l 

l 

I 

i INFLUENCES OF LOGGING AND WEATHER 

ON ELK DISTRIBUTION IN WESTERN MONTANA 

L. Jack Lyon 

USDA Forest Service, Research Paper INT-236 

Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station 

FOREST SERVICE, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 

This file was created by scanning the printed publication.

Errors identified by the software have been corrected;

however, some errors may remain.

USDA Forest Service 

Research Paper INT-236 

September 1979 

INFLUENCES OF LOGGING AND WEATHER· 

ON ELK DISTRIBUTION IN WESTERN MONTANA 

L. Jack Lyon 

INTERMOUNTAIN FOREST AND RANGE EXPERIMENT STATION 

Forest Service 

U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Ogden, Utah 84401 
THE AUTHOR 

L. JACK LYON, wildlife Research Biologist, is leader of a research 

work unit devoted to ecology and management of wildlife habitat. 

This unit is headquartered at the Forestry Sciences Laboratory 

on the campus of the University of Montana. Dr. Lyon holds 

B.S. and M.S. degrees in wildlife Management from Colorado State 

University and a Ph.D. in the same field from the University of 

Michigan. He has authored. over 40 technical pUblications and 

articles. He is a life member of The wildlife Society and a 

member of the American Institute of Biological Sciences, Society 

for Range Management, and the Ecological Society of America. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The study reported here represents one part of a statewide 

cooperative investigation by the Northern Region and Intermountain 

Forest and Range Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service; Montana 

Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks; School of Forestry, 

University of Montana; and Missoula District Bureau of Land Management. 

I am indebted to more than 90 employees and volunteers from 

these agencies who participated in the study. In particular, I 

appreciate the long hours and hard miles walked by Reuel Jansen, 

John Firebaugh, Larry Mitchell, and Steve Gilbert. 
RESEARCH SUMMARY 

Distributions of elk pellet groups on an area of 215 km2 (80 

mi2) were examined for a period of 8 years. Recorded changes 

in annual distribution describe both elk movement in response to 

disturbances in the forest environment and elk habitat selection in 

response to weather conditions. 

Over the period of study, the single most important influence 

on elk distribution was weather. Severity of winter weather determined the location and extent of winter range. Snowfall during the 

hunting season resulted in elk concentrating in the least accessible 

areas available. Hot, dry summer weather forced selection of habitat 

areas providing c~ol, moist conditions. 

The second determinant of elk distribution was logging. Elk 

consistently moved away from areas in which active logging was in 

progress. The distance moved and the time required for return 

varied depending on the location and duration of logging activity. 

Recommendations intended to reduce the time during which habitat is 

unavailable to elk are presented. 
CONTENTS 

Page 

INTRODUCTION . 1 

STUDY AREA . 1 

METHODS ... 4 

CULTURAL DISTURBANCES AND WEATHER. . 4 

ELK DISTRIBUTION 5 

1970 Count. 7 

1971 Count. 7 

1972 Count. 7 

1973 Count. 8 

1974 Count. 8 

1975 Count. 8 

1976 Count. 9 

1977 Count. 9 

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS . • 10 
INTRODUCTION 

The Burdette Creek drainage in western Montana is a major wintering area for Rocky 

Mountain elk (Cervus eZaphus neZsoni). In summer, these elk disperse over a large area 

of forested land including the several drainages adjacent to Burdette Creek. One of 

the drainages, Deer Creek, was the location of a USDA Forest Service timber sale from 

1971 through 1974. The study reported here was initiated in 1970, with the objective 

of describing the annual distribution of elk in the area surrounding Burdette Creek 

during the period of the Deer Creek timber sale. Several smaller timber sales were also 

conducted on or near the study area during the 8 years of investigation. 

STUDY AREA 

The Burdette Creek-Deer Creek study area (fig. 1) includes about 215 km2 (80 mi 2 ) 

of forested land 40 km (25 mi) due west of Missoula, Montana. About two-thirds of the 

area is Lolo National Forest. The remainder is a mixed ownership of U.S. Champion 

International, Burlington Northern, the State of Montana, and small private ranches. 

