC instrument following procedures 

outlined in Ketterer and others (1991) and Halliday and others 

(1998). Isotopic ratios were corrected for instrument bias using 

the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 

981 as a standard and the analysis accuracy was evaluated 

using a NIST 2711 control sample and compared to control 

values from Unruh and others (2000). Analysis of NIST 2711 

indicated that the isotopic ratios of the average of five 

analyses to be very close to control values, within 0.015 for 

206Pb/204Pb, 0.01 for 207Pb/204Pb, 0.02 for 208Pb/204Pb, 

0.0005 for 207Pb/206Pb, and 0.0015 for 208Pb/206Pb. Lead 

concentration was determined using quadropole ICPMS 

and a Thermo X Series II instrument. The detection limit is 

0.8 μg/g lead. 

Quality Assurance

Quality assurance for this study was maintained through 

the use of proper training of field personnel, use of standard 

USGS field and laboratory protocols, collection of a sample 

blank, and a thorough review of the analytical results. All 

USGS scientists involved with this study have participated in 

the USGS National Field Quality Assurance Program, which 

requires participants to successfully determine pH, specific 

conductance, and alkalinity of reference samples supplied 

by the USGS Branch of Quality Systems. Field crews were 

trained in water-quality field methods by USGS personnel or 

through formal instruction at the USGS water-quality field 

methods class.

Laboratory analyses were completed at the NWQL using 

methods approved by the USGS or the USEPA. The detection 

level used by the NWQL for most analytes is the laboratory 

reporting level (LRL; Childress and others, 1999). The LRL is 

determined through a statistical procedure designed to yield a 

false positive or false negative rate of less than 1 percent at the 

LRL (Childress and others, 1999), and is twice the long-term 

method detection level (LT-MDL). For more discussion of 

LRLs and LT-MDLs, see Childress and others (1999). 

One field blank was collected during the sampling 

effort. The blank was collected at the NPS supply well by 

pumping certified blank water from the USGS NWQL. This 

sample was analyzed to determine if bias existed in the 

data from contamination during sample collection and (or) 

analysis. Cobalt and manganese were detected in the fieldblank sample, at 0.17 and 0.3 μg/L, respectively. In order 

to further investigate these detections, analytical results for 

all field blank samples were compiled for samples analyzed 

for cobalt and manganese collected during 2010–11 by the 

same personnel using the same equipment as this study. The 

results for four cobalt blank samples indicate that potential 

cobalt contamination is estimated with 76 percent confidence 

to be no greater than 0.18 μg/L in at least 70 percent of the 

blank samples since 2010. The six manganese blank samples 

indicate that potential manganese contamination is estimated 

with 74 percent confidence to be no greater than 0.3 μg/L in at 

least 80 percent of the samples since 2010.
10 Water-Quality Data Collected to Determine Lead in Drinking Water, Pipe Spring National Monument, Northern Arizona Table 1. Physical properties and chemical analyses of water samples from selected municipal wells, springs, and water distribution checkpoints around Pipe Spring National Monument, northern Arizona. [°C, degrees Celsius; μS/cm, microsiemen per centimeter at 25°C; mg/L, milligram per liter; E, estimated; μg/L, microgram per liter; <, less than.; –, no data] Site name U.S. Geological Survey identification number Latitude (decimal degrees) Longitude (decimal degrees) Screened/open Interval (feet below land surface) Geologic unit at screened/open interval Date of samples Temperature field 

(°C)

Specific 

conductance 

field 

(μS/cm)

pH field 

(units)

Alkalinity, 

field, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as 

CaCO3

)

Dissolved 

solids 

residue at 

180°C 

(mg/L)

Calcium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as 

Ca)

Magnesium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as Mg)

NPS Facility Water 365146112441500 36.862778 112.7375 – – 02-07-2011 9.5 618 7.7 190 360 50.1 25.2Tunnel Spring 365149112442202 36.863611 112.739444 – – 06-03-2010 14.4 545 7.7 205 – 54.2 23.9

Cabin Spring 365149112442203 36.863611 112.739444 – – 02-08-2011 14.6 489 7.0 180 325 45.6 19.6NPS Monitoring Well 365236112442501 36.876667 112.740278 115–125 Navajo Sandstone 02-09-2011 16.0 509 – 185 332 48.2 21.2

NPS Storage Tank 365301112444100 36.883611 112.744722 – – 02-09-2011 10.1 617 7.5 189 350 47.2 24.1

Tribal Well 365324112445501 36.89 112.748611 – – 02-07-2011 14.7 561 7.4 180 338 52.7 23.5

