Technology, Renewable Resources, and

American Crafts

April 1984

NTIS order #PB84-222421
Recommended Citation:

Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-BP-F-27, May

1984).

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 84-601063

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
Preface

This background paper is part of the Office of Technology Assessment’s (OTA’s)

ongoing monitoring of renewable resource/technology issues for Congress. It was

stimulated by discussions with Congressman Sidney R. Yates’ staff. Mr. Yates chairs

the Interior Subcommittee, House Appropriations Committee, the subcommittee

with jurisdiction over the National Endowment for the Arts, which is the major

U.S. fine and folk arts agency, and the Department of the Interior, which is the

major U.S. natural resource management agency.

The paper summarizes technology’s effects on crafts (some of which are folk

and fine art) that use renewable resources as raw materials. Technology’s effects

on other types of art, such as the performing arts, and on other types of crafts,

such as ceramics, also are significant. They are not discussed here, however, because

nonrenewable resource supplies are outside the purview of the OTA Food and

Renewable Resources Program.

The OTA exploratory work included staff research and extensive conversations with more than 50 craft and renewable resource specialists. A half-day workshop involving six Washington experts provided important additional information;

its results are summarized separately in appendix A.

This paper was prepared by OTA Project Director Phyllis Windle. OTA wishes

to acknowledge the workshop participants, reviewers, and others who provided

generous assistance.

.,,

Ill
TechoIogy, Renewable Resources, and American crafts

OTA Workshop, July 12, 1983

Jan Halkett

Agricultural Cooperative Service

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Washington, D.C. 20250

Robert Hart

Indian Arts and Crafts Board

U.S. Department of the Interior

Room 4004

Washington, D.C. 20240

Mary Hufford

American Folklife Center

Library of Congress

Washington, D.C. 20540

Linda McMahan

TRAFFIC-U.S.

World Wildlife Fund

1601 Connecticut Ave., N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20009

Robert Teske

Folkarts Program

National Endowment for the Arts

1100 Pennsylvania Ave., N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20506

John Thomas

Division of Law Enforcement

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

P.O. Box 28006

Washington, D.C. 20005

Additional Reviewers

Each of the participants in the OTA workshop reviewed the draft of this Background

Paper and provided comments. The following persons also suggested revisions based on

their special expertise.

Charles Camp

State Folklorist

Maryland State Arts Council

15 West Mulberry St.

Baltimore, Md. 21201

W. Hardy Eshbaugh

President, The Society for Economic

Botany

Department of Botany

Miami University

Oxford, Ohio 45056

Robert W. Gray

Director Emeritus

Southern Highlands Handicraft Guild

P.O. Box 9545

Asheville, N.C. 28815

Ann Haas

Division of Law Enforcement

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

P.O. Box 28006

Washington, D.C. 20005

Francis M. Hueber

Curator, Department of Paleobiology

National Museum of Natural History

Smithsonian Institution

Washington, D.C. 20560

Thomas McIntyre

Office of Protected Species and

Habitat Conservation

National Marine Fisheries Service

U.S. Department of Commerce

Washington, D.C. 20235
OTA Sfaff on Technology, Renewable Resources and American Crafts

H. David Banta* and Roger Herdman, ** Assistant Director,

OTA Health and Life Sciences Division

Walter E. Parham, Program Manager

Food and Renewable Resources Program

Analytical Staff

Phyllis N. Windle, Ecologist and Project Director

Administrative Staff

Phyllis Balan, Administrative Assistant

Nellie Hammond, Secretary

Carolyn Swann, Secretary

“Until August 1983.

**From Dec. 26, 1983.
Contents

Findings. .,... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Crafts and Technology: A History of Tension and Cooperation . . . . . . .

Crafts in the United States: A Valued Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Federal Government’s Role in Crafts... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Arts Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Natural Resource Agencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Public Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Technology and the Crafts Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Gathering Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Making the Craft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Going to Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

An Inventory of Craft Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ivory and Tortoiseshell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Feathers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fibers and Dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wood and Tree Fern Trunks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Shells and Coral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix A—Summary of the Technology, Renewable Resources, and

American Crafts OTA Workshop, July 12, 1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tables

Table No.

1. Federal Agencies With Craft Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. Federal Agencies With

Figure

Figure No.

Resource Protection Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Relationships Among Crafts, Folk Art, and Fine Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ix

1

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9

10

11

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13

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Page

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vii
FINDINGS

●

●

●

●

●

●

Technology’s effects on craftworkers and craft supplies are variable and sometimes inequitable.

Traditional craftspeople more often are adversely affected by technological

change; contemporary craftworkers more often benefit.

U.S. concern is increasing about diminishing renewable resource availability

for crafts-and the concern appears justified.

Precise data on the types and amount of resources involved are lacking; it may

be several years before better data are available and compiling that data will be

difficult.

Undertaking a full-scale assessment of technology, renewable resources, and

crafts seems unwarranted now.

Development of more consistent Federal policies for managing renewable resources while supporting crafts need not await more information.

Craft and natural resource experts identified for OTA a number of important

issues, Agencies exist that have the authority to address these concerns in the absence of further OTA involvement. Congressional action will continue to affect

crafts that depend on renewable resources. The 1984 renewal of the Marine Mammal Protection Act is among the more relevant legislation (Buck, 1983), since it

controls the availability of certain ivory to Alaskan natives and other craftworkers.

Important Issues Affecting the Craft Community

Potential action agency (ies)

.- ——.

General Issues

Health hazards of art/craft supplies . . . . . . .

Design theft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Economic contribution of crafts . . . . . . . . . .

Industrial/craft cooperation . .

Role of craft cooperatives . . .

Legislative and governmental

Renewable resource issues

Illegal traffic in wildlife . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

review. . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Resource supplies needed for crafts . . . . . .

Resource losses in developing countries. . .

Education and craft training . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

National Institutes of Health

Bureau of Standards

Justice Department

National Endowment for the Arts

General Accounting Office

Interior, Commerce, Agriculture Departments

Commerce, Labor Departments

Agriculture Department

Small Business Administration

Interagency Crafts Committee

Interior, Commerce, State Departments

Interior, Agriculture Departments

State Department/Agency for International Development

Interior Department

National Endowment for the Arts

National Science Foundation

SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment

ix
—

INTRODUCTION

Crafts and Technology: A History

of Tension and Cooperation

The relationship of crafts to technology, like

that of art to science, has often been intimate

but never constant. Until the 17th century,

many craftworkers and artists also were scientists and inventors, and many technical discoveries evolved from their work. Pioneering research by Smith shows that:

●

●

●

craftworkers are often the first to understand the basic properties of their craft materials;

the beauty and desirability of craft objects

in some cases has inspired scientific research; and

the technical knowledge of artists and

craftworkers has at time; been directly applicable to science (Eklund, 1978).

Abundant examples of these interactions

have been cataloged for ceramics and metalwork (Smith, 1980) but the use of renewable

resources by craftspeople and artists also benefited early science and industry. The first textile dyes, for example, were derived from plants

and animals. Weavers in Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, South America, and Aztec Mexico collected or grew herbs, shells, and insects and

extracted their dyes. Increasing mechanization

of the European textile industry in the 1700’s

stimulated an unprecedented demand for natural dyes. The search for synthetic fixatives for

dyes created the first large-scale chemical industry (Rhodes, 1980). The natural dye industry

flourished until 1856, when the first substitute

was synthesized. Organic chemistry blossomed

as the-search for chemical analogs and replacements expanded (Baranyovits, 1978).

Photo credit: Mark Skinner

The skilled hands of Magdalena Ruak weaving a coconut leaf bird in the Mariana Islands
2 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

The development of medicine and botany

also was linked closely with arts and crafts.

painters, drafters, and engravers recorded

plants and animals in intricate detail. As early

as the 16th century, their work was used to

train medical students in human anatomy. Traditional plant lore was preserved in printed

herbals. More recent botanical illustrations

were based on scientific accuracy and visual

realism, traits that persist in the later insect and

bird paintings of Maria Merian and John Audubon (Rhodes, 1980).

The close partnership between the arts and

science did not last.

“Despite occasional attempts at reconciliation,

the separation of science and art was so complete by the 20th century that C. P. Snow was

able to define them accurately as two separate

worlds” (Meeker, 1978, p. 187).

After World War II, science and technology

began to change American lives in important

and apparently ever-faster ways. Artists often

responded defensively, and their uneasiness

was not lessened by suggestions that the visual arts were irrelevant to technological society

(Bornstein, 1981) or that industrial processes

could not, by definition, apply to any of the

arts.

Some experts feel that the period of greatest

tension is past (Meeker, 1978). As evidence,

they cite the use of technology by certain fine

artists and craftspeople to solve unique problems. These technologies include new methods

to conserve and authenticate works, new tools

and materials, and hundreds of uses for small

and large computers (Hours, 1981; Shore,

1982).

Much of the literature of the 1970’s examined

these changes, often from a theoretical viewpoint (see Topper and Holloway, 1980). Few

writers, however, focused explicitly on the role

of technology in crafts. Sometimes generalities

were obscured by the failure to distinguish between traditional and contemporary crafts (fig.

1). Traditional craftworkers, some of whose

work can be considered folk art, emphasize

perfecting old forms drawn from their community. Therefore, technological innovation may

either be rejected or slowly incorporated.

Figure l.— Relationships Among Crafts,

Folk Art, and Fine Art

Folk arts Crafts Fine arts

Traditional Contemporary

crafts crafts

DEFINITIONS:

Craft: An object produced with the help of only such devices as allow

the manual skill of the maker to condition the shape and design of

each individual product. (Adapted from 25 Code of Federal Regulations 308.3a)

Traditional draftsperson: A craftworker who accepts and depends on

a communal esthetic shaped over time, who perfects older forms, and

who receives information and training by informal means. (Adapted

from Teske, 1982-83)

Contemporary craftsperson A craftworker who expresses an individual esthetic, who seeks to create new forms, and who has often received formal education and training. (Adapted from Teske, 1982-83)

Tachnology: Equipment (e.g., tools, implements, machines, and

devices) and organizational forms; “hardware” and “software.”

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment

Contemporary craftspeople are more closely

akin to fine artists. They express an individual

esthetic that prizes uniqueness, and often they

have been formally schooled in advanced technology. Contemporary craftspeople are more

likely to benefit directly from technological

change. Both types of craftworkers may benefit indirectly from the longing for the handmade that accompanies “high-tech” societies

(Greene, 1980; Paz, 1974). Demand for crafts

and craft classes may increase.

Crafts in the United States:

A Valued Activity

The U. S. Congress officially encouraged

American crafts with the establishment of the

Indian Arts and Crafts Board, the National Endowment for the Arts, and the American Folklife Center. These actions recognized the importance of crafts in U.S. culture. The craft

tradition gives meaning to everyday objects,
Introduction ● 3

linking them to history and contemporary life.

Crafts may also be “the focal point or gathering place for a cluster of ideas which may derive from some of the most important philosophical perspectives in the experience of a

group of people” (Toelken, 1983). As such,

craftwork fills an abiding need to create with

the hands. According to a 1974 Harris poll, 40

percent of all Americans engage in craft activities and another 20 percent would like to

become involved (Glassman, 1975).

American craft traditions also have certain

tangible benefits. A large number of people and

businesses are involved, and their products

make a substantial contribution to individual

and collective economies. The size of a major

annual week-long craft fair, held until 1984 in

Rhinebeck, N. Y., indicates the magnitude of

these contributions. At least $6 million of crafts

were sold in 1983, a volume triple that of 1976

(Greene, 1980), and complementary events

added almost another $2 million. Some 3,OOO

wholesale businesses sent buyers to the fair and

35,350 retail visitors attended (The Craft Report, 1983). Local merchants estimate that they

take in another $3.5 million during the course

of the fair (The Washington Post, 1983).

Crafts have also entered department stores.

The Hecht Co., in metropolitan Washington,

D. C., sold $42,000 worth of crafts during its 10-

day “West Virginia, USA” promotion in 1981.

Bloomingdales spent $25 million in 1982 to

add 800 new craftworkers to their “America

the Beautiful” series (The Washington Post,

1982).

Crafts are important to the economies of several States, especially in the Northeast. Vermont crafts have a larger impact on the economy than the maple syrup industry (Halkett,

1983). Crafts’ contribution is $10 million to $11

million, a figure equalled in New Hampshire

and Mississippi (Hart, 1983).

Additional craft-specific information on the

economic contribution of crafts is difficult to

obtain and often relies on crude estimates. For

example, American quiltmaking is a $50 million to $100 million business annually, and antique quilts bring prices as high as $10,000

(Ricci, 1982). Yet the number of quilters involved and their annual income is unknown.

Probably each quilter earns less than the

minimum wage for long hours of painstaking

work (Ricci, 1982). Industry sources may keep

specific information on individual crafts because they supply large numbers of avocational

craftworkers with leather kits, dyes, yarns, etc.

Traditional craftspeople sometimes choose

not to market their work, or they may use channels different from those of contemporary

craftspeople. Their contribution, therefore, is

not included in most estimates above. No way

exists to value their products precisely. The Indian Arts and Crafts Board, for example, estimates the annual retail sales of Native American arts and crafts is several hundred million

dollars but admits that this estimate is too

crude even for planning purposes (Hart, 1983).

Individual income from craftwork may be

low but nevertheless vitally important. Crafts

provide a unique source of money for some

elderly or housebound people and are especially valuable for individual income in certain

areas of high unemployment (Halkett, 1983;

Southern Highlands Handicraft Guild, 1975).

