Employment Research in Brief: 

An Annotated Bibliography of 

ETA-Sponsored Studies

November 23, 2011

Annalisa Mastri

Emily Evans

Stacy Pancratz

Carrie Wolfson
Contract Number:

DOLQ101A21440

Mathematica Reference Number:

06942.015

Submitted to:

U.S. Department of Labor

Employment and Training Administration

Office of Policy Development and Research

Rm. N-5641, 200 Constitution Ave., NW

Washington, DC 20210

Project Officer: Bogdan Tereshchenko

Submitted by:

Mathematica Policy Research

P.O. Box 2393

Princeton, NJ 08543-2393

Telephone: (609) 799-3535

Facsimile: (609) 799-0005

Project Director: Annalisa Mastri

Employment Research in Brief: 

An Annotated Bibliography of 

ETA-Sponsored Studies

November 23, 2011

Annalisa Mastri

Emily Evans

Stacy Pancratz

Carrie Wolfson
ii

DISCLAIMER

This annotated bibliography was prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL), 

Employment and Training Administration, Office of Policy Development and Research by 

Mathematica Policy Research, under contract number DOLQ101A21440. Any errors are the 

responsibility of the authors and should not be attributed to DOL.
iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Eileen Pederson, Janet Javar, Michelle Ennis, Dan Ryan, 

Heidi Casta and Bogdan Tereshchenko from the Department of Labor for their thoughtful 

comments during this document’s creation. Karen Needels and Peter Schochet provided helpful 

suggestions on content and organization. We would also like to thank Cindy George and 

John Kennedy for their careful editing of the document, and Jennifer Baskwell for producing the 

report and making it 508-compliant.
iv

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 1

WORKFORCE INVESTMENT ACT ................................................................................ 4

Job Corps......................................................................................................... 4

Youth Activities............................................................................................... 28

Training .......................................................................................................... 33

Other Services and One-Stop Systems.......................................................... 40

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE.................................................................................. 61

YOUTH PROGRAMS OTHER THAN WIA.................................................................... 86

TRAINING PROGRAMS OTHER THAN WIA ............................................................. 107

LITERACY................................................................................................................... 118

POPULATION-SPECIFIC PROGRAMS...................................................................... 127

OLDER WORKERS .................................................................................................... 136

TRADE ADJUSTMENT ASSISTANCE ....................................................................... 142

LABOR MARKET RESEARCH ................................................................................... 148

REENTRY PROGRAMS ............................................................................................. 152

ENTREPRENEURSHIP TRAINING ............................................................................ 156

REGISTERED APPRENTICESHIP............................................................................. 160

WELFARE-TO-WORK ................................................................................................ 163

SERVICES TO MILITARY PERSONNEL, VETERANS, AND MILITARY 

SPOUSES............................................................................................................ 166

INDEX ......................................................................................................................... 169
Introduction

1

INTRODUCTION

The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL), Employment and Training Administration (ETA) 

sponsors numerous research studies, evaluations, and pilots and demonstrations on a broad range

of topics relevant to the agency’s mission. This annotated bibliography provides a summary of 

research publications ETA has released since 1995, as selected by researchers from Mathematica 

Policy Research (Mathematica) with guidance from ETA staff. The summarized publications 

include research, evaluation, and demonstration reports, as well as other papers and sets of policy 

recommendations. Each summary presents key points from its associated publication, including 

keywords, research objectives, study sites (when applicable), data sources, analytical methods, 

and findings. These publications were not reviewed for quality or strength of design, and their 

inclusion in this bibliography does not imply any endorsement of their design, methods, or 

content by ETA or Mathematica.

How to Use the Annotated Bibliography

The annotated bibliography contains the citations and summaries of 124 ETA-sponsored 

publications. Each summary contains a citation followed by a clickable hyperlink that will take 

the reader to the publication’s Web page on the ETA online research database, 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/, where the full text is easily accessible.

This bibliography is organized by topic, with the related publications listed below each topic

heading; topics with a large number of entries are further divided into subtopics. Publications

that pertain to more than one topic are summarized in the section where they are most germane, 

with a cross-reference included in the other section(s). Readers interested in a particular topic 

can use the Bookmarks feature to navigate directly to that section of the document’s electronic 

version.

Bibliographic entries are organized in the following sections, presented in decreasing order 

of number of publications:

• Workforce Investment Act

- Job Corps

- Youth Activities

- Training

- Other Services and One-Stop Systems

• Unemployment Insurance

• Youth Programs Other than WIA

• Training Programs Other than WIA

• Literacy

• Population-specific Programs

• Older Workers

• Trade Adjustment Assistance

• Labor Market Research

• Reentry Programs

• Entrepreneurship Training

• Registered Apprenticeship
Introduction

2

• Welfare-to-Work

• Services to Military Personnel, Veterans, and Military Spouses

At the beginning of each topic or subtopic section, an introductory paragraph provides a 

description of the topic or subtopic and a road map to the publications summarized in that

section. Summaries are presented in the order set forth by the section’s road map.

Definitions of Frequently Used Acronyms

The annotated bibliography includes some frequently used acronyms. These acronyms are 

defined and briefly described once below and not subsequently written out in the text of the 

annotated bibliography. For more information on many of these topics, we encourage you to 

visit ETA’s Web site at http://www.doleta.gov.

BLS Bureau of Labor Statistics. BLS, of the U.S. Department of Labor, is the principal 

Federal agency responsible for measuring labor market activity, working conditions, 

and price changes in the economy. Its mission is to collect, analyze, and disseminate 

essential economic information to support public and private decision making.

DOL United States Department of Labor. DOL is a Federal department consisting of 

numerous regulatory, enforcement and grant-making agencies committed to 

promoting the welfare of American workers, job seekers, and retirees; improving 

working conditions; and ensuring work-related benefits and rights.

ES Employment Services. ES, provided by states under the Wagner-Peyser Act, include 

labor exchange services, job search assistance, and help with résumés and cover 

letters. ES are often closely linked with unemployment insurance (UI) and 

Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (WIA) services, sometimes through co-location.

ETA Employment and Training Administration. ETA is the DOL agency responsible for 

administering the UI and WIA programs; it provides formula and discretionary grants 

to state workforce agencies and other parties and provides policy guidance and 

technical assistance to the public workforce system and its partners.

GED General Educational Development. The GED test is taken to obtain evidence of 

academic attainment equivalent to that of a high school graduate.

JTPA Job Training Partnership Act of 1982. JTPA was the authorizing legislation for the 

public workforce system before the passage of WIA.

NJCS National Job Corps Study. NJCS was a random assignment impact evaluation of the 

Job Corps program performed in the 1990s. 

TAA Trade Adjustment Assistance. TAA is a Federal program that provides income 

support, training, and related services to workers who have been negatively affected 

by foreign trade.
Introduction

3

TANF Temporary Assistance for Needy Families. TANF, which superseded Aid to Families 

with Dependent Children in 1997, is a block grant program to states to provide cash 

assistance and other supports while helping recipients transition to self-sufficiency 

through employment.

UI Unemployment Insurance. UI is a Federal-state partnership that offers temporary 

wage replacement to individuals who are involuntarily unemployed.

WIA Workforce Investment Act of 1998. WIA, which superseded JTPA, is the authorizing 

legislation for the workforce investment system. WIA distinguishes between core 

services (e.g., job search assistance), intensive services (e.g., assessments), and 

training, which is provided through the use of individual training accounts.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

4

WORKFORCE INVESTMENT ACT

This section contains summaries of publications on programs that operate under the auspices 

of WIA. WIA, which superseded JTPA, is the authorizing legislation for the workforce 

investment system. WIA programming includes services for adults, dislocated workers, and 

youth, as well as programs to respond to mass layoffs. In addition, WIA reauthorized the Job 

Corps program.

WIA distinguishes between three levels of services for adults and dislocated workers: core 

services (e.g., job search assistance), intensive services (e.g., assessments), and training, which is 

provided through the use of individual training accounts. WIA also mandated the establishment 

of One-Stop Career Centers, which are comprehensive service centers integrating WIA, ES, and 

other work-related services. Staff from partner agencies, such as TANF and Vocational 

Rehabilitation, are often co-located in One-Stop Career Centers. 

The studies in this section are broadly grouped into the following categories: Job Corps, 

Youth Activities, Training, and Other Services and One-Stop Career Centers.

Job Corps

Job Corps, established in 1964 and administered by DOL, offers academic instruction,

career technical training, residential living, health care, counseling, and job placement assistance 

to eligible youth ages 16 to 24 from households that meet specified income criteria. Job Corps is 

the largest comprehensive educational and training program for disadvantaged youth, serving 

over 60,000 new participants every year in over 100 centers. Many Job Corps participants have 

previously either left school without a diploma or experienced academic difficulties in high 

school.

NJCS was an experimental evaluation of Job Corps based on a national sample of eligible 

applicants to the program between November 1994 and December 1996. Of 81,000 eligible 

applicants, more than 15,000 were randomly assigned to either the program group, which could 

enroll in Job Corps, or the control group, which was not allowed to enroll in Job Corps for three 

years. Participants enrolled in 105 different Job Corps centers across the country; 23 of the 

centers were visited as part of the implementation study. The NJCS followed both groups for 

four years, with participant interviews conducted at baseline and at 12, 30, and 48 months after 

random assignment (11,313 respondents, or about 80 percent of the original sample, participated 

in the 48-month interview). Subsequent longer-term follow-up was conducted using 

administrative data. NJCS examined service receipt by the program and control groups as well 

as impacts on education, employment, earnings, involvement with the criminal justice system, 

and other outcomes. A number of reports and other publications resulted from the NJCS, 

including impact and benefit-cost reports; other related reports, including implementation and 

process studies; and methodological reports.

This subsection summarizes a number of publications that examine Job Corps. The majority 

resulted from the NJCS, while others relate to facets of the program not directly examined in that 

study.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

5

NJCS Impact and Cost-Benefit Reports

The NJCS included three waves of reports stemming from the impact analyses. The first 

wave was based on the results from the 30-month follow-up interview of participants; the second 

wave was based on the 48-month follow-up interview; and the third wave was based on the 

results from administrative data collected through 2004, which was roughly eight to ten years 

after participants had been randomly assigned. This subsection presents the results of these 

studies. The report pertaining to the 30-month follow-up interview results (Schochet et al. 2000) 

is summarized first, followed by the reports pertaining to the 48-month follow-up interview 

results (Burghardt et al. 2001; McConnell and Glazerman 2001; and Schochet and Glazerman 

2001). Finally, the study of the long-term follow-up (Schochet et al. 2006) is presented.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

6

Schochet, Peter Z., John Burghardt, and Steven Glazerman. “National Job Corps Study: The 

Short-Term Impacts of Job Corps on Participants’ Employment and Related Outcomes.” 

Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 2000. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=221

4&mp=y&start=181&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth, credential attainment, occupational training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study sought to determine the short-term (as 

measured by a 30-month follow-up interview) impacts of Job Corps on participant employment 

and related outcomes, such as involvement with the criminal justice system and the receipt of 

public assistance.

DATA AND METHODS: A total of 11,787 participants completed the 30-month interview. 

The study determined the short-term effectiveness of Job Corps by comparing outcomes of 

participants in the program and control groups. It also examined whether the outcomes for 

different groups of participants (females versus males and residential versus nonresidential) 

varied.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Job Corps appeared to have some positive short-term impacts on 

participants’ educational and vocational achievement; Job Corps participation was associated 

with a higher level of GED and vocational certificate attainment, but had no effect on college 

attendance rates. The program provided the greatest gains for groups at special risk of poor 

earnings outcomes, such as very young students, older students without a high school diploma or 

equivalent, and young mothers.

Earnings outcomes were positive for all groups of nonresidential Job Corps participants, but only 

women with children showed increased earnings outcomes in the residential program. The 

significant time participants devoted to education and training activities muted any earnings 

effects at 30 months.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

7

Burghardt, John, Peter Z. Schochet, Sheena McConnell, Terry Johnson, R. Mark Gritz, Steven 

Glazerman, John Homrighausen, and Russell Jackson. “Does Job Corps Work? Summary 

of the National Job Corps Study.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 2001. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=225

9&mp=y&start=141&sort=7.

McConnell, Sheena, and Steven Glazerman. “National Job Corps Study: The Benefits and 

Costs of Job Corps.” Washington, DC: Mathematica Policy Research, 2001. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=225

8&mp=y&start=141&sort=7.

Schochet, Peter Z., and Steven Glazerman. “National Job Corps Study: The Impacts of Job 

Corps on Participants’ Employment and Related Outcomes.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica 

Policy Research, 2001. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=227

2&mp=y&start=141&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth, credential attainment, occupational training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: These reports summarize the results of the NJCS

four-year impact analyses (based on the 48-month follow-up interview), process study, and costbenefit analysis.

DATA AND METHODS: Data were obtained from participant intake forms, interviews with 

participants, site visits to 23 centers, and surveys of associated agencies and centers.

The impact of Job Corps was estimated by comparing the outcomes of the program and control 

groups. Qualitative analyses were used for the process study. For the cost-benefit analysis, the 

researchers assigned a dollar value to each outcome. The study considered the output from paid 

work and its associated tax revenues, the use of other government services (training programs 

and public assistance), and criminal offending. The researchers then compared the program’s 

benefits with its costs.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The process study showed that Job Corps centers had effectively 

implemented the program model.

Job Corps had a number of positive impacts (since the average length of stay in Job Corps was 

about eight months, the findings reflect both in-program and post-program experiences):

• Participants received the equivalent of an additional year of education and training 

services and improved their functional literacy. Ninety-three percent of treatment 

group members engaged in education and training compared with 72 percent of the 

control group. Participation in Job Corps increased the likelihood of obtaining a 

GED, but decreased the likelihood of graduating from high school.

• Participants experienced an increase in earnings, amounting to an average of $1,150 

in the fourth year of the study.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

8

• Participants had lower involvement in crime, with the arrest rate 16 percent lower 

than for the control group, and lower rates of public assistance receipt, receiving an 

average of $640 less in benefits over the four-year period. 

• Participants in both residential and nonresidential Job Corps centers benefited from 

the program.

• Job Corps did not affect college attendance or completion rates and had only a minor 

impact on perceived health, independent living, and the use of child care. Finally, in 

contrast to the full sample, Hispanic and 18- and 19-year old participants showed no 

improvements in employment or earnings.

The cost-benefit analysis indicated that the benefits to society from reduced crime and public 

service use totaled $3,400 per participant, mainly because participants attended high school for 

slightly less time and had lower murder and burglary rates than control group members. Based 

on the impact analyses, an average participant’s lifetime economic output was extrapolated to be 

$27,500 higher than that of a control group member. The program cost to society was 

approximately $14,100 per participant. Thus, considering costs and benefits, Job Corps 

produced a net benefit to society of $16,800 for each participant.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

9

Schochet, Peter Z., John Burghardt, and Sheena McConnell. “National Job Corps Study and 

Longer-Term Follow-Up Study: Impact and Benefit-Cost Findings Using Survey and 

Summary Earnings Records Data: Final Report.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy 

Research, 2006. Available at 

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth, cost-benefit analysis

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=234

1&mp=y&start=101&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study of longer-term outcomes built upon the 

48-month interview findings by using study participants’ administrative earnings records beyond 

the four-year observation period. It sought: (1) to examine longer-term effects of Job Corps on 

participants’ outcomes; (2) to examine whether these effects differed across various subgroups; 

and (3) to determine whether the program was cost-effective when longer-term program impacts

were considered.

DATA AND METHODS: This study used two types of data to analyze program impacts: 

(1) interviews conducted with the program group and control group over the four-year period

following random assignment and (2) annual administrative earnings records from the Internal 

Revenue Service from 1993 to 2004, covering the ten years after random assignment. Program 

cost data were used for the cost-benefit analysis.

Outcomes of interest, such as education, employment, and criminal activity, were compared for 

the program and control groups to estimate impacts of the program using weighted difference-inmeans estimates and regressions. A cost-benefit analysis was also carried out.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Although participants experienced gains in earnings during the 

first two years after program exit (years three and four following random assignment), estimated 

earnings gains in years five to ten were near zero. However, for participants ages 20 to 24, 

increases were observable through the tenth year of observation. Because of the limited impact 

on earnings, the societal benefits of the program did not exceed its costs over the ten-year 

observation period, except among older participants.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

10

Other NJCS Reports

The wealth of data collected through the NJCS also gave rise to a number of topical reports, 

which are summarized in this subsection:

• Three studies examined whether NJCS impacts were related to center characteristics 

(Fortson and Schochet 2011 and Burghardt and Schochet 2001) or participants’ 

achievement of certain program milestones (Gritz and Johnson 2001).

• One study examined program impacts on literacy, which was not examined in the 

primary impact report (Glazerman et al. 2000).

• Four studies described participants’ characteristics and experiences (Garcia 2007; 

Johnson et al. 2000; and Schochet 1998a and 1998b).

• One report discussed the process analysis (Johnson et al. 1999).
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

11

Fortson, Jane, and Peter Z. Schochet. “Analysis of Associations between Contemporaneous Job 

Corps Performance Measures and Impact Estimates from the National Job Corps Study.” 

Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 2011. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=246

1&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth, performance measurement

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study sought to build upon the findings of 

NJCS by examining the relationship between Job Corps centers’ impacts and performance 

ratings, based on the outcome measurement system and regional office reviews.

DATA AND METHODS: The study used performance measures data for program years 1994 

to 1996, in conjunction with NJCS experimental data on center-level impacts on educational 

engagement and attainment, arrests, and employment and earnings. They then investigated 

whether regression-adjusted measures of center performance could help distinguish between 

centers with large and small impacts.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that there was generally no correlation between 

impacts and centers’ performance. Even performance measures that were regression-adjusted for 

participant characteristics were not correlated with center-level impacts. No particular subgroups 

of centers showed a significant relationship between impacts and performance ratings.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

12

Burghardt, John, and Peter Schochet. “National Job Corps Study: Impacts by Center 

Characteristics.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 2001. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=225

6&mp=y&start=141&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth, performance measurement

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Job Corps centers can be operated under DOL 

contract by either private organizations or agencies of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and 

the U.S. Department of the Interior; centers run by these agencies are called Civilian 

Conservation Centers (CCCs). CCCs tend to be small and located in rural areas. As part of the 

NJCS, the research team sought to determine whether participants’ employment and related 

outcomes varied by the characteristics of the Job Corps center they had attended. In particular, 

the study focused on the type of center operator, center size, region of the country, and the 

center’s performance ranking.

