NIST Technical Note 1552

Measurements to Support Public Safety 

Communications: Attenuation and 

Variability of 750 MHz Radio Wave Signals 

in Four Large Building Structures 

William F. Young 

Kate A. Remley 

John Ladbury 

Christopher L. Holloway 

Chriss Grosvenor 

Galen Koepke 

Dennis Camell 

Sander Floris 

Wouter Numan 

Andrea Garuti 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Gary Locke, Secretary 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Patrick D. Gallagher, Deputy Director

NIST Technical Note 1552 

Measurements to Support Public Safety 

Communications: Attenuation and Variability of 

750 MHz Radio Wave Signals in Four Large 

Building Structures 

 Christopher L. Holloway 

William F. Young 

Kate A. Remley 

John Ladbury 

Christopher L. Holloway 

Chriss Grosvenor 

Galen Koepke 

Dennis Camell 

Sander Floris 

Wouter Numan 

Andrea Garuti 

 

 

Electromagnetics Division 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

325 Broadway 

Boulder, CO 80305 
Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be 

identified in this document in order to describe an experimental 

procedure or concept adequately. Such identification is not 

intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by the 

National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it 

intended to imply that the entities, materials, or equipment 

are necessarily the best available for the purpose. 

National Institute of Standards and Technology Technical Note 1552 

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Tech. Note 1552, 133 pages (August 2009) 

CODEN: NTNOEF 

U.S. Government Printing Office 

Washington: 2005 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Internet bookstore: gpo.gov Phone: 202-512-1800 Fax: 202-512-2250 

Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001 
iii

Contents 

Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................... v

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1

2. Signal Measurement Methods ................................................................................................ 2

2.1 Radio Mapping Using a Spectrum Analyzer .................................................................... 2

2.1.1 Transmitters ................................................................................................................... 3

2.1.2 Receiving Antenna and Measurement System ................................................................ 3

2.1.3 Spectrum Analyzer Data Processing ............................................................................. 3

2.2 Radio Mapping Using a Narrowband Communications Receiver ................................. 5

2.3 Wideband Excess-Path-Loss Measurements and Time-Delay Spread .......................... 6

2.3.1 VNA-based measurement system ................................................................................... 6

2.3.2 Excess path loss ............................................................................................................. 8

2.3.3 RMS delay spread .......................................................................................................... 8

2.3.4 Measurement set-up ....................................................................................................... 9

3. Building Structure Descriptions and Experimental Set-up .................................................. 9

3.1 Colorado Convention Center, Denver, CO....................................................................... 9

3.2 Republic Plaza, Denver CO ............................................................................................. 10

3.3 Apartment Building, Boulder, CO .................................................................................. 10

3.4 NIST Laboratory, Boulder, CO ....................................................................................... 10

4. Experimental Results .............................................................................................................. 11

4.1 Colorado Convention Center Results.............................................................................. 12

4.1.1. Radio Mapping............................................................................................................ 12

4.1.2. Synthetic Pulse System ................................................................................................ 12

4.2 Republic Plaza Results ..................................................................................................... 13

4.2.1. Radio Mapping............................................................................................................ 13

4.2.2. Synthetic Pulse System ................................................................................................ 14

4.3 Boulder, Colorado Apartment Building Results ............................................................ 14

4.3.1. Radio Mapping............................................................................................................ 14

4.3.2. Synthetic Pulse System ................................................................................................ 15

4.4 NIST Boulder Laboratory Results Results ..................................................................... 15

4.4.1. Radio Mapping............................................................................................................ 16

4.4.2. Synthetic Pulse System ................................................................................................ 17

5. Summary of Results and Conclusion .................................................................................... 18

6. References ................................................................................................................................ 24

Appendix I: Experiment Setups and Locations ....................................................................... 26

v 

Executive Summary 

This is the sixth in a series of NIST technical notes (TN) on propagation and detection of radio 

signals in large building structures (apartment complex, hotel, office buildings, sports stadium, 

shopping mall, etc). The first, second, and third NIST Tech Notes (NIST TN 1540, NIST TN 

1541, and NIST TN 1542) described experiments related to radio propagation in a structure 

before, during, and after implosion. The next two Tech Notes (NIST TN 1545 and NIST TN 

1546) focused exclusively on RF propagation into large buildings, with no implosion results. 

These reports are intended to give first responders and system designers a better understanding of 

what to expect from the radio-propagation environment in disaster situations. The overall goal of 

this project is to create a large, public-domain data set describing the attenuation and variability 

of radio signals in various building types in the public safety frequency bands. 

Because the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is in the process of auctioning 

spectrum between 764 MHz and 776 MHz for a new public-safety band, additional 

measurements were carried out in the 750 MHz frequency band in four different large building 

structures: a convention center, a high-rise office building, an apartment building, and a 

laboratory/office building. Three different types of signal measurements included (1) spectrum 

analyzer radio mapping, (2) narrowband communications receiver radio mapping, and (3) 

broadband synthetic-pulse measurements. 

The first two measurement techniques using radio mapping provide the received signal strength 

at a fixed location outside the structure from a transmitter that is carried through the structure 

while emitting an unmodulated, 750 MHz radio signal within the structure. The synthetic pulse 

system provides stepped-frequency measurements of the received signal across a wide frequency 

band (100 MHz to 18 GHz for the measurements reported here). The phase of each received 

frequency component is synchronized with the excitation by the use of an optical fiber cable. 

Thus, we are able to reconstruct a short-pulse, time-domain waveform in post processing. The 

short pulse enables the study of the multipath in a given environment. Figures of merit such as 

the RMS delay spread may be calculated and used to quantify the time it takes for multipath 

reflections to decay below a given threshold level. 

Similar median and standard deviation values are observed across most of the measurements in 

both the spectrum analyzer and receiver systems. For the spectrum analyzer, the median values 

for all four buildings calculated on data normalized to a direct line-of-sight path ranged from 

-25.1 dB to -98.5 dB, and the corresponding standard deviation values ranged from 6.8 dB to 

30.1 dB. With the narrowband receiver, the median values ranged from -27.9 dB to -93.0 dB, and 

the standard deviation ranged from 9.0 dB to 29.1 dB. From the synthetic pulse measurements, 

the RMS delay spread results ranged from 15 ns to 450 ns at various test locations within the 

four buildings. In these measurements, the calculation of the RMS delay spread was not 

significantly affected by either (a) the directionality of antennas used in acquiring the data, or (b) 

the frequency bandwidth used in signal processing. The RMS delay values for measurements 

made in large open floor plan buildings were typically two to five times that of measurements in 

buildings with relatively narrow corridors. 

The measured results presented here provide key parameters that describe the wireless 

propagation environment in representative responder environments. Measurement uncertainties 
vi 

are not reported; however, end users of these data are interested primarily in large-scale behavior 

on the order of tens of decibels. Including instrumentation repeatability on the order of ±1 dB, 

expected for these measurements, is of little value in this case. We anticipate that improved 

channel descriptions provided by these measurements will be useful for assessing current and 

future wireless technology in emergency scenarios, for standards development, and for 

qualifying wireless equipment in environments such as those studied here. 
1 

Measurements to Support Public Safety Communications: Attenuation and 

Variability of 750 MHz Radio Wave Signals in Four Large Building Structures 

William Young, Kate A. Remley, John Ladbury, Christopher L. Holloway, 

Galen Koepke, Dennis Camell, Sander Floris, Wouter Numan, and Andrea Garuti 

Electromagnetics Division 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80305 

In this report, we investigate radio communication problems faced by emergency responders 

(firefighters, police, and emergency medical personnel) in disaster situations. A fundamental 

challenge to radio communications into and out of large buildings is the strong attenuation of 

radio signals caused by losses and scattering in the building materials and structure, as well as 

the large amount of additional signal variability due to multipath that occurs throughout these 

large structures. We conducted measurements in four large building structures in an effort to 

quantify radio-signal attenuation and variability in scenarios encountered by emergency 

response organizations. We performed three different types of measurements. For the first two 

types of measurements, we carried RF transmitters throughout the structures and placed two 

different types of receiving systems outside the structures. One receiver type was based on a 

commercial, off-the-shelf spectrum analyzer, and the other on a NIST-developed narrowband 

communications receiver system having a high dynamic range. The transmitters were tuned to 

approximately 750 MHz. The third type of measurement tested the time-domain response of the 

channel at particular locations within the buildings using a synthetic-pulse measurement system. 

These measurements utilized the vector network analyzer with its output port tethered to the 

receive antenna by a fiber-optic cable to allow for reconstruction of the time-domain response of 

the propagation channel. This report summarizes the experiments performed in four large 

building structures. We describe the experiments, detail the measurement systems, show results 

from the data we collected, and discuss some of the propagation effects we observed. 

Key words: attenuation; building penetration; building shielding; emergency responders; 

multipath; excess path loss; public-safety; radio communications; radio propagation 

experiments; RMS delay spread; signal variability; weak-signal detection; wireless system. 

1. Introduction 

When emergency responders enter large structures (apartment and office buildings, sports 

stadiums, stores, malls, hotels, convention centers, warehouses, etc.) radio communication to 

individuals on the outside is often impaired. Mobile-radio and cell-phone signal strength is 

reduced due to attenuation caused by propagation through the building materials and scattering 

by the building structural members [1-8]. Also, a large amount of signal variability may be 

encountered due to multipath reflections throughout the structures, which can cause signal 

degradation in communication systems. 
2 

Here, we report on a project conducted by the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

(NIST) to investigate the communications problems faced by emergency responders (firefighters, 

police, and emergency medical personnel) in disaster situations involving large building 

structures. The project was sponsored by the Department of Justice Community Oriented 

Policing Services (COPS) program. As part of this work, we are investigating the propagation 

and coupling of radio waves into large building structures in the 750 MHz frequency band. This 

band is currently of interest because the FCC is in the process of allocating spectrum between 

764 MHz and 776 MHz for a nationwide, next-generation, interoperable broadband network for 

use by the public-safety community. 

The experiments reported here were performed in four different large building structures and are 

the results of measurements of the reduction and variability of radio signal strength caused by 

propagation through the structures. These structures include a convention center, an apartment 

building, a 57-story office building, and an office corridor. This study includes data gathered 

using three different measurement techniques, each of which will be discussed below. 

2. Signal Measurement Methods 

Three different measurement techniques were used to capture the behavior of signals penetrating 

into structures in the 750 MHz frequency band from both time- and frequency-domain 

viewpoints. Use of various types of measurement provides more comprehensive insight into 

signal behavior in a given environment because some effects, such as the time it takes for 

multipath reflections to die out, are more pronounced in the time domain than in the frequency 

domain. While measurement uncertainties are not reported, end users of these data are interested 

primarily in large-scale behavior on the order of tens of decibels. Including uncertainties on the 

order of ±1 dB, expected for these measurements, is of little value when we are studying 

quantities that can vary by tens of decibels when changing by a fraction of a wavelength. 

2.1. Radio Mapping Using a Spectrum Analyzer 

The experiments performed here are referred to as “radio mapping.” These experiments involved 

carrying transmitters (or radios) tuned to approximately 750 MHz throughout the four structures 

while recording the received signal at a fixed site located outside the building. A reference level 

was used to normalize the received power levels for these data. It consisted of a direct, 

unobstructed line-of-sight signal-strength measurement with the transmitters external to the 

different structures and in front of the receiving antennas. The separation distance between the 

transmitter and receiver antennas varied depending on the receive site location and the building, 

and these differences are reflected in the different reference levels. The purpose of the radiomapping measurements was to investigate how signals at 750 MHz couple into the structures, 

and to determine the field-strength variability throughout the structures. A detailed description of 

the transmitters we used is provided in Section 2.1.1 Transmitters, and a description of the 

measurement system and antennas are given in Section 2.1.2 Receiving Antenna and 

Measurement System. The main procedures and components of the radio-mapping receive 

systems are shown in Figure 1. (See Appendix I) 
3 

2.1.1 Transmitters 

The design requirements for the transmitters used in the experiments discussed here were that 

they should (1) transmit at 750 MHz, (2) operate continuously for several hours, and (3) be 

portable. To accomplish this, a commercially available off-the-shelf radio system was used. The 

radios could transmit continuously for 12 to 18 hours. Permission was granted to transmit from 

licensees at the frequency of interest, and the National Telecommunications and Information 

Administration (NTIA) frequency coordinator was also made aware of our transmissions. 

2.1.2 Receiving Antenna and Measurement System 

Each receive site used an omnidirectional discone antenna at a height between 2 and 3 meters. In 

addition, the receive sites contained a spectrum analyzer, a narrowband receiver, computers, and 

associated cabling. Not shown are the power generator and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) 

for powering the receive site. 

As shown in Figure 1(c), the measurement system consisted of a portable spectrum analyzer and 

a laptop computer. The data collection process was automated by use of a graphical 

programming language. This software was designed to control the analyzer, and collect, process, 

and save data at the maximum throughput of the equipment. The software controlled the 

spectrum analyzer via an IEEE-488 interface bus. 

The software was written to maximize throughput of the data collection process and to run for an 

undefined time interval. This was achieved by running parallel processes of collecting, 

processing, and saving the data for post-collection processing. The data were continuously read 

from the spectrum analyzer and stored in data buffers. These buffers were read and processed for 

each signal and displayed for operator viewing. The processed data were then stored in 

additional buffers to be re-sorted and saved to a file on disk. 