For evaluation of elk distribution, the study area was divided into 12 subunits 

(table 1) representing drainages or areas in which habitats for elk were considered 

comparable. Subunits range in size from 745 to 2 722 ha (1,840 to 6,720 acres). 

The west boundary of the area is Fish Creek, which flows north and off the study 

area at an elevation of 975 m (3,200 ft). Three major drainages, Deer Creek, Burdette 

Creek, and Lupine Creek, and four smaller drainages flow west and southwest to Fish 

Creek from the watershed divide at 1 890 m (6,200 ft). East of this divide, Eds, Gus, 

and Johns Creeks, and the South Fork of Petty Creek flow east to Petty Creek. The 

eastern study area boundary, through 1972, was the 1 524-m (5,000-ft) contour level. 

In 1973, this boundary was extended to the 1 2l9-m (4,000-ft) contour level between the 

South Fork and Johns Creek. 

When the study began in 1970, vehicle access was limited to county roads along 

Fish Creek and Petty Creek, the Wagon Mountain Road on the southern ridgelines of the 

South Fork and Lupine Creek, and a low standard fire-control access road on the ridge 

north of Eds Creek and south along the watershed divide to the ridge between Johns 

Creek and the South Fork. In addition, short spur roads ran 1 to 5 km (1 to 3 mi) in 

the bottoms of several dra~nages. 

Throughout the study area, but especially on southerly aspects, open talus slopes 

and rock outcrops are common. The area is rough, steep, and deeply incised. Most 

slopes are in excess of 50 percent. Streams are considered intermittent above 1 500 m 

(4,921 ft) but most contain flowing water year round except during very dry years. 

Vegetation on the area consists of subalpine fir (Abies Zasiocarpa) and lodgepole 

pine (Pinus contorta) types above 1 500 m and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) types 

below that elevation. Forests on south and west aspects contain a high proportion of 

ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and a few moist, northerly aspects support western 

redcedar (Thuja pZicata). Conifer cover on most of the study area exceeds 50 percent, 

but drier aspects have grassy openings, and fire-created shrub fields are cornmon on 

southerly aspects. The largest nonforested opening on the area is the 800- to 1 200-ha 

(2,000- to 3,000-acre) shrubfield in Burdette Creek. This area burned in 1917 and is 

1 

i. 

Ii 

~ I 

i 

I 

l 
currently dominated by mixtures of snowbrush ceanothus (Ceanothus velutinus) , mallow 

ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceous) , mountain maple (Acer glabrum) , Scouler willow 

(Salix scouleriana) , and serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia). 

t."j 

/ ,-,,,\ I , I 

."".--.... / I 

.,.- I "'-"" J .... -1' / 

I --r " , " LUP I NE , 

J::. I ' .... «'/ CREEK ' 

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t.(9f ' 

LUPINE' \--- HOward Creek 

----

SCALE 

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6 KM 

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Figure l.--Road system and diagrammatic representation of drainages and subunits, 

Burdette Creek-Deer Creek study area. 

2 
Table l.--Subunits of the Burdette Creek-Deer Creek study area 

Subunit name Areas 

Hectares Acres 

Wall-Lion 2 428 6,000 

Deer Creek 2 720 6,720 

Eds Creek 2 639 6,520 

Wig-Owl 2 363 5,840 

Wig Mountain 745 1,840 

Burdette High 987 2,440 

Burdette Low 2 639 6,520 

Gus Creek 1 117 2,760 

Johns-Garden 1 489 3,680 

South Fork 2 169 5,360 

Lupine Creek 1 441 I 3,560 

Hyde-Lupine 777 1,920 

Study area 21 513 53,160 

Description 

Wall Canyon to Lion Creek including lower Deer 

Creek. Mostly open timber stands on southand west-facing steep slopes. 

Upper two-thirds of drainage. Mostly closed 

canopy, undisturbed forest until 1 017 ha (2,512 

acres) were logged, 1971-74. 

Drainage above 1 524 m (5,000 ft). Mostly closed 

canopy, undisturbed forest. 

Two small drainages. Both are extensively roaded 

and logged. South- and west-facing slopes. 

Burdette Creek drainage above 1 524 m (5,000 ft) 

adjacent to the ridge of Deer Creek. About half 

forested and half open shrubfields. 