DATA AND METHODS: Before an eligible applicant was assigned to an experimental group 

as part of NJCS, admissions counselors recorded the name of the center that they thought each 

applicant was likely to attend. These predictions turned out to be remarkably accurate, a result 

likely helped by the fact that most applicants were assigned to a nearby location. The authors 

compared the outcomes of program group members in centers with a particular characteristic 

with the outcomes of control group members who were designated for the same centers. 

Outcome data were obtained from interviews with participants over four years following intake.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Center characteristics were not found to be strongly associated 

with participants’ outcomes throughout the four-year study. Participants attending contract 

centers and CCCs had similar rates of GED and vocational certificate attainment, earnings gains, 

and arrest reduction. Participants at centers of all sizes experienced positive education and 

earnings outcomes. Those in larger centers had greater education and employment gains, 

whereas those in smaller centers had greater reductions in arrests. Regional differences did not 

affect most outcomes, although participants in some regions had statistically insignificant 

earning gains compared with their control group counterparts. The center’s performance level 

did not affect outcomes.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

13

Gritz, Mark, and Terry Johnson. “National Job Corps Study: Assessing Program Effects on 

Earnings for Students Achieving Key Program Milestones.” Seattle, WA: Battelle 

Memorial Institute, 2001. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=225

7&mp=y&start=141&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth, credential attainment, occupational training, GED

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: As part of the NJCS, this report sought to 

determine whether Job Corps participants who achieved key program milestones, namely a GED 

or vocational training certificate, experienced different program impacts on earnings in the fourth 

year after random assignment (that is, well after program exit) than those participants who did 

not.

DATA AND METHODS: This report included only participants who completed the 48-month 

follow-up interview. Researchers matched program group participants with similar control 

group participants based on characteristics associated with the attainment of milestones of 

interest; therefore, Job Corps participants were matched to control group members who were, for 

example, initially similarly likely to attain a GED certificate.

Data were obtained from interviews with participants over four years following intake and the 

Job Corps Student Pay, Allotment, and Management Information System.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Nearly all of the positive program impacts found in the NJCS 

were attributable to those participants who completed vocational training or obtained a GED 

while enrolled. Students who completed vocational training experienced average earnings 

increases of $40 to $50 per week by the fourth follow-up year over the comparison group, 

whereas those who did not complete training saw no increase. Similarly, students who earned a 

GED while enrolled in Job Corps experienced an average earnings increase of $60 to $70 per 

week by the fourth follow-up year, whereas those who did not had earnings similar to those of

nonparticipants.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

14

Glazerman, Steven, Peter Schochet, and John Burghardt. “National Job Corps Study: The 

Impact of Job Corps on Participants’ Literacy Skills.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy 

Research, 2000. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=222

3&mp=y&start=181&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth, literacy, numeracy

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This substudy sought to determine the impact of 

Job Corps on participants’ functional literacy.

DATA AND METHODS: A subsample of the program and control groups was randomly 

selected for this substudy. In total, 7,348 sample members were eligible for the literacy skills 

substudy; 1,875 were randomly selected from the program group and 1,875 from the control 

group. Individuals in the study took the assessment used for the National Adult Literacy 

Survey—which measures prose literacy (understanding texts), document literacy (locating and 

using information in tables, charts, graphs, and maps), and quantitative literacy (performing 

arithmetic operations)—in conjunction with the 30-month NJCS follow-up interview. 

Performance scores on each of these literacy dimensions range from 0 to 500. The authors 

determined program impacts by comparing the scores of the program group members with those 

of the control group members. They also performed subgroup analyses.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Job Corps had a statistically significant positive, albeit small,

impact on participants’ functional literacy skills. Specifically, participation in Job Corps 

increased test scores by an average of four points on the prose literacy scale, two points on the 

document literacy scale, and five points on the quantitative literacy scale. Impacts were largest 

for older youth who did not have a GED or high school diploma at the time of entry into Job 

Corps, a group with particularly low skills. In general, Job Corps students had lower functional 

literacy scores than the national young adult average.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

15

Garcia, Yvonne. “Study of Hispanics in Job Corps: 2004–2005.” Washington, DC: HMA 

Associates, 2007. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=234

2&mp=y&start=101&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, Hispanic youth

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The NJCS found that Job Corps had a positive 

impact on participants’ earnings four years after completion of the program. Hispanic 

participants and 18- to 19-year olds at enrollment were the only groups for which this positive 

impact was not observed. This study sought to identify the factors that might explain the finding 

for Hispanic students, specifically looking at language, culture, program elements, and 

placement services.

STUDY SITES: 105 Job Corps centers in the contiguous United States, site visits to four 

centers

DATA AND METHODS: The study used four methods, each relying on different sources of 

data: (1) examination of the characteristics of Hispanic Job Corps participants in the program 

and control groups of the NJCS to discern any observable baseline differences between the 

groups; (2) use of NJCS data to create profiles of a typical Hispanic participant in 1995 and in 

2001 and assess any changes between them; (3) analysis of the Limited English 

Proficiency/Hispanic Youth Survey data collected in 2004; and (4) qualitative analysis of

attitudes and experiences collected through interviews with staff, students, and graduates during 

site visits to four Job Corps centers.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: According to program staff, English language proficiency did 

not appear to influence the success of most Hispanic Job Corps participants, as most were 

proficient in English before entering Job Corps. However, for the minority of participants who

struggled with English, language was a substantial barrier.

Many Hispanic participants felt pressure to secure employment quickly after completing Job 

Corps, which often resulted in obtaining jobs for which they were ill-suited. In addition, 

Hispanic participants were more likely to have a job before program entry than non-Hispanics. 

These two factors offer a plausible explanation for the finding that participation did not increase 

earnings among Hispanic participants.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

16

Johnson, Terry, Mark Gritz, and Mary Kay Dugan. “National Job Corps Study: Job Corps 

Applicants’ Programmatic Experiences.” Seattle, WA: Battelle Memorial Institute, 2000. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=223

2&mp=y&start=181&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth recruitment, vocational training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This report sought to examine the outreach and 

admissions (OA) entities and center characteristics and practices that appeared to promote 

participants’ positive programmatic experiences. As a secondary goal, the researchers sought to 

develop preliminary statistical models of programmatic experiences. The experiences of interest 

were enrollment in Job Corps, GED attainment, vocational training completion, and length of 

participation.

DATA AND METHODS: Data consisted of the Student Pay, Allotment, and Management 

Information System; a baseline survey of participants; BLS data on unemployment rates and 

average earnings; a survey conducted with a large sample of outreach and admissions 

counselors; and a survey administered to directors of all Job Corps centers nationwide.

Analytic methods included quantitative analyses on program participants to determine 

relationships between the characteristics of interest and outcomes.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that, for applicants of all ages, OA practices 

had a strong relationship with program outcomes. Students of all ages were more likely to enroll

when they were recruited by OA counselors who used more aggressive practices. Students ages 

16 to 19 who were recruited by counselors who used passive outreach, which placed the burden 

of enrollment on the youth, were more likely to remain in Job Corps for longer than those 

recruited by more aggressive screening practices. More knowledgeable and experienced 

counselors were also associated with better program outcomes.

The strength of a center’s vocational programs and academic programs (measured by, for 

example, the amount of occupational education provided, policies for assigning students to 

trades, and enrichment offerings) was particularly important for GED attainment and vocational 

training completion. Participants at small Civilian Conservation Centers were more likely to 

complete vocational training and remained in the program longer than others. Having inadequate 

residential facilities, defined as not having an athletic field and housing eight or more students 

per room, was associated with shorter stays, but having exceptional facilities, defined as having 

an athletic field and separate rooms for new students, was not associated with staying longer. 

Other center characteristics, such as having staff of similar demographic composition to that of 

the student body and performance ranking, did not affect outcomes.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

17

Schochet, Peter Z. “National Job Corps Study: Eligible Applicants.” Princeton, NJ: 

Mathematica Policy Research, 1998a. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=221

9&mp=y&start=181&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This report focused on the eligible Job Corps 

applicants, investigating their sources of information about Job Corps, expectations for the 

program, and feedback on the outreach and admissions system.

DATA AND METHODS: Information for this report was obtained from baseline interviews 

with the eligible applicants in the program and control groups.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The main way participants heard about the program was through

word of mouth. Older youth enrolled in Job Corps to receive job training, whereas younger 

applicants cited obtaining a GED as their main motivation. Nearly all believed that enrolling in 

Job Corps would have a positive effect on their vocational, academic, and social skills. Most 

applicants knew in what training program they wanted to enroll even before starting Job Corps.

Most applicants spoke with someone, usually a family member or a friend, about their decision 

to enroll in Job Corps. The majority stated that outreach and admissions counselors presented 

them with important information about the program, such as the expected length of stay.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

18

Schochet, Peter. “National Job Corps Study: Characteristics of Youths Served by Job Corps.” 

Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 1998b. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=221

5&mp=y&start=181&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This report focused on Job Corps applicants’

characteristics.

DATA AND METHODS: Data originated from the baseline survey responses of program and 

control group members. Data elements of interest included demographics; household 

characteristics; and work, criminal, and education histories.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Eighty percent of Job Corps applicants were high school 

dropouts, and 65 percent previously held a job, typically paying $5 per hour. One-quarter of 

applicants had been arrested, mostly for minor offenses. Female Job Corps applicants, compared 

with their male counterparts, were more likely to be older, have children, live on their own, and 

report lower rates of arrest and drug use. Younger applicants, in general, were considered harder 

to serve; they were more likely than older applicants to have criminal records, report drug use, 

and lack a high school diploma. Older applicants tended to have already finished high school 

and held a job.

Compared with the general population of youth who lived in poor families and were presumably 

eligible for the program (drawn from national survey data), Job Corps applicants were more 

likely to be male, African American, 16 to 17 years old, high school dropouts, and living in a 

large urban area. In addition, Job Corps applicants tended to come from households with lower 

incomes and higher rates of public assistance receipt.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

19

Johnson, Terry, Mark Gritz, Russell Jackson, John Burghardt, Carol Boussy, Jan Leonard, and 

Carlyn Orians. “National Job Corps Study: Report on the Process Analysis.” Princeton, 

NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 1999. Available at

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=221

3&mp=y&start=201&sort=7 .

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This process analysis sought to describe the Job 

Corps program model and document program processes.

DATA AND METHODS: The process analysis drew on four sources of information: (1) a 

telephone survey conducted between December 1995 and March 1996 with one randomly 

selected counselor from each outreach and admissions office, for a total 463 counselors; (2) indepth site visits to 23 centers, which included interviews with outreach and admissions agency 

managers and placement agency managers; (3) a survey administered to directors of all centers 

nationwide; and (4) administrative records on participant characteristics and program 

experiences. Qualitative methods were used to analyze data.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The process analysis concluded that Job Corps had a welldeveloped program model and that the program was generally well implemented. Moreover, 

participants received substantial, meaningful education and training services that would aid them 

in securing further employment.

Because the process study was conducted before the long-term net impact study, the process 

study authors indicated that the results of the process study would help understand the program’s 

net impact findings.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

20

NJCS Methodological Reports

This subsection contains summaries of three methodological reports related to the NJCS 

random assignment implementation (Burghardt et al. 1999), primary impact analyses (Schochet 

et al. 2001), and baseline data collection (Schochet 1998).
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

21

Burghardt, John, Sheena McConnell, Alicia Meckstroth, Peter Schochet, Terry Johnson, and 

John Homrighausen. “National Job Corps Study: Report on Study Implementation.” 

Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 1999. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=221

6&mp=y&start=181&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth, random assignment implementation

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This report sought to examine the implementation 

of random assignment in the NJCS.

DATA AND METHODS: Using data from the Job Corps Student Pay, Allotment, and 

Management Information System; the Job Corps intake form and supplemental intake form; 

consent forms; and surveys and interviews of a representative sample of outreach and admissions 

agency counselors, this study used quantitative methods to analyze the success of the 

randomization process and qualitative methods to determine Job Corps staff perceptions of the 

study implementation.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Random assignment was implemented successfully; less than 

0.06 percent of eligible applicants were not randomly assigned, and, as of January 1999, only 

1.4 percent of control group members—who were not supposed to enroll in Job Corps for three 

years after random assignment—enrolled in Job Corps before the end of their three-year 

restriction. However, survey and interview responses suggested that implementing the random 

assignment process had an effect on program operations, leading to a decline in program intake 

during the first half of the study intake period. Outreach efforts begun in response to this decline 

led to a surge in applications during the second half of the intake period.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

22

Schochet, Peter Z. “National Job Corps Study: Methodological Appendixes on the Impact 

Analysis.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 2001. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=225

5&mp=y&start=161&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth, methodology

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This report included a series of appendixes that 

discussed methodological procedures related to the 48-month impact analysis in the NJCS.

DATA AND METHODS: The report contained five appendixes: (1) “The 12-, 30-, and 48-

Month Interviews,” which investigated the design of the follow-up interviews and the response 

rates; (2) “The Treatment of Missing Values and Outliers,” which examined the treatment of 

missing values and outliers in the data from the impact analysis; (3) “The Adjustment for 

Crossovers,” which detailed procedures used to adjust the impact estimates for control group 

members who enrolled in Job Corps; (4) “The Calculation of Sample Weights and Standard 

Errors,” which discussed the calculation of sample weights used to find impact estimates that 

could be generalized to the study participants; and (5) “Regression-Adjusted Impact Estimates,” 

which examined impact estimates from multivariate regression procedures.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Not applicable
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

23

Schochet, Peter. “National Job Corps Study: Methodological Appendixes on Sample 

Implementation and Baseline Interviewing.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 

1998. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=221

7&mp=y&start=181&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth, methodology, random assignment implementation

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: These appendixes documented methodological 

aspects of the NJCS related to sampling and baseline data collection. They addressed four 

specific areas: (1) the accuracy of data collected by outreach and admissions staff; 

(2) randomization of applicants into the research and control groups; (3) response rates to the 

baseline interview; and (4) construction of sample weights and standard errors based on baseline 

interview and intake data.

DATA AND METHODS: The Job Corps intake form, a supplement to the intake form 

developed for the NJCS, the study consent form, and baseline interviews were used in the 

methodological appendixes.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS:

1. The accuracy of data collected by outreach and admissions staff. Seventy-nine 

percent of eligible applicants signed the consent form and were enrolled in the study. 

There were very low rates of missing data for key items in the intake form, and 

missing data did not vary by gender or age. Information to locate participants for 

follow-up interviews was collected for all sample members, with an average of three 

distinct means of contact per youth.

2. Randomization of applicants into the program and control groups. 

Randomization was successful. The program and control groups had similar baseline 

characteristics with only a small number of significant differences, whose magnitude 

was small. There were no patterns of differences across the characteristics.

3. Response rates to the baseline interview. The response rate for the full sample was 

more than 93 percent, differing by 1.4 percentage points between the program and 

control groups. Response rates were similar by gender, race, high school graduation 

status, and Job Corps residential designation. Response rates were slightly higher for 

participants who were younger, lived in urban areas, and were never arrested or 

convicted of a crime.

4. Construction of sample weights and standard errors. Characteristics of 

respondents and nonrespondents did not differ by research group status. Therefore, 

no adjustments were made for the effect of nonresponse in tabulations using baseline 

interview and intake data.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

24

Non-NJCS Studies

The studies summarized in this section were not directly related to the NJCS, but examined 

facets of the Job Corps program. Ginsburg et al. (2000) studied retention while 

KPMG/Economic and Valuation Services (2006) examined the delivery of literacy services at 

Job Corps centers.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

25

Ginsburg, Kenneth R., Christine M. Forke, Sara B. Kinsman, Eric Fleegler, Eric K. Grimes, 

Tamar Rosenbloom, John S. Schneider, Donald F. Schwarz, Avital Cnann, Huaqing Zhao, 

Brian M. Cohen, and Kathleen P. Gibbs. “Retention in the United States Job Corps: 

Analysis and Recommendations.” Philadelphia, PA: The Children’s Hospital of 

Philadelphia, 2000. Available at 

KEYWORDS: Job Corps, youth, retention

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=227

3&mp=y&start=141&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This report sought to describe retention patterns in 

Job Corps and provide recommendations for increasing it.

STUDY SITES: Five Job Corps centers in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Blackwell, Wisconsin; 

Clearfield, Utah; Miami, Florida; and Tongue Point, Oregon; plus quantitative data from all Job 

Corps centers

DATA AND METHODS: The study had qualitative and quantitative components. The former

involved in-depth study of five geographically diverse centers. Through site visits, researchers 

conducted focus groups and a Delphi survey (multiple-stage survey in which respondents 

gradually reach a consensus). Data for the quantitative component originated from the Job Corps 

information database, which contains extensive data on nearly 70,000 participants per year. The 

study sample was 343,097 students who enrolled in Job Corps between July 1993 and December 

1998. Key information collected included demographics, work and education history, program 

experiences, and program outcomes. A literature review on retention and attrition was also 

carried out.

Analytic methods included a qualitative analysis, identifying common themes across sites, and 

descriptive statistics and regressions.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The qualitative analysis identified intrinsic characteristics of 

participants that could influence program completion, according to data collected on site visits. 

Staff named attitude, motivation, and confidence as very important, in addition to the student 

making his or her own decision to join. Participants with emotional difficulties or substance 

abuse were less likely to complete, and good staff-to-student relationships could make a 

difference. Intrinsic characteristics are not necessarily easy to identify at the outset, but 

Department of Education-sponsored initiatives to address attrition have shown that attention to 

the selection, training, and support of student services staff, a supportive climate, and a 

structured environment can be helpful.