The sampling rate of the complete measurement sequence was the major factor in how much 

spatial resolution we had during radio-mapping experiments (we also had some flexibility in our 

walking speed) and the time resolution for recording the signals. Software and parameter settings 

allowed experiment sampling rates of between 3 to 5 samples per second. The resolution 

bandwidth (RBW) is the key parameter in balancing the dynamic range versus the time between 

samples. These experiments used an RBW setting of approximately 500 Hz, which corresponded 

to an average spectrum analyzer noise floor in the range of -101 to -103 dBm. The data from the 

spectrum analyzer trace were saved in binary format to disk; they were then processed to extract 

the signals at the desired frequency. These results were put into a spreadsheet file and saved 

with other measurement information. 

2.1.3 Spectrum Analyzer Data Processing 

The spectrum analyzers collected the raw received power rec P , but the subsequent processing 

was performed on the normalized received power norm P . Only the samples collected during the 

actual walk-through were used; i.e., the N samples were collected while the prescribed path was 

covered. The normalized power was calculated as 
4 

(dB) (dBm) (dBm) norm rec ref P  P  P , (1) 

where ref P is the average of several samples obtained from the reference line-of-sight 

measurement. 

The mean and standard deviation were found from 





N

i

norm Pi N 1

(mW) 1 , (2) 

and 

  (dB) (dB) (dB) 1

1 2

1



  

N

i

norm Pi N

s  , (3) 

respectively. The median is the value that lies in the middle of the measured values. The 

calculation was as follows. First, the collected power samples were ordered by magnitude 

..... ..... , 1 2 1 2 1

norm

N

norm

N

norm

m

norm

m

norm

m

norm norm Ordered power samples  P  P  P  P   P   P   P (4) 

where N is the total number of samples, and m is the middle value if N is odd or m and m+1 are 

the middle two values if N is even. Then, the median value is 

norm M  Pm , if N is odd, and 2 [ ]   1  norm

m

norm M Pm P if N is even. (5) 

The collected data were plotted as normalized power level versus the sample number. Note that 

the reference level was not always the strongest measured signal level. Also, in a few cases, a 

line-of-sight reference was not available, and an average of near-maximum values was utilized as 

the reference value instead. This difference in reference level does not affect the standard 

deviation of the received-signal level, but does impact the median and the mean. 

Histograms were created by use of a bin width of 1 dB, based on normalized received-signal 

power levels. The empirical cumulative density function (CDF) was calculated from the same 1 

dB bin widths in the following manner: 

( ) , 1

N

N

CDF n

n

i

 i

  (6) 

where Ni is the sample count in bin i, n is the current bin, and N is the total number of samples. 

The normalized received-signal power levels were left in units of dB for the purposes of 

obtaining bin counts for the histograms. 
5 

Median, mean, and standard deviation statistics were all calculated based on the normalized 

values of the measured data. In the present work, the mean values were calculated based on the 

linear representation of the signal-power (i.e., milliwatts as opposed to dBm) and then converted 

to a logarithmic value, while the standard deviation was calculated directly on the logarithmic 

quantities. This approach is commonly used as evident in the literature; for example [9-15]. In 

addition, use of the median values rather than the mean is illustrated in [10], [14], and [15]. Use 

of the median values helps prevent skewing of the centrality measure by outlying results. All 

resulting quantities are reported in decibels. Note that the median decibel value is the same 

regardless of whether it was calculated on the linear values and then converted to a decibel 

representation, or calculated directly on the decibel values. 

2.2. Radio Mapping Using a Narrowband Communications Receiver 

We also collected radio-mapping data using a narrowband communications receiver. This 

instrument, when combined with NIST-developed post-processing techniques, provides a highdynamic-range measurement system that is affordable for most public safety organizations. Part 

of our intent was to demonstrate a user-friendly system that could be utilized by public-safety 

organizations to assess their own unique propagation environments. These data were collected at 

the same time the spectrum analyzer measurements described above were conducted. We carried 

the radio transmitter throughout the structures while recording the received signal at a fixed 

receive site, as illustrated in Figure 1(a) 

The use and calibration of the communications receiver is described in more detail in other 

publications, (for example [16]), but is briefly summarized here for convenience. The system, 

shown in block diagram form in Figure 2(a), is based on a commercially available 

communications receiver and a personal computer (PC) sound card. The receiver is set to its 

“upper sideband” mode and is tuned to a frequency slightly below the carrier. In this way, the 

receiver acts as a frequency downconverter (Figure 2(b)), transforming the RF signal to baseband 

(audio) frequencies. The baseband signal is digitized by use of the sound card and is then postprocessed and graphically displayed, letting the operator know whether a radio signal is present 

and what the level of that signal is. 

We may observe the upper and lower sidebands of the down-converted signal by setting the 

receiver’s center frequency to approximately the middle of its intermediate-frequency (IF) 

passband. For example, a signal with a 100 MHz carrier frequency may be measured by a 

receiver with a 3 kHz passband by tuning the receiver to 99.9985 MHz. In this case, the receiver 

will display the 100 MHz signal at 1.5 kHz (see Figure 2(c)). 

The communications receiver has an automatic-gain-control (AGC) circuit whose function is to 

control the receiver gain to produce a constant-output-level signal regardless of the input power. 

The AGC circuit ensures the receiver circuitry operates in its optimal range. For the receiver we 

used, the AGC is active only for signals above a certain power threshold, and does not modify 

weak signals (on the order of received powers less than -90 dBm). 
6 

The purpose of the AGC circuit is to ensure that the receiver will demodulate at as high of a 

signal level as possible without overdriving the front end. It does this by altering the receivedsignal level to fit the best range for the demodulator. However, for received-power 

measurements the signal-level information is exactly what we are trying to determine. Hence, we 

need to undo the effects of the AGC modification of the signal level. To extract the signal-level 

information from the AGC-modified received signal, we monitor the DC voltage level that 

corresponds to the feedback of the AGC circuit. This voltage is directly related to the receivedsignal power and may be used to compensate for the AGC. We measure the DC voltage at the 

AGC jack on the back panel of the receiver with a digital multimeter having a recording feature. 

By synchronizing the recorded signal with the recorded AGC levels, we may determine the 

received signal’s level during post-processing. 

Once the post-processing steps are carried out, the average received-signal power for each 

location in a building may be measured. Note that the received power depends on the antenna 

and cabling used with the receiver. However, these effects may be calibrated out to display 

system-independent electric field level, enabling easy comparison of measurements from 

different measurement systems. In the measurements described here, we used an 

omnidirectional, discone antenna for frequencies below 1 GHz. 

The communications receiver allows us to determine the range of received-power values that can 

be expected for a given structure. In the following section, we instead report on the receivedsignal level relative to a reference line-of-sight measurement, as described in the previous 

section. Similar to the spectrum analyzer data collected in earlier NIST Technical Notes [5, 7, 

17, 18], these data are then processed in terms of mean, median, and standard deviation to 

provide channel models for network simulations. Because data are collected continuously, signal 

levels can easily be associated with features in the propagation environment. One advantage of 

the communications receiver over the spectrum analyzer is its increased dynamic range; that is, 

we can detect weaker signals with this system. Also, our receiver system has a lower cost 

compared to that of a spectrum analyzer. 

2.3. Wideband Excess-Path-Loss Measurements and Time-Delay Spread 

2.3.1 VNA-based measurement system 

In addition to single-frequency radio-mapping measurements, we studied excess path loss over a 

wide frequency band at selected locations within each structure with the use of a vector network 

analyzer (VNA). Wideband excess path loss measurements provide measurements of received 

signal strength relative to the expected direct-path, free-space signal for a wide frequency band 

of 25 MHz to 18 GHz. Our wideband measurements provide a channel transfer function H(f), 

and our excess-path-loss is then H(f)

2

/Hr(f)

2

, where Hr(f) is the free-space reference. While this 

ratio provides the typical notion of excess-path-loss at a particular frequency, the VNA 

measurements provide a much richer data set; that is, they include both magnitude and phase 

information. 

For the measurements reported here, we also present a subset of these measurements covering 

frequencies from 700 MHz to 800 MHz. The excess-path-loss measurements complement the 

narrowband, continuously recorded received power measured with the spectrum analyzer and 
7 

communications receiver discussed above by providing the received power over a wide range of 

frequencies but at only a few locations. Time-delay spread was calculated from the excess path 

loss data in post processing. Root-mean-square (RMS) delay spread is a figure of merit that gives 

an indication of the level of multipath interference encountered during the signal transmission. 

For the wideband measurements, we used a synthetic-pulse, ultrawideband system based on a 

VNA [19]. Figure 3 is a diagram of the measurement system. Here the system is shown 

collecting a line-of-sight reference measurement. In practice, the transmitting and receiving 

antennas may be separated by significant distances, although they must remain tethered together 

by the fiber-optic link. Even though directional horn antennas are shown in Figure 3, 

omnidirectional antennas were also used in our measurements, offering insight into antenna 

systems most often used in public-safety applications. 

In the synthetic-pulse system, the VNA acts as both transmitter and receiver. The transmitting 

section of the VNA steps over a wide range of frequencies a single frequency at a time. The 

transmitted signal is amplified and fed to a transmitting antenna, as shown in Figure 3. The 

received signal is picked up over the air by the receiving antenna and sent back to the VNA via a 

fiber-optic cable. The fiber-optic cable minimizes the loss and phase change that would be 

associated with RF coaxial cables between the receiving antenna and the transmitting antenna. 

We can then reconstruct the time-domain characteristics of the received signal in postprocessing. Because the wideband transmitted signal corresponds to a short-duration pulse in the 

time domain, this system lets us measure the transmitted signal, modified by the propagation 

path, including losses and multipath reflections that the short-duration pulse experiences as it 

travels from the transmitter to the receiver. One advantage of this system is that it provides a 

high dynamic range relative to true time-domain-based measurement instruments. 

To make the measurement, the vector network analyzer is first calibrated by use of standard 

techniques, where known impedance standards are measured. The calibration corrects for the 

systematic errors in the response of the fiber-optic system, amplifiers, and any other electronics 

used in the measurement. Then, a reference measurement is conducted where the transmitting 

and receiving antennas are placed to minimize reflections from the surrounding environment. 

This reference measurement allows us to verify that the system is operating correctly and allows 

us to determine the far-field response of the antennas and the cables that connect them to the 

measurement system. We compare this reference with the frequency response of the antennas 

measured separately in the laboratory environment at NIST. The antenna response is 

deconvolved in a post-processing step. 

Once the measurements have been made, an additional post-processing step is carried out on the 

raw VNA measurements to provide clean frequency-domain and time-domain representations. 

Our optical links add a large amplitude oscillation to the measured signal, most likely due to the 

reflection off a fiber face. Because this oscillation occurs at a low frequency, we are able to 

suppress it by applying a high-pass filter, as shown in Figure 4. 

Note that we use the phrase “excess path loss” in the context of vector-network-analyzer (VNA)-

based measurements. Technically, we are measuring received signal relative to the transmitted 

signal, not path loss. Graphs of path loss would have positive ordinates and increase with 
8 

distance. However, the phrase “excess path loss” has a specific meaning in the measurement 

community and will be used throughout this report. 

2.3.2 Excess path loss 

Our wideband measurements provide a channel transfer function H(f), where H(f) typically is 

derived from the measured transmission parameter S21(f). To find the frequency-dependent path 

loss between the transmit and receive antennas, we first compute |H(f)|2

/|Hr(f)|2, where Hr(f) is a 

free-space reference made at a known distance dr from the transmit antenna. The use of a ratio to 

find the path loss enables us to calibrate out the antenna response of the system. 

Excess path loss is typically understood to be the loss seen to exceed that measured in a freespace environment [20]. To find the excess path loss, we reduce the total path loss by the 

expected free-space path loss over the overall separation distance d between the transmitting and 

receiving antennas. To do this, we divide the measurement of |H(f)|2

 by (4πd/λ)

2

. Equivalently, 

we can multiply |H(f)|2

/|Hr(f)|2 by (dR/d)

2

. The distance d may be measured or estimated from 

maps, depending on the environment. As stated earlier, this provides the loss in excess of that 

which would be measured at the same distance in free space. We note that communication 

engineers typically think of excess path loss as a single frequency or narrowband measurement. 

However, the VNA measurements provide a much richer data set because they include both 

magnitude and phase information over a broad frequency range. 

As an example, Figure 5 shows the time-domain response for a reference measurement using a 

pair of dual-ridged-guide antennas separated by 3 m. In Figure 5(a), the reference measurement, 

transformed to the time domain, is shown with all environmental effects. The reference 

measurement is gated (windowed) from 20 ns to 32 ns to isolate the antenna response, which was 

determined previously in a separate measurement. The corresponding frequency-domain 

response in Figure 5(b) shows a noisier trace when environmental effects are included, compared 

with a smoother trace for isolated antennas. The gated response is what we would see if the 

antenna were measured in a free-space environment, free from environmental reflections. 

