Prepared in cooperation with the Inyo County, California,

Yucca Mountain Repository Assessment Office

Geologic Map of the southern Funeral Mountains

including nearby Groundwater Discharge Sites in

Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Pamphlet to accompany Scientific Investigations Map 3151
Front cover. View looking northwest along the Furnace Creek fault zone in the vicinity of Hole-in-theWall (far left center) and Red Amphitheater canyon (to right of picture). Death Valley is visible in the 

distance, with the Panamint Range (left) and Cottonwood Mountains (center and more distant) on the 

skyline. Color change in low hills in the middle ground, from rusty orange (freshwater limestone; right) 

to light yellow (gypsum-bearing playa claystone; left) coincides with the major strand of the Furnace 

Creek fault in area of picture. Knobby dark outcrop in foreground is rock-avalanche breccia, which is 

capped by bouldery Pleistocene alluvium. Photograph taken by C.J. Fridrich, U.S. Geological Survey.
Geologic Map of the southern Funeral 

Mountains including nearby Groundwater 

Discharge Sites in Death Valley National 

Park, California and Nevada

By C.J. Fridrich, R.A. Thompson, J.L. Slate, M.E. Berry, and M.N. Machette

Pamphlet to accompany Scientific Investigations Map 3151

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Prepared in cooperation with the Inyo County, California,

Yucca Mountain Repository Assessment Office
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2012

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reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation: 

Fridrich, C.J., Thompson, R.A., Slate, J.L., Berry, M.E., and Machette, M.N., 2012, Geologic map of the southern 

Funeral Mountains including nearby groundwater discharge sites in Death Valley National Park, California and 

Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3151, 20 p. pamphlet, 1 sheet, scale 1:50,000.

ISBN 978-1-4113-3313-0
iii

Contents

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................1

Methods and Approach................................................................................................................................2

Geologic Summary and Interpretation of Cenozoic Tectonics...............................................................4

A New Regional Cenozoic Tectonostratigraphy.......................................................................................6

Pre-Basin-Range Sequence ...............................................................................................................8

Syn-Basin-Range Sequence...............................................................................................................8

Post-Basin-Range Sequence .............................................................................................................9

Hydrogeology.........................................................................................................................................9

Description of Map Units............................................................................................................................12

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................18

Figures

1. Landsat 7 satellite image of southern Funeral Mountains area, 

California and Nevada, showing location of map area and major 

physiographic features and structures. This image is a false-color 

composite, which combines bands 7 (SWIR, 2.09–2.35 μm), 

4 (near-IR, 0.77–0.90 μm), and 2 (Green, 0.52–0.60 μm) and displays 

them as red, blue, and green, respectively. Latitude and longitude 

ticks and scale are approximate.......................................................................... see map sheet

2. Simplified geologic map showing major structures in the map area, 

along with key hydrogeologic features. Exposures of the different 

Cenozoic assemblages are shown along with 40Ar/39Ar age 

determinations ..................................................................................................... see map sheet

3. Hydrogeologic map showing the major springs of the Furnace Creek wash 

area, a modern seep, and adjacent Pleistocene groundwater discharge 

mound in the northeast part of map..............................................................................................3

4. Four assemblages of syn-basin-range strata (Owlshead, Navadu, Furnace 

Creek, and Badwater) were deposited during four stages of basin-range 

tectonism.........................................................................................................................................7

Table

1. List of key 40Ar/39Ar ages of Tertiary units in the southern Funeral Mountains, 

along with sample letters shown on simplified geologic map (map sheet, fig. 2), 

locations, and analysts ..................................................................................................................2
iv

Conversion Factors and Datums

SI to Inch/Pound

 Multiply By To obtain

 Length

centimeter (cm) 0.3937 inch (in.)

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

 Area

square kilometer (km2

) 0.3861 square mile (mi2)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows: 

°F=(1.8×°C)+32

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows: 

°C=(°F-32)/1.8

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 

(NGVD 29).

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83).

Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.
Introduction

This 1:50,000-scale geologic map covers the southern 

part of the Funeral Mountains, and adjoining parts of four 

structural basins—Furnace Creek, Amargosa Valley, Opera 

House, and central Death Valley—in California and Nevada 

(map sheet, fig. 1). It extends over three full 7.5-minute quadrangles, and parts of eleven others—an area of about 1,000 

square kilometers (km2

). The boundaries of this map were 

drawn to include all of the known proximal hydrogeologic 

features that may affect the flow of groundwater that discharges from springs of the Furnace Creek basin, in the westcentral part of the map (map sheet, fig. 2; fig. 3). These springs 

provide the main potable water supply for Death Valley 

National Park. 

Major hydrogeologic features shown on this map include: 

(1) springs of the Furnace Creek basin, (2) a large Pleistocene 

groundwater discharge mound in the northeastern part of the 

map, (3) the exposed extent of limestones and dolomites that 

constitute the Paleozoic carbonate aquifer, and (4) the exposed 

extent of the alluvial conglomerates that constitute the Funeral 

Formation aquifer (map sheet, figs. 1 and 2). Notable features 

adjacent to the map area include: (1) the salt pans of Death 

Valley, immediately to the west and southwest (light blue on 

Landsat image base of figure 1), and (2) the springs at Ash 

Meadows, immediately to the east (green on Landsat image 

base of figure 1). 

Geologic map data were used, along with measured 

formation thicknesses, to draw five geologic cross sections 

shown on map sheet. Two of these, C–C ́ and E–E ́, are drawn 

through the center of the map area, from southwest to northeast and from northwest to southeast, respectively, and best 

illustrate the large-scale structure. The other cross 

sections (A–A ́, B–B ́, and D–D ́) were drawn to show the 

settings and context of important hydrologic exploration wells 

in the map area. 

The map data and cross sections were used to generate a 

structure contour map on the base of the Paleozoic carbonate 

and Funeral Formation aquifer system in the southern Funeral 

Mountains and adjacent Furnace Creek basin (fig. 3). A preliminary version of this map was used as the basis for a computer model of the groundwater flow that feeds the Furnace 

Creek springs (Bredehoeft and others, 2005, 2008). It was also 

used as an input to the design of a drilling program conducted 

by the Inyo County (California) Yucca Mountain Repository 

Assessment Project. This project investigated interbasin flow 

under the southern Funeral Mountains as part of an assessment 

of the potential that radionuclides from the high-level nuclear 

waste repository proposed at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, could 

leak into and through the Paleozoic carbonate aquifer, to 

discharge from the Furnace Creek springs, about 50 kilometers 

(km) southeast of the Yucca Mountain site.

The cross sections are simplified relative to the geologic 

map. These simplifications include lumping of map units 

into whole formations, and omission of many small faults 

and some surficial deposits. Additionally, numerous thin 

fault blocks of rocks caught up within the Funeral Mountains 

detachment fault zone are identified by formation on the 

geologic map, but are shown as fault breccia (Tnix) on the 

cross sections and on the simplified geologic map (map sheet, 

fig. 2). Thick fault zones that are an aggregate of numerous thin 

fault-block slivers are a form of megabreccia, even when the 

individual fault-block slivers are large enough to be mapped.

Few fault surfaces are directly measurable in the map 

area; hence, fault dips were derived mainly by photogrammetric mapping of the intersections of faults with topography. 

From the derived measurements, we draw two conclusions. 

First, in those parts of the map area where there is strong 

extension-related tilting, the major normal faults have moderate to low dips, such that fault-to-bedding angles are typically 

in the range of 60o to 90o. Second, significant changes in dip 

are observable along many of the major faults, both laterally 

and vertically. We interpreted the latter observation as 

indicating that the majority of normal faults in the map area 

are at least moderately listric (concave upward), whereas a 

small minority of faults are antilistric (convex upward). 

The cross sections are drawn to depths of about 1 km 

to slightly greater than 2 km because a major purpose of this 

study was to characterize the subsurface geometry of the 

Paleozoic carbonate aquifer, which locally is several kilometers thick. Geologic cross sections that project to these depths 

are inevitably quite interpretative, especially with respect to 

the subsurface geometry of the faults. To the extent possible, 

these interpretations are based on observed fault geometries, 

as previously discussed; however, the map data could be 

used to draw rather different cross-sectional geometries (for 

example, see Sweetkind and others, 2001). 

Geologic Map of the southern Funeral Mountains

including nearby Groundwater Discharge Sites in 

Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada

By C.J. Fridrich, R.A. Thompson, J.L. Slate, M.E. Berry, and M.N. Machette
2 Geologic map of the southern Funeral Mountains including nearby Groundwater Discharges Sites

During an initial part of the study, different versions of 

the structure contour map on the base of the aquifer system 

were generated using a broad range of assumptions about the 

subsurface geometry of faults. The assumptions ranged from 

nearly planar faulting to listric fault geometries with much 

more rapid flattening with depth than in the preferred model 

(see cross sections on map sheet). The conclusion was that 

the hydrogeologic framework is not strongly dependent on 

the assumptions concerning subsurface fault geometry, except 

in the case of extreme assumptions that were deemed to be 

geologically implausible.

Methods and Approach

This study builds on previous bedrock maps (see index 

on map sheet) by McAllister (1970, 1971, 1973), Cemen 

(1983), and Wright and Troxel (1993). Whereas the previous maps cover much of the map area and the vast majority 

of the bedrock, the quality of these maps is best in certain 

focus areas, and generally diminishes toward the respective 

map boundaries. Throughout most of the map area, the previous bedrock mapping has been added to or revised based on 

extensive new fieldwork by Fridrich (from 2001 to 2005), 

Thompson (mainly from 1998 to 2002), and Machette (2002). 

Field maps were compiled using a photogrammetric stereoplotter and recent aerial photography. With few exceptions, the 

contacts on this new map are located photogrammetrically, in 

combination with GPS measurements taken in the field—tools 

that were unavailable to previous mappers.

During the previous mapping, a number of different 

lithostratigraphic designations had been applied to the Cenozoic 

rock strata. The new map reclassifies these rocks using a new 

regional tectonostratigraphy (Fridrich and Thompson, 2011). 

Several new 40Ar /39Ar dates were produced in this study that constrain the new tectonostratigraphy and provide quantitative tests of 

field correlations (map sheet, figs. 1 and 2; table 1). These new 

correlations differ significantly from many of the previous stratigraphic correlations of Cenozoic rocks exposed in and adjacent to 

the Funeral Mountains.

