U S C E N S U S B U R E A U

Helping You Make Informed Decisions

Demographic Programs

U.S. Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

Financing the Future –

Postsecondary Students, Costs, 

and Financial Aid: 1996-1997 

Household Economic Studies

Issued October 2002

Current

Population

Reports

By

Scott Boggess 

Camille Ryan

P70-83

INTRODUCTION increased, it has also become increasingly difficult for individuals and families Since 1980, as the U.S. economy has to afford postsecondary schooling (that grown and continued to evolve from a is, schooling beyond high school). manufacturing-based to a service-based According to data from the U.S. economy, it has become increasingly Department of Education, the average important for workers to possess a post- cost of in-state tuition, fees, and room secondary degree. In 1980, among full- and board for full-time undergraduate time, year-round workers 25 to 34 years students was $9,206 during the 1996-97 old, male college graduates earned 1.2 academic year, compared with $2,809 times as much as male high school grad- during the 1979-80 academic year, an uates while female college graduates increase of 228 percent (68 percent after earned 1.3 times as much as female high inflation).4

1 By comparison, over this school graduates. By 1997, male col- same period, median family income lege graduates were earning 1.6 times as increased by just 112 percent (9 percent much as male high school graduates and after inflation), from $21,023 in 1980 to female college graduates were earning $44,568 in 1997.5 As a result, for many 1.7 times as much as female high school students, the decision to enroll or to graduates.2 Not surprisingly, there has remain enrolled in postsecondary school- also been a dramatic increase in college ing depends heavily upon their ability to enrollment, from 11.4 million students in obtain one or more sources of financial 1980 to 15.4 million students in 1997,

an increase of 35 percent.3 aid. Among the

groups experiencing the largest percent- This report discusses postsecondary stuage increases in enrollment over this dents, the characteristics of the schools

period were women (44 percent), Blacks they attend, and the costs and financing

(64 percent), and those 35 years old and associated with their schooling. The first

over (139 percent). As a result, the last section examines the economic and

20 years have borne witness to notable demographic characteristics of postsecchanges in the characteristics of postsec- ondary students during the academic

ondary students. year 1996-97. Part two discusses the

characteristics of postsecondary stu- Unfortunately, while the importance of dents’ educational institutions in 1997. obtaining a postsecondary degree has Part three presents the schooling costs

faced by postsecondary students in 1

U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports,

P60-132, Money Income of Households, Families, and

Persons in the United States: 1980, U.S. Government 4

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1982. Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1998, 2

U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1999.

P60-200, Money Income in the United States: 1997 (With 5

U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Separate Data on Valuation of Noncash Benefits), U.S. P60-200, Money Income in the United States: 1997 (With Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1998. Separate Data on the Valuation of Noncash Benefits), 3

U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1998.

P20-516; and earlier reports.
2 U.S. Census Bureau

1996-97 and examines how these

costs vary by the economic and

demographic characteristics discussed in the first section. Finally,

part four describes postsecondary

students’ patterns of financial aid

receipt and investigates whether

financial aid receipt varies by

either student or institutional characteristics. 

Data for this report come from two

different sources: the 1996 Survey

of Income and Program Participation

(SIPP) and the 1997 Integrated

Postsecondary Education Data

System (IPEDS) Institutional Characteristics Survey. The two data sets

are merged or linked by their common variable, the name of the

respondent’s postsecondary institution. The linking of the two data

files allows, for the first time, an

examination of student characteristics and financial aid receipt by

institutional characteristics (e.g.,

type of school, enrollment level,

and racial and ethnic makeup of

the institution’s student body) and

an assessment of bias and reliability of respondent reports on certain

aspects of enrollment. 

While the SIPP collects information

on both full-time and part-time students, this report focuses largely

on full-time students (students

who were usually enrolled full time

throughout the academic year).

Part-time students (those who took

less than a full-time course load or

did not attend the full year) are

excluded from most analysis

because they are not eligible for

many types of financial aid or for

most on-campus housing. In addition, because there is no information regarding how many hours or

credits part-time students are taking, calculations of average tuition

and financial aid received become

much less meaningful and potentially misleading when compared

with corresponding figures for fulltime students. (Additional information on part-time students is contained in the detailed table

package that accompanies the

report on the Internet at 

www.census.gov/population/www/

socdemo/school/p70-83tabs.html.)

In addition, the report excludes a

small number of full-time postsecondary students who reported having not yet completed high school.

The Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP)

The SIPP is a longitudinal survey of the U.S. civilian, noninstitutionalized population, conducted at 4-month intervals by the Census

Bureau. The main focus of SIPP is to collect information on labor

force participation, jobs, income, and participation in federal assistance programs. Information on other topics is collected in topical

modules on a rotating basis. Data shown in this report are from the

School Enrollment and Financing topical module collected in the 

4-month period from August 1997 through November 1997 as part of

the 1996 panel of SIPP (also referred to as the “Wave 5” interview).

The School Enrollment and Financing topical module included questions on enrollment status, level of enrollment, major field of study,

schooling costs, and educational assistance. 

All of the 5,557 Wave 5 SIPP respondents who were enrolled at the

level of college or higher (representing 20.9 million students) were

asked to identify the state in which they attended school. After identifying their state, the respondents were then presented with a list of

all postsecondary institutions in that state enrolling at least 1,000 students and asked to name their particular postsecondary institution.

In cases where the respondents attended a school not on the list, the

name of the school was recorded. Of the 5,557 respondents enrolled

in postsecondary schools, 4,706 (85 percent) had their institutions

identified using this procedure. Institutions for the remaining 851

students were imputed based on sex, grade level, race, and region.

The Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System

(IPEDS)

The IPEDS is the National Center for Education Statistics’ (NCES) core

program for the collection of postsecondary education data. The IPEDS

Institutional Characteristics Survey is designed to collect data from

all currently-operating postsecondary institutions, approximately

10,000 institutions in 1996-97. The IPEDS file provides extensive

information about educational offerings, organization and accreditation, calendar and admissions, student charges, enrollment, and

financial aid. Eleven variables were selected for inclusion on the

public use file: (1) level and control, (2) Carnegie classification of

institution type, (3) accreditation, (4) admissions policy, (5) existence

of occupational programs, (6) enrollment, (7) basis for charging fulltime students, (8) local resident tuition, (9) percent Black students

enrolled, (10) percent Hispanic students enrolled, and (11) percent

minority students (all groups) enrolled. A twelfth variable, total room

and board costs, was also included on the Census Bureau’s internal

data file. 
U.S. Census Bureau 3

DEMOGRAPHIC

CHARACTERISTICS

Nearly half of all postsecondary students were

enrolled in their first 

2 years of college.

Of the 11.4 million full-time postsecondary students enrolled during the 1996-97 academic year,

approximately 5.0 million, or 

44 percent, were enrolled as 

college freshmen or sophomores

(termed underclassmen)—including

both 2- and 4-year institutions

(Figure 1).6,7 Fewer students, 

3.7 million, or 32 percent, were

enrolled as college juniors and

seniors. The smaller number of

upperclass students is due, at least

in part, to students leaving school

6

The estimates in this report are based on

responses from a sample of the population. As

with all surveys, estimates may vary from the

actual values for the entire population because

of sampling variation, or other factors. All

statements made in this report have undergone

statistical testing and meet Census Bureau standards for statistical accuracy.

