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Economic

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Rural

Development

Research

Report

Number 59

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Black Farmer

Their Farms

Vera J. Ba

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Black Farmers and Their Farms. By Vera J. Banks, Agriculture and Rural

Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department ofAgriculture.

Rural Development Research Report No. 59.

Abstract

Blaclc farmers represented less than 2 percent of the Nation's 2.2 million farmers

in 1982, down from 14 percent in 1920; however, they represented 61 percent of

all minority farmers. Black-operated farms continue to be heavily concentrated in

the South. By 1982, more than 60 percent of all blackfarmers were full owners of

their farms, compared with only 16 percent in 1930. The average black-operated

farm has only about 100 acres compared with the national average of 440 acres.

Most black farmers in 1982 specialized in livestock and cash grains; however, they

were more likely than other farmers to rely on tobacco for their principal source of

farm income. Almost a third of all black farmers were 65 or older. Lessthan afifth

of all farmers nationwide were that old.

Keywords: Black farmers, farm operators, geographic distribution, tenure status,

type of farm, value of agricultural products sold, age, employment, income.

Acknowledgments

The author thanks Judith Kalbacher and Calvin Beatefortheir assistance, critical

review, and comments; Margaret Butler for her assistance; Thomas Cariin, Nora

Brooks, Robert Hoppe, Herman Bluestone, and Nina Swann for their comments

and suggestions; Iris Blount for preparing the manuscript; and Lindsay Mann for

his editorial assistance.

Washington, DC 20005-4788 July 1986

IH
Contents

Page

Summary v

Introduction 1

Background 1

Number and Location 2

Black Farmers in the South 2

Black Farmers Outside the South 3

Size of Farm 5

Tenure 7

Type of Farm 8

Value of Agricultural Products Sold 8

Age 10

Off-Farm Work and Income 10

Farm Assets and Debts 12

Black Farmers in 1982: A Partial Update 13

Conclusion 17

References 18

Appendix Tables 19

IV
Summary

Black farmers represented less than 2 percent of the Nation's 2,2 million farmers

in 1982, down from 14 percent in 1920; however, they still represent 61 percent of

all minority farmers. Here is a composite sketch ofthe33,000 black farmers in the

United States:

• Morethan 31,000 black-operated farms, better than 90percent ofthe national

total, are in the South.

• More than 60 percent of all black farmers are full owners of their farms, up

from only 16 percent in 1930.

• Almost half of all black-operated farms are smaller than 50 acres and have

sales under $2,500 annually. The average black-operated farm has only about

100 acres, compared with the 440-acre national average.

• About 45 percent of all black farmers specialize in livestock; cash grain is a

distant second specialty.

• Black farmers are about ^h times more likely to specialize in tobacco than

are all farmers.

• Black farmers tend to be older and less well educated than other farmers.

The average age of black farmers is 57 years, 6 years more thanthe national

averagefor all farmers; black farmers also are twice as likely as other farmers

to be 65 years old or older.

• Only about 36 percent of southern black farmers had debt claims against their

farm assets in 1979, compared with 47 percent of southern white farmers.

Because most black farmers do not earn enough from farm incometo supporttheir

families, they must also seek off-farm work. However, the average age of black

farmers makes this difficult because older farmers' age, health, and lack oftraining

tend to limit the work they can do and the places where they can seek work.
Black Farmers and Their Farms

Vera J. Banks^

Introduction

Black farmers have never accounted for morethan about

14 percent of all U.S. farmers. The number of black-operated farms droppedfrom a 1920 peak of 925,710 to only

33,250 by 1982. Average size of a black-operated farm

more than doubled from 51 acres in 1900 to 104 acres

in 1982, butthe national averagejumped from 147 acres

to 440 acres.

acres of farmland. In 1978, there were little more than

50,000 black farmers, and owned farmland had declined

to 3.2 million acres. It is not possibleto account precisely

for the net of nearly 12 million acres that have left the

ownership of black farmers. Some of that land was

owned by blacks who were not farming, and some was

still black owned but no longer farmland. But, a large

amount unquestionably was bought by whites or others

from black farmers or their heirs.^

Farm numbers have decreased most "... among those

farms with the weakest economic base which could not

compete with the attraction ofthe cities, could least afford

the conversion to mechanization, could not provide an

adequate livelihood for its families from farm earnings

and could not, for various reasons, supplement farm

earnings with nonfarm sources of income. The majority

of black farmers were in this group" (73).^

This report reviews significant historical trends and

examines the recent key characteristics of black farmers

and their farms. It also explains the importance of some

of those trends and characteristics.

Most ofthe analysis in this report is based on 1978 data,

the most recent, most complete dataset available. Some

of the data categories were updated in 1982. A section

nearthe end ofthis report reviews those later data and

their possible implications.

Background

Many studies have examined and analyzed the historical

role of blacks in agriculture, their characteristics, and the

trend in their number and location (2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 11). In

1920, the number of black-operated farms peaked at

about 926,000, and black farmers owned about 15 million

*The author is a demographic statistician with the Agriculture and

Rural Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

^Italicized numbers in parentheses identify literature cited in the

references at the end of this report.

One must not confuse the land owned by black farmers

with all land owned by blacks. Blacks who were not

farming owned an additional 3.1 million acres offarmland

in 1978, about as much asthat owned by black farmers.

Blacks also owned approximately 4 million acres of

nonfarmland, excluding city lot-sized parcels. The only

historical data available are those on farmland owned by

farmers; information on other land holdings is derived

from one U.S. Department ofAgriculture survey in 1978.

It is not possible, therefore, tosay with certainty whether

total black ownership of land has increased or decreased

in recent years. Total black ownership of land today (10

million acres) is less than that owned by black farmers

alone a half century ago {10, 13).

To some extent, the change in farms is not so drastic as

it seems. The definition of afarm is more restrictive today

than it was in 1920. If the old definitions were still in use,

twice as many black farmers might be counted today as

there really are, perhaps even more. Also, black-operated

farms are highly concentrated in the South; in 1920,

aboutthree-fourths ofthesefarms weretenant-operated

parts of larger white-owned operations. The tenants

typically lacked equipment oftheir own or management

responsibilities. Except for the fact that they worked for

a share ofthe crops ratherthan for wages, tenantfarmers

were more like hired farmworkers. The fate ofthe tenants

was predictable once southern farming feltthe effects of

mechanization and other modernization. But even after

these qualifications are made, the change is dramatic

^A detailed discussion on the impact of heir property on declining

black landownership is presented in (70).
and much greater than that for southern white farmers,

whose numbers dropped from 2.3 million to 955,000

between 1920 and 1978 (13).

Number and Location

Black farmers have always been the leading minority

group among U.S. farmers. Nevertheless, even at their

peak of 926,000 in 1920 (table 1 ), blacks were still only

14 percent of all farmers. At midcentury, there were

560,000 black farmers, 10 percent of all farmers. By 1978,

there were only 57,000 farms operated by Wacks, only

2 percent of the total (table 2).

Thelatest change in the definition of a farm was adopted

for the 7974 Census ofAgriculture when the definition of

afarm was changed to any place where $1,000 or more

of agricultural products were sold, or normally would

have been sold, in the reporting year (22). Under the

previous definition in use since 1960, afarm was defined

Table 1—Black farmers by region, 1900-78

Year United

States Northeast Midwest South West

Number

1978 57,271 288 1,720 54,616 647

1969 87,393 254 1,534 85,249 356

1959 272,541 596 4.259 267,008 678

1950 559.980 1,002 6,700 551.469 809

1940 681,790 1,432 7,466 672,214 678

1930 882,852 1,021 10,083 870.936 812

1920 925,710 1,469 7,911 915,595 735

1910 893,377 1,620 10,432 880,836 489

1900 746,717 1,761 12,255 732,362 339

Source: {20, 23).

Table 2-—Black-operated farms as a percentage

of all farms and southern farms, 1900-78

Year

Black-operated farms

as a percentage of—

Al! farms All southern farms

Percent

1978

1969

1959

1950

2.3

3.2

7.3

10.4

5.4

7.3

16.2

20.8

1940

1930

1920

1910

1900

11.2

14.0

14.3

14.0

13.0

22.4

27.0

28.6

28.4

27.9

Source: (20, 23).

as a place of 10 or more acres with at least $50 worth

of agricultural products sold in the reporting year, and

places of under 10 acres if at least $250 worth of agricultural products were sold.

The overall impact ofthis latest change in farm definition

was to lowerthe count offarms. However, the significant

effect concerned data on size of farm and race of

operator. Farms with annual sales of less than $2,500

were directly affected by this definitional change, lowering

the number of farms in this sales class more than any

other class. Because black farmers were disproportionately located onfarms with low agricultural^ales, the

number of farms operated by blacks would have been

15 percent higher under the previous definition than

under the definition adopted for the 1974 census. The

number of farms operated by whites would only have

been about 6 percent higher (22).

Black Farnfiers In the South

When the heavy geographic concentration of black

farmers is taken into account, the decline in their relative

importance becomes even more striking. Blacks have

historically been concentrated in the Southern States

andthus have been a significant proportion of all southern

farms. Up until the Great Depression of the thirties,

blacks operated more than a fourth of all southern farms.

Thereafter, the rate of decline in number of farms and

the movement of people from farms accelerated among

both whites and blacks, but particularly blacks.

In the forties and fifties, the success oftractors, mechanical harvesters, and chemical weed control displaced

thousands of tenant farmers, most of them black (72).

By 1950, black representation in the southern total had

fallen to 20 percent, and by 1978, blacks operated only

5 percent of all southern farms. Black farmers are 10

percent or more of aH farm operators in only two Southern

States: South Carolina (19 percent) and Mississippi (16

percent).

The overwhelming concentration of blacks in the South

has been well documented. DuBois, in his 1900census

monograph on The Negro Farmer, pointed out that

"... the Southern States contain more than 98 percent

of all farms operated by negroes and more than 97

percent of the total acreage of these farms" (5). Beale,

in 7/78 Negro in American Agriculture, also noted the

strong southern concentrations in 1950, but was more

specific as to their location.
"The great majority of Negrofarmers are located

in a huge sickle-shaped stretch of land that

begins on the northeast in southern Maryland,

sweeping southward through Virginia, the

Carolinas and Georgia east of the Blue Ridge

Mountains. The area curves through Georgia

below the southern end of the mountains,

across central Alabama, and in a northward

direction through Mississippi, with the end in

western Tennessee and eastern Arkansas. A

handle can bethought of as extending across

northern Louisiana, curving down into eastern

Texas. There arevery few Negro farmers in the

mountain and plateau parts ofthe South, in the

Florida peninsula or in the plains portions of

Texas" (3).

Of counties with 100 or more black-operated farms in

1978, significant numbers are still found in the flue-cured

tobacco production areas ofthe Southern Virginia Piedmont and the Upper Coastal Plains ofthe Carolinas (fig.

1 and app. table 1 ). Substantial numbers are also in the

Alabama Black Prairie Area which historically has been

known for its large black population: as late as 1950,72

percent ofthe area's total population was black. The high

proportion of blacks in this area resulted from and

developed during the years when the cotton plantation

system was at its peak (4). Clusters of black farmers are

also in the Coastal Plain areas of Georgia and in the

southwest and Delta Fringe and Bluff Hills areas of

Mississippi.