A consistent level of geologic detail is shown on the new 

map, whereas in previous maps it varies greatly. In most cases, 

we added geologic detail; however, some previously published 

map data are omitted. For example, the two 1:24,000-scale 

geologic maps by McAllister (1970, 1973; index map, map 

sheet) of the Furnace Creek basin show extreme detail of outcrop geometry that we generalized for the new map. Additionally, McAllister (1971) mapped upper and lower members of 

the Silurian and Devonian Hidden Valley Dolomite (DSh) in 

part of the study area. We mapped this formation as a single 

unit because we were unable to consistently extend this distinction throughout the map area. 

We measured numerous bedding attitudes during our 

fieldwork, but the majority of those on the new map are 

compiled from previous maps (McAllister, 1970, 1971, 1973; 

Cemen, 1983; Wright and Troxel, 1993). All but one of the 

previous maps were published at larger scales than the new 

map; hence, we were selective when compiling bedding attitudes. The interested reader is referred to those previous maps 

for the full data set.

# Sample Latitude (N) Longitude (W) Age (Ma) Analyst

A 11-10-00-1 36o29'52.9” 116o48'23.7” ≈24.8 R.J. Fleck, USGS, this study

B 11-14-00-1 36o28'40.0” 116o47'45.7” 22.8 R.J. Fleck, USGS, this study

C Multiple 36o25'29.8” 116o48'25.2” 3.1 to 3.5 Machette and others, 2001; 

Knott and others, 2008

D 1-18-01-2 36o25'39.5” 116o43'12.0” 8.45 R.J. Fleck, USGS, this study

E 3-5-02-1 36o27'32.9” 116o42'12.0” 8.87 D.P. Miggins, USGS, this study

F 3-26-00-2 36o27'21.7” 116o40'-30.4” ≈9 D.P. Miggins, USGS, this study

G 11-18-99-8 36o24'31.1” 116o41'07.5” 8.93 D.P. Miggins, USGS, this study 

H 3-19-03-2 36o22'39.8” 116o40'30.2” ≈4.5 D.P. Miggins, USGS, this study

I 3-23-00-3 36o20'23.2” 116o40'55.5” 13.2 D.P. Miggins, USGS, this study

J 4-18-02-1 36o31'44.9” 116o34'04.0” 22.58 D.P. Miggins, USGS, this study

K 3-1-02-1 36o28'48.6” 116o30'47.3” 22.52 D.P. Miggins, USGS, this study

L 11-20-99-1 36o24'09.3” 116o30'45.4” ≈22 D.P. Miggins, USGS, this study

M 10-21-98-1 36o22'49.6” 116o28'55.2” 22.57 D.P. Miggins, USGS, this study

N 10-22-98-1 36o21'22.7” 116o28'13.9” 13.52 D.P. Miggins, USGS, this study

Table 1. List of key 40Ar/39Ar ages of Tertiary units in the southern Funeral Mountains. [#, map location symbol A–N for 

samples shown on simplified geologic map (map sheet, fig. 2) and geologic map; Ma, millions of years ago; 

≈, approximately]
SEA LEVEL

-100

SEA LEVEL SEA LEVEL

+300

+400

+200

+200+300

+100

+200

Nevares

 Spring 0.5 cfs ~290 m

INYOTSS-1 INYO

 EC-1

INYOBLM #2

INYOBLM #1

Area ofgeologic map 

Texas Springs 0.1 cfs ~122 m

Spring Breccias Well used for collection of water data

SOUTHEAST LIMIT OF CARBONAT

-3000

-1000

FURNACE CREEK BASIN

SEA LEVEL

Cow Creek Seeps 0.1 cfs

Salt Springs 0.1 cfs ~46 m

Travertine Springs 3.2 cfs ~131 m

Western

Spillway

FURNACE CREEK FAULT

SEA LEVEL

Navel Springs 0.1 cfs ~655 m

Fault

contact

AMARGOSA VALL

NORTHWEST

LIMIT OF CARBONATE AQUIFER

116 ̊52’30” 116 ̊45’ 116 ̊37’30” 116 ̊30’ 

+500

-500

-500

-1000

-500 -1000

+400

+300

150

+100

+200

+100

-2500

-2000

-1500

-1000

-500

-1500

-1000

-500

-1000

-1500

-500

-2500

-3000

-2000

-1500

+500

-1000

-500

-1000

+700

+800

+600

-1500

-2000

-2500

-2000

+100

CLERY THRUST

Fault contact

U D

D U

U

D

 Bat 

Mountain

-100

150

?

?

Paleozoic carbonate aquifer present but base is above watertable in southern Amargosa Valleybasin (barrier to flow) Structure contours. Interval varies from100 ft southwest of Furnace Creek fault to500 ft northeast of Furnace Creek fault

EasternSpillway

INYOBLM #1

0 50 5 10 KILOMETERS

10 MILES

Figure 3. Hydrogeologic map showing the major springs of the Furnace Creek wash area, a modern seep, and adjacent Pleistocene groundwater 

northeast part of map. The structure contours shown are drawn on the base of the Paleozoic carbonate aquifer within the Funeral Mountains blockFuneral Formation alluvial aquifer within the Furnace Creek basin. Spring elevations are in meters above sea level. Discharge is measured in cubic 
4 Geologic map of the southern Funeral Mountains including nearby Groundwater Discharges Sites

With only one exception, the formations of the Neoproterozoic through upper Paleozoic miogeoclinal stratigraphic 

sequence are subdivided on the new map following widely 

used, modern classification schemes, such as that of Monsen 

and others (1992). The exception involves the Neoproterozoic 

Stirling Quartzite, which is divided here into five informal 

members using the scheme of McAllister (1971) and Wright 

and Troxel (1993). This scheme differs slightly from that used 

by most other workers in the region (for example, Stewart, 

1970; Monsen and others, 1992; Niemi, 2002). 

The new map covers a much larger area of surficial 

deposits than the previous maps, which focus on bedrock 

geology. Moreover, we refine mapping of the surficial deposits 

to show more detail and to conform to current Quaternary 

stratigraphic classification schemes. The surficial geologic 

units mapped north of latitude 36°30 ́N (Slate and Berry, 

1999) were modified to resolve minor edge-matching conflicts 

with new surficial deposit mapping to the south in the Death 

Valley Junction 30 ́ x 60 ́ quadrangle (Slate and others, 2009).

Geologic Summary and Interpretation 

of Cenozoic Tectonics

The southern Funeral Mountains are in the Death Valley 

region of the Basin and Range Province. Four major packages 

of rocks are present in and adjacent to this mountain range. 

The older two of these packages are not exposed in the map 

area, but are exposed about 10 to 15 km to the northwest, in 

the northern Funeral Mountains (Wright and Troxel, 1993). 

The oldest package consists of upper amphibolite-grade metamorphic rocks, dated at about 1.7 Ga. These Paleoproterozoic 

rocks are considered to be the “crystalline basement” of the 

region. 

The crystalline basement rocks are unconformably 

overlain by the Neoproterozoic and mainly Mesoproterozoic 

Pahrump Group, which was deposited as the fill of rift basins 

that formed premonitory to the opening of the Pacific Ocean 

(Link and others, 1993). The Pahrump Group is about 2-km 

thick in the northern Funeral Mountains (Wright and Troxel, 

1993), but is known to vary greatly in thickness, even over 

short distances. The metamorphic grade of the Pahrump Group 

rocks varies throughout the region but, even at its maximum, 

is less than that of the crystalline basement rocks.

The Pahrump Group is overlain by a Paleozoic and 

Neoproterozoic marine sequence, commonly called the 

“miogeoclinal sequence” (Stewart and Poole, 1974). This 

sequence was deposited on the western continental slope and 

shelf of North America, and is approximately 9-km thick 

in the map area (McAllister, 1974). The lower part of this 

sequence is weakly metamorphosed in the map area, and that 

metamorphism is continuous with the downward-increasing 

metamorphism of the underlying Pahrump Group. The upper 

part of the miogeoclinal sequence does not show evidence of 

significant metamorphism. 

The youngest package of rocks in the map area consists 

of middle to upper Cenozoic basin-fill strata deposited during 

tectonic extension. This extension is still ongoing in the 

central Death Valley basin (map sheet, fig. 2) and areas westward to the eastern front of the Sierra Nevada. The Cenozoic 

strata are all terrestrial sediments, the oldest of which are 

largely well-consolidated and well-cemented rocks; however, 

in much of the rest of this package, consolidation and cementation are moderate to weak.

Structures exposed in the southern Funeral Mountains 

are of two major age groups. First, the pre-Cenozoic (Paleozoic and Precambrian) rocks were thrust-faulted and folded 

during the latest Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras (Barnes and 

Poole, 1968; Snow, 1992). Two Mesozoic thrust fault systems, 

the Schwaub Peak and Clery thrusts, are well exposed in the 

range, along with associated northeast-trending folds, which 

are best illustrated on the geologic cross sections. The prograde 

metamorphism of the Pahrump Group and of the lower part of 

the miogeoclinal sequence developed during, and as a consequence of, latest Paleozoic and mainly Mesozoic contractional 

tectonism and thus varies greatly in its development between 

different thrust blocks in the region.

The majority of the exposed structures in the map area 

are middle to late Cenozoic, and these crosscut the Mesozoic 

contractional structures in the southern Funeral Mountains. 

The Cenozoic structures formed predominantly under conditions of extension or transtension and thus are mainly normal, 

oblique-slip, or strike-slip faults. Late Cenozoic transpressional structures, mainly northwest-trending folds, are also 

locally present, as described below. The modern basin-andrange topography of the map area formed in the late Cenozoic 

and is structural in origin. Retrograde metamorphism is locally 

developed along detachment faults of the Death Valley region. 

This metamorphism is late Cenozoic in age and associated 

with Basin-Range extension.

Cenozoic extension in the Death Valley area began at, or 

shortly before, 40 Ma and consists of three phases of activity: 

(1) pre-basin-range, (2) syn-basin-range, and (3) post-basinrange (Fridrich and Thompson, 2011). The strata deposited in 

each of these phases constitute a distinct tectonostratigraphic 

sequence, as discussed below and shown in figure 4. Extensive erosion of the thrusted and folded pre-Cenozoic rocks 

occurred before the advent of weak pre-basin-range extension. 