2.3.3 RMS delay spread 

Root-mean-square (RMS) delay spread is calculated from the power-delay profile of a measured 

signal [21-23]. Figure 6 shows the power-delay profile for a typical building propagation 

measurement. The peak level usually occurs when the signal arrives at the receiving antenna, 

although sometimes we see the signal build up gradually to the peak value and then fall off (the 

latter behavior is indicative of a reverberation environment). A common rule of thumb is to 

calculate the RMS delay spread by use of signals at least 10 dB above the noise floor of the 

measurement. For typical measurements, we define the maximum dynamic range to be about 

40 dB below the peak value. However, for the measurement shown in Figure 6, we extended the 

window down to 70 dB below the peak value, because the RMS delay spread does not change 

appreciably due to the almost constant slope of the power decay curve. Note that the dynamic 

range value may change for low signal levels. The following equation is used to define the RMS 

delay spread,  : 
9 

    

2 2

RMS    . (5) 

In (2),  is defined as the average of the power-delay profile in the defined dynamic range, and 

2  is the variance of the power-delay profile.

2.3.4 Measurement set-up 

For the measurements reported in this document, the VNA-based synthetic pulse system was set 

up with the following parameters. The initial output power was set to -15 dBm to -13 dBm, 

across all frequencies, but do not compensate for the frequency dependence of components such 

as cables and antennas. The gain of the amplifier and the optical link and the system losses 

ensured that the power level at the receiving port was not more than 0 dBm. An intermediatefrequency (IF) averaging bandwidth of around 1 kHz was used to average the received signal. 

We typically used 6401 or 16001 points per frequency band, depending on the frequency band. 

For these measurements, the high-band measurements (750 MHz to 18 GHz, using directional 

dual ridge guide (DRG) antennas) were taken by measuring 48003 points for a total of three 

bands. Only one band was required for the low-frequency measurements (25 MHz to 1.4 GHz 

with omnidirectional dicone antennas and 6401 points). The dwell time was approximately 25 μs 

per point. 

3. Building Structure Descriptions and Experimental Set-up 

This section briefly describes the four different large building structures characterized in these 

experiments and details the experimental set-up. These structures include a convention center, an 

apartment building, a laboratory building with multiple office corridors, and a 57-story office 

building. This study includes data gathered with the three different measurement techniques 

described above. 

3.1 Colorado Convention Center, Denver, CO 

The first structure was the Colorado Convention Center. This massive three-level structure is 

constructed of reinforced concrete, steel, and standard interior finish materials. The exterior of 

the building is a combination of glass, metal, and concrete. Figure 7 and Figure 8 show both 

internal and external photos of the convention center. As shown in Figure 9, the convention has a 

basement and two above-ground levels. An auditorium was located on the Speer Boulevard side 

of the second level. The third level consists of a large open space that can be subdivided by 

moveable walls. During the experiment, the space was open and nearly empty. 

Our receive sites were located at the street level, which is level two. The three receive sites are 

depicted on Figure 9, denoted as RX1, RX2, and RX3, respectively. All three locations were 

located between 10 m to 15 m from the building at the closest point. Placement of these receive 

sites was intended to simulate the location of emergency response vehicles during a response 

scenario. 
10 

3.2 Republic Plaza, Denver, CO 

The Republic Plaza is a 57-story office building in downtown Denver. The construction 

materials are a typical combination of concrete and steel. The interior building materials are a 

combination of metal framing, drywall, and trim, with stone finishes in the lobby. The exterior is 

a combination of glass and metal. Figure 10 and Figure 11 illustrate the exterior and interior of 

the building, respectively. In Figure 12, floor plans for several levels are shown. 

In this experiment, the three receive sites, depicted in Figure 13 and Figure 14, varied 

substantially in distance from the building. Receive site 1 was located on the 17th Street side, 

approximately 10 m from the building; receive site 2 was located on the 16th Street side, 

approximately 25 m from the building; and finally, receive site 3 was located on the roof of a 

parking garage approximately 215 m southwest on Tremont Plaza. These locations were 

intended to simulate the locations of command vehicles in an emergency response scenario. 

Light blue numbers enclosed by squares in Figure 15 show the locations within the building used 

in the synthetic pulse tests. Those locations that correspond to a radio-mapping test location 

shown in Figure 12 are indicated as well. 

3.3 Apartment Building, Boulder, CO 

This building was the 11-story Horizon West apartment building in Boulder, CO (Figure 16). 

The building is constructed of reinforced concrete, steel, and brick with standard interior finish 

materials. The building was fully furnished and occupied during the experiments. Measurements 

were performed during daytime hours and, as a result, people were moving throughout the 

building during the experiments. Figure 17 displays some internal photos of the apartment 

complex building. 

For the radio-mapping experiments, two fixed receive sites (see Figure 18(a)) were assembled on 

the east side and north side of the apartment building, approximately 60 m and 80 m from the 

apartment building. During this experiment, the transmitters were carried throughout the 

building. Measurements were performed with the receive antennas polarized in the vertical 

direction. As the received signal was recorded, the location of the transmitters in the apartment 

building was also recorded. The locations of the synthetic pulse measurements are shown in 

Figure 18(b). These measurements were acquired approximately every 5 m, as indicated in the 

figure, on floors two and seven of the building. 

3.4 NIST Laboratory, Boulder, CO 

This building is the main building (referred to as the Radio Building) at the NIST laboratories in 

Boulder, CO. The building is constructed of reinforced concrete and is basically a four-story 

building. However, the building is built on a hillside, and consequently, some locations in the 

building are below ground level. Measurements were made on the 3rd floor hallway called “Wing 

4”, with the radio-mapping continuing in to “Wing 3” on the 3rd floor, and “Wing 5” on the 
11 

fourth floor. The measurements were performed during daytime hours and, as a result, people 

were moving throughout the building during the experiments. 

For the radio-mapping experiments, two fixed receiving sites were assembled on the south side 

of the laboratory building (see Figure 19 and Figure 20). The receive site at Wing 4 was located 

on the loading dock, while the receive site at Wing 6 was approximately 10 m from the building. 

During these experiments, the transmitters were carried throughout the laboratory. Measurements 

were performed with the receiving antennas polarized in the vertical direction. As the received 

signals were recorded, the location of the transmitters in the buildings was also recorded. 

Note that in Figure 20 there are two separate paths that were covered during the radio-mapping 

data collection process. Path one is reference location→A→B→C→D→C→B→A→reference 

location and path 2 is reference location→A→B→C2→B→A→reference location. The section 

between the reference location and position B is covered twice in both paths. Figure 21 shows 

the locations of the synthetic pulse measurements. 

4. Experimental Results 

In this section, the measured data (see Appendix II) are presented from several perspectives. 

Each subsection discusses a different set of building structure measurements. Plots of the radiomapping data, normalized to a line-of-site (LOS) reference level, are provided for the frequency 

of 750 MHz, and the appropriate figures containing the data are indicated in the subsection 

discussions. Plots of the radio-mapping data statistics are also included. Discrete locations, 

where the synthetic-pulse measurements were collected, are marked on the appropriate figures. 

We provide excess path loss data covering the frequencies from 700 MHz to 800 MHz as well as 

the RMS delay spread associated with each location. 

Descriptions of the experimental setups for the various sites were provided earlier in Section 2. 

Any unique features at a site that appear to impact the collected data are pointed out in the 

appropriate subsection. The common acronyms and abbreviations used in the labeling of the 

radio-mapping figures and statistical plots are provided in Table 1 below. 

Table 1. Abbreviations used in Statistic Tables and Data Figures. 

Acronym or Abbreviation Meaning 

Apmt. apartment 

Approx. approximate 

DRG dual ridged guide horn 

Fl., FL, fl. floor 

Freq. frequency 

LOS line-of-sight 

Lx level x or floor x, where x is a number 

N.E. northeast 

N.W. northwest 

Ref. reference signal level 

RMS root mean square 
12 

Std. dev. standard deviation 

S.E. southeast 

S.W. southwest 

Vert. vertical 

4.1 Colorado Convention Center: Measurement Results

The first set of results is from the Colorado Convention Center. All three types of measurements 

were performed. Due to high attenuation of the received signals caused by this structure, both the 

spectrum analyzer data and the synthetic pulse data were affected. The statistics from the 

spectrum analyzer data were skewed by data points below the noise floor of the instrument and 

only a few locations in the synthetic pulse tests provided enough signal strength to compute a 

meaningful RMS delay spread. 

4.1.1. Radio Mapping 

The spectrum analyzer radio mapping results for the Colorado Convention Center are shown in 

Figure 22 through Figure 24, and the narrowband receiver radio mapping results are shown in 

Figure 26 through Figure 28. In all six plots, the line-of-sight reference signal is clearly seen by 

the distinct largest peaks in each plot. The features of the results from the two different 

measurement systems track well at each of the receive sites. The narrowband receiver results 

cover a broader range of signal levels. We see that spectrum analyzer results are at the noise 

floor across much of the collected data. However, the narrowband receiver data provides useful 

results down to approximately 15 dB below the noise floor of the spectrum analyzer system. 

Figure 25 and Figure 29 show histograms and empirical CDFs from the Colorado Convention 

Center for data from the spectrum analyzer and narrowband receiver systems, respectively. One 

of the most notable features is the step function behavior of the spectrum analyzer CDFs due to 

the amount of time the signal was below the noise floor level for that measurement system. The 

results from the narrowband receiver are probably a more accurate representation of the 

propagation effects due to the increased dynamic range. The high bin count on two of three 

narrowband receiver histograms is due to the hard noise floor limit imposed during the data 

processing. In other words, the received values below a certain level are all given the same value. 

This affects the median value but has little effect on the mean. Note that we need to include these 

points because they represent deep fades. 

4.1.2 Synthetic Pulse System 

The VNA measurements were carried out at the positions indicated in Figure 9, with the VNA 

located at receive site 2 (RX2). The VNA results are limited in number due to the significant 

signal attenuation experienced while moving into the center of the building. Two different 

antenna configurations were used for the measurements; a directional dual ridged guide horn 

(DRG) to DRG and a DRG to omnidirectional “tophat” antenna. We also considered two 

different frequency bands in data processing: 700 MHz to 800 MHz and 700 MHz to 18 GHz. 

The excess path loss plots for these four antenna and frequency band combinations are shown in 

Figures 30 through 33. 
13 

We computed the RMS delay spread from the 700 MHz to 800 MHz excess path loss data. When 

the dynamic range falls below a certain threshold, the accuracy of the computed RMS delay 

spread value decreases. (See Figure 6 for an explanation of the dynamic range.) The RMS delay 

spread is nearly the same across the four combinations of measurements. 

In Figure 34, we see the RMS delay spread plotted for each test position, where the positions 

illustrated in Figure 9 are located progressively deeper into the Convention Center. Past position 

six, the dynamic range was insufficient to allow an accurate calculation of the RMS delay 

spread. Positions one through four were measurements made in a large, open, two-story lobby of 

the convention center. Here, we see RMS delay spreads of between 100 ns and 150 ns. These 

values increase sharply (up to a maximum of 200 ns) once the receiver turns the corner and 

proceeds down a large hallway. 

4.2 Republic Plaza Measurement Results 

The second set of measurement results is from the 57-story Republic Plaza Building in Denver. 

All three types of measurements were performed. Because there was less attenuation, we were 

able to calculate the RMS delay spread at more positions than we could in the Colorado 

Convention Center. 

4.2.1. Radio Mapping 

The spectrum analyzer radio mapping results for the Republic Plaza Building are shown in 

Figure 35 through Figure 37, and the narrowband receiver radio mapping results are shown in 

Figure 39 through Figure 41. In the plots for receive sites two and three, the line-of-sight is 

clearly seen by the distinct largest peaks in each plot. The basic structure of the two types of 

measurements track well at each of the receive sites, and the additional free space path loss for 

receive site three is evident in the approximately 18 dB reduction in the reference value as 

compared to values obtained at receive sites one and two. As in the Convention Center 

measurements, the narrowband receiver results cover a broader signal range; however, the most 

notable difference in the signal range covered by spectrum analyzer versus the narrowband 

receiver occurs at site three. This is due to the fact that site three was located much further from 

the building than either site one or two. 

Figure 38 and Figure 42 show the histograms and empirical CDFs of the radio mapping 

measurements from the Republic Plaza for the spectrum analyzer and narrowband receiver 

systems, respectively. The basic shapes of the empirical CDFs are quite similar for the first two 

sites, (see Figure 38 (a), (b) and Figure 42 (a), (b)). The spectrum analyzer empirical CDF for 

site three exhibits a much more rapid rise due to the high number of data points at the noise floor 

of the measurement system. The histograms for the narrowband receiver all demonstrate a hard 

noise floor by the high count in the last bin. As discussed in the Colorado Convention Center 

section, hard noise floor does not significantly affect the mean value, but the data are important 

because they represent very deep fades in the signal level. 
14 

4.2.2 Synthetic Pulse System 

Synthetic pulse measurements were collected at positions marked in Figure 15, with the VNA 

located at receive site 1 (RX1) in Figure 14. We collected excess path loss measurements over 

the frequency bands 200 MHz to 180 MHz and 700 MHz to 18 GHz. For the lower-frequency 

measurements we used omnidirectional discone antennas, and for the higher-frequency 

measurements we used DRG antennas. 

We also calculated the RMS delay spread from the excess path loss data. Twenty-one positions 

within the building were tested, and eighteen of those positions had sufficient dynamic range to 

provide useful results. Figures 43 to Figure 54 show the excess path loss, and Figure 55 shows 

the calculated RMS delay spread. In cases where the dynamic range fell below 20 dB, no RMS 

delay spread was calculated. 