As late as 1964, there were 58 counties in the United

States where black farmers were in the majority. According to the 7978 Census of Agriculture, of southern

counties with 25 or more black farmers, there was no

county wherefarms operated by blacks amounted to 50

percent or more of all farms (20), In fact, black farmers

constituted at least a third ofthe county total in only eight

counties (app. table 2). Greene County, Alabama, had

the highest proportion of black farmers in 1978, 44

percent. There were only 54 counties where black

farmers made up a fifth or more of all farmers and 192

counties where they constituted as much as a tenth or

more of the total (fig. 1).

Black farmers remain highly concentrated in a few

Southern States. In 1900, Mississippi, Alabama, South

Carolina, and Georgia contained over half of all farms

operated by blacks. Mississippi alone had 128,000

black-operated farms, nearly a fifth of the national total

(app. table 3). In 1978, half of all black-operated farms

were still in four Southern States: Mississippi, North

Carolina, South Carolina, and Texas. Georgia lost about

two-fifths of its black-operated farms between 1900 and

1950 while the number of black farmers, mostly tobacco

farmers, increased in North Carolina. Alabama, which

had remained among the top four States until the midseventies, was replaced in 1978 by Texas, where the

number of black-operated farms stabilized.

Mississippi has had more black farmers than any other

State since the data were first collected; with 9,000

black-operated farms in 1978, it still ranks first. However,

the rapid loss of cotton tenants in that State may cost it

its top rank. North Carolina, with its continued heavy

involvement in tobacco farming and the historic concentration of black farmers in tobacco, may achieve the top

rank.

Black Farmers Outside the South

Although black farmers are largely confined tothe South,

afew Northern and Western States have a fair representation. Prior to the Civil War, many free blacks and

escaped slaves fled to areas north of the Ohio River

where slavery was forbidden. Most went to the hilly

country of southern Ohio and Indiana, where farming

was largely small in scale. Others moved to the Corn

Belt parts ofthesetwo States and of southern Michigan,

and engaged in more commercial types of agriculture.

Still others were brought as slaves into Missouri. In 1900,

the North and West combined had about 14,000 black

farmers with the great majority (85 percent) in the Midwest. Missouri alone had about 5,000 and Ohio, Indiana,

Illinois, and Kansas had more than 1,000 each (2). The

exodus of millions of southern blacks during the forties

and fifties tothe North and West was rarely afarm-to-farm

move. Most of these black migrants had a farm background, but they usually moved to cities and towns

outside the South in search of better economic and

personal opportunities.

Today, the largest number of black farmers in the North

and West is in California, Michigan, Missouri, and Ohio.

Although ranking fourth in total number outside the

South, Michigan has the largest individual settlement of

black farmers. Van Buren and Cass counties in the

southwestern corner of the State, just north of South

Bend, Indiana, are ".. . perhaps the most persistent of

the northern areas developed by free Negroes in the

generation before the Civil War. After a period of some
"^ Figure 1

Concentration of Black Farmers

in tlie Soutli, 1978

Counties where blacks were 10 percent

or more of all farmers

Counties with 100 or more black farmers

Counties with 100 or more black farmers and

where blacks were 10 percent or more of all farmers

Selected contiguous 2-county groupings

Source: [20) Note: Excludes counties with fewer than 25 black farmers.
decline as a commercial farming area, it has begun to

grow again as a part-time farming and residential area"

(2). According to the 1978 Census of Agriculture, there

were 74 black farmers in thesetwocontiguous Michigan

counties (78, 21).

For many years, Missouri had the largest number of

black-operated farms outsidethe South. As late as 1969,

this State still ranked first with more than 400 black

farmers. The southeastern corner of Missouri Is distinctly

different from the rest of the State in many ways. It is

physiographically, economically, and culturally part ofthe

South, and black farmers have long been concentrated

in this Missouri section of the Mississippi Delta, often

referred to as the Missouri Bootheel. In 1978, nearly a

third ofthe more than 200 black farmers in Missouri were

in this six-county area: Butler, Pemiscot, Mississippi,

New Madrid, Stoddard, and Dunklin.

Ohio also has sizable numbers. But, in contrast to

Michigan and Missouri, it has no strong geographic

concentrations of black farm operators. There were,

however, small settlements around Dayton and Cincinnati and in the southeast Ohio hills.

California is now the leading State outside the South in

number of black-operated farms. Many years ago, the

types of agriculture pursued in this State involved a

demand for unskilled farm laborers, and blacks found

employment as hired farmworkers. During the thirties

and early forties, the number of blacks greatly increased

as migrants fled the Great Depression. Later, many

sought defense work. Over the years, some of these

migrants went into agriculture on their own, and there

were 300 black farmers in California in 1978. Their farms

were widely scattered throughoutthe Central Valley that

runs between the Coast Range on the west and the

Sierra Nevada on the east. However, there were some

concentrations of black farmers in the lower San Joaquín

part of the Central Valley where arable cropland is

intensively farmed and where high-yield, high-quality

cotton is a major crop.

Size of Farm

Farms operated by blacks historically have been comparatively small in acreage. In 1900, the average size of

a farm operated by blacks in the United States was 51

acres, compared with 147 acres nationally. Blacks had

limited capital to buy land, and most operated not as

owners but as tenants. As tenants, they were unlikely to

enlarge their operation. DuBois, in his analysis of black

farmers, made the following assessment:

The usual farm of the negro has an area of

from 20 to 50 acres—the "one-mule farm"—

requiring the labor of a man and his family and

one mule. Nearly half ofthe farms operated by

negroes in thecountry in 1900 were ofthis size"

(5).

When the national trend toward larger farms began in

1935, the average black-operated farm in the South was

44 acres contrasted to the average of 131 for southern

whitefarmers. As the ability and necessity to have larger

units grew, all classes of whitefarmers, including those

on tenant operations, began to steadily operate larger

land holdings. By 1978, the size of the average whiteoperated farm in the South had risen to 321 acres. Black

farmers did not generally participate in this trend of

increasing farm size. Although hundreds of thousands

of small tenant farms have disappeared, the 1978

average size of farms operated by blacks was only 83

acres, an increase ofjust 39 acres since 1935. This low

average farm size reflects the fact that in 1978, nearly

three of every five black-operatedfarms had fewer than

50 acres (table 3). By contrast, only a third of southern

white farmers had fewer than 50 acres. Thus, black-operated farms are typically small, which greatly limits their

capacity tosupport a family ortheir suitability for certain

types offarming. On morethan 70 percent ofthe farms

with fewer than 50 acres*, the value of products sold by

black farmers amounted to less than $2,500 in 1978.

Average farm size as a measure derived entirely from

total acres in each place brings together, in a single size

group, farms representing numerous types of agriculture

and intensity of production. This measure is especially

useful when the averages are for States or other large

geographic areas. The average size of agricultural

operations varied widely among the Southern States.

Oklahoma, the only Southern State with more than 10

percent of its black-operated farms having 260 acres or

more in 1978, had the largest average farm size (158

acres). Texas, where the average black farm was 118

acres, ranked second (app. table 4). Black farmers in

both of these States are heavily engaged in livestock

farming which requires sizable acreage. In contrast,

some of the smallest average farm sizes are in North

Carolinaand Maryland where large proportions of black

farmers are engaged in highly labor-intensive tobacco

production.
Table 3—Selected characteristics of alJ farms and black-operated farms for the United States and the South, 1978

Unit

United States South

Characteristic

All farms Black-operated

farms All farms Black-operated

farms

Farms Number 2,478,642 57,271 1,015,304 54,816

Land in farnns 1,000 acres 1,029,695 4,744 312,624 4,220

Average size of farm Acres 415 83 308 77

Average value of land and

buildings per farm Dollars 262,252 74,524 191,680 69,294

Farms by acres:

1to49 Percent 27.9 58.6 32.3 59.0

50 to 99 do. 15.6 18.7 18.7 18.9

100 to 179 do. 17.3 13.0 17.9 13.1

180 to 259 do. 9.8 4.2 8.6 4.1

260to999 do. 23.0 4.9 17.5 4.5

1,000 or more do. 6.5 .6 5.0 .4

Farms by value of agricultural

products sold:^

Less than $2,500 do. 24.7 58.6 32.7 59.6

$2,500 to $4,999 do. 13.4 15.3 17.2 15.2

$5,000 to $9,999 do. 13.4 11.2 15.3 11.1

$10,000 to $19,999 do. 12.5 7.2 11.5 7.0

$20,000 to $39,999 do. 12.4 4.4 8.4 4.2

$40,000 to $99,999 do. 14.7 2.4 8.3 2.1

$100,000 or more do. 9.0 .9 6.6 .7

Average market value of

agricultural products sold per farm Dollars 43,618 7.573 32,467 6,965

Farms by type:

Cash grain Percent 23.9 16.5 13.3 15.9

Cotton do. 1.3 2.4 2.7 2.4

Tobacco do. 5.8 14.3 13.4 15.0

Other field crops do. 5.6 3.9 4.4 3.9

Vegetable and melon do. 1.4 2.6 1.4 2.6

Fruit and tree nut do. 3.6 .8 2.3 .6

Livestock do. 41.9 52.3 49.8 52.6

Dairy do. 6.8 .8 2.5 .6

Poultry do. 2.1 1.5 3.3 1.5

Other do. 7.7 4.9 6.8 4.9

Tenure of farmer:

Full owners do. 58.6 60.3 62.3 59.9

Part owners do. 28.8 24.0 26.0 24.1

Tenants do. 12.7 15.8 11.7 16.0

Age of farmer:

Under 35 years do. 16.2 7.9 14.2 7.7

35 to 54 years do. 43.6 35,2 42.5 34.8

55 to 64 years do. 23.7 27.9 23.9 28.0

65 years and older do. 16.4 29.0 19.5 29.5

Farmers reporting days of work off farms:

None do. 42.3 39.2 37.7 39.3

1to99 do. 11.2 10.4 9.5 10.6

100 to 199 do. 8.3 11.6 8.6 11.7

200 or more do. 38.2 38.7 44.2 38.5

Note: Totals may not add due to rounding.

"•"All farms" excludes institutional farms, experimental and research farms, and Indian reservations.

Source: (20, 21).
Tenure

Conditions oftenure—farmers and their rights in the land

operated—have much to do with farming practices.

Tenure may affect the way the land is used and the

quantities of capital and labor used in conjunction with

the land. Thus, tenure arrangements affect total agricultural production and the farm income and status offarm

families. The three major land tenure forms are (1 ) full

owners—those who own alt the land operated, (2) part

owners—those who own a part and rent a part, and

(3) tenants—those who rent all the land they operate.

The historical image of black farmers has been that of

tenant or sharecropper. From World War I until 1950,

more than half of all black farmers were landless tenants

working for a share ofthe crops they produced. Even as

late as the end ofWorld War II, no morethan afourth of

all black farmers were owners. Many white farmers were

tenants as well, but not in the same proportion as blacks.

Even during the Great Depression years, about half of

all southern white farmers were owners. This difference

has had a far-reaching effect on the ability of blacks to

survive and prosper in agriculture. The landless tenant

has no defense against mechanization and is at the

mercy of the landlord who decides to mechanize and

use less human labor (2).