Consequently, the pre-basin-range Cenozoic strata overlie 

a surface where the Mesozoic contractional structures have 

been partially beveled off, such that the basal Cenozoic strata 

overlie numerous different pre-Cenozoic formations across the 

map area.

The southern Funeral Mountains block underwent significant extension internally during the middle and late Cenozoic 

(see geologic cross sections on map sheet). This range stands 

up in relief relative to the surrounding basins mainly because 

the basins have incurred even greater extension. In a simplistic 

way, this range can be characterized as a transtensional horst 

block. The Furnace Creek fault, which forms the southwestern 

range-front, is an oblique-slip fault with dominantly strike-
Geologic Summary and Interpretation of Cenozoic Tectonics 5

slip offset. The Amargosa Valley basin, to the northeast of the 

range, is at least partly a transtensional basin that is developed 

along the right-lateral, strike-slip Stateline fault system (also 

known as the Pahrump–Stewart Valley fault; Stewart, 1988; 

map sheet, figs. 1 and 2). 

The structural boundary between the Funeral Mountains 

block and the Amargosa Valley basin is largely concealed 

under Quaternary cover; however, a very generalized geometry of faults forming this boundary has been inferred (map 

sheet, fig. 2) based on a combination of geophysical data and 

surface and borehole geological data (John Jansen and others, 

Ruekert–Mielke, Inc., and Fridrich, unpub. data—included in 

several annual administrative reports to Inyo County, 2003 to 

2008). The most straightforward element of this boundary is 

the northwest-striking Stateline fault. Well-preserved Quaternary scarps of this fault are exposed between 2 and 4 km east 

of the map area (Fridrich, unpub. map data). These are aligned 

with a poorly preserved scarp at the eastern boundary of the 

map and with strong lineaments in Quaternary deposits about 

10 km northwest of the scarp. Between the scarp and the lineament, the Stateline fault passes between two closely spaced 

outcrops of Titus Canyon Formation (Ttc) that differ strongly 

in lithology and stratal attitudes (map sheet). Linear anomalies 

in magnetic and gravity data (Blakely and others, 1999; John 

Jansen and others, Ruekert–Mielke, Inc., unpub. data, 2003 

to 2008) coincide with these features and the gravity data 

allow a speculative projection of the fault about 10 km farther 

northwest. Whereas the Stateline fault is mainly a right-lateral, 

strike-slip fault, the gravity data indicate it has down-to-thenortheast offset across the map area. 

Based on a combination of gravity and surface geologic 

data, two other faults are inferred along the northeastern 

boundary of the Funeral Mountains block. Steep gravity 

gradients roughly coincide with the Amargosa River, and 

Pleistocene alluvial deposits are domed in three areas along 

the south side of the river (map sheet, fig. 2), suggesting these 

gradients reflect recently active structures that are concealed 

under the riverbed. West of longitude 116o30 ́W, the gravity 

data indicate down-to-the-southwest offset, bounding a northwest-trending gravity high between the river and the Stateline 

fault. Two small outcrops of Titus Canyon Formation (Ttc) 

and one of Paleozoic rocks (Eureka Quartzite; Oe) are present 

along the top of this gravity high on, or just north of, the State 

line (map sheet). The presence of these outcrops along the 

top of the gravity high are consistent with the interpretation 

that the high reflects a largely concealed horst-like uplift (see 

cross section C–C ́). East of 116o30 ́W, the gravity data show a 

down-to-the-northeast gradient that is interpreted as a normal 

fault. Nearly all of the northwest-striking faults of the Death 

Valley region have a component of right-lateral, strike-slip 

offset, and the faults concealed under the bed of the Amargosa 

River are probably no exception.

Pleistocene groundwater discharge deposits, mainly 

calcareous paludal siltstones, occupy most of the zone 

between the Stateline fault and the faults inferred under the 

riverbed (map sheet, fig. 2), indicating that these three faults 

act as a partial barrier to groundwater flow. The major part of 

these deposits appears to comprise a constructional domical 

landform—a groundwater discharge mound (map sheet, 

fig. 2); however, structural doming may also be involved.

Two areas of tectonic denudation, resulting from synbasin-range detachment faulting, lie within the map area. First, 

the southeastern part of the Funeral Mountains metamorphic 

core complex (Hamilton, 1988) covers a large area in the 

northwestern part of the map (map sheet, fig. 2) and extends 

more than 20 km farther northwest. The total length of the 

core complex is about 35 km in the direction of extension 

(of upper-plate transport), which is about N60oW. Metamorphic grades in the core complex increase progressively to the 

west-northwest (Labotka, 1980). The gently dipping Funeral 

Mountains detachment fault borders the complex on all but the 

southeast side. Additionally, numerous small remnants of fault 

rocks are widespread as klippen over the top of the complex, 

defining a continuous, very low-angle, mullion-like fault 

geometry. 

Originally, the Funeral Mountains detachment fault 

dipped to the northwest at a low to moderate angle (Hoisch 

and Simpson, 1993). As the upper plate was pulled off, the 

lower plate core complex rebounded isostatically with progressively greater uplift to the northwest. Thus the core complex 

was tilted to the east-southeast during its exhumation, as is 

reflected in the west-northwest-increasing metamorphic grade. 

The southeastern termination of the core complex corresponds 

to the zone along which the Funeral Mountains detachment 

fault originally daylighted, which roughly corresponds with 

the location of the Schwaub Peak thrust.

In the map area, the Funeral Mountains detachment fault 

forms the southwestern border of the core complex in a wide, 

anastomosing fault zone marked by numerous large fault 

slivers of rocks that are otherwise omitted by this fault. These 

faulted-out rocks are mostly mapped as blocks of the individual rock formations (map sheet) to show the internal character 

of the fault zone; however, all of these fault slivers are lumped 

as fault breccia (Tnix) on the tectonic map (map sheet, 

fig. 2) and cross sections (map sheet). The detachment fault is 

somewhat steeper in this northwest-trending zone of exposure 

than it is to the northeast because this zone is a lateral ramp, of 

sorts, where the detachment fault dives southwestward under a 

large body of strongly faulted, upper-plate rocks. 

Southwest of this ramp, the detachment fault extends 

farther to the southeast, where it is then exposed wrapping 

around the perimeter of an embayment named Red Amphitheatre (map sheet, fig. 2). A fragment of the Schwaub 

Peak thrust in the upper plate of the detachment, exposed 

at 36o27 ́35 ̋N, 116o44 ́45 ̋W, has been transported about 4 

km westward of the lower-plate projection of this fault. This 

fragment of the thrust fault is apparently rotated clockwise 

about 45o, reflecting oroflexural bending in proximity to the 

Furnace Creek fault. In support of this idea, observed straie on 

and near upper-plate faults in this area indicate a moderate to 

strong component of oblique slip. Thus the Funeral Mountains 
6 Geologic map of the southern Funeral Mountains including nearby Groundwater Discharges Sites

detachment fault accommodated transtensional strain, not just 

pure extension. 

The second area of tectonic denudation is located in the 

Furnace Creek basin, which covers most of the southwestern 

part of the map, southwest of the Furnace Creek fault (map 

sheet, figs. 1 and 2). The Furnace Creek basin is nested within 

a much larger and older supradetachment basin (the Artist 

Drive basin) that extends far beyond the map area, to the south 

and southeast, and formed on the tectonically denuded lower 

plate of the Amargosa detachment fault. About 3 km southwest 

of the map area, along the western front of the Black Mountains, Cenozoic basin-fill sediments are exposed overlying 

crystalline basement rocks that are part of the lower-plate 

metamorphic core complex. 

This relationship is important because it indicates that 

all of the miogeoclinal sequence and the Pahrump Group are 

absent from the western part of the Artist Drive basin, except 

as widely scattered, isolated remnants. One of these remnants 

is exposed under the Tertiary section at the Billie Mine (near 

point I on fig. 2, map sheet; not shown on map because it is 

too small to plot at that scale). Otherwise, the Paleozoic and 

upper Precambrian strata are interpreted to be absent in the 

map area, southwest of the Furnace Creek fault.

In the northwesternmost corner of the map area, the 

inactive (since about 2 Ma) Furnace Creek fault merges into 

the active northern Death Valley fault (Machette and others, 

2001). Despite the name change, the two fault segments are 

one fault system, which has been estimated to have ~80 km of 

right-lateral offset a short distance to the northwest of the map 

area (Stewart, 1983).

It is not completely clear when the major strike-slip faults 

in the central part of the Death Valley region formed. There 

is plausible evidence that the Furnace Creek fault may have 

formed during deposition of the pre-basin-range Titus Canyon 

Formation (Ttc; Titus Canyon assemblage; Cemen and others, 

1999). Even if this is correct, the major offset on the major 

strike-slip faults such as this one did not occur until later, during basin-range extension. 

The earliest phase of Cenozoic extension is called “prebasin-range,” because it formed broad, shallow basins that 

trapped sediments, but did not form basin-range topography 

(Fridrich and Thompson, 2011). Basin-range extension in the 

central part of the Death Valley region began at about 14.5 Ma 

(Wright and others, 1991), and all of the detachment faulting in this region occurred during basin-range extension. The 

Funeral Mountains detachment fault was active from about 12 

to 7 Ma, based on a combination of field evidence and tephrochronology (Fridrich, unpub. data) and on thermochronologic (uplift) ages (Hoisch and Simpson, 1993). The termination of movement on this detachment fault marked the end of 

significant extension within the Funeral Mountains block. 

Detachment faulting in the Artist Drive basin began 

earlier, at about 14.5 Ma, but it also ended at about 6.5 Ma. 

Nonetheless, moderately strong extension has continued, 

forming several nested basins with moderate- to high-angle 

master faults, within the boundaries of the original supradetachment basin. The Furnace Creek basin, in the southwestern 

part of the map, is one of these nested basins that formed 

along the northern margin of the Artist Drive basin, between 

~6.5 to ~3.5 Ma, as a half-graben along the right-oblique-slip 

Furnace Creek fault. The central Death Valley (or Badwater) 

basin (see western edge of map sheet, fig. 1) is another postdetachment basin that is nested inside the Artist Drive basin, 

near its western boundary. This is also a half-graben and has 

formed along the right-oblique-slip central Death Valley fault 

(map sheet, fig. 1).