Old NPS Well 365325112445201 36.890278 112.747778 175–205 Navajo Sandstone 02-08-2011 15.0 587 7.4 200 349 48.1 24.2NPS Supply Well 365325112445202 36.890278 112.747778 – – 02-08-2011 14.4 588 7.3 206 354 48.6 24.5Tribal Storage Tank 365335112444400 36.893056 112.745556 – – 02-07-2011 9.1 583 7.4 181 355 48.8 22.3Moccasin Spring 365438112453501 36.910556 112.759722 – – 02-09-2011 14.3 195 7.7 83.1 113 19.8 8.51PVC Well 365602112460201 36.933889 112.767222 82–90 Alluvium 02-08-2011 15.0 634 7.7 230 415 72.0 30.9

Site name

U.S. Geological 

Survey identification 

number

Latitude 

(decimal 

degrees)

Longitude 

(decimal 

degrees)

Date of 

samples

 Potassium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as K)

Sodium, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as Na)

Chloride, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as Cl)

Fluoride, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as F)

Silica, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as 

SiO2

)

Sulfate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as 

SO4

)

Ammonia, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as 

NH3

)

Nitrate 

+ nitrite, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Orthophosphate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as P)

NPS Facility Water 365146112441500 36.862778 112.7375 02-07-2011 4.12 40.1 34.4 0.19 11.6 56.3 <0.013 5.83 0.038

Tunnel Spring 365149112442202 36.863611 112.739444 06-03-2010 2.63 30.9 25.0 .32 12.0 46.2 <.026 2.18 .009

Cabin Spring 365149112442203 36.863611 112.739444 02-08-2011 3.06 28.5 24.4 .24 12.5 44.9 <.013 3.69 .016NPS Monitoring Well 365236112442501 36.876667 112.740278 02-09-2011 3.30 28.7 24.4 .22 12.9 44.7 <.013 3.73 .024NPS Storage Tank 365301112444100 36.883611 112.744722 02-09-2011 3.96 38.0 33.7 .20 11.9 55.2 <.013 5.70 .041

Tribal Well 365324112445501 36.89 112.748611 02-07-2011 3.51 34.4 29.4 .21 12.2 49.5 <.013 6.44 .039Old NPS Well 365325112445201 36.890278 112.747778 02-08-2011 3.96 37.6 33.7 .20 11.9 54.8 <.013 5.51 .041NPS Supply Well 365325112445202 36.890278 112.747778 02-08-2011 3.87 38.3 34.1 .20 11.8 56.9 <.013 5.75 .041Tribal Storage Tank 365335112444400 36.893056 112.745556 02-07-2011 3.49 33.3 29.1 .20 12.2 48.7 <.013 6.52 .036Moccasin Spring 365438112453501 36.910556 112.759722 02-09-2011 3.43 4.22 4.05 .05 11.6 4.59 <.013 1.90 .017PVC Well 365602112460201 36.933889 112.767222 02-08-2011 5.65 15.7 4.70 .21 22.1 52.6 .015 17.3 .023
Methods 11

Table 1. Physical properties and chemical analyses of water samples from selected municipal wells, springs, and water distribution checkpoints around Pipe Spring National Monument, northern Arizona.—Continued[°C, degrees Celsius; μS/cm, microsiemen per centimeter at 25°C; mg/L, milligram per liter; E, estimated; μg/L, microgram per liter; <, less than.; –, no data]

Site name

U.S. Geological 

Survey identification 

number

Latitude 

(decimal 

degrees)

Longitude 

(decimal 

degrees)

Date of 

samples

Aluminum, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Al)

Barium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Ba)

Beryllium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Be)

Cadmium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Cd)

Chromium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Cr)

Cobalt, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Co)

Copper, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Cu)

Iron, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Fe)

Lead, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Pb)

NPS Facility Water 365146112441500 36.862778 112.7375 02-07-2011 6.0 53.6 <0.006 <0.016 0.32 10.068 64.0 7.3 0.181