Drainage above 1 524 m (5,000 ft) adjacent to the 

watershed divide and Lupine Creek. Mostly closed 

canopy forest. 

Drainage below 1 524 m (5,000 ft). Major winter 

range in open shrubfields on south aspects. 

Closed canopy on north aspects. 

Drainage above 1 524 m (5,000 ft). Closed canopy, 

undisturbed forest. 

Two drainages above 1 524 ill (5,000 ft). After 

1972, transects were installed in Garden Creek 

to 1 219 m (4,000 ft). Closed canopy until 

the 1975-77 timber sale. 

Drainage above 1 524 m (5,000 ft); to 1 219 m 

(4,000 ft) after 1972. Closed canopy, undisturbed fQrest with some shrubfield openings. 

Upper 4.8 km (3 mi) of drainage. Open shrubfields on south and west aspects, closed canopy 

forest on north aspect. 

Lower 1.6 km (1 mi) of Hyde Creek, Burdette 

Creek, and Lupine Creek. Selectively logged, 

pastureland, and several homesites. 

Total Burdette Creek-Deer Creek study area. 

3 

. :' ..... '.',., 
METHODS 

Within the area described, pellet groups were counted in continuous belt transects 

1.2-m (4-ft) wide. Transects were located along the contour at 152 m (500 ft) vertical 

intervals from 1 067 to 1 981 m (3,500 to 6,500 ft) elevation. Counts were conducted 

during late August and early September from 1970 to 1977. Locations of pellet groups 

were recorded and each group was categorized as fresh, new, old, or very old on the basis 

of softness, color, and degree of weathering. Approximately 547 km (340 mi) of transect 

were surveyed and 7 to 10 thousand pellet groups were recorded each year. 

In analysis,' very old pellet groups were deleted on the assumption that such pellets 

were deposited in previous years. Some loss of information concerning winter distribution may be inherent in this assumption. All other pellet groups and transect areas 

were summarized to obtain the average pellet group density for each subunit and for the 

study area (table 2). 

Table 2.--Pellet groups per hectare by subunit~ Burdette Creek-Deer Creek study area~ 

1970 to 1977 {pellet groups per acre = 0.405 times pellet groups per hectare} 

Pellet groups rer hectare by year 

Subunit 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 

Wall-Lion 113 102 68 42 41 98 66 59 

Deer Creek 122 71 40 28 27 33 32 58 

Eds Creek 163 125 79 92 77 56 68 50 

Wig-Owl 140 113 55 38 62 121 128 71 

Wig Mountain 167 122 55 97 55 30 54 137 

Burdette-High 92 122 30 65 45 86 85 40 

Burdette-Low 203 108 III 87 123 ll5 218 174 

Gus Creek 156 97 54 83 81 79 78 50 

Johns-Garden ll8 65 59 75 40 78 62 29 

South Fork 155 100 74 77 86 90 65 43 

Lupine Creek 155 ll4 96 70 106 169 95 49 

Hyde-Lupine 105 65 72 24 45 96 82 56 

Study area, 

average 147 101 68 63 68 88 89 76 

CULTURAL DISTURBANCES AND WEATHER 

During the 8 years of study, a variety of human activities with potential influence on elk distribution occurred within and adjacent to the study area. The timber 

sale on Deer Creek was the activity of major interest. Table 3 presents a brief summary 

of other timber sales, vehicle traffic, and hunting seasons. In addition, the severity 

of winter weather and other unusual weather conditions are indicated. 

4 
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Table 3.--Summary of cultural disturbances and weather, Burdette Creek-Deer Creek study area, 

1969 through 1977 

Occurrence in the year Ereceding August and SeEtember Eellet counts Events 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 

Deer Creek timber sale 

Roads constructed, 85 km (53 mi) X X Roads closed - - Active logging, 26,372 MBF on 

1.017 ha (2 512 acres) X X X X 

Slash disposal, planting X X IX 

Other timber sales (subunit) : 

Howard Creek (off area) X X X 

Lupine Creek (Hyde-Lupine) X X 

Garden Creek (Johns-Garden) 2R X X 

South Fork 2R X X 

Lion Creek (Wall-Lion) X 

Wagon Mountain Road (off area) X 

Johns Creek (rrdge with Gus Creek) 2R X X Eds Creek 2R X X 

Elk trap in Wig Creek X X - - Road washed out Fire patrol, recreation traffic X X X X X X X X 

Hunting season, days (year 

preceding count) 36 43 348 325 29 334 37 36 

Snow during hunt X X X 

Winter weather severity4 2 3 4 3 2 1 

Hot, dry summer X X 

IA planting crew was in the drainage briefly during the spring of 1977. 