7

Throughout this report, the term "college

year 1" is used to denote students of freshman

class standing-regardless of how many years of

college the student has attended. Likewise,

"college year 2" denotes sophomore class

standing, "college year 3" denotes junior class

standing, "college year 4" denotes senior class

standing, and "college year 5 or higher" denotes

students in graduate or professional school.

after completing 2-year degrees or

dropping out prior to achieving

third-year standing. The remaining

24 percent of postsecondary students were divided equally

between graduate school (college

years 5 or higher) and vocational,

technical, and business school.

Postsecondary students

were predominantly young,

White non-Hispanic, and

female.

The age distribution of postsecondary students indicates that the

vast majority enrolled in postsecondary schooling shortly after

completing high school: 69 percent of full-time students were 17

to 24 years old, including 86 percent of college underclassmen and

73 percent of college upperclassmen (Figure 2). Students 25 to 34

years old comprised 20 percent of

full-time postsecondary students

during the 1996-97 academic year.

These students were most likely to

be enrolled as college upperclassmen or graduate students. The

oldest postsecondary students,

those ages 35 and over, represented only 11 percent of all full-time

students but 29 percent of all

vocational, technical, and business

school students, and 22 percent of

all graduate students. 

Women outnumbered men among

full-time students, 6.2 million compared with 5.3 million. The distributions of women and men by

enrollment level were similar. 

Seventy-two percent of full-time

postsecondary students were

White non-Hispanic, 13 percent

were Black, 7 percent were Asian

and Pacific Islander, and 8 percent

were Hispanic (of any race) 

(Table A).8,9 For the population as

a whole, 73 percent were White

non-Hispanic, 13 percent were

Black, 4 percent were Asian and

Pacific Islander, and 11 percent

8

The percent of full-time postsecondary students who identified themselves as Asian and

Pacific Islander is not significantly different from

the percent of full-time postsecondary students

who identified themselves as Hispanic.

9

Because Hispanics may be of any race,

data in this report for Hispanics overlap slightly

with data for the Black population and for the

Asian and Pacific Islander population. Based on

the 1996 Survey of Income and Program

Participation, 4 percent of the Black population

15 years and over and 3 percent of the Asian

and Pacific Islander population 15 years and

over are also of Hispanic origin. Data for the

American Indian and Alaska Native population

are not shown in this report because of small

sample size in the 1996 Survey of Income and

Program Participation.

Figure 1.

1,323

1,427

3,683

4,982

Percent distribution

Number of

students

(in thousands)

Vocational, technical, business school

College years 5 or higher

College years 3 to 4

College years 1 to 2

(Number and percentage of full-time postsecondary students) 

Full-Time Postsecondary Students by Enrollment Level: 1996-1997 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5. 

32

12

44

13
4 U.S. Census Bureau

were Hispanic.10 The racial and

ethnic distribution of students differed significantly by enrollment

level. Black students were more

likely to be enrolled in vocational,

technical, or business school and

less likely to be enrolled in graduate school than either White nonHispanic or Asian and Pacific

Islander students. Hispanic students were more likely to be

enrolled in vocational, technical, or

business school than either White

non-Hispanic or Asian and Pacific

Islander students. Asians and

Pacific Islanders were more likely

to be enrolled in graduate school

than students in any of the other

race or ethnic groups. 

11

10U.S. Census Bureau; Resident Population

Estimates of the United States by Sex, Race, and

Hispanic Origin: April 1, 1990 to July 1, 1999,

With Short-Term Projection to November 1,

2000; Internet release date January 2, 2001;

http://eire.census.gov/popest/archives/

national/nation3/intfile3-1.txt

About 70 percent of col- dependence on one’s parents tends

lege undergraduates were to diminish with age and that

financially dependent on graduate students are generally their parents. older than college undergraduates.

Among younger full-time students, Over half of all full-time postsec- those under 25 years old, 71 perondary students (57 percent) cent were claimed as a dependent belonged to families with an annu- on their parents’ income taxes. al family income of less than Rates of financial dependence were $50,000 (family income represents highest among college undergrad- the sum of the annual incomes of uates (77 percent among first- and all family members) (Figure 3). second-year students and 69 perCollege undergraduates were sig- cent among third- and fourth-year nificantly more likely to live in students) and lowest among grad- high-income families than either uate students (41 percent). This is

graduate students or vocational, not surprising given that financial technical, and business school 

Figure 2.

Vocational, technical, business school

College years 5 or higher

College years 3 to 4

College years 1 to 2

All full-time postsecondary students

Age of Full-Time Postsecondary Students by 

Enrollment Level: 1996-1997 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5.

69 20 11

86 9 5

73 20 7

27 51 22

42 29 29

(Percent distribution)

17 to 24 years old

25 to 34 years old

35 and older

Table A.

Race and Ethnic Distribution of Full-Time Postsecondary

Students by Enrollment Level: 1996-1997

(Percentage of full-time postsecondary students)

Race/Hispanic origin All

full-time

students

Enrollment level

College

years

1 to 2

College

College years

years 5 or

3 to 4 higher

Vocational,

technical,

business

school

White .....................

White non-Hispanic .......

Black .....................

Asian and Pacific Islander . . .

Hispanic (of any race) ......

79

72

13

7

8

79

71

13

7

8

81

76

12

6

6

80

74

9

11

6

76

66

17

5

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel

Wave 5.
U.S. Census Bureau 5

students. Half of all full-time firstyear and second-year college students came from families with

annual incomes of $50,000 or

more, compared with 44 percent

of third- and fourth-year students,

34 percent of graduate students,

and 30 percent of vocational, technical, and business school students.11 These differences probably stem from the fact that college

undergraduates are more likely to

be financially dependent on their

parents than graduate students o

vocational, technical, and busines

school students and, as a result,

are more likely to have their parent’s income included as part of

their family income.

r

s

11The percent of graduate students from

families with annual incomes of $50,000 or

more is not significantly different from the percent of vocational, technical, and business

school students from families with annual

incomes of $50,000 or more.

Nearly three-fourths of all

full-time students worked

during the last 4 months.

In addition to receiving financial

assistance from their parents, students can also help cover their

school-related expenses by working or obtaining financial aid.

Seventy-two percent of all full-time

postsecondary students worked

either full time or part time during

Figure 3.

Vocational, technical, business school

College years 5 or higher

College years 3 to 4

College years 1 to 2

All full-time postsecondary students

Family Income of Full-Time Postsecondary Students 

by Enrollment Level: 1996-1997 

 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5. 

32 25 44

26 24 49

31 24 44

41 25 34

43 27 30

(Percent distribution)

Less than $25,000

$25,000-$49,999

$50,000 or more

Figure 4.

Vocational, technical, business school

College years 5 or higher

College years 3 to 4

College years 1 to 2

All full-time postsecondary students

Labor Force Status in Last 4 Months of Full-Time Postsecondary 

Students by Enrollment Level: 1996-1997 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5. 