From 1930 to 1950, the number of black farm owners

increased by 14,000 or 8 percent. During this same

20-year period, the number of black tenants declined by

about 336,000, or 48 percent (table4). Since 1950, the

number of black farmers has declined in all tenure

categories. However, the number of part owners has

declined less than other categories, a reflection of the

increasing importance ofthese farms. Part-owner operations consist of both owned and rented or leased land

and typically include morethan onetract of land. In 1978,

about afourth of all black-operated farms were run by a

part owner; at midcentury, just less than a tenth were

operated by part owners. The proportion of farms

operated by part owners has been increasing in each

national census sincethe data werefirst collected. This

trend has also been observed among black farmers but

to a somewhat lesser extent. The indicated increase in

part owners reflects the combination of the security of

an owned unit with the economies of size provided by

rental units to obtain aviable operation. Land resources

are limited, and as the purchase of land requires

increasing amounts of capital, farm operators have

enlarged their operations through leasing or renting

additional land. Thus, a sizable number of operators who

were classified as full owners in the prior census have

become part owners by the next.

In 1978, part owners operated 42 percent of all land

farmed by blacks, contrasted to only 14 percent in 1950

(21, 24). The part-owner farm is generally much larger

than farms in the other tenure categories. The average

size of black part-owner farms was 144 acres in 1978,

compared with 64 acres for full owners and 57 acres for

tenantfarms. Ofthe 2 million acres farmed by black part

owners, only 800,000 acres, or two-fifths, were owned

by the operator (27). The remainder ofthe farmland was

either rented or leased. Thus, without this additional

acreage, black-operated farms would be much smaller

operations.

The dramatic decline in tenancy among black farmers

has been well documented (2,8,9,11,12). However, in

1978 when the tenancy rate for blacks was down to 16

percent, there were still four States (Maryland, Louisiana,

South Carolina, and Georgia) where tenants made up a

fifth or more of all black farmers (app. table4). With one

exception, these higher tenancy rates were in States with

afairly large number of black farmers. However, Maryland

with only 953 black farmers—two-thirds of whom were

principally engaged in tobacco production—had the

highesttenancy rate of 29 percent. Again, this situation

reflects the historically strong relationship between

tenancy and tobacco farming.

Table 4—Black farmers by tenure, 1930-78

Tenure of farmer 1978 1969 1950 1930

No. Pet. No. Pet. No, Pot. No. Pet.

Total 57,271 100.0 87,393 100.0 559,980 100.0 882,852 100.0

Full owners 34,512 60.3 54,083 61.9 142,919 25.5 139.114 15,8

Part owners 13,735 24.0 15,762 18.0 52,021 9.3 41,902 4.7

Tenants 9,024 15.7 17,548 20.1 365.040' 65.2 701,836' 79.5

'Includes 245 managers in 1950 and 923 managers in 1930.

Source: (27, 23, 24).
Type of Farm

American agriculture is exceedingly heterogeneous, but

the general farm that produces a wide variety of farm

products has largely disappeared. Advances in production technology and changes in marl<eting demands are

some ofthe major forces that have ledto increasedfarm

specialization. The classification of farms by type provides a description ofthe major sources of income from

farm sales and groups togetherfarms which are relatively

uniform inthe kinds and amounts of crops and livestock

products sold. Black farmers have astrong concentration

in a very few farm types.

Blacks have been linked in both historical image and

reality to cotton, not only in the Cotton Belt, but

throughoutthe South. After cotton cametobaccoculture;

third was the general farm on which no one product

accounted for half or more of all agricultural sales.

In 1900, before the boll weevil struck, 70 percent of all

black farmers indicated that cotton was their principal

source of income. While tobacco was not the principal

cropon many black farmsJt was"... a subsidiary crop

of considerable Importance on a great many" (5). The

black farmer was well suitedfor tobaccofarming, which

was grown strictly by hand and animal labor, thus making

good use of the plentiful labor of the traditionally large

black families. Tobacco was also a good crop for black

farmers in that it did not require much land (3).

As late as 1964, cotton and tobaccofarms accounted for

one-half of all southern black-operated farms. Sales from

these two products accounted for two-fifths of the total

sales from black farmers. Although important to blackoperated farms, sales of cotton and tobaccofrom these

farms represented only 7 percent and 6percent, respectively, of the total sales of these products in the South.

Few black farmers are now principally involved in cotton.

"Thetripletriumph oftractors, pickers, and weed control

released thousands of tenants—the majority of them

black.. ."from cotton farming (2). Mechanical picking is

now the standard method of harvesting cotton in the

Southeast. Also, much ofthe present cotton acreage is

in the irrigated areas ofthe Plains and the West where,

exceptfor California, few black farmers are located (15),

In 1978, only 4 percent of all black farmers produced

cotton and only 2 percent operated cotton farms. The

decline in cotton production contributed significantly to

the decline in the number of black farmers as they

became hard-pressed to find another productthat would

provide enough income per acre to make a small farm

viable.

In contrast, black farmers have been more successful in

retaining their place in tobacco farming. Although their

numbers dropped, the continued demand for tobacco,

the relatively small land requirements, the high value per

acre, the lack of competition from other farming areas,

and the comparative protections of tobacco support

programs have kept more black farmers in tobaccothan

in cotton. Tobacco was the leading source of income on

only 2 percent of black-operated farms in 1900, compared

with 14 percent of them in 1978 (table 3) (73).

The present distribution of southern black farmers by

type offarm closely resembles thatfor southernfarmers

generally (table 3). In the eariy fifties, while white

southern farmers converted lands to hay crops and

improved pastures and raised more livestock, black

farmers were slow to adapt. As late as 1959, relatively

few blacks were involved in the South's expanding

sectors of agriculture (2). Today, roughly half of all

southern black farmers operate livestock farms. However,

many are small operations with only afew head of stock.

In 1978, three-fourths ofthe livestock farms operated by

black farmers had less than $2,500 in agricultural sales.

Value of Agricultural Products Sold

The value of agricultural products sold is the gross

market value before taxes and production expenses of

all agricultural products sold from the farm in the reporting

year. Thatfigure represents the sum of all crops, including

nursery products sold, and livestock and poultry and their

products sold; it does not include income from farmrelated sources such as custom-work or agricultural

services or income from nonfarm sources (20).

Sales data are useful in evaluating the relative importance of a specific crop or livestock item. These data

may also be used as a basis for separating farms into

meaningful sales categories for analytical purposes.

Examining sales data reveals that both black and white

farmers are clustered in the lower sales categories.

However, white farmers are relatively better represented

in the higher sales intervals.

In 1978, 33 percent of all southern farm operators and

60 percent of all southern black farm operators sold less
than $2,500 in farm products (table 3). A total of 77

percent of all southern farms and 93 percent of southern

black-operated farms produced less than $20,000 in

sales. Thus, if the criterion that annual sales under

$20,000 is characteristic of small farms were used,

southern farms, and especially southern black-operated

farms, are excessively small.

Many of these small farms are basically part-time or

retirement enterprises, but a sizable proportion report

farming as their principal occupation. The high proportion

of black farms in this small farms category holds true in

most of the South. Only in North Carolina and Virginia

did more than 10 percent of the black-operated farms

have farm products sales of $20,000 or more in 1978

(app. table 4).

However, value of agricultural sales only measures farm

output in terms of gross receipts from farming. A low

value of sales reflects only low farm production and is

not indicative of total income. At the same time, higher

value of sales does not necessarily indicate a better

overall economic situation of a farm family.

Very few employed persons have a sole income source,

andfarmers are no exception. Dataon income sources

offarm operators reveal that in 1979 less than 10 percent

reported farming as their only income source (78). The

value of farm products sold and the level of nonfarm

income are strongly related. Lower sales values generally

indicate higher contributions from nonfarm sources. In

1979, the averagefarm with less than $20,000 in agricultural sales received 94 percent of total income from

nonfarm sources. For the United States and the South,

farm income exceeded that received from nonfarm

sources only when the farm produced at least $40,000

or more in sales (table 5). However, among blacks, farm

income was generally greater than that from nonfarm

sources when sales from agricultural products were as

low as $20,000. In 1979, off-farm income made up 37

percent of total net income from black-operated farms

with sales from $20,000 to $39,999 and 20 percent of

the income when sales were $40,000 or more. Although

the degree of dependence varies, there is little doubt

that this supplemental nonfarm income allows many

farmers to stay in business.

In 1978, about 30,000 black-operated farms, or somewhat more than half, were classified as livestock operations (table 6). However, the likelihood that livestock was

the major speciality decreases as sales increase. Sixtyeight percent of all black-operated farms with sales of

less than $2,500 annually were classified as livestock

(cattle and hogs) operations. For black farms with annual

sales of $20,000 or more, livestock specialties were only

11 percent ofthetotal. Conversely, the likelihood that a

black-operated farm would be classed as atobacco farm

increases as sales increase. The proportion of all black

tobacco farms rises from 4 percent in the lower sales

category to 35 percent at the upper end.

Table 5—Average income per farming family by

major sourceand value of agricultural products sold, 1979

Value of agricultural Total net Net cash Off-farm

products sold cash income farm income income

Dollars

All farms 25,479 11,566 13,913

Less than $20,000 17,351 969 16,382

Less than $5,000 16,776 -285 17,061

$5,000 to $9,999 17,998 1,863 16,135

$10,000 to $19,999 18,484 4,014 14,470

$20,000 to $39,999 19,436 8,642 10,794

$40,000 or more 45,960 36,304 9,656

$40,000 to $99,999 26,199 17,367 8,832

$100,000 or more 72,683 61.912 10,771

Southern farms 23,367 8,326 15,041

Less than $20,000 16,997 1,187 15,810

$20,000 to $39,999 21,790 9,134 12,656

$40,000 or more 51,275 38,490 12,785

Black-operated farms 12,232 1,988 10,244

Less than $20,000 10,792 284 10,508

$20,000 to $39,999 14,383 9,101 5.283

$40,000 or more 43,432 34,638 8.794

Source: (18, 19).

Table 6—Black-operated farms by type of farm and

value of agricultural products sold, 1978

Total

Value of agricultural products sold

Type of farm $1,000-

$2,499

$2,500-

$19,999

$20,000

or more

NLimber

Total 57,271 33.584 19,285 4,402

Cash grain

Cotton

Tobacco

Otherfield crops

Vegetable and melon

9,470

1,367

8.216

2,257

1,512

4,708

345

1,439

734

786

3.837

766

5,260

1,146

607

925

256

1.517

377

119

Fruit and tree nut

Livestock

Dairy

Poultry

Other

440

29,926

437

840

2,806

238

22,887

73

623

1,751

139

6.570

168

43

749

63

469

196

174

306

Source: (21).
The average value of agricultural products sold by all

black farm operators was $7,600 in 1978, compared with

$32,000 for southern farmers generally. The figure for

blacks is very low, butthere is avery widedisparity within

the black group in their scale of production. In 1978, the

total market value of agricultural products sold from

black-operated farms was $434 billion. Although 59

percent of the black-operated farms sold less than

$2,500of products, the 8 percent offarms with sales of

$20,000or more accounted for 62 percent oftotal sales

by black farmers. These farms inthe higher sales classes

account for only 30 percent of the black-operated land

in farms but 52 percent of all cropland harvested from

black-operated farms.