2Road construction preceding active logging. 

3In these years, a 5-day bull season in September preceded the general October-November hunting season. 

40n a scale of 5, 3 is average, 1 is very mild, and 5 is severe. These judgments are based on both 

weather records and Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks evaluations for western Montana. 

ELK DISTRIBUTION 

Variance analysis of pellet density data (table 2) revealed that significantly high 

(P <0.05) elk use occured on the winter range in Burdette Creek and that the study area 

elk population declined significantly during the first 2 years of study. This decline 

was not considered a treatment effect. A similar trend was indicated by Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks checking station records for Game Management Unit 203, 

which includes the study area. 

Evaluation of annual changes in elk distribution was based on the hypothesis that 

the proportion of elk use in each subunit should remain constant from year to year if 

elk are uninfluenced by disturbances or weather. For this test, pellet density data 

were adjusted to an annual 'population base of 100, distributed to reflect the percentage 

of elk use in each subunit. Within subunits, elk use was further subdivided by aspect 

and altitude and tested with variance analysis for differences among years. Annual 

percentages of elk use by subunit, 1970 to 1977, and significant changes in elk distribution (P <0.10) are presented in figure 2. 

Comparison of figure 2 and table 3 revealed that most of the significant changes in 

elk distribtuion could be explained as responses to identified cultural disturbances or 

weather. Many smaller changes that were not statistically significant were also explained; however, there were few instances in which elk response was a simple negative or 

positive reaction to a single event. Several distributional changes represent cumulative 

shifts in elk use over a period of years and, in a few cases, significant change occurred 

because of sequential similar responses to completely unrelated events. Negative response to active timber sales occurred several times and, in every year of the study, 

5 
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the influence of weather on elk distribution was apparent. The following discussion 

identifies the causes and examines the importance of weather and human activities in 

determining the way elk use the available habitat. 

WALL - LION 

r----, 

l:[~I ____ L ___ ~_-____ ~ 

DEER CREEK 

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10 

5 

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EDS CREEK 

GUS CREEK 

WIG MTN. :[r-.... YJ-::pJ!] :[[-T"-J-~-t-:J 

15 • WIG - OWL 

10 

5 

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BURDETIE HIGH 

5 .--, 

[ o [1 , ,'I L+J r-, L __ 

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JOHNS - GARDEN 

BURDETIE LOW 

15 I - .-_.r-, 

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50 

[ n-.r-" , 

LUPINE CREEK l 

1O~ [ ... ___ r_-_' __ i_-___ ---' [ -" L_" YEARS 

1970 ., 1977 

rIs-:::~~~;n:~!:l period of logging activity 

in Deer Creek. 

Figure 2.--Annual percentages of elk use by subunit, 1970-1977. Arrows indicatE 

significant (P <0.10) changes. 

6 
... 

• 

1970 Count 

In the year preceding the first (1970) pellet count, human activities on the study 

area included the hunting season, fire patrols, recreation traffic, and some timbermarking work in Deer Creek. Final timber sale preparation activities in Deer Creek may 

have caused a slight depression in elk use; but with the exception of the Burdette Creek 

winter range (Burdette Low), all subunits of the study area were used by elk about as 

expected on the basis of proportionate area. The Burdette winter range received more use 

than might have been expected during a relatively mild winter. Snow fell during the 1969 

hunting season, and I suspect that elk movement into the relatively inaccessible Burdette 

Creek drainage was precipitated by hunting pressure rather than winter weather. 