In the interval from about 6.5 to 3.5 Ma, extension was 

occurring in both the northwest-southeast and northeastsouthwest directions in the Furnace Creek basin and throughout the region (Fridrich and Thompson, 2011). In some parts 

of the Death Valley region, including especially the Furnace 

Creek basin, tectonic strain in the northeast-southwest 

direction changed from extensional to contractional at about 

3.5 Ma; however, extension in the northwest-southeast 

direction continued. There is some evidence that this change 

occurred throughout the Death Valley region (Fridrich and 

others, 2000) and perhaps throughout much of the Basin and 

Range Province (Anderson, 2001). Since about 3.5 Ma, the 

northwest-southeast contraction has formed the Texas Spring 

syncline and all of the other northwest-trending folds within 

the Furnace Creek basin (map sheet, fig. 2).

A New Regional Cenozoic Tectonostratigraphy 

The classification scheme used here for the Cenozoic 

rocks (fig. 4) was developed by Fridrich and Thompson (2011) 

based on fieldwork conducted throughout the Death Valley 

region from 1992 to 2006. The Death Valley region is a large 

domain that is distinct in its structural style and resulting 

topography relative to adjacent regions. More importantly, 

the history of Cenozoic tectonism and the resulting basin-fill 

stratigraphy has an internally consistent pattern throughout 

this region; whereas both are distinctly different even short 

distances across the boundaries into adjacent regions (Fridrich 

and Thompson, 2011). 

The boundaries of the Death Valley region, as defined 

here, are similar to those of the south half of the Walker Lane 

belt as defined by Stewart (1988). The region extends from 

the southern Nevada Test Site southward to the Garlock fault 

and from the Spring Mountains (on the west side of Las Vegas, 

Nevada) westward to the eastern front of the Sierra Nevada. 

Stewart (1988) showed that this region has a structural grain 

that reflects strike-slip strain that is greater in magnitude, or 

different in sense, than that in the surrounding regions. 

The Cenozoic rocks of the Death Valley region are 

divided into three time-transgressive tectonic sequences: 

pre-basin-range, syn-basin-range, and post-basin-range (inset, 

lower middle of fig. 4). These three sequences are divided into 

seven distinct map assemblages that are allostratigraphic units 
POST BASIN–RANGE SYN–BASIN–RANGE PRE–BASIN–RANGE

05

10152030

 40

036

111215161927

Age (Ma) Volcanism

Very low rate basaltic;

except low-rate true

bimodal in Owens Valley

lac

>> 

Moderate-rate true-bimodal

basalt > to >> felsic;

no intermediates

Des

lac

fr

(li

ma

(lim

Very high rate quasibimodal: felsics > basalt

> andesite and latite

% basalt increases up

Des

lac

limes

rare fo

Moderate–rate andesiterhyolite association: 

(cla

non-d

gyps

No local volcanism but

abundant distal tuffs

Fewer and more distal

volcaniclastics + rare tuffs

Very rare tuffs, trivial volcaniclastics

Extremely rare or no tuffs or volcaniclastics Basal p

conglom

high-r

~1 m.y. volcanic hiatus Ab

FURNACE CREEK

BADWATER

19–16 Ma Lacuna

Cenozoic Stratigraphy of Death Valley Region 

TITUS

CANYON

NAVADU

BADWATER

OWLSHEAD HELLS GATE

POST–BASIN–RANGE

W E

(Owens Valley) (Pahrump Basin)

Isolated paleocanyon fill

Stage 4:Stage 3:Stage 2:

Stage 1:

Age (Ma)

A T

Titus Canyon

Fault System

Figure 4. Four assemblages of syn-basin-range strata (Owlshead, Navadu, Furnace Creek, and Badwater) were deposited during four stages of bas

the four tectonic stages corresponds closely with a stage of volcanic activity in the region, each of which was distinct in terms of eruptive rates and m
8 Geologic map of the southern Funeral Mountains including nearby Groundwater Discharges Sites

(fig. 4). They are separated by regionally extensive unconformities or disconformities (fig. 4), across which profound, 

abrupt changes in clast provenance and lithology (and thus 

depositional environment) are found. On a regional basis, and 

across most basins, these unconformities decrease in age to 

the north and west, reflecting migrating changes in tectonic 

patterns. Across these regionally extensive unconformities, 

radical changes are present in the distribution of basin-fill 

strata and in the pattern of facies changes within them. These 

changes record the creation of new basins and the major faults 

that bound them as well as the abandonment of older basins 

and their master faults. 

The changes in basin and fault geometries that occurred 

across the regional unconformities indicate that these widespread stratigraphic boundaries record regional-scale changes 

in the strain regime, coincident with rapid westward migrations in the focus of tectonism. The classification system 

used here for the Cenozoic rocks revises and extends the 

tectonostratigraphy proposed by Snow and Lux (1999) for the 

north-central part of the Death Valley region. However, this 

new tectonostratigraphy is much broader in extent and is based 

on new fieldwork and radiometric dating throughout the Death 

Valley region.

Pre-Basin-Range Sequence

The pre-basin-range sequence of the Death Valley 

region was deposited during the initial, late Eocene to middle 

Miocene (≥40 to ≈12 Ma) stage of extension (Fridrich and 

Thompson, 2011). The age of the base of the pre-basin-range 

sequence varies greatly throughout the region, partly because 

this sequence buried a moderately rugged paleotopographic 

surface. The base is as old as late Eocene northwest of the 

map area in the southern Grapevine Mountains, based on a 

titanothere skull and other mammal bones found near the base 

of the sequence. Stock and Bode (1935) classified these fossils 

as Oligocene; however, more recent correlation to well-dated 

fossils in Nebraska indicates they are late Eocene (≥40 Ma; 

oral comm., K.C. McKinney, USGS, 2002). Fluvial conglomerates are abundant in the pre-basin-range sequence, and the 

provenance of pebbles and larger clasts indicates derivation 

from western sources that are now separated from the central 

part of the Death Valley region by numerous ranges and closed 

basins—obstacles that no river could cross—and must therefore have formed later. 

Bedding in the pre-basin-range strata is generally 

conformable with that in underlying Paleozoic and Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks, except in the vicinity of contractional structures in which the Paleozoic and older rocks were 

tilted during late Paleozoic through Mesozoic compressional 

tectonism (Reynolds, 1969; Snow and Lux, 1999). The general 

conformability of the pre-basin-range strata, as well as the 

scarcity of fanning dips and internal unconformities within 

them, indicate that extension-related tilting was minimal 

during pre-basin-range extension. In contrast, all younger 

(syn-basin-range and post-basin-range) strata are strongly 

disconformable to the underlying Paleozoic and Neoproterozoic rocks, and fanning dips and internal unconformities are 

abundant in the syn-basin-range sequence. 

A lacuna is present throughout the Death Valley region 

in the interval from about 19 to 16 Ma (fig. 4). In the western 

part of the region, this lacuna separates two distinct assemblages of the pre-basin-range sequence—Titus Canyon and 

Hells Gate assemblages (fig. 4). The map area falls within the 

eastern part of the Death Valley region in which the Hells Gate 

assemblage is absent, and Titus Canyon strata, where present, 

are unconformably overlain by Owlshead strata or younger 

rocks.

Syn-Basin-Range Sequence 

Four assemblages of syn-basin-range strata (Owlshead, 

Navadu, Furnace Creek, and Badwater; fig. 4) were deposited 

during four stages of basin-range tectonism. Moreover, each 

of these four tectonic stages corresponds closely with a stage 

of volcanic activity in the region, each of which was distinct in 

terms of eruptive rates and magma compositions (see volcanism column, fig. 4). The unconformities that separate the four 

syn-basin-range assemblages are diachronous; from southeast 

to northwest across the region, they become generally younger 

by about 1 to 2 m.y. (see Correlation of Map Units on map 

sheet and fig. 4). The upper and lower bounds of the four 

volcanic stages also show evidence of being younger to the 

northwest, but less so than the tectonic stages; hence, the correspondence of the two is imperfect. 

The diachronous nature of the unconformities is proven 

by the volcanic stratigraphy. For example, the 3.2-Ma tuff 

of Mesquite Springs is variably found near the base of the 

Badwater assemblage or near the top of the Furnace Creek 

assemblage, depending on whether the unconformity separating them is locally older or younger than this tuff. Similarly, 

the youngest major rhyolite tuffs of the Owlshead volcanic 

field date from ~12.2 Ma and are found near the top of the 

Owlshead assemblage in some areas and near the base of the 

Navadu assemblage elsewhere. In all other cases, the distinct 

volcanic strata found within each of the tectonostratigraphic 

assemblages are key to distinguishing them, and also provide 

a mechanism for quantitative discrimination by radiometric 

dating (table 1; map sheet, fig. 2).

Between the Furnace Creek and central Death Valley 

faults (in the Furnace Creek basin; map sheet, figs. 1 and 2), 

(1) the Owlshead assemblage is called the rocks of the Billie 

Mine (Tos), (2) the Navadu assemblage is called the Artist 

Drive Formation (Tn), (3) the Furnace Creek assemblage is 

called the Furnace Creek Formation, and (4) the Badwater 

assemblage is called the Funeral Formation (QTf). The last 

three of these formations were defined in the original mapping of the basin by McAllister (1970). McAllister (1970) 

included the rocks of the Billie Mine (Tos, south-central part 

of geologic map) in the Artist Drive Formation and considered 
Hydrogeology 9

this unit to be equivalent to the sedimentary part of the lower 

member of the Artist Drive Formation (Tnl) of the Black 

Mountains. However, new age constraints show that the rocks 

of the Billie Mine predate the Artist Drive Formation and are 

correlative instead with the Owlshead assemblage rocks of 

the southeastern Funeral Mountains (Tok, Tog, and Toss). 

We were unable to obtain dates from the Artist Drive Formation in the Black Mountains, due to local strong hydrothermal 

alteration. Nonetheless, the Artist Drive Formation in this area 

includes interbedded volcanic units that are easily recognized, 

even where altered. These units are well dated elsewhere and 

range in age from about 11 to 7 Ma.