Consequently, State governments and regional

organizations use crafts for local development.

The Southern Highlands Handicraft Guild and

the States of West Virginia and Kentucky have

been among the first to do so. They have successfully promoted their crafts in major national department stores, guild craft centers, and

State park gift shops. Economic goals often are

combined with others: preserving traditional

crafts, encouraging an appreciation of local

culture, and providing nonfinancial services

for members and citizens.

Negative aspects of the craft business also

exist. Department stores and wholesalers sometimes are insensitive to craftworkers’ problems.

The store operators may be unwilling to depart

from high-sales-volume procedures and may

stock inexpensive imported crafts in “American” displays (Teske, 1983). The effects of

guilds and State craft stores are controversial;

their benefits may not be equitably distributed

among all craftworkers and economic improve-
4 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

ment sometimes may decrease cultural well- ucts may total $10 million annually (The Farmbeing (Camp, 1983). ington (N. M.) Daily Times, 1981), and design

Crafts also are part of a large underground pirating is a constant concern of craftworkers

economy. The illegal traffic in wildlife prod- (Halkett, 1983).
THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT’S ROLE

IN CRAFTS

The Arts Agencies

Federal Government actions touch on crafts

in many ways. In certain cases, these actions

and their effects have not been consistent or

kindly. Involvement with Native American and

rural communities sometimes has jeopardized

local traditions in order to promote local development and “modernization. ”

One piece of legislation was especially important in seeking to make the role of the Federal Government more benign: the 1976 American Folklife Preservation Act (Public Law 94-

201). This law created the American Folklife

Center in the Library of Congress and supplemented earlier laws that enabled executive

branch agencies to support the crafts. These

include Public Law 74-355, passed in 1935,

which created the Indian Arts and Crafts Board

within the Department of the Interior; the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966; and

the legislation that established the Smithsonian

Institution and, later, the National Endowment

for the Arts.

These programs, along with economic development efforts of the Department of Agriculture and the avocational craft programs of the

Department of Defense and the USDA Extension Service, are the most significant Federal

craft activities. Additional related programs are

scattered throughout the Government. The best

summary of these activities is provided by Coe

(1977). Recent agency reorganizations and severe program and budget cuts, however, have

made significant parts of this information obsolete. Table 1 provides a summary of the types

of agencies involved in supporting American

folkarts and crafts.

Table 1 .—Federal Agencies With Craft Programs

Role(s)

Agency Research a

Education b Development c Preservation d Demonstrations e

U.S. Departments:

Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x —

Commerce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . —

— —

— x

Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . —

—

x

Housing and Urban Development . . . . . . . . . . . —

— —

— x

Interior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

—

x x x x

Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — x —

State/AID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

—

x . x x —

Other Federal agencies:

East-West Center. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Federal Information Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

National Archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .

Historic Documents Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

National Endowment of the Arts . . . . . . . . . . .

National Endowment of the Humanities . . . . .

National Science Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Smithsonian Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Peace Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Library of Congress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Historic Preservation Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appalachian Regional Commission . . . . . . . . .

x

x

x—

x

x

x

x—

x—

—

x—

—

—

x

x—

x—

—

x—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

x—

—

x

—

x

x

x

x—

x—

x

x

x—

—

—

x—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

x—

x—

—

alnclude~ both direct grants t. j~jvjdua)s and Institutions as well as providing 9eneral SUPPOn ‘eWices.

41flClUdeS suppofl for institutions such as schools, arl institutes, and museums, and 9rants to students

Clncludes job training program5 and assistance to cooperatives and Individuals

‘Includes collecting, preserwng, and exhibiting all types of crafts

‘Include traveling and permanent exhibits as well as interpretive programs at national parks, refu9e5, monuments, ‘orests and other public lands

MAJOR SOURCE Linda C Coe, Fo/k//fe and the Federa/ Government (Washington, D C American Folklife Center, Library of Congress, 1977)

5
6 • Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

The Natural Resource Agencies

The protection and management of wildlife

and natural areas is relatively centralized. The

Department of the Interior, for example, is the

major agency responsible for monitoring endangered species, controlling domestic traffic

in regulated wildlife products, and protecting

resources in national parks and monuments.

Both the Bureau of Land Management, within

Interior, and the Forest Service, within the Department of Agriculture, are important managers of public lands. The annual Conservation

Directory (National Wildlife Federation, 1982)

summarizes Federal natural resource roles

(table z).

Public Policy

Public policies have important effects on

craftworkers. These vary from policies that

eliminate availability of certain craft supplies

to others that relocate people from newly designated public lands. From 1924 to 1936, for example, the Department of the Interior displaced

a large craft community with the creation of

Shenandoah National Park (Martin-Perdue,

1983); similar events occurred in the early days

of the Tennessee Valley Authority. Some of

these craftworkers received Federal assistance

to continue, publicize, and sell their work.

Agency data-collection programs have the

potential for supplying important information

on the craft use of wildlife, but this potential

is largely unrealized. Permits are not required

for most small-scale harvesting for “noncommercial” purposes in national forests (Bombeck, 1983). Therefore, little documentation exists for craft uses of these public resources.

Some of the goals of the arts and resource

agencies are not compatible with each other.

Resource agencies generally have paid little attention to craft supplies. For example, an arts

agency may encourage use of traditional

grasses by basketmakers while a resource agency manages public lands to discourage grass

growth (Toelken, 1983). Puerto Rico has just

begun a program to replant important woodworking trees, but it has little support from

foresters (Murray, 1983).

Table 2.—Federal Agencies With Resource Protection Roles

Role(s)

Agency Research a Education b Management c Policy d Enforcement e

U.S. Departments:

Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x x x x

Commerce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x x x x

Interior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x x x x

Justice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — — — — x

Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x — —

State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . —

—

— x —

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . —

—

— — — x

Treasury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — — — — x

Other agencies:

Council on Environmental Quality . . . . . . . . . . x — —

Environmental Protection Agency . . . . . . . . . .

— —

x x x x x

Tennessee Valley Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x x

National Science Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

— —

x — —

International Convention Advisory Council . . .

— —

x — — — —

alncludeg internal programs and external 9rant5.

blncludeg direct ~rk with farmers and visitors, job training programs, and Preparation of materials.

clncludes respon~bility for da~.to.dgy operation of pu~ic Iarlijs and waters as well as handling of wildlife populations and preparation of management plans for private

owners.

‘Includes determining U.S. priorities for resource protection.

elncludeg regulatiw ~ommerce in ~tentially harmful plants and anlrnals and those organisms that are protected by domestic and international ‘9reements.

MAJOR SOURCE: Conservation Directory 1982, National Wildlife Federation, Washington, D. C., 27th cd., 1982.
The Federal Government’s Role in Crafts ● 7

Making the Connection: A Pioneering Study in the New Jersey Pine Barrens

The American Folklife Center of the Library of Congress, the U.S. Department of the Interior,

and several New Jersey State agencies are cooperating in a project that will provide one of the

first close looks at how traditional technology, natural resources, and culture interact. This project will document activities such as crafts, folk music, seasonal festivals, and architecture. Also,

it will examine traditional ways of naming and using plants and animals.

The study is being done in the new Pinelands National Reserve, a million acres of land with

a unique public lands designation and governing body. The importance of this work, though, extends beyond New Jersey. It may, for example, show how arts agencies and resource agencies can

cooperate with local citizens to conserve natural resources, historic artifacts, and the living cultural

traditions in a region,

The pine barrens are rich in crafts such as boatbuilding and decoy carving, and local people

have developed complex management technologies for conserving their raw materials. The Barnegat

Bay Sneakboxes (duckboats), for example, are built of Atlantic white cedar that, unlike plywood,

can be shaped in compound curves. Cedar-cutting and stand management are often family operations that rely on generations of forestry experiments. Local biologists admit that the cutter’s

knowledge is accurate and precise. Folklorists in the area also note the esthetic importance of management; cedar-cutters speak of “cedar music)” created by trees creaking in the wind.

The Pinelands National Reserve study will preserve this type of information in books,

photographs, and an archive, Natural resource agencies will have access to local expertise on wildlife

and timber; folklorists will gain information on technology and biology. This is a new synthesis.

It may promote the sustainable use of resources in crafts and provide a better understanding of

how people create meaning in their lives by applying technology to their natural surroundings.

Sol ‘ K(: E:S \f,ir\ liuffor[{, F“c]lkl]fe (;cntcr, I.]hrar} of (;ongress, perwnal ( ommunlcation, IIPC 12, 1983, I,lbrarv of Congress, “ Llbrar}, uf (;ongress Am(~ri[ an f-’u]kl]ft,

( ;enter l.aun[ h{,s l-’[el{l Sur\ ey of Pi nrldnds Nat !onal Rcsert e in New Jersey, ” ,N’ews F’rom lhe ~,lbrar~ of Congress, PR 83-81, Sc!pt ~, 1983, and H[)rl\

L!”(, I nt r,]ul), ‘‘( ;rd nherr} flogs, Tea III A Glass Sense of Pla(.e In Jersey Ptnes, ”’ ,k’st]on~/ Geogr~phlc Soc/et} .\’ew\ F’eafure, N(IL ‘io, IWi3

34-177 0 - 84 - 3
TECHNOLOGY AND THE

CRAFTS PROCESS

Craftwork can be divided into several processes once the initial design has been developed. These include: obtaining and preparing

the raw materials, making the materials into

a product, and distributing the product. These

processes are common to all craftworkers

whether they use, for example, naturally occurring grasses or highly processed leather, whether they keep sales records by pencil or computer, and whether they ship items worldwide

or pass them along to their families.

Technology has had an important impact on

all of these stages—sometimes positive, sometimes negative. Its direct or indirect impacts

seem to be increasing in all areas of craftwork.

The initial design process is not immune,

either. Contemporary craftworkers have available computer-assisted design tools (Bell, 1983),

and science and technology, by virtue of their

dominance in American culture, help shape the

creative urges of those and the more traditional

craftspeople.

Gathering Materials

Some craftworkers are concerned about

maintaining an assured quantity and quality of

materials, and both factors relate to technology.

These recent concerns are different for various craft media. Two major studies identified

the availability of unprocessed raw materials

as a problem: the National Crafts Planning

Project (McLean, 1981) and Traditional Craftmanship in America (Camp, 1983). Traditional

craftworkers are most concerned:

.. . . anxiety about the continued availability

of craft supplies seems to be on the rise among

American craftworkers, along with a sense that

little can be done to improve dim prospects for

the future of a great many craft traditions. . . .

The availability of materials for use in traditional craft processes may play a greater role

in the health of particular traditions than any

other factor . . . .“ (Camp, 1983, p. 30)

Craft technology usually does not threaten

renewable resources directly. There are exceptions, but information is so scarce that a definitive evaluation is not possible. Traditional

craftworkers may possess a sensitivity to their

environment that decreases the chance of their

destructive use of resources (Toelken, 1983). Or

they may have such a strong cultural need for

certain resources that overuse is inevitable. The

activities of craftworkers who are new to their

profession may be harmful to resources, too.

Inexperience may lead to misidentification of

plants or animals and rare ones may be used

inadvertently. In addition, their sources of supplies may be distant. Therefore, they unintentionally may encourage unscrupulous collecting by commercial suppliers. Poaching for craft

supplies, by suppliers or craftspeople, can and

does pose a threat to certain plant and animal

populations, such as bald eagles, that have been

severely decreased by other activities.

Industrial technology usually threatens craft

resources more directly. Some wildlife, such

as eagles and most whales, have become rare

enough that the parts used for crafts are largely

unavailable. This unavailability may be due to

the actual disappearance of plants and animals

or due to government regulation of harvests.

Substitutes for these materials can be difficult

or impossible to obtain for some craftworkers.

Native American crafts commonly have important religious or symbolic significance, and

new materials are unlikely to be substituted

(Camp, 1983).

Loss of plant and animal habitat maybe just

as important in altering the availability of craft

resources. Several factors, such as changing

landownership patterns, urbanization, and agricultural draining and filling decrease collecting areas (Camp, 1983; LaRiche, 1983). Traditional craftworkers who will not or cannot

search more widely for their materials are most

affected. Loss of habitat may be the major

method by which plant and animal species

become extinct (Fosberg, 1983). Therefore, it

affects people locally but may also cause more

widespread and permanant loss of plants and

animals.

9
10 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background paper

Craftworkers in some cases express frustration at not being able to find the right material at an affordable price (Camp, 1983). For

woodworkers, this may represent the escalating price that results from the increasing scarcity of wood such as black walnut and bald

cypress. This results from both the absolute

scarcity of these woods due to loss of habitat—

e.g., bald cypress in Florida—as well as the

relative scarcity when other wood users outcompete craftworkers for supplies.

Technology sometimes can provide substitutes when desired materials become less available for whatever reason. Plastic “ivory” allows

scrimshaw to continue despite tight restrictions on use and trade in natural ivory (Thomas, 1983). Plastic “ebony” in banjos (Jabbour,

1983) replaces a rare, and expensive, wood.

And plastic “tortoiseshell” replaces real tortoiseshells in jewelry (Dodd, 1983). Some craftworkers have adopted unusual craft supplies—

bread wrappers for rag rugs, telephone wire

for baskets—which are often high-tech substitutes for materials no longer available to them

(Hufford, 1983). In other cases, technology provides a refined or more quickly available product, such as artificially seasoned wood (Hart,

1983). This is an important role for technology

but one that is useful to only certain craftworkers. Substitutions sometimes cannot be

made without irreparably damaging the craft

tradition (Camp, 1983).