28 34 38

31 36 32

24 36 40

25 27 48

31 26 43

(Percent distribution)

Did not work

Worked part time

Worked full time
6 U.S. Census Bureau

the previous 4 months (Figure 4).12

Third- and fourth-year college students and graduate students were

more likely to have worked than

first- and second-year students or

vocational, technical, and business

school students. Graduate students had the highest incidence of

full-time work (48 percent), followed by vocational, technical, and

business school students (43 percent), third- and fourth-year college students (40 percent), and

first- and second-year college students (32 percent).13

12Labor force status was classified into three

categories: did not work, worked part time, and

worked full time. If the respondent did not

work during any weeks of the 4-month reference period, then they were classified as did

not work. If the respondent worked at least 

1 week during the reference period and worked

35 hours or more for at least half of the total

number of weeks worked, then they were classified as worked full time, otherwise, they were

classified as worked part time.

13The percent of graduate students that

worked full time is not significantly different

from the percent of vocational, technical, and

business school students that worked full time.

The percent of vocational, technical, and business school students that worked full time is

not significantly different from the percent of

third- and fourth-year college students that

worked full time. 

INSTITUTIONAL

CHARACTERISTICS

Most full-time postsecondary students were enrolled

in public institutions.

The IPEDS data provide us with

information on school level (2-year

or 4-year) and control (public or

private). The vast majority of fulltime postsecondary students, 

75 percent, were enrolled in public

institutions, 46 percent in public

schools with curriculums of 4

years or more (4-year schools) and

29 percent in public schools with

curriculums of 2 years or less 

(2-year schools). Twenty percent

of students were enrolled at private, nonprofit institutions, nearly

all of these at 4-year schools

(Figure 5). Although there were

roughly equal numbers of public

and private, nonprofit institutions

in 1996, public institutions represented 112 of the 120 largest nonprofit postsecondary institutions.14

Only 5 percent of all full-time postsecondary students were enrolled

14U.S. Department of Education, National

Center for Education Statistics, Integrated

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS),

"Fall Enrollment, 1996" survey.

at private, for-profit (proprietary)

institutions, primarily at 2-year

schools. 

The differences in the distribution

of students 17 to 24 years old and

25 to 34 years old by institutional

control and level were generally

quite small. The most notable difference was a higher likelihood of

enrollment in private, for-profit

institutions among those 25 to 34

years old, 6 percent compared

with 4 percent (Table B). Students

25 to 34 years old were also

slightly less likely than students

17 to 24 years old to be enrolled

in public schools, 73 percent compared with 77 percent. Students

35 years and over were more likely

than younger students to be

enrolled in public 2-year institutions, 41 percent compared with

28 percent, and in private institutions, 30 percent compared with

23 percent. 

Hispanics were more likely to be

enrolled at public postsecondary

schools (81 percent) than were

White non-Hispanics (74 percent).

In addition, Hispanic students were

approximately equally likely to be

Figure 5.

Private, for profit, 4-year or more

Private, for profit, 2-year or less

Private, nonprofit, 4-year or more

Private, nonprofit, 2-year or less

Public, 4-year or more

Public, 2-year or less

Distribution of Full-Time Postsecondary Students by Institutional Control 

and Level: 1996-1997 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5 

and National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 1997 Institutional Characteristics Survey. 

29

19

4

1

46

1

(Percentage of full-time postsecondary students) 
U.S. Census Bureau 7

attending a public 2-year institution (39 percent) as a public 4-year

institution (42 percent). Hispanic

students were also less likely to be

attending a private, nonprofit

school (10 percent) than students

from any race group. The likelihood of proprietary school enrollment was highest among

Hispanics (9 percent) and Blacks 

(8 percent) and lowest among

Asians and Pacific Islanders (2 percent).15

Compared with students from families with an annual income of less

than $25,000, students living in

families with an annual income of

$50,000 or more were more likely

to have been enrolled at a private,

15The percent of Hispanic full-time postsecondary students enrolled in proprietary schools

is not significantly different from the percent of

Black full-time postsecondary students enrolled

in proprietary schools.

nonprofit institution (22 percent

compared with 16 percent) and

less likely to have been enrolled at

a private, proprietary institution 

(3 percent compared with 7 percent) (Table C). This is not surprising given that private, nonprofit

institutions are generally more

expensive to attend than either

public or proprietary institutions.

Annual family income was also

directly related to the likelihood of

enrollment in a 4-year institution.

Students from families with an

annual income of $50,000 or more

were more likely to be enrolled at

a 4-year school (70 percent) than

were students from families earning less than $25,000 (62 percent). 

Institutional level also differed significantly by student’s dependency

status and labor force status.

Dependent students were more

likely than independent students

to be enrolled at 4-year institutions, 71 percent compared with

60 percent, and at private, nonprofit institutions, 21 percent compared with 15 percent, while independent students were more likely

to be enrolled in proprietary

schools, 7 percent compared with

3 percent. Students who worked,

either full time or part time, were

more likely to be enrolled at a 

4-year institution than students

who did not work, 69 percent

compared with 60 percent.

Nearly half of all full-time

students attended postsecondary institutions with

enrollments of no more

than 10,000 students. 

The IPEDS data also give us information about the size of the

Table B.

Demographic Characteristics of Full-Time Postsecondary Students by Institutional

Control and Level: 1996-1997

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic

Total1

Institutional control and level

Public Private, nonprofit Private, for profit

2-year or less 4-year or more 2-year or less 4-year or more 2-year or less 4-year or more

NumberPercentNumberPercentNumberPercentNumberPercentNumberPercentNumberPercent

Total, 17 years and

older ................ 11,380 3,291 29 5,289 46 82 1 2,122 19 466 4 130 1

AGE

17 to 24 years .............

25 to 34 years .............

35 years and older .........

7,881

2,286

1,213

2,197

599

495

28

26

41

3,853

1,081

355

49

47

29

55

6

21

1

0

2

1,441

456

225

18

20

19

266

104

96

3

5

8

70

39

21

1

2

2

SEX

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Women ...................

5,244

6,137

1,530

1,761

29

29

2,476

2,813

47

46

40

41

1

1

968

1,153

18

19

161

305

3

5

67

63

1

1

RACE/HISPANIC ORIGIN

White .....................

White non-Hispanic .......

Black .....................

Asian and Pacific Islander . . .

9,040

8,227

1,481

760

2,506

2,186

489

246

28

27

33

32

4,277

3,933

623

358

47

48

42

47

69

63

4

4

1

1

0

1

1,733

1,665

243

139

19

20

16

18

379

309

79

1

4

4

5

0

75

71

43

12

1

1

3

2

Hispanic (of any race) ...... 877 342 39 365 42 8 1 80 9 74 8 9 1

1

Students attending school outside of the United States are excluded from this total.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5 and National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 1997 Institutional Characteristics Survey.
8 U.S. Census Bureau

enrolled population at the stu- consistent with the earlier result

dent’s school. Full-time postsec- that older students were more likeondary students were more likely ly than younger students to be

to attend small institutions (no enrolled in private, for-profit, 

more than 10,000 students) than 2-year institutions.

either moderately sized (10,001 to Black students were more likely 20,000 students) or large (more than students from other race and than 20,000 students) institutions ethnic groups to attend very small (Table D). In 1996-97, 48 percent institutions (36 percent), while of students attended institutions Asians and Pacific Islanders were with no more than 10,000 stu- least likely to be enrolled at very dents, and the majority of these small schools (16 percent). Asians students attended small institu- and Pacific Islanders were signifi- tions with an enrollment of no cantly more likely than those from more than 5,000 students. The other race and ethnic groups to be remaining 52 percent of students enrolled at large institutions, 35 were split evenly between moder- percent, compared with 26 percent ately sized and large institutions. for both White non-Hispanics and

Students 35 years and older were Hispanics and 21 percent for

significantly more likely than Blacks. There were also slight difyounger students to be enrolled at ferences in institutional size by

a very small institution (no more sex. Women were more likely than

than 5,000 students), 43 percent men to have attended an institucompared with 28 percent. This is tion with an enrollment of no more

than 5,000 students, while men

were more likely to have attended

an institution with an enrollment

of over 20,000 students. 