In some cases, the 700 MHz to 800 MHz frequency band data did not exhibit a dynamic range 

greater than 20 dB. To estimate the RMS delay spread over this frequency band, we calculated 

the RMS delay spread for frequency bands where we did have more than 20 dB of dynamic 

range and compared these to what we calculated between 700 MHz and 800 MHz. These 

frequency bands were 200 MHz to 1.8 GHz, and 200 MHz to 600 MHz. We also included the 

RMS delay spread in the 900 MHz ISM band, with calculation limits between 865 MHz and 

965 MHz. As shown in Figure 55, the computed RMS delay spread values for the four frequency 

bands track quite well across the eighteen positions, and suggests that results for the other two 

frequency bands provide good estimates of the RMS delay spread for the 700 MHz to 800 MHz 

band. 

Figure 55 shows that the RMS delay spread is lowest at the landing of each floor, where a 

window was located. The delay spread does moderately increase as the height increases (from 

around 50 ns on floor 1 to around 150 ns on the highest floor). However, when the measurements 

were made deeper within the building on floors 5 and 10 (positions 9, 10, and 16), the RMS 

delay spread increased significantly (to between 300 and 450 ns, depending on the location and 

the frequency band used to calculate the RMS delay spread). 

4.3 Boulder, CO Apartment Building Results 

The third set of results is from the 11-story Horizon West apartment building in Boulder, 

Colorado. This building has been used in other experiments, with results for radio mapping in 

other frequency bands found in [18] and synthetic-pulse measurements found in [8]. 

 

4.3.1. Radio Mapping 

The radio-mapping experiment included sixty-three locations throughout the building, with a 

brief description of these locations provided in Table 4. The spectrum analyzer radio mapping 

results for the apartment building are shown in Figure 56 and Figure 57, and the narrowband 

receiver radio mapping results are shown in Figure 59 and Figure 60. Both sets of figures 

illustrate a similar structure, with peaks at the same positions. Note that some difference in 

locations is attributable to the manual process by which the positions are recorded during the 
15 

experiment. In both cases the signal is well above the noise floor, which is evident in the 

histograms shown in Figure 58 and Figure 61. The empirical CDFs are quite similar and are 

consistent with a Gaussian shaped probability density function. 

The overall spread, minimum to maximum, of the measured signals is approximately 60 dB for 

both receive sites and both measurement systems. Also, the median and mean values are at least 

15 dB closer than the two other building measurements, primarily because the received signals 

are well above the noise floor. Even when the transmitters were in the elevator, (locations 61 to 

62 on the radio-mapping plots), the received signal did not experience a deep fade. 

The difference in relative proximity to the building for receive site one and two at Horizon West 

is evident by the difference in the reference levels of approximately 14 dB for both measurement 

systems. Generally, the Horizon West apartment building represented a fairly benign propagation 

environment, as the measured signals were typically well above the noise floor. 

4.3.2 Synthetic Pulse System 

Synthetic pulse measurements for this building were carried out previously, and the results, 

reproduced from TN 1546 [8], can be found in Figures 62 through 65. The RMS delay spread is 

summarized in Figure 66. While these results are not calculated specifically across the 700 MHz 

to 800 MHz band, as demonstrated by the earlier results, the expected behavior should be quite 

similar even when considering a much wider bandwidth, especially because the signal energy is 

greatly reduced at the higher frequencies. 

The RMS delay spread values at the apartment building are all in a range below 50 ns. This is in 

contrast to those from the other two buildings, which were more massive and had longer 

propagation delays between reflections. 

4.4 NIST Boulder Laboratory Results 

The fourth set of data is from the NIST Laboratory in Boulder, CO. In the radio mapping 

experiments, the transmitters were carried over two different paths, shown in Figure 20. Path I 

started at the reference location, and proceeded to position D before returning to the reference 

location. Location C2 was not included in this path. Path II again started at the reference 

location, proceeded to position C2, and then returned to the reference location. Locations C and 

D were not covered in this second path. Unlike the other three structures, data were collected for 

a repeated walk over each path. Thus, the combination of two collection sites, two walking paths, 

and a repeat measurement for each path created four independent data sets for both the spectrum 

analyzer and narrowband receiver measurement setups. The repeated walk provides an indication 

of the repeatability. The statistics are computed on the data collected between the location A 

points marked in the figures. These points are clearly marked by the on/off transition in the 

radio-mapping plots. The reference value is taken as the maximum value across all the collected 

data, so for site one, this maximum occurs near location A, and for site 2, the maximum occurs at 

the reference location indicated in Figure 20. In both cases, the transmitter has line-of-sight 

communications with the receive site, which is consistent with the experimental setup and dataprocessing approach used for the other three buildings. 
16 

4.4.1. Radio Mapping 

The spectrum analyzer results collected at the Wing 4 (site 1) and Wing 6 (site 2) receive 

locations are shown in Figure 67 and Figure 68, respectively, with the repeated Path I walk 

results shown for sites 1 and 2 shown in Figure 70 and Figure 71 respectively. The histogram and 

empirical CDF plots corresponding to these two walks are shown in Figure 69 and Figure 72, 

respectively. The power profile results in Figure 67 and 70 are quite similar, as are the profile 

results in Figure 68 and Figure 71. In addition, the shape of the histograms and empirical CDFs 

in Figure 69(a) and (b) compare well to those in Figure 72(a) and (b). However, the calculated 

statistics indicate differences for the receive site one case, with the first walk-through resulting in 

a median value that is 11.8 dB lower than the repeated walk-through. 

The difference between these repeat walk-throughs is not due to the repeatability of the 

instrumentation: it occurs because of small-scale fading, a phenomenon caused by constructive 

and destructive interfering signal reflections from environmental features such as walls, floors, 

and metallic objects. Small-signal fading can introduce signal level variations of several decibels 

even for measurements made nominally along the same path because it is very position 

dependent. However, the large-scale path loss dependence of the path (if the small-scale fading 

was smoothed out) represented by the statistics presented here remains consistent. The mean and 

the standard deviation are 3.1 dB and 1.3 dB lower for the first walk-through, respectively. Note 

that the reference level is within 0.1 dB for the two walks, so the statistics are not being skewed 

by normalization with respect to the reference level. The site two cases exhibit a median 

difference of 1.7 dB between the two walks of the first path, and difference of 0.9 dB and 0.2 dB 

for the mean and standard deviation, respectively. The reference level differs by 1.2 dB. 

Path II spectrum analyzer power profiles for the first walk for sites one and two are given in 

Figure 73 and Figure 74, respectively, and the repeat walk results are shown in Figure 76 and 

Figure 77 for sites one and two, respectively. The corresponding histogram and empirical PDF 

plots for the two walks are shown in Figure 75 and Figure 78, respectively. The site one profiles 

(Figure 73 and Figure 76), indicate some small differences at the first pass though location B, 

and the histogram and empirical CDF plots (Figure 75(a) and Figure 78(a)) show some 20 

differences as well. The mean value is 2.4 dB lower for the first walk, but the median is 1.8 dB 

lower for the second walk. The standard deviation is 1.7 dB less for the first walk, and the 

reference level is 3.1 dB lower for the second walk. The site two profiles for the two walks 

(Figure 76 and Figure 77) are quite similar, and the histogram and empirical CDF plots (Figure 

75(b) and Figure 78(b)) exhibit similar shapes. The difference in median, mean, standard 

deviation, and reference level values is 0.8 dB, 2.5 dB, 1.5 dB and 0.2 dB respectively. As with 

the Path I results, the site 2 results track closely between repeated walks. 

Figure 79 and Figure 80 show the received power profile for the narrowband receiver at sites one 

and two, respectively, for the first path (Path I) and the first walk. Figure 82 and Figure 83 show 

the narrowband receiver results at sites one and two, respectively, for the repeated walk of Path I. 

The corresponding histogram and empirical CDF plots for the two walks are shown in Figure 81 

and Figure 84. All the corresponding power profile, histogram, and empirical CDF plots for the 

two walks of Path I are quite similar. A noticeable difference occurs in the statistics for site one, 

where the median, mean and standard deviation differ by 7.4 dB, 7.1 dB, and 1.0 dB, 
17 

respectively (see Figure 81(a) and Figure 84(a)). However, the reference level at site 1 is almost 

identical for the two walks of Path I. This behavior is consistent with the spectrum analyzer Path 

I results discussed earlier in this section. Site 2 statistics indicate a difference of 0.8 dB, 2.5 dB, 

0.2 dB, and 1.5 dB in the median, mean, standard deviation, and reference levels (see Figure 

81(b) and Figure 84(b)). These relatively small differences are consistent with the spectrum 

analyzer results discussed previously. 

Path II narrowband profiles of data collected at sites one and two for the first walk are given in 

Figure 85 and Figure 86, respectively, and the profiles for the second walk of Path II are given in 

Figure 88 and Figure 89, respectively. The corresponding histogram and empirical CDF plots for 

the two walks of Path II are shown in Figure 87 and Figure 90. All the corresponding 

narrowband received power profiles match well between repeated walks, (for example, compare 

Figures 85 to 88, and Figures 86 to 89). An important feature in all four of these plots is that the 

signal level is typically above the noise floor. This is illustrated clearly in the histogram and 

empirical CDF plots of Figure 87 and Figure 90. While the general shape of the corresponding 

histogram and empirical CDF results in Figure 87(a) and Figure 90(a) are quite similar, the mean 

and standard deviation values differ by 5.9 dB and 3.0 dB, respectively. The median and 

reference levels differ by 1.9 dB and 0.4 dB, respectively, in Figure 87(a) and Figure 90(a). 

Histogram and empirical CDF results for receive site two (Figure 87(b) and Figure 90(b)) are 

similar in shape, and the differences in median, mean, standard deviation, and reference levels 

are 3.4 dB, 1.2 dB, 1.5 dB, and 0 dB, respectively. 

4.4.2 Synthetic Pulse System

We also carried out measurements in the Wing 4 corridor with the VNA-based synthetic-pulse 

measurement system described in Section 2.3. Measurements were made at points approximately 

every 15.25 meters (50 feet) along the corridor as shown in Figure 21. The transmitting antenna 

was located either at site one at the end of Wing 4 or at site two, outside the building by the end 

of Wing 6, as shown earlier in Figure 19 and Figure 20. The receiving antenna was moved along 

the corridor to the locations marked in Figure 21. In this report, we discuss the building 

penetration results; i.e., the transmitting antenna is located at site two. Additional results with the 

transmitting antenna at site one are found in [8]. 

We collected data covering two frequency bands. For the lower-frequency band (25 MHz to 

1.3 GHz), we used omnidirectional antennas, as would be used by most emergency response 

companies. For the higher-frequency band (750 MHz to 18 GHz) we used both omnidirectional 

antennas and a set of directional horn antennas. Since this report is focused on 750 MHz, we 

present the complete lower frequency band here (Figure 91 through Figure 97), while the upper 

frequency band data are available in [8]. However, we include a plot that compares the 

omnidirectional results for both the lower and upper bands (Figure 98). 

In Figure 91, the top plot shows the excess path loss with the receiver located at position 1 in 

Figure 21. The received signal is greater than the system noise across the frequency band, and 

thus allows computation of a RMS delay spread. In contrast, note that by positions 9 and 10, 

(Figure 95), the received signal is less than the system noise across much of the frequency band. 
18 

Thus, only the first eight positions exhibit sufficient power across the frequency band to 

calculate the RMS delay spread. 

The RMS delay spread calculated from the VNA measurements with the transmitter at site two is 

summarized in Figure 98. Two different measurement configurations are shown covering 

different frequency ranges, both with omnidirectional antennas. The lower frequency band 

indicates a range of 43 ns - 85 ns, while the upper frequency band shows a range of 31 ns - 79 ns. 

The greatest difference between the two frequency bands (approximately 25 ns) occurs at 

position 4. 

5. Summary of Results and Conclusion 

Here we summarize the results from all four buildings to provide a straightforward comparison. 

Table 2 lists the computed statistics for the spectrum analyzer and narrowband receiver data. 

Figures 99 through 101 provide graphical representations of these data. The index column in 

Table 2 is used in the figures that follow, where several aspects of the data are compared. Note 

that index number pairs of 9 and 10, 11 and 12, 13 and 14, and 15 and 16 represent repeated 

walks over the same path. In addition, these four pairs are all from the NIST laboratory building. 
19 

Table 2. Aggregate statistics from the radio-mapping experiments for the spectrum 

analyzer (SA#) and narrowband radio receiver (R#) tests. 

Experiment Index

Median 

(dB) 

Mean 

 (dB) 

Std. Dev. 

(dB) 

Ref. 