The quantitative analysis revealed an 86 percent overall retention rate for 30 days of the program 

and a 64 percent rate for 90 days. Attrition rates were higher than average for women in centers 

with less than 40 percent women, men in centers with more than 60 percent men, Caucasians in 

centers with less than 40 percent Caucasians, and Hispanics in centers with less than 30 percent 

or more than 80 percent Hispanics. Older participants, Asians, high school diploma holders, 

urban sites, and those who needed bilingual education or who saw an admissions counselor had 

better retention outcomes.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

26

KPMG/Economic and Valuation Services. “An Examination of the Delivery of Literacy 

Services at Job Corps Centers.” Washington, DC: KPMG, 2006. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=234

3&mp=y&start=101&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: literacy, Job Corps

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Although all 125 Job Corps centers operating at 

the time of this report offered similar services, the needs of participants varied across sites, 

largely because of differences in their backgrounds, skills, and English-language literacy. This 

study sought to work toward developing recommendations to improve the literacy services 

offered at Job Corps centers through a review of historical data and targeted site visits. The 

motivation for the study came from the NJCS finding that students only improved on two out of 

three dimensions measured in the National Adult Literacy Survey: prose (ability to understand 

texts) and quantitative (performing arithmetic operations) but not document (skills necessary to 

locate and use information in tables, charts, graphs, and maps).

STUDY SITES: Job Corps centers in Atlanta, Georgia; Limestone, Maine; Los Angeles, 

California; Montgomery, Alabama; Royal, Arkansas; and Chicago, Illinois

DATA AND METHODS: Six Job Corps centers were selected for in-depth visits consisting of 

classroom observations and interviews with the center director, the head of academic programs, 

academic instructors, vocational instructors, and students. Researchers then sought to identify 

common themes across sites.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Centers focused on students’ performance on the Test for Adult 

Basic Education to such a degree that the effort to improve this score might have crowded out 

other important activities; the authors hypothesized that, had centers not been so focused on this 

outcome, they might have engaged in more innovative methods of teaching and student 

assessment.

The study also found that specialized staff members, including special education instructors, 

speech therapists, psychologists, and counselors, were particularly effective at working with 

students with low initial literacy. Working with the low-literacy students outside the main 

classroom meant that the regular classroom instructor could focus more on the remaining 

students. Partnerships and relationships with local schools enabled staff in some Job Corps 

centers to implement specialized reading curricula.
Workforce Investment Act Job Corps

27

Cross-References for the WIA Job Corps Non-NJCS Subsection

D’Amico, Ronald D., Mary Kimball, Michael Midling, Pamela L. Smith, A. Lee Bruno and 

Michele L. Johnson. “Evaluation of the School-to-Work Out-of-School Youth 

Demonstration and Job Corps Model Centers: Final Report for the Job Corps Model 

Centers.” See p. 104.
Workforce Investment Act Youth Activities

28

Youth Activities

Studies in this section pertain to youth activities funded by WIA; these activities are 

typically offered to youth aged 14-21. The first study examined the Youth Opportunity Grant 

Initiative (Jackson et al. 2008). This summary is followed by two pertaining to the Summer 

Youth Employment Initiative (Curnan et al. 2010 and Bellotti et al. 2010).
Workforce Investment Act Youth Activities

29

Jackson, Russell H., Jamie Diamandopoulos, Carol Pistorino, Paul Zador, John Lopdell, Juanita 

Lucas-McLean, and Lee Bruno. “Youth Opportunity Grant Initiative (YO).” Houston, TX: 

Decision Information Resources, Inc., 2008. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=239

3&mp=y&start=61&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Youth Opportunity Grant Initiative (YO), disadvantaged youth

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The Youth Opportunity Grant Initiative (YO)

attempted to improve employment and education outcomes of youth ages 14 to 21 living in 

distressed, high-poverty neighborhoods. It funded 36 programs from 2000 to 2005 with grants of 

between $3 million and $44 million. Each YO grantee was required to develop at least one YO 

Community Center, a safe space where youth could congregate. Grantees also provided services 

such as mentoring and sports programs, which aimed to develop youth as leaders.

This study investigated the effects of YO on the employment, educational achievement, 

graduation rates, wages, welfare enrollment, and youth crime rates of participants. It also 

assessed the effectiveness of different methods of implementing YO programs, as well as

broader community outcomes.

STUDY SITES: 36 YO sites nationwide

DATA AND METHODS: The study had three main components and associated data needs for 

each: (1) an impact analysis, wherein youth who participated in YO were matched to similar, 

non-YO youth using data from the American Community Survey and the Current Population 

Survey and data on program participants were collected during two follow-up interviews; (2) a 

process study, which used information gathered from in-depth visits to 25 sites to document the 

implementation of the programs; and (3) an ethnographic study assessing the well-being of 

communities before and after receiving YO grant services, which drew on visits to 35 sites and 

U.S. Census data.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The impact study revealed that, overall, YO was successful at 

improving outcomes for high-poverty youth. For example, YO reduced the number of schoolaged youth who were not in school and increased the percentage of youth with an 11th grade 

education or above. YO also increased the labor force participation rate overall and for 

subgroups including 16- to 19-year-old adolescents, women, blacks, and in-school youth.

The implementation study indicated that the most successful programs tended to have high levels 

of management expertise and grantee support; the most challenging aspect of implementation 

was managing the program, followed by operating the YO centers themselves.

Finally, according to the ethnographic report, community members felt that YO was beneficial in 

providing a safe space, quality youth and adult relationships, enhanced training and education 

services, and opportunities to be productive.
Workforce Investment Act Youth Activities

30

Summer Youth Employment Initiative (SYEI)

In 2009, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) provided $1.2 billion in 

funding for SYEI programs to create employment opportunities for disadvantaged youth across 

the country. These programs were designed to provide meaningful summer work experiences for 

youth, while also stimulating the economy.

Two studies examined the implementation experiences of SYEI grantees. The Curnan et al. 

(2010) study created in-depth case studies of four SYEI grantees, complementing the broader 

implementation study of 20 SYEI grantees conducted by Bellotti et al. (2009).
Workforce Investment Act Youth Activities

31

Curnan, Susan P., Andrew B. Hahn, Lawrence N. Bailis, Joseph Frees, Christopher Kingsley,

Lisa A. LaCava, Susan Lanspery, Alan L. Melchior, and Erika L. Moldow. “Innovating 

Under Pressure: The Story of the 2009 Recovery Act Summer Youth Employment 

Initiative: Chicago, Detroit, Indianapolis & Marion County, Phoenix & Maricopa County.” 

Waltham, MA: Brandeis University, 2010. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=244

6&mp=y&start=21&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA), disadvantaged youth, 

Summer Youth Employment Initiative (SYEI)

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study examined the implementation of 

ARRA-funded SYEI programs in four communities in summer 2009, describing their successes 

and challenges.

STUDY SITES: Four SYEI grantees: Chicago, Illinois; Detroit, Michigan; Indianapolis and 

Marion County, Indiana; and Phoenix and Maricopa County, Arizona

DATA AND METHODS: The study selected four communities that were open to an in-depth 

study and could provide matching funds to support it. The researchers used data collected 

primarily from interviews and site visits over a two-week period to create detailed case studies.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Each site aimed to help with the healthy development of youth 

rather than only find them a job. The study found that the programs were successful when they 

learned from their mistakes, focused on quality, found meaningful work for youth, involved 

caring adults, and collaborated with other community organizations.

The programs faced challenges with determining eligibility, budgeting, matching youth with 

jobs, creating new opportunities in green industries, and record keeping. The report indicated

that future programs could improve by creating a more effective infrastructure for data 

management and matching job offerings with participants’ interests. Additionally, programs 

could consider providing participating youth with vouchers for transportation and clothing, since

many of the youth involved in the program did not have access to reliable transportation or 

professional clothing.
Workforce Investment Act Youth Activities

32

Bellotti, Jeanne, Linda Rosenberg, Samina Sattar, Andrea Mraz Esposito, and Jessica Ziegler. 

“Reinvesting in America’s Youth: Lessons from the 2009 Recovery Act Summer Youth 

Employment Initiative.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 2010. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=243

6&mp=y&start=21&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA), disadvantaged youth, 

Summer Youth Employment Initiative (SYEI)

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study examined the implementation of 

summer youth employment initiatives (SYEIs) at 20 sites in summer 2009. The 20 sites had 

different designs for their programs and they carried them out in varying ways. The study 

described the successes and challenges the programs faced in order to inform future summer 

youth employment programs.

STUDY SITES: 20 SYEI sites nationwide

DATA AND METHODS: Researchers chose the 20 sites to ensure that there were at least three 

sites from each region and that there was a mix of rural, urban, and suburban sites. They also 

chose sites that planned to spend the majority of their ARRA money during summer 2009.

The study used two main types of data: (1) state performance data and (2) in-depth site visits to 

all sites in July and August of 2009. During site visits, researchers performed qualitative 

interviews with 601 individuals, including administrators, staff, employees, and youth.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The sites reported that their primary goals for the SYEI were to 

serve as many youth as possible, spend ARRA funds quickly, and provide youth with meaningful 

employment experiences. The sites were able to draw on their previous experience providing 

summer employment opportunities for youth using WIA funds; however, sites noted that 

planning for the SYEI was challenging because of the short time frame and incomplete 

information about the amount of their allocation.

Nearly 314,000 young people, or about 88 percent of all SYEI participants, were placed in 

summer jobs. According to reports from the sites, nearly 75 percent of youth participants 

improved their work readiness skills, and more than 82 percent of all SYEI participants for 

whom data were available completed summer jobs. 

Youth were most commonly placed in jobs in the medical or health industries. Administrative 

and clerical duties were the most common tasks the youth performed. The average hourly wage 

for participants was $7.25.
Workforce Investment Act Training

33

Training

Three studies in this section examined the outcomes of WIA training participants using 

statistical comparison group designs (Chrisinger 2011; Heinrich 2009; and Hollenbeck 2005). 

Zhang (2011) studied the outcomes of older workers in particular. Two studies examined issues 

relating to the provision of WIA training services: McConnell et al. (2006) investigated different 

ways for WIA staff to administer individual training accounts to customers, and Eyster (2011) 

examined how states determined which training providers were approved for WIA funding.
Workforce Investment Act Training

34

Chrisinger, Colleen K. “Earnings Progression among Workforce Development Participants: 

Evidence from Washington State.” Eugene, OR: University of Oregon, 2011. Available at 

KEYWORDS: WIA, ES, Wagner-Peyser, labor exchange

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=246

8&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study compared the earnings progression of 

individuals who exited from the WIA Adult program to those using only labor exchange 

services.

STUDY SITE: Washington 

DATA SOURCES AND METHODS: The study used two types of statewide administrative 

data: program participation came from Washington’s statewide workforce development case 

management system, and UI wage records provided information on earnings and employment.

The study sample was restricted to individuals between the ages of 18 and 64 so that results 

represented the traditional working population; the final sample contained 5,677 WIA 

participants and 12,360 labor exchange-only participants. The study used propensity scores to 

match WIA participants with labor exchange participants who were similar on many observable 

characteristics, including age, gender, race, educational attainment, unemployment insurance 

status at the time of program entry, veteran status, and disability status. The analysis used 

regressions to compare the earnings progression of the two participant groups.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that, after accounting for initial differences 

between the two groups using propensity score matching, the earnings progressions were similar 

for participants in WIA and users of the labor exchange. 

Participants in WIA Adult programs were more likely to be employed in certain fields, such as 

accommodation and food services, administration, arts, education, food services, and retail. 

Labor exchange users were more likely to have jobs in fields such as finance, information, 

transportation, and wholesale trade.
Workforce Investment Act Training

35

Heinrich, Carolyn J., Peter R. Mueser, and Kenneth R. Troske. “Workforce Investment Act 

Non-Experimental Net Impact Evaluation.” Columbia, MD: IMPAQ International, LLC, 

2009. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=241

9&mp=y&start=41&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: WIA, dislocated workers, occupational training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the impact of the WIA 

Adult and Dislocated Worker programs, focusing separately on two levels of services: (1) core 

or intensive (help with job search, labor market information, assessments, and counseling) and 

(2) training. The study examined average earning impacts attributable to WIA as a whole and 

for each of the service levels.

STUDY SITES: 12 states

DATA AND METHODS: The study relied on wage record data from 12 states to estimate 

WIA program impacts. The data included information on approximately 160,000 WIA 

participants who entered WIA programs between July 2003 and June 2005 and 3 million 

comparison group candidates drawn from UI or ES data who were similar to WIA participants 

but did not receive WIA services or training. The study used propensity score matching on 

demographic characteristics, labor market experience, and geographic location to identify 

comparison group members.

The study estimated earnings impacts for all WIA participants and separately for participants 

receiving only core or intensive services. To estimate these impacts, the study compared the 

earnings outcomes of WIA program participants with those of comparison group members. To 

estimate the differential impact of training, the study compared the outcomes of WIA core or 

intensive service participants who did not receive training to the outcomes of training 

participants.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that participation in the WIA Adult program

was associated with an increase in earnings of several hundred dollars per quarter. In addition, 

Adult program participants who received only core or intensive services had earnings of up to 

$200 per quarter more than comparison group members. Participants who received training 

services had lower earnings initially, but caught up to participants who only received core or 

intensive services within 10 quarters; the marginal benefits of training could exceed $400 per 

quarter.

Adult program participants experienced greater benefits than did dislocated workers. Short- and 

long-term financial benefits from participating in both types of programs were greater for women 

than for men.
Workforce Investment Act Training

36

Hollenbeck, Kevin, Daniel Schroeder, Christopher T. King, and Wei-Jang Huang. “Net Impact 

Estimates for Services Provided through the Workforce Investment Act.” Washington, DC: 

U.S. Department of Labor, 2005. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=236

7&mp=y&start=81&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: WIA, dislocated workers

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study sought to determine the impact of WIA 

services on employment and earnings through statistical comparison group analyses.

STUDY SITES: Seven states: Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Maryland, Missouri, Texas, and 

Washington

DATA AND METHODS: The sample for this study was derived from administrative data for 

program years 2000 or 2001 from seven states. Data for the study were composed of WIA 

Standardized Record Data and ES records for 2000 and 2001 as well as UI wage records and 

TANF program records. Only individuals ages 22 to 64 were included, for a total of 92,787 

WIA service recipients in the sample.

To account for WIA’s tiered service levels, distinct treatment groups were associated with 

different comparison groups: individuals who received any WIA service were compared with 

individuals who accessed workforce development through Wagner-Peyser Act services while

individuals who received WIA training services were compared with individuals who 

participated in WIA services but did not receive training and those who accessed workforce 

development through Wagner-Peyser Act services. The treatment and comparison groups were 

matched using three different techniques: weighted multivariate matching, nearest-neighbor 

propensity score matching, and propensity score blocking. Program impacts were estimated by 

comparing outcomes for the treatment and comparison groups following statistical matching.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that participation in WIA programs was 

associated with positive outcomes that persisted for at least two years following exit from the 

program. Specifically, receipt of any WIA services increased employment rates by about 10 

percentage points and quarterly earnings by $800. Participation in WIA training also had a 

distinct positive, but smaller, impact on employment and earnings, with employment 4.4 

percentage points higher and quarterly earnings $660 higher than for comparison group 

members. The impacts of WIA services were largest among dislocated workers and women.
Workforce Investment Act Training

37

Zhang, Ting. “Workforce Investment Act Training for Older Workers: Toward a Better 

Understanding of Older Worker Needs during the Economic Recovery.” Washington, DC: 

U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, 2011. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=246

7&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Older workers, mature workers, WIA, entered employment rate, unemployment, 

training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The recession of 2007–2009 made older people 

more inclined to continue working or return to work even as opportunities in the labor market 

grew scarcer. Many older people face barriers to entering employment and rely on WIA services 

to gain skills that help them to compete in the labor market. The entered employment rate 

(EER), a core WIA performance measure, is roughly defined as the number of adults/dislocated 

workers who have entered employment by the end of the first quarter after the exit quarter 

divided by the number of all exiters. As WIA program enrollment among older workers has 

increased, their EER has decreased. This study sought to examine how the EER of older workers 

receiving WIA services varied with the state unemployment rate and its trend.

DATA AND METHODS: The study relied on individual-level panel data from the 2007 

Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data files. Participants ages 55 and older were 

included in the analysis. In addition, the study collected data on state-level unemployment rates 

from BLS.

The study examined the relationship between unemployment rates and EERs of older adults and 

older dislocated workers using multivariate statistical analyses.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that the unemployment rate trend had a 

negative relationship with the EER for older dislocated workers, while the unemployment rate 

level did not. Those local workforce investment areas with relatively higher proportions of older 

dislocated workers with occupational skills credentials or postsecondary education had higher 

EERs. Notably, older dislocated workers whose training was purchased using an ITA had 

slightly lower EERs.

Among older workers receiving WIA Adult services, there was no relationship between the 

unemployment rate level or trend and the local workforce investment area’s EER. Consistent 

with the results for older dislocated workers, the areas with higher proportions of older adults 

with occupational skills training or postsecondary education had higher EERs. In contrast to the 

findings for older dislocated workers, there was no relationship between ITAs and EERs.
Workforce Investment Act Training

38

McConnell, Sheena, Elizabeth Stuart, Kenneth Fortson, Paul Decker, Irma Perez-Johnson, 

Barbara Harris, and Jeffrey Salzman. “Managing Customers’ Training Choices: Findings 

from the Individual Training Account Experiment—Final Report.” Washington, DC: 

Mathematica Policy Research, 2006. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/eta_default.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_resultDetails&pub_id=2331

&bas_option=Title&start=1&usrt=4&stype=basic&sv=1&criteria=choice.

KEYWORDS: WIA, individual training accounts (ITAs), credential attainment, occupational 

training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: WIA allows customers to use individual training 

accounts (ITAs) to fund the training programs of their choice from an approved list of providers. 

This report studied three approaches to providing ITAs: Approach 1 (Structured Customer 

Choice), which mandates workforce investment system customers to receive intensive 

counseling from on-site staff; Approach 2 (Guided Customer Choice), in which counseling is 

required but is less intensive than in Approach 1; and Approach 3 (Maximum Customer Choice), 

in which counseling is available upon request but is not mandatory. In Approach 1, counselors 

decided on the ITA amount, which could reach $8,000. Customers received fixed ITAs between 

$3,000 and $5,000 in Approaches 2 and 3. The study investigated ITA uptake rates and amounts 

under all three approaches, as well as earnings and employment outcomes under each approach.

STUDY SITES: The study took place in eight sites: Phoenix, Arizona; Maricopa County, 

Arizona; Bridgeport, Connecticut; Jacksonville, Florida; Atlanta, Georgia; Northeast Georgia; 

North Cook County, Illinois; and Charlotte, North Carolina.