White non-Hispanic students tended to enroll in

schools with relatively low

levels of racial and ethnic

diversity.

From the IPEDS data, it is possible

to determine the overall racial and

ethnic composition of the school,

the percent Black non-Hispanic and

the percent Hispanic. Nearly half

(46 percent) of all full-time students attended institutions where

the student body was no more

than 5 percent Black non-Hispanic

(Figure 6).16 Only 11 percent of

full-time students attended institu16The IPEDS data only include an institution's

percent Black non-Hispanic rather than an institution's percent Black.

Table C.

Economic Characteristics of Full-Time Postsecondary Students by Institutional Control

and Level: 1996-1997

(Numbers in thousands)

Characteristic

Total1

Institutional control and level

Public Private, nonprofit Private, for profit

2-year or less 4-year or more 2-year or less 4-year or more 2-year or less 4-year or more

NumberPercentNumberPercentNumberPercentNumberPercentNumberPercentNumberPercent

Total, 17 years and

older ................ 11,380 3,291 29 5,289 46 82 1 2,122 19 466 4 130 1

DEPENDENCY STATUS2

Dependent student .........

Independent student ........

5,571

2,310

1,419

777

25

34

2,825

1,028

51

45

42

12

1

1

1,115

326

20

14

131

134

2

6

39

32

1

1

ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME

Less than $25,000..........

$25,000 to $49,999.........

$50,000 or more ...........

3,623

2,812

4,946

1,160

804

1,327

32

29

27

1,634

1,292

2,364

45

46

48

14

28

40

0

1

1

567

502

1,053

16

18

21

191

144

131

5

5

3

57

43

30

2

2

1

LABOR FORCE STATUS

(last 4 months)

Did not work ...............

Worked part time ...........

Worked full time............

3,197

3,849

4,334

1,104

1,084

1,103

35

28

25

1,362

1,891

2,037

43

49

47

19

34

29

1

1

1

548

677

896

17

18

21

145

128

194

5

3

4

19

36

75

1

1

2

1

Students attending school outside of the United States are excluded from this total.

2

Declared as a dependent on one or both parents’ income tax return. Universe consists of students under 25 years old.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5 and National Center for Education

Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 1997 Institutional Characteristics Survey.
U.S. Census Bureau 9

tions that were more than 20 percent Black non-Hispanic.

Approximately two-thirds (65 percent) of all students attended

schools where the enrollment was

no more than 5 percent Hispanic,

while fewer than 1-in-10 attended

schools that were more than 

20 percent Hispanic (Figure 7).

Not surprisingly, Black and

Hispanic students were more likely

to attend schools with larger percentages of Black non-Hispanic

students and Hispanic students,

respectively. Among full-time students, 67 percent of Black students attended schools that were

more than 10 percent Black nonHispanic, compared with only 

20 percent of White non-Hispanic

students and 18 percent of Asian

and Pacific Islander students.17 In

17The percent Asian and Pacific Islander students attending schools that were more than 

10 percent Black is not significantly different

from the percent of White non-Hispanic students attending institutions that were more

than 10 percent Black. Data on percent Asian

by institution were not available for further

analysis.

addition, while 61 percent of fulltime Hispanic students attended

schools that were more than 

10 percent Hispanic, only 15 percent of White non-Hispanic students and 23 percent of Black students did so. 

AVERAGE ANNUAL

SCHOOLING COSTS

Average annual tuition cost

among full-time students

who paid tuition was

$6,616.

During the 1996-97 school year,

full-time postsecondary students

paid an average of $8,667 for

tuition and fees, books and supplies, and room and board (Table

E).18 The single largest component

of schooling costs was tuition and

fees. Tuition and fees were paid

by 96 percent of full-time postsecondary students and averaged

$6,616 among these students.

The second largest component of

schooling costs was the cost of

room and board, paid by 56 percent of full-time postsecondary

students. Average room and

board expenses, among students

who paid room and board, equaled

$4,882. The final component of

schooling costs, books and supplies, averaged $675 per student,

for the 94 percent of postsecondary students who reported

book and supply costs.

18Average total costs are the total cost of

tuition and fees, books and supplies, and room

and board, and are computed before financial

aid is taken into account. The average cost is

for all students, including those who have no

costs in one or more of the components. In

contrast, the average cost for each component

is the average cost for those students who had

expenses in that category. It is possible that

students who had costs of a component completely covered by aid reported zero expenses,

leading to a lower estimate than if they had

reported correctly. Those not responding to a

particular question typically had a non-zero

value assigned. 

Table D.

Full-Time Postsecondary Students by Institutional

Enrollment: 1996-1997

(Number in thousands and percent distribution)

Characteristic Total number

of students1

(thousands)

Total enrollment in institution

1-5,000

5,001-

10,000

10,001-

20,000

20,001-

60,000

Total, 17 years and older .

AGE

11,380 30 19 26 26

17 to 24 years ................ 7,881 28 19 26 26

25 to 34 years ................ 2,286 27 17 28 28

35 years and older ............

SEX

1,213 43 19 19 19

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,244 28 18 26 28

Women ......................

RACE/HISPANIC ORIGIN

6,137 31 20 25 24

White........................ 9,040 29 19 26 26

White non-Hispanic ......... 8,227 30 20 24 26

Black ........................ 1,481 36 21 22 21

Asian and Pacific Islander...... 760 16 14 34 35

Hispanic (of any race) .........

DEPENDENCY STATUS2

877 23 12 39 26

Dependent student ............ 5,571 26 19 28 27

Independent student...........

ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME

2,310 32 21 23 24

Less than $25,000 ............ 3,623 31 18 25 26

$25,000 to $49,999 ........... 2,812 30 18 29 22

$50,000 and over .............

LABOR FORCE STATUS

(last 4 months)

4,946 28 20 25 28

Did not work.................. 3,197 30 16 28 26

Worked part time ............. 3,849 27 19 26 28

Worked full time .............. 4,334 32 21 24 24

1

Students attending school outside of the United States are excluded from this total.

2 Declared as a dependent on one or both parents’ income tax return. Universe consists of students

under 25 years old.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5

and National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS),

1997 Institutional Characteristics Survey.
10 U.S. Census Bureau

Graduate students faced college students ($7,780), and tuition and fees and room and

higher schooling costs vocational, technical, and business board, while vocational, technical,

than other postsecondary school students ($4,283). The dif- and business students faced the

students. ferences in average total costs lowest tuition costs. In addition,

Annual schooling costs varied con- were the result of differences in traditional college students were

siderably by level of enrollment. average costs for the three cost significantly more likely than vocaAmong full-time students, gradu- components and differences in the tional, technical, and business

ate students had the highest total likelihood of incurring the different school students to report having

costs ($13,518), followed by third- cost components. Graduate stu- paid each of the three components

and fourth-year college students dents faced higher costs for the of postsecondary costs.