Making the Craft

While some craftworkers may feel an ambivalence about adopting new technology, usually

they have heartily welcomed those changes

Photo credit U S FIsh and Wildlife Service

Lucreaty Clark making a cotton basket from white oak
Technology and the Crafts Process ● 1 1

that made their work easier, Traditional Native

American basketmakers, for example, may substitute a nail for the traditional cactus spine awl

(Barrows, 1900). Many craftworkers have been

quick to adopt power tools for special uses

(Teske, 1983). These changes usually are made

after thoughtful consideration: What is the role

of technology in the craft? Will an important

part of the craft be lost if machinery takes over?

Will new technology enable the worker to be

more or less creative? Often technology is

adopted to increase productivity (Ahlborn,

1983), certainly an important factor for craftworkers whose incomes are marginal.

Where technology is carefully considered

and integrated into current traditions, its effects are often positive, The adoption of steel

tools, for example, by the Haida Indians of the

Northwest Coast, coincided with a surge of

creativity in architecture and decorative arts

(Reid, 1982). Certainly new technology has

been adopted enthusiastically by many contemporary craftworkers. Synthetic dyes, for example, have replaced natural ones in most fiber

crafts, including basketry. Cold-molded and

sheet-plywood construction are important new

technologies for building wooden boats

(Wilson, 1982).

These changes sometimes are painful, especially for traditional craftspeople. They may introduce dissension into a family or community.

In these cases, change—such as that which

occurred when Shenandoah basketmakers altered the number of splints in the bottom of

woven baskets—becomes a metaphor for tradition versus adaptation in the group (MartinPerdue, 1983). In other cases, the introduction

of modern technology may add health risks to

the workplace. This is true for many epoxies

and other plastics used in woodworking

(McCann, 1981).

Technology plays a large role, both directly

and indirectly, in bringing crafts to market.

Modern technology brings the craft traditions

of many ethnic groups and localities to outsiders (Paz, 1974). Television and satellite

radio, for example, bring the traditions of

southwest Arizona to New York and 20th century transportation takes Midwestern vacationers to the Appalachians. This has increased

the demand for craft materials, craft classes,

and crafts themselves and opened new markets

to craftworkers.

Technology also directly affects craft marketing. Some workers, researchers, and organizations use computers for recordkeeping, wordprocessing, and communicating among themselves, The National Crafts Planning Board is

undertaking one of the latest of these projects,

an information system that will become operational in 1984 (American Craft Council, 1983).

Other types of technology also have an impact.

For example, new photographic tools and lightweight construction materials help craftworkers prepare for shows. Improved transportation equipment and systems move people,

materials, and finished goods.

Many of these technological changes have little relevance to traditional craftspeople. Sometimes they market locally, do not take part in

major craft shows, and do not join craft organizations.

Contemporary craftworkers often face problems more common among fine artists: protection of unique designs. Traditional craftworkers face similar problems when legal

supplies of resources cannot be authenticated

and their own work cannot be distinguished

from inexpensive foreign mass-productions.

New technology for copyrighting material and

identifying work may solve some of these problems. The Canadian Government, for example,

designates authentic native crafts with stickon labels (Teske, 1983). Some U.S. craft guilds

and cooperatives have developed their own

trademarks (Jabbour, 1982). New marking

methods can nondestructively identify ivory

that may be legally sold (McMahan, 1983).
—

AN INVENTORY OF CRAFT RESOURCES

No comprehensive inventory of the natural

resources used in crafts exists in the United

States or elsewhere in the world. Information

is fragmentary, inconsistent, and often unreliable. Even such a fundamental tool as a flora

of the United States does not exist (Jenkins,

1983). With such problems, it is impossible to

estimate the amount of material in the craft

trade or its economic and ecological significance. The Organization of American States

(OAS) International Meeting of Craft Development Agencies and Programs (September 1983)

made two relevant recommendations:

● that OAS promote development of an inventory and registry of natural resources

used by craftworkers; and

. that a study be conducted, based on this

inventory, of the supplies, conditions, and

ecology of the resources.

Before such a thorough assessment is made,

however, scattered data can be used to piece

together preliminary evaluations such as those

below. These data cannot be considered definitive, however, since many rely on intuitive

judgments of experts.

Ivory and Tortoiseshell

Several marine mammals and sea turtles continue to be used for crafts. Ivory from walrus

tusks, sperm whale teeth, seal skins and guts,

and sea turtle skins, leather, and shells are

some of the raw materials involved.

Several of these animal species declined drastically due to over-harvesting in the 19th and

20th centuries. Therefore, much of their current harvest is strictly controlled and several

public and private groups monitor the results.

These groups’ data on legitimate and blackmarket trade provide an estimate of overall use

of the animals. The craft use of such materials alone cannot be separated but is probably

substantial and unique to each species. Sale of

many of these items is prohibited; therefore,

estimates of illegal trafficking, which are often

crude, provide one way of measuring the magnitude of trade.

Illegal trafficking is known to be extensive.

Approximately 10,000 lb of walrus ivory were

seized in one Alaskan raid, part of a trade

worth several million dolIars (U.S. Department

of the Interior, 1981). There are 3,OOO to 4,OOO

narwhale tusks thought to be in storage; 8,000

sperm whale teeth were confiscated in 1974-

75 (McIntyre, 1983); and an estimated 6,000

walrus tusks are illegally traded.

Sea turtles were once a major food in coastal

Georgia and South Carolina (McIntyre, 1983).

The mainland United States never had sea turtle crafts, but they existed in Puerto Rico, the

Virgin Islands, and the Trust Territory of the

Pacific Islands (Dodd, 1983). The Convention

on International Trade in Endangered Species

(CITES), which restricts trade in sea turtles, has

effectively reduced commercial trade. The

United States does not now trade in these products, but other countries do. Japan, which appears to be the major importer, imported about

75,OOO kg of leather, skins, and tortoiseshell in

1981. The proportion of the local and international trade that is craft-related is unknown.

Status of the Resource—All species of marine mammals are protected under the Marine

Mammal Protection Act and some are also protected by the Endangered Species Act and

CITES. “Taking, “ importing, exporting, possessing, and seIIing protected animals are generally prohibited. Exceptions may be made for

specimens obtained before regulation in 1972

and for educational/scientific uses. Alaskan

Natives are qualified for another important exception. They may take marine mammals for

subsistence or for the production of handicrafts. Authentic native articles generally may

be sold in interstate commerce (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 1982, August 1982).

Controversy exists regarding the effect of the

Native American marine mammal harvests.

Some experts feel that it is large enough to

threaten marine mammal populations and that

it tends to be abused. Others feel that marine

mammals can be sustainably harvested if present guidelines are followed. Still others feel that

the continued use of marine mammals can be

13

An Inventory of Craft Resources ● 1 5

justified on cultural grounds even if animal

populations do suffer. The situation is further

complicated because marine mammal populations are shared by many nations. Some countries do not control marine mammal harvests;

other nations—e.g., Canada—regulate subsistence harvest and export quite differently than

does the United States; and the international

harvest quotas are subject to political pressure

(McIntyre, 1983).

Craft use of marine mammal ivory did not

cause the original decline in these species,

although it may slow their current recovery.

Crafts that used elephant ivory probably did

contribute to the endangerment of that animal

(paradise, 1983). Poaching continues to be a

problem because of the high prices that ivory

brings. The price of sperm whale teeth, for examp]e, increased from $20 to almost $1,000 per

tooth when it became known as an endangered

species (McIntyre, 1983).

The status of the seven species of sea turtles

is so precarious that all are given maximum

protection by CITES. Substantial trade continues, though, and many feel that it threatens the

survival of these animals. As a result, the World

Conference on Sea Turtle Conservation recommended that:

“The trade in tortoise shell should cease in

those countries where it has no special traditional cultural significance. Those countries

where tortoise shell has a cultural value (e.g.,

in marriage ceremonies) should be encouraged

to preserve and recycle antique supplies, to

promote the use of synthetic substances, and

with all dispatch to phase out the importation

of new material. ” (Mack, 1983, p. 11).

Effects on Crafts—Problems in obtaining

marine mammal products for crafts became

chronic, especially for Native Americans in

Alaska, with tight regulation (Camp, 1983).

Acrimonious debates among craftworkers,

hunters, conservationists, and regulators

sometimes occur when quotas for subsistence

harvest are set. Legislation provides for only

Native American craft use of new ivory supplies. Therefore, controversy also arises when

other craftworkers are not allowed access to

material.

Some craftworkers prefer to avoid any possibility of using illegal materials. They obtain

what is known as “pre-act” (Endangered Species Act and Marine Mammal Protection Act)

ivory from suppliers, Questions about the age

of this ivory persist, and much may not be qualified for legal trade. The technology for dating

material, whiIe developing rapidly, does not yet

allow fine distinctions to be made (McIntyre,

1983). Other craftspeople have converted to

using caribou bone, especially for sales outside

of Alaska (Hueber, 1983).

Considerable amounts of seized ivory remain

in storage, and some advocate releasing it to

craftworkers. Others fear that this will provide

an incentive for continued illegal taking.

Tortoiseshell has been prized for centuries

and it has important traditional cultural uses

in some communities (Mack, 1983). U.S. tortoiseshell crafts in Puerto Rico probably have

declined with the virtual elimination of trade,

but this is undocumented. Some countries propose either breeding sea turtles in captivity or

ranching wild populations under the provisions of CITES that encourage developing alternative supplies. These operations, if successful, may provide new sources of craft

material.

plastics can mimic sperm whale, walrus and

elephant ivory, and tortoiseshell. They are indistinguishable from real ivory without destructive tests or expensive X-ray analysis. This

is new technology, and its impacts on craft uses

are likely to be substantial. On the one hand,

crafts are continuing that would otherwise

have declined along with diminishing resources. On the other hand, some jewelry-makers suffered when plastic turquoise became

readily available. Many retailers stopped carrying turquoise rather than risk selling imitation jewelry (Halkett, 1983). A similar situation

may arise with other plastic substitutes.

Feathers

Feathers have been used extensively in crafts.

They were the main supply for Hawaiian feathercapes and feathergods (Belshe, 1983). They

are still used in fly tying (Hornblower, 1983)

34-177 0 - 84 - 4
16 ● Technology, Renewab/e Resources, and American Crafts: Background paper
An Inventory of Craft Resources ● 1 7

and many Native American crafts such as

headdresses, clubs, kachina dolls, and fans

(Stuart, 1981).

Supplies of many species are severely curtailed, forcing craftworkers to use substitutes.

Estimates of the total use of feathers in crafts

do not exist. A fraction of the use can be identified by legal and illegal demand for eagle

feathers.

Bald and golden eagles are protected under

the Bald Eagle Protection Act, The Migratory

Bird Treaty Act protects all wild birds except:

1) resident game birds such as pheasant and

grouse, 2) starlings, 3) feral pigeons, and 4) English sparrows (U.S. Department of the Interior,

undated). The Endangered Species Act also

protects a large number of birds (U.S. Department of the Interior, May 1982).

Native Americans may use special provisions

of these acts to obtain parts of eagles for religious ceremonies. Therefore, facilities for

storing contraband and accidentally killed

eagles were established in Idaho for handling

this distribution. A long waiting list exists for

these birds (Frederick, 1983).

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has intensified its investigation into trafficking in eagles

and other migratory birds and has developed

the forensic skill to identify most bird parts to

species. Based on its information, a substantial number of birds are being used illegally for

crafts. Officials have estimated that illegal trade

in bird feathers approaches at least $1 million

annually, about one-tenth of the total trade in

illegal wildlife (The Farmington (N. M.) Daily

Times, 1981). For example, enforcement agents

in 1981 seized feathers and craft items worth

almost $500,000 from 35 individuals in New

Mexico and Oklahoma and more than 30 businesses in Arizona. This raid included at least

4,OOO scissor-tailed flycatchers, 155 eagles, and

hundreds of woodpeckers, hawks, owls, and

other protected birds (Stuart, 1981). A 1983 raid

resulted in arrest warrants in eight States for

about 50 people accused of trafficking in eagle

and other bird parts. Officials estimated from

this evidence that about 100 eagles are killed

annually for the black-market trade in Native

American artifacts (Shabecoff, 1983).

Status of the Resource—The pressure on

bird populations from these activities is significant. Parts of Oklahoma that once supported

hundreds of scissor-tailed flycatchers per acre

now have only a few (Stuart, 1981). About 1,200

nesting pairs of eagles exist in the contiguous

United States, but the population rises to more

than 10,000 birds during the winter migration

from Alaska and Canada. Experts feel that harvests of hundreds of birds are cause for concern under these conditions.

Though feather crafts alone are not thought

to have caused the large-scale extinctions of

tropical Hawaiian birds in the 1800’s, they may

have been one factor. The introduction of cats

and poultry diseases probably contributed

more to the decimation of Hawaiian bird populations (Fosberg, 1983).

Effects on Crafts—Some feather crafts are

relegated to history because of the restrictions

on obtaining, possessing, and selling feathers.

Items such as feathercapes, which required

feathers from thousands of tropical birds, probably will not be made again. Controversy exists over displaying these items and whether

rare birds may still be jeopardized by exhibition (Shetler, 1983).