DATA AND METHODS: The study used an experimental design; the almost 8,000 customers 

accepted into the ITA program between December 2001 and February 2004 were randomly 

assigned to one of the three types of treatment. All study sites implemented all three approaches.

The study used three data sources to examine participants’ outcomes: (1) the Study Tracking 

System, which provided data on counseling participation and training expenditures for each 

customer; (2) a 15-month follow-up survey of participants, which contained questions about 

employment and earnings; and (3) UI records. In addition, researchers conducted three in-depth 

visits to each site, which included interviews with administrators, managers, counselors, and 

customers. To determine program impacts, regressions were used to compare the mean 

outcomes of customers assigned to each approach.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Approach 3 customers were the most likely to obtain an ITA, 

whereas Approach 1 and 2 customers had lower take-up rates. The difference might have arisen 

because Approach 1 and 2 customers were reluctant to complete the requirements to obtain an 

ITA. The average ITA amount was highest for Approach 1 customers. Over the 15-month 

follow-up period, employment rates and earnings were comparable for all three approaches.

Counselors generally preferred Approach 2 over the other approaches; they often had trouble 

following the strict guidelines of Approach 1, and customers were unlikely to seek counseling 

under Approach 3.
Workforce Investment Act Training

39

Eyster, Lauren. “Ensuring the Quality of Training Providers under the Workforce Investment 

Act (WIA).” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training 

Administration, 2011. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=246

9&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Eligible training provider (ETP) lists, individual training accounts (ITAs), WIA

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: WIA authorized the use of Individual Training 

Accounts (ITAs) to enable participants to purchase training services from approved providers. 

States are required to provide ITA participants with a list of eligible training providers (ETPs) 

from which they can select the provider they think will best address their needs and goals. This 

study aimed to describe the various ETP policies implemented by states and determine whether 

ETP policies had an effect on the quality of training providers, as measured by the employment 

and training outcomes of ITA recipients.

STUDY SITES: 24 states

DATA AND METHODS: The State Eligible Training Provider Survey was provided to state 

WIA representatives in all 50 states and the District of Columbia from January to May 2010; the 

24 states that responded were included in the analysis. The study used ITA participant-level data 

from 2004 to 2007 recorded in the Workforce Investment Act Standardized Record Data.

Quantitative methods included descriptive statistics and multivariate regression analyses to 

determine the relationship between ETP policies and the employment and training outcomes of 

participants.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The survey results showed that states varied with regard to the 

ETP policies implemented. Many indicated success with adding providers, such as degreegranting institutions, to the ETP list. However, five states indicated that they had difficulty 

removing unqualified providers from the ETP list. A third of states indicated that they had 

difficulty addressing the negative feedback from training providers on the burden of maintaining 

eligibility, such as training program completion and employment rate requirements.

The study did not find a relationship between most of the state-level ETP policies examined and 

participants’ training and employment outcomes.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

40

Other Services and One-Stop Systems

This section contains summaries of 17 studies related to other WIA services and One-Stop 

systems.

• The section begins with a summary of the 2003 literature review by Barnow and 

Gubits on the existing evidence about the effectiveness of WIA, UI, and other 

programs. 

• Two studies examined special programs funded by WIA. Kaiser and Winges (2006)

examined the Low-Wage Worker Retention and Advancement Demonstration, and

Needels et al. (2006) evaluated National Emergency Grants.

• Several studies examined aspects of One-Stop Career Center operations (D’Amico et 

al. 2009; Mueser and Sharpe 2006; Barnow and King 2005; Barnow et al. 2004; and 

Nathan et al. 2004).

• One study examined One-Stop Career Center operations, specifically as they relate to

serving TANF participants (Wright and Montiel 2010).

• Dunham et al. (2004) studied business involvement with the One-Stop system, and 

Trutko and Barnow (2010a) studied implementation of the priority of service 

provision for veterans accessing services in the One-Stop system.

• Three studies (Dunham 2009; Almandsmith et al. 2006; and Salzman et al. 2000) 

looked at the links between One-Stop Career Centers and other programs and partner 

organizations.

• On the topic of performance measurement for WIA programs, Trutko and Barnow 

(2010b) examined the feasibility of implementing outcome-based efficiency measures 

for ETA programs. Two reports resulted from the Evaluation of the WIA 

Performance Measurement System (Dunham et al. 2006 and Dunham et al. 2005).
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

41

Barnow, Burt, and Daniel Gubits. “Review of Recent Pilot, Demonstration, Research, and 

Evaluation Initiatives to Assist in the Implementation of Programs under the Workforce 

Investment Act.” Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, 2003. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=236

5&mp=y&start=81&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: WIA, JTPA, UI, ES

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This report reviewed research in the employment 

and training field. The report summarized the major findings from studies, suggested how they

could improve policy development, and identified further research needs. In particular, the 

report focuses on studies in three areas: (1) WIA and its predecessor, JTPA; (2) UI and ES; and 

(3) training programs with target groups of interest. The review was restricted primarily to 

research conducted after 1995 that was funded by the ETA.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The literature review highlighted JTPA services as having a 

statistically significant but modest impact on the earnings of adult men and women for the 30-

month follow-up period of the national JTPA study. A 1998 paper concluded that on-the-job 

training and high-skill vocational training were worth the investment for welfare recipients. The 

authors of the literature review suggested a few aspects of WIA that deserve more research, 

recommending that future studies investigate the best ways to manage costs at One-Stop Career 

Centers and assess the core services that are not staff-assisted.

In the literature review of UI, the authors highlighted the findings from a 1997 study that 

discovered that the percentage of workers covered by UI had steadily increased, whereas the 

percentage of covered workers who received benefits had decreased over time.

The authors of the literature review suggest that more research could increase our understanding 

of the impacts of UI. For instance, a benefit-cost analysis of call centers might be helpful. 

Future research should also seek to answer questions regarding why unemployment duration 

increased in the 1990s. The possibility of combining UI and work could also be examined.

Finally, questions remained about the effectiveness of employment and training programs. 

Simulations had been done to determine if workers placed by employment services displace

other workers, but empirical studies would reduce the need to rely on simulations.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

42

Kaiser, Joyce, and Linda Winges. “An Assessment of the Low-Wage Worker Retention and 

Advancement Demonstration Project.” Bethesda, MD: Coffey Communications, 2006. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=241

3&mp=y&start=41&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Low-wage workers, WIA, TANF recipients

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The Low-Wage Worker Retention and 

Advancement Demonstration Project, funded by DOL, was implemented in four sites over a 

three-year period. Projects were primarily focused on assisting current and former TANF 

recipients although the demonstration’s lessons were aimed to advance knowledge about

employment retention and advancement among low-wage workers more generally. Grants were 

awarded to the Oregon Employment Department (OED) beginning in 2002 and the California 

Employment Development Department (CEDD) beginning in 2003. Each received $450,000 for 

allocation to local program operators. OED selected two sites to be collocated with local OneStop Career Centers. CEDD subgranted the funds to the Sacramento Employment and Training 

Agency, which selected two One-Stop Career Centers to implement the program. 

This study sought to describe the implementation of the Low-Wage Retention and Advancement 

Demonstration Project. In particular, it sought to describe the background and demographic 

characteristics of the low-wage workers served in the demonstration sites, the types of services 

offered to participants, and the system for delivering those services.

STUDY SITES: Grantees in Beaverton and Albany, Oregon, and two in Sacramento, California

DATA AND METHODS: Data used for this study included written and verbal information 

obtained from grantees and several in-person site visits and discussions with site project leaders. 

Qualitative methods were used to analyze the data.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Program models varied across sites, including combinations of 

soft skill development, counseling, career planning, service referrals, case management, and 

sector-based initiatives. The population of low-wage workers served by the grantees was 

diverse, with different needs and expectations. Despite supports such as child care at sessions, 

recruitment at all sites was difficult. The recruitment methods seemed to have an effect on the 

types of participants who joined the program. For example, the Sacramento site that co-enrolled 

participants in multiple programs seemed to have less engaged clients than the site that recruited 

only for a specific program. Employer involvement was an effective technique to increase 

participation, but soliciting employer participation required substantial efforts from site staff. 

Case management for the populations served was labor-intensive. Sites felt more time and more 

technical assistance were needed to successfully implement the programs.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

43

Needels, Karen, Jeanne Bellotti, Mina Dadgar, and Walter Nicholson. “Evaluation of the 

Military Base National Emergency Grants: Final Report.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica 

Policy Research, 2006. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=233

2&mp=y&start=101&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: National Emergency Grants (NEGs), military family support, WIA, veterans, 

military spouses

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: WIA authorizes the Secretary of Labor to award 

National Emergency Grants (NEGs) to states or local areas that experience a large increase in 

demand for workforce development, employment services, or adjustment assistance. Usually 

NEGs are awarded in times of natural disasters or mass layoffs, but beginning in the mid-1990s 

NEGs were issued to areas with high military populations that had experienced downsizing from 

the Department of Defense. The grants temporarily expanded the capacity of the state or local 

authority to provide employment and training services first to former military personnel and then 

to spouses of military personnel. This study sought to describe the operations and services 

expanded by the grant money, as well as participants’ characteristics and outcomes. The study 

also included a cost analysis.

STUDY SITES: Three areas that received large military NEGs—Fort Campbell, Kentucky; 

Norfolk, Virginia; and San Diego County, California—and three medium-sized NEG recipients

in Colorado, North Carolina, and Texas

DATA AND METHODS: Data sources for the study included: (1) site visits for the three 

largest grants, which included interviews with administration staff as well as client focus groups; 

(2) staff telephone interviews for the three smallest sites; (3) program documents and publicly 

available data; (4) cost information from the three largest sites; and (5) management information 

systems data on participant characteristics.

Analytic methods included qualitative analysis and data synthesis across sites, cost analysis, 

descriptive statistics of participant characteristics, and regression analyses of participant 

outcomes.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Administration staff found that the most productive method to 

reach potential military clients was to work with the military family support centers, which are 

widely known in the military community. Staff noted challenges in coordinating services 

provided through the NEGs and the local workforce investment areas that caused client 

dissatisfaction when regulations differed (for example, on the amount of training funds 

available).

The grant primarily funded training services for participants (roughly 60 percent of expenditures 

across sites). Staff and clients alike mentioned the benefit of support services such as child care, 

which accounted for approximately 15 percent of funding. Average steady-state costs per 

participant ranged from $4,401 to $8,002, with varying levels of start-ups costs not included.

As the Department of Defense ceased downsizing after September 11, 2001, the original target 

population for the NEGs changed from involuntarily separated military personnel to military 

spouses. Staff noted that they were less prepared for addressing the needs of the new population, 
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

44

which generally had different backgrounds and less motivation to work. In the end, more than 

80 percent of the participants were female and more than 75 percent had prior work experience. 

Training completion rates across sites ranged from 26 to 72 percent, and completers had 

employment rates higher by 15 percent and hourly salaries higher by $1.21 per hour than NEG 

participants without training.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

45

D’Amico, Ronald, Kate Dunham, Annelies Goger, Charles Lea, Nicole Rigg, Sheryl Ude, and 

Andrew Wiegand. “Findings from a Study of One-Stop Services: A Case Study Approach, 

Final Report.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy Research Associates, 2009. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=247

3&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: One-Stop Career Center operations, self-services

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVE: Reliance on self-service continues to grow among 

job seekers who visit One-Stop Career Centers. Self-services provide a low-cost means of 

augmenting the offerings available at One-Stop Career Centers. This study sought to determine 

the characteristics and outcomes of One-Stop Career Center customers who used self-services 

and to examine the operation of such services.

STUDY SITES: 23 local workforce investment areas (LWIAs)

DATA AND METHODS: The 23 LWIAs selected for the study were able to track customers 

who used on-site self-services. The study used five types of data, most of which were obtained 

from a subset of the 23 participating LWIAs: (1) the Local-Area Survey of One-Stop SelfServices, conducted in 2003 and 2006 in all 23 locations; (2) site visits to 22 locations; (3) selfservice usage data covering nine months to two years from May 2004 to December 2006, 

collected in nine locations; (4) surveys of self-service users administered in 2005 or 2007, 

collected in five locations with 1,713 respondents; and (5) administrative data on quarterly 

earnings for self-service users, collected in three locations.

Analyses used primarily qualitative methods, involving descriptive statistics on self-service 

usage data and administrative earnings data as appropriate.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: A large number of customers used self-service systems provided 

by One-Stop Career Centers to look for jobs and access resources. Self-services were viewed 

positively, with most of them rated as helpful by a majority of customers. However, self-service 

systems suffered from a lack of investment and staffing; many customers needed assistance to 

use available tools effectively.

Customers who used self-services tended to have characteristics associated with difficulties in 

finding employment, such as lower levels of education and lower preprogram earnings. 

Furthermore, customers of self-services were less likely to have positive outcomes on the 

common measures, such as entering employment, than those receiving staff-assisted services.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

46

Mueser, Peter, and Deanna Sharpe. “Anatomy of Two One-Stops: Camdenton, Missouri and 

Columbia, Missouri.” Columbia, MO: University of Missouri-Columbia, 2006. Available 

at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=237

4&mp=y&start=81&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: WIA, One-Stop Career Center operations

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study sought to describe the service delivery 

and staff-client transactions at two One-Stop Career Centers in Missouri.

STUDY SITES: One-Stop Career Centers in Camdenton and Columbia, Missouri

DATA AND METHODS: Researchers chose to observe two One-Stop Career Centers that 

shared common state histories but differed in location, proximities to partner agencies, and local 

economies. Both centers operated previously under the JTPA service delivery system. The first 

center was located in downtown Camdenton, far from its partner agencies, and served a primarily 

seasonal economy based on summer tourism. The second center was a few miles outside 

downtown Columbia, near several partner agencies, and served a robust local economy. 

Researchers conducted site visits and collected service data from the two centers for the period

from January 2003 to December 2004. Researchers also issued a short pre-/post-survey to 12 

first-time clients.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: In both locations, the centers saw higher volumes of clients 

during the times of UI four-week checks, which mandate monthly job search activities. 

Camdenton experienced higher volumes when a local factory closed; Columbia experienced 

higher volumes when a large retailer moved to the area (the retailer used the center to collect job 

applications and conduct interviews).

The study also catalogued the service flow at both centers and noted that 90 percent of their

visitors were assisted by a counselor and 90 percent of first-time visitors were satisfied with their 

visit.

Overall, the study found several factors that seemed to improve service: an organizational culture 

focused on service goals, an ability to seamlessly integrate center staff and partner agencies, 

adequate funding resources, and recognition of the importance of staff–client relations.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

47

Barnow, Burt S., and Christopher T. King. “The Workforce Investment Act in Eight States.” 

Albany, NY: The Nelson A. Rockefeller Institute of Government, 2005. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=230

7&mp=y&start=121&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: WIA, One-Stop Career Center operations

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: With the enactment of WIA, states and local 

workforce investment areas (LWIAs) gained more flexibility in workforce system administration 

and established One-Stop Career Centers that pulled together many related services in one 

location. This report concluded a two-year study of WIA implementation and described the 

WIA service delivery systems in 16 LWIAs in eight states.

STUDY SITES: State agencies and two LWIAs in each of eight states: Florida, Indiana, 

Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, Oregon, Texas, and Utah

DATA AND METHODS: Eight states were chosen for the study sample based on their early 

adoption of workforce development reforms. During the summer and fall of 2002, researchers 

conducted site visits and interviewed elected officials, agency officials, program directors, 

community and technical college administrators, business and chamber of commerce leaders, 

state and local Workforce Investment Board directors and staff, One-Stop Career Center 

directors, and community-based organizations’ staff.

Methods included qualitative analysis to identify common themes and trends across study sites.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that states varied in the leadership patterns they 

exhibited in setting up and operating their workforce development systems, including the roles of 

the governor and the legislature, as well as the balance of state and local power. The study also 

found that separation of workforce policy development, program management, and service 

delivery contributed to more effective programs. Greater integration of workforce investment 

programs (WIA, the Wagner-Peyser Act, and related programs) led to more seamless client 

services.

Integration of partners in One-Stop Career Centers, such as UI, TANF and community colleges, 

varied significantly. There was no single way to operate One-Stop Career Centers nor an ideal 

operator type; what mattered more was the quality of management and operation.

In general, states felt that the WIA performance measures were not effective and focused on 

numbers that were not representative of real progress. States also expressed dismay over 

funding, saying future allotments would not be sufficient or sufficiently flexible.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

48

Barnow, Burt, Amy MacDonald Burk, Patricia Billen, Richard Nathan, Dan O’Shea, and 

Christopher King. “The Workforce Investment Act in Eight States: State Case Studies from 

a Field Network Evaluation, Volume 1.” Albany, NY: Rockefeller Institute of Government, 

SUNY, 2004. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=227

6&mp=y&start=141&sort=7.

Nathan, Richard, Patricia Billen, Burt Barnow, Amy MacDonald Buck, Dan O’Shea, Christopher 

King et al. “The Workforce Investment Act in Eight States: State Case Studies from a Field 

Network Evaluation: Volume Two.” Albany, NY: Rockefeller Institute of Government, 

SUNY, 2004. Available at 

KEYWORDS: WIA, One-Stop Career Center operations

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=227

4&mp=y&start=141&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: WIA required that each local workforce 

investment area (LWIA) establish a One-Stop Career Center, a full-service resource center for 

individuals seeking employment-related assistance. It also contained mandates regarding the 

provision of universal access to core services (basic services to help job seekers find 

employment), expanded participant choice of training providers, and performance incentives. 

States were required to implement these changes by July 2000. To examine the implementation 

of WIA requirements, DOL funded a study of eight states and 16 LWIAs. The results were 

presented in two volumes.

STUDY SITES: Two local areas in each of Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, and Oregon (vol. 1) 

and Florida, Indiana, Texas, and Utah (vol. 2)

DATA AND METHODS: Only states that had progressed beyond the early stages of WIA 

implementation by 2002 were selected for this study. Data included public documents and 

reports as well as guided interviews with members and staff of state and local boards, state 

agency officials, service providers, advocates, and other stakeholders. Qualitative methods were 

used and each state’s implementation experience was examined separately.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The reports presented case studies of the state and local 

workforce development systems each state. Highlights included:

Maryland: At the time of the study, Maryland’s workforce services remained fragmented. Its 

local boards worked relatively autonomously in developing policies and overseeing One-Stop

Career Centers. The One-Stop Career Centers exhibited a great deal of variability in their 

willingness to serve low-income individuals.