1971 Count 

Beginning in September 1970, activity in Deer Creek increased from occasional foot 

travel to substantial road construction, daily logging traffic, and major modifications 

of forest cover. All of the main roads and about half the timber harvest ~ere completed 

during this period, but most of the logging took place on the north side of the drainage. 

The proportion of elk use declined in Deer Creek and increased in the immediately adjacent subunits. While none of these changes in elk use of subunits were individually 

significant, the probability of simultaneous random increases in all five subunits 

adjacent to Deer Creek is only one in 32 (P = 0.03). 

The winter of 1970-71 was more severe than the preceding winter, but there was 

little early snowfall and elk were not forced onto the traditional winter range in 

Burdette Creek. As a result, the Wall-Lion and Wig-Owl subunits had increased winter 

use. The influence of late-season, deeper snow is also evident in the decline of elk 

use in subunits east of the watershed divide. Elk wintering in Gus Creek, Johns-Garden, 

and the South Fork subunits remained below 1 524 m (5,000 ft) for a longer than usual 

period of time. As a result, fewer pellet groups were detected on transects located 

above that elevation. 

1972 Count 

In the year preceding this count, logging and road construction continued in Deer 

Creek. The focus of activity, however, shifted to the south side of the drainage. 

There a spur road was built to the ridge at the Wig Mountain subunit between Deer Creek 

and Burdette Creek. The proportion of elk use in Deer Creek continued to decline, and 

declines were recorded in the subunits immediately adjacent to the ridgeline disturbance 

(Wig Mountain, Wig-Owl, and Burdette High). Two of these declines were statistically 

significant. The pattern was consistent with a hypothesis that elk move away from areas 

that have direct, line-of-sight contact to a source of disturbance. I 

Identification of the subunits into which elk moved is conjectural. Statistically 

significant increases were not recorded for any subunit, and all apparent increases 

could reasonably have been caused by factors other than the Deer Creek timber sale. 

Increased elk use of the Burdette Low, Lupine Creek, and Hyde-Lupine subunits, for 

example, was highest around 1 372 m (4,500 ft) as was expected following the severe 

winter weather of 1971-72. Increased elk use of the Johns-Garden and South Fork subunits appeared to be a result of elk movement away from an active timber sale just 

outside the study area in Howard Creek. Nevertheless, use of subunits to which elk 

might have been expected to retreat does suggest that animals moved as much as 8 km 

(5 mi) from the ridgeline disturbance in Deer Creek. 

7 
1973 Count 

Timber harvest in Deer Creek was virtually completed and, by August 1973, most 

of the heavy equipment had been removed. The decline in elk use continued and finally 

reached a statistically significant level. Elsewhere on the study area, other distributional changes of less than statistical magnitude appeared to correlate with 

weather conditions and man-caused activities. 

During the mild winter of 1972-73, there was little reason for elk to. concentrate 

on the traditional winter range, and a decline in the use of Burdette Low was recorded. 

Elk response to hot and dry summer weather is persuasively demonstrated by declines in 

the use of all south- and west-facing subunits and concurrent increased use of all eastfacing subunits and subunits above 1 524 m (5,000 ft). At the same time, the Howard 

Creek timber sale may have amplified the increased use of the South Fork and JohnsGarden subunits. The depressed use of Wig-Owl and Lupine Creek also reflects response 

to an elk trap in Wig Creek and some selective logging at the,mouth of Lupine Creek. 

1974 Count 

Final logging operations and hauling of logs from Deer Creek were completed in 

the spring and summer of 1974. The disturbance was not continuous, but roads remained 

open and elk use remained low. Minor declines in elk use of the Wig Mountain and 

Burdette High subunits and an increase in Wig-Owl usage might have been associated 

with logging traffic, but these changes probably represent a general return to normal 

from the increases associated with hot summer weather in 1973. 

Snowfall during the 1973 hunting season, and a winter of average severity, are 

reflected in increased elk use of Burdette Low and Lupine Creek and declines in elk 

use of Eds Creek and Gus Creek above 1 524 m (5,000 ft). New transects below 1 524 m 

in the South Fork also confirm increased elk use during the winter; but road construction in Garden Creek resulted in significant elk movement out of the Johns-Garden 

subunit. 