($9,562), first- and second-year two largest cost components,

Figure 6.

Hispanic (of any race)

Asian and Pacific Islander

Black

White non-Hispanic

All full-time postsecondary students

Racial Composition of Full-Time Students' Postsecondary 

Institutions: 1996-1997 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5 and

National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 1997 Institutional Characteristics Survey.

46 27 16 11

52 27 15 6

16 17 24 43

45 37 12 6

39 26 17 18

(Percent distribution of students in each race and ethnicity category) 

0-5% Black non-Hispanic

6-10% Black non-Hispanic

11-20% Black non-Hispanic

21-100% Black non-Hispanic

Figure 7.

Hispanic (of any race)

Asian and Pacific Islander

Black

White non-Hispanic

All full-time postsecondary students

Ethnic Composition of Full-Time Students' Postsecondary 

Institutions: 1996-1997 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5 and

National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 1997 Institutional Characteristics Survey.

65 14 12 9

72 13 10 5

65 12 11 12

43 16 28 14

22 17 22 39

(Percent distribution of students in each race and ethnicity category) 

0-5% Hispanic

6-10% Hispanic

11-20% Hispanic

21-100% Hispanic
U.S. Census Bureau 11

Younger students reported higher to vocational, technical, or for both tuition and room and

schooling costs than older stu- business school. Differences in board.

dents and men reported higher enrollment levels cannot, however, Average schooling costs differed costs than women. Students explain the cost differences markedly by students’ race and under 35 years old tended to have between men and women. Men ethnicity. Asians and Pacific higher educational expenses than reported higher average postsec- Islanders ($9,708) and Whites students 35 years and over ondary schooling costs than ($8,886) reported the highest because they were more likely to women, $9,342, compared with costs while Blacks ($6,728) and

be enrolled in college, as opposed $8,090, the result of higher costs Hispanics ($6,172) reported the

Table E.

Average Postsecondary Schooling Costs and Percent of Students Paying Each Cost for

Full-Time Students: 1996-1997

Percent of Percent of Percent of

students students students

paying $1 paying $1 paying $1 Characteristic or more for or more for or more for

Tuition and tuition and Books and books and Room and room and

Total cost2 fees3 fees supplies4 supplies board5 board

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $8,667 $6,616 96 $675 94 $4,882 56

ENROLLMENT LEVEL

College years 1 to 2 .................. 7,780 5,946 97 637 97 4,430 60

College years 3 to 4 .................. 9,562 7,080 98 629 97 4,736 64

College years 5 or higher.............. 13,518 9,658 99 868 96 6,509 58

Vocational, technical, business school. . . 4,283 4,095 82 759 72 3,647 17

AGE

17 to 24 years ....................... 8,954 6,886 97 653 96 4,522 68

25 to 34 years ....................... 8,715 6,378 95 701 92 5,701 45

35 years and older.................... 6,706 5,222 91 776 86 6,511 24

SEX

Men. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,342 7,019 95 700 94 5,187 62

Women.............................. 8,090 6,271 96 653 94 4,575 51

RACE/HISPANIC ORIGIN

White ............................... 8,906 6,733 96 678 94 4,830 58

White non-Hispanic ................. 9,166 6,870 97 691 94 4,854 58

Black................................ 6,815 5,486 91 616 94 5,299 42

Asian and Pacific Islander ............. 9,857 7,510 97 757 94 5,050 66

Hispanic (of any race)................. 6,272 5,240 92 546 90 4,448 53

DEPENDENCY STATUS1

Dependent student ................... 9,523 7,374 97 650 97 4,463 75

Independent student .................. 7,582 5,700 96 662 93 4,700 54

ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME

Less than $25,000.................... 8,490 6,289 95 652 93 4,879 52

$25,000 to $49,999 ................... 7,598 5,933 94 705 92 4,975 47

$50,000 and over..................... 9,402 7,221 97 674 95 4,844 65

LABOR FORCE STATUS (last 4

months)

Did not work ......................... 8,568 6,876 94 681 94 5,136 48

Worked part time ..................... 8,301 6,342 96 653 96 4,535 63

Worked full time ...................... 9,065 6,669 97 689 92 5,020 56

1

Claimed as a dependent on one or both parents’ income tax return. Universe consists of students under 25 years old.

2

Total cost includes costs for students with and without room and board costs.

3

Tuition and fees include only those students with these costs.

4

Books and supplies include only those students with these costs.

5

Room and board costs include only those students with these costs.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5.
12 U.S. Census Bureau

lowest costs.19 Most of the race

and ethnic differences in schooling

costs were attributable to differences in average tuition costs.

Once again, these differences can

be explained, at least in part, by

differences in levels of enrollment.

Among full-time students, Asians

and Pacific Islanders were more

likely than those of other race and

ethnic groups to be enrolled in relatively high-cost graduate programs, while Blacks and Hispanics

were more likely to be enrolled in

relatively low-cost vocational, technical, or business programs.20

Asian and Pacific Islander students

were more likely to report positive

room and board expenses (66 percent) than White non-Hispanic 

(58 percent), Hispanic (53 percent),

or Black students (42 percent).21

Dependent students faced

higher schooling costs

than independent students.

Since student’s schooling decisions

are frequently constrained by their

economic resources, it is not surprising that student’s postsecondary schooling costs were

directly related to their economic

status. Full-time dependent students under 25 years of age

reported higher schooling costs

than their independent counterparts, $9,523 compared with

$7,582. The difference in costs

between dependent and independent students resulted from a combination of higher tuition costs and

an increased likelihood of incurring room and board expenses, 

75 percent compared with 54 percent. In addition, schooling costs

were much higher for full-time students from families earning at

least $50,000 per year ($9,402)

than for students from families

earning $25,000 to $49,999 per

year ($7,598) or from those earning less than $25,000 per year

($8,490), again due to higher

tuition costs and more frequent

payment of room and board

expenses.22

FINANCIAL AID RECEIPT

Most full-time postsecondary students received

financial aid during the

1996-97 academic year.

The majority of full-time postsecondary students, 62 percent,

received some form of financial aid

during the 1996-97 academic year.

Financial aid includes student

loans, Pell Grants, fellowships,

scholarships, work study, Veterans

Assistance, employer assistance,

and other aid sources. Among

these students, the average

amount of financial aid received

was $6,022, covering an average

of 62 percent of their total costs

(Table F). 

College upperclassmen and graduate students were slightly more

likely to have reported receiving

aid than first- and second-year college students. As a percentage of

their schooling costs, graduate students and vocational, technical,

and business school students

received the largest aid packages,

covering an average of 71 percent

of their schooling expenses. 

The likelihood of financial aid

receipt and the amount of aid varied by sex and age. Women 

(65 percent) were more likely to

report having received financial aid

than men (59 percent) and tended,

on average, to have aid packages

that covered a larger percentage of

their total costs (64 percent compared with 60 percent). Full-time

students 25 to 34 years old were

more likely to report having

received financial aid (68 percent)

than either younger students 

(60 percent) or older students 

(62 percent), in part because 

25- to 34-year olds are more likely

to be enrolled in graduate school

than younger students.23 In addition, among those who received

aid, 17 to 24 year olds had a lower

proportion of their schooling costs

covered (59 percent) than did students 25 to 34 years old (69 percent) or 35 and over (67 percent).24

Blacks were more likely to

have received financial aid

than White non-Hispanics.