Michigan: Participant choice had been built into the system before the WIA requirement. WIA 

helped Michigan make improvements to its workforce development programs through increased 

capacity. However, some provisions, such as those regarding funding and reporting 

requirements, inhibited some of the state’s efforts.

Missouri: Missouri had adopted many of the changes required by WIA before its 

implementation, so the law served to reinforce the systems already in place. However, Missouri 
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

49

continued to struggle with providing seamless and comprehensive services. The law’s 

requirement of private sector representation in local workforce investment boards was perceived 

as having a positive impact on the state’s workforce development efforts.

Oregon: Oregon had a well-developed labor market information system and was working on 

coordinating workforce efforts before the implementation of WIA. Stakeholder opinions

differed as to whether WIA helped or hindered Oregon’s efforts. One of the biggest difficulties 

the state faced had to do with the development of One-Stop Career Center partnerships.

Utah: This state’s program favored classroom learning over on-the-job training. At the time of 

this study, the state’s WIA program was more effective at serving low-skilled, low-income 

workers than their higher-skilled counterparts. Utah had encountered challenges to WIA 

implementation, such as funding inadequacy.

Texas: When Texas implemented WIA, the state already had many of the regulations in place 

due to state workforce reforms in 1993 and 1995. In the early stages of implementation, WIA 

legislation actually hindered the relationship between existing workforce development programs 

in Texas and community colleges because the legislation deemphasized referrals to occupational 

training, which is primarily provided by community colleges.

Indiana: In Indiana, the Department of Workforce Development administered WIA at the state 

level and the governor viewed workforce development as an economic development tool. Local 

boards felt restricted by WIA’s membership requirements and lack of funding. Some local 

boards doubled in size as a result of WIA’s membership requirements; this growth hindered their 

ability to act nimbly and efficiently.

Florida: Staff at the state agency that administered WIA in Florida, the Agency for Workforce 

Innovation, indicated that WIA had helped the state and its localities become more systematic 

and focused on the big picture.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

50

Wright, David, and Lisa Montiel. “Workforce System One-Stop Services for Public Assistance 

and Other Low-Income Populations.” Albany, NY: The Nelson A. Rockefeller Institute of 

Government at the University at Albany, 2010. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=245

9&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: WIA, One-Stop Career Center operations, TANF, low-income workers

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Given the work requirements of TANF, One-Stop 

Career Centers can be of particular help to TANF participants. Further, WIA stipulates that OneStop Career Centers should prioritize services to public assistance recipients. However, there is

a high degree of variation in the level of service provided to TANF participants. This study 

sought to document the successful practices that One-Stop Career Centers use to serve TANF 

recipients.

STUDY SITES: Six purposively selected local workforce investment areas were included, two 

each in California, Georgia, and Missouri

DATA AND METHODS: Sites were selected for the study based on their provision of services 

to TANF participants through One-Stop Career Centers and high degree of local, rather than 

state, control over TANF program administration. Additional selection criteria included the 

demographics and employment rates of the local population and the site’s accessibility to the 

researchers.

Data were obtained from on-site interviews with staff at One-Stop Career Centers and WIA 

administrative records on caseloads, service provision, and performance. Interviews with the 

local Workforce Investment Board and employment and social services agencies provided 

additional data. Qualitative methods were used to analyze interviews, and quantitative methods 

were used to summarize administrative data.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Several practices were identified as particularly useful for the 

effective provision of services to TANF participants. Among them were the presence of highquality community-based subcontractors, an active role on the part of One-Stop Career Centers 

in identifying growing employment sectors, and collocation or use of technology to promote 

effective communication between One-Stop Career Centers and TANF agency staff.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

51

Dunham, Kate, Jeff Salzman, and Vinz Koller. “Business as Partner and Customer under WIA: 

A Study of Innovative Practices.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy Research Associates, 2004. 

Available at 

KEYWORDS: WIA, One-Stop Career Center operations, partnerships

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=229

5&mp=y&start=121&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This paper examined business involvement with 

Workforce Investment Boards (WIBs), a key way for businesses to provide policy direction to 

WIA programs; business-related partnerships, which can improve WIBs’ responsiveness to 

business concerns; and services provided to businesses, such as labor exchange services, rapid 

response/downsizing assistance, and job fairs.

STUDY SITES: Nine local workforce investment areas (LWIAs) nationwide with innovative 

approaches to business involvement: Arapahoe-Douglas Works Colorado; Capital Area 

Michigan Works; Dallas, Texas WorkSource; Eastern Kentucky Concentrated Employment 

Program; Northwest Georgia Coosa Valley Regional Development Center; Northwest Wisconsin 

Concentrated Employment Program; Pacific Mountain Workforce Consortium—Grays Harbor 

WorkSource; San Diego Workforce Partnership; and Southwest Connecticut, TheWorkPlace Inc.

DATA AND METHODS: Nominations of LWIAs to be included in the study came from many 

sources, including DOL office staff, major national business organizations, and public interest 

groups with a focus on workforce development. The sample included a mix of urban and rural 

sites. From December 2003 to February 2004, researchers conducted site visits to the nine 

LWIAs, interviewing local area officials, partners, and business representatives.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The innovative business practice sites that were part of this study 

tried to be more effective in meeting the employment-related needs of both job seekers and 

businesses by seeking to involve businesses in all aspects of their operations, including business 

representation on WIBs, establishing business partnerships, and providing business services. 

For successfully integrating business interests into the WIB, the study recommended recruiting 

business members who hold high positions in their organizations, choosing a few priority WIA 

issues for them to take on, and engaging in strategic planning regarding broad workforce 

development issues.

For successful business-related partnerships, key factors included conducting joint strategic 

planning activities, developing sectoral initiatives at the intersection of economic development 

and workforce development, and paying attention to the needs of the business partners.

Finally, the study found that persuading businesses to make use of business services was 

critical to the success of the workforce development system. Successful practices included using 

a dedicated account representative to provide business services, cultivating long-term 

relationships, and targeting.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

52

Trutko, John, and Burt Barnow. “An Evaluation of the Priority of Service Provision of the Jobs 

for Veterans Act by the Workforce Investment System in Providing Services to Veterans 

and Other Covered Persons, Final Report.” Arlington, VA: Capital Research Corporation, 

2010a. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=245

8&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Veterans, priority of service provision, One-Stop Career Center operations

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Priority of service was stipulated in the Jobs for 

Veterans Act to ensure that veterans receive comprehensive services at One-Stop Career Centers 

even when resources are limited. This study sought to evaluate the implementation of the 

priority-of-service provision for veterans in the One-Stop Career Center system and the degree to 

which provision requirements were being met.

STUDY SITES: Seven One-Stop Career Centers: Junction City, Kansas; Auburn, California; 

Virginia Beach, Virginia; Anchorage, Alaska; Toledo, Ohio; Jacksonville, Florida; and Newark, 

New Jersey

DATA AND METHODS: The centers were selected to vary on a number of characteristics, 

such as the share of veterans in the population and the integration of ES offices. All WIA Adult 

and Dislocated Worker program exiters recorded in the WIA Standard Record Data (WIASRD) 

during 2003–2005 were included in the analysis. This study relied on three types of data: (1) 

interviews with Federal program officials and staff of national workforce and veteran

organizations; (2) site visits to local workforce areas; and (3) WIASRD data.

Qualitative methods were used to analyze data obtained from interviews and site visits. 

Descriptive statistics and regression analyses were used to examine the WIASRD data.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Veterans who visited One-Stop Career Centers were slightly less 

likely to receive intensive or training services and to establish an individualized training account

than nonveterans. However, veterans who received intensive services were more likely to 

receive training than their nonveteran counterparts. Veteran and nonveteran exiters had similar 

patterns in terms of pre- and post-employment rates. The authors noted that these findings were 

inconclusive with regard to the priority-of-service provision because the analysis lacked 

information to account for the criteria that determine the need for intensive services and training; 

veterans might simply require a different set of services than nonveterans.

However, interviews and site visits suggested that the priority of service provision was

insufficiently enforced, and many service providers did not have clear information about 

requirements. The authors saw a need for further technical assistance and training on what 

priority of service is and how to implement it. Site visits revealed that, although all the states 

visited had strong outreach to veterans, states and local areas were not sure what constituted 

priority of service.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

53

Dunham, Kate. “Linkages between TAA, One-Stop Career Center Partners, and Economic 

Development Agencies.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy Research Associates, 2009. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=242

5&mp=y&start=41&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: TAA, One-Stop Career Center operations, WIA, dislocated workers

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: WIA mandated that TAA programs, which 

provide compensation and training to workers laid off as a result of foreign trade, partner with 

One-Stop Career Centers. The goal was to better serve workers by increasing the collaboration 

between the programs; One-Stop Career Centers were intended to become the primary point of 

participant intake and delivery of TAA services. The Trade Act of 2002 strengthened the TAA 

program’s emphasis on working with employers by authorizing employer-based training and 

relaxing restrictions on the use of on-the-job training. This study described the partnerships 

between TAA programs, One-Stop Career Centers, and economic development agencies.

STUDY SITES: 41 One-Stop Career Centers providing TAA services and state-level offices of 

the 19 states in which the One-Stop Career Centers were located

DATA AND METHODS: From mid-2005 to mid-2006, the researchers conducted site visits at 

the One-Stop Career Centers. They also visited the state-level offices of each of these states and 

conducted interviews with a variety of staff, including local TAA program administrators and 

One-Stop Career Center directors. Finally, they performed a qualitative analysis and synthesized

their findings.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that strong relationships between TAA and 

partners, especially WIA, led to better service delivery for participants. Ties to ES, UI, and the 

WIA Dislocated Worker program were apparent at the state level, at local One-Stop Career 

Centers, and in joint state and local programs. Linkages with economic development agencies 

were not as strong.

The study results indicated that several factors affected the strength of relationships between 

programs. For example, TAA typically had stronger partnerships with programs that had 

coenrolled participants. It also had stronger ties to programs that were collocated in One-Stop 

Career Centers. TAA’s position within the state agency structure influenced the strength of the 

partnerships it formed because it was easier to form ties when programs were located within the 

same agency. However, being located within the same agency did not guarantee that programs 

coordinated well; challenges sometimes arose when programs had conflicting policies. For 

instance, WIA strictly requires that participants receive training in occupations in demand, 

whereas TAA sometimes makes exceptions to this requirement.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

54

Almandsmith, Sherry, Han Bos, and Lorena Adams Ortiz. “Evaluation of the Strengthening 

Connections between Unemployment Insurance and the One-Stop Delivery Systems 

Demonstration Projects in Wisconsin.” Oakland, CA: Berkeley Policy Associates, 2006. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=239

6&mp=y&start=61&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI claimants, reemployment services, One-Stop Career Center operations

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: With funding from DOL, the goals of this project 

were to better connect Wisconsin’s UI claimants with reemployment services at One-Stop Career 

Centers and build linkages between UI and One-Stop Career Centers in areas such as data 

sharing and joint service provision. In summer 2004, three demonstration sites began offering 

reemployment services to program participants and continued services until the end of the 

demonstration in spring 2006.

The study sought to document the linkages created between the UI and One-Stop Career Centers 

and assess the impact of the connections and demonstration services on UI claimants’ outcomes.

STUDY SITES: Six One-Stop Career Centers in Wisconsin

DATA AND METHODS: Qualitative data collection for the process study involved observing 

planning sessions and interviewing state-level employees in Madison, two visits to each of the 

three demonstration sites, one initial visit to each of the three comparison sites, and reviews of 

relevant state and local documents. Site visits included staff interviews and participant focus 

groups. Process study methods included qualitative analysis and synthesis of site visit data.

Impacts were estimated by comparing outcomes of participants in the demonstration sites with 

those of nonparticipants in adjacent zip codes. Three main sources of data included: (1) UI 

agency claim data, (2) UI wage record data, and (3) One-Stop Career Center client data. In total, 

2,180 demonstration participants were compared with 4,193 similar nonparticipants. The study 

generated frequencies and means of outcomes, using regression models to estimate impacts.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The demonstration succeeded in building strong connections 

between the UI and One-Stop Career Centers in the areas of data sharing and provision of 

reemployment services.

The demonstration made significant, although modest, impacts on participants’ outcomes by the 

end of the demonstration period in spring 2006; participant group members drew UI benefits for 

less time and had higher quarterly earnings than comparison group members. Receipt of 

assessment, job referral, one-on-one services, and follow-up services were associated with less 

time drawing UI benefits and increased quarterly earnings.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

55

Salzman, Jeffrey, Katherine Dickenson, Ruth Fedrau, and Melissa Lazarin. “Unemployment 

Insurance in the One-Stop System.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy Research Associates, 

2000. Available at 

KEYWORDS: WIA, UI, One-Stop Career Center operations, partnerships, employer services

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=366

&mp=y&start=241&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: WIA mandated that UI programs partner with 

One-Stop Career Centers. This partnership was expected to ensure that claimants and employers 

could easily learn about the services of both programs any time they interacted with one of them. 

This study described the relationship between UI and One-Stop Career Centers. It investigated

how this partnership could improve services for both claimants and employers. It then examined

factors that supported strong relationships between the programs.

STUDY SITES: Eight local workforce investment areas (LWIAs) in eight states

DATA AND METHODS: The researchers developed case studies for eight states and eight 

LWIAs. The states were chosen to assess various methods of taking initial UI claims (in person 

or over the phone) and the strength of the existing relationship between UI and One-Stop Career 

Center systems.

The researchers interviewed state UI and One-Stop Career Center directors about both programs. 

They then conducted three-day site visits to each of the LWIAs. While on site, they led focus 

groups with staff, claimants, and employers.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: States that continued to take claims in person played an active 

role in the design of One-Stop systems.

Certain factors were found to affect the relationships between UI and One-Stop Career Centers. 

For example, time constraints were an issue because UI staff did not always have time to discuss 

other services with employers. Sometimes UI state-level attitudes could also hinder the 

relationship, as some state-level staff felt that UI and One-Stop Career Centers should not be 

mixed because they dealt with separate issues. The location of UI staff also made a difference; 

when UI staff was located at the One-Stop Career Center, improved employer-service 

connections resulted.

The study recommended ways to improve the linkages between UI and One-Stop Career Centers. 

First, it recommended that states encourage initial claims to be made in-person, rather than by 

telephone, and while claimants are at the center, they should be connected to WIA and other 

services provided at One-Stop Career Centers. In addition, the study recommended providing 

claimants with written information about both programs, training staff in both programs to be 

knowledgeable about the other, and including information on both programs in marketing 

materials.

One-Stop Career Centers could improve their services to employers by providing more 

assistance in recruiting qualified job seekers and hiring more staff to work individually with 

employers. Many employers also indicated that they would like to receive more information 

about the services One-Stop Career Centers offered.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

56

Many claimants were satisfied with One-Stop Career Centers’ approach. However, claimants 

indicated that services could be improved by having employers distribute information about 

reemployment services when layoffs occurred. Claimants also wished that upon their first visit 

to the One-Stop Career Center they were informed about all the available services.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

57

Trutko, John, and Burt Barnow. “Implementing Efficiency Measures for Employment and 

Training Programs: Final Report.” Arlington, VA: Capital Research Corp., 2010b. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=244

1&mp=y&start=21&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: WIA, efficiency measure, ETA

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In 2007, to improve the performance of the 

Federal government’s programs, the Office of Management and Budget required the 

development of efficiency measures for all programs. ETA was charged with developing and 

implementing outcome-based efficiency measures for 11 employment and training programs it

administered: the WIA Adult, Dislocated Worker, Youth Activities, Indian and Native 

American, and National Emergency Grant programs; the TAA program; the Wagner-Peyser/ES

program; the Senior Community Service Employment Program; the National Farmworker Jobs 

Program; the Work Incentive Grant program; and apprenticeship. This study reported on ETA’s 

process of investigating the feasibility of various efficiency measures and made

recommendations for the types of measures to be used.

DATA AND METHODS: In formulating recommendations, the authors consulted background 

literature on performance measurement and management; conducted telephone interviews with 

officials at workforce agencies in California, Florida, Missouri, New York, Utah, and Virginia, 

and with officials from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the 

United Kingdom, and Canada; examined efficiency measures used in other Federal agencies; and 

analyzed aggregate cost and outcome data for the ETA programs of interest. The process of 

developing the recommendations also involved consultation with the ETA program and regional 

offices, the ETA internal Cross-Functional Performance workgroup, and an expert panel.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study developed nine recommendations for a measure of 

ETA program efficiency: (1) when considering program cost, use expenditures rather than 

appropriations; (2) use common measures, such as cost per entered employment, but only for 

programs for which they are appropriate; (3) measures should take program-specific features, 

such as the target population and intensity of service, into account; (4) until verified further, 

efficiency measures should not be relied upon to reward or sanction states and grantees; (5) the 

consistency of data on program costs, participants and outcomes should be improved; 

(6) efficiency measures should account for various activities offered within individual programs; 

(7) adjustment models for efficiency measures are more appropriate at the local/grantee level 

than at the state level; (8) calculating the return on investment is useful but it is not appropriate 

as a regular measure; and (9) issues surrounding co-enrollment and cost sharing between 

programs require further consideration.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

58

WIA Performance Measurement System

WIA stipulated a new performance measurement system, naming 17 core measurements and 

introducing performance goal negotiations for states and local areas. The purpose of increased 

accountability was to improve participants’ outcomes in employment, retention, earnings, and 

skill attainment. In 2001, the Administration introduced common performance measures for 

WIA programs.

The Evaluation of the WIA Performance Measurement System resulted in two final reports: 

one based on a survey administered to all local workforce investment areas (LWIAs) nationwide, 

and the other based on in-depth site visits to 11 LWIAs.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

59

Dunham, Kate, Melissa Mack, Jeffrey Salzman, and Andrew Wiegand. “Evaluation of the WIA 

Performance Measurement System.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy Research Associates, 

2006. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=240

9&mp=y&start=41&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: WIA, performance measurement, performance accountability

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This report sought to describe the implementation 

experiences of 11 local workforce investment areas (LWIAs).