Some people who worked with feathers used

ones that are now controlled. Some have substituted new supplies for illegal ones. Kachina

dolls, for example, continue to be made and

sold but without eagle feathers. Concern exists

that substitutions threaten important traditional aspects of the craft (Camp, 1983). But the

role of change in traditional crafts has always

been subject to lively debate (Ahlborn, 1983),

and there is no consensus on whether crafts

are permanently damaged by involuntary substitutions.

Fibers and Dyes

A wide variety of plants is used for basketry,

fish traps, and dying. Usually these plants are

collected from wild populations. A few, such
18 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

as pandanus and coconut, are propagated and

grown in the Pacific islands to provide ready

craft supplies (Fosberg, 1983). Some of these

plants occur throughout the United States.

Others, such as devil’s claw, grow in much

smaller geographic areas and are vital to

unique local crafts. A few of the common natural dyes are imported. Indigo, madder, and

fustic are among these. (See app. B for scientific names.)

Status of the Resource—Wild plants generally do not seem to be threatened by craft use

(Duke, 1983; Soderstrom, 1983). Usually such

large amounts are required that only “weedy”

plants are used (Hueber, 1983). There are exceptions, however. Appendix B lists almost 600

basketry and dye plants, of which 89 are rare

enough to be of concern to conservationists

(The Nature Conservancy, unpublished information). Some plants, such as bloodroot, have

been widely used in traditional crafts and now

are rare enough to be protected by State regulation (Eshbaugh, 1983).

Lichens have been important sources of natural dyes; they provided both the unique colors

and fragrances of Harris tweeds. They are

more vulnerable to overcollection than most

plants because they grow so slowly. Unscrupulous collecting may threaten local lichen colonies (Hueber, 1983). Like other resources,

lichens are threatened more directly by effects

of industrial technology: they are among plants

most sensitive to air pollution.

Misidentification may pose a problem for the

sustainable use of plants in crafts. Certain

members of large plant groups such as willows

and birches, for example, are uncommon. One

variety of sweet birch is on the U.S. endangered or threatened species list (U.S. Department of the Interior, January 1982). Almost

one-fourth of the plants in appendix B have

close relatives that are either listed or under

review for listing as threatened or endangered.

Therefore, craftworkers who are not certain

about correct identification of their material

may collect rare plants along with more common ones.

Effects on Crafts—Craftworkers face few

legal restrictions in obtaining plants. They may

face limitations imposed by other factors. The

loss of wetlands eliminates some basketry

plants (LaRiche, 1983). So much indigo is required for denim that craftworkers have been

essentially excluded from the market (Hueber,

1983).

Dying with plants has decreased dramatically with the availability of commercial dyes.

Naturally dyed items generally still command

higher prices, as much as 80 percent higher for

Navaho rugs (Eshbaugh, 1983). Concern exists,

however, that the dyer’s botanical knowledge

is slipping away (Eshbaugh, 1983; Hueber,

1983). Protection of information maybe just as

important as protection of the resource in this

case.

Wood and Tree Fern Trunks

Native and imported woods supply builders

and makers of musical instruments, boats, and

furniture. Some records exist of U.S. forest resources, but they do not provide a good indication of the amount of wood used in crafts. The

U.S. Forest Service, for example, maintains

records of forest stock and annual timber harvests on Federal lands. Only certain important

woodworking trees are included in their figures. Some, such as black walnut, are specifically excluded because of their rarity. For

these reasons, only local, comprehensive State,

or private woodlot records are likely to show

changes in craft wood availability and use.

Such records have not been compiled yet, and

their synthesis would be a formidable task.

Status of the Resource—Little concern exists that commercially important continental

American trees are endangered, although there

are a few exceptions. In some cases, the specialty woods used by craftworkers are being

lost as native forests are replaced by pine plantations (McMahan, 1983). Tree ferns are among

the few rare plants in international trade that

are included under CITES (McBride, 1983).

Their trunks are used in the commercial green-
house industry and a smaller number are used

in crafts. In 1982, 2,770 bags of fiber and 40

cubic meters of other material were imported

from Guatemala, and 6,000 kg of pieces of

“wood” came from New Zealand. These imports probably are a fraction of the total volume (McMahan, 1983).

Commercial use of tree ferns is too recent to

have depleted their populations. Much of the

material comes from forests already destroyed;

in other cases, people are selectively removing

the tree ferns. It should be noted, however, that

the commercial greenhouse market for tree

ferns developed largeIy due to the increasing

scarcity of Osmunda ferns that were overharvested for the same use. Many tropical forests are being rapidly destroyed (Office of

Technology Assessment, 1984) and tree ferns

are among the potential victims.

Effects on Crafts—Craftworkers are noticing the depletion of local woodworking supplies., This may indicate the beginning of new

problems. Makers of kachina dolls, for example, are forced to travel longer distances to find

suitable cottonwood (Eshbaugh, 1983). A 50-

year-old splint basketmaker has seen a decrease

in the local availability of different oaks (Camp,

1983).

Woodworkers, more than other craftspeople,

are concerned about the availability of good

supplies and rising prices when they are available (Nickerson, undated). These concerns cannot be documented with readily accessible
20 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

data. Concern seems warranted, however,

based on cases where wood availability

changed sharply and craft traditions and local

economies suffered substantially. This happened on a regional scale in the 1920’s when

the chestnut blight destroyed much of the economy of the Shenandoah Mountains (Reeder,

1978).

Woodworkers are also concerned about

wood quality, a trait more difficult to document. Some boatbuilders note the declining

quality of marine plywood (Phillips, 1983).

Others have turned to curing their own wood,

since commercial curing may not produce suitable wood for boatbuilding or making fine

musical instruments. In other cases, lumber

may be cut too short for some craftworkers, in

effect making it unavailable.

Shells and Coral

Shells and skeletons of marine, freshwater,

and terrestrial invertebrates are used in large

amounts in crafts. Many are used whole as ornamentals; others are ground into a variety of

products including pottery glazes. There are

about 5,OOO kinds of shells that are large

enough for sale. Few of these now come from

U.S. waters, but this may change as international trade is more strictly regulated by

CITES.

The vast majority of shell imports enters the

United States through Florida, California, New

York, and Oregon. The United States is one of

the largest importers of ornamental shells, and

imports have escalated in the last few years.

About 4 million kg of shells and 500,000 kg of

coral are imported annually, worth about $11

million. These amounts comprise only a small

percentage of the world shell population. The

major use of shellfish, but not of coral, is for

food, and harvest for ornamental shells represents a fraction of the food catch (Abbott, 1980;

Wells, 1981).

Status of the Resource–Industrial technology threatens some of these invertebrates.

Some coral reefs are dynamited for fishing and

for construction material (Wells, 1981). The

continuing destruction of tropical forests has

caused the extinction of a number of tree snails

in Hawaii and Asia. Spills of toxic materials

similarly have eliminated freshwater shells in

certain places in the United States and elsewhere. Such destruction of habitat can eliminate populations that cannot be depleted by intensive collecting.

Marine biologists generally agree that the

craft and souvenir trade does not pose a similar

threat (Abbott, 1980), but increasingly tighter

regulation reflects continuing concern. Therefore, conservationists urge caution in exploiting shells and coral. It is particularly appropriate in harvesting coral. Both white and black

coral populations are thought to be threatened,

but pink, or precious, corals probably are not.

Coral grows very slowly; collecting could destroy reefs weakened by dredging, pollution,

and siltation. Deep sea fishing technology is

developing rapidly and greater accessibility

makes overcollection more probable. Sustainable management of shell populations remains

an elusive goal (Wells, 1981), especially in

tropical waters where fishing for craft purposes is prominent.

Effects on Crafts—Shell collecting is regulated in some places, such as Florida, to protect shells that were previously overcollected.

Few countries provide similar protection for

purely ornamental species, although most control harvest of edible mollusks (Wells, 1981).

Some expect that shell regulation will increase

as more countries become parties to CITES and

additional species are added to its appended

lists of controlled species, Two species of giant

clams, for example, recently have been added

to Appendix 2 of CITES, since craft and decorative uses of their shells have been increasing (McIntyre, 1983). No evidence exists on

how these changes are affecting craftspeople.

The situation is analogous to marine mammal

regulation in some ways; so the future may see

similar substitutions, illegal trade, and confusion. Some crafts may face economic endangerment if retailers fear selling illegal products.
An Inventory of Craft Resources Ž 21

Hides

The United States produces large numbers

of cow, calf, goat, and sheep hides from the

livestock industry, Smaller numbers of alligator, snake, frog, lizard, and turtle skins also

are used to produce leather. Louisiana has a

legal alligator hunting season and about 16,000

to 20,000 alligators are killed annually (Cook,

1980). Few hides are processed in the United

States; most are shipped to Europe or Japan for

curing and, often, finishing. In 1980, almost 24

million animal hides and skins were exported

(U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1981). The

proportion of these hides used in crafts is not

known.

Status of the Resource—Alligators are protected by the Endangered Species Act in several States, and the Lacey Act precludes the

transportation of illegally taken specimens in

interstate or foreign commerce, Poaching remains a problem, but officials feel that current

regulations are effectively protecting alligators

(Cook, 1980), Too little is known about leather

from snakes, frogs, and lizards to evaluate their

status.

Effects on Crafts—Most U.S. leatherworkers

turn to jobbers for their supplies, with varying

results, Some face problems obtaining highquality hides. Others find that the diversity of

leather curing processes used, especially in

Europe, makes available to them a very broad

range of products,

Hide supplies can be unstable. Alligators in

the Southeast have been overhunted, then

strictly protected, then hunted again in the last

decades. Management of most natural populations must be this dynamic, but craftwork is

difficult when supplies cannot be ensured, One

goal of CITES is development of alternative

supplies. Plans for alligator and sea turtle

ranches or breeding programs may stabilize

supplies.

Leatherworkers are vulnerable to large price

fluctuations; prices have as much as tripled in

one year (Ahlborn, 1983). This is due to

changes in the international hide market, The

United States imports a large number of hides

—at least 10 million in 1980 (U.S. Department

of Agriculture, 1981). Officials would like to encourage more American leatherwork to avoid

the high “value added” that these hides often

include,
SuMMARY

Technology rapidly is changing some aspects

of the craft process. Only some craftworkers

want or are able to take advantage of these

changes. This is cause for concern, since the

traditional crafts usually are more negatively

affected by technological change.

Natural resource supplies for crafts vary

greatly in their availability, quality, and sustainability. Many craftworkers face problems

in obtaining enough high-quality raw materials at affordable prices, These problems are

likely to increase. The reliability of such an .

assessment is decreased, however, by the lack

of information on U.S. and worldwide use of

renewable resources, An inventory of the kinds

and amounts of organisms used in crafts is

urgently needed. Resources in developing

countries need priority appraisal, since they

are being depleted more quickly.

The Federal Government plays an important

role in supporting American crafts, protecting

renewable resources, and developing technology. The connections among these activities have not been made explicit, however, and

ineffective policies sometimes result, The intentional and the inadvertent results of activities in these three arenas have been examined

in only a general way. A more rigorous examination is needed,

23

34 - - 177 0 - 84 - 5
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Appendixes
Appendix A

Summary of the Technology,

Renewable Resources, and

American Crafts OTA Workshop,

July 12, 1983

American crafts play important economic and

cultural roles. The economic impact is difficult to

document, but several hundred thousand people

are directly involved, and retail sales are known to

total about $10 million in each of several States. For

some people, including isolated elderly workers,

the unemployed, and the underemployed, craftwork provides an irreplaceable source of income.

For others, it is more important culturally than

economically. Crafts symbolize important community values, distinguish among traditions, and initiate newcomers into a common heritage.

Many crafts—for example, scrimshaw, woodworking, basketry, and leatherworking—use

renewable natural resources for raw materials. The

total amount of materials used or needed largely

is unknown, but some craftworkers increasingly express concern about decreasing material availability, A variety of factors affect availability: legal

restrictions, changing technology, destruction of

wild plant and animal habitat, and demand for

other products.

Technology’s role usually has not been analyzed,

but in some cases it is significant, Small-scale

buyers, such as craftspeople, may be unable to influence technology when changes are geared to major buyers, such as new lumber processing for the

construction industry. These technological changes

may be beneficial or detrimental to craftspeople.

In either case, craftworkers such as makers of

musical instruments and boatbuilders must choose

to substitute new materials, adapt to new technology, or stop practicing their craft. Technology

has also been important in protecting natural

populations. Synthetic materials are replacing ivory

in some crafts; improved marking systems allow

legitimate sources of ivory to be used; and international management systems have been developed

to limit illegal traffic.

Legislative remedies have been applied to problems such as these. Demand for items such as ivory,

feathers, and coral is high enough to create a black

market and deplete natural populations. Illegal traffic in animal products may reach $2o million annually. The popularity of American crafts has other

negative aspects: craft income may be intentionally

underreported, design theft may take place, and inexpensive foreign reproductions may be massproduced and marketed.

A large number of areas remain for clarification

and analysis and many have relevance to public policies. These include:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

health hazards of craft materials;

industrial/craft cooperation;

potential for craft cooperatives in economic development;

review of legislation;

renewable resource needs of craftworkers;

technologies to protect craft designs;

future of technology in crafts; and

impacts of crafts in America.

31
Appendix B

Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts

These trees, shrubs, and other plants are used in crafts according to published sources. No effort has

been made to identify or eliminate scientific synonyms or to locate all sources. (Source numbers are keyed

to attached bibliography.)