(dBm) 

Spectrum Analyzer Tests 

Colorado Convention Center SA1 1 -52.2 -22.3 9.0 -30.9 

Colorado Convention Center SA2 2 -57.4 -23.2 10.7 -26.5 

Colorado Convention Center SA3 3 -44.2 -23.4 6.8 -39.4 

Republic Plaza SA1 4 -65.2 -23.2 20.0 -33.7 

Republic Plaza SA2 5 -63.1 -20.3 20.0 -32.3 

Republic Plaza SA3 6 -46.5 -18.2 11.8 -50.2 

Horizon West SA1 7 -29.5 -17.7 11.0 -34.5 

Horizon West SA2 8 -25.1 -18.3 9.9 -49.0 

NIST Laboratory SA1, Path I, Walk 1 9 -98.5 -19.8 28.8 -11.5 

NIST Laboratory SA1, Path I, Walk 2 10 -86.7 -16.7 30.1 -11.6 

NIST Laboratory SA2, Path I, Walk 1 11 -61.5 -39.6 9.5 -40.7 

NIST Laboratory SA2, Path I, Walk 2 12 -63.2 -38.2 11.3 -41.9 

NIST Laboratory SA1, Path II, Walk 1 13 -62.8 -18.4 25.2 -11.6 

NIST Laboratory SA1, Path II, Walk 2 14 -64.6 -16.0 26.9 -14.7 

NIST Laboratory SA2, Path II, Walk 1 15 -61.1 -39.8 10.9 -41.6 

NIST Laboratory SA2, Path II, Walk 2 16 -61.9 -37.3 12.4 -41.8 

Narrowband Receiver Tests 

Colorado Convention Center R1 1 -75.0 -22.6 21.0 -26.0 

Colorado Convention Center R2 2 -77.7 -25.1 19.8 -22.1 

Colorado Convention Center R3 3 -68.2 -26.1 20.2 -37.2 

Republic Plaza R1 4 -68.3 -26.0 20.3 -29.3 

Republic Plaza R2 5 -60.0 -18.9 21.5 -32.7 

Republic Plaza R3 6 -49.3 -19.9 17.8 -49.8 

Horizon West R1 7 -33.2 -20.6 10.8 -31.1 

Horizon West R2 8 -27.9 -19.3 9.0 -45.2 

NIST Laboratory R1, Path I, Walk 1 9 -93.0 -17.4 29.1 -19.4 

NIST Laboratory R1, Path I, Walk 2 10 -85.6 -24.5 28.1 -19.4 

NIST Laboratory R2, Path I, Walk 1 11 -71.5 -39.9 16.5 -34.8 

NIST Laboratory R2, Path I, Walk 2 12 -70.7 -42.4 16.3 -33.3 

NIST Laboratory R1, Path II, Walk 1 13 -64.0 -21.8 23.9 -19.8 

NIST Laboratory R1, Path II, Walk 2 14 -65.9 -15.9 26.9 -19.4 

NIST Laboratory R2, Path II, Walk 1 15 -62.2 -39.1 15.2 -33.0 

NIST Laboratory R2, Path II, Walk 2 16 -65.6 -37.8 16.7 -33.0 

Figure 99 plots the standard deviation for the two radio-mapping systems versus all the receive 

sites. Excluding the Colorado Convention Center results, the standard deviation values are within 

7 dB for the spectrum analyzer and narrowband measurements when compared on a site-by-site 

basis. In addition, excluding the results from receive site 3 at Republic Plaza and the first results 

for Path I, receive site 2 at the NIST Laboratory, leaves a maximum difference of 5 dB in the 

standard deviation between the two systems. Perhaps more importantly, in Figure 100, we see a 

large difference between the median and mean values. The Horizon West median and mean are 
20 

within 12.6 dB for both sites. However, the Colorado Convention Center and the Republic Plaza 

results show a difference between the mean and the median ranging from 20.8 dB to 52.6 dB. 

The NIST Boulder Laboratory shows differences in the median and mean ranging from 21.3 dB 

to 78.7 dB. These wide ranges illustrate the difference between calculating statistics using 

logarithmic quantities (the median was selected as the middle value in dB) and the mean (which 

was calculated as the mean of the normalized linear power and then converted to dB). The 

former gives a better indication of the differences in average received power for the different 

sites and different receiver types. Note that the median does not change whether computed on the 

logarithmic or linear power quantities. 

The mean received signal strengths shown in Figure 100 indicate similar values between 

measurement systems and across all sites, with the only significant difference occurring at the 

NIST building, site 2. This is due the dominance of the values near 0 dB (i.e., the normalized 

reference level) on the calculation of the mean using linear values. A few values near 0 dB can 

skew the mean due to the weight of those values when the mean is computed. Excluding the 

NIST building, the maximum site-by-site difference for the spectrum analyzer is 2.9 dB (Horizon 

West, site 1). The mean values of the measurements taken at the NIST building, site 2, are 

approximately 20 dB lower than the mean results for the NIST building, site one. In addition, the 

mean values of the measurements taken at NIST, site 2, are 15 dB to 20 dB lower than the mean 

of all other receive sites for the three other buildings. This is due to the fact that the processed 

data for the NIST building, site 2, only included data that were approximately 20 dB below the 

reference value (normalized to 0 dB). From a comparison standpoint, the NIST building, site 1, 

results (i.e., experiment index numbers 9, 10, 13, and 14) demonstrate mean behavior similar to 

that of the other three buildings. 

Figure 101 plots the normalized median value added to the reference value that was used to 

normalize the data for each site and building combination (The reference value is measured when 

the transmitter is located at the reference location.) The results shown in Figure 101approximate 

the average power we would expect to receive when using a system with similar performance 

characteristics (receiver sensitivity and antenna systems) and location at the respective receive 

sites; for example, an emergency response vehicle located at the receive sites. All the statistics 

are computed by use of data normalized by the corresponding reference value. The dynamic 

range of the spectrum analyzer measurement system was extended for cases 4 through 16 by 

narrowing the search bandwidth. Due to the similarity in dynamic ranges, the difference between 

the two measurement systems is now less than 6 dB for cases 4 through 16. 

The results presented in this report support a few observations. First, in comparing the two 

measurement techniques used in the radio mapping, we observe similar statistical results when 

the measured signal is significantly above the noise floor. For example, the statistics are least 

similar at the Colorado Convention Center and most similar for Horizon West. At the Colorado 

Convention Center, we see the spectrum analyzer results influenced by the increased number of 

samples in the noise as compared to the radio receiver. With respect to the uniqueness of the 

structures, the mean value does not indicate significant differences between buildings, or even 

the receive site locations at a particular building. The median values suggest greater difference in 

building behavior, and between the receive sites at a particular building. However, the median 

for the narrowband receive data may be skewed by the calibration issue described in Section 
21 

4.1.1., and by the hard noise floor. A smaller standard deviation value indicates less signal 

variability. 

Aggregate results for the synthetic-pulse are provided in Table 3 below and Figure 102. Table 3 

and Figure 102 shows that the calculation of the RMS delay spread is not significantly affected 

by either (a) the pair of antennas used in capturing the data, or (b) the frequency band used in the 

processing. Both of these factors allow more flexibility in the measurement process. 

As mentioned in Section 4, we can directly trace the changes in the RMS delay spread to physical 

features in the structures. An interesting overall observation is that the RMS delay spread was two to 

five times larger in the convention center and the skyscraper, as compared to the apartment and the 

NIST laboratory/office buildings. The skyscraper and the convention center are both physically 

larger buildings than the apartment and NIST buildings. Also, for both the apartment and the NIST 

laboratory/office building, most of the measurements were made in a hallway or corridor, while 

many of the measurements for the skyscraper and the convention center were made in open areas.
22 

Table 3. Aggregate RMS delay spread values and statistics; all values are in nanoseconds 

(ns). 

Building Colorado Convention 

Center Republic Plaza Horizon West NIST Lab 

Comments DRG-Tophat 

Antennas 

DRG-DRG 

Antennas Flr. 2 Flr. 7 

Index for 

Figure 

plot →

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 

Frequency bands used in RMS calculation 

Position 

Index 

(Location 

in 

building) 

700-800 MHz 

700-18000 MHz

700-800 MHz 

700-18000 MHz

200-600 MHz 700-800 MHz 

200-18000 MHz

865-965 MHz 

1000-18000 MHz1000-18000 MHz

25 -1300 MHz 

750 - 18000 MHz

0 24.1 32.4 

1 70.4 94.7 72.3 88.3 62.0 65.2 64.7 70.1 21.4 23.7 44.2 47.9

2 67.8 86.6 90.2 100.1 56.8 63.5 56.7 60.6 16.7 24.3 44.2 32.7

3 104.5 113.3 123.4 94.6 66.9 76.9 72.2 103.4 15.3 14.5 53.7 64.2

4 147.2 170.4 145.0 158.7 89.8 134.9 96.9 136.0 24.9 35.9 51.0 76.2

5 194.0 89.6 108.3 97.0 113.8 48.2 44.2 73.6 76.9

6 74.6 110.4 74.6 107.7 30.7 37.4 75.3 78.7

7 73.9 140.3 79.6 148.1 36.3 40.8 71.4 64.7

 8 96.1 143.5 94.4 165.6 31.2 38.8 84.8 63.6

9 326.0 416.7 344.7 446.5 30.4 30.5 

10 384.1 235.9 376.6 405.6 31.7 31.0 

11 148.5 184.0 146.4 206.9 39.4 34.8 

12 153.6 244.4 140.6 232.6 38.0 36.8 

13 131.6 209.8 128.1 222.3 20.8 

14 172.3 235.2 182.8 246.3 

15 181.7 292.6 171.3 277.0 

16 303.6 409.4 285.4 350.6 

17 198.5 288.7 198.7 303.0 

18 158.2 215.2 174.8 254.9 

 

Mean 116.8 116.3 107.7 110.4 153.8 198.6 154.8 213.9 29.2 32.7 62.3 63.1

Median 104.5 104.0 106.8 97.3 140.0 196.9 134.4 214.6 30.6 34.8 62.6 64.5

Minimum 67.8 86.6 72.3 88.3 56.8 63.5 56.7 60.6 15.3 14.5 44.2 32.7

Maximum 194.0 170.4 145.0 158.7 384.1 416.7 376.6 446.5 48.2 44.2 84.8 78.7

————————— 
23 

Disclaimer: Mention of any company names serves only for identification, and does not 

constitute or imply endorsement of such a company or of its products. 

————————— 

This work was sponsored by the U.S. Department of Justice through the Public Safety 

Communications Research Lab of NIST. We thank members of the technical staff of the 

Electromagnetics Division 818, who collected the measurements, and Dennis Friday, Mike 

Kelley, Perry Wilson, and Dereck Orr for programmatic support. 
24 

6. References 

 

[1] Statement of Requirements: Background on Public Safety Wireless Communications, 

The SAFECOM Program, Department of Homeland Security, Vol. 1, March 10, 2004. 

[2] M. Worrell and A. MacFarlane, Phoenix Fire Department Radio System Safety Project, 

Phoenix Fire Dept. Final Report, Oct. 8, 2004, 

http://www.ci.phoenix.az.us/FIRE/radioreport.pdf 

[3] 9/11 Commission Report, National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United 

States, 2004. 

[4] Final Report for September 11, 2001 New York World Trade Center terrorist attack, 

Wireless Emergency Response Team (WERT), Oct. 2001. 

[5] C.L. Holloway, G. Koepke, D. Camell, K.A. Remley, D.F. Williams, S. Schima, S. 

Canales, and D.T. Tamura, “Propagation and Detection of Radio Signals Before, During 

and After the Implosion of a Thirteen Story Apartment Building,” NIST Technical Note 

1540, Boulder, CO, May 2005. 

[6] C.L. Holloway, G. Koepke, D. Camell, K.A. Remley, and D.F. Williams, “Radio 

Propagation Measurements During a Building Collapse: Applications for First 

Responders,” Proc. Intl. Symp. Advanced Radio Tech., Boulder, CO, March 2005, pp. 

61-63. 

[7] C.L. Holloway, G. Koepke, D. Camell, K.A. Remley, D.F. Williams, S. Schima, and 

D.T. Tamura, “Propagation and Detection of Radio Signals Before, During and After the 

Implosion of a Large Sports Stadium (Veterans' Stadium in Philadelphia),” NIST 

Technical Note 1541, Boulder, CO, October 2005. 

[8 ] K. A. Remley, G. Koepke, C.L. Holloway, C, Grosvenor, D. Camell, J. Ladbury, R. T. 

Johnk, D. Novotny, W. F. Young, G Hough, M. C. McKinley Y. Becquet, J Korsnes, 

“Measurements to Support Broadband Modulated-Signal Radio Transmissions for the 

Public-Safety Sector, “ NIST Technical Note 1546, Boulder CO, April 2008. 

[9] L.P. Rice, “Radio transmission into buildings at 35 and 150 mc,” Bell Syst. Tech. J., pp. 

197-210, Jan. 1959. 

[10] E. Walker, “Penetration of radio signals into building in the cellular radio environment,” 

Bell Syst. Tech. J., 62(9), Nov. 1983. 

[11] D. Molkdar, “Review on radio propagation into and within buildings,” IEE ProceedingH, 38(1): 61-73; Feb. 1991. 
25 

 

[12] W.J. Tanis and G.J. Pilato, “Building penetration characteristics of 880 MHz and 1922 

MHz radio waves,” Proc. 43th IEEE Veh. Technol. Conf., Secaucus, NJ, 18-20 May 

1993, pp. 206-209. 

[13] L.H. Loew, Y. Lo, M.G. Lafin, and E.E. Pol, “Building penetration measurements from 

low-height base stations at 912, 1920, and 5990 MHz,” NTIA Report 95-325, National 

Telecommunications and Information Administration, Sept. 1995. 

[14] A. Davidson and C. Hill, “Measurement of building penetration into medium buildings at 

900 and 1500 MHz,” IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., 46(1): 161-168; Feb. 1997. 

[15] E. F. T. Martijn and M. H. A. J. Herben, “Characterization of Radio Wave Propagation 

Into Buildings at 1800 MHz,” IEEE Ant. and Wireless Prop. Letters, Vol. 2, 2003. 