Tunnel Spring 365149112442202 36.863611 112.739444 06-03-2010 E3.0 60.5 E.007 <.020 .36 .214 <1.0 <6.0 <.030Cabin Spring 365149112442203 36.863611 112.739444 02-08-2011 2.4 51.9 <.006 <.016 .49 1.023 <.50 <3.2 .019NPS Monitoring Well 365236112442501 36.876667 112.740278 02-09-2011 3.3 51.7 <.006 <.016 .58 1.025 <.50 <3.2 .019NPS Storage Tank 365301112444100 36.883611 112.744722 02-09-2011 <1.7 56.1 <.006 <.016 .31 1.055 <.50 <3.2 .027Tribal Well 365324112445501 36.89 112.748611 02-07-2011 <1.7 52.7 <.006 <.016 .51 1.023 1.1 <3.2 .148Old NPS Well 365325112445201 36.890278 112.747778 02-08-2011 <1.7 53.2 <.006 <.016 .32 1.072 64.0 <3.2 .176NPS Supply Well 365325112445202 36.890278 112.747778 02-08-2011 <1.7 56.1 .007 <.016 .31 1.024 2.2 <3.2 .369Tribal Storage Tank 365335112444400 36.893056 112.745556 02-07-2011 <1.7 53.3 <.006 <.016 .51 1.023 <.50 <3.2 <.015Moccasin Spring 365438112453501 36.910556 112.759722 02-09-2011 <1.7 31.9 <.006 <.016 .36 1<.020 <.50 <3.2 <.015

PVC Well 365602112460201 36.933889 112.767222 02-08-2011 <1.7 84.0 <.006 <.016 .72 .361 .55 <3.2 <.015

Site name

U.S. Geological 

Survey identification 

number

Latitude 

(decimal 

degrees)

Longitude 

(decimal 

degrees)

Date of 

samples

Lithium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Li)

Manganese, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Mn)

Molybdenum, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Mo)

Nickel, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Ni)

Silver, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Ag)

Strontium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Sr)

Thallium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Tl)

Tungsten, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as W)

Vanadium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as V)

NPS Facility Water 365146112441500 36.862778 112.7375 02-07-2011 31.3 0.29 2.22 0.32 <0.005 373 <0.010 <0.010 0.97Tunnel Spring 365149112442202 36.863611 112.739444 06-03-2010 37.6 .36 .817 1.5 <.010 339 <.020 <.020 1.2

Cabin Spring 365149112442203 36.863611 112.739444 02-08-2011 31.3 .29 1.13 .17 <.005 306 <.010 <.010 1.4NPS Monitoring Well 365236112442501 36.876667 112.740278 02-09-2011 30.9 1<.13 1.10 .16 <.005 315 <.010 .023 1.1

NPS Storage Tank 365301112444100 36.883611 112.744722 02-09-2011 31.2 1<.13 2.21 .14 <.005 374 <.010 <.010 1.1Tribal Well 365324112445501 36.89 112.748611 02-07-2011 27.9 1 .20 1.67 .20 <.005 332 <.010 <.010 1.5Old NPS Well 365325112445201 36.890278 112.747778 02-08-2011 30.9 .28 2.21 .30 <.005 365 <.010 <.010 .96NPS Supply Well 365325112445202 36.890278 112.747778 02-08-2011 33.9 1<.13 2.33 .15 <.005 377 <.010 <.010 1.1Tribal Storage Tank 365335112444400 36.893056 112.745556 02-07-2011 28.0 .26 1.66 .18 <.005 328 <.010 .017 1.5Moccasin Spring 365438112453501 36.910556 112.759722 02-09-2011 2.32 .66 .080 <.09 <.005 71.9 <.010 <.010 .34PVC Well 365602112460201 36.933889 112.767222 02-08-2011 15.5 3.26 1.02 2.2 <.005 441 <.010 1.08 .67

Site name

U.S. Geological 

Survey identification 

number

Latitude 

(decimal 

degrees)

Longitude 

(decimal 

degrees)

Date of 

samples

Zinc, dissolved 

(μg/L as Zn)

Antimony, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Sb)

Arsenic, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as As)

Boron, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as B)

Selenium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as Se)

Uranium, 

dissolved 

(μg/L as U)

NPS Facility Water 365146112441500 36.862778 112.7375 02-07-2011 25.5 <.027 4.0 170 4.9 11.4

Tunnel Spring 365149112442202 36.863611 112.739444 06-03-2010 <2.8 <.054 2.5 165 3.3 6.28Cabin Spring 365149112442203 36.863611 112.739444 02-08-2011 1.7 <.027 3.1 156 3.2 6.64NPS Monitoring Well 365236112442501 36.876667 112.740278 02-09-2011 <1.4 <.027 2.8 155 3.0 6.39NPS Storage Tank 365301112444100 36.883611 112.744722 02-09-2011 11.5 <.027 4.1 172 4.9 11.5

Tribal Well 365324112445501 36.89 112.748611 02-07-2011 13.1 <.027 3.5 158 4.3 7.64Old NPS Well 365325112445201 36.890278 112.747778 02-08-2011 25.3 <.027 3.9 174 4.9 11.3NPS Supply Well 365325112445202 36.890278 112.747778 02-08-2011 13.5 <.027 4.1 172 5.1 12.3Tribal Storage Tank 365335112444400 36.893056 112.745556 02-07-2011 9.4 <.027 3.4 156 4.2 7.39Moccasin Spring 365438112453501 36.910556 112.759722 02-09-2011 2.8 <.027 .95 23 .47 .257