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Abronia spp.

Wild-four o’clock

Abutilon hybridum

Red flowering maple

Acacia baileyana

Acacia

A. catechu

Cutch

Acacia spp.

Acacia

Acer macrophyllum

Big-leaf maple

A. palmatum

Japanese maple

A. platanoides

Norway maple

A. rubrum

Red maple

Acer spp.

Maple

Achillea lanulosa

Yarrow

A. millefolium

Yarrow

Actinea gaillardia

Single-flowered actinea

A. leptoclada

Several-flowered actinea

Adiantum pedatum

Maidenhair fern

Adiantum spp.

Maidenhair fern

Agave desertii

Desert agave

A. ixtli

Sisal hemp, henequen

Aesculus spp.

Buckeye

Agaricus silvaticus

Mushroom

Agrimonia eupatoria

Agrimony

A. odorata

Fragrant agrimony

Agyrophora lyngei

Lichen

Alectoria ochrileuca

Greenbeard lichen

plants brown/yellow dyes

petals blue dye

pods, bark dye

wood, pods brown dye

flowers, stems yellow dye

stem, wood, bark basket warp, woof, wrap

leaves

wood

—

plants

flowers

leaves

plant

stems

stems

stems

leaves

—

—

—

plants

plants

—

blue dye

brown dye

gray/green dyes

colonial dye

yellow/brown/green

yellow/green dyes

Navajo yellow dye

Navajo yellow dye

Yurok basket weft

Calif. Indian basket

Calif, Indian basket

Calif. Indian baskets

ropes

basketry

dye

yellow dye

yellow dye

dye

dye

dyes

design

design

1

4

6

6, 13

4

9

8

13

8

6

1

4

14

14

10

9

9

9

5

5

12

13

13

8

8

33
34 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

A. sarmentosa

Lichen

Allium cepa

Onion

Allium spp.

Yellow onion

Red onion

Alnus glutinosa

Black alder

A. incana var. virescens

Black alder

A. oregana

Red alder

A. rhombifolia

White alder

A. rubra

Red alder

A. tenuifolia

Alder

Mountain alder

Alnus spp.

Alder

Althea rosea

Hollyhock

Amanita muscaria

Amaranths retroflexus

Redroot pigweed

Amaranths spp.

Pigweed

Ambrosia tomentosa

Povertyweed

A. trifida

Giant ragweed

Ambrosia spp.

Ragweed

Anaphalis margaritacea

Pearly everlasting

Anchusa tinctoria

Alkanet

Andropogon virginicus

Broom sedge

Anemone spp.

Blue anemone

Anthemis cotula

Fetid chamomile, stinkweed

A. nobilis

Chamomile

A. tinctoria

Golden Marguerite

Anthemis spp.

Antirrhinum majus

Snapdragon

Arbutus menziesii

Madrone

Arceuthobium spp.

Mistletoe

—

skins

—

skins

skins

bark

bark

roots

bark

bark

root

bark

twigs, leaves, fruit

—

—

petals

—

plants

plants

plants

—

plants

—

roots

—

flowers

—

flowers

—

—

flowers

bark

plants

green-yellow dye

yellow dye

yellow dye

yellow/orange dyes

dye

black and dark dyes

Navajo red dye

Yurok basket weft

Yurok basket weft dye

Calif. Indian baskets

Calif. Indian baskets

Navajo brown dye

brown/yellow/green dyes

dye

Shasta brown dye

European black and dark dye

Indian dye

purple/black/brown dyes

dye

yellow/grey dyes

green dye

green dye

brown/yellow/green

yellow/green dyes

yellow dye

red dye

dye

yellow dye

blue/green dye

gold dye

yellow dye

yellow dye

dye

green/gold dyes

brown dye

yellow/brown dyes

dyes

6

13

6

4

4

6, 13

11

10

10

9

9

14

1

8

5

6

7

4, 6, 8

12

1

4

1

1

1, 8

4

6, 13

6

8, 13

4

4

4, 6

6

8

4

4

1
App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Listed in Crafts ● 3 5

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Arctium minus

Burdock

Arctostaphylos alpina

A. uva-ursi

Kinnikinnick

Arctostaphylos spp.

Manzanita

Arctotis spp.

African daisy

Areca catechu

Cutch

Argemone polyanthemos

Prickle poppy

Artemisia frigida

Sage

A. ludoviciana

Wormwood

A. tilesia

Wormwood

A. tridentata

Basin sagebrush

Arundinaria macrosperma

Cane

Asclepias speciosa

Showy milkweed

A. tuberosa

Butterfly weed

Asparagus officinalis

Asparagus

Asperula odorata

Sweet woodruff

Aster porteri

White aster

Aster spp.

Purple aster

Astragalus alpinus

A triplex canescens

Saltbush

Baphia nitida

Barwood

Baptisia tinctoria

Wild indigo

Berberis aquifolium

Oregon grape

B. fremontii

Barberry

B. nervosa

Oregon grape

B. vu]garis

American barberry

Berberis spp.

Barberry

Betula glandulosa

Ground birch

B. lenta

Sweet birch

plants yellow/brown/green dyes

— dye

plants yellow/green/brown dyes

plants dye

leaves, wood brown dye

Calif. Indian black dve. awl

1

8

1

8

4

9

4

6

1

1

9

8

1, 14

6

4

1

6

1

4

1

1

8

14

7

6

14

9

7

9

6, 13

4

8

6

.

flowers

wood, pods

green dye

brown dye

plants green dye

yellow/green dyes

Calif. Indian baskets

leaves

stems

— dye

leaves, twigs Navajo yellow/green dyes

iyes

dyes

dye

lye

— dye

green dye

yellow/brown/green

yellow-brown dye

plants

plants

—

plants yellow/green dyes

plants green/brown dyes

plants

plants

yellow dye

yellow/green/orange

dye

Navajo yellow dye

—

plants

wood commercial red dye

leaves dye

Navajo yellow dye

Calif. Indian basket

purple Indian dye

root

—

berries

bark

d

Calif. Indian basket d

yellow/brown dyes

leaves, stems green/brown dyes

dye

brown/black dyes
36 . Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/

common name plant part(s) used Craft use Source

B. lutea

Yellow birch

B. papyrifera

Paper birch

B. pendula (B. populifolia ?)

Silver Birch

Betula spp.

Bixa orellana

Annato

Boletus edulis

King boletus

B, eastwoodii

B. elegans

Brassica oleracea var. capitata

Purple cabbage

Brickellia grandiflora

Tassel-flower

Brome]ia sylvestris

Silkgrass, pita

Bryum cryophilum

Moss

Buddlejia davidii

Butterfly bush

Bulgaria inquinans

Cactaceae

Caesalpinia echinata

Brazilwood

Calamus spp.

East Indian rattan

Calceolaria angustifolia

Yellow lady’s purse

Callistemon spp.

Bottle-brush

Callistephus chinensis

China aster

Caltha palustris

Marsh marigold

Calluna vulgaris

Heather

Calluna spp.

Heather

Calycanthus occidentals

Spice-bush

Camellia japonica

Camellia

Camellia spp.

Camellia

Campanula medium

Canterbury bells

C. rapunculoides

Creeping harebell

Cantharellus (?) clavatus

Pig ears

Canthareulus (?) cibarius

C. infundiduliformis

—

—

bark, leaves

—

seeds

—

—

leaves

stems

flowers/leaves/stems

—

—

wood

—

flowers

flowers, leaves

—

petals

leaves, stems

flowers, stems, bark

leaves

flowers

flowers

plants

—

—

brown/black dyes

brown/black dyes

dye

yellow dye

colonial dye

yellow/orange dyes

dye

dye

dye

blue dye

yellow/brown dyes

basketry

dye

green/brown dyes

dye

Papago rope, carved dolls,

Indian basketry awls

red dye

basketry

yellow/orange dyes

brown dye

dye

yellow dye

dye

dye

brown dye

Calif. Indian baskets

dye

dye

gray dye

green/blue dyes

brown dye

dye

dye

dye

6

6

8

13

6

7

12

12

12

4

1

5

8

4

12

3

3, 10

4

5

4

4

6

6

8

6

4

9

8

6

4

4

1

12

12

12
App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts • 37

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Cardamine pratensis var. angustifolia

Bittercress

Carduus nutans

Musk thistle

Cartharnus tinctorius

Safflower

Carex barbarae

Slough grass

C. mendocinoensis

Sedge

Carex spp.

Sedge

Carya tomentosa

Mockernut

Carya illinoensis

Pecan

Cassiope tetragona

Arctic white heather

Castanea dentata

Chestnut

Castilleja integra

Indian paintbrush

C. miniata

Indian paintbrush

Ceanothus americanus

New Jersey tea

C. integerrimus

Deer brush

Ceanothus spp.

California lilac

Centaurea cyanus

Cornflower

C. repens

Knapweed

Cercis occidentals

Redbud

Cercocarpus betulifolius

Mountain mahogany

C. breviflorus var eximius

Mountain mahogany

C. montanus

Mountain mahogany

C. parviflorus

Mountain mahogany

Ceropteris triangularis

Goldenback fern

Cetraria cucullata

Caribou lichen

C. glauca

Lichen

C. nivilis

Caribou lichen

C. tilesii

Yellow lichen

—

flowers

flowers

root, bark

root

plants

bark

bark

—

—

flowers, plants, roots

plants

roots, leaves

stems

flowers

petals

plants

bark

root

—

root, bark

stems

—

dye

brown/yellow/green dyes

red/yellow dyes

Porno basket weft

Calif. Indian basket woof

Porno baskets

Calif. Indian basket wrapping

green/brown/yellow dyes

yellow/brown dye

yellow/brown dye

dye

dye

Navajo tan/yellow dyes

yellow/green dyes

dye

Calif. Indian basket

foundation, warp

green dye

blue dye

yellow dye

Porno basket weft

waterproof baskets

Calif. Indian basket warp

woof, wrap, foundation

Navaho basket weft, dye

dye

Navaho brown dye

brown dye

Indian dye

Navajo brown dye

Calif. Indian basket design

dye

yellow dye

dye

dye

8

1

7, 13

10

9

5

9

1

6, 13

6

8

8

7, 14

1

6

9

4

6

1

10

5

9

10

2

14

1

7

11

9

8

6

8

8
38 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/

common name Plant Part(s) used Craft use Source

Chenopodium spp.

Green goosefoot

White goosefoot

Chlorogalum pomeridianum

Soaproot

Chlorophora tinctoria

see Morus tinctoria

Chondrus crispus

Irish moss

Chrysanthemum frutescent

Paris daisy

C. integrifolium

Chrysanthemum

Chrysanthemum spp.

Chrysanthemum

Chrysopsis villosa

Golden wooly aster

Chrysosplenium alternifolium

var. tetrandrum

Golden saxifrage

Chrysothamnus bigelovii

Small rabbitbrush

C. latisquameus

Big rabbitbrush

Chrysothamnus spp.

Rabbitbrush

Cichorium intybus

Chicory

Cinna macroura

(Epicampes rigens californica?)

Cirriphyllum cirrosum

Cirsium arvense

Canadian thistle

Cladium mariscus (Carex spp. ?)

Cladium

Cladonia impexa

Lichen

Clarkia spp.

Goditia

Clavaria (Clauria ?) aurea

Clematis ligusticifolia

White clematis

Cleome serrulata

Rocky mountain bee plant

Clutia tranvancorica

Coralline

Convallaria arvensis

Lily-of-the-valley

C. majalis

Lily-of-the-valley

Convolvulus arvensis

Bindweed

Conyza canadensis

Horsetail

Coprinus comatus

Shaggy mane

Coreopsis auriculata

Coreopsis

plants

plants

plants

juice

flowers

leaves, flowers

plants

—

—

flowers, twigs

flowers

plants

stems

—

plants

roots

flowers

—

plants

wood

leaves

—

plants

stems, leaves

—

—

green dye

green dye

yellow dye

Calif. Indian baskets

dye

gold/green dyes

dye

dye

yellow dye

dye

Navajo yellow dye

Navajo yellow dye

dye

orange dye

yellow/green dyes

yellow dye

Calif. Indian basket

dye

brown dye

Calif. Indian basket

pink dye

gold/gray dyes

dye

yellow/brown/green

Navajo yellow dye

orange/brown dyes

green dye

yellow dye

dye

gold/green dyes

green/yellow dyes

dye

orange dye

foundation

wrap

dyes

4

1

1

9

8

4

8

4, 6

1

8

14

14

2

4

1, 7

1

9

8

1

9

13

4

12

1

1, 14

4

4

13

8

1

1

12

4
App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 3 9

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

C. calliopsidea

Coreopsis

C. cardaminifolia

— orange dye 4

7

4

6, 8

13

4

8

6

8

1

4

4

12

10

9

6

11

14

4

6

4

1

13

13

7

1, 4

6

8

13

8

4

6, 8, 13

4

flowers red Indian dye

Coreopsis

C. gigantea

Coreopsis

C. tinctoria (C.

Calliopsis

Coreopsis spp.

Coreopsis

— orange dye

flowers

—

flowers, seeds

dye

yellow dye

orange/brown dyes

marmorata)

Cornicularia divergens

Blackboard lichen

Corn us florida

Flowering dogwood

Coronilla varia

Crownvetch

Cotoneaster spp.

Cotoneaster

Cotula coronopifolia

Brass-buttons

Cortinarius spp.