Clasts of the local metamorphic rocks—those exposed in 

the tectonically denuded lower plates of detachment faults in 

the Death Valley region—are notably absent from sediments 

of the pre-basin-range sequence, but are present even in some 

of the oldest syn-basin-range deposits. The timing of appearance of these clasts in the sedimentary record closely matches 

the radiometrically determined uplift ages for the local metamorphic core complexes from which they were derived (Holm 

and others, 1992; Hoisch and Simpson, 1993; Applegate and 

Hodges, 1995; Hoisch and others, 1997). The abundance and 

especially the maximum grade of locally derived metamorphic 

clasts in the syn-basin-range strata increase rapidly upsection. 

This is consistent with radiometrically determined uplift rates 

for the local metamorphic core complexes, which indicate 

that these rocks were rapidly uplifted and exposed by tectonic 

denudation, rather than by erosion alone, which operates much 

more slowly.

Post-Basin-Range Sequence

The base of the post-basin-range sequence is defined as 

the horizon at which significant faulting and related tilting is 

buried upsection throughout the vast majority of a basin. The 

base of this sequence is estimated to be about 6 to 7 Ma in the 

Amargosa Valley and Opera House basins and about 2 Ma in 

the Furnace Creek basin (map sheet, fig. 1). The post-basinrange sequence is absent, by definition, in the central Death 

Valley basin because this basin is still actively subsiding. 

Hence, latest Pliocene to Holocene sediment in this basin is 

part of the syn-basin-range Badwater assemblage.

The post-basin-range sequence of the Death Valley region 

is not strictly post-tectonic. In many areas where basin-range 

tectonism has ceased, feeble late-stage tectonism has continued, with only very localized tilting of strata. Post-basin-range 

tectonism largely consists of horizontal offsets on a small 

number of large-scale strike-slip faults and block faulting 

along very widely spaced high-angle normal faults. For both, 

the tectonic rates indicated are very low compared to those of 

earlier syn-basin-range tectonism in the same basins. Postbasin-range strata are typically thin, even in basins in which 

the base is relatively old, indicating that deposition rates 

decline to low levels once basin-range tectonism ends.

Hydrogeology

The Paleozoic carbonate rocks exposed in the southern 

Funeral Mountains (map sheet, fig. 2) lie along part of the 

southwest termination of a vast Paleozoic carbonate aquifer 

system that covers most of southeastern Nevada, along with 

adjacent parts of southwestern Utah and southeastern California (Hunt and Robinson, 1960; Winograd, 1962; Winograd and 

Thordarson, 1975; Steinkampf and Werrell, 2001; Bredehoeft 

and others, 2005, 2008). This regional aquifer ends at the Furnace Creek fault in the southwest part of the map area, because 

the carbonate rocks have been tectonically removed from the 

vast majority of the Artist Drive basin on the southwestern 

side of this fault. 

Throughout the Black Mountains (south of the map area), 

the basin-fill rocks lie on an impermeable basin floor that is a 

metamorphic core complex composed of crystalline basement 

rocks and Tertiary granitoid plutons, as discussed in the previous section. In the vast majority of the Artist Drive basin, the 

Paleozoic carbonate rocks are largely absent; where present, 

they are so extended that exposures consist only of widely 

scattered, isolated brecciated blocks. It is only in a narrow 

strip along the southeastern margin of the Artist Drive basin 

(≥10 km southeast of the map area, near Shoshone, California) 

where upper-plate blocks of these rocks have sufficient continuity to act as an aquifer and are hydrologically connected to 

the regional Paleozoic carbonate aquifer.

The Paleozoic carbonate aquifer extends from the Cambrian 

Bonanza King Formation (_b) up through the Mississippian 

Perdido Formation (Mp; see Correlation of Map Units on map 

sheet) and makes up the upper 4 km of the 9-km-thick Paleozoic 

and Neoproterozoic miogeoclinal sequence previously discussed. 

The lower 5 km of this sequence consists mainly of clastic 

rocks—quartzites and argillites—that act as a confining unit. This 

confining unit thus extends from the Johnnie Formation (Zju, 

Zjm, and Zjl) up through the Carrara Formation (_c; see Correlation of Map Units on map sheet) and was originally named 

the “lower clastic aquitard” (Winograd and Thordarson, 1975). 

Thus, the top of the Carrara Formation is the effective base of the 

hydrologic system in the Funeral Mountains. About 

50 km to the north of the map area, in and around the Nevada 

Test Site, the Paleozoic carbonate aquifer has an upper and a 

lower part, separated by the “upper clastic aquitard” (Winograd 

and Thordarson, 1975). This upper confining unit is absent in 

the map area because the local age-equivalent rocks are mainly 

carbonates; hence, the Paleozoic carbonates are a single, uninterrupted hydrologic unit in the map area.

The Funeral Formation (QTf) aquifer locally extends the 

regional aquifer system southwestward, beyond the termination of the Paleozoic carbonates at the Furnace Creek fault, 

and thus into the Furnace Creek basin (fig. 3). The interconnection of these two aquifers is proven by the fact that the one 

spring in the Furnace Creek basin that discharges directly from 

the Paleozoic carbonates, Nevares Spring, has water chemistry 

that is virtually identical to that of all but one of the other Fur-
10 Geologic map of the southern Funeral Mountains including nearby Groundwater Discharges Sites

nace Creek springs, which discharge from the Funeral Formation at topographic low points along the southwestward termination of this formation (map sheet, fig. 2; fig. 3). Two of the 

Furnace Creek springs, Salt Spring and the Cow Creek Seeps 

(map sheet, fig. 2; fig. 3), actually appear to discharge from 

surficial deposits that locally extend the hydrologic system for 

very short distances beyond the southwestward termination of 

the Funeral Formation.

The Funeral Formation overlies older Tertiary units, 

mainly the Furnace Creek and Artist Drive Formations. 

Throughout the Furnace Creek basin, these formations contain 

abundant evaporite-bearing interbeds, they are overwhelmingly impermeable in the map area, and the few samples of 

groundwater recovered from them are brackish (R. Laczniak, 

USGS, Las Vegas, oral comm., 2006). Thus, based on existing 

evidence, these formations are not involved in the hydrologic 

system that feeds the Furnace Creek springs.

The Furnace Creek springs are interpreted as being fed 

mainly from the regional carbonate aquifer by interbasin flow 

under the southern Funeral Mountains (Hunt and Robinson, 

1960; Winograd, 1962; Winograd and Thordarson, 1975; 

Steinkampf and Werrell, 2001; Bredehoeft and others, 2005, 

2008), based principally on two lines of evidence. First, 

the flow from these springs is about 10 times the estimated 

recharge within the drainage basin of Furnace Creek. Second, 

the chemistry of these springs is similar to that of springs fed 

by the regional carbonate aquifer on the opposite side of the 

Funeral Mountains, in the Ash Meadows area (map sheet, 

fig. 1). The small difference in hydrochemistry of the Furnace 

Creek springs, relative to those at Ash Meadows, has been 

shown to be consistent with the interpretation that about 

10 percent of the spring discharge at Furnace Creek is derived 

from local recharge (Bredehoeft and others, 2005, 2008), 

mainly from rainfall on the Funeral Mountains.

The base of the carbonate aquifer is strongly uplifted 

under the Funeral Mountains, relative to the Amargosa Valley 

basin to the north, restricting flow from north to south across 

the range. Nonetheless, in two areas under the range, pathways 

exist where the base of the carbonates extends below the elevation of the water table in the adjacent part of the Amargosa 

Valley basin (fig. 3). On the hydrogeologic map (fig. 3), these 

two areas are labeled as “spillways” because they are interpreted to have a dual effect. First, the spillways are conduits 

for interbasin flow. Second, because of their height and limited 

cross-sectional area, the spillways are responsible for holding 

up the water table under the Amargosa Valley basin, which is 

much higher than that in the Furnace Creek and central Death 

Valley basins. 

The eastern of the two spillways is very narrow, but it 

may contribute to the flow from Navel Spring. Large travertine deposits, of middle Pliocene to early Pleistocene age, are 

present in the Furnace Creek basin immediately to the south 

and southwest of the eastern spillway, suggesting that this 

feature hosted strong groundwater flow in earlier, wetter periods. All of the other springs in the Furnace Creek wash area 

are fed by interbasin flow through the western spillway. Navel 

Spring is higher in elevation than the rest of the Furnace Creek 

springs (map sheet, fig. 2) and has distinct water chemistry. 

All of the other major springs in the Furnace Creek basin 

are nearly identical in their hydrochemistry and temperature 

(Steinkampf and Werrell, 2001). 

All of the major springs are a uniform 97oF (36oC), 

≈20 Fahrenheit degrees (≈11 Celsius degrees) above the mean 

annual air temperature. The carbonate aquifer extends to 

depths of greater than 1 kilometer at a distance of roughly 

20 km up the flow path from the springs (to the east-northeast; 

see geologic cross sections on map sheet and fig. 3) and is 

confined under a thick fill of Cenozoic strata to the north of 

the Funeral Mountains block in the Amargosa Valley basin. 

Consequently, upwelling of warm water from depth is 

an expected observation from the interbasin flow model 

(Bredehoeft and others, 2008, and references therein). Further, 

the configuration of the carbonate aquifer under the southern 

Funeral Mountains results in channelized flow through the 

spillways. Excepting tiny Navel Springs, all of the springs of 

the Furnace Creek basin are fed through the western spillway; flow to these springs is thus confined to a single narrow 

pathway, as reflected in the nearly uniform temperature and 

chemistry of the spring water. 

On the hydrogeologic map (fig. 3), there are two additional features that bear discussion. The first is an apparent 

modern seep, present in the bed of the Amargosa River, about 

4 to 7 km west of the eastern map border, which is marked 

by a dense mesquite bosque. It is unknown whether this seep 

reflects upwelling of groundwater from the Paleozoic 

carbonate aquifer along the faults inferred under the riverbed, 

or subsurface flow, through channel sands, that is locally 

forced to the surface. There is also some question as to 

whether this seep is perennial.