PVC Well 365602112460201 36.933889 112.767222 02-08-2011 3.1 .084 1.7 202 2.8 2.56

1Possibly contains contamination.
12 Water-Quality Data Collected to Determine Lead in Drinking Water, Pipe Spring National Monument, Northern Arizona

Water-Quality Results 

Water-quality analytical results from the 11 samples 

were similar in composition for all sites except for Moccasin 

Spring and the PVC well (table 1). Lead concentrations ranged 

from less than the reporting limit (0.025 μg/L) at Tunnel 

Spring, Tribal Storage Tank, Moccasin Spring, Cabin Spring, 

PISP monitoring well, and the PVC well to a maximum of 

0.369 μg/L at the NPS supply well. Lead concentrations in 

the remaining four sites were 0.027 μg/L at the NPS storage 

tank, 0.148 μg/L at the Tribal supply well, 0.176 μg/L at 

the old NPS supply well, and 0.181 μg/L at the NPS facility 

water at the faucet. Dissolved-solids concentrations ranged 

from 113 mg/L at Moccasin Spring to 415 mg/L at the PVC 

well with all other sites ranging from 325 to 350 mg/L. 

Chloride concentrations were 4.05 mg/L at Moccasin Spring 

and 4.70 mg/L at the PVC well. Chloride concentrations in 

the remaining nine samples ranged from 24.4 to 34.4 mg/L. 

Concentrations of calcium, magnesium, and sodium in water 

samples from Moccasin Spring were substantially lower 

than samples from all other sites (table 1). Nitrate + nitrite as 

nitrogen concentration was 17.3 mg/L at the PVC well and 

concentrations for the remaining 10 samples were less than 

7 mg/L. 

men13-2103_fig05

A. B.

C. D.

Navajo Sandstone

Kayenta Formation

Figure 5. Stratigraphic units and outcrops where rock composition samples were collected. (A) Windsor Mountain, cliffs 

composed of Navajo Sandstone and Kayenta Formation. (B) Outcrop of Moenkopi Formation where rock sample 8 was collected. 

(C) Outcrop of Dinosaur Canyon Member of the Moenave Formation where rock sample 9 was collected. (D) Outcrop of Shnabkaib 

Member of the Moenkopi Formation where rock samples 10 and 11 were collected. USGS photographs taken by Jamie P. Macy.
Rock Composition Results 13

The concentrations of chemical constituents in samples 

from 10 sites were compared to the USEPA TTs, MCLs, and 

SMCLs for drinking-water standards (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2009). The USEPA TT for lead in drinking 

water is 15 μg/L, and all analytical results for lead were 

less than the USEPA TT, with the highest concentration of 

0.369 μg/L. Low concentrations of lead in water from storage 

tanks and faucets indicate that the water-supply system does 

not contribute significantly to lead concentrations in drinking 

water. The MCLs and SMCLs for all other analyzed chemical 

constituents were not exceeded at any site, except at the PVC 

well where the concentration of dissolved nitrate + nitrite as 

nitrogen was 17.3 mg/L. Nitrogen is measured as the sum 

of nitrite and nitrate. The nitrite concentration in the sample 

from the PVC well was less than 0.001 mg/L, making the 

concentration of nitrate in the sample about equal to the total 

concentration of nitrogen, 17.3 mg/L; therefore, the sample 

exceeded the USEPA MCL of 10 mg/L for nitrate. However, 

this result is viewed with caution because this sample did not 

meet the requirement for purging three well volumes before 

sample collection because of the extremely slow recovery 

of the well after one pumping. Residual nitrate could have 

remained in the well after one casing volume was purged and 

therefore influenced the results. 

Rock Composition Results

Rock sample analytical results indicated that naturally 

occurring lead concentrations were low. Rock samples 

were analyzed from 11 sites in and around PISP (figs. 1 and 

5). Rock samples were collected from areas where it was 

determined that the rocks would be representative to those 

rocks associated with the local aquifer (fig. 5). Results of lead 

isotopic ratio and lead concentration analysis are presented in 

table 2. Lead concentrations in rock samples ranged from 2.8 

to 21.1 μg/g. Concentrations of lead were highest (20.7 and 

21.1 μg/g) from rock samples 5 and 6 (fig. 1) of the Kayenta 

Formation collected near the back of the tunnel at Tunnel 

Spring. Concentrations of lead were lowest (3.7 and 4.9 μg/g) 

from rock samples from the Moenkopi Formation. Measured 

concentrations of lead in rock samples collected at PISP were 

average or low when compared to average rock compositions 

for the Western United States (Connor and Shacklette, 1975). 