STUDY SITES: A survey of all LWIAs and site visits to 11 LWIAs in Alabama, Colorado, 

Idaho, Maine, New Jersey, North Carolina, and Oregon

DATA AND METHODS: The analysis approach consisted of two rounds of site visits and a 

quantitative analysis using the LWIA survey data. The first round of site visits was conducted in 

program year 2002 and the second round in mid-2005 in order to assess the implementation of 

the new common measures. Different states were visited in the two site visit rounds; this report 

focuses on the seven states visited in program year 2005. Analytic methods included qualitative 

cross-site analyses, generating common themes and trends.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: In the second round of site visits, agency staff had a greater 

understanding of the measurement system and the monitoring information system technology. 

Most youth programs and some adult and dislocated worker programs were contracted to outside 

organizations such as schools or not-for-profits, which presented challenges for performance 

measurement. Half of the sites reported training contractors on performance measurement.

Most sites reported that their service design and delivery were influenced in some ways by the

performance measurement system. Examples include screening participants for motivation, 

delaying participation for those needing the most skill improvement, and discouraging 

participation from workers with relatively high pre-participation wages. The youth programs 

reported that the focus on academic goals made it more difficult to serve out-of-school and 

disabled youth.

Eighty-two percent of LWIAs report using performance measures to assess continuous 

improvement. Programs reported that the performance measurement system encouraged them to 

improve case management, follow-up, on-the-job training, and job placement services.
Workforce Investment Act Other Services and One-Stop Systems

60

Dunham, Kate, Melissa Mack, Jeff Salzman, and Andrew Wiegand. “Evaluation of the WIA 

Performance Measurement System: Survey Report.” Oakland, CA: SPR Associates, 2005. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=240

8&mp=y&start=41&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: WIA, performance management, performance accountability

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: States have some flexibility in determining 

performance accountability policies. This survey report presented results from a survey of local 

workforce investment areas (LWIAs) regarding their use of the performance measurement 

system.

STUDY SITES: LWIAs nationwide

DATA AND METHODS: The study attempted to survey all 572 LWIAs during the summer 

and fall of 2005, and 455 participated. The survey collected information regarding the operation 

of the performance measurement system. The researchers generated frequencies and means of 

survey responses.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that LWIAs’ perceptions of the initial 

performance measure negotiation process varied. Most said that some negotiation with the state 

was involved, but that local concerns should have received more consideration. One-third 

indicated that negotiation was minimal or nonexistent. 

The implementation of sanctions by states appeared to have a larger influence than incentives. 

Two-thirds of LWIAs indicated that the possibility of sanctions influenced their programs, 

whereas slightly more than half indicated that incentives had an influence. Performance 

measurement also appeared to affect partnerships. One-third of the LWIAs indicated that 

performance measurement discouraged eligible training providers and contracted service 

providers from applying to work with WIA participants, and half of the LWIAs indicated that 

performance measurement discouraged partners—other government agencies and/or other 

service providers—from co-enrolling clients. LWIAs also indicated that performance 

measurement affected the types of clients served and the services provided. LWIAs used 

performance measurement to improve program quality, with almost 60 percent electing to adopt 

additional measures.
Unemployment Insurance 

61

UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE

UI is a Federal-state partnership that offers temporary wage replacement to individuals who 

are involuntarily unemployed. Regular UI benefits are available for up to 26 weeks. During 

periods of recession or high unemployment, temporary Federal benefits and Federal-state

Extended Benefits programs have been implemented to increase the duration of coverage.

This section contains papers on various aspects of the UI program, including studies on its 

role, funding, and use.

• Two studies (Vroman 2010 and Chimerine et al. 1999) discussed the role of UI as an 

automatic economic stabilizer.

• Several papers examined UI taxes and trust funds (Coffey et al. 2008; National 

Association of State Workforce Agencies 2004; KRA Corporation 1997; and Cook et 

al. 1995), and in particular how the UI tax rate in a given state might be affected by 

the rates in neighboring states (Bassi and McMurrer 1996 and Vroman 1996).

• Several studies (Vroman 2008; Vroman 2001; Needels et al. 2001; Fishman 1999; 

Needels and Nicholson 1999; Corson et al. 1999; and Gritz et al. 1998) described the 

use of UI by individuals, including recipiency patterns and trends over time.

• Four papers (O’Leary and Eberts 2004; Decker and Perez-Johnson 2004; Needels et 

al. 2002; and Decker et al. 2000) examined reemployment services to UI claimants 

broadly, while O’Leary and Kline (2009) looked specifically at TANF participants.

• Vroman (1996) examined whether states in the early 1990s moved UI recipients onto

welfare rolls.
Unemployment Insurance 

62

Vroman, Wayne. “The Role of Unemployment Insurance as an Automatic Stabilizer during a 

Recession.” Washington, DC: IMPAQ International, 2010. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=244

7&mp=y&start=21&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI, unemployment rate, gross domestic product

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: UI benefits provide funds to unemployed workers, 

helping to maintain a level of consumption that may prevent the economy from further decline.

Regular UI benefits are available for up to 26 weeks to eligible unemployed workers, and during 

periods of recession or high unemployment, temporary Federal emergency unemployment 

compensation (EUC) and Federal-State Extended Benefits (EB) are implemented to increase the 

duration of coverage. This study used statistical simulations to examine the impact of UI

regular, emergency, and extended benefits on stabilizing the U.S. economy during the 2008–

2009 recession.

STUDY SITES: All states and Washington, D.C.

DATA AND METHODS: The study modeled the impact of UI benefits on the real gross 

domestic product (GDP) of all 50 states and the District of Columbia from 2007 to 2020; it used 

real data through the second quarter of 2009 and projections for subsequent years. 

Macroeconomic models developed by Economy.com, a branch of Moody’s Investor Services 

Inc., were used for analyses. The models accounted for state characteristics that affect the 

economy: demographics; real gross product; personal income and average earnings; credit and 

banking; real estate and housing; and consumer demand. The stabilizing effects of UI were 

determined by modeling the path of GDP with and without each of regular UI benefits, EUC, and 

EB and comparing GDP under each scenario.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that UI benefits had a stabilizing effect on the 

economy. Between 2008 and 2010, regular benefits reduced the decline in GDP by one-tenth,

and EB by one-twelfth. Multiplier effects in real GDP were estimated to average 2.0 for both 

regular benefits and EB.
Unemployment Insurance 

63

Chimerine, Lawrence, Theodore S. Black, and Lester Coffey. “Unemployment Insurance as an 

Automatic Stabilizer: Evidence of Effectiveness over Three Decades.” Walla Walla, WA: 

Coffey Communications, LLC, 1999. Available at 

KEYWORDS: UI

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=372

&mp=y&start=241&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This report evaluated the effectiveness of UI as an 

economic stabilizer. It examined criticism of the program and updated past quantitative studies 

of UI’s economic stabilization effects. It then introduced and applied an expanded model to test 

how effective UI had been over the past 25 years.

DATA AND METHODS: The study used simulations based on the Wharton Econometric 

Forecasting Quarterly model, which is capable of accurately modeling complex macroeconomic 

relationships, to examine five historical recessions beginning in 1969; expanding on previous 

work, it included data from the 1990–1991 recession. It then compared the modeled outcomes of 

the recessions with and without the effects of UI. It included results for the UI program overall 

and the three individual components of the program (regular, extended, and supplemental 

benefits).

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found no evidence that the effectiveness of the UI 

program had decreased over time and concluded that UI remained an effective automatic 

stabilizer on the U.S. economy. The simulation results suggested no support for the claim that 

structural changes had lessened the need for UI, and UI was not found to be less important 

because of other economic stabilizers gaining effectiveness.

Further, the authors suggested that, if its triggering and funding mechanisms were altered, UI 

programs could become even more effective as an automatic stabilizer. Ways of changing these 

mechanisms might include expanding eligibility, extending the duration of benefits, and better

funding.
Unemployment Insurance 

64

Coffey, Lester, Wayne Vroman, Michael Ye, E.A. Rett Hensley, Richard Sullivan, William 

Sullivan, and Lawrence Chimerine. “Evaluation of State Implementation of Section 303(K), 

SSA: Final Report.” Bethesda, MD: Coffey Communications, 2008. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=236

1&mp=y&start=81&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI taxes, State Unemployment Tax Act, SUTA dumping

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: State Unemployment Tax Act (SUTA) dumping

is a practice whereby an employer lowers state unemployment compensation (UC) taxes it owes 

through merger, acquisition, or restructuring schemes. The SUTA Dumping Prevention Act was 

implemented in 2004 to prevent this form of tax avoidance by adding section 303(k) to the Social 

Security Act (SSA). The new provision required states to amend UC laws by January 2006 to 

prevent SUTA dumping schemes and to implement procedures to detect them. This study sought 

to examine states’ implementation of the SUTA Dumping Prevention Act provisions.

STUDY SITES: Survey of all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin 

Islands, plus site visits to seven states: California, Florida, Michigan, New Hampshire, Texas, 

Utah, and Washington

DATA AND METHODS: Site visits included interviews with unemployment officials and 

were conducted from October to December 2006. Surveys were administered by June 2007. 

Qualitative methods were used to synthesize the site visit data; researchers also tabulated the 

frequencies and means of the survey data.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: All states enacted legislation as required by Section 303(k), 

SSA, with most states centralizing detection of SUTA dumping or assigning full-time staff to 

perform these functions. Between implementation in 2004 and September 2006, states collected 

more than $52 million in additional tax assessments from SUTA dumping violations.

States faced challenges in implementing the legislation; 49 states cited a lack of financial and 

staffing resources, and 36 percent of states indicated a lack of access to information technology 

resources. At the same time, nearly all survey respondents indicated they were satisfied or very 

satisfied with the provisions of Section 303(k), SSA.
Unemployment Insurance 

65

National Association of State Workforce Agencies. “Unemployment Insurance: Assessment of 

the Impact of the 2002 Reed Act Distribution—Final Report.” Washington, DC: National 

Association of State Workforce Agencies, 2004. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=236

3&mp=y&start=81&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Reed Act, economic stimulus, UI, ES, tax reduction

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In response to the economic downturn in 2001, 

Congress passed the Job Creation and Worker Assistance Act of 2002, which, among other 

actions, designated $8 billion for the Special Reed Act Distribution. The funds were divided 

among states and passed to state unemployment trust fund accounts. States could use the 

allocation to cover the cost of state unemployment benefits, ES, and administration of UI 

programs. This study sought to determine how states used the 2002 Reed Act funds.

STUDY SITES: Case studies of nine states (Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, 

New Jersey, Ohio, Virginia, and Washington); survey and administrative data for all 53 states 

and territories

DATA AND METHODS: The study had qualitative and quantitative components. To collect 

data for the qualitative component, researchers conducted telephone interviews with key 

individuals in state workforce agencies and stakeholders in the nine selected states. The data for 

the quantitative component were gathered from the 2002 and 2004 surveys from the National 

Association of State Workforce Agencies, state spending status reports, BLS, and the U.S.

Department of Commerce’s Bureau of Economic Analysis.

Analytic methods include qualitative data synthesis across states to identify general themes as 

well as descriptive statistics and regression modeling to identify characteristics or factors 

associated with certain fund usages.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Among the 53 states and territories that received Reed Act 

funds, 25 reduced taxes, 40 expanded their UI and ES administration budgets, and 9 raised their 

weekly UI benefit amounts. State UI system solvency was highly correlated with certain actions, 

such as tax cuts and benefit increases; low state solvency often meant that states needed to use 

the funds to replenish trust funds with low balances.

Overall, the Special Reed Act Distribution funds enabled states to respond to higher demand for 

UI benefits and ES services. In addition, the funds provided for long-term investment in 

information technology and infrastructure needs. Nevertheless, 28 states did not lower tax rates,

and there was little time for states to appropriate funds. In fact, only two of the nine states had 

distributed all Reed Act funds at the time of the study.
Unemployment Insurance 

66

KRA Corporation “Employee Leasing: Implications for State Unemployment Insurance 

Programs.” Unemployment Insurance Occasional Paper 97-1, Washington, DC: KRA 

Corporation, 1997. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=298

&mp=y&start=301&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Employee leasing, fringe benefits, UI taxes

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Leasing companies lease employees to client 

companies on a long-term basis. For a set fee, the leasing company pays the employees’ wages, 

benefits, and associated payroll taxes, including UI. This paper provided an overview of the 

employee leasing industry, how it interacted with state UI systems, and the implications for UI 

trust funds.

STUDY SITES: All 50 states and Washington, D.C.; in-depth examinations of Maryland, 

Florida, Oklahoma, and Texas

DATA AND METHODS: To generate an overview of the impact of employee leasing, all 50 

states and the District of Columbia were included in the study. Four states were examined in 

more detail to determine the impact of employee leasing on state unemployment trust funds. 

These states were selected based on the availability of wage record data and their experience 

with the employee leasing industry.

Data regarding the impact of leasing companies and state laws were obtained from all states 

using a mail survey conducted with state UI tax administrators from September to November 

1994. Wage record data and state UI tax rate data from 1990 to 1994 were used to examine state 

unemployment trust funds.

Analytic methods included a qualitative analysis of survey data and a quantitative analysis of 

state unemployment tax rate and wage record data.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: According to the survey results, 27 states considered the leasing 

company to be the employer of leased employees, 9 states considered the client company to be 

the employer, and the remaining states set criteria for the leasing company to be considered the 

employer. The leasing company was liable for UI contributions in 22 states, with 10 of these 

states considering the client company liable if the leasing company failed to pay contributions. 

Nine states considered the client firm jointly liable.

In all four states examined in depth, leasing companies had lower UI tax rates than client 

companies. The overall impact of employee leasing companies on UI trust funds depended on 

the size of the employee leasing industry. In Oklahoma, where the leasing industry was small, 

there was no observable impact. In Texas, where the leasing industry was much larger, the loss 

to the trust fund from employees switching to leasing companies was $3.2 million or 0.6 percent 

of taxable wages.
Unemployment Insurance 

67

Cook, Robert F., Wayne Vroman, Joseph Kirchner, Anthony Brinsko, and Alexander Tan. “The 

Effects of Increasing the Federal Taxable Wage Base for Unemployment Insurance.” Silver 

Spring, MD: KRA Corporation, 1995. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=291

&mp=y&start=301&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI trust fund, federal taxable wage base

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: From the introduction of UI in the 1930s, the 

Federal taxable wage base, which is the Federally mandated minimum amount of a worker’s 

earnings per year that are subject to taxation for the UI program, increased from zero to $3,000 

in 1940, to $6,000 in 1978, and to $7,000 in 1983. The increases occurred at times when the UI 

system had financial troubles. Many researchers and policymakers argued in 1995 that it was 

time to raise the Federal taxable wage base again, as the real value of the wage base and the ratio 

of the wage base to average income had fallen significantly. New base suggestions ranged from 

$10,000 to $60,000. This study simulated the effects of a wage base increase on employers, UI 

tax revenue, and labor.

STUDY SITES: Colorado, Maryland, Missouri, and Texas

DATA AND METHODS: The study used all wage record data from the four states for calendar 

years 1990 and 1991; their weighted average wage was very close to that of all states. A 

simulation model was created for each state based on its historical relationship between the 

taxable wage base and the share of total wages subject to UI taxes. These models, combined 

with estimates of the elasticity of employment demand and factor substitution from existing 

literature, were used to estimate the effects of wage base increases on employment and taxation. 

A second model with the state data and firm revenue data produced estimates of the effect of 

wage base increases on state and Federal trust fund revenues.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: According to the simulations, a wage base increase would have a 

small effect on employment. Were the taxable wage base to double to $14,000, employment 

would drop by 100,000, or slightly more than 0.1 percent of UI-covered employment. 

Eliminating the cap on taxable wages (that is, making all wages UI-taxable) would entail a loss 

of 381,000 jobs, which is approximately 0.5 percent of UI-covered employment.

A wage base increase to $14,000 would make 55 percent of the entire payroll UI-taxable, and an 

increase to $65,000 would cover roughly 90 percent. The simulation models estimated that if the 

taxable wage base doubled to $14,000, the Federal trust fund revenues would increase by more 

than 50 percent. Elimination of any base would increase Federal trust fund revenues by 120 

percent and state revenues by 75 percent; the difference between Federal and state increases

would arise because some states have higher wage bases than the Federal base.
Unemployment Insurance 

68

Bassi, Laurie, and Daniel McMurrer. “Unemployment Insurance in a Federal System: A Race 

to the Bottom?” In Essays on Interstate Competition in the Unemployment Insurance 

System, edited by Laurie Bassi. Unemployment Insurance Occasional Paper 98-5. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, 

Unemployment Insurance Service, Division of Research and Policy, 1998. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=357

&mp=y&start=241&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI taxes, interstate competition

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: To maintain a competitive advantage over other 

states in attracting businesses, states have an incentive to levy low UI tax rates. However, this 

incentive is balanced by their desire to maintain the well-being of unemployed workers through 

the provision of adequate UI benefits. This paper, one of a collection of essays on the UI system 

and interstate competition, sought to determine whether competitiveness with other states

influenced UI tax rates.

STUDY SITES: The 48 contiguous states

DATA AND METHODS: Panel data from 1977 to 1990 were used for the study and consisted 

of state unemployment tax rates, unemployment rates, changes in the unemployment rate, 

reserve ratios (a measure of the health of a state’s UI trust fund), numbers of state executive and 

legislative branches controlled by the Democratic party, state unionization rates, reserve ratios of 

state UI trust funds, and measures of state tax capacity to account for the level of states’ tax 

bases. Quantitative analytic methods, including regression analyses, were used.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that state UI tax rates were influenced by the 

tax rates of other states, particularly contiguous states. A state is more influenced by last year’s

tax rates of other states when it has a higher tax rate and is most likely to respond by lowering its 

tax rate. Changes to the tax rate in response to changes in the tax rates of other states are most 

likely to occur during times of declining unemployment. Over time, the intensity of tax rate 

competition had increased, so that states were more influenced by the tax rates of their 

neighbors.
Unemployment Insurance 

69

Vroman, Wayne. “Interstate Competition in Unemployment Insurance and Workers’ 

Compensation.” In Essays on Interstate Competition in the Unemployment Insurance 

System, edited by Laurie Bassi. Unemployment Insurance Occasional Paper 98-5. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, 

Unemployment Insurance Service, Division of Research and Policy, 1998. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=357

&mp=y&start=241&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI taxes, interstate competition, Workers’ Compensation

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: States have an incentive to impose lower tax rates 

in order to appeal to taxpayers and businesses and prevent migration to states with lower tax 

rates. In the case of benefit programs financed by states, such as UI and Workers’ 

Compensation, payments to beneficiaries depend on the tax rate. States may elect to offer lessgenerous benefits, thereby keeping taxes low, in order to maintain a competitive advantage in 

attracting and retaining taxpayers and businesses. This paper, one of a collection of essays on 

the UI system and interstate competition, sought to examine whether interstate competition plays 

a role in the provision of social benefits, specifically UI and Workers’ Compensation.