1975 Count 

Following an early bull season, but before the general elk hunting season in 

October 1974, the road to Deer Creek was closed with a gate. Only slash-burning crews 

and USDA Forest Service vehicles entered the drainage. Thus, the 1975 pellet count 

represents the first year of road closure after logging. Despite reductions in 

disturbance, elk use continued to decline. Elk use was also significantly depressed in 

the Wig Mountain subunit adjacent to some of the Deer Creek slash treatment areas. 

Significant increases in elk use of the Wall-Lion and Wig-Owl subunits were not 

considered a response to the closure of Deer Creek. Similar increases in elk use 

occurred in all west- and south-facing drainages except Burdette Creek. And, in every 

case, the increase was recorded on transects at 1 372 m (4,500 ft)--which is considered 

indicative of winter use. Apparently, the initially mild winter weather of 1974-75 

allowed elk to remain in areas outside Burdette Creek and, despite extremely cold 

weather during February, the expected movement to traditional winter range never 

occurred. 

8 
Road construction activity in the South Fork was reflected in a minor depression 

of elk use; and road construction on the ridge between Gus Creek and Johns Creek caused 

a minor depression in elk use of Gus Creek. Concurrently, a significant decline in elk 

pellet densities occurred in Eds Creek. During 1975, road construction and logging 

were initiated on a private holding on the north side of Eds Creek at about 1 524 m 

(5,000 ft). The area involved was relatively small, but the location, on a ridge 

overlooking much of the drainage, was very disturbing to elk. 

1976 Count 

In 1976, a combination of events resulted in a significant increase in elk use of 

the Burdette Creek drainage: the 1975 hunting season began in mid-October; and snowfall 

in October was the highest recorded during this study. As a result, elk moved ineo 

Burdette Creek earlier than in any previous year. The winter of 1975-76 was relatively 

mild, but low temperatures persisted through March; so elk movement off the winter 

range was delayed. Also, active timber sales in Lion Creek to the west and in all 

subunits east of Burdette Creek further inhibited normal spring and summer dispersal. 

Inaccessibility of the Wig-Owl subunit during the hunting season (table 3) contributed to continued heavy use; but Lupine Creek, which hunters can reach on foot 

from the Wagon Mountain Road, received significantly less elk use than in previous 

years. In Deer Creek, the roads remained closed, but some slash burning and tree 

planting occurred and no increase in elk use was recorded. 

1977 Count, 

Following 6 consecutive years of declining elk use, including 3 years of postlogging ~oad closure, elk pellet densities in Deer Creek nearly doubled between 1976 

and 1977. Proportionately, elk use in 1977 was almost the same as that recorded in 

the year before logging started. Elsewhere on the study area, declining elk use was 

recorded in all subunits in which logging was in progress; and in two of these subunits, 

Johns-Garden and the South Fork, the declines were statistically significant. In Lion 

Creek, logging was completed and even though the roads remained open, a minor increase 

in elk use occurred in the Wall-Lion subunit. 

Independent of the response to timber sale activities, elk distribution in 1977 

again demonstrated the strong influence of weather conditions. The winter of 1976-77 

was extremely mild and, in the absence of snow pack, elk were able to remain at all 

elevations throughout the study area. Elk use of the Burdette winter range should 

have declined from the high recorded in 1976. However, the mild winter was followed 

by a hot, dry summer and elk response was limited by a number of conditions that did 

not exist in the hot, dry summer of 1973. Use of the south- and west-facing subunits 

(Wall-Lion, Wig-Owl, Lupine Creek, and Hyde-Lupine) was depressed, as in 1973, but 

movement to the cooler, moi~t subunits on the east side of the study area was inhibited 

by active timber sales. Use of the Wig Mountain subunit, which is above 1 524 m 

(5,000 ft) increased significantly, but a similar increase in the use of Burdette High 

was inhibited by logging activity in adjacent drainages. 

For a substantial period of time in 1977, Deer Creek and Burdette Creek were the 

only areas of suitable habitat actually available to elk. In both subunits, a large 

drainage without active disturbance included a considerable area of north aspect on 

which small streams provided either flowing water or moist vegetation. Thus, while 

it is significant that Deer Creek became acceptable to elk following the timber sale, 

it may be even more significant that reoccupation of the drainage was not an elective 

choice. Instead, it appears that elk reentry to the drainage was forced by circumstances of weather and active timber sales. 