 

[16] M. Rütschlin, K. A. Remley, R. T. Johnk, D. F. Williams, G. Koepke, C. Holloway, A. 

MacFarlane, and M. Worrell, “Measurement of weak signals using a communications 

receiver system,” Proc. Intl. Symp. Advanced Radio Tech., Boulder, CO, March 2005, 

pp. 199-204. 

[17] C.L. Holloway, G. Koepke, D. Camell, K.A. Remley, D.F. Williams, S. Schima, M. 

McKinely, and R.T. Johnk, “Propagation and Detection of Radio Signals Before, During 

and After the Implosion of a Large Convention Center,'” NIST Technical Note 1542, 

Boulder, CO, June 2006. 

[18] C.L. Holloway, W. Young, G. Koepke, D. Camell, Y. Becquet, K.A. Remley, 

“Attenuation, Coupling, and Variability of Radio Wave Signals Into and Throughout 

Twelve Large Building Structures,'' NIST Technical Note 1545, Boulder, CO, Aug 2008. 

[19] B. Davis, C. Grosvenor, R.T. Johnk, D. Novotny, J. Baker-Jarvis, M. Janezic, 

“Complex permittivity of planar building materials measured with an ultra-wideband 

free-field antenna measurement system,” Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. J. Res., 112(1):67-

73, Jan.-Feb., 2007. 

[20] M. Riback, J. Medbo, J. Berg, F. Harryson, H. Asplund, “Carrier frequency effects on 

path loss,” Proc. 63rd IEEE Vehic. Technol. Conf., Vol. 6, pp. 2717-2721, 2006. 

[21] J.C.-I. Chuang, “The effects of time delay spread on portable radio communications 

channels with digital modulation,” IEEE J. Selected Areas in Comm., SAC-5(5): 879-

889, June 1987. 

[22] Y. Oda, R. Tsuchihashi, K. Tsuenekawa, M. Hata, “Measured path loss and multipath 

propagation characteristics in UHF and microwave frequency bands for urban mobile 

communications,” Proc. 53rd IEEE Vehic. Technol. Conf., Vol. 1, pp. 337-341, May 

2001. 

[23] J.A. Wepman, J.R. Hoffman, L.H. Loew, "Impulse Response Measurements in the 1850-

1990 MHz Band in Large Outdoor Cells", NTIA Report 94-309, June 1994. 
26 

Appendix I: Experiment Setups and Locations 

Figure 1. Illustration of the radio-mapping measurements. (a) A radio transmitter was carried 

throughout the building on a continuous path, and the signal strength was recorded by the 

receiver. (b) For one set of radio mapping experiments, the receiver consisted of a commercially 

available communications receiver, followed by post-processing steps to determine the receivedsignal level. (c) A spectrum analyzer and laptop made up the other data collection method. A 

separate receive antenna was used for the two data collection setups. 

 (b) 

(a) 

(c)

receiver

transmitter path

x

x x x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x x

x

x x

x

x x

x x

x

x

x x

receiver

transmitter path

x

x x x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x x

x

x x

x

x x

x x

x

x

x x

x

x x x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x x

x

x x

x

x x

x x

x

x

x x

Discone Antenna 

50 MHz to 1 GHz

Spectrum Analyzer 
27 

Figure 2. (a) Set-up used to enable a communications receiver to display received signal strength. 

The receiver down-converts the signal to baseband frequencies, as shown in (b), and the sound 

card digitizes the baseband signal. A DC voltmeter monitors the automatic-gain-control setting 

on the receiver. The AGC data are used in post-processing to determine the signal’s actual level. 

Graphic (c) shows a recorded, down-converted signal with time on the x-axis and frequency on 

the y-axis. The stripe at the center corresponds to the carrier frequency, and the bands on either 

side correspond to the FM sidebands. In this case the received signal is in Morse code. 

receiver

(a) 

(b) (c) 
28 

0 1 2 3 4 5

x 104

-2

-1

0

1

2

x 10-4 Signal distored by optical link

time [ns]

power

0 1 2 3 4 5

x 104

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

x 10-4 Distortion removed by lowpass filter

time [ns]

power

Figure 3. Synthetic-pulse measurement system based on a vector network analyzer. Frequencydomain measurements, synchronized by the optical fiber link, are transformed to the time 

domain in post-processing. This enables determination of excess path loss, time-delay spread, 

and other figures of merit important in characterizing broadband modulated-signal transmissions. 

Figure 4. Low-frequency oscillations introduced by the optical link (top) are removed by use of a 

high-pass filter in post-processing (bottom). This enables us to clearly discern the measured data; 

here an initial pulse is received at approximately 5 ns, followed by a reflected pulse at 

approximately 30 ns. 

Ground Plane

Transmitting

antenna

tripods

62 inches

VNA

Port 1 Port 4

200 m

Optical

Fiber

Receiving

antenna

Fiber Optic

Receiver

RF Optical

Fiber Optic

Transmitter

RF Optical
29 

(b) 

Figure 5. (a) Time-domain waveform for a dual ridge guide (DRG) horn antenna 3 m reference 

measurement. The waveform shows the antenna response, the ground-bounce response and the 

spurious environmental effects. (b) The frequency-domain response for both the ungated 

response (noisy black trace), which includes all environmental effects, and the gated response 

(smoother red trace), which includes only the antenna response. 

20 30 40 50

Time (ns)

-1.2

-0.8

-0.4

0

0.4

0.8

1.2

S21 amplitude (V)

Antenna response

Ground bounce

Spurious 

environmental 

effects

(a) 

0 4000 8000 12000 16000 20000

Frequency (MHz)

-20

-10

0

10

20

S21 Magnitude (dB)

DRG (3 m reference)

Ungated response

Gated Response
30 

Figure 6. Power-delay profile for a building propagation measurement. The important parameters 

for a measured propagation signal are the peak level, the maximum dynamic range, the mean 

delay spread, and the RMS delay spread. 

0 400 800 1200

Time (ns)

-250

-200

-150

-100

-50

0

Power Delay Profile (dB)

Peak level

Maximum 

Dynamic Range

RMS 

Delay Spread

Mean 

Delay Spread
31 

 

Figure 7. Photographs of the Colorado Convention Center. 
32 

 

Figure 8. Photographs of the Colorado Convention Center (cont.). 
33 

 

Figure 9. Layout of the Colorado Convention Center including the radio-mapping path.

Numbers in boxes represent synthetic pulse measurement locations; the non-enclosed

numbers denote positions indicated on the spectrum analyzer and narrowband receiver

measurements. 

6 1

2

3

4

5
34 

Figure 10. Photographs of the Republic Plaza Building. 
35 

Figure 11. Photographs inside the Republic Plaza Building. 
36 Figure 12. Layout of the Republic Plaza Building and radio-mapping path. 
37 

Figure 13. Photographs of the three receive sites at the Republic Plaza Building. 
38 

Figure 14. Location of receive sites at the Republic Plaza Building. 

RX1 

RX2 

RX3 

North
39 

16

17

18 

19

20 

21

Figure 15. Synthetic pulse test points in Republic Plaza. The test locations are the blue

numbers in the black boxes; the unboxed numbers are radio-mapping locations as in

Figure 12. 
40 

Figure 16. Photographs of the Horizon West apartment building in Boulder, CO. 
41 

Figure 17. Photographs inside the Horizon West apartment building in Boulder, CO. 
42 

Figure 18. Receiver locations for the Horizon West apartment building. (a) Locations for radiomapping tests. (b) Locations for synthetic pulse system measurements. 

Receive

Site 1, 

VNA

Elevators

1

2

3

0

4

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

(a) 

(b) 
43 

Figure 19. The receiver setups for the NIST’s laboratories in Boulder, CO. 
44 

Figure 20. Receiver location and layout for the Boulder, CO laboratories. 

B

Wing 6, Receive Site 2

A

D

Wing 4, Receive Site 1 Reference Location 

(used as reference for 

receive site 2) 

C

C2 

Note: Location A used as 

reference for receive site 1
45 

Figure 21. Synthetic pulse building penetration measurements were carried out at specific test 

locations indicated on the outline. The Wing 4 corridor is lined with offices having windows to 

the outside, thus indoor-to-outdoor coupling can be expected. 
Appendix II: Measurement Results 

46 

2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000

-10-20-30-40-50-60

0

2010

Freq. = 749 MHz 

Ref. = -30.9 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -53 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

position 1 (LOS 1)

position 2

position 3

position 4

position 5

position 7

position 8

position 9

position 10

position 11

position 12 (LOS 2)

position 13

position 14

position 15

position 16

position 2

position 17

position 18

position 19

position 20

position 21

position 23

position 24

position 25

position 26

position 27

position 28

position 3

position 4

position 1 (LOS 1)

Figure 22. Colorado Convention Center, receive site 1. Normalized received-signal 

data from the spectrum analyzer as the 749 MHz transmitter is carried through the 

building. 
47 

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

-10-20-30-40-50-60-70

0

2010

Freq. = 749 MHz Ref. = -26.5 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -59 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

position 2

position 3 position 4

position 5

position 6 (LOS 3)

position 7

position 8

position 9

position 10

position 7

position 12 (LOS 2)

position 13

position 14

position 15

position 16

position 2

position 17

position 19

position 20

position 21

position 23

position 24

position 25

position 26

position 27

position 28

position 3

position 4

position 1 (LOS 1)

 

Figure 23. Colorado Convention Center, receive site 2. Normalized received-signal data 

from the spectrum analyzer as the 749 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. 
48 

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

-10-20-30-40-50-60

0

2010

Freq. = 749 MHz 

Ref. = -39.4 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -46 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

position 1 (LOS 1)

position 2

position 3

position 4

position 5

position 6 (LOS 3)

position 7

position 8

position 9

position 10

position 11

position 12 (LOS 2)

position 13

position 14

position 15

position 16

position 2 position 2

position 17

position 19

position 20

position 21

position 23

position 24

position 25

position 26

position 27position 28

position 3 position 4

position 1 (LOS 1)

Figure 24. Colorado Convention Center, receive site 3. Normalized received-signal data 

from the spectrum analyzer as the 749 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. 
49 

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 0

420

840

1260

1680

2100

(a)

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

median = -52.2 dB

mean = -22.3 dB

std. dev. = 9.0 dB

freq. = 749 MHz

ref. = -30.9 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 0

105

210

315

420

525

(b)

number of values [N]

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -57.4 dB

mean = -23.2 dB

std. dev. = 10.7 dB

freq. = 749 MHz

ref. = -26.5 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 0

420

840

1260

1680

2100

Power [dB]

(c)

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

median = -44.2 dB

mean = -23.4 dB

std. dev. = 6.8 dB

freq. = 749 MHz

ref. = -39.4 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

Figure 25. Histogram and empirical CDF of the received signal power from the spectrum

analyzer at the Colorado Convention Center for (a) receive site one, (b) receive site two, and (c)

receive site three. Note that histogram count scale is different for receive site two, plot (b). 
50 

0 500 1000 1500

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749 MHz Ref. = -26.0 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -105 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

location 1

location 2

location 3

location 4

location 5

location 6

location 7

location 8

location 9

location 10

location 11

location 12

location 13

location 14

location 15

location 16

location 2

location 17

location 18

location 19

location 20

location 21

location 22

location 23

location 24

location 25

location 26

location 27

location 28

location 3

location 4

location 1

Figure 26. Colorado Convention Center narrowband receiver results for receive site 1. 
51 

0 500 1000 1500

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749 MHz Ref. = -22.1 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -108 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

location 1

location 2

location 3

location 4

location 5

location 6

location 7

location 8

location 9

location 10

location 11

location 12

location 13

location 14

location 15

location 16

location 2

location 18

location 19

location 20

location 21

location 22

location 23

location 24

location 25

location 26

location 27

location 28

location 3

location 4

location 1

Figure 27. Colorado Convention Center narrowband receiver results for receive site 2. 
52 

Figure 28. Colorado Convention Center narrowband receiver results for receive site 3. 

0 500 1000 1500

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749 MHz Ref. = -37.2 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -93 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

location 1

location 2

location 3

location 4

location 5

location 6

location 7

location 8

location 9

location 10

location 11

location 12

location 13

location 14

location 15

location 16

location 2

location 17

location 20

location 21

location 22

location 23

location 24

location 25

location 26

location 27

location 28

location 3

location 4

location 1
53 

Figure 29. Histogram and empirical CDF of the narrowband receiver signal power at the

Colorado Convention Center for (a) receive site one, (b) receive site two, and (c) receive site

three. Note that histogram count scale is different for the receive site two, plot (b). 