Corylus californica

Hazelnut

C. rostrata californica

Hazel

Cotinus coggygria

Smoke tree

Cowania mexicana

Cliffrose

C. stansburiana

Cliff rose

Crataegus spp.

Hawthorn

Crocus sativus

Saffron

C. vernus

Purple crocus

Cryptantha virgata

Miner’s candle

Cupressus lawsoniana

(Chamaecyparis lawsonia)

Cypress

Curcuma longa

Turmeric powder

Curcuma spp.

Turmeric

Cuscuta spp.

Dodder

Cytisus scoparius

Scotch broom

Cytisus spp.

Dactylina ramulosa

Lichen

Dahlia pinnatua

Yellow dahlia

Dahlia spp.

Dahlia

— dye

bark, root

—

plants

red/violet dyes

dye

brown/yellow dyes

berries tan dye

gold dye

dye

Yurok basket warp

—

—

Calif. Indian basket

woof, foundation

yellow-orange dye

stems warp,

root, stems

leaves, stems Navajo brown dye

twigs, leaves Navajo gold dye

flowers green/brown dyes

flowers yellow dye

flowers blue/green dyes

plants green dye

cones brown dye

— yellow dye

roots

plants

—

Asian yellow dye

yellow dye

yellow dye

dye

yellow dye

dye

—

—

flowers

flowers

yellow/brown dyes

dye

orange dye
40 . Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used –

Dalea emoryi stems

(Parosela emery?)

Daucus carota —

Queen Anne’s lace

Delphinium ajacis —

Larkspur

D, consolida —

D. scaposum petals, stems, leaves

Wild purple larkspur

Delphinium spp. flowers

Descurainia sophides —

Tansy mustard

Dicranum elongatum —

Lamp moss

Digitalis purpurea flowers

Purple foxglove

Dipsacus sylvestris plants

Teasel

Dondia suffrutescens stems

(Sueda suffrutescens?)

Sea-blight

Draba glabella flowers

Mustard

Dryas integrifolia flowers

Mountain aven

Craft use

Calif. Indian basket

yellow dye

dye

Source

9

6, 8

blue dye 6

dye

Navajo gray/yellow dyes

a

11,14

Indian blue dye

dye

7

8

dye 8

green dye 4

green/yellow dyes 1

Calif. Indian basket dye 9

dye

dye

8

8

Echinocactus polycephalus

Devil’s pincushion

Echinochloa crusgalli

Watergrass

Empetrum nigrum

Crowberry

Enteromorpha spp.

Sea grass

Ephedra viridis

Mormon tea

Epicampes rigens

California grass

Epilobium angustifolium

Fireweed

E. /atifolium

Broad-leaved willow

Epiphyllum spp.

Red-flowered orchid cactus

Equisetum arvense

Scouring rush

Equisetum spp.

Horsetail

Erica spp.

Heather

Erigeron speciosus

Showy daisy

Eriogonum umbellaturn

Sulfur flower

Eriophyllum staechadifolium

Seaside woolyaster

spines

plants

berries

—

Panamint basketry needles

Calif. Indian basket awls

brown/green dye

5

9

1

dye 8

dye 8

twigs, leaves

stems

plants

Navajo tan dye

gray/brown dyes

Calif. Indian basket foundation

14

1

9

yellow/green/brown dyes 1

dye 8

— red dye 4

stems

shoots

shoots

plants

stems, flowers

flowers

yellow dye 1

dye

green dye

yellow dye

dye

green/yellow dyes

6, 8

13

13

8

1

gold dye 1

gold/brown dyes 4
App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 4 1

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Erodium spp.

Filaree

Eschscholtzia spp.

California poppy

Eucalyptus coccifera

Tasmanian snow-gum

E. globulus

Blue-gum

E. leucoxylon

White-iron bark eucalyptus

E. polyanthemos

Silver dollar

Eucalyptus spp.

Euphorbia esula

Leafy spurge

E. marginata

Snow-on-the-mountain

E. pulcherrima

Poinsettia

Evernia prunastri

Staghorn lichen

E. vulpina

Wolf moss

Fagus sylvatica

Beech

Festuca baffinensis

Grass

Filipendula ulmaria

Meadowsweet

Foeniculum vulgare

Fennel

Forestiera neomexicana

Ironwood

Fraxinus americana

Ash

Fucus Spp.

Rockweed

Gaillardia aristata

Gaillardia

Galium boreale

Lady’s bedstraw

Galium spp.

Bedstraw

Garrya elliptica

Silk-tassel shrub

Gaultheria shallon

Salal

Gaylussacia baccata

Black huckleberry

Genista tinctoria

Dyer’s broom

Geranium robertianum

Wild geranium

G. tiscosissimum

Sticky geranium

Gnaphalium spp.

Cudweed

plants

—

leaves

bark, leaves, shoots

leaves, pods

—

—

—

plants

leaves

—

plants

—

shoots

roots

berries

—

plants

plant, root

—

fruits

berries

berries

plants

plants

plants

—

green dye

dye

gold/green dyes

green/brown dyes

orange dye

red dye

gold dye

yellow/brown dyes

yellow/brown dyes

brown dye

brown/purple dyes

dye

Calif. Indian basket

dye

purple dye

black dye

yellow/brown dyes

Navajo gray dye

dye

dye

yellow dye

dye

yellow/green/brown dyes

red/yellow dyes

dye

gray dye

blue/green dyes

purple dye

yellow dye

yellow/brown dyes

yellow/brown dyes

yellow/green dyes

4

6

4

4

4

4

6

1

1

4

13

8

9

8

8

13

4

14

8

8

1

1

13

8

4

4

13

6

13

4

1

4
42 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Gomphidius glutinous

Gomphus fluccosus

Gossypium hopi

Hopi cotton

Gossypium spp.

Cotton

Grevillea robusta

Silk oak

Grindelia sqarrosa

Gumweed

Grindelia spp.

Gum plant

Gutierrezia sarothrae

Matchbrush

Gymnogramma triangularis

(Ceropteris triangularis?)

Goldenback fern

Gymnopilus junonium

(Pholiota spectabilis ?)

Haematomma lapponicum

Popcorn lichen

Haematoxylon campechianum

Logwood

Haplopappus spinulosus

Spiny goldenweed

Hedera helix

Ivy

Helenium hoopesii

Owl’s claw

Helenium spp.

Helianthus annuus

Sunflower

H. uniflora

Aspen sunflower

Helianthus spp.

Sunflower

Helichrysum petiolatum

Cudweed everlasting

Hemerocallis spp.

Day lily

Hemizonia luzulaefolia

Tarweed

Heracleum lanatum

Cow parsnip

Heteromeles arbutifolia

Christmas berry

Heuchera americana

Alum plant

H. bracteata

Navajo tea

H. cylindrical

Alum plant

H. micrantha

Alum plant

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Hibiscus

—

—

—

flowers

leaves

plants

flowers, pods

plants

stems

—

—

wood

plants

berries

plants, flowers

—

seed oil

flowers

flowers

seeds

leaves, flowers

flowers

plant

—

leaves, stems, berries

root

stems

root

root

—

dye

dye

weaving

yellow dye

yellow/green dyes

yellow/green dyes

yellow dye

yellow/brown dyes

Calif. Indian basket

dye

dye

design

red/blue/purple/brown dyes

brown/yellow dyes

green/gray dyes

Navajo yellow dye

dye

yellow dye

green/brown/yellow

yellow/brown dyes

Hopi dye

yellow/brown/green

yellow dye

yellow/green dyes

green/yellow/brown

dyes

dyes

dyes

brown/green/black dyes

alum mordant

Navajo dye

alum mordant

Porno mordant

dye

and dye

12

12

2

13

4

1

4

1

9

12

8

4, 6, 13

1

13

11, 14

6

6

1

1

2

4

6, 13

4

1

4

4

11

4

4

8
App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts • 43

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

H. syriacus

Rose-of-Sharon

Hibiscus spp.

Rose mallow, red hibiscus

Hierochloe odorata

Sweetgrass

Hyacinths orientalism

Blue hyacinth

Hyacinths spp.

Hyacinth

Hydrastis canadensis

Goldenseal

Hygrophorus coccineum

H. conicus

Parrot mushroom

H. hypotheius

H. miniatus

H. puniceus

Hymenoxys metcalfei

Rubberplant

Hypericum calycinum

Saint-John’ s-wort

H. perforatum

Klamath weed

Hypericum spp.

Saint-John’ s-wort

Hypogymnia psychodes

(Parmelia psychodes)

Shield lichen

Ilex spp.

Holly

Indigofera Zeptosepala

Indigo

1. tinctoria

Indigo

Inodes palmetto

Palmetto

Iris germanica

Purple iris

I. pseudacorus

Yellow flag iris

Iris spp.

Iris

Isatis tinctoria

Woad

Zva xanthifolia

Marshelder

Jug]ans cinerea

Butternut

J. major

Wild walnut

J. nigra

Black walnut

J, regia

English walnut

Jug@;u;pp.

flowers

flowers

flowers

flowers

roots

leaves/stems/flowers

flowers

shoots

plants

leaves

leaves

flowers

—

flowers

leaves

leaves

stems, leaves

hulls, leaves

twigs, shells, leaves

leaves, flowers

shells, twigs

blue dye

blue/green dyes

baskets

blue d)~e

blue dye

yellow Indian dye

dye

dye

dye

dye

dye

Navajo yellow dye

orange dye

dye

gold dye

yellow dye

brown dye

dye

dye

blue Indian dye

dye

La. Indian baskets

blue dye

black dye

blue/purple dyes

Indian basket foundation

blue dye

brown/yellow dyes

brown dye

Navajo brown

Navajo brown

brown dye

Navajo brown

dye

dye

dye

4

4

10

4

4

7

12

12

12

12

12

14

4

6, 8

4

13

13

8

8

7

6, 13

10

4

13

4

9

4, 7

1

6, 7

14

4

4, 13

11
44 ● Technology, iRenewab/e Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/

common name plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Juncus acutus

Rush

J. bahicus

Wiregrass

J. effusus

Rush

J. Iesenerii (J. acutus?)

Reed grass

J. mertensianus (J. acutus?)

Rush

J. robustus (J. acutus?]

Tule grass

J. textilis

Basket rush

Juncus Spp.

Juniperus monosperma

One-sided juniper

J. occidentals

Juniper

J. virginiana

Cedar

Kalmia latifolia

Mountain laurel

Kalmia spp.

Kochia scoparia

Kochia

Laccaria amethystima

Lactarius delicious

Lactuca pulchella

Blue-flowered lettuce

L. scariola

Prickly lettuce

Laminaria spp.

Kelp

Larix spp.

Larch needles

Lathyrus spp.

Sweet pea

Ledum decumens

Labrador tea

L. greonlandicum

Labrador tea

Lepidium virginicum

Pepperweed

Lepista nuda

Leptospermum scoparium

New Zealand tea tree

Letharia vulpina

Staghorn moss

Liatris spp.

Blazingstar

Ligustrum vulgare

Privet

Ligustrum spp.

Privet

leaves

stems, leaves

leaves

leaves

leaves

roots, leaves

leaves

leaves

needle ashes

berries

root, bark

stems, leaves

—

leaves

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

flowers, stems

—

—

plants

—

flowers, leaves, stems

stems

—

stems

twigs, leaves, fruits

berries, leaves

Calif. Indian basket warp

woof, wrap, design

yellow/green dyes

Calif. Indian baskets

Calif. Indian basket warp,

woof

Calif, Indian basket woof

Calif. Indian basket warp,

woof, wrap, foundation

Calif. baskets

Calif. Indian basket design

Calif. Indian basket wrap

Calif. Indian basket wrap,

pattern

Navajo mordant, dye,

tan dye

Calif. Indian basket

warp, woof

Navajo brown dye

purple dye

dye

yellow/gray dyes

dye

brown dye

dye

dye

brown/green/yellow

yellow/green dyes

dye

brown dyes

dye

yellow/brown dyes

dye

dye

yellow/brown/green

dye

green/black dyes

yellow dye

yellow/green/brown

dye

green/yellow dyes

dyes

dyes

dyes

9

1

9

9

9

9

5

9

9

9

14

14

9

11

8

6

13

8

1

12

12

1

1

8

13

8

1

8

8

1

12

4

4

1

6, 8, 13

4
App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 4 5

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Linaria vulgaris

Butter-and-eggs

Lobaria pulmonaria

(Stroba pulmonaria)

Lungwort lichen

Lobelia erinus

Blue lobelia

Lonicera interrupta

Honeysuckle

L. involucrata

Twinberry

Lupinus arboreus

Yellow bush lupine

L. kingii

Blue-flowered lupine

Lupinus spp.

Lupine

Lycoperdon spp.

Puffball

L. caelatum

Lycopodium spp.

Lysimachia spp.

Yellow loosestrife

Maclura pomifera

Osage orange

Mahonia aquifolium

Grape holly

Mahonia spp.

Grape holly

Malus spp.

Apple

Malva neglecta

Mallow

Malva spp.

Tree mallow

Marrubium vulgare

Common horehound

Martynia frangrans

M. louisiana

(M. proboscidea?)

Devil’s horns

M. parviflora

Devil’s claw

M. proboscidea

Unicorn plant

Martynia spp.