9 
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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 

While the foregoing narrative description provides a persuasive summary of elk 

distributional changes and causal relationships, several assumptions were necessary 

to the continuity of the narrative. Implicit in all interpretations is the assumption 

that established patterns will ordinarily be repeated. Thus, any major modification 

of elk distribution requires repeated reinforcement to overcome behavioral patterns 

based on reenactment of previous experience. Elk response to weather occurs relatively 

quickly because the reinforcement is virtually continuous until the animal locates 

acceptable habitat. Response to timber sale activities, on the other hand, may require 

several years because the disturbance involves sporadic seasonal shutdown and substantial changes in logging activity patterns. 

Changes in the annual distribution of pellet groups on the Burdette Creek-Deer 

Creek study area describe both elk movement in response to disturbances in the forest 

environment and elk habitat selection in response to weather ~onditions. In any year 

and for a variety of reasons, areas of otherwise acceptable elk habitat are caused to 

be unavailable for a period of time. The net result must be utilization of less 

desirable habitat or crowding of animals into habitat that remains acceptable. 

Management recommendations to reduce the time period of habitat unavailability and 

recommendations to improve the habitat where crowding does occur should benefit elk. 

Over a period of years, the single most important influence on elk distribution 

in the Burdette Creek-Deer Creek area was weather. And, whereas the manager has no 

control over weather, there were at least three responses by elk that can be used by 

managers. There was fairly strong evidence that acceptable winter range may include 

more area than is usually considered in habitat improvement planning. In 4 of the 

8 years of study, elk were able to spend a substantial part of the winter period above 

1 524 m (5,000 ft) on areas normally considered summer range. Increased forage production at this elevation is not as critical for elk as increases below 1 372 m 

(4,500 ft) might be, but the benefits could be greater than is usually assumed. 

Another important response by elk was the early movement to less accessible areas 

when snow fell during the hunting season. Normally, snow aids the hunter in tracking 

elk and thereby increases the annual harvest. If adequate refuge areas do not exist, 

overharvest is a distinct possibility. 

Finally, the behavorial response of elk to hot, dry summer weather in 2 different 

years can be taken as further evidence of the importance of cool, moist habitat types 

to the overall integrity of elk summer ranges (Lyon 1975)1. Maintenance of body temperature at some relatively constant level may be comparable to feeding as a daily 

preoccupation for elk. 

The second determinant of elk distribution--and one over which the manager has 

considerable control--was logging. Elk consistently moved away from areas where active 

logging was in progress; however, the distances traveled varied considerably. The 

greatest movement and the strongest negative response were recorded following logging 

operations on ridgelines where men and heavy equipment were visible over large areas 

(Deer Creek, 1972; Eds Creek, 1975; South Fork, 1975-77). A somewhat less negative 

response and shorter movement occurred when logging was conducted below ridgelines 

(Deer Creek, 1971; Lion Creek, 1976); at the ends of ridges (Garden Creek, 1974-77; 

Johns Creek, 1975-77); and at the mouths of drainages (Lupine Creek, 1973-74; Eds 

Creek, 1976-77). 

1Lyon , L. Jack. 1975. Coordinating forestry and elk management in Montana: 

Initial recommendations. Trans. North Am. Wildl. and Nat. Resour. Conf. 40:193-201. 

10 
Despite the variations, all elk movement away from active logging did follow relatively consistent patterns. In no case did a disturbance result in complete abandonment of a subunit and, in all cases where logging was completed, a return movement to 

the logged area was indicated. Elk retreat from logging appeared to continue only as 

long as men and machinery were active. The distance elk moved appeared to be only as 

far as necessary to cross a topographic barrier. Undisturbed forest and even long 

spans across undisturbed drainages did not appear to be as effective as topography in 

reducing the distances moved. 