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

2200

4400

6600

8800

11000

(a)

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

median = -75.0 dB

mean = -22.6 dB

std. dev. = 21.0 dB

freq. = 749 MHz

ref. = -26.0 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

1100

2200

3300

4400

5500

(b)

number of values [N]

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -77.7 dB

mean = -25.1 dB

std. dev. = 19.8 dB

freq. = 749 MHz

ref. = -22.1 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

2200

4400

6600

8800

11000

Power [dB]

(c)

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

median = -68.2 dB

mean = -26.1 dB

std. dev. = 20.2 dB

freq. = 749 MHz

ref. = -37.2 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF
54 

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and RX Antennas

Position 1

Noise Pos 4

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and RX Antennas

Position 2

Noise Pos 4

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and RX Antennas

Position 3

Noise Pos 4

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and RX Antennas

Position 4

Noise Pos 4

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and RX Antennas

Position 5

Noise Pos 4

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and RX Antennas

Position 6

Noise Pos 4

Figure 30. Excess path loss measurements at the Colorado Convention Center for the 700 

MHz to 800 MHz frequency band. Directional transmit and receive antennas were used. 
55 

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and RX Antennas

Position 1

Noise Pos 4

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and RX Antennas

Position 2

Noise Pos 4

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and RX Antennas

Position 3

Noise Pos 4

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and RX Antennas

Position 4

Noise Pos 4

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and RX Antennas

Position 5

Noise Pos 4

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and RX Antennas

Position 6

Noise Pos 4

Figure 31. Excess path loss measurements at the Colorado Convention Center for the 700 

MHz to 18 GHz frequency band. Directional transmit and receive antennas were used. 
56 

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 1

Noise Pos 5

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 2

Noise Pos 5

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 3

Noise Pos 5

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 4

Noise Pos 5

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 5

Noise Pos 5

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 6

Noise Pos 5

Figure 32. Excess path loss measurements at the Colorado Convention Center for the 700 to 800 

MHz frequency band. Directional transmit antenna and omnidirectional receive antennas were 

used. 
57 

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 1

Noise Pos 5

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 2

Noise Pos 5

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 3

Noise Pos 5

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 4

Noise Pos 5

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 5

Noise Pos 5

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Convention Center, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 6

Noise Pos 5

Figure 33. Excess path loss measurements at the Colorado Convention Center for the 700 MHz 

to 18 GHz frequency band. Directional transmit antenna and omnidirectional receive antennas 

were used. 
58 

0

50

100

150

200

250

0123 4 5 6

Position

RMS delay spread [ns]

DRG-Tophat 700-800MHz

DRG-Tophat 700-18000MHz

DRG-DRG 700-800MHz

DRG-DRG 700-18000MHz

Figure 34. Colorado Convention Center RMS delay spread versus position for two antenna 

configurations and two different frequency bands. “DRG” refers to dual ridge guide horn, and is 

a directional antenna. “Tophat” refers to an omnidirectional receive antenna. 
59 

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749 MHz 

Ref. = -33.7 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -89 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

location 1

location 2

location 3

location 4

location 5

location 6

location 7

location 8

location 9

location 10

location 11

location 12

location 13

location 14

location 15

location 16

location 17

location 18

location 19

location 20

location 21

location 22

location 23

location 24

location 25

location 26

location 27

location 28

location 29

location 30

location 31

location 32

location 33

location 34

location 35

location 36

location 37

location 38

location 39

Figure 35. Republic Plaza, receive site 1. Normalized received signal power from the spectrum 

analyzer as the 749 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. 
60 

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749 MHz Ref. = -32.3 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -90 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

location 1

location 2

location 3

location 4

location 9

location 10

location 11

location 12

location 13

location 14

location 16

location 17

location 18

location 19

location 20

location 21

location 22

location 23

location 24

location 25

location 26

location 27 location 28

location 29

location 30

location 31

location 32

location 33

location 34

location 35

location 36

location 37

location 38

location 39

Figure 36. Republic Plaza, receive site 2. Normalized received signal power from the

spectrum analyzer as the 749 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. 
61 

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

-10-20-30-40-50-60-70

0

2010

Freq. = 749 MHz 

Ref. = -50.2 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -50 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

location 1

location 1

location 2

location 3

location 4

location 5

location 6

location 7

location 8

location 8

location 9

location 10

location 11

location 12

location 13

location 14

location 15

location 16

location 17

location 18

location 19

location 20

location 21

location 22

location 23

location 24

location 25

location 26

location 27

location 28 location 29

location 30

location 31

location 32

location 34

location 35

location 36

location 37

location 38

location 39

Figure 37. Republic Plaza, receive site 3. Normalized received signal power from the

spectrum analyzer as the 749 MHz transmitter is carried through the building.
62 

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

40

80

120

160

200

(a)

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

median = -65.2 dB

mean = -23.2 dB

std. dev. = 20.0 dB

freq. = 749 MHz

ref. = -33.7 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

40

80

120

160

200

(b)

number of values [N]

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -63.1 dB

mean = -20.3 dB

std. dev. = 20.0 dB

freq. = 749 MHz

ref. = -32.3 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

160

320

480

640

800

Power [dB]

(c)

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

median = -46.5 dB

mean = -18.2 dB

std. dev. = 11.8 dB

freq. = 749 MHz

ref. = -50.2 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

Figure 38. Histogram and empirical CDF of the received spectrum analyzer signal power at

Republic Plaza for (a) receive site one, (b) receive site two, and (c) receive site three. Note that

histogram count and the power scales are different for the receive site three, plot (c). 
63 

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749 MHz Ref. = -29.3 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -101 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

location 1

location 2

location 3

location 4

location 5

location 6

location 7

location 8

location 9

location 10

location 11

location 12

location 13

location 14

location 15

location 16

location 17

location 18

location 19

location 20

location 21

location 22

location 23

location 24

location 25

location 26

location 27

location 28

location 29

location 30

location 31

location 32

location 33

location 34

location 35

location 36

location 37

location 38

location 39

Figure 39. Republic Plaza, receive site 1. Normalized narrowband receiver signal power

as 749 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. 
64 

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749 MHz Ref. = -32.7 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -98 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

location 1

location 2

location 3

location 4

location 8

location 9

location 10

location 11

location 12

location 13

location 14

location 15

location 16

location 17

location 18

location 19

location 20

location 21

location 22

location 23

location 24

location 25

location 26

location 27

location 28

location 29

location 30

location 31

location 32

location 33

location 34

location 35

location 36

location 37

location 38

location 39

Figure 40. Republic Plaza, receive site 2. Normalized narrowband receiver signal power as 

749 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. 
65 

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

-10-20-30-40-50-60-70-80-90

0

2010

Freq. = 749 MHz Ref. = -49.8 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -81 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

location 1

location 2

location 3

location 4

location 5

location 6

location 7

location 8 location 9

location 10

location 11

location 12

location 13

location 14

location 15

location 16

location 17

location 18

location 19

location 20

location 21

location 22

location 23

location 24

location 25

location 26

location 27

location 28

location 29location 30

location 31

location 32

location 33

location 34

location 35

location 36

location 37

location 38

location 39

Figure 41. Republic Plaza, receive site 3. Normalized narrowband receiver signal power as 

749 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. 
66 

Figure 42. Histogram and empirical CDF of the narrowband receiver signal power at Republic

Plaza for (a) receive site one, (b) receive site two, and (c) receive site three. Note that the

discontinuities near the centers of the histograms are not due to the environment, but rather an

artifact of the testing equipment. 

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

1200

2400

3600

4800

6000

(a)

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

median = -68.3 dB

mean = -26.0 dB

std. dev. = 20.3 dB

freq. = 749 MHz

ref. = -29.3 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

1200

2400

3600

4800

6000

(b)

number of values [N]

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -60.0 dB

mean = -18.9 dB

std. dev. = 21.5 dB

freq. = 749 MHz

ref. = -32.7 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

1200

2400

3600

4800

6000

Power [dB]

(c)

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

median = -49.3 dB

mean = -19.9 dB

std. dev. = 17.8 dB

freq. = 749 MHz

ref. = -49.8 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF
67 

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 1

Noise Pos 1

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 2

Noise Pos 1

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 3

Noise Pos 6

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 4

Noise Pos 6

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 5

Noise Pos 6

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 6

Noise Pos 6

Figure 43. Republic Plaza 200 MHz to 1800 MHz VNA excess path loss measurements for 

positions 1 through 6. 
68 

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 7

Noise Pos 6

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 8

Noise Pos 6

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 9

Noise Pos 6

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 10

Noise Pos 6

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 11

Noise Pos 6

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 12

Noise Pos 6

Figure 44. Republic Plaza 200 MHz to 1800 MHz VNA excess path loss measurements for 

positions 7 through 12. 
69 

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 13

Noise Pos 15

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 14

Noise Pos 15

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 15

Noise Pos 15

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 16

Noise Pos 15

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 17

Noise Pos 15

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 18

Noise Pos 15

Figure 45. Republic Plaza 200 MHz to 1800 MHz VNA excess path loss measurements for 

positions 13 through 18. 
70 

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 1

Noise Pos 1

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 2

Noise Pos 1

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 3

Noise Pos 6

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 4

Noise Pos 6

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 5

Noise Pos 6

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 6

Noise Pos 6

Figure 46. Republic Plaza 700 to 800 MHz VNA excess path loss measurements for 

positions 1 through 6. 
71 

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 7

Noise Pos 6

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 8

Noise Pos 6

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 9

Noise Pos 6

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 10

Noise Pos 6

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 11

Noise Pos 6

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 12

Noise Pos 6

Figure 47. Republic Plaza 700 to 800 MHz VNA excess path loss measurements for 

positions 7 through 12. 
72 

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 13

Noise Pos 15

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 14

Noise Pos 15

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 15

Noise Pos 15

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 16

Noise Pos 15

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 17

Noise Pos 15

700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 18

Noise Pos 15

Figure 48. Republic Plaza 700 to 800 MHz VNA excess path loss measurements for 

positions 13 through 18. 
73 

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 1

Noise Pos 1

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 2

Noise Pos 1

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 3

Noise Pos 6

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 4

Noise Pos 6

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 5

Noise Pos 6

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 6

Noise Pos 6

Figure 49. Republic Plaza 200 to 600 MHz VNA excess path loss measurements for 

positions 1 through 6. 
74 

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 7

Noise Pos 6

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 8

Noise Pos 6

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 9

Noise Pos 6

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 10

Noise Pos 6

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 11

Noise Pos 6

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 12

Noise Pos 6

Figure 50. Republic Plaza 200 to 600 MHz VNA excess path loss measurements for 

positions 7 through 12. 
75 

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 13

Noise Pos 15

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 14

Noise Pos 15

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 15

Noise Pos 15

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 16

Noise Pos 15

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 17

Noise Pos 15

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

Frequency (MHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and RX antennas

Position 18

Noise Pos 15

Figure 51. Republic Plaza 200 to 600 MHz VNA excess path loss measurements for 

positions 13 through 18. 
76 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 1

Noise Pos 1

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 2

Noise Pos 1

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 3

Noise Pos 6

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 4

Noise Pos 6

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 5

Noise Pos 6

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 6

Noise Pos 6

Figure 52. Republic Plaza 700 MHz to 18 GHz VNA excess path loss measurements for 

positions 1 through 6. 
77 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 7

Noise Pos 6

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 8

Noise Pos 6

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 9

Noise Pos 6

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 10

Noise Pos 6

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 11

Noise Pos 6

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 12

Noise Pos 6

Figure 53. Republic Plaza 700 MHz to 18 GHz VNA excess path loss measurements for 

positions 7 through 12. 
78 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 13

Noise Pos 15

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 14

Noise Pos 15

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 15

Noise Pos 15

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 16

Noise Pos 15

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 17

Noise Pos 15

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 -100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

Frequency (GHz)

Excess Path Loss (dB)

Republic Plaza, Directional TX and Omnidirectional RX Antennas

Position 18

Noise Pos 19

Figure 54. Republic Plaza 700 MHz to 18 GHz VNA excess path loss measurements for 

positions 13 through 18. 
79 

Figure 55. Republic Plaza RMS delay spread versus position based on four different frequency 

bands. 

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

0 5 10 15 20

Position number

RMS delay spread [ns]

200-600 MHz

700-800 MHz

200-1800 MHz

865-965 MHz
80 

Table 4. Legend for locations in the Horizon West walk-through plots shown in Figures 56, 57, 

59 and 60 below. 

Index Description Index Description 

1 Building entrance 33 7th floor location 12 

2 1st floor south 34 7th floor location 11 

3 2nd floor south 35 7th floor location 10 

4 2nd floor location 3 36 7th floor location 9 

5 2nd floor location 2 37 7th floor location 8 

6 2nd floor location 1 38 7th floor room 707 

7 2nd floor location 0 39 7th floor location 7 

8 2nd floor location 4 40 7th floor location 6 

9 2nd floor location 5 41 7th floor location 5 

10 2nd floor location 6 42 7th floor location 0 

11 2nd floor location 7 43 7th floor location 4 

12 2nd floor location 8 44 7th floor location 0 

13 2nd floor location 9 45 7th floor location 1 

14 2nd floor location 10 46 7th floor location 2 

15 2nd floor location 11 47 7th floor location 3 

16 2nd floor location 12 48 7th floor south 

17 2nd floor location 13 49 8th floor south 

18 2nd floor north 50 8th floor elevator 

19 3rd floor north 51 8th floor north 

20 3rd elevator 52 9th floor north 

21 3rd floor south 53 9th floor elevator 

22 4th floor south 54 10th floor south 

23 4th floor elevator 55 10th floor elevator 

24 4th floor north 56 10th floor north 

25 5th floor north 57 11th floor north 

26 5th floor elevator 58 11th floor elevator 

27 5th floor south 59 11th floor south 

28 6th floor south 60 11th floor wait for elevator 

29 6th floor elevator 61 11th floor elevator in 

30 6th floor north 62 1st floor elevator out 

31 7th floor north 63 outside building south 

32 7th floor location 13 64 Reference 
81 

1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz 

Ref. = -34.5 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -87 dB

All numbered locations are indicated by dashed vertical lines, where the order is sequential. (Some numbers are omitted to keep the figure readable.)