A second notable feature is the breccia that largely, if not 

entirely, intervenes between the Paleozoic carbonate aquifer 

and the Funeral Formation aquifer, in the Furnace Creek fault 

zone (fig. 3). Computer modeling (Bredehoeft and others, 

2005, 2008) shows that the breccia must impede flow, relative 

to the aquifers on either side, or the water table would not be 

high enough on the upthrown side of the Furnace Creek fault 

for Nevares Spring to flow. 

In order to test this modeling result, a hydrologic exploration well, the Inyo–EC–1, was drilled at the mouth of Echo 

Canyon (see cross section B–B ́ on map sheet). In this well, 

about 360 m of fault-zone breccia (of mainly rock-fall origin) 

was rotary-drilled and cored before pre-basin-range strata 

(Titus Canyon Formation—Ttc) was penetrated below. The 

parent rock for the breccia is evidently the Nopah Formation 

(_n), which is about half limestone and half dolomite with 

minor insolubles—mainly clay, silt, and sand. In contrast, the 

breccia in the well was found to consist of clumps of shattered 

dolomite (no limestone) enclosed in a matrix of insolubles, in 

significantly greater abundance than in the parent rock. This 

matrix commonly has the form of a network of stylolitic clay 

seams throughout the rock. Well Inyo–EC–1 was drilled to a
Hydrogeology 11

depth of about 300 meters before groundwater first entered the 

hole, which then slowly rose to a depth of 88 meters below 

land surface, demonstrating poor hydraulic conductivity. 

A huge volume of water must have passed through the 

fault-zone breccias to dissolve away the limestone, ultimately 

resulting in great loss of permeability. Such large-scale limestone dissolution is consistent with: (1) millions of years of 

interbasin flow through the southern Funeral Mountains; and 

(2) the large volume of travertine that is found in the Furnace 

Creek basin, especially in the about 5 to 3 Ma, capping traver-

tine unit (Tft) of the Furnace Creek Formation.
12 Geologic map of the southern Funeral Mountains including nearby Groundwater Discharges Sites 

DESCRIPTION OF MAP UNITS

SURFICIAL DEPOSITS

af Artificial fill (late Holocene)

QTac Surficial deposits, undivided (Holocene to upper Miocene)—Combined unit, used only on geologic cross 

sections

Qayy Alluvial deposits in annually active channels (late Holocene)—Sand, silt, and lesser gravel, intermixed and 

interbedded; unconsolidated, poorly to moderately well sorted, poorly to well bedded, locally crossbedded; mapped only in the bed of the Amargosa River, which is far more active than any other drainage in 

the area

Qayo Alluvial deposits in recent low terraces (middle and early Holocene)—Gravel, sand, and silt; intermixed 

and interbedded; unconsolidated to weakly consolidated, poorly to moderately well sorted, poorly to well 

bedded, locally crossbedded. Clasts are angular to subrounded; locally well rounded. Surface has faint 

bar-and-swale morphology with cobbles marking former bars that are slightly higher than pebbly swales, 

or is planar with slightly to locally moderately packed pavement. Pavement clasts are weakly to moderately 

varnished. Soil typically has cambic B horizon and stage I carbonate horizon. Thickness of unit generally 

ranges from less than 1 m to 10 m, but may be as thick as 20 m adjacent to tectonically active mountain 

fronts

Qay Alluvial deposits in recently active channels (Holocene)—Gravel, sand, and silt; intermixed and interbedded; unconsolidated, poorly to moderately well sorted, poorly to well bedded, locally crossbedded. Clasts 

are commonly angular to subrounded; locally well rounded

Qp Playa sediments (Holocene)—Silt, fine sand, clay, and evaporites; intermixed and interbedded; polygonal 

desiccation cracks common; exposed on floor of Death Valley

Qc Colluvial deposits (Holocene and Pleistocene)—Angular to subangular, granule- to boulder-size clasts with 

variable amounts of sand, silt, and clay as matrix. Generally unsorted and nonbedded or poorly bedded; 

matrix partly of eolian origin, locally cemented by carbonate. Forms talus deposits and thin mantles of 

debris along flanks and bases of steep slopes; deposited by rainwash, sheetwash, creep, and mass wasting

Qm Marl (Holocene and Pleistocene)—Calcareous siltstone, pale-yellowish-brown, yellowish-gray or grayishorange; weathers white to very light gray; silty to sandy; soft, plastic when wet. Consists of calcite, 

various clay minerals, quartz and opaline silica, silt, and sand-size rock fragments. Includes several thin 

chalk beds as thick as 1 m and discontinuous beds of small, irregular limestone nodules. Locally contains 

sparse to common pencil-size calcified plant stems. Unit is thought to represent deposits and precipitates 

formed in areas of groundwater discharge, including paludal environments. Reported ages in the Amargosa Valley basin are Pleistocene (90 ka to 15 ka; Paces and others, 1997); deposits at Nevares Spring are 

probably Holocene. Deposits too small to map are present at all of the other springs in the Furnace Creek 

basin

Qls Landslide deposits (Holocene and Pleistocene)—Breccia formed in recent landsliding; landslide 

geomorphology is pristine to weakly dissected

Qai Alluvial deposits in mid-level terraces (late Pleistocene)—Gravel, sand, and silt; intermixed and interbedded, weakly to moderately well consolidated. Clasts are unsorted to moderately well sorted, poorly to 

well bedded, angular to rounded. Surface is planar with moderately packed to densely packed pavement; 

pavement clasts are moderately to well varnished. In places, thin eolian sand deposits mantle the surface. 

Soil development varies from a cambic B horizon and a stage I to II carbonate horizon to an argillic B 

horizon and an approximately 1-m-thick stage III to IV carbonate horizon. Thickness of unit less than 1 

m to 10 m

Qao Alluvial deposits in high terraces (Pleistocene)—Gravel, sand, and silt; intermixed and interbedded, light 

gray, moderately well consolidated. Clasts are unsorted to moderately well sorted, nonbedded to well 

bedded, angular to rounded; matrix is sandy to silty. Surface is planar with densely packed pavement; 

pavement clasts are well varnished making this unit medium to dark colored on most surfaces. In places, 

thin eolian sand deposits mantle surface. Soil development varies from a well-developed cambic B 

horizon and a stage II carbonate horizon to an argillic B horizon and an approximately 1-m-thick, stage 

III to IV carbonate horizon. Thickness of unit less than 1 m to 10 m

QTa Old alluvial deposits (early Pleistocene and late Pliocene)—Gravel, sand, and silt; intermixed and interbedded; light brownish gray to light gray. Clasts are angular to subrounded, generally poorly sorted, poorly 

bedded, and moderately to well cemented with carbonate. Surface is eroded and dissected; commonly 
Description of Map Units 13

forms rounded ridges or ballenas. Where preserved, pavement is generally moderately to densely packed 

and includes tabular fragments cemented by pedogenic carbonate and opaline silica; varnish on pavement 

clasts is variable but commonly strongly developed. Soils typically consist of a stage III to IV carbonate 

horizon as much as 2 m thick; argillic horizons, where present, postdate much of the erosion. Thickness 

of unit may exceed 40 m

QTx Landslide deposits (early Pleistocene and late Pliocene)—Rock-avalanche breccias exposed as tongues 

extending from Bat Mountain (at southeastern limit of Funeral Mountains; map sheet) onto alluvial apron 

to east; composed of clasts derived primarily from Kelleys Well Limestone (Tok) and red sandstone 

member (Ttr) of Titus Canyon assemblage; also includes erosionally dissected landslide masses exposed 

in Furnace Creek valley; maximum exposed thickness is about 15 m

SYN-BASIN-RANGE SEQUENCE

Consists of Badwater, Furnace Creek, Navadu, and Owlshead assemblages (fig. 4)

Badwater assemblage (lower Pleistocene to Pliocene)—Consists of the Funeral Formation, which has a sedimentary facies (QTf) as well as a basalt facies (Tby), locally interbedded near the base

QTf Sedimentary facies of Funeral Formation (lower Pleistocene to Pliocene)—Alluvial conglomerates with 

angular to subangular clasts as large as 1 m; moderately to poorly consolidated; clasts derived from Paleozoic and Neoproterozoic rocks exposed in adjacent southern Funeral Mountains; strongly fanning dips 

present in basal 10 to 30 m; maximum exposed thickness of about 200 m. Maximum measured subsurface thickness of 305 m, seen in well Inyo–TSS–1 in center of Texas Spring syncline. In this deepest part 

of the basin, formation has thin interbeds of playa siltstones in middle and lower parts and, in all but top 

70 m of unit, similar siltstone forms a dense matrix around alluvial clasts, such that only uppermost, siltfree 70 m of formation has significant permeability. Base of formation is about 5 Ma in south-central part 

of map area, decreasing to less than 3.1 Ma to northwest (fig. 2, sheet 1; and table 1; based on 40Ar/39Ar 

dates by D. Miggins, USGS (unpub. data, 2007) and Knott and others, 2008)

Tby Basalt facies of Funeral Formation (Pliocene)—Olivine basalt lava flows and related local scoria deposits, 

phenocryst-poor, locally interfingers with lowermost part of Funeral Formation (QTf) in south-central 

part of map; superimposed hachure pattern indicates oxidized vent areas; maximum exposed thickness of 

about 175 m near south-central map boundary; dated at 4.5 Ma (whole-rock, 40Ar/39Ar; sample H, table 1)

Furnace Creek assemblage (upper Pliocene to upper Miocene)—Includes Furnace Creek Formation and 

Greenwater Volcanics

Furnace Creek Formation (upper Pliocene to upper Miocene)—Maximum exposed thickness of about 

2.2 km

Tft Travertine (Pliocene)—Travertine, thin- to medium-bedded, with interbeds of siltstone (mainly paludal 

groundwater discharge deposits) and lesser pebble conglomerate; classified by McAllister (1970) as base 

of Funeral Formation (QTf); classified here as the top of Furnace Creek Formation owing to greater concordance with playa claystones (Tf), below, than with Funeral Formation conglomerates (QTf); perhaps 

best considered as transitional between the two formations. Deposited by springs and seeps at the toes of 

alluvial fans (of QTf) that built outward from the mountain front, and northwestward across the Furnace 