Return movement to the area disturbed by logging was considerably harder to evaluate on the basis of available data. If Deer Creek represented a typical situation, 

removal of heavy equipment and even road closure did not compensate for the continuing 

sporadic disturbance caused by the presence of slash burning and planting crews. In 

addition, the learned behavior imposed by 5 consecutive years of logging activity may 

have further contributed to a delayed return. In several other sale areas, where 

logging activity was not prolonged, minor recoveries from depressed elk use were 

recorded as an immediate response to removal of men and equipment (Hyde-Lupine, 1975; 

Johns-Garden, 1975; Eds Creek, 1976; Lion Creek, 1977). 

In accordance with these results, several management actions can be suggested for 

reducing the distances moved by elk and reducing the time during which the habitat is 

unacceptable. As suggested in 1975 by the initial recommendations of the Montana 

Cooperative Elk-Logging Study (Lyon 1975, see footnote 1): 

Planning for timber sales in elk summer range should provide for a 

security area immediately adjacent to the disturbed area during active 

logging and road construction. 

We are still unable to specifically define a security area other than to point out 

that the area selected " ... should provide a line-of-sight topographic barrier and be 

inaccessible to motorized traffic." The area probably should be at least as large as 

the area disturbed, and any ridgeline between the timber sale and the security area 

should be protected from disturbance. 

In addition to providing a nearby area to which elk can retreat, several further 

options can reduce the total effect of disturbance. Logging completed on summer range 

during the winter months, for example, may result in little distributional change. 

Where winter logging is not possible, there may be opportunities to reduce the time 

elapsed between first entry and completion. Smaller sales, completed in 1 or 2 years, 

are less disturbing and the areas involved are more likely to be reoccupied immediately. 

Road closures, like the closure imposed on the Deer Creek drainage of this study, would 

probably be more effective if vehicle traffic was severely limited and all disturbance, 

including slash disposal and planting, was completed in a short time. 

Finally, it is suggested that the number of concurrent active timber sales in any 

one management unit on elk 6ummer range should be limited. In this study, the original 

objective involved evaluation of the influence of a single large timber sale on elk 

distribution. As the study progressed, the number of active sales on the study area 

increased each year until only one of the study area subunits remained undisturbed. 

Concurrently, the proportion of elk use in that undisturbed subunit increased from 17 

percent to over 30 percent of all use on the study area. The ridgeline road running 

south from Deer Peak was closed in 1978 to help alleviate this problem; at the same 

time, the difficulties of access for fire control and hunting have been substantially 

increased. 

Land managers constantly encounter situations in which the solution of one problem 

becomes the cause of another. In the context of multiple-use management there is probably no logic capable of eliminating all conflicts between resource values. However, 

the degree of conflict can be considerably reduced and, in the management of elk habitat, 

very substantial positive results can be achieved through appropriate planning. 

11 

Lyon, L. Jack 

1979. Influence of logging and weather on elk distribution 

in western Montana. USDA Forest Servo Res. Pap. INT-236, 

11 p. Intermt. For. and Range EXp. Stn. Ogden, utah 84401. 

Reports and evaluates the significance of weather conditions and logging activities on elk distribution. Recommendations for reducing the effects of disturbance on elk are presented. 

KEYWORDS: elk, logging, weather. 

Lyon, L. Jack 

1979. Influence of logging and weather on elk distribution 

in western Montana. USDA Forest Servo Res. Pap. INT-236, 

11 p. Intermt. For. and Range EXp. Stn. Ogden, Utah 84401. 

Reports ahd evaluates the significance of weather conditions and logging activities on elk distribution. Recommendations for reducing the effects of disturbance on elk are presented. 

KEYWORDS: elk, logging, weather. 

'* u. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1979.0.677.019/61 
Headquarters for the Intermountain Forest and 

Range Experiment Station are in Ogden, Utah. 

Field programs and research work units are 

maintained in: 

Billings, Montana 

Boi se, Idaho 

Bozeman, Montana (in cooperation with 

Montana State University) 

Logan, Utah (in cooperation with Utah State 

University) 

Missoula, Montana (in cooperation with 

University of Montana) 

Moscow, Idaho (in cooperation with the 

University of Idaho) 

Provo, Utah (in cooperation with Brigham 

Young University) 

Reno, Nevada (in cooperation with the 

University of Nevada)