Black-operated farms in the North and West tend to be

larger than those in the South, more commercial in

nature, and tend to produce aboutthreetimes as much

value of products per farm. In 1978, 20 percent of all

black-operated farms outsidethe South sold agricultural

products worth $20,000 or more; the comparable proportion in the South was 7 percent. The average market

value of agricultural products sold by all black farmers

in the Northern and Western States was $20,100 compared with $7,000 for southern black farmers.

The average output per acre is not as high for blackoperated farms as for other farms. The yields of corn,

tobacco, soybeans, and cotton per acre and the total

value of products sold per acre are all significantly lower

for black farmers. Someofthis probably reflects poorer

quality ofland. With their limited savings, blacks probably

could not compete well for the best land in the years

when they were acquiring farms. Some of the lower

output may result from less intensive or poorer management of the land.

Black farmers also have a higher percentageof cropland

that is neither harvested nor grazed. Most ofthis land is

idle, although the category also includes cropfailure and

land in cover crops. Nearly a fifth of ail cropland on

black-operated farms with less than $2,500 in sales was

neither harvested nor grazed in 1978. In effect, low output

per acre and low intensity of use of existing land

resources contribute to the poor economic condition of

black farmers.

Age

Nothing is more critical to the future of black farmers

than the age composition of those now farming. In

pre-World War II days, black farmers were typically

somewhat younger In average age than white farmers.

Since that time, the average age of black farmers has

risen as many young blacks have chosen not to enter

the business. Given the poor level of opportunities

available to younger blacks in farming compared with

the prospects in urban or other nonfarm jobs, the trend

is not surprising. But it has led toa very high proportion

of older farmers among blacks; it is now impossible to

prevent substantial further decline in the number of black

farmers unless there is a major increase in the number

of young blacks who decide to go into farming.

In 1978, 30 percent of all black farm operators were 65

years old or over (table 3). There were 37 black farmers

who were 65 years old or older for each 10 who were

under 35 years old. By contrast, the number of white

farmers under 35 years fully equalled the number 65

years old and over. The older average age of black

farmers makes them about 7 years older than theaverage

whitefarmer. In 1978, the median age of black and white

farmers was 58 years and 51 years, respectively.

Olderfarmers are much more likely tooperate farms that

are low in total output. Farmers 65 years old and older

made up 32 percent of all black farmers with less than

$2,500in agricultural sales in 1978. On farms with annual

sales of $20,000 or more, older black fanners represent

only 11 percent of the total. In essence, many of these

older farmers are already semiretired and constrained in

their ability to farm on a larger commercial scale.

Black farmers have generally had large families; there is

no shortage of heirs. However, only a very small fraction

of their children have been attracted to or felt able to

enter farming in the last generation. Outsiders who have

accumulated capital from other sources occasionally

decide to farm. But the vast majority of farmers in the

United States arethe sons and daughters offarmers. A

national survey taken in 1973 showed that 81 percent of

American malefarmers 21 to64years old were sons of

farmers (6). Therefore, we can safely assumethat unless

conditions arise, or are created, that persuade more

black farm children to enter agriculture, the ranks of black

farmers wilt not stabilize and will almost surely continue

to decline.

Off-Farm Work and Income

Less than half of all black farmers are principally engaged

in farming in terms of the number of hours devoted to

10
farm work. Only about 44 percent of black farmers

reported they spent 50 percent or more oftheir worktime

in 1978 at farm-related jobs. However, the proportion of

black farmers who reported farming as their principal

occupation ranged from 31 percent for those with annual

sales of less than $2,500 to 86 percent for those with

annual sales of $20,000 or more. For all southern

farmers, the comparable range was from 24 percent to

78 percent, respectively (20). Thus black farmers regardless of sales category were more likely than southern

farmers generally to spend half or more oftheir worktime

at farm-related jobs.

Another measure of a farmer's involvement in the farming

operation is days of work off the farm. In 1978, roughly

60 percent of black farmers, as well as all southern

farmers, reported at least 1 day of off-farm work (table

3). Black farmers, however, were somewhat less likely

than southern farmers as a whole to work 200 days or

more off the farm. The heavy involvement in off-farm

work decreases as value of sales increases, but racial

differences still exist. The proportion of black farmers

reporting 200 or more days of off-farm work ranged from

68 percent for those with agricultural sales of less than

$2,500 annually, to 40 percent for those with annual

sales of $20,000 or more. The comparable proportions

were higher for all southern farm operators, ranging from

78 percent to 50 percent, respectively. The trend among

black farmers to report fewer days of work off the farm

apparently was not affected by the volume of agricultural

sales.

The 1979 Farm Finance Survey, a supplement to the

1978 Census ofAgriculture, provides additional information on nonfarm income and off-farm work offarmers and

their spouses (18, 19). Regardless of race or region of

residence of a farmer, a high proportion of farming

families report receipt of some off-farm income. More

than 90 percent of both black and white southern farmers

reported that their families received some nonfarm

income in 1979. There were, however, differences in the

amounts of nonfarm income received based on race of

a farmer. Black farming families were more likely than

whites to report smaller amounts of nonfarm income.

About 60 percent of southern black farming families

compared with 41 percent of southern white families

reported off-farm income of less than $10,000 in 1979

(app. table 5). Among southern families reporting

$20,000 or more in nonfarm income, the white proportion

was about twice that for blacks.

The ratio of net cash farm income to total cash income

may be used as an indicator of the importance of the

income received from off-farm work. According to this

dependency ratio, cash farm income in 1979 contributed

less than 20 percent oftotal cash incomefor about half

of all U.S. farmers. The proportion of all southern farmers,

in general, and southern black farmers, in particular,

reporting this low dependency on cash farm income is

even higher: 58 percent of all southern farmers and 75

percent of this region's black farmers reported that less

than 20 percent oftheir total cash income was cash farm

income. Such low dependency reflects the fact that most

families have more than one income source. These other

income sources also often pay better than farming. A

1976 study of farm income recipients found that only 5

percent of all persons in families with some farm selfemployment income had total dependence on income

derived from farming (7). The proportion of U.S. farmers

reporting a high dependency on farm income is correspondingly low: in 1979, only about 16 percent of all

southern farmers reported 80 percent or more dependency, a proportion roughly twice that for southern black

farmers.

Although there were differences in the total amounts,

both black and white farming families most frequently

reported nonfarm income from cash wages, retirement

and disability, and interest and dividends (app. table 5).

Cash wages contribute the mostto total nonfarm income;

however, this nonfarm income source is more important

to blacks than whites (fig. 2). In 1979, cash wages were

75 percent of the total off-farm income received by

southern black farming families compared with 65 percent for white families. The remaining leading contributors to nonfarm income (retirement and investments)

combined accounted for 20 percent ofthetotal for both

blacks and whites (table 7 and fig. 2). However, the

Table 7—Sources of southern farmers' off-farm income

by race, 1979

Source White

farmers

Black

farmers

1,000 dollars

Total off-farm income 13,893 489

Income from:

Cash wages from

nonfarm work 9,056 367

Retirement and

disability 1,344 83

Interest and dividends 1,395 16

Another 2,098 23

Source: {19).

11
Figure 2

Nonfarm Contributions to Southern Farming Famiiy Income by Source, 1979

Black White

Cash wages from

nonfarm work, 75%

Retirement and

disability. 17%

interest and

dividends. 3%

Other. 5%

Cash wages from

nonfarm work. 65%

Retirement and

disability, 10%

Interest and

dividends. 10%

Other. 15%

Source*- Kl9)

contribution from these two sources individually differed

significantly by race: retirement Income, mainly Social

Security payments, was the more important contributor

to black farming families whereas these two nonfarm

income sources were about equally important among

white farming families.

As the value of agricultural products increases so does

the importanceof investment income. For southern black

farming families with sales of $20,000 or more, income

from interest and dividends was 22 percent of total

nonfarm income.

Although there were variations in the amounts and

sources of off-farm income by race, the likelihood ofthe

operator or spouse, or both, working offthe farm did not

differ. About 47 percent of southern farmers with off-farm

work reported that they were the only worker involved,

and about 40 percent responded that both they and their

spouse worked. There were also no significant differences in the dominant types of off-farm work. In 1979,

aboutthree-fourths ofthe farmers and nine-tenths ofthe

spouses indicated they worked for nonfarm wages as an

employee of a private company or the government (app.

table 5).

The amount of cash wages received for nonfarm work

is directly related to the occupation of the employed.

Thus, the relatively smaller amounts of nonfarm income

reported by black farming families reflectthe concentration of workers in low-skilled and low-payingjobs. About

31 percent of the black farmers and 58 percent of their

spouses reported service work as their principal occupation in 1979. The high representation in this traditionally

lower paying work also reflects the older age structure

and the generally tower educational levels of black

farmers.

White workers, on the other hand, were more likely to

report a higher paying white-collarjob as their principal

nonfarm occupation. In 1979, 43 percent of the white

farmers and 65 percent of their spouses reported they

were principally employed as professional, managerial,

sales, or clerical workers. The comparable proportions

for black farmers and their spouses were 20 percent and

32 percent, respectively. Regardless of race, spouses

were more likely than farmers to work in white-collarjobs.

About afifth ofthe spouses of both racial groups reported

professional or technical work as their principal occupation. There was no significant difference by race in the

likelihood of farmers' reporting blue-collar work as their

principal nonfarm occupation. About 40 percent of the

farmers reported they worked mainly as craftsmen or

machine and transport operators.

Farm Assets and Debts

Assets and debts should certainly be considered when

assessing the economic situation of farmers. Farm

12
assets include the physical resources used in operating

a farm and the financial resources resulting from or

related to the farm business. These assets are a very

important component of farm wealth, and changes in

them, particularly in farm real estate, strongly influence

the income of the owners. Farm debts are the unpaid

principal of the loans, sales contracts, and other bills

owed by the farm operator and spouse {18)P

In 1979, southern white farmers reported about $181

billion in farm assets and the average white southern

farmer's net worth (farm assets minus farm debts) was

$171,000. In contrast, southern black farmers' assets

totaled about $4 billion and the average black-operated

farm had a net worth of $71,000 (table 8). Farm real

estate is the major component of assets for all farm

operators but the proportion is somewhat higher for

blacks than whites. The value of land and buildings

accounted for 75 percent ofthe farm assets for southern

black farmers in 1979. Among southern white farm

operators, farm real estate represented 68 percent ofthe

total. Conversely, financial assets comprised a larger

share of white than black southern farmers' assets.

Over 40 percent of all farmers in the United States with

annual sales of less than $20,000in 1979 reported some

indebtedness. The average amount of debt claims for

thesefarmers was $24,000. In contrast, 74 percent of ail

farmers with higher sales reported indebtedness averaging about $129,000. Thus, farmers with lower sales are

less likely to be in debt, and claims against those with

debts tend to be smaller than those for farmers with

higher agricultural sales.

In 1979, only 36 percent of all southern black farmers

compared with 47 percent of southern white farmers

reported debt claims against their assets. The average

indebtedness for these black southern farmers was

approximately a third that for whites ($23,000 vs.