Devil’s horn

Matthiola incana

Purple stock

Matricaria ambigua

Wild chamomile

Medicago sativa

Alfalfa

plants

—

—

flowers, stems

stems

berries

flowers

plants

flowers

—

—

flowers

wood

root, fruit

fruit, leaves, roots

fruit

bark

bark

flowers, leaves

flowers, plants

stems, leaves

—

pods

pods

pods

pods

flowers

yellow/green/brown dyes

brown dye

dye

green dye

Calif. Indian basket

foundations

gray dye

yellow dye

Navajo yellow

green dye

dye

yellow/brown/green dyes

dye

dye

dye

alum mordant

yellow/brown dyes

yellow/orange dyes

yellow dye

yellow/purple dyes

blue/green dyes

brown/green dyes

yellow dye

dye

yellow/green/brown dyes

blue/green dyes

green/brown dyes

Pima basket weft

Papago basket weft

Calif. Indian basket

pattern

black

Papago basket weft;

rare from collecting

Panamint baskets

Calif. Indian basket black

pattern

Calif. Indian basket black

pattern

blue dye

dye

Navajo blue dye

green dye

1

13

8

4

9

4

4

14

4

1

8

12

12

4

1

4

13

6

13

4

1

13

8

1

4

1

10

10

9

3

5

9

9

4

8

11

1
46 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Melandrium apetalum

var. arcticum

Bladder campion

Melilotus oflicinalis

Yellow sweetclover

Menegussia pertusa

Lichen

Mentha piperita

Peppermint

Mentzelia decapetala

Eveningstar

Mercurialis perennis

Dog’s mercury

Mertensia ciliata

Bluebell

Monarda menthaefolia

Horsemint

Morus mesozygia

Canary wood

M. nigra

Black mulberry

M. tinctoria

or Chlorophora tinctoria

Fustic

Myrica californica

Wax-myrtle

M. gale

Bog myrtle

M. pensylvanica

Bayberry

Naemato]oma fascicu]are

(Hypholoma?)

Sulphur tuft mushroom

Narcissus pseudo-narcissus

Daffodil

Neowashingtonia filamentosa

(Washingtonian filamentosa?)

Nephrona expallidum

Lichen

Nerium oleander

Oleander

Nicotiana spp.

Maroon nicotiana

Nolina microcarpa

Beargrass

Nymphaea alba

Water lily

N. polysepala

Water lily

Ochrolechia parella

(Lecanora parella)

Crawfish lichen

O. tartarea

(Lecanora tartarea)

Cudbear lichen

plants

—

plants

plants

plants

stems

plants

wood

berries, leaves

berries

leaves

leaves, bark, stem

flowers

leaves

flowers

flowers

seed coat

—

dye

yellow/brown dyes

yellow/pink dyes

green/brown dyes

brown dye

yellow dye

yellow/brown dyes

yellow/brown/gray dyes

yellow/orange dyes

purple/green dyes

commercial yellow

imported dye

Brazil, Jamaica

gray dye

yellow dye

red dye

dye

yellow/gold dyes

Calif. Indian basket wrap

dye

green dye

green dye

Papago basket warp

brown dye

Calif. Indian basket

black dye

red dye

red dye

dye

8

1

13

1

1

13

1

1

4

4

6

4

13

6

12

4

9

8

4

4

3

8

9

13

13

8
App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts . 47

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Ocotillo spp.

Oenothera strigosa

Evening primrose

Olea europaea

Olive

Opuntia missouriensis

O. polycantha

Prickly pear

O. rubusta

Opuntia spp.

Opuntia

Orthocarpus spp,

Owl’s clover

Oxalis corniculata

Wood sorrel

Oxyria digyna

Mountain sorrel

Oxytropis arctobia

0. maydelliana

Locoweed

Papaver nudicaule

Iceland poppy

P. radicatum

Arctic poppy

Parmelia caperata

Lichen

P. centrifugal

Lichen

P. conspersa

Lichen

P. disjuncta

Black sunburst lichen

P. fraudens

Lichen

P. fur furacer

Lichen

P. infumata

Rock lichen

P. molluscula

Ground lichen

P. omphalodes

Lichen

P. perlata

Lichen

P. saxatilis

Lichen

P. sulcata

Lichen

P. saxati]is

Lichens

Parosela emoryi

Parosela

Pectis angustifolia

Fetid marigold

Pedicularis arctica

Wooly lousewort

. Papago basket warp

yellow/brown dyes

3

1

4

plants

fruit, skins,

leaves

fruit

fruit

red/purple/green/black/

yellow dyes

Navajo red dye

Navajo red dye

11

13. 14

red dye

Navajo red dye

Calif. Indian basket awl

yellow dye

4

7

9

4

fruit

spines

plants

flowers yellow/orange dyes 4

dye 8

dye

dye

8 — 8

petals, pods red/brown/yellow dyes 4

dye 8

yellow dye

dye

red-brown dye

13

8

6

brown dye 8

dye 8

— dye 8

dye 13

dye 8

plants Navajo orange/tan dyes 14

brown dye

red-brown dye; Harris tweed

dye

dye

6

13

8

4, 13

—

—

dye 8

dye 4, 8

red-brown dye

Harris tweed

Calif. Indian basket dye

6

13

9

—

—

Hopi dye 2

8

—

— dye
48 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

P. capitata

Lousewort

P. lanata

Lousewort

Pelargonium hortorum

Red geranium

Peltigera canina

Dog’s tooth lichen

P. leucoplebia

Lichen

Penstemon spp.

Penstemon

Pertusaria coriacea

Lichen

P. dactylina

Lichen

Petunia spp.

Petunia

Phaeolus schweinitzii

Polyporus

Phaseolus vulgaris

Blue kidney bean

Red bean

Philadelphus gordonianus

Syringa

Phoradendrom flavescens

Mistletoe

Phormium tenax

New Zealand flax

Phragmites vulgaris

Reed

Physica caesia (Physia

Lichen

Phytolacca americana

Pokeweed

Picea sitchensis

Lowland spruce

Pinus cembroides

Pinyon pine

P. edulis

Pinyon pine

P. lambertinana

Sugar pine

P. monophylla

One-leaf pine

P. palustris

Long-leaf pine

P. ponderosa

Ponderosa pine

P. sabiniana

Digger pine

Pinus spp.

Pine

Pisolithus tinctorius

caesia?j

—

—

flowers, leaves

—

—

flowers

—

—

flowers

—

—

stems

—

flowers, pods

stems

—

berries

roots

pitch

pitch

root

sap

needles

root

root

needles, root

dye

dye

brown/purple dyes

yellow dye

dye

brown dye

dye

dye

green dye

dye

Hopi dye

brown dye

Calif. Indian basket warp

green dye

brown dye

Calif. Indian basket warp/

woof/design

dye

red dye

Calif. Indian basket woof

black Indian dye

Hopi dye

Navajo black/gray dyes

Yurok basket weft

Calif. Indian basket woof

Calif. Indian baskets

basketry

Yurok basket weft

brown dye

Calif. Indian basket woof,

foundation, wrap

Calif. Indian basket woof,

warp, wrap

green dye

Calif. Indian basket woof

dye

8

8

4

13

8

4

8

8

4

12

2

4

9

8

4

9

8

13

9

7

2

14

10

9

9

5

10

1

9

9

4

9

12
App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 4 9

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Pittosporum crassifolium

Pittosporum

Plantago lanceolata

Plantain

Plantago spp.

Plantain

Pluteus cervinus

Polygonum aviculare

Knotweed

P. hydropiper

Smartweed

Polygonum spp.

Ladysthumb

Polyporus sulphureus

Polypor mushroom

Populus nigra

Lombardy poplar

P. tremuloides

Quaking aspen

P. trichocarpa

Black cottonwood

Populus Spp.

Cottonwood

Portulaca oleracea

Purslane

Potentilla vahliana

Cinquefoil

Potentilla spp.

Cinquefoil

Primula spp.

Primrose

Prosopis juniflora

Mesquite

Prosopis spp.

Mesquite

Prunella vulgaris

Heal-all

Prunus americana

Wild plum

P, demissa

P. melanocarpa

Chokecherry

P. padus

European bird cherry

P. persica

Peach

P. salicina

Japanese plum

P. serotina

Wild cherry

P. spinosa

Blackthorn

Prunus spp.

Green plum

Red plum

seeds blue dye

— brown dye

plants green/yellow dyes

— dye

plants yellow dye

green/brG-wn/orange dyes

4

4

1

12

4

1

6

13

1

12

6, 13

1

9

10

1

8

1

8

1

4

9

3

4

14

5

14

1

13

6

8

6, 8

13

4

4

plants

plants

dyc

yellow dye

brown dye

— dye

leaves green dye

leaves, twigs yellow/brown/green dyes

roots Calif, Indian basket woof

branches

leaves, twigs

plants

Plains Indians

yellow/brown dyes

dye

brown/gray dyes

— dye

plants yellow/green/black dyes

petals

bark

sap

flowers, stems

yellow dye

Calif. Indian basket woof

Papago pottery dye

green dye

roots Navajo purple dye

Cascade Indian basket

decoration

Navajo brown dye

yellow/brown/orange dyes

pink dye

—

bark, roots

twigs, leaves

bark

— yellow dye

— dye

bark, leaves red/gray/green dyes

berries pink dye

leaves

fruit, leaves

green dye

purple/green dyes
50 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/

common name plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Pseudocymopterus montanus

Wild celery

Pseudotsuga mucronata

Red fir

P. taxifolia

Douglas spruce

Psilostrophe tagetina

Mouse-leaf

Psoralea macrostachya

Leather root

P. tenuiflora

Scurf pea

Pteridium aquilinum

Bracken fern

Pteris aquilina

Brake fern

Pterocarpus dalbergioides

Padauk

P. santalinus

Sanders

Pterocarpus spp.

Camwood

Pterospora andromedea

Pinedrop

Punica granatum

Pomegranate

Purshia tridentata

Bitterbrush

Pyracantha angustifolia

Firethorn

Pyrus spp.

Pear

Quercus alba

White oak

Q. borealis

Red oak

Q. gambelii

Gambel’s oak

Q. lobata

White oak

Q. pungens

Scrub oak galls

Q. robur

English oak

Q. rubra

Red oak

Q. sinuosa

Oak

Q. velutina

Black oak

Quercus Spp.

Ranunculus acris

Buttercup

R. nivalis

Snow buttercup

plant

root

roots

flowers

roots

plants

shoots

root

wood

wood

wood

plant

flowers, skins, seeds

—

bark

bark

bark

bark

bark

bark

—

bark

—

—

bark

bark

—

—

Navajo yellow dye

Calif. Indian basket woof

Calif. Indian basket woof

yellow Indian dye

Calif. Indian basket

yellow dye

yellow/green dyes

dye

yellow dye

Calif, Indian basket design

red dye

commercial Asian red dye

commercial African red dye

Navajo tan dye

brown/orange dyes

yellow dye

yellow/brown dyes

yellow dye

yellow/brown dyes

yellow/brown dyes

Navajo tan dye

Calif. Indian basket dye

Navajo gold/tan dyes

yellow/brown dyes

dye

dye

yellow dye

commercial dye

colonial dye

dye

dye

14

9

9

7

9

1

6

13

9

4

7

7

14

4

1

13

13

13

13

14

9

14

13

8

8

6

7

6

8

8
App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts • 51

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Raphia vinifera

Raffia

Raphiolepis indica

India-hawthorn

Raphis spp.

Rattan

Reseda luteola

Weld

Rhacomitrium lanuginosum

Moss

Rhamnus caroliniana

Buckthorn

R. cathartic

Buckthorn

R. infectorius

Rhamnus spp.

Rhododendron lapponicum

Lapland rosebay

Rhododendron spp.

Rhododendron

Rhodymenia spp.

Alga

Rhus aromatica

Sumac

R. coriaria

Dyer’s sumac

R. diversiloba

Poison oak

R. glabra

Sumac

R. trilobata

Three-leaved sumac

R. typhina

Staghorn sumac

Rhus Spp.

Aromatic sumac

Sumac

Ribes nigrum

Black currant

Ribes spp.

Currant

Roccella fuciformis

Lichen

R. tinctoria

Lichen

Rosa spp.

Wild rose

Rosmarinus officinalis

Rosemary

—

fruit

—

plants

bark, berries, twigs

bark, berries, twigs

berries

—

—

leaves

—

berries

stem, sap

—

twigs, berries leaves,

—

twigs, leaves, berries

berries

berries

twigs, leaves

—

—

plants

plants

basketry

blue/purple dyes

basketr y

commercial yellow dye

dye

yellow dye

brown dye

yellow European dye

dye

dye

dye

green dye

dye

Calif. baskets

yellow-green dye

Calif. Indian basket warp,

woof, dye, foundation

brown/slate/yellow dyes

Navaho basket warp, weft

Panamint baskets

Hopi mordant

Navajo black/brown dyes

yellow/green/brown dyes

Calif. Indian basket warp,

woof, foundation

brown dye

Navaho black dye

Calif. baskets

brown/yellow dyes

red Indian dye

dye

purple dye

brown/yellow dyes

dye

dye

dye

green/yellow/brown dyes

green dye

5

4

5

4, 7, 8

8

13

13

7

8

8

6, 8

4

8

5

13

9

6

10

5

2

14

1

9

13

11

5

1

7

8

13

1

8

13

8

1

4
52 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/

common name plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Rubia tinctorum

Madder

Rubus vitifolius

Blackberry

R. Spp.

Blackberry

Rudbeckia triloba

Coneflower

Rudbeckia spp.