Average lead concentrations in sandstones, limestones, and 

shales for the Western United States range from about less 

than 3 to less than 20 μg/g (Connor and Shacklette, 1975). A 

low concentration of lead in Pipe Spring aquifer rocks would 

indicate that total dissolved lead in water samples also would 

be low. Water-chemistry samples and rock samples from PISP 

indicate that naturally occurring lead concentrations are low 

and water from the local aquifer would be expected to have 

low concentrations of lead. 

Table 2. Sample locations, stratigraphic reference, lead isotopic ratios, and lead concentration analysis from rock samples around 

Pipe Spring National Monument area, northern Arizona. 

[Sample ID: Reference to rock sample number on figure 1. Abbreviations: Pb, lead; μg/g, microgram per gram]

Sample

ID

Latitude 

(decimal 

degrees)

Longitude 

(decimal 

degrees)

Stratigraphic unit 206/204 

Pb

207/204 

Pb

208/204 

Pb

207/206 

Pb

208/206 

Pb

Total Pb 

concentration

(μg/g)

Rock 1 36.870861 112.740389 Navajo Sandstone 18.778 15.643 38.462 0.83295 2.0482 9.0

Rock 2 36.870639 112.740778 Navajo Sandstone 18.513 15.615 38.233 0.84336 2.0650 6.1

Rock 3 36.870694 112.74075 Navajo Sandstone 18.419 15.612 38.189 0.84755 2.0732 7.3

Rock 4 36.870528 112.740667 Navajo Sandstone 18.669 15.621 38.335 0.83718 2.0533 8.0

Rock 5 36.863611 112.739444 Kayenta Formation 19.688 15.712 39.128 0.79794 1.9871 21.1

Rock 6 36.863611 112.739444 Kayenta Formation 19.586 15.705 39.092 0.80176 1.9956 20.7

Rock 7 36.86325 112.740222 Kayenta Formation 18.408 15.605 38.156 0.84763 2.0726 14.8

Rock 8 36.845306 112.750806 Middle red member of Moenkopi Formation 19.199 15.667 38.954 0.81598 2.0288 4.9

Rock 9 36.847556 112.750833 Dinosaur Canyon Member of Moenave 19.527 15.690 38.984 0.80344 1.9963 8.8

Rock 10 36.861611 112.73525 Schnabkaib Member of Moenkopi 18.547 15.601 38.199 0.84115 2.0595 2.8

Rock 11 36.861611 112.73525 Schnabkaib Member of Moenkopi 19.425 15.678 39.211 0.80703 2.0185 3.7
14 Water-Quality Data Collected to Determine Lead in Drinking Water, Pipe Spring National Monument, Northern Arizona

Summary

Water-quality and rock sample analytical results yielded 

undetectable to low concentrations of dissolved lead in water 

samples and low concentrations of lead in rock samples. 

Water-quality analysis from five wells, three springs, two 

storage tanks, and one water faucet was completed to 

determine the presence, source, and concentration of lead in 

the water-supply system for the PISP, the Kaibab Paiute Tribe, 

the Cattleman’s Association, and the town of Moccasin. Waterquality analytical results from water samples from the 11 sites 

that were evaluated in this study indicated low concentrations 

of lead in water from any of the sites. Concentrations of lead 

and all other chemical constituents in sampled water were 

less than U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maximum 

contaminant level, secondary maximum contaminant level, 

and treatment technique action level. Analytical results 

for nitrate + nitrite as dissolved nitrogen in the PVC well 

(17.3 milligrams per liter) exceeded the MCL of 11 milligrams 

per liter. Concentrations of lead in water from the two storage 

tanks (<0.01 and 0.18 micrograms per liter) and the facility 

water at the faucet (0.18 micrograms per liter) indicate that 

the water-supply system does not contribute significantly to 

lead concentrations in drinking water. The lead concentration 

of samples from rock units representative of the rocks within 

the local aquifer are less than 22 micrograms per gram. Lead 

concentrations in water samples were too low for isotopic 

analysis, so differentiation between sources of lead was not 

possible by the techniques of this study. Lead isotope data 

from rock samples were measured, and are included in this 

report. 

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16 Water-Quality Data Collected to Determine Lead in Drinking Water, Pipe Spring National Monument, Northern Arizona

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Macy and others— Water-Quality Data Collected to Determine Lead in Drinking Water, Pipe Spring National Monument, Arizona—Open-File Report 2013–1029