$62,000). Such low debt for blacks is expected because

they generally operate smaller scale farms that usually

have lower credit needs, and thus have less debt (7).

Black farmers are much like femalefarmers in thatthey

tend to obligate a smaller share oftheir assets to obtain

credit. The debt/asset ratio is often used as a measure

ofthe financial position offarmers and may imply some

financial security. At the national level, the debt/asset

Table 8—Farm assets and debts of southern farmers by

race, 1979

Item White

farmers

Black

farmers

Number

Farms 906,316 48,670

Million dollars

Farm assets

Farm, physical

Land and buildings

Other

Farm, financial

180,837 3,832

158,149 3,463

123,063 2,876

35.086 587

22,688 369

Farm debt 26,272 396

Farm net worth 154,566 3,436

Percent

Debts as percentage of

assets

Percentage offarms

with debt

14.5 10.3

47.0 35.7

Source: (79).

ratios for black farmers and femalefarmers in 1979 were

11.3 percent and 8.9 percent, respectively. Thus, both

groups of farmers would seem to be good credit risks,

yet both "... use fewer financial resources toexpand or

upgrade their farming operations" (7). This fiscal conservatism probably reflects the older age structure

characteristic of both black and female farmers. Older

farmers tend to reduce, not expand, their operations.

The 1979 data discussed in this section are the most

recent available by race offarmer. Generally, thefinancial

condition of many farmers deteriorated in the early

eighties (14).

Black Farmers in 1982: A Partial Update

The 1982 Census ofAgriculture presents the most recent

statistical profile of U.S. agriculture atthe county, State,

and national levels (76,17). However, 1982 data are not

comparable with the earlier data because budget reductions led to procedural changes in methodology and

enumeration. However, the estimates for 1978 presented

in this section have been adjusted to be comparable to

those for 1982 (and thus they differ from those shown in

previous sections)."^

Some national and State data on farms and farmer

characteristics by race are published in 1982 census

^Thls discussion is limited to farm assets and debts only; complete

data on nonfarm assets and debts by race offarmers are not available.

"^For a detailed discussion on methods of enumeration and data

comparability for the 1982 Census of Agriculture see (16).

13
reports (16, 17).^ According to this latest census, 2.4

percent of tine Nation's 2.2 million farms were operated

by members of a minority race. Black farmers were, as

in the past, the largest minority race group at 61 percent

of the total:

Minority farmers, 1982

Number Percent

Total 54,367 100.0

Black 33,250 61.2

American Indian 7,211 13.3

Asian and Pacific Islander 8,000 14.7

Other 5,906 10.8

Source: (76).

Despite these procedural changes, many of the major

trends and racial differences in farm characteristics

discussed earlier were still clearly evident in 1982. For

example, the number of farms operated by blacks

continued to drop more rapidly than otherfarms. Between

1978 and 1982, black-operated farms decreased by

about 10 percent compared with less than a 1-percent

decline of all farms (table 9). This more rapid decline

among black farmers occurred almost entirely in the

South;thetotal number of black-operated farms outside

the South (2,100) hardly changed during this 4-year

period.

Black farmers also continued to have smaller operations.

In 1982, about half of all black farmers had fewer than

50 acres, and the average size of black-operated farms

(104 acres) was less than a fourth the U.S. average (table

9). However, the national trend toward larger farms

reversed between 1978 and 1982. In contrast to the

gradual increases reported for earlier periods, the

average size of U.S. farms declined during this 4-year

period. The average farm size declined for all farmers

except those who were Asian or Pacific Islander. The

national average size of black-operated farms declined

by 5.5 percent, a loss abouttwicethatfor white-operated

farms. In the South, the average sizeof black-operated

farms as well as all southern farms generally declined

about 4 percent.

As in earlier years, black farmers were very concentrated,

with about 94 percent being in the South in 1982. There

were also continued heavy concentrations within a few

^Special tabulations are planned for detailed racial statistics

from the 1982 Census of Agriculture, but these tabulations are

not yet available.

Southern States (fig. 3). Half of all southern blackoperated farms were in four States. Mississippi and North

Carolina, with 4,800 and 4,400 black farmers, respectively, continue in thetoptwo ranks (app. table 6). Texas,

the only Southern State where the number of blackoperated farms increased substantially between 1978

and 1982, ranked third with 3,300. Despite a 17-percent

declineduring 1978-82, South Carolina had3,100 blackoperated farms in 1982 and ranked fourth. Outside the

South, the leading States in number of black farmers

were California (357), Missouri (238), and Ohio (230).

Nearly 40 percent of all black farmers outsidethe South

in 1982 were in these three States.

Black-operated farms remained comparatively small in

terms of valueof agricultural sales. In 1982,47 percent

of all black farmers reported less than $2,500 in sales

and only 21 percent reported $10,000or more (table9).

For the South as a whole, where the vast majority of

black-operated farms are located, the comparable proportions in these two sales groups were 32 percent and

37 percent, respectively. The averagevalue per southern

farm of all agricultural products sold in 1982 was $12,200

for black farmers, barely one-fifth that of $59,400 for

white farmers.

Livestock and cash grain remain the major farm types

regardless of race of operator. However, black farmers

are still more likely than other farmers to grow some

tobacco and to producetobacco as their main source of

income. In 1982, 15 percent of all black farmers were

tobacco farmers; the comparable proportion among

farmers generally was 6 percent. Tobacco is particularly

important among large-scale black farms. Nearly athird

of all black farmers with annual sales of $20,000 or more

in 1982 relied principally on tobacco.

In 1982, the average ageof black farmers was 57years,

while the national average was 51 years of age. Black

farmers weretwiceas likely as other operators to be 65

years old or over, thus many are farming basically in

retirement (table 10). This age difference almost surely

partly explains why a majority of black farmers operate

at a rather low level of activity.

Females comprise a higher proportion of black and other

minority race farmers than white farmers. In 1982, 9

percent of all black farmers were female compared with

5 percent among whites. This disparity may reflect

differences in marital status: black and other minority

women are less likely than white women to be married

14
Table9—Selected characteristics of allfarms and black-operated farmsforthe United States and the South, 1982and 1978

United States South

Characteristic

All farms Black-operated

farms All farms Black-operated

farms

Number

Farms, 1982 2,240.976 33,250 896,591 31.121

Farms, 1978^ 2,257,775 37,351 897,085 35.207

1,000 acres

Land ¡n farms, 1982 986,797 3,475 293,794 3,091

Land ¡n farms, 1978^ 1,014,777 4,112

Acres

305.123 3,647

Average size of farm, 1982 440 104 328 99

Average size of farm, 1978^ 449 110

Percent

340 104

Farms by acres, 1982:

1to49 28.4 49.2 31.9 49.4

50 to 139 24.0 31.8 28.8 32.4

140 to 219 12.8 9.1 12.2 9.1

220 to 499 18.4 7.3 14.5 6.9

500 or more 16.3 2.6 12.5 2.3

Farm by value of agricultural products sold, 1982:^

Less than $2,500 24.0 47.3 31.8 48.3

$2,500 to $9,999 25.0 31.7 31.3 31.7

$10,000 to $19,999 11.6 9.4 11.3 9.2

$20,000 or more 39.5 11.6 25.6 10.8

Farms by type, 1982:

Cash grain 25.7 21.1 14.8 20.7

Cotton .9 2.5 2.0 2.6

Tobacco 5.9 14.9 13.9 15.9

Otherfield crops 4.5 4.6 3.9 4.5

Vegetable and melon 1.4 3.2 1.4 3.1

Fruit and tree nut 3.8 .9 2.2 .6

Livestock 40.5 44.9 48.3 45.1

Dairy 7.3 1,0 2.6 .8

Poultry 1.9 1.0 3.1 1.0

Other 8.1 5.9 7.9 5.8

Note: Totals may not add due to rounding.

^The 1978 estimates shown in this table are adjusted to be comparable with 1982 estimates. Ttlus, they differ from the 1978 estimates shown

in other tables.

^Excludes institutional farms, experimental and research farms, and Indian reservations.

Source: {16, 17).

with husbands present. Because fewer are living with

their husbands, minority women are more likely to be

officially designated as farmers (7).

Full owners are usually somewhat older and more likely

to run a smaller operation — both are characteristic of

black farmers.

The national trend toward increased tenantfarming and

the long-term trend toward decreased black tenant

farming have ledto similarities in tenancy rates. In 1982,

forthefirsttime since the data werefirst collected, black

farmers were no more likely than other farmers to operate

as tenants (table 10). Although there have been some

changes, blacks are still more likely than other farmers

tooperate as full owners and less likely as part owners.

Black farmers at the national level are more likely than

otherfarmers to be principally engaged in an occupation

other than farming. In the South, however, there is no

difference by race of operator in the likelihood of their

spending 50 percent or more of their worktime at nonfarm-relatedjobs, but blacks are somewhat less likely to

be heavily involved in such employment. In 1982, 60

15
O) Figure 3

Southern Black Farmers, 1982

Black farmers

per county

50 or more

320 to 49

10 to 19

3 to 9

Source: {/7)
Table10-—Selected farmer characteristicsfor all farms and black-operated farmsforthe United Statesand the South, 1982

United States South

Characteristic All farms Black-operated

farms All farms Black-operated

farms

Number

All farmers 2,240,976 33,250 896,591 31,121

Percent

Age:

Under 35 years

35to 44 years

45 to 54 years

55to 64 years

65 years and older

15.9

19.8

22.6

23.9

17.8

7.8

13.8

19.7

26.1

32.5

13.0

19.2

22.6

24.2

21.0

7.5

13.5

19.5

26.2

33.3

Sex:

Male 94.6 90.6 93.3 90.6

Female 5.4 9.4 6.7 9.4

Tenure:

Full owners 59.2 62.2 65.8 61.9

Part owners 29.3 26.4 24.4 26.8

Tenants 11.6 11.3 9.9 11.3

Principal occupation:

Farming

aher

55.1

44.9

45.7

54.2

45.4

54.6

45.7

54.3

Farmers report! ng days of work off farm :

None 42.1 39.9 36.3 40.1

Any 57.9 60.1 63.7 59.9

1Í0 99 10.9 11.8 9.5 11.9

100 to 199 9.2 12.0 9.7 12.1

200 or more 37.8 36.3 44.5 35.9

Note: Totals may not add due to rounding.

Source: (76, 17).

percent ofthe black farmers reporting off-farm work were

employed 200 days or more; the comparable proportion

for southern farmers overall was 70 percent.

Conclusion

Oneof every seven U.S. farmers was black in 1920 when

blackfarmers were attheir peak and numbered 926,000.

Since then, the rates of farm loss have been much

heavier among blacks than among other racial groups.

By 1982, only 1 farmer in 67 was black. There were only

33,000 black farmers in 1982, and they comprised less

than 2 percent of the Nation's 2.2 million farmers.

Althoughthere is no foreseeable reversal ofthe long-term

downward trend, the bulk of the displacement of black

farmers from agriculture has taken place.