Creek basin, over playa deposits (Tf); thus, a diachronous regressional deposit, formed in the interval 

from ≈5 to ≈3 Ma based on stratigraphic bracketing

Tfu Upper claystone (Pliocene)—Claystone, pale yellow with pumiceous ash-fall tuffs at base, dated at 3.1 to 

3.5 Ma (sanidine, 40Ar/39Ar; samples C, table 1)

Tf Playa and playa margin rocks of Furnace Creek basin (Pliocene to upper Miocene)—Interbedded 

playa claystones, siltstones, and sandstones with minor thin limestone and marl interbeds; locally 

gypsum-bearing or pebbly; moderately to well consolidated, thin- to medium-bedded, pale yellowish tan 

to light ochre-brown

Tfcu Upper and middle conglomerates (Pliocene)—Conglomerate beds found throughout middle and upper 

part of Furnace Creek Formation; composed mainly of clasts either of Artist Drive Formation lithologies 

from Black Mountains, or Paleozoic and Neoproterozoic sedimentary lithologies from Funeral Mountains. In both cases, supporting matrix is typically bentonitic sandstone and can be many different bold 

colors, such as greens, yellows, reds, and browns

Tfg Gypsum-rich member (Pliocene)—Claystone with abundant gypsum; locally contains minor borate 

deposits 
14 Geologic map of the southern Funeral Mountains including nearby Groundwater Discharges Sites

Tfrx Rock-fall breccias (lower Pliocene to upper Miocene)—Breccias formed mainly in rock falls, composed 

of clasts of various Paleozoic formations exposed east of Travertine Point along southwest range-front of 

southern Funeral Mountains; transitional to adjacent giant-block breccias (Tflx); matrix is crushed rock 

of the same lithology as the enclosed clasts

Tflx Giant-block breccias (lower Pliocene to upper Miocene)—Genetically related to rock-fall breccias 

(Tfrx) but composed of clasts that are large enough to map at 1:50,000 scale; rock formations from 

which giant blocks were derived shown in parentheses (for example, Tflx(Op)); dot-dash blue lines 

denote contacts between giant blocks and are labelled “giant-clast boundary within megabreccias”

Tfc Basal conglomerate (upper Miocene)—Conglomerate beds found at base of Furnace Creek Formation; 

contains well-rounded to subrounded pebble- to small boulder-size clasts of Paleozoic sedimentary 

lithologies and Hunter Mountain Quartz Monzonite from the Panamint Range (on the west side of the 

central Death Valley basin), mixed with clasts of Artist Drive Formation lithologies from Black Mountains, in a sandstone matrix

Greenwater Volcanics (middle Pliocene to upper Miocene)—Interfingers laterally with Furnace Creek 

Formation

Tfb Basalt—Sparsely vesicular lava flows and much lesser scoria, with sparse olivine and plagioclase 

phenocrysts; charcoal gray

Tfp Pyroclastic deposits—Felsic, nonwelded ash-fall tuffs, mainly dacitic and biotite-rich, light gray; 

probably correlative with petrographically similar lava flows and agglutinated ash-fall tuffs found 

to south and southeast of map area, including the dacite of Brown Peak 

Tn Navadu assemblage, undivided (upper to middle Miocene; about 6.5 to 12 Ma)—Includes the Artist Drive 

Formation in the Furnace Creek basin and age-equivalent strata in the Funeral Mountains. 

Combined unit used only on cross sections 

Artist Drive Formation (Miocene)—Name applied by McAllister (1970) to Navadu strata exposed on 

southwestern margin of Furnace Creek basin, at north end of Black Mountains. Maximum exposed 

thickness of about 1.6 km. Divided here into three informal members, lowermost of which is subdivided 

into a sedimentary part and a mafic volcanic part that partially interfinger with each other. Coeval basinfill strata (Artist Drive Formation equivalent) were deposited in half-grabens within Funeral Mountains, 

and within the Furnace Creek fault zone on southwest flank of these mountains

Tnu Upper member—Upper sedimentary part consists of fluvial conglomerates grading down into sandstones 

and then into interbedded claystones and freshwater limestone. Lower volcanic part consists of felsic 

tuffs of upper part of Shoshone Volcanics (Wright and others, 1991) and lesser, interbedded basalt flows 

at base. Equivalent to McAllister’s (1970) upper sedimentary and upper pyroclastic members, combined

Tnm Middle member—Upper sedimentary part consists of sandstones grading down into interbedded 

lacustrine claystones and freshwater limestone. Lower volcanic part consists mainly of felsic lavas and 

tuffs of lower part of Shoshone Volcanics. Equivalent to middle sedimentary and lower pyroclastic members of McAllister (1970), combined 

Lower member

Tnl Sedimentary part—Pebbly sandstone and interbedded, locally gypsiferous claystone. Equivalent to

lower sedimentary member of McAllister (1970)

Tnb Volcanic part—Basalt and andesite lavas and possible related intrusives; andesite is correlative with the 

11-Ma Sheephead Andesite (Wright and others, 1991), a widespread unit exposed to south, southeast, 

and southwest of map area that commonly contains abundant large laths of plagioclase in radiating clumps; 

basalt has a moderate abundance of plagioclase and olivine phenocrysts. Equivalent to basaltic rocks of 

Artist Drive Formation of McAllister (1970)

Artist Drive Formation equivalent, undivided (Miocene)—Strata deposited between about 7 and 12 Ma 

within and along the flanks of the Funeral Mountains. Mapped by McAllister (1970, 1971, 1973) as 

Furnace Creek Formation; however, intercalated ash-fall tuffs correlate with the about 8–10 Ma 

Shoshone Volcanics, based on petrographic character and 40Ar/39Ar dates (see table 1, samples D, E, F, 

and G); divided on map into four lithologic subunits:

Tng Alluvial—Alluvial conglomerates deposited in small basins formed on downthrown sides of major Miocene 

faults within southern Funeral Mountains; composed of clasts derived from various Paleozoic rock 

formations as well as rare clasts of Titus Canyon Formation (Ttc)

Tnp Playa—Playa claystones, commonly gypsum-bearing, and lesser interbedded siltstones and sandstones, 

typically moderately consolidated and pale yellow in color; locally includes interbedded freshwater 

limestones
Tnrx Rock-avalanche breccias—Megabreccias and much lesser mesobreccias composed of clasts of various 

Paleozoic rock formations exposed in the southern Funeral Mountains; interbedded with alluvial and 

playa subunits (Tng and Tnp) and giant-block landslide breccias (Tnlx); transitional to giant-block landslide breccias (Tnlx). Key beds within unit are extensive tephras that show large-scale bedding geometry

Tnlx Giant-block landslide breccias—Genetically related to rock-avalanche breccias (Tnrx) but composed 

of clasts that are large enough to map at 1:50,000 scale; rock formations from which giant blocks were 

derived are shown in parentheses (for example Tnlx (Op); dot-dash blue lines denote contacts between 

giant blocks and are labelled “giant-clast boundary within megabreccias,” whereas internal solid black 

lines denote formation contacts within giant blocks. Where space was limited, geologic unit labels were 

assigned numbers and a table has been provided on map sheet that lists the numbers and their corresponding unit label

Tnix Fault breccia (Miocene)—Brecciated Paleozoic rocks exposed within the Furnace Creek fault zone and other 

major fault zones; assigned to Navadu assemblage because Navadu tectonic stage was principal interval 

of movement on this fault; actual interval in which these breccias formed may be broader. Also used on 

map for fault breccia along the Funeral Mountains detachment fault, mainly composed of shattered Wood 

Canyon Formation (_Zw). Used more extensively on the cross sections, where numerous thin slivers 

of rock (mainly upper and lower Stirling Quartzite; Zseb and Zsa) caught up in the Funeral Mountains 

detachment fault zone are identified individually on the map, but are shown as fault breccia on the cross 

sections

To Owlshead assemblage, undivided (middle Miocene; about 12 to 14.5 Ma)—Composed of rocks of Billie 

Mine, to south of Furnace Creek fault, and Bat Mountain Formation, north of this fault, at southeast limit 

of Funeral Mountains. Combined unit used only on cross sections; divided on map into:

Tos Rocks of Billie Mine (middle Miocene)—Orange sandstone, well consolidated, commonly with wellrounded pebbles mainly of quartzite, black chert, and Hunter Mountain Quartz Monzonite; fines upward: 

fluvial at base and at least partly lacustrine in upper part; includes thin interbedded ash-flow and ash-fall 

tuffs in lower part that yielded dates of 12.7 and 13.7 Ma (K-Ar, Wright and others, 1999) and 13.2 Ma 

(

40Ar/39Ar, sanidine, sample I, table 1); maximum exposed thickness of about 150 m

Bat Mountain Formation (middle Miocene)

Toss Sandstone member—Volcaniclastic arkosic sandstone with minor thin conglomerate and mudstone 

interbeds; dominantly ochre colored; commonly crossbedded indicating a braided-stream depositional 

environment; contains sparse pebbles derived from various Paleozoic rock formations of southern 

Funeral Mountains and vicinity; a waterlaid tuff exposed at top was dated at about 13.5 Ma (40Ar/39Ar, 

sanidine, sample N, table 1); maximum exposed thickness of about 300 m

Tog Conglomerate member—Pebble to boulder (dominantly cobble) alluvial conglomerate, mainly clast 

supported, with a poorly sorted matrix of dirty sandstone; clasts are typically subangular and consist of 

various Paleozoic lithologies derived from southern Funeral Mountains and vicinity; also contains much 

lesser clasts of Kelleys Well Limestone (Tok) and red sandstone member of Titus Canyon assemblage 

(Ttr)—only in basal 50 m of unit; interfingers at base with Kelleys Well Limestone and at top with sandstone member; overall color as observed from a distance is medium-reddish brown; maximum exposed 

thickness of about 300 m

Tok Kelleys Well Limestone (middle Miocene)—Massive to thick-bedded, micritic cream-white freshwater limestone with local biostromes of finely laminated algal limestone and rare lenses of interbedded conglomerate 

resembling overlying cobble conglomerate member of Bat Mountain Formation (Tog). Unit contains 

numerous small rootless slump faults that strike roughly north-south and sole into bedding downsection, 

and are progressively buried upsection; maximum exposed thickness of about 100 m

PRE-BASIN-RANGE SEQUENCE

Titus Canyon assemblage (early Miocene to Oligocene)—A group of correlative rock formations that includes 