Among full-time postsecondary

students, Blacks (74 percent) and

Hispanics (69 percent) reported

higher rates of financial aid receipt

than White non-Hispanics (60 percent), and Asians and Pacific

Islanders (56 percent).25 However,

19The average postsecondary schooling

costs of full-time White students is not significantly different from the average postsecondary

schooling costs of full-time Asian and Pacific

Islander students. The average postsecondary

schooling costs of full-time Black students is

not significantly different from the average

postsecondary schooling costs of full-time

Hispanic students. 

20The percent of Hispanic full-time postsecondary students enrolled in vocational, technical, and business schools is not significantly different from the percent of Black full-time

postsecondary students enrolled in vocational,

technical, and business schools.

21The percent of White non-Hispanic students reporting positive room and board

expenses is not significantly different from the

percent of Hispanic students reporting positive

room and board expenses.

22The average tuition costs of full-time students from families earning $25,000 to

$49,999 per year is not significantly different

from the average tuition costs of full-time students from families earning less than $25,000

per year.

23The percent of students 17 to 24 years old

that received financial aid is not significantly

different from the percent of students 35 and

over that received financial aid. 

24The proportion of schooling costs covered for 25 to 34 year olds is not significantly

different from the proportion of schooling costs

covered for students 35 and over.

25The percent of Asians and Pacific

Islanders that received financial aid is not significantly different from the percent of White nonHispanics that received financial aid. The percent of Blacks that received financial aid is not

significantly different from the percent of

Hispanics that received financial aid.
U.S. Census Bureau 13

Blacks (64 percent), Hispanics Independent students tended to financial aid, regardless of depend-

(63 percent) and White non- receive larger aid packages than ency status, independent students

Hispanics (61 percent) had similar dependent students. While 60 per- were more likely than dependent

percentages of their schooling cent of full-time students under students to have at least 50 percosts covered by financial aid. 25 years old received some cent of their total costs covered by

Table F.

Full-Time Postsecondary Students Who Received Financial Aid and Average Amount of

Aid Received: 1996-1997

Characteristic Total

students

(thousands)

Number of

recipients

Percent of all students

Average

amount

of aid

received3

Average

percent

of costs

Estimate covered

Standard

error

90-percent

confidence

interval

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ENROLLMENT LEVEL

11,415 7,098 62 0.92 60.5 - 63.5 $6,022 62

College years 1 to 2 ..................... 4,982 2,977 60 1.41 57.7 - 62.3 5,339 61

College years 3 to 4 ..................... 3,683 2,391 65 1.60 62.4 - 67.6 5,553 57

College years 5 or higher ................. 1,427 938 66 2.55 61.8 - 70.2 11,668 71

Vocational, technical, business school ......

AGE

1,323 792 60 2.74 55.5 - 64.5 3,326 71

17 to 24 years........................... 7,904 4,777 60 1.12 58.2 - 61.8 5,815 59

25 to 34 years........................... 2,293 1,570 68 1.98 64.7 - 71.3 6,964 69

35 years and older.......................

SEX

1,217 752 62 2.83 57.4 - 66.6 5,374 67

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,261 3,078 59 1.38 56.7 - 61.3 6,134 60

Women .................................

RACE/HISPANIC ORIGIN

6,153 4,020 65 1.23 63.0 - 67.0 5,937 64

White................................... 9,066 5,505 61 1.04 59.3 - 62.7 6,079 61

White non-Hispanic .................... 8,253 4,953 60 1.10 58.2 - 61.8 6,281 61

Black ................................... 1,481 1,090 74 2.31 70.2 - 77.8 5,027 64

Asian and Pacific Islander ................ 769 428 56 3.64 50.0 - 62.0 8,257 67

Hispanic (of any race) ....................

DEPENDENCY STATUS1

877 606 69 3.17 63.8 - 74.2 4,249 63

Dependent student....................... 5,590 3,393 61 1.32 58.8 - 63.2 5,856 57

Independent student .....................

ANNUAL FAMILY INCOME

2,315 1,384 60 2.07 56.6 - 63.4 5,714 65

Less than $25,000 ....................... 3,623 2,610 72 1.51 69.5 - 74.5 6,078 66

$25,000 to $49,999 ...................... 2,822 1,874 66 1.81 63.0 - 69.0 5,760 64

$50,000 or more .........................

LABOR FORCE STATUS (last 4 months)

4,970 2,614 53 1.44 50.6 - 55.4 6,154 58

Did not work ............................ 3,218 1,898 59 1.76 56.1 - 61.9 5,767 62

Worked part time ........................ 3,854 2,525 66 1.55 63.5 - 68.5 6,038 63

Worked full time .........................

ANNUAL RESIDENT TUITION2

4,342 2,675 62 1.50 59.5 - 64.5 6,188 62

$1,500 or less ........................... 2,292 1,168 51 2.12 47.5 - 54.5 3,731 69

$1,501 to $8,000 ........................ 7,025 4,395 63 1.17 61.1 - 64.9 5,607 62

$8,001 or more .......................... 2,063 1,529 74 1.96 70.8 - 77.2 8,977 57

1

Claimed as a dependent on one or both parents’ income tax return. Universe consists of students under 25 years old.

2

Students attending school outside of the United States are excluded from the resident tuition figures.

3

Average amount based on students who received financial aid.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5 and National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 1997 Institutional Characteristics Survey.
14 U.S. Census Bureau

financial aid, 39 percent compared

with 33 percent (Figure 8). On

average, independent students had

65 percent of their total costs covered by financial aid, compared

with 57 percent for dependent students.26

The likelihood of financial aid

receipt and the proportion of total

costs covered by financial aid

declined as family income rose.

Among students from families with

annual incomes of less than

$25,000, 72 percent received

financial aid and 47 percent had at

least half of their total costs covered. By contrast, only 53 percent

of students from families with

annual incomes of at least $50,000

received aid, and only 29 percent

of these students had at least half

of their total costs covered. 

The likelihood of financial

aid receipt was highest for

students attending the

most expensive schools.

The IPEDS Institutional

Characteristics Survey collects

information on each institution’s

resident tuition. While this does

not represent the tuition actually

charged to all students at the institution, it does allow for a general

ranking of institutions by tuition

cost. This, in turn, enables us to

compare the likelihood of financial

aid receipt by school cost.

Students attending more expensive

schools (as defined by resident

tuition) were more likely to receive

financial aid than those attending

less expensive schools. Nearly

three-quarters (74 percent) of students attending postsecondary

institutions with an annual resident undergraduate tuition (the

undergraduate tuition cost for instate residents) of over $8,000

received some form of financial

aid, compared with 51 percent of

students attending institutions

with tuition of $1,500 per year or

less. However, students at the

least expensive schools (annual

tuition $1,500 or less) had, on

average, a larger share of their

total costs covered by financial aid

than students at the most expensive schools (annual tuition over

$8,000), 69 percent compared

with 57 percent.

Private school students

were more likely to receive

financial aid than public

school students.