STUDY SITES: Colorado, Indiana, New Hampshire, South Dakota, and Virginia for in-depth 

data collection and analysis; all 50 states and the District of Columbia for costs

DATA AND METHODS: The authors reviewed the literature on interstate competition and 

provided a detailed critique of the Bassi and McMurrer (1996) thesis on UI tax rates (see p. 68). 

For UI tax rates, a descriptive analysis examined the tax rate patterns of three of five states with

the lowest average tax rates, along with their neighboring states. Regression analyses were also 

used to examine all 50 states and the District of Columbia during the same period. For this part 

of the analysis, data were compiled from the UI Service, BLS, and DOL’s ET Handbook 394, 

Unemployment Insurance Financial Data.

For Workers’ Compensation, costs were examined in all 50 states and the District of Columbia 

using regression analyses. Data were compiled from DOL’s ET Handbook 394, Unemployment 

Insurance Financial Data; the Oregon Department of Consumer and Business Services; the 

Social Security Administration; and the National Council on Compensation Information. All 

analyses considered the period from 1956 to 1996.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The analysis of states with low UI tax rates found persistent tax 

rate differentials with their neighbors and did not find evidence of tax rate convergence. 

Regression analyses on the larger sample indicated that interstate competition became an 

important factor in states’ UI tax rates in the period 1989 to 1996, as tax rates began to fall 

systematically below the model predictions.

The analysis of Workers’ Compensation found limited evidence of interstate competition, and 

findings were inconsistent as to whether states reacted more strongly to benefit reductions or 

benefit increases in neighboring states.
Unemployment Insurance 

70

Vroman, Wayne. “An Analysis of Unemployment Insurance Non-Filers: 2005 CPS Supplement 

Results.” Columbia, MD: IMPAQ International, 2008. Available at 

KEYWORDS: UI, non-filers

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=241

4&mp=y&start=41&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The UI program is underused by the eligible 

population; in a nonrecession era, 29 to 35 percent of eligible unemployed workers will draw UI 

benefits. To gain a greater understanding of UI recipiency, DOL funded a study using 2005 

supplement survey data from the Current Population Survey (CPS). This report describes the 

2005 data on UI receipt and compares it with previous CPS supplement data.

DATA AND METHODS: The CPS is a nationally representative survey of 55,000 households. 

For some months in 1976, 1989, 1993, and most recently 2005, the survey included supplemental 

questions on job-seeking activities and UI benefit receipt; unemployed civilians 15 years and 

older were asked if they applied for and received benefits, and those who did not apply were 

asked why not. The 2005 CPS supplement included 2,849 individual observations. Analytic 

methods included weighted statistical analyses and regression analyses to identify factors related 

to applying for UI benefits.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The 2005 CPS data revealed that unemployed workers most 

likely to apply for UI benefits are 25 years and older, job losers (as opposed to those who quit or 

are reentering the workforce), and those experiencing longer spells of unemployment. Part-time 

workers and noncitizens had lower-than-average rates of drawing UI benefits.

According to interviewed unemployed workers who did not apply for UI benefits, the main 

reason for not applying was their belief that they were not eligible. Reentrants into the 

workforce cited their lack of previous work experience as a disqualification, and job leavers 

believed that voluntary termination was grounds for ineligibility (a correct belief in many 

circumstances). Those on temporary layoff did not apply because they expected to have a job 

again soon. Other reasons given were not needing the money, perceiving that the program held a 

stigma, barriers to filing an application, and lacking knowledge of UI benefit programs.
Unemployment Insurance 

71

Vroman, Wayne. “Low Benefit Recipiency in State Unemployment Insurance Programs.” 

Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, 2001. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=229

2&mp=y&start=121&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI, recipiency

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Several aspects of UI vary widely across states

and account for the variation in state recipiency: application rates, the rate of first payment to 

applicants, and the duration of benefit receipt. This study sought to determine the impact that 

program characteristics, such as statutory provisions and administrative activities, have on 

benefit recipiency, accounting for differences in state labor markets. The study was particularly 

focused on states with recipiency lower than the national average.

STUDY SITES: 50 states and the District of Columbia plus site visits to California, Indiana, 

Louisiana, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Virginia, and Wisconsin

DATA AND METHODS: Data from the Current Population Survey and UI program data were 

used to examine state-level information from 1947 to 1999. Site visits were also conducted with 

nine states selected because they had either particularly high or low recipiency or a large volume 

of employer claims.

Regression analyses were used to explain application rates, inflows into benefit status, and 

relative unemployment duration while accounting for differences in states’ labor markets and UI

programs. Site visit data were analyzed using qualitative methods.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed that UI benefit 

recipiency was significantly related to state UI statutes and administrative operations. 

Claimants’ entry into the program had a larger impact on overall recipiency than did the duration 

of benefit payments. High misconduct determination rates were associated with low recipiency. 

In addition, site visits revealed that states that made accommodations for non-English speakers 

filing for UI benefits had higher recipiency than states that did not make such accommodations.
Unemployment Insurance 

72

Needels, Karen, Walter Corson, and Walter Nicholson. “Left Out of the Boom Economy: UI 

Recipients in the Late 1990s.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 2001. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=229

1&mp=y&start=121&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI recipients, exhaustees, reemployment services

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In 1998, the UI system supported 7.3 million 

people who had lost their jobs, replacing 40 to 50 percent of their former earnings. This study 

described the characteristics, UI participation, labor market experiences, and ES receipt of 

workers who began collecting UI in 1998. The authors sought to determine if labor market 

changes had altered the population requesting and exhausting UI and whether changes to the ES 

system had affected participants’ experiences in ES over the preceding decade.

STUDY SITES: Nationally representative sample

DATA AND METHODS: The study used individual-level survey data on a nationally 

representative sample of UI recipients (exhaustees and nonexhaustees) who began collecting 

benefits in 1998. Participants were contacted for a telephone interview between mid-2000 and

early 2001, with a response rate of 63 percent. Interviews were completed with 3,907 UI 

recipients: 1,864 exhaustees and 2,043 nonexhaustees. Researchers also used survey data from 

1988 UI recipients to examine changes from 1988 to 1998. Analytic methods included

descriptive statistics and regressions.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that UI exhaustees were more likely than 

nonexhaustees to be female and belong to racial or ethnic minority groups. They were also more 

likely than nonexhaustees to have low-paying jobs without fringe benefits before filing for UI.

Compared with 1988, UI recipients in 1998 took longer to find a job and were less likely to be 

reemployed at the time of the telephone interview, which took place approximately two years 

after initial UI receipt. However, during both periods UI recipients reported that their post-UI 

jobs paid less than their pre-UI jobs. The 1998 UI recipients were less likely to use 

reemployment services than the 1988 cohort, despite enduring longer unemployment spells. 

However, the 35 percent of the 1998 sample that reported receiving a notice (likely generated by 

the state worker profiling system) requiring them to report to a Job Service center reported 

visiting a center at high rates (75 percent).

The UI benefit exhaustion rate in the 1998 sample was higher than the level predicted by a 

statistical model that had accurately predicted the 1988 rate. The finding was attributed to 

changes in recipient characteristics, including aging, the increase in the percentage of Hispanic 

workers, and the decrease in the percentage of manufacturing workers with definite recall dates.
Unemployment Insurance 

73

Fishman, Michael, Scott Scrivner, David Stapleton, and Adam Tucker. “Literature Review and 

Empirical Analysis of Unemployment Insurance Recipiency Rates.” Falls Church, VA: 

The Lewin Group, 1999. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=367

&mp=y&start=241&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI, recipiency 

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The standard UI recipiency rate, the ratio of 

insured unemployed to the general unemployed population, fell from the 1970s to the 1990s. 

Rates using definitions that either widen the insured definition or restrict the general 

unemployment population definition also decreased. Questions abound as to the causes of the 

recipiency rate drop and how policymakers can raise it again. Research has offered many 

explanations; this report sought to explore the UI recipiency rate drop and examine the reasons 

for it.

DATA AND METHODS: The study contained two components. First, the authors reviewed 

the existing literature on the decline in the UI recipiency rate to identify variables to include in 

later empirical models. The second component was an empirical analysis that drew on data from 

three sources: (1) the BLS basic monthly survey; (2) the Current Population Survey (CPS); and 

(3) UI Service published statistics. Using data from recessionary periods in the 1970s, 1980s, 

and 1990s, the model analyzed the effects of changes in key variables (characteristics of the UI 

system and the unemployed population, as well as geographic shifts in the population) on the 

standard recipiency rate and alternative rate definitions.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The literature review provided some evidence that changes in 

unionization, taxes on benefits, and unemployment definitions had an effect on the UI recipiency 

rate, but these factors were not available to enter the empirical analysis model. Past research 

suggested that the decline in unionization could explain 25 percent of recipiency rate drops, and 

the increase in UI benefit taxation from the Federal government could explain another 25 percent 

of the drop. The CPS altered its unemployment definition in the 1970s, which could explain 2 to 

10 percent of the rate drop.

The empirical analysis found that changes in worker composition (e.g., age or education level) 

had a small effect on recipiency rates. Geographic shifts in the locations of unemployed workers

had a small effect on rates in the 1970s and 1980s and explained 11 percent of the rate changes 

of the 1990s. State agencies made various system changes at different periods, and the model 

did not capture their effects well. However, the researchers suspected that changes to the UI 

system (such as state policies restricting eligibility) most likely had a significant effect on UI 

recipiency rates.
Unemployment Insurance 

74

Needels, Karen, and Walter Nicholson. “An Analysis of Unemployment Insurance Durations 

since the 1990-1992 Recession.” Mathematica Policy Research, 1999. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=370

&mp=y&start=241&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI duration, recession

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Following the recession of 1990 to 1992, average 

UI durations remained high even as the unemployment rate fell. These increased durations 

might have reflected increased labor market difficulties that specific types of workers faced, 

changes in UI laws that affected duration, or other reasons. This report included a literature 

review and associated analyses to identify the reasons for the increase in UI durations in the 

1990s.

STUDY SITES: Nationwide; four states for in-depth study

DATA AND METHODS: The literature review indicated three potential explanations for the 

increase in average UI duration: changes in UI laws, changes in the geographic distribution of 

claimants across states, and changes in the composition of the unemployed population.

The remainder of the study sought to determine which of these theories was supported by 

evidence. It examined trends in durations at the national and state levels using an aggregate time 

series of administrative UI data and data from BLS. It then sought to explain these trends 

through statistical analyses.

Another component of the study examined claimant-level data from four states (Connecticut, 

Illinois, Mississippi, and Texas) represented in the data collected for both the Unemployment 

Insurance Exhaustee Study and the Evaluation of Worker Profiling Initiatives. Regression 

analyses were used to determine which explanations for increased durations were supported.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Analyses of both national and state data suggested that the 

average duration of UI benefits from 1993 to 1996 was about 1.1 to 1.4 weeks higher than would 

have been expected given historical norms. The results suggested that this was most likely 

caused by changes in the nature of the unemployment experienced by recipients, rather than 

changes in the distribution of claimants across states or changes in UI policy.

The claimant-level analysis suggested that changes in the composition of claimants—toward 

more older workers, women, and African Americans—could explain some of the increase in UI 

durations. The declining prevalence of manufacturing jobs was also a factor, while changes in 

UI policy did not seem to be related to increased UI durations.
Unemployment Insurance 

75

Corson, Walter, Karen Needels, and Walter Nicholson. “Emergency Unemployment 

Compensation: The 1990’s Experience (Revised Edition).” Mathematica Policy Research, 

1999. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/eta_default.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_resultDetails&pub_id=365&

bas_option=Title&start=1&usrt=4&stype=basic&sv=1&criteria=unemployment&ns=emerg

ency unemployment.

KEYWORDS: UI, Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC), recession

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The typical maximum duration of the regular UI 

benefits during nonrecessionary periods is 26 weeks. However, in every recession since the 

1950s, the government has increased the number of weeks that claimants may receive UI 

benefits. In 1991, the Emergency Unemployment Compensation (EUC) program was created. 

The program, which aimed to be countercyclical at the macroeconomic level during the 

recession, provided claimants with additional weeks of benefits from November 1991 until April 

1994. The EUC program was made up of two different components: one part extended the

duration of benefits, and another part allowed workers who would have collected regular UI 

benefits the option of collecting EUC benefits instead. This study sought to examine the EUC 

program and its overall impact on claimants.

DATA AND METHODS: The study consisted of three main components. It first compared the 

number of claims and amount of benefits for the recipients of EUC and regular UI, using

national and state-level data.

Second, the researchers used individual-level administrative data to compare the demographic 

characteristics of EUC and other UI claimants. They drew conclusions based on data from 

28,420 individuals who collected regular UI and/or EUC during the time EUC was offered. Data 

were collected for 18 states and weighted to be nationally representative.

The third component of the study involved determining the impacts of EUC on program 

administration through informal discussions with DOL staff and semistructured interviews with 

program administrators.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The EUC program helped claimants while counteracting effects 

of the recession. For example, the EUC programs kept many families from falling below the 

poverty line. However, the EUC program had some drawbacks. For instance, administrative 

challenges resulted from its multiple phases and the need to integrate it with the regular UI 

program.

Recipients of EUC had trouble finding new jobs. Some EUC claimants received reemployment 

services, education, or training. However, not all recipients received these services, and those 

who were most in need of training did not necessarily receive it. The overwhelming majority of 

workers who received benefits from the EUC optional claims component were not long-term 

unemployed.
Unemployment Insurance 

76

Gritz, R., Mark, Terry R. Johnson, Audra Wenzlow, and Fred B. Dong. “Dynamic Models of 

Unemployment Insurance Benefit Receipt: Survival Rate Analysis Report.” Seattle, WA: 

Battelle Memorial Institute, 1998. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=362

&mp=y&start=241&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI claimants, duration

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study focused on the choice of unemployed 

workers to collect UI benefits during their eligibility period by modeling initial benefit receipt 

and duration of receipt.

STUDY SITES: 15 states nationwide

DATA AND METHODS: The study used data from state UI administrative records. The 

sample included UI beneficiaries who submitted initial claims from 1990 to 1993 in 15 states. 

Each state was asked to randomly choose 1,000 claimants for each year to enter the sample. 

These individual-level data were combined with published state-level data on economic 

conditions and unemployment rates. Key variables included background characteristics, work 

experience, and monthly benefit receipt.

The main analytic method used to create the economic framework for modeling UI receipt was a

transition probability model, which predicted initial benefit receipt and duration of receipt.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The UI model demonstrated that patterns of UI recipiency over 

the period examined were complex and dynamic. Among monetarily eligible claimants, 70 to 80 

percent received UI benefits during their first week of eligibility. An additional 15 percent 

received benefits at some point in their benefit year.

The analysis of receipt duration revealed complex interactions among UI policy changes, 

demographic characteristics, and economic conditions. Because of these complicated 

relationships, weekly benefit amounts had a modest effect on receipt duration. Older workers 

and those who held positions in the retail and service industries were more likely to have longer 

receipt durations.
Unemployment Insurance 

77

O’Leary, Christopher, and Randall W. Eberts. “Personal Reemployment Accounts: Simulations 

for Planning Implementation.” Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment 

Research, 2004. Available at 

KEYWORDS: UI claimants, personal reemployment accounts, reemployment

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=230

6&mp=y&start=121&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In 2003, the proposed Back to Work Incentive 

Act contained a provision for each eligible UI claimant to be given a personal reemployment 

account (PRA) to be used for reemployment activities. According to the proposal, claimants 

would be able to use these accounts, worth up to $3,000 each, to finance reemployment activities 

such as job training services. Leftover funds could be paid as a reemployment bonus or used as 

extended income maintenance for claimants who had exhausted regular UI benefits.

The draft legislation set aside $3.6 billion to fund PRAs and required that the funds be 

distributed to states based on their share of national unemployment. The legislative proposal 

stipulated that those claimants who were the most likely to exhaust their benefits would receive 

priority in the allocation of PRAs.

This report described a simulation analysis of the implementation of PRAs under various 

conditions. The framework in the paper explored several behavioral responses to incentives 

created by the use of PRAs, such as participants finding jobs a week or two earlier than they 

otherwise would in order to receive a bonus.

STUDY SITES: State of Georgia

DATA AND METHODS: The study used data from Georgia on the use patterns of intensive, 

supportive, and training services in the simulations. The simulations estimated the average 

predicted cost per $3,000 PRA offer and the number of potential offers that could be made 

available over two years given the budget. Prices for services were predicted based on statewide 

service expenditures and service usage rates. Different assumptions were used regarding 

behavioral responses that affect UI duration.

The researchers used Worker Profiling and Reemployment System (WPRS) models to target 

simulated PRA offers. Simulations were focused on claimants in the 30 percent of the state 

WPRS distribution of claimant scores who were the most likely to exhaust their UI benefit 

entitlements.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Findings suggested that PRA offers, including all three proposed 

features (financing of reemployment services, reemployment bonuses, and extended income 

maintenance), would cost an average of $2,475 if there were no behavioral responses on the part 

of recipients. If the extended income maintenance feature of the PRAs were removed and there 

were no behavioral responses, the average baseline cost of an account would drop to $1,452. 

When one- and two-week behavioral responses were accounted for, the average cost increased 

by $39 and $76, respectively, because more participants qualified for bonuses.