The rapid and continuing technological advancements

ofthe previous decades have probably not affected black

farmers any differently than other small farmers of limited

resources. The unique problem facing blacks was their

concentration in thosetypes offarmingandtenure most

affected by technology, such as cotton and, to a somewhat lesser extent, tobacco and tenant status. Further

decline in the number of blackfarmers will result primarily

from the pace of retirement and death of older operators

and the extent to which younger operators enter the

industry. Thereare no current indications of asignificant

offsetting replacement of young black farmers. Despite

these drastic declines in their number, black farmers

remainthe leading minority group among U.S. farmers.

Black-operated farms have always been, and still are,

heavily concentrated in the Southern States. In 1982,

more than 90 percent of all black farmers were in this

region. Thus, the black farmer's future, whatever it is, is

still closely tied to the future of southern agriculture.

Sincethe beginning ofthe century, American agriculture

has changed In many ways, but black-operated farms

still remain, on average, abnormally small in terms of

acreage and value of agricultural products sold. The

17
average black-operated farm has only about 100 SK^res;

the national average is about 440 acres. Thevast majority

of black farmers do not have sufficient sales of farm

products to survive on farm income alone; in 1982, half

had sales of less than $2,500. Thus, blackfarmers,like

operators of other small farms, have a strong need for

supplemental nonfarm income. As a result, the availability of off-farm jobs and possession of marketablejob

skills become of prime importance.

Black farmers, however, are generally olderand lesswell

educated. Hence, they are often ineligible for nonfarm

emptoyment because of age or lack of skills. Older

farmers, generally, are occupationally and geographically

immobile because of age, health, and lack of training,

regardless of race. Strategies developed to improvethe

plight of small farmers generally, and black farmers in

particular, shouid take into account the difference between the needs of younger and older farmers.

References

1. Banks, Vera J., and Judith Z. Kalbacher. Farm

Income Recipients and Their Families: A

Socioeconomic Profile. RDRR-30. U.S. Dept. Agr.,

Econ. Res. Serv., Sept. 1981.

2. Beale, Calvin L. "The BlackAmericanin Agriculture,"

The BlackAmerican Reference Book. Ed. Mabel M.

Smythe. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

1976.

3. "The Negro in American Agriculture," The American Negro Reference Book. Ed.

John P. Davis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,

Inc., Nov. 1966.

4. Bogue, Donald J., and Calvin L. Beale. Economic

Areas of the United States: A Comprehensive

Statistical and Descriptive Analysis of SocioEconomic Characteristics. New York: The Free

Press of Glencoe, Inc., 1961.

5. DuBois, W.E. Burghardt. "The Negro Farmer,"

Twelfth Census of the United States: 1900.

Supplementary Analysis and Derivative Tables,

Special Reports. U.S. D^pt. Comm., Bur. Cen., 1906.

6. Featherman, David L., and Robert M. Hauser.

Opportunity and Change. New York: Academic

Press, 1978.

7. Kalbacher, Judith Z. A Profile ofFemale Farmers in

America, RDRR-45. US. Dept. Agr., Econ. Res.

Serv., Jan. 1985.

8. Lewis, James A. White and Minority Small Farm

Operators in the South. AER-353. U.S. Dept Agr.,

Econ. Res. Serv., Dec. 1976.

9. Schor, Joel. A Ust of References for the History of

Black Americans in Agriculture. U.S. Dept. Agr. in

cooperation with the Agr. History Center, Univ. of

California, Davis, June 1981.

10. The Emergency Land Fund. The Impact of Heir

Property on Black Rural Land Tenurein the Southeastern Region of the United Sfaies. Atlanta, GA,

Jan. 1981.

11. Thompson,AllenR., andMichaelGreenvTTreStalus

of Minority Farms in the United States, 1974. ESS

Staff Report AGESS801009. U.S. Dept. A^r, Econ.

Stat. Serv., Oct. 1980.

12. U.S. Commission on Civil fV^rús. The Decline of

Black Farming in America. Feb. 1982.

13. U.S. Department ofAgriculture. Reportofthe USDA

Task Force on Black Farm Ownership. Sept. 1983.

14. , Economic Research Service.

The Current Financial Condition of Farmers and

Farm Lenders. AIB-490. Mar. 1985.

15. , Statistical Reporting Service.

Crop Production: 1983 Summary. CrPr 2-1 (84). Jan.

1984.

16. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census. 1982 Census of Agriculture. Vol. 1 : Summary and State Data. Part 51. Oct. 1984.

17. ; . 1982 Census of Agriculture.

Vol. 1: Geographic Area Series. Parts 1-50, State

and County Data. Sept 1984.

18. - 1978 Census of Agriculture.

Vol. 5: SpecialReports. Part6: "1979 Farm Finance

Survey." Juiy 1982.

19. , 7978 Census of Agriculture.

Unpublished 1979 Farm Finance Surveydatatabulations. Mar. 1983.

20. _^ ; . 7978 Census of Agriculture.

Vbl. 1: Summary and State Data. Parts 1-51. July

1981.

21. . 1978 Census of Agriculture.

Unpublished Census ofAgriculturedatatabulations.

Oct. 1982.

22. . 1974 Census of Agriculture.

VDI. 1 : Summary and State Data. Part 51. Dec. 1977.

23. - 1969 Census of Agriculture.

Vbk 11 : General Report. Ch. 3: "Farm Management,

Farm Operators." Aug. 1973.

24. 7950 Census of Agriculture.

Vbl. 11: General Report. Ch. XI: "Color^Race, and

Tenure of Farm Operator." Dec. 1952.

18
Appendixtable 1 —Southern counties with the most blacic

farmers, 1978

Appendix tabie 2—Southern counties where biacic farmers

represented 20 percent or more of all farmers, 1978

Rnnk County and Number of blackllCIIII\ State operated farms

1 Williamsburg.SC 478

2 Halifax, VA 419

3 Orangeburg, SC 381

4 Bladen,NC 320

5 Duplln,NC 317

6 Florence, SC 289

7 St. Landry, LA 243

8 Sumter, SC 241

9 Columbus, NC 238

10 Sampson, NC 237

11 Granville, NC 234

12 Bertie, NC 224

Caswell, NC 224

14 Pittsylvania,VA 216

15 Clarendon, SC 212

16 Marshall, MS 209

17 Hinds, MS 207

18 Halifax, NC 206

19 Warren, NC 203

20 Mecklenburg, VA 202

21 Holmes, MS 192

22 Dallas, AL 191

23 Sumter, AL 189

24 Greene, AL 183

25 Phillips, AR 182

26 Madison, MS 178

27 Brunswick, VA 176

28 Lee, AR 172

29 Witcox,AL 168

Franklin, NC 168

31 Marengo, AL 167

32 Person, NC 165

33 Berkeley, SC 164

34 Haywood, TN 159

35 Jackson,FL 151

36 Northampton, NC 144

37 Robeson, NC 142

38 Lowndes, AL 140

39 Houston, TX 136

40 Macon,AL 135

41 Horry,SC 134

42 Colleton, SC 133

43 Hale, AL 132

Fayette, TN 132

45 Kemper, MS 131

46 Lunenburg,VA 129

47 Panola, MS 127

Marion, SC 127

49 Dinwiddie.VA 125

50 Brunswick, NC 123

Wake,NC 123

Rank County and State Percent

1 Greene, AL 43.57

2 Wilcox,AL 38.36

3 Williamsburg, SC 37.72

4 Sumter, SC 35.34

5 Claiborne,MS 34.39

6 Warren, NC 34.35

7 Sumter, AL 33.57

8 Jasper, SC 33.01

9 Clarendon, SC 32.71

10 Macon,AL 32.14

11 Beaufort, SC 31.48

12 Berkeley, SC 31.42

13 Surfy,VA 30.09

14 Holmes, MS 29.95

15 Dallas, AL 29.84

16 Georgetown, SC 29.45

17 Halif^,NC 28.53

18 Lowndes, AL 28.46

19 Phillips, AR 28.39

20 Greensville,VA 28.32

21 Allendale, SC 28.02

22 Perry, AL 27.71

23 Marshall, MS 27.68

24 Lee, AR 27.09

25 Marion, SC 26.96

26 Brunswick, VA 26.75

27 Madison, MS 26.41

28 Hale, AL 25.98

29 Orangeburg, SC 25.52

30 Bladen,NC 25.12

31 Wilkinson, MS 24.40

32 Burke, GA 24.38

33 Adams, MS 24.04

34 Halifax, VA 23.94

35 Marengo, AL 23.86

36 Bertie, NC 23.58

37 Haywood, TN 23.38

38 Caswell, NC 22.86

39 Humphreys, MS 22.66

40 Jefferson, MS 22.43

Hertford, NC 22.43

42 Dinwiddie,VA 21.97

43 Choctaw, AL 21.73

Bullock, AL 21.73

45 Kemper, MS 21.69

46 Issaquena, MS 21.68

47 Northampton, NC 21.65

48 Lunenburg,VA 21.36

49 Clay, MS 21.27

50 Dorchester, SC 21.24

51 Westmoreland, VA 20.93

52 King and Queen, VA 20.74

53 Jefferson Davis, MS 20.53

54 Hinds, MS 20.41

Source: (20).

Note: Excludes counties with fewer than 25 black farmers.

Source: (20).

19
Appendix table 3—1Black farmers In selected States, 1900-78

State 1978 1969 1959 1950 ^ 1940 1930 1920 1910 1900

Number

Alabama 4.791 9,873 29,206 57,205 73,338 93,795 95,200 110,387 94,069

Arkansas 2,067 3,775 14,654 40,810 57,011 79,556 72,275 63,578 46,978

Florida 2,307 1,365 3,664 7,473 9,731 11,010 12,954 14.698 13,521

Georgia 4,485 5,571 20,163 50,352 59,127 86,787 130,176 122,554 82,822

Kentucky 1,092 1,753 3,327 4,882 5,546 9,104 12.624 11,709 11,227

Louisiana 3,296 5,518 17.686 40,599 59,556 73,734 62,036 54,819 58.096

Maryland 953 682 2,132 3,595 4,052 5,275 6,228 6,382 5.859

Mississippi 8,817 17,184 55,174 122,709 159,256 182,578 161,001 164,488 128,351

Missouri 279 426 1,684 3,214 3,686 5,844 2,824 3,656 4,950

North Carolina 7.680 13.111 41,023 69,029 57,428 74,636 74,849 64,456 53,996

Oklahoma 851 1,026 2,633 5.910 8,987 15.172 13,403 13,209 6,353

South Carolina 6,451 9.535 30,953 61.255 61.204 77,331 109,005 96.772 85,381

Tennessee 2,405 4,930 15,018 24,044 27,972 35,123 38,181 38.300 33,883

Texas 5,420 5,375 t5,432 34,389 52,648 85,940 78.597 69.816 65,472

Virginia 3,895 5,453 15,629 28,527 35,062 39,598 47,690 48,039 44,795

Source: (20, 23).

20
Appendix table 4—Selected characteristics of ail farms and black-operated farms for the South by State, 1978

Southern States with 100 or more black farmers

^^1—, _ ^.A. .^.X .^^ M^ï .^.it ._.