IPEDS data also allow for the comparison of financial aid receipt by

other institutional characteristics

such as level, control, and enrollment, and the likelihood of financial aid receipt differed by institutional characteristics. Students

were more likely to receive aid if

the schools they attended were

private, had 4-year curriculums,

had requirements for admission, 

or had very small enrollments 

(Table G). In addition, students

who attended institutions with

minority enrollments of no more

than 5 percent were more likely to

report having received financial aid

26Students are asked separately about college costs and the amount of financial aid

received. Since tuition and fees, room and

board, and book and supply costs do not represent all postsecondary expenses, some students will report aid amounts that exceed the

total cost of these three components.

Figure 8.

$50,000 and over

$25,000 to $49,999

Less than $25,000

Independent student

Dependent student

Total

Total Costs Covered by Dependency Status and Annual Family Income 

for Full-Time Postsecondary Students: 1996-1997 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5.

38 25 18 20

39 29 16 17

40 21 18 21

28 25 21 26

47 24 14 15

34 25 18 24

(Percent distribution)

 

0%

1-49%

50-99%

100% or more
U.S. Census Bureau 15

than students who attended insti- (64 percent) or in private, for-profit

tutions with a minority enrollment institutions (68 percent).

of 11 percent or more. Students at 2-year institutions

Among full-time students attend- were less likely to receive financial

ing institutions under private con- aid than students attending 4-year

trol, either nonprofit or for-profit, institutions, 57 percent compared

approximately 74 percent received with 65 percent, but those who

some form of financial aid, com- received aid had a larger percentpared with 59 percent among pub- age of their costs covered, 68 perlic school students. Students cent compared with 59 percent.

attending private, nonprofit institu- Likewise, students attending

tions received larger aid packages schools with no requirements for

in absolute dollars but had a lower admission were less likely to

percentage of their total costs cov- receive aid, but among those who

ered (57 percent) than did stu- did receive aid, their aid packages

dents in public institutions covered a greater share of their

total costs than did the aid packages of students attending postsecondary institutions with some

admissions requirements, such as

test scores or class standing.

Financial aid receipt was

more likely among students at small schools.

Interestingly, students attending

very small institutions, those with

enrollments no greater than 5,000

students, were more likely than

students attending larger institutions to receive financial aid. In

addition, students attending very

small institutions had a higher

share of costs covered (64 percent)

than those attending very large

institutions (59 percent). 

Finally, full-time students who

attended institutions where the

student body was at least 95 percent White non-Hispanic were more

likely than students attending

more racially and ethnically

diverse institutions to report

receiving financial aid; however,

students attending postsecondary

institutions that were less than 

80 percent White non-Hispanic had

a larger percentage of their total

costs covered than did students

attending schools that were

between 80 and 94 percent White

non-Hispanic.

Student loans were the

most common source of

financial aid.

The most common source of aid

for full-time students was student

loans. Nearly 4 million students,

or one-third of all full-time students, received some aid in the

form of student loans during

1996-97 (Figure 9). The average

annual loan amount was $5,495,

the largest of the various forms of

Table G.

Postsecondary Student Financial Aid Receipt for Full-Time

Students by Institutional Characteristics: 1996-1997

Characteristic Total

students

(thousands)

Full-time students who received financial aid

Number of

recipients

(thousands)

Percent

of

students

Average

amount

of aid

received

Average

percent

of costs

covered

Total1 .....................

CONTROL

11,380 7,092 62 6,025 62

Public ......................... 8,580 5,035 59 5,259 64

Private, nonprofit ............... 2,203 1,613 73 8,719 57

Private, for profit ...............

LEVEL

597 444 74 4,915 68

2-year or less . . ................ 3,839 2,184 57 4,283 69

4-year or more .................

ACCREDITATION STATUS

7,541 4,908 65 6,799 59

Accredited ..................... 10,175 6,373 63 6,116 62

Not accredited .................

ADMISSIONS REQUIREMENTS

1,206 720 60 5,215 63

Open ......................... 2,905 1,594 55 4,863 68

Test scores or class standing ....

ENROLLMENT

8,476 5,498 65 6,362 61

1 to 5,000 ..................... 3,360 2,256 67 5,961 64

5,001 to 10,000 ................ 2,138 1,286 60 5,652 63

10,001 to 20,000 ............... 2,935 1,782 61 6,061 62

20,001 to 60,000 ...............

PERCENT MINORITY2

2,947 1,768 60 6,340 59

0 to 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,218 833 68 6,261 63

6 to 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,185 1,388 64 6,193 59

11 to 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,336 2,007 60 5,998 58

21 to 100. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,641 2,863 62 5,893 67

1

Students attending school outside of the United States are excluded from this total.

2

Other than White non-Hispanic.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5

and National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS),

1997 Institutional Characteristics Survey.
16 U.S. Census Bureau

financial aid. The next largest aid than one source. Dependent stu- SUMMARY

sources were scholarships and fel- dents were more likely to have This report examined the charac- lowships (received by 27 percent multiple sources of aid than were teristics of full-time postsecondary of full-time students) and Pell independent students—51 percent students and their institutions, the Grants (received by 23 percent of compared with 45 percent. Work costs of their schooling, and their full-time students). Students study students were most likely to patterns of financial aid receipt for received an average of $4,630 have received aid from multiple the academic year 1996-97. from scholarships and fellowships sources (90 percent) while stu- According to the SIPP data, the and $1,811 from Pell Grants. dents that received employer assis- most typical full-time postsec- Veterans Assistance and employer tance were least likely to have ondary student was White non- assistance, although much smaller received a second type of aid Hispanic, female, under 25 years programs, represented sizable (38 percent). of age, and enrolled as a college components of the financial aid Among students who received undergraduate. She was also package of students who received financial aid from multiple sources, employed, financially dependent these forms of aid—the average the most common aid combination on her parents, and from a family amount of aid received by full-time was, not surprisingly, student earning less than $50,000 per students from each of these pro- loans and fellowships or scholar- year. Her college was likely to be grams was approximately $3,300. ships (Figure 10), 41 percent of a public institution with a 4-year

student loan recipients also report- curriculum, a Black enrollment of

ed receiving either a fellowship or no more than 10 percent, and a Nearly half of financial aid scholarship. The other common Hispanic enrollment of no more recipients received aid aid combinations all involved com- than 5 percent. from more than one binations of the four most comsource. Nearly all full-time students paid at mon types of aid: student loans, least $1 toward tuition and fees A little over one-half of the full- fellowships and scholarships, Pell (96 percent) and books and sup- time students who received aid Grants, and work study. plies (94 percent), while just over obtained it from a single source, half of all students (56 percent) with the remaining 48 percent (or incurred costs for room and board. 3.4 million students) having more

Figure 9.

Full-Time Postsecondary Student Recipients of Financial Aid and Average Amount 

Received From Each Source: 1996-1997 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5. 

$6,022

$5,495

$4,630

$1,811

$1,924

$3,349

$3,339

$3,436

4

2

6

9

23

27

34

62

Average

Percent of

all full-time

students

501

270

676

1,065

2,628

 3,035

3,856

 7,098

Number of

full-time student

recipients

(in thousands)

Assistance from employer

Veterans Assistance

Other

College work study

Pell Grant

Fellowship/scholarship

Loan

All sources
U.S. Census Bureau 17

Average total costs for these three possible with only one of the two basis about the schools themcomponents totaled $8,667 in data sets. selves.