Sample Number

Power (dB)

1

2

3

10

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

36

39

48

49

50

52

53

54

55

57

58

59

61

62

63

Figure 56. Horizon West, receive site 1. Normalized received signal power from the 

spectrum analyzer as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. 
82 

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

-10-20-30-40-50-60-70-80

0

2010

Freq. = 749.9 MHz 

Ref. = -49.0 dBm

Approx. noise fl. = -74 dB

All numbered locations are indicated by dashed vertical lines, where the order is sequential. (Some numbers are omitted to keep the figure readable.)

Sample Number

Power (dB)

1

2

3

10

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

37

39

48

49

50

52

53

54

55

57

58

59

61

62

63

Figure 57. Horizon West, receive site 2. Normalized received signal power from the 

spectrum analyzer as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. 
83 

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 0

60

120

180

240

300

(a)

number of values [N]

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -29.5 dB

mean = -17.7 dB

std. dev. = 11.0 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -34.5 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 0

60

120

180

240

300

Power [dB]

(b)

number of values [N]

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -25.1 dB

mean = -18.2 dB

std. dev. = 9.9 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -49.0 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

Figure 58. Histogram and empirical CDF of the received spectrum analyzer signal

power at Horizon West for (a) receive site one and (b) receive site two.
84 

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -31.1 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -99 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

1

2

3

10

20

30

40

50

60

61

62

63 64

Figure 59. Horizon West, receive site 1. Normalized narrowband receiver signal power as the 

750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building.
85 

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

-10-20-30-40-50-60-70-80-90

0

2010

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -45.2 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -85 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

1

2

3

10

20

30

40

50

60

61

62

63

64

Figure 60. Horizon West, receive site 2. Normalized narrowband receiver signal power as the 

750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. 
86 

Figure 61. Histogram and empirical CDF of the narrowband receiver signal power at Horizon 

West for (a) receive site one and (b) receive site two. 

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 0

640

1280

1920

2560

3200

(a)

number of values [N]

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -33.2 dB

mean = -20.6 dB

std. dev. = 10.8 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -31.1 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 0

640

1280

1920

2560

3200

Power [dB]

(b)

number of values [N]

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -27.9 dB

mean = -19.3 dB

std. dev. = 9.0 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -45.2 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF
87 

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 0 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 1 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 2 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 3 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

Figure 62. Excess path loss data for positions 0 through 3 at the Horizon West apartment building. 

Black: floor two. Red: floor seven. Blue: Noise floor. 
88 

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 4 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 5 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 6 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 7 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

Figure 63.Excess path loss data for positions 4 through 7 at the Horizon West apartment building. 

Black: floor two. Red: floor seven. Blue: Noise floor. 
89 

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 8 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 9 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 10 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 11 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

Figure 64. Excess path loss data for positions 8 through 11 at the Horizon West apartment building. 

Black: floor two. Red: floor seven. Blue: Noise floor. 
90 

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 12 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Frequency (MHz)

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

Penetration (dB)

Position 12 (200 MHz BW)

second floor

seventh floor

noise floor

Figure 65. Excess path loss data for positions 12 and 13 at the Horizon West apartment building. 

Black: floor two. Red: floor seven. Blue: Noise floor. 
91 

0 5 10 15

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

RMS Delay Spread (ns)

Position

Floor 2

Floor 7

Figure 66. Summary of RMS delay spread values calculated at the Horizon West apartment building. Data were 

calculated using the frequency band from 1 GHz to 18 GHz. 
92 

1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500

-100-120

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -11.5 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -104 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C

D

C

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 67. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 1. Normalized received signal power from the 

spectrum analyzer as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path I, walk 1. 
93 

1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

-10-20-30-40-50-60-70

0

2010

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -40.7 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -63 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C

D

C

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 68. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 2. Normalized received signal power 

from the spectrum analyzer as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. 

Path I, walk 1. 
94 

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

100

200

300

400

500

(a)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -98.5 dB

mean = -19.8 dB

std. dev. = 28.8 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -11.5 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

100

200

300

400

500

Power [dB]

(b)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -61.5 dB

mean = -39.6 dB

std. dev. = 9.5 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -40.7 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

Figure 69. Histogram and empirical CDF of the spectrum analyzer signal power at 

NIST Boulder laboratory for (a) receive site one and (b) receive site two. Path I, 

walk 1. 
95 

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -11.6 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -104 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C

D

C

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 70. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 1. Normalized received signal power from 

the spectrum analyzer as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path I, walk 

2. 
96 

0 500 1000 1500 2000

-10-20-30-40-50-60-70

0

2010

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -41.9 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -66 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C

D

C

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 71. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 2. Normalized received signal power from the 

spectrum analyzer as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path I, walk 2. 
97 

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

80

160

240

320

400

(a)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -86.7 dB

mean = -16.7 dB

std. dev. = 30.1 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -11.6 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

80

160

240

320

400

Power [dB]

(b)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -63.2 dB

mean = -38.7 dB

std. dev. = 11.3 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -41.9 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

Figure 72. Histogram and empirical CDF of the spectrum analyzer signal power at NIST Boulder 

laboratory for (a) receive site one and (b) receive site two. Path I, walk 2. 
98 

500 1000 1500 2000 2500

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -11.6 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -105 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C2

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 73. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 1. Normalized received signal power from 

the spectrum analyzer as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path II, 

walk 1. 
99 

400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

-10-20-30-40-50-60-70

0

2010

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -41.6 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -66 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C2

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 74. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 2. Normalized received signal power from the 

spectrum analyzer as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path II, walk 1. 
100 

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

20

40

60

80

100

(a)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -62.8 dB

mean = -18.4 dB

std. dev. = 25.2 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -11.6 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

40

80

120

160

200

Power [dB]

(b)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -61.1 dB

mean = -39.8 dB

std. dev. = 10.9 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -41.6 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

Figure 75. Histogram and empirical CDF of the spectrum analyzer signal power at NIST Boulder 

laboratory for (a) receive site one and (b) receive site two. Path II, walk 1. 
101 

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -14.7 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -101 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C2

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 76. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 1. Normalized received signal power from the 

spectrum analyzer as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path II, walk 2. 
102 

600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

-10-20-30-40-50-60-70

0

2010

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -41.8 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -66 dB

Sample Number

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C2

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 77. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 2. Normalized received signal power from the 

spectrum analyzer as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path II, walk 2. 
103 

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

10

20

30

40

50

(a)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -64.6 dB

mean = -16.0 dB

std. dev. = 26.9 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -14.7 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

40

80

120

160

200

Power [dB]

(b)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -61.9 dB

mean = -37.3 dB

std. dev. = 12.4 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -41.8 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

Figure 78. Histogram and empirical CDF of the spectrum analyzer signal power at NIST Boulder 

laboratory for (a) receive site one and (b) receive site two. Path II, walk 2. 
104 

500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

-100-120

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -19.4 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -111 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C

D

C

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 79. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 1. Normalized received signal power from the 

narrowband receiver as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path I, walk 1. 
105 

700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -34.8 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -96 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C

D

C

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 80. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 2. Normalized received signal power from the 

narrowband receiver as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path I, walk 1. 
106 

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

400

800

1200

1600

2000

(a)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -93.0 dB

mean = -17.4 dB

std. dev. = 29.1 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -19.4 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

400

800

1200

1600

2000

Power [dB]

(b)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -71.5 dB

mean = -39.9 dB

std. dev. = 16.5 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -34.8 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

Figure 81. Histogram and empirical CDF of the narrowband receiver signal power at NIST Boulder 

laboratory for (a) receive site one and (b) receive site two. Path I, walk 1.
107 

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

-100-120

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -19.4 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -111 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C

D

C

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 82. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 1. Normalized received signal power from the 

narrowband receiver as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path I, walk 2.
108 

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -33.3 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -97 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C

D

C

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 83. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 2. Normalized received signal power from the 

narrowband receiver as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path I, walk 2. 
109 

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

400

800

1200

1600

2000

(a)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -85.6 dB

mean = -24.5 dB

std. dev. = 28.1 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -19.4 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

400

800

1200

1600

2000

Power [dB]

(b)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -70.7 dB

mean = -42.4 dB

std. dev. = 16.3 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -33.3 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

Figure 84. Histogram and empirical CDF of the narrowband receiver signal power at NIST Boulder 

laboratory for (a) receive site one and (b) receive site two. Path I, walk 2. 
110 

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

-100-120

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -19.8 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -111 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C2

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 85. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 1. Normalized received signal power from the 

narrowband receiver as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path II, walk 1. 
111 

200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -33.0 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -98 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C2

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 86. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 2. Normalized received signal power from the 

narrowband receiver as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path II, walk 1.
112 

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

400

800

1200

1600

2000

(a)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -64.0 dB

mean = -21.8 dB

std. dev. = 23.9 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -19.8 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

400

800

1200

1600

2000

Power [dB]

(b)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -62.2 dB

mean = -39.1 dB

std. dev. = 15.2 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -33.0 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

Figure 87. Histogram and empirical CDF of the narrowband receiver signal power at NIST Boulder 

laboratory for (a) receive site one and (b) receive site two. Path II, walk 1. 
113 

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

-100-120

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -19.4 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -111 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C2

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 88. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 1. Normalized received signal power from the 

narrowband receiver as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path II, walk 2. 
114 

150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650

-100

-20-40-60-80

0

20

Freq. = 749.9 MHz Ref. = -33.0 dBm Approx. noise fl. = -98 dB

Time (s)

Power (dB)

Ref. Location

A

B

C2

B

A

Ref. Location

Figure 89. NIST Boulder laboratory, receive site 2. Normalized received signal power from the 

narrowband receiver as the 750 MHz transmitter is carried through the building. Path II, walk 2. 
115 

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

150

300

450

600

750

(a)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -65.9 dB

mean = -15.9 dB

std. dev. = 26.9 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -19.4 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 0

300

600

900

1200

1500

Power [dB]

(b)

number of values [N]

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

empircal F(x)

median = -65.6 dB

mean = -37.8 dB

std. dev. = 16.7 dB

freq. = 749.9 MHz

ref. = -33.0 dBm

Histogram

Empirical CDF

Figure 90. Histogram and empirical CDF of the narrowband receiver signal power at NIST 

Boulder laboratory for (a) receive site one and (b) receive site two. Path II, walk 2.
116 

Figure 91. Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes building

penetration obtained with data for the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional antennas were

used. Distance down the corridor is D = 2.40 m (top) and D = 17.65 m (bottom). 
117 

Figure 92. Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes building

penetration obtained with data for the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional antennas were used.

Distance down the corridor is D = 32.90 m (top) and D = 48.15 m (bottom). 
118 

Figure 93. Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes building

penetration obtained with data for the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional antennas were

used. Distance down the corridor is D = 63.40 m (top) and D = 78.65 m (bottom). 
119 

Figure 94. Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes building

penetration obtained with data for the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional antennas were used.

Distance down the corridor is D = 93.90 m (top) and D = 109.15 m (bottom). 
120 

Figure 95. Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes

building penetration obtained with data for the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional antennas

were used. Distance down the corridor is D = 124.4 m (top) and D = 139.65 m (bottom). 
121 

Figure 96. Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes building

penetration obtained with data for the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional antennas were used.

Distance down the corridor is D = 154.9 m (top) and D = 170.15 m (bottom). 
122 

Figure 97. Excess path loss data from 25 MHz to 1.3 GHz for a path that includes building

penetration obtained with data for the Wing 4 hallway. Omnidirectional antennas were used.

Distance down the corridor is D = 185.40 m (top) and D = 200.65 m (bottom). 
123 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Position

RMS delay spread (ns)

25 -1300 MHz

750 - 18000 MHz

Figure 98. NIST Boulder Laboratory RMS delay spread versus position based on two

different frequency bands. 
124 

Figure 100. Comparison of median and mean values from the normalized spectrum analyzer and 

narrowband receiver data across all the test locations. 

‐100.0

‐80.0

‐60.0

‐40.0

‐20.0

0.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Experiment Index

dB

Median of Spectrum Analyzer Mean of Spectrum Analyzer

Median of Narrowband Receiver Mean of Narrowband Receiver

Colorado

Convention

Center

Republic

Plaza

NIST Labora tory Building

Horizon

West Pa th 1 Pa th 2

Figure 99. Comparison of the standard deviation for the normalized spectrum analyzer and 

narrowband receiver data across all the test locations. 

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Experiment Index

dB

Spectrum Analyzer Narrowband Receiver

Colorado

Convention

Center

Republic

Plaza NIST Labora tory Building

Horizon

Wes t

Pa th 1 Pa th 2
125 

Figure 101. Comparison with the reference value added to the median values from the 

normalized spectrum analyzer and narrowband receiver data across all the test locations. 

‐120.0

‐110.0

‐100.0

‐90.0

‐80.0

‐70.0

‐60.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Experiment Index

dB

Spectrum Analyzer Narrowband Receiver

Colorado

Convention

Center Republic

Plaza

NIST Labora tory Building

Horizon

Wes t

Pa th 1 Pa th 2

Figure 102. RMS delay spread statistics for the four buildings, indexed on the horizontal axis by 

the various frequency bands provided in Table 3. 

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

250.0

300.0

350.0

400.0

450.0

500.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

ns

Mean Median Minimum Maximum

Colorado

Convention

Center

Republic

Plaza

NIST

Horizon

West