Titus Canyon (Wright and Troxel, 1993), Ubehebe (Snow and Lux, 1999), and Amargosa Valley Formations (Cemen and others, 1999). All three of these formation names have been used in the Funeral Mountains by these authors. Three informal members (units Ttr, Ttl, and Ttg) are taken from Cemen and others 

(1999). That report also designated an upper member of Amargosa Valley Formation, which is included 

here in the red sandstone member (Ttr), based on lithology and new 40Ar/39Ar dating conducted in this 

study (~22 Ma, sample L, table 1)

Description of Map Units 15
16 Geologic map of the southern Funeral Mountains including nearby Groundwater Discharges Sites

Ttc Titus Canyon Formation, undivided (early Miocene to Oligocene)—Undivided unit only used for 

scattered small exposures where lithologic subdivision is impractical at 1:50,000 scale, and on geologic 

cross sections; elsewhere subdivided into:

Ttr Red sandstone member (early Miocene)—Pebbly sandstone and much lesser interbedded thin marl and 

pebble to small-cobble conglomerate; medium-red to much lesser grayish-green or, rarely, ochre colored; 

pebbles moderately to well rounded and derived mainly from Paleozoic and Neoproterozoic lithologies 

of southwestern Great Basin—chiefly quartzites and black cherts, along with rare pebbles of Mesozoic 

granite, mainly Hunter Mountain Quartz Monzonite; sand is arkosic, typically rich in biotite flakes, and 

mainly volcaniclastic; tuff filling a paleochannel at top of section exposed on southern Bat Mountain was 

dated at about 19.5 Ma (K-Ar, biotite; Cemen, 1983; not shown on figure 2 (map sheet) because exact 

sampling location is unknown); maximum exposed thickness of about 300 m

Ttl Limestone member (early Miocene to Oligocene)—Freshwater limestone and marl beds interbedded with 

equally or more abundant tuffaceous siltstones, sandstones, and minor tuffs; moderately well consolidated except for claystones, which are mostly poorly consolidated. Tuff near base was dated at 24.7 Ma 

(K-Ar; Cemen, 1983), but was petrographically identified in this study as the 27-Ma Monotony Tuff; tuff 

near top is dated at 22.6 Ma (40Ar/39Ar, sample M, table 1). Unit includes interbedded fluvial conglomerates 

in small isolated exposures about 10 to 16 km northwest of Bat Mountain; maximum exposed thickness of 

about 120 m

Ttg Conglomerate member (Oligocene)—Alluvial conglomerate, moderately consolidated, consisting

of subangular clasts to about 1 m, derived from locally subcropping Paleozoic rock formations, in a 

matrix composed of lateric red clay and lesser sand that is volcaniclastic near top of unit; thickness

highly variable, maximum of about 225 m

PRE-TERTIARY UNITS

Mp Perdido Formation (Mississippian)—Medium- to dark-gray limestone with interbedded lesser siltstone and 

sandstone; top eroded; maximum preserved thickness of about 155 m

Mt Tin Mountain Limestone (Mississippian)—Limestone, mainly dark to light gray; commonly crinoidal or 

cherty, with some thin minor pale red argillaceous beds; estimated maximum thickness of about 100 m

Dl Lost Burro Formation (Devonian)—Consists of three parts: upper 340 m is medium-gray, mixed dolomite 

and limestone overlain by light-gray limestone that is sandy at very top; middle 300 m is light-gray 

dolomite with some widely spaced dark-gray beds; basal 80 m is light-gray dolomite interbedded with 

dark-brown weathering siltstone, sandstone, and chert beds

DSh Hidden Valley Dolomite (Devonian and Silurian)—Upper part is light-gray, slightly argillaceous dolomite; 

lower part is dark-gray, cherty dolomite. This color distinction is locally mapped as a key bed (see map 

sheet), but elsewhere may be modified by alteration and thus may not be consistent across map area. 

Thickness varies from 265 m in southeast part of map to 440 m in northwest part

Oes Ely Springs Dolomite (Ordovician)—Dolomite and limy dolomite, containing abundant dark-gray chert 

layers and nodules 5 to 20 cm thick; dark gray grading to medium gray at top; maximum thickness of 

about 150 m

Oe Eureka Quartzite (Ordovician)—Ledge-forming, white to pink orthoquartzite, grading down into a light- to 

medium-red dolomitic sandstone at base; estimated maximum thickness of about 120 m

Op Pogonip Group, undivided (Ordovician)—Undivided unit used mainly on the cross sections, but also 

locally on the map. Estimated maximum thickness of about 670 m

Opa Antelope Valley Limestone—Limestone and silty limestone; Medium-gray; finely to coarsely crystalline 

and predominantly nodular, massive to laminated beds

Opn Ninemile Formation—Siltstone and shale, light- to moderate-brown or reddish-brown, and typically finely 

interlaminated with olive-black to dark medium-gray, silty limestone or dolomite

Opg Goodwin Limestone—Limestone and lesser silty limestone, ledge-forming, medium- to dark-grey

_n Nopah Formation, undivided (Cambrian)—Combined unit used only on cross sections; consists of three 

members: a thin basal shale member, and two carbonate members that are locally mapped together as a 

combined unit; estimated maximum thickness of about 520 m

_nc Smoky and Halfpint Members, undivided

_ns Smoky Member—Dolomite, cliff-forming, very light gray to medium gray, in indistinct medium to thick 

beds
Description of Map Units 17

_nh Halfpint Member—Dolomite with locally abundant black chert nodules and layers; medium to dark gray; 

thin to thick bedded, finely to coarsely crystalline, bedding generally very indistinct

_nd Dunderberg Shale Member—Fissile shale, greenish brown with subordinate interbeds of medium gray to 

pale brown, thinly bedded limestone

_b Bonanza King Formation, undivided (Cambrian)—Light- to dark-gray limestone and dolomite with much 

lesser orange-brown silty layers; combined unit used only on cross sections; estimated maximum thickness 

of about 1,100 m

_bb Banded Mountain Member—Combined unit consisting of the following two units:

_bbu Upper part—Dolomite and limestone, cliff-forming, fine to medium crystalline, thickly bedded; 

composed of three color bands of approximately equal thickness, from base to top: light gray, dark gray, 

and medium gray

_bbl Lower part—Dolomite and limestone, distinctively striped in alternating light- to dark-gray beds ranging 

from 0.5- to 6-m thick

_bp Papoose Lake Member—Mostly dark-gray dolomite and limestone intercalated with sparse but distinctive 

yellowish-orange, silty and sandy intervals

_c Carrara Formation (Cambrian)—Heterogeneous unit of shale or slate and lesser micaceous siltstone 

intercalated with three prominent beds of dark greenish-gray limestone and silty limestone; estimated 

maximum thickness of about 490 m

_z Zabriskie Quartzite (Cambrian)—Orthoquartzite, cliff-forming, dark to medium purplish red, fine to 

medium grained, thick bedded, commonly cross-stratified; estimated maximum thickness of about 250 m

_Zw Wood Canyon Formation, undivided (Cambrian and Neoproterozoic)—Thick sequence of argillites 

(weakly metamorphosed siltstone) with interbeds of sandstone and dolomite; combined unit used only on 

cross sections. Estimated maximum thickness of intact formation is about 1,200 m

_wu Upper member (Cambrian)—Sequence of interbedded quartzite and siltstone with numerous orange 

dolomite beds are most abundant at and near base and are commonly oolitic

Zwm Middle member (Neoproterozoic)—Fining-upward sequence consisting mainly of siltstone, but with 

abundant interbedded thin sandstone beds in lower part, and a pebbly arkosic sandstone at base; sandstones are pale-greenish gray; siltstones are medium- to dark-greenish brown

Zwl Lower member (Neoproterozoic)—Siltstone and very fine-grained micaceous quartzite, thin to thick 

bedded, dark- to medium-brown, or greenish-gray section is divided into four sections of roughly equal 

thickness by three prominent, about 15-m-thick beds of interbedded orange dolomite mapped as key beds

Stirling Quartzite (Neoproterozoic)—Estimated maximum thickness of about 1,500 m; divided on map into 

5 units and on cross sections into 2 units, as described below:

Zseb Upper part, undivided—Consists of upper four members (Zse, Zsd, Zsc, and Zsb) combined; used only 

on cross sections

Zse E member—Orthoquartzite, fine grained, medium to thick bedded, white to pale yellowish-brown or pale red 

Zsd D member—Fine- to medium-grained feldspathic sandstone, with numerous siltstone interbeds in lower 

part of unit, decreasing in abundance upward

Zsc C member—Dolomite, fine to medium grained, massive to thin bedded, typically pale orange

Zsb B member—Fine-grained arkosic sandstone, micaceous siltstone, and thin beds of carbonate rocks

Zsa Lower part (A member)—Impure sandstone, mostly fine to coarse grained, commonly arkosic and 

bearing characteristic jasperoid grains and small pebbles; includes abundant beds of quartz-pebble 

conglomerate near base and a thin, orange dolomite marker bed in upper part

Johnnie Formation (Neoproterozoic)—Shale (or slate or schist) and lesser carbonate rocks; divided on cross 

sections into three map units; only uppermost 100 m of upper member exposed in map area; thus, middle 

and lower members, and the underlying Kingston Peak Formation are projected onto cross sections from 

exposures to northwest of map 

Zju Upper member—Shale, slate, or pelitic schist interlayered with quartzite and limestone (or marble)

Zjm Middle member—Shale, slate, or pelitic schist; lower part contains some orange-weathering calcareous 

layers; shown only on cross sections

Zjl Lower member—Mainly shale, slate, or pelitic schist; lower part contains layers of limestone (or marble) 

and pebbly quartzite; shown only on cross sections

Yk Kingston Peak Formation (Mesoproterozoic)—Conglomerate and pelitic schist; the uppermost formation 

of the Pahrump Group; shown only on cross sections
18 Geologic map of the southern Funeral Mountains including nearby Groundwater Discharges Sites

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Fridrich and others—Geologic Map of the southern Funeral Mountains including nearby Groundwater Discharge Sites—Scientific Investigations Map 3151