1996-97. The SIPP is a longitudinal survey of The IPEDS annually surveys

Most students (62 percent) the U.S. civilian, noninstitutional- approximately 10,000 postsecreceived some form of financial ized population, conducted at ondary institutions and consists of

aid. The average aid amount 4-month intervals by the Census eight integrated components. The

totaled $6,022 and covered an Bureau. The main focus of SIPP is data in this report are from the

average of 62 percent of the stu- to collect information on labor 1997 Institutional Characteristics

dents’ postsecondary costs, force participation, jobs, income, Survey, a census of 2- and 4-year

although only 38 percent of stu- and participation in federal assis- colleges. The two data sets were

dents received aid packages that tance programs. Information on merged by institution name. The

covered at least half of their total other topics is collected in topical twelve institutional variables

costs. modules on a rotating basis. Data selected for inclusion on the

shown in this report are from the merged file include institution The most common source of finan- School Enrollment and Financing level and control, Carnegie classifi- cial assistance was student loans, topical module collected in the 4- cation, admission policy, enroll- followed by fellowships and schol- month period from August 1997 ment, tuition costs, room and arships, Pell Grants, and work through November 1997 as part of board costs, and race and ethnic study. Nearly half of all students the 1996 panel of SIPP. The School composition. received aid from more than one Enrollment and Financing topical

source. module included questions on

enrollment status, level of enroll- DEFINITIONS AND 

ment, major field of study, school- EXPLANATIONS SOURCES OF THE DATA ing costs, and educational assis- Enrollment level. Enrollment tance. In addition, for the first The estimates in this report come level is based on the respondent’s time, the School Enrollment and from an innovative project that academic standing and not the merged data from the Survey of Financing topical module asked number of years they have been students the name and, if neces- Income and Program Participation enrolled in postsecondary school. sary, the location of the school (SIPP) with data from the College year 1 signifies freshman that they attended. This informa- Integrated Postsecondary class standing, college year 2 sig- tion allowed the SIPP data to then Education Data System (IPEDS). nifies sophomore class standing, be linked to the IPEDS data, which The resulting data set is richer and college year 3 signifies junior class is collected on an institutional allows for new analysis not 

Figure 10.

Pell Grant and work study

Fellowship/scholarship and work study

Loan and work study

Fellowship/scholarship and Pell Grant

Loan and Pell Grant

Loan and fellowship/scholarship

Full-Time Postsecondary Student Recipients of the Most Common Financial Aid 

Combinations: 1996-1997 

 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), 1996 Panel Wave 5. 

1,590

686

622

550

1,313

1,035

(In thousands)
18 U.S. Census Bureau

standing, college year 4 signifies categories: (1) Pell Grant, (2) was coded directly from a question

senior class standing, and college Veterans Assistance, (3) College (or asking whether students under age

years 5 or higher signifies gradu- Federal) Work Study and any other 25 were listed as dependents on

ate or professional students. federal grant or program, (4) their parent’s or guardian’s 1996

loans, income tax return. Labor force status. Labor (5) grants, scholarships, assistant- force status was divided into three ships, or tuition remission from categories: did not work, worked the school, state, or some other ACCURACY OF THE part time, and worked full time. source, (6) employer assistance, ESTIMATES Respondents who did not work and (7) other aid excluding par- during the weeks of the 4-month All statistics from sample surveys ents. reference period were categorized are subject to sampling error and

as did not work. Respondents who Annual family income. nonsampling error. All comparworked at least 1 week during the Annual family income is calculated isons presented in this report have

reference period and who worked by multiplying the average month- taken sampling error into account

35 hours or more for at least half ly family income by twelve, where and meet the Census Bureau’s

of the total number of weeks average monthly family income is standards for statistical signifiworked were categorized as the sum of the family income dur- cance. Nonsampling error in surworked full time. Respondents ing the reference months, divided veys may be attributed to a variety

who worked at least 1 week dur- by the number of months in which of sources, such as how the survey

ing the reference period, but did income was reported. A student’s was designed, how respondents

not work 35 hours or more for at family includes all family members interpret questions, how able and

least half of the total number of at the student’s usual place of resi- willing respondents are to provide

weeks worked, were categorized dence. correct answers, and how accuas worked part time. rately answers are coded and classified. The Census Bureau Dependency status. Students COMPARISONS WITH employs quality control procedures were classified as dependent if 1993-94 DATA throughout the production they were claimed as a dependent process—including the overall on their parents’ income tax Similar data were collected in the design of surveys, testing the return. Dependency status was 1993 panel of the Survey of wording of questions, review of asked only of students under Income and Program Participation the work of interviewers and 25 years old. for the 1993-94 academic year. coders, and statistical review of These data were published in U.S. Financial aid recipiency. reports. Census Bureau, Current Population Respondents who indicated that Reports, P70-60, Financing the The SIPP employs ratio estimation, they had received financial aid for Future: Postsecondary Students, whereby sample estimates are school were then asked whether Costs, and Financial Aid: 1993- adjusted to independent estimates they received aid from one or 1994, 1999. Because of numerous of the national population by age, more of the following eleven changes in question wording race, sex, and Hispanic origin. sources: (1) Pell Grant, (2) Veterans between the 1993 and 1996 SIPP This weighting partially corrects Assistance, (3) College (or Federal) panels and several changes in vari- for bias due to undercoverage, but Work Study, (4) any other federal able definitions between the how it affects different variables is grant or program, (5) loans, 1993-94 report and the 1996-97 the survey is not precisely known. (6) grants, scholarships, or tuition report, the data in the two reports Moreover, biases may also be pres- remission from the school, are not directly comparable. For ent when people who are missed (7) assistantship from the school, example, in the 1993 SIPP, a stu- in the survey differ from those (8) grant or scholarship from the dent was classified as independent interviewed in ways other than the state, (9) grant or scholarship from if they were either married, age 24 categories used in weighting (age, some other source, (10) employer or older, a military veteran, the race, sex, and Hispanic origin). All assistance, and (11) other aid householder, the spouse of the of these considerations affect com- excluding parents. For this report, householder, or if they had health parisons across different surveys source of financial aid was reclassi- insurance in their own name. In or data sources. fied into the following seven the 1996 SIPP dependency status
U.S. Census Bureau 19

Please contact Jeffrey Stratton of CONTACTS USER COMMENTS

the Demographic Statistical Statistical Information Office The Census Bureau welcomes the Method Division via e-mail at Population Division comments and advice of data and dsmd_s&a@census.gov for informapop@census.gov report users. If you have any sug- tion on the source of the data, the 301-763-2422 gestions or comments, please accuracy of the estimates, the use write to: of standard errors, and the compu- Scott Boggess

tation of standard errors. Education and Social Stratification Chief, Population Division

Branch U.S. Census Bureau

Population Division Washington, DC 20233

MORE INFORMATION Scott.Boggess@census.gov

301-763-2464 The report, as well as a detailed or send e-mail to:

package of tables showing post- Camille Ryan pop@census.gov

secondary school enrollment, Education and Social Stratification

costs, and financing by various Branch

social and demographic character- Population Division

istics, are available on the Internet Camille.L.Ryan@census.gov

(www.census.gov); search for this 301-763-2464

report by clicking on the letter S in

the “Subjects A-Z” section of the

Web page and selecting “School:

Postsecondary Students, Costs and

Financial Aid.”
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