Alabama Arkansas Florida

Characteristic Unit

All

farms

Black- All

farms

Black- All

farms

Blackoperated

farms

operated

farms

operated

farms

Farms Number 57.503 4,791 58,766 2,067 44.068 2,307

Land in farms 1,000 acres 11,548 413 15,577 194 13,306 150

Average size of farm Acres 201 86 265 94 302 65

Average vatue of land and buildings per farm Dollars 128,260 65,177 203,014 75,303 351,646 75.858

Farms by acres:

1to49 Percent 36.0 54.7 25.5 51.8 56.6 75.0

50 to 99 do. 21.0 22.0 19.6 21.2 13.0 10.0

100 to 179 do. 17.4 12.6 19.3 14.7 10.3 8.3

180 to 259 do. 7.9 3.8 9.8 5.4 4.9 2.9

260 to 999 do. 14.6 6.4 20.7 6.1 11.0 3.3

1,000 or more do. 3.2 .6 5.2 .8 4.2 .5

Farms by value of agricultural products sold:^

Less than $2,500 do. 39.8 73.2 30.8 49.7 36.2 66.5

$2,500 to $4,999 do. 16.5 10.9 16.9 20.6 14.4 9.4

$5,000 to $9,999 do. 13.4 8.7 13.7 13.9 12.4 10.8

$10,000 to $19,999 do. 8.9 3.3 9.0 7.5 10.6 5.9

$20,000 to $39,999 do. 6.4 2.3 6.8 5,4 8.6 4.2

$40,000 to $99,999 do. 7.8 1.0 10.7 1,9 8.2 2.0

$100,000 or more do. 7.1 .6 12.1 .9 9.6 1.3

Average market value of agricultural products

soid perfarm Dollars 27,398 4,914 42,799 7,598 69,148 9,755

Farms bytype:

Cash grain Percent 16.2 13.1 20.3 39.7 5.5 8.2

Cotton do. 2.4 2.7 3.0 12.2 2

0

Tobacco do. .1 .1 2

0 1.4 5.4

Livestocli, except dairy, poultry, and

animal specialties do. 55.2 65.2 55.9 38.8 40.5 65.1

Others do. 26.2 18.8 20,9 9.4 52.6 21.2

Tenure of farmer:

Full owners do. 65.0 61.6 64.9 56.6 75.5 70.3

Part owners do. 26.5 22.5 24.1 23.9 16.3 20,2

Tenants do. 8.5 15.9 11.0 19.5 8.2 9.6

Age of farmer:

Under 35 years do. 13.5 6.7 14.7 7.9 13.7 8.1

35 to 54 years do. 44.6 32.4 45.2 35.8 45.1 31.3

55 to 64 years do. 24.1 26.9 23.5 22.6 23.7 38.6

65 years and older do. 17.8 33.9 16.6 33.6 17.5 22.0

Farmers reporting days of work off farm:

None do. 33.5 36.5 41.3 47.8 37.1 32.5

1to99 do. 8.5 12.0 8.9 9.9 7.3 6.9

100 to 199 do. 8.1 10.9 9.1 8.6 8.1 16.9

200 or more do. 49.9 40.6 40.8 33.7 47.5 43.7

See footnotes at end of table. Continued—

21
Appeñdixtabte 4—Selected chara«âeristics of aHfarmsandJblâekHoperated farms fortheS^^ byState, 1978—Continued

Southern States with 100 or more black farmers

-^^1» ^ ^.^ ^J. t _ AS ._.

Georgia Kentucky Louisiana

Characteristic Unit

All

farms

Black- All

farms

Black- Ail

farms

Blackoperated

farms

operated

farms

operated

farms

Farms Number 58,648 4.485 109,980 1,092 38.923 3.296

Land In farms 1,000 acres 13,742 383 15,040 83 9,605 226

Average size of farm Acres 234 86 137 76 247 69

Average value of land and buildings per farm Dollars 181,876 64,667 118,905 86,167 246,753 87,016

Farms by acres:

1to49 Percent 31.9 57.0 34.9 57.1 40.3 65.0

50 to 99 do. 18.8 15.5 21.6 20.1 16.3 17.4

100to179 do. 18.1 15.6 20.9 13.7 14.8 9.9

180to259 do. 9.1 5.0 9.5 3.6 7.1 3.1

260 to 999 do. 18.0 8.3 12.2 4.9 16.5 4.0

1,000 or more do. 4.1 .6 .9 .5 5.1 .6

Farms by value of agricultural products sold:^

Less than $2,500 do. 33.7 62.7 24.2 32.0 41.9 67.1

$2,500 to $4.999 do. 14.1 13.4 19.6 26.6 14.1 10.6

$5,000 to $9,999 do. 11.9 8.1 20.3 21.1 11.2 9.6

$10,000to $19.999 do. 9.8 7.6 16.3 10.6 8.2 6.9

$20.000to $39,999 do. 8.1 4.4 10.7 6.0 6.9 2.9

$40.000to $99,999 do. 11.1 2.6 6.6 2.6 94 2.0

$100,000 or more do. 11.3 1.2 2.4 1.1 8.7 .8

Average market value of agricultural products

sold per farm Doliars 40,807 7,617 16,858 9,319 31.611 6,170

Farms by type:

Cash grain Percent 14.2 18.9 9.6 7.1 23.9 20.1

Cotton do. .5 .3 0 0 4.6 6.4

Tobacco do. 4.5 4.6 46.1 50.4 2

0

Livestock, except dairy, poultry, and

animal specialties do. 46.8 56.9 30.1 32.4 51.3 52.1

Others do. 34.0 21.2 14.3 10.1 20.2 21.5

Tenure of farmer:

Full owners do. 64.0 59.0 68.2 76.1 57.3 54.1

Part owners do. 26.2 20.9 19.3 15.8 28.2 20.5

Tenants do. 9.8 20.1 12.5 8.2 14.5 25.4

Age of farmer:

Under 35 years do. 13.5 7.3 17.3 6.3 15.1 9.1

35 to 54 years do. 43.5 43.5 42.3 37.0 42.1 35.5

55 to 64 years do. 24.3 27,2 21.7 24.6 24.4 29.0

65 years and older do. 18.7 22.0 18.8 32.1 18.4 26.4

Fanners reporting days ofworkoff farm :

None do. 41.2 38.8 38.2 41.0 40.0 38.0

1to99 do. 8.0 8.5 11.3 12.6 9.6 13.2

100 to 199 do. 7.5 7.8 8.4 7.4 10.1 13.7

200 or more do. 43.3 44,9 42.1 39.0 40.3 35.1

See footnotes at end of table. Continued—

22
Appendix table 4—Selected characteristics of all farms and bJack-operated farms fortheSouth by State, 1978—Continued

Southern States with 100 or more black farmers

Characteristic

Maryland Mississippi North Carolina

Unit

All

farms

Black- All

farms

Black- All

farms

Blackoperated

farms

operated

farms

operated

farms

Farms Number 18,727 953 54,182 8,817 89,367 7,680

Land in farms 1,000 acres 2,714 49 13,865 677 11,353 423

Average size of farm Acres 145 51 256 77 127 55

Average value of land and buildings perfarm Dollars 269,193 129,223 173,475 57,277 135,072 59,564

Farms by acres:

1to49 Percent 44.5 69.5 27.9 62.2 43.5 66.7

50 to 99 do. 16.5 19.5 21.5 23.4 22.3 18.3

100to179 do. 15.3 4.5 19.5 15.9 16.1 9.1

180 to 259 do. 8.4 2.7 9.1 4.5 7.1 3.1

260 to 999 do. 13.8 3.5 16.9 3.7 9.8 2.8

1,000 or more do. 1.5 .2 5.1 .2 1.2 .1

Farms by value of agricuitu ral products sold : ^

Less than $2,500 do. 26.9 35.9 44.1 75.0 27.4 39.2

$2,500 to $4,999 do. 14.4 24.2 15.8 12.4 14.1 15.1

$5,000 to $9,999 do. 13.6 15.1 12.1 6.4 14.5 17.2

$10,000 to $19,999 do. 11.6 17.2 8.2 3.5 12.9 12.0

$20,000 to $39,999 do. 9.1 3.3 5.7 1.7 11.3 10.2

$40.000 to $99,999 do. 12.6 2.9 6.2 .7 12.0 5.1

$100,000 or more do. 11.8 1.4 8.0 .2 7.8 1.2

Average market value of agricultural products

sold perfarm Dollars 43,040 10,657 31,341 3,514 33,941 12,131

Farms by type:

Cash grain Percent 22.3 12.5 19.3 15.7 16.0 13.0

Cotton do. 0 0 6.1 5.8 .1 .1

Tobacco do. 15.2 68.3 0 0 38.9 44.3

Livestocic, except dairy, poultry, and

animal specialties do. 22.9 9.8 57.5 64.1 25.9 31.5

Others do. 39.7 9.4 17.2 14.4 19.1 11.0

Tenure of farmer:

Full owners do. 60.7 50.3 65.0 68.7 54.4 53.9

Part owners do. 24.5 20.6 25.5 19.1 31.1 29.6

Tenants do. 14.8 29.2 9.6 12.3 14.5 16.5

Age of farmer:

Under 35 years do. 13.8 8.6 13.1 7.5 14.8 7.7

35 to 54 years do. 44.0 36.8 43.2 33.8 41.8 37.7

55 to 64 years do. 24.1 23.2 23.3 25.9 25.2 29.4

65 years and older do. 18.1 31.4 20.5 32.8 18.2 25.2

Farmers reporting days of work off farm:

None do. 40.9 37.5 35.5 38.9 43.8 42.3

1to99 do. 9.4 6.9 8.6 11.1 11.4 11.3

100 to 199 do. 8.9 15.1 10-2 13.2 7.9 10.9

200 or more do. 40.8 40.5 45.7 36.8 36.8 35.4

See footnotes at end of table. Continued—

23
Appendixtable4—Selected characteristics of all farms and black-operated farmsfortheSouth byState, 1978—Gontinued

Southern States with 100 or more black farmers

Characteristic

Oklahoma South Carolina Tennessee

Unit

All

farms

Black- All

farms

Black- All

farms

Blackoperated

farms

operated

farms

operated

farms

Farms Number 79,388 851 33,430 6,451 97,036 2,405

Land in farms 1,000 acres 34,344 t34 6,319 325 13,150 178

Average size offarm Acres 433 158 189 50 136 74

Average value of land and buildings perfarm Dollars 222,624 93,347 146,244 50,101 116,883 72,689

Farms by acres:

1to49 Percent 18.8 32.5 40.7 73.4 38.9 60.2

50 to 99 do. 13.7 24.2 19,3 14.6 22.6 19.7

100 to 179 do- 18.6 18.3 15.6 6.7 18.4 10.8

180 to 259 do. 9.2 8.9 7.7 2.5 7.8 4.0

260 to 999 do. 30.1 14.3 13.5 2.5 11.0 4.9

1,000 or more do. 9.6 1.6 3.2 .2 1.3 .5

Farms by value of agricultural products sold:^

Less than $2,500 do. 26.1 59.1 43.3 67.3 34.5 51.2

$2,500 to $4,999 do. 17.0 18.2 14.8 11.5 22.1 21.4

$5,000 to $9,999 do. 17.0 12.8 12.4 9.8 18.3 1 3.8

$10,000 to $19,999 do. 14.5 6.0 9.Ô 6.1 11.3 7.3

$20,000 to $39.999 do. 11.2 1.9 7.3 3.3 6.4 4.2

$40,000 tO$99,999 do. 9.5 1.4 7.0 1.5 4.7 1.6

$100,000 or more do. 4.7 .6 6.1 .6 2.7 .6

Average market value of agricultural products

sold per farm Dollars 29,824 6,6^7 25,959 5,719 14,694 6,670

Farms by type:

Cash grain Percent 14.0 6.8 26.8 25.8 12.0 18.4

Cotton do. 1.9 2 .6 .2 1.1 4.8

Tobacco do. 0 0 13.7 18.8 26.0 15.0

Livestock, except dairy, poultry, and

animal specialties do. 69.5 84.7 42.2 43.1 46.5 54.0

Others do. 14.5 8.4 16.7 12.0 14.4 7.9

Tenure of farmer;

Full owners do. 55.0 53.2 57.9 51.7 70.1 67.6

Part owners do. 32.4 32.9 30,4 26.9 21.3 20.9

Tenants do. 12.6 13.9 11.7 21.4 8.7 11.5

Age of farmer:

Under 35 years do. 15.0 7.2 135 11.5 14.4 8.0

35 to 54 years do. 43.6 27.6 41.0 36.7 41.0 30.4

55 to 64 years do. 22.4 24.0 24.a 26.9 23.8 29.1

65 years and older do. 18.9 41.2 21.4 24.8 20.8 32.4

Farmers reporting days of work off farm:

None do. 35.3 40.9 36.2 36.4 35.2 47.2

1to99 do. 9.3 8.7 11.0 11.3 9.5 8.7

100 to 199 do. 9.2 10.1 8.7 13.8 8.0 7.7

200 or more do. 46.3 40.3 44.1 38.5 47.4 36.4

See footnotes at end of table. Continued—

24
Appendixtable4—Selected characteristics of all farmsand black-operated farmsforthe South by State, 1978--Contlnued

Southern States with 100 or more black farmers

Texas Vlroinia

Characteristic Unit

All farms Black-operated

farms All farms Black-operated

farms

Farms Number 194,253 5,420 56,869 3,895

Land In farms 1,000 acres 137,547 640 9,965 332

Average size of farm Acres 708 118 175 85

Average value of land and buildings per farm Dollars 275,047 89,111 163,918 78,743

Farms by acres:

1to49 Percent 21.2 48.2 33.9 50.5

50 to 99 do. 15.0 19.0 19.8 20.2

10010179 do. 17.2 21.0 19.1 18.4

180 to 259 do. 9.3 5.3 9.3 5.7

260 to 999 do. 25.2 5.6 15.9 5.0

1,000 or more do. 12.0 .9 2.1 .2

Farms by value of agricuitu raí products sold : ^

Less than $2,500 do. 30.9 65.4 32.4 37.8

$2,500 to $4,999 do. 18.0 21.4 18.9 21.1

$5.000 to $9,999 do. 15.6 6.2 16.3 19.4

$10,000 to $19,999 do. 11.5 4.2 12.0 11.1

$20.000 to $39,999 do. 8.7 1.4 8.4 6.6

$40,000 to $99,999 do. 8.6 1.1 7.1 2.9

$100,000 or more do. 6.7 .3 5.0 1.0

Average market value of agricultural products

sold perfarm Dollars 42,829 4,190 22,933 9,550

Farms by type:

Cash grain Percent 8.1 4.7 9.2 15.4

Cotton do. 8.5 1.5 0 0

Tobacco do. 0 0 23.7 43.0

Livestock, except dairy, poultry, and

animal specialties do. 66.8 83.7 44.3 29.4

Others do. 16.7 10.0 22.9 12.1

Tenure of farmer:

Full owners do. 56.5 63.9 61.9 53.7

Part owners do. 29.3 25.3 27.3 32.7

Tenants do. 14.2 10.8 10.8 13.6

Age offarmer:

Under 35 years do. 12.6 4.2 13.4 6.9

35 to 54 years do. 41.5 28.2 40.4 34.7

55 to 64 years do. 25.1 29.6 24.5 29.8

65 years and older do. 20.8 38.0 21.7 28.6

Farmers reporting days of work offfarm:

None do. 35.9 33.1 40.1 47.7

1to99 do. 9.4 9.5 9.9 9.9

100 to 199 do. 8.8 13.2 7.8 10.2

200 or more do. 45.9 44.2 42.2 32.2

Note: Totals may not add due to rounding.

^"All farms" excludes institutional farms, experimental and research farms, and Indian reservations.

^Less than 0.05 percent.

Source: {20, 21).

25
Appendixtable 5—Selected ofMarm workcharacteristics o^southern farms by race of farmer, t979

Item

South

i+_,__ South

Total White Black

Item

Total White Black

Number Percent

Total farms 961,045 906,316 48,670 Self-empJoyed operating a

nonfarm-related business

Farms reporting lamity or professional practice 16.9 17.0 16.0

off-farm income 899,506 847,532

Percent

45,948

Farms reporting principal type of

Number

Less than $5vO00 26.2 25.5 38.6 off-farm employment for spouse 248,8&7 240,248 7,112

$5,000-$9,999 16.1 15.S 21.4

$10,000-$19,999 28.0 28.2 24.8 Percent $20,00Ô-$29,999 16.8 17.1 10.0 Employee of anotherfarm or ranch 1.6 1.7 1.1 $30,000-$49,999 9.5 9.8 3.5 Employeeofa privatebüsiñess 63.2 63.>4 58.5 $50,000 or more 3.5 3.6 1.7 Government employee 25.9 25.e 32.3

Percentage of farms reporting Self-employed operating a

farm-related business 1.3 1.3 1.3 off-farnri income from:

Cash wages from farm jobs

Self-employedoperating a

nonfarm-related business

or professions 5.5 5.6 3.9 or professional practice 8.0 8.1 6.8 Cash wages from nonfarm worl< 61.5 62.0 52.7

Nonfarm business or Níimti^r

professional practice

Retirement and disability

6.7

33.2

7.0

32,4

2.0

49.5 Farms reporting principal off-farm

f^UJílUGI

SociatSecurrty 28.2 27.4 46.0 occupation for operator 406,340 388,767^ 45,541

Other publie payments 7.9 8.0 6.4 Percent

Private pensions 3.3 3,2 4.4 Professional, technical, and

Public assistance and kindred workers 12.3 12.5 6.5

unemployment compensation 2.3 2.0 7.5 Managers and administrators.

Interest anddividends 76.3 77.0 60.t except farm 17.5 17.7 9.9

Rent fromnonfarm property 9.1 9.5 2.3 Sales workers 6.6 6.9 .8

All other sources 1.8 1.8 2.3 Clerical and ktndred workers

Craftsmen and kindred workers

5.4

23.4

5.6

23.6

2.3

20.9

Number Operatives, except transport 11.1 10J9 14.6

Farms reporting off-farm work 543,776 518,886 21,867 Transportequipment operatives

Farm laborers and supervisors

5.5

7.4

5.6

7.3

4.4

1Ö.0

Percent Serviceworkers 10.8 9.9 30.5

By operator only 46.8 46.9 46.4 Number

By spouse only 13.3 13.3 12.4 Farms reporting prrncipai off-farm

By operator and spouse 39.9 39.7

Number

41.2 occupation for spouse

Professional, technical, and

257,277 246,656

Percent

9,021

Farms reporting principal type of kindredworkers 22.1 22.t 20 5

off-farm employmentfor operator 400,270 382,979 15,206 Managers and administrators,

exeepttarm 8.0 8.2 4.4

Percent Sales workers 6.4 6.7 0

Employeeof another farm or ranch 3.7 3,3 13.2 Clerical and kindred wo/kers 26.8 27.7 6.6

Employee of a private business 55.3 55.6 48.0 Graftsmenand kindred \wprkers 2.0 2.0 0

Government employee 20.9 20.7 21.1 Operatives, except transport 11.9 11.9 9.1

Self-employed operating a Transport equipmentoperatives 1.5 1.5 1.4

farm-relatedbusiness 3.2 3.3 1.7 Farm faborersand supervisors 2.0 2.0 0

Serviceworkers 19.3 17.9 58.0

Note: Totals may not add due to rounding.

Source: {18, 19).

26
Appendix table 6—All farms and black-operated farms, 1982 and 1978^

Area

All farms Black-operated

farms Area

Afl farms Black-operated

farms

1982 1978 1982 1978 1982 1978 1982 1978

Numbet Numbei

United States 2,240,976 2,257,775 33,250 37,351 Virginia

West Virginia

51,859

18,742

49,936

17.475

2,728

29

3,075

33

Northeast 131.977 131,535 231 229 North Carolina 72,792 81,706 4,413 5.820

Maine

New Hampshire

Vermont

Massachusetts

Rhode Island

Connecticut

New York

New Jersey

Pennsylvania

7.003

2,757

6,315

5,401

728

3,754

42,207

8.277

55.535

6,775

2.508

5,852

4,946

674

3.519

43.075

7,984

56,202

4

2

1

17

0

8

72

59

68

6

1

3

13

0

10

75

51

70

South Carolina

Georgia

Florida

Kentucky

Tennessee

Alabama

Mississippi

Arkansas

Louisiana

Oklahoma

Texas

24,929

49.630

36,352

101,642

90,565

48,448

42,415

50,525

31,628

72.523

185.020

26.706

51,405

36,109

102,263

86,910

50,780

44,104

51,751

31.370

72.237

175,395

3,147

2,068

835

935

1.598

2.759

4.802

1,249

1,888

795

3,292

3,773

2,648

999

1,028

1,754

3,143

4.996

1.559

1.934

773

3.066

Midwest 932.836 975,245 1,344 1,451

Ohio 86,934 89,131 230 223 West 279.572 253,910 554 464

Indiana

Illinois

Michigan

Wisconsin

Minnesota

Iowa

Missouri

North Dakota

South Dakota

Nebraska

Kansas

77,180

98,483

58,661

82,199

94,382

115,413

112.447

36,431

37,148

60,243

73,315

82,483

104,690

60,426

86.505

98,671

121,339

114,963

40,357

38,741

63,768

74,171

108

141

185

54

70

93

238

16

24

48

137

107

169

188

59

69

95

279

19

30

74

139

Montana

Idaho

Wyoming

Colorado

New Mexico

Arizona

Utah

Nevada

Washington

Oregon

California

Alaska

23.570

24,714

8,861

27,111

13,484

7.334

13,984

2.719

36.080

34.087

82,463

570

23,565

24,249

8,040

26,907

12,311

6.298

12.764

2.399

30,987

28.503

73,194

383

7

9

3

41

15

31

3

4

51

31

357

0

8

16

3

35

7

15

3

6

42

21

308

0

South 896,591 897,085 31.121 35,207 Hawaii 4,595 4,310 2 0

Delaware 3,338 3.398 32 42

Maryland 16,183 15.540 551 564

^The 1978 estimates shown in this table are adjusted to be comparable witti 1982 estimates. Thus, they differfrom the 1978 estimates shown

in other tables.

Source: (76).

27
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concludes that as many as two-thirds of the Nation's hired

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