Black-eyed Susan

Rumex crispus

Curly dock

R. hymenosepalus

Canaigre

Rumex obtusifolius

Dock

Rumex spp.

Dock

Sabal palmetto

S. adansoni

Dwarf palmetto

Salicornia spp.

Pickleweed

Salix amygdalina

Almond-leafed willow

S. argophylla

Willow

S. argyrophylla

Willow

S. fluviatilis argyrophylla (S. argophylla?)

S. hindsiana

Sandbar willow

S. lasiandra

Yellow willow

S. nigra

Black willow

S. reticulate

Willow

S. sitchensis

Velvet willow

S. vitellina

Golden willow, osier

Salix spp.

Willow

Salsola kali

Russian thistle

roots

berries

leaves, twigs, shoots

berries

roots, flowers

—

flowers

leaves, stems, seeds

roots

roots

roots

—

plants

plants

stems

stems

leaves, stems, bark

stems

stem, bark

stem

—

—

—

twigs, leaves

stems, root

plants

commercial imported red dye

Calif. Indian basket dye

dye

purple dye

green/yellow dyes

dye

dye

green dye

yellow/green dyes

brown/green/orange dyes

Hopi dye

red Indian dye

Navajo brown/

yellow-orange

dye

gold/green dyes

dye

basketry

basketry

yellow dye

basketry

dyes

Calif. Indian basket warp

Porno basket warp

Calif. Indian basket warp

yellow dye

Calif. Indian basket warp

Panamint baskets

Calif. Indian basket warp

Pima basket weft

Papago basket

Calif. Indian basket woof

brown dye

d y e

Calif. Indian basket warp,

woof

basketry

Yurok basket warp, weft

Papago basket weft (rare)

Havasupai baskets

yellow/green dyes

Calif. Indian basket woof

warf, foundation, design

green/brown/yellow dyes

4, 6

9

6, 13

4, 8

13

8

6

4

1

1

2

7

11, 14

6

4

8

5

5

4

5

9

10

9

4

9

5

9

10

3

9

13

8

9

5

10

3

5

1

9

1
App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 5 3

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

S. pestifer

Russian thistle

Salvia officinalis

Sage

Sambucus canadensis

Elderberry

S. mexicana

Elderberry

S. nigra

Elder

Sam bucus spp.

Elderberry

Sanguinaria canadensis

Bloodroot

Santolina chamaecyparissus

Santolina

Saponaria officinalis

Soapwort

Sassafras albidum

Sassafras

Saxifraga cernua

Nodding saxifrage

S. hirculus var. propinqua

Yellow marsh saxifrage

S. oppositifolia

Purple saxifrage

S. tricuspidata

Prickly saxifrage

Scabiosa atmpurpurea

Pincushion flower

Scirpus acutus

Bulrush

S. lacustris

S. lacustris occidentals

Tule

S. maritimus (S. robustus?)

Bulrush

S. paificus

Bullrush

S, robustus

Bulrush

S. tatora

Tule

Scirpus spp.

Bulrush, tule

Senecio aureus

Golden ragwort

S. cruentus

Florist’s cineraria

S. douglasii

S. hybridus

Florist’s cineraria

S. jacobaea

Ragwort

S. triangularis

Arrowleaf senecio

plant

oil

leaves, berries, bark

stems

leaves, berries, bark

bark, leaves, berries

berry, stems

roots

blossoms

bark

flowers

plants

—

leaves, roots

root

stems

—

root, stem

—

petals

stems, flowers, leaves

petals

flowers

—

Navajo green dyes

yellow dye

yellow/purple/gray dyes

Calif. Indian basket dye

yellow/purple/gray dyes

dye

black/green/blue dyes

dyes

Calif. Indian basket dye

red dye

red Indian dye; threatened

green/brown dyes

yellow/green dyes

orange-brown dye

dye

dye

dye

dye

green dye

green/brown dyes

basketry

Calif. Indian basket warp,

woof, design

Calif. Indian basket design

Porno basket weft (scarce)

Calif. Indian basket warp,

woof, foundation

basketry

basketry

Calif. Indian baskets

dye

green/blue dyes

Navajo weaving

green/blue dyes

yellow dye

green/yellow dyes

14

6

13

9

13

8

6

4

9

6

7

4

1

4, 6

8

8

8

7, 8

4

1

5

9

9

10

9

5

5

9

8

4

11

4

4

1
54 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Sequoia sempervirens

Coastal redwood

Sequoia spp.

Redwood

Sisymbrium altissimum

Tumble mustard

Smilax californica

Greenbriar

S. pseudochina

Bull-brier

Solarium spp.

Nightshade

Solidago biglovia

Goldenrod

S. canadensis

Goldenrod

Solidago spp.

Goldenrod

roots Calif. Indian basket woof 9

bark brown dye 4

plants yellow/green/brown dyes 1

stems Calif. Indian basket design 9

— basketry

plants yellow dye

plants Navajo yellow

— yellow dye

flowers Hopi dye

5

4

dye 11

6, 13

2

yellow/green dyes

dye

yellow/brown/green dyes

1

8

Sonchus oleraceous 1

Sow-thistle

Spartium spp.

Broom

Sporobolus spp.

(Epicampes rigens

californica ?)

Grass

Stachys spp.

Hedg-mettle

Stereocaulon alpinum

Lichen

Stropharia ambigua

Sueada diffusa

(Suaeda suffrutescens?]

Sea blight

S. suffrutescens

Sea blight

Symphoricarpos albus

Snowberry

Symplocos spp.

Syringa spp.

Purple lilac

Tagetes erecta

Marigolds

Tagetes micrantha

Bitterball

Tagetes spp.

Marigold

Tanacetum vulgare

Tansy

Taraxacum officinaiis

Dandelion

plants

yellow dye 13

stems Calif. Indian basket

foundation

9

— green dye 4

dye 8

dye

Calif. Indian basket dye

12

9

—

stems

plants

berries

Calif. Indian basket dye 9

yellow dye 13

mordant

green/yellow dyes

4

4

—

flowers, twigs

dye 6

plant

flowers

flowers

roots

plants

Navajo yellow dye 14

gold/green dyes

dye

yellow dye

4, 13

8

13

dye

brown/yellow dyes

dye

yellow dye

6

1

8

Thalictrum polycarpum 4

Meadow rue

Thea sinensis

Black tea

leaves dye 4
App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 55

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Thelesperma gracilis

Navajo tea

T. megapotamicum

T. subnudum

Navaho tea

Thermopsis montana

False lupine

Thuidium abietinum

Moss

Torreya californica

California nutmeg

Tragopogon pratensis

Salsify

Tricholoma rutilans

Trifolium spp.

Trefoil clover

Triticum spp.

Wheat

Tsuga canadensis

Hemlock

T. caroliniania

Southern hemlock

T. giganta

Hemlock

T. heterophylla

Western hemlock

Tumion californicum

(Torrya californica?)

California nutmeg

Typha angustifolia

Cattail

T. latifolia

Cattail

Ulex europaeus

Gorse

Umbellularia californica

California laurel

U. pustulata

Rock tripe lichen

Umbilicaria papulosa

Lichen

U. proboscidea

Lichen

U. vellea

Rock tripe

U. virginis

Lichen

Umbilicaria spp.

Brown rock lichen

Uncaria gambir

Cutch

Urceolaria calarea

Lichen

Urtica breweri

Nettle

plants

plants

root

“plants

—

plants

—

bark

bark

—

bark

roots

leaves

flowers

fruit

—

—

—

—

—

—

leaves, twigs

—

bark

Navajo orange dye

Hopi dye

Hopi dye

yellow dye

dye

Calif. Indian basket

brown/yellow dyes

dye

brown/yellow dyes

Papago baskets

red/brown dye

dye

brown dye

Indian baskets

brown dye

Calif. Indian basket

Pima basket warp

woof

woof

Papago basket warp

green/brown dye

Calif. Indian basket warp,

woof, design

orange dye

green/brown dyes

red dye

red dye

dye

dye

dye

dye

imported brown dye

purple dye

Calif. Indian basket woof

14

2

2

1

8

9

1

12

1

3

6, 13

8

13

5

13

9

10

3

1

9

4

4

13

8

8

8

8

4

6

8

9
56 . Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/

common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

U. dioica

Nettle

Urtica spp.

Nettle, Dwarf nettle

Usnea barbata

Old man’s beard lichen

U. lirta

Lichen

Usnea spp.

Vaccinium myrtilloides

Velvetleaf blueberry

V. uliginosum

var. alpinum

Tundra bilberry

V. vitis-idaea var. minus

Lingonberry

Vaccinium spp.

Blueberry

Variolaria orcina

Lichen

Verbascum thapsus

Mullein

Verbascum spp.

Mullein

Vicia benghalensis

Vetch

Vilfa rigens

Vilfa spp.

(Epicampes rigens californica?)

Grass

Viola tricolor

Pansy

Vitis californica

Wild grape

V. lambruscana

Grape

Vitis spp.

Grape

Washingtonia filifera

Desert palm

Woodwardia radicans

(W. spinulosa?)

Giant fern

W. spinulosa

Giant chain fern

Xanthium italicum

Cocklebur

Xanthoria elegans

Red lichen

X. parietina

Yellow wall lichen

Xanthorhiza spp.

Yellow root

Xerophyllum tenax

Sourgrass

shoots

leaves

berries

leaves

flowers

flowers

stems, roots

flowers

stems, roots

skins

leaves

fruit

leaves

stem

stem

—

—

roots

leaves

dye

green dye

dye

yellow dye

purple dye

purple dye

blue dye

dye

dye

brown/green/yellow dyes

purple dye

purple dye

yellow dye

yellow dye

green dye

Calif. baskets

Calif. Indian basket

foundation, design

green dye

Calif. Indian basket woof,

warp

blue dye

yellow dye

purple dye

Calif. Indian basket wrap

Calif. Indian basket design

Yurok basket weft

Calif. Indian basket design

green/brown dyes

blue dye

yellow dye

blue dye

yellow Indian dye; threatened

Yurok basket weft

Calif. Indian basket design

6

13

8

4

13

13

8

8

8

8

1

13

8

1, 4

6

4

5

9

4

9

4

4

13

9

9

10

9

1

8

13

8

7

10

5, 9
App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 5 7

Scientific name/

common name

Yucca arborescens

(Y. brevifolia?)

Tree yucca

Y. arizonica

Y. angustifolia

Y. baccata

Wide-leaved soapweed

Y. brevifolia

Joshua tree

Y. elata

Y. glauca

Narrow-leaved soapweed

Y. mohavensis

Spanish bayonet

Yucca spp.

Soapweed

Plant part(s) used Craft use

roots Calif. Indian basket design

roots

roots

roots

—

—

leaves

—

—

roots

Papago basket weft

Hopi wool soap

Navajo soap

Panamint basket

Calif. Indian basket design

Papago basket weft

Navajo soap

yellow/green/brown dye

Calif. Indian basket

foundation

Plains Indians baskets

Hopi baskets

Navajo yarn soap

Source

9

3

2

14

5

9

3

14

1

9

10

5

11

Zea mays — Iroquois basket warp, weft 10

Corn husk Cayuses, Umatillas, Nez 5

Perces, Wascos baskets

Purple Indian corn purple dye 4

Z. mays amylacea corncob Hopi dyes 2

Purple corn

Zinnia elegans — dye 6, 8

Zinnia

Zostera spp. — basketry 5

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7,

Bibliography

Bliss, Anne, Rocky Mountain Dye Wants

(Boulder, Colo.: Johnson Publishing Co., 1976).

Colton, Mary-Russell Ferrell, Hopi Dyes (Flagstaff, Ariz.: Museum of Northern Arizona Press,

1965).

DeWald, Terry, The Papago Indians and Their

Basketry, Tucson, Ariz., 1979.

Grae, Ida, Nature’s Colors: Dyes From Plants

(New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.,

1974).

James, George Wharton, Indian Basketry and

How To Make Indian and Other Baskets (Glorieta, N. Mex.: The Rio Grande Press, Inc., 1903),

3d cd., 1970.

Kramer, Jack, Natural Dyes. Plants and Processes (New York: Charles Scribners Sons,

1972).

Krochmal, Arnold and Connie, The Complete

Illustrated Book of Dyes From Natural Sources

[Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Co., Inc.,

1974).

8.

9<

10.

11,

12.

13.

14.

McGrath, Judy Waldner, Dyes From Lichens

and Plants (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,

1977).

Merrill, Ruth E., Plants Used in Basketry by the

California Indians, University of California

Publications in American Archeology and Ethnology 20:213-242, 1923. Reprinted under same

title (Ramona, Calif.: Acoma Books, 1970).

Newman, Sandra C., Indian Basket Weaving

(Flagstaff, Ariz.: Northland Press, 1974).

Reichard, Gladys A., Navajo Shepherd and

Weaver (New York: J. J. Augustin Publisher,

1936). Reprinted (Glorieta, N. Mex,: Rio Grande

Press, 1968),

Rice, Miriam C., Let’s Try Mushrooms for Color

[Santa Rosa, Calif.: Thresh Publications, 1974).

Robertson, Seonaid M., Dyes From Plants (New

York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1973).

Young, Stella, Navajo Native Dyes, Their Preparation and Use, U.S. Office of Indian Affairs,

1979, reprint of Chilocco Agricultural School,

No. 2, Indian Handicrafts, 1940.

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