These findings had implications for the number of PRA offers that could be made in Georgia, 

given a budget of $85.32 million. If every UI claimant offered the $3,000 grant accepted and 
Unemployment Insurance 

78

spent the account, only 28,440 offers could be made in the two years. However, the simulations 

indicate that recipients would probably not spend the entire $3,000. Factoring this in, PRAs with 

all three elements could be offered to about 17,000 Georgia UI claimants per year, for a total of 

34,000 offers.
Unemployment Insurance 

79

Decker, Paul T., and Irma L. Perez-Johnson. “What Can We Expect under Personal 

Reemployment Accounts? Predictions and Procedures.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica 

Policy Research, 2004. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=227

5&mp=y&start=141&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: personal reemployment accounts (PRAs), UI claimants

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Personal Reemployment Accounts (PRAs) were 

proposed in Congress in January 2003 as part of an economic stimulus plan. The objective of 

PRAs was to provide additional reemployment support and financial incentives to UI claimants 

who were likely to exhaust their benefits. Eligible individuals would receive accounts with up to 

$3,000 to use for a wide variety of reemployment costs (such as attending a training program). 

Workers who found new employment within their first 13 weeks of UI claims would earn a 

reemployment bonus equal to the remaining funds in the account.

This report discusses issues related to possible implementation and operation of the PRA 

program: its likely impact on recipients, possible methods states and local areas could use to 

determine eligibility, and possible procedures to manage and monitor the PRAs.

DATA AND METHODS: The report drew on several areas of research in presenting its 

recommendations, including (1) the Pennsylvania and Washington Reemployment Bonus 

Demonstrations; (2) research on Worker Profiling and Reemployment Services (WPRS) systems; 

(3) the Individual Training Account (ITA) demonstration (which was ongoing at the time of this 

study), and (4) other more general studies of UI recipients.

The study was largely a review of the extant literature to draw implications for future PRA 

policy. Regression models were used to simulate the new program’s impact, and 

recommendations were discussed.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The simulation model predicted that approximately 31 percent of 

UI claimants offered a PRA would receive the reemployment bonus, and that the PRA would 

create an incentive to leave UI benefits 1.66 weeks earlier than similar UI claimants. There 

would be little entry effect (more workers applying for UI benefits) because PRA eligibility 

would be available only to those UI claimants with severe barriers to work. Another simulation 

model, using data from the ITA demonstration, predicted that states, given their budgets, could 

offer $3,000 accounts to approximately 6.4 percent of UI claimants, or half of WPRS-eligible 

clients.

The report recommended that states set the PRA budget for local areas based on unemployment 

numbers and the regional cost of services. The local areas then would set (and adjust when 

needed) their own regulations on how many PRAs to offer and to whom.
Unemployment Insurance 

80

Needels, Karen, Walter Corson, and Michelle Van Noy. “Evaluation of the Significant 

Improvement Demonstration Grants for the Provision of Reemployment Services for UI 

Claimants.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 2002. Available at 

KEYWORDS: UI, Significant Improvement Demonstration Grants (SIGs), reemployment 

services, worker profiling

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=228

6&mp=y&start=121&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In 1993, states became subject to a requirement to 

implement Worker Profiling and Reemployment Services (WPRS). Through these systems, 

states identify UI claimants, refer them to reemployment services, and record data on 

employment outcomes. DOL/ETA awarded Significant Improvement Demonstration Grants 

(SIGs) to 11 states to help improve their WPRS systems. States intended to use these grants to 

better reemployment services, improve data systems, and strengthen the link between UI, ES, 

and WIA programs. This study is an implementation analysis describing the changes states 

made as a result of the SIGs.

STUDY SITES: 11 states: Alaska, California, Louisiana, Maryland, Minnesota, New York, 

North Carolina, South Carolina, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin

DATA AND METHODS: Data for the study were collected through visits to the 11 SIG states, 

telephone interviews with their staffs, reviews of grant proposals, state-level data on UI 

programs, and relevant DOL documents. This report expanded upon previous reports about the 

difficulties SIG sites faced in their implementation of WPRS systems and focused on sitespecific and cross-site findings over the full two-year period from 2000 to 2001. The researchers

used qualitative methods to document the implementation of the grants.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study documented several ways in which states had changed 

their WPRS systems as a result of the SIGs. These included developing systems to select 

claimants for reemployment services, expanding the pool of potential WPRS participants, and 

improving the precision of the statistical profiling tools. SIG recipients also took steps to 

improve service delivery to clients. The study also found that states sought to enhance the ties 

among UI, ES, and WIA systems.

The study documented several obstacles to improved WPRS systems. For instance, states might 

not have adequately served high-risk claimants because services could not reach those claimants. 

In addition, states might not have made the programs as flexible or as intensive as was necessary.
Unemployment Insurance 

81

Decker, Paul T., Robert B. Olsen, and Lance Freeman. “Assisting Unemployment Insurance 

Claimants: The Long-Term Impacts of the Job Search Assistance Demonstration.” 

Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 2000. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=368

&mp=y&start=241&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI claimants, Job Search Assistance (JSA), reemployment, cost-benefit analysis

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: DOL, authorized by the Emergency 

Unemployment Compensation Act of 1991, implemented the Job Search Assistance (JSA) 

demonstration aimed to speed reemployment of UI claimants. Three service strategies were 

implemented: (1) Structured JSA (SJSA), which required claimants to participate in an 

orientation, testing, a job search workshop, and a one-on-one assessment; (2) Individualized JSA

(IJSA), which required claimants to receive services based on assessed needs (although all had to 

participate in an orientation and a one-on-one assessment); and (3) Individualized JSA with 

Training (IJSA+), which was identical to IJSA but included an effort to enroll claimants in 

training. In each case, assistance was provided by Job Service agencies, while UI agencies 

monitored participation and sanctioned claimants for noncompliance. Claimants receiving the 

treatment were those expected to face long unemployment spells.

This study sought to determine the impact of the various service strategies on the outcomes of 

interest among UI claimants, including the amount of UI benefits received, reemployment rates, 

search efforts, and job characteristics. It also sought to determine the cost-effectiveness of the 

JSA program.

STUDY SITES: Washington, D.C. and Florida

DATA AND METHODS: The JSA demonstration was implemented in Washington, D.C., 

serving a target sample of UI claimants from June 1995 to June 1996. It was also implemented 

in Florida at 10 Jobs and Benefits offices, serving a sample of claimants from March 1995 to 

March 1996. UI claimants who were deemed eligible to receive JSA services were randomly 

assigned to one of the three service strategies or to the control group, which did not receive JSA 

services. Eligibility was based on need and the probability of UI benefit exhaustion. A total of 

8,071 claimants were assigned to the demonstration in Washington, D.C. and 12,042 in Florida.

Four sources of data were used to estimate the impact of the program: (1) the JSA demonstration 

participant tracking system, (2) UI program data, (3) UI wage records, and (4) a one-year followup survey of a subset of the demonstration participants. Additional data for the implementation 

study and cost-benefit analysis were collected through site visits.

The impact analysis consisted of comparing the outcomes of the control group with those 

assigned to the three JSA strategies. The implementation study relied primarily on qualitative 

methods to analyze site visit data.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The implementation study found that the demonstration was, for 

the most part, successfully implemented in both Washington, D.C. and Florida. Few claimants 

in the IJSA and IJSA+ groups participated in any JSA group services other than the orientation 

and assessment. Training receipt rates were low across the board and were no higher for IJSA+ 

participants than for the other treatment groups.
Unemployment Insurance 

82

The impact analysis found that all service treatments appeared to reduce UI receipt in the first 

year. Most treatments reduced the duration by half a week. The differences between the 

treatment and control groups in leaving UI occur around the time of notification of requirements 

or scheduling to participate in events. The JSA treatments also reduced the percentage of 

claimants who exhausted their benefits in year one. None of the treatments had a significant 

effect on UI receipt beyond the initial benefit year, as might be expected given the nature of the 

intervention.

The impact on participants’ employment and earnings was uneven across service treatments and 

locations. In Washington, D.C., the SJSA strategy increased earnings among participants when 

compared with the control group by about $200 per quarter, a difference that persisted. Other 

strategies in D.C. showed smaller effects, and interventions in Florida did not show significant 

impacts on earnings.

Cost-benefit analyses showed that the JSA treatments were not cost-effective from the 

government perspective; although they reduced UI payments, these reductions were not large 

enough to offset program costs. However, the JSA programs in Washington, D.C. were costeffective from the perspective of society.

Impact estimates for Florida were not precise; therefore, the cost-benefit analysis, which 

indicated that two of the three services resulted in negative benefits to society, should be 

interpreted with caution.
Unemployment Insurance 

83

O’Leary, Christopher, and Kenneth Kline. “Use of Unemployment Insurance and Employment 

Services by Newly Unemployed Leavers from Temporary Assistance to Needy Families: 

Final Report.” Kalamazoo, MI: Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 2009. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=244

3&mp=y&start=21&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: TANF, UI, ES

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study examined the use of UI and ES among 

TANF leavers and how use of the programs was related to employment and self-sufficiency 

outcomes.

STUDY SITES: Florida, Georgia, Michigan, and Ohio

DATA AND METHODS: Administrative data on UI receipt, TANF receipt, and earnings were 

collected from the four states. Florida administrative data were available from 1998 to 2001, 

Georgia from 1996 to 2001, Michigan from 2001 to 2002, and Ohio from 2000 to 2001. There 

were 322,036 TANF leavers in these states during the periods of observation, and all were 

included in the research sample. Correlations and regression methods were used to analyze the 

outcomes of TANF leavers such as UI eligibility and receipt, employment, and benefit receipt.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: In the four states, 79 percent of individuals who left TANF 

experienced a spell of unemployment within three years of program exit. Seventy-eight percent 

eventually secured employment, and 37 percent returned to TANF within three years of the 

initial TANF exit. Of those who were unemployed, only 24 percent applied for UI benefits;

roughly half of them were approved to receive benefits; state rates ranged from 30 percent in 

Ohio to 65 percent in Michigan because of differing state policies. UI beneficiaries who recently 

left TANF exhausted their benefits at higher rates than other UI beneficiaries (that is, more of 

them failed to enter new jobs before their benefit period ran out).

Controlling for differences between individuals, those who applied for and were denied UI 

benefits fared the worst on measures of self-sufficiency, including returning to employment 

without returning to TANF. Those who received UI benefits and those who did not apply for UI 

fared roughly equally well. Many unemployed TANF leavers used ES, and those who applied 

for UI utilized ES at higher rates. Evidence on the effects of ES use was mixed.
Unemployment Insurance 

84

Vroman, Wayne. “Unemployment Insurance, Welfare and Federal–State Fiscal Interrelations: 

Final Report.” Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1996. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=299

&mp=y&start=301&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: UI claimants, welfare

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In the 1990s, a decrease in UI receipt and an 

increase in welfare receipt across states gave rise to the hypothesis that state governments 

moved traditional UI recipients to welfare payrolls in an effort to reduce spending. The UI 

programs at the time of analysis were state-funded, whereas welfare programs were partially 

Federally funded; therefore, transferring populations to welfare could reduce the burden on state 

budgets. This report sought to test this cost-shifting hypothesis by analyzing whether the transfer 

was deliberate (that is, states changed program policies to shift cost burden), inadvertent (that is,

states changed program policies for unrelated reasons), or the effect of a greater demographic 

shift (that is, a change in demographics, rather than policies, altered program receipt).

DATA AND METHODS: The study used time series data of UI and welfare receipt from 1956 

to 1994 in all 50 states. All data came from BLS and the Unemployment Insurance Service.

Analytic methods included generating frequencies and averages and performing time-series 

regressions.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: According to the author, the study findings did not support the 

hypothesis that state governments had deliberately shifted UI recipients onto welfare programs. 

First, fiscal analysis found that transferring populations to welfare did not reduce state costs. 

This is because welfare consisted of three programs: Aid to Families with Dependent Children 

(AFDC), Food Stamps, and Medicaid. The Food Stamps program was Federally funded, but 

AFDC and Medicaid were only partially funded by the Federal government. Transferring UI 

recipients to partially state-funded Medicaid was not cost-effective for states.

Second, the report noted several criticisms of past studies that found support for the deliberate 

cost-shifting hypothesis; data sources and analysis models of those studies were questioned. 

Third, analysis of the state-level data revealed that the 15 states with the largest drop in UI did 

not record large increases in welfare receipt, an argument against the inadvertent hypothesis. 

Likewise, states with large increases in welfare receipt did not significantly reduce UI receipt. A 

rise in welfare receipt was found in states with high population increases and states with low 

welfare participation in the previous years, supporting the demographic shift hypothesis.
Unemployment Insurance 

85

Cross-References for the UI Section

Almandsmith, Sherry, Han Bos, and Lorena Adams Ortiz. “Evaluation of the Strengthening 

Connections between Unemployment Insurance and the One-Stop Delivery Systems 

Demonstration Projects in Wisconsin.” See p. 54.

Barnow, Burt, and Daniel Gubits. “Review of Recent Pilot, Demonstration, Research, and 

Evaluation Initiatives to Assist in the Implementation of Programs under the Workforce 

Investment Act.” See p. 41.

Kosanovich, William, Heather Fleck, Berwood Yost, Wendy Armon, and Sandra Siliezar. 

“Comprehensive Assessment of Self-Employment Assistance Programs.” See p. 159.

O’Leary, Christopher. “Unemployment Insurance and Reemployment Among Older Workers.” 

See p. 139.

Salzman, Jeffrey, Katherine Dickenson, Ruth Fedrau, and Melissa Lazarin. “Unemployment 

Insurance in the One-Stop System.” See p. 55.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

86

YOUTH PROGRAMS OTHER THAN WIA

The workforce investment system typically distinguishes between older youth, ages 19-21, 

and younger youth, ages 14-18. Studies in this section examined programs involving both 

groups.

• Two studies examined replications of the Center for Employment Training model that 

involves a work-like environment and industry input (Bos et al. 2003 and Miller at al. 

2005).

• Two others examined the Quantum Opportunity Program, a multi-component afterschool program (Maxfield et al. 2003 and Schirm et al. 2007).

• Four studies related to the Youth Offender Demonstration Project, a multisite 

communitywide intervention (Miller and MacGillivray 2002; MacGillivray et al.

2004; Needels et al. 2006; and Dunham and Wiegand 2008).

• Leshnick (2011); Abrazaldo et al. (2009); Monsma (2009); McNeil ETR (2008); 

Lerman (2005); Lerman (2001); D’Amico et al. (2000a); and D’Amico et al. (2000b)

examined other programs for youth.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

87

Center for Employment Training Replication Sites

Bos, Johannes M., Fannie M. Tseng, Fred Doolittle, and Deana N. Tanguay. “Working with 

Disadvantaged Youth: Thirty-Month Findings from the Center for Employment Training 

Replication Sites.” New York, NY: MDRC, 2003. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=228

2&mp=y&start=121&sort=7.

Miller, Cynthia, Johannes Bos, Kristin Porter, Fannie Tseng, and Yasuyo Abe. “The Challenge

of Repeating Success in a Changing World: Final Report on the Center for Employment 

Training Replication Sites.” New York, NY: MDRC, 2005. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=233

4&mp=y&start=101&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Center for Employment Training (CET), youth, credential attainment, occupational training, out-of-school youth

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The Center for Employment Training (CET) in 

San Jose, California, is an employment and training program for out-of-school youth. Its 

distinctive features are the work-like training environment and the local industry input into the

program design and operation.

Two multisite random assignment studies during the 1980s showed that the CET had positive 

effects on the employment and earnings of out-of-school youth. Based on these promising 

results, DOL awarded several grants to CET to provide technical assistance to other employment 

and training programs, with the goal of replicating CET’s success. Organizations that wished to 

receive funds applied to DOL; applications from 22 organizations were approved between 1992 

and 1997. These studies sought to determine the extent to which the CET model and its positive 

effects could be replicated. The report by Bos et al. (2003) presented findings based on 30-

month follow-up interviews with participants, while the final report by Miller et al. (2005) 

followed participants through 54 months after random assignment.

STUDY SITES: 12 sites: 6 in the Midwest or East and 6 in the West

DATA AND METHODS: Of the 22 sites receiving technical assistance from CET, 6 agreed to 

participate in this evaluation in 1995. Six sites that were directly administered by CET were 

added to the evaluation in 1997. Between 1995 and 1999, 1,485 out-of-school youth who were 

eligible for and applied to participating programs were randomly assigned to a program group, in 

which they could receive services, or a control group, in which they were ineligible for services 

for 24 months, with roughly half in each group. Data came from CET administrative, 

enrollment, and management information systems and participant surveys at baseline, 30 months,

and 54 months after random assignment.

In addition, the research team conducted a series of site visits to determine implementation and 

adherence to the CET model; all sites were rated as low-, medium- or high-fidelity based on a 

rubric score that assessed their adherence to the CET principles. To determine program impacts, 

the study compared outcomes of the program and control groups.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

88

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Based on data from the 30-month follow-up survey presented in 

the first report, the study found positive impacts on employment-related outcomes for young 

women in the sites that had replicated the CET model with high fidelity; results for young men 

were negligible in these sites. Low- and medium-fidelity sites had little or negative impacts on 

members. The first report also noted that adhering to the CET model was a challenge; only 4 of 

the 12 sites were designated as high-fidelity sites. Sites found it difficult to replicate the intense 

participation in training and the strong organizational stability that the CET model demanded.

At the time of the 54-month follow-up, participants who received services from the sites that 

more closely replicated CET had more positive training outcomes than participants from other 

sites. However, the sites did not produce positive employment or earning outcomes among 

participants, as measured at 54 months after random assignment.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

89

Quantum Opportunity Program

Maxfield, Myles, Allen Schirm, and Nuria Rodriguez-Planas. “The Quantum Opportunity 

Program Demonstration: Implementation and Short-Term Impacts.” Washington, DC: 

Mathematica Policy Research, 2003. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=228

1&mp=y&start=141&sort=7.

Schirm, Allen, Elizabeth Stuart, and Allison McKie. “The Quantum Opportunity Program 

Demonstration: Final Impacts.” Washington, DC: Mathematica Policy Research, 2007. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=233

6&mp=y&start=101&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Quantum Opportunity Program (QOP), at-risk youth, community-based 

organizations, case management, mentoring

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The Quantum Opportunity Program (QOP) was a 

DOL- and Ford Foundation-funded demonstration offering intensive and comprehensive services 

to help at-risk youth graduate from high school and enroll in college or training. The 

demonstration took place from July 1995 through September 2001 in seven sites operated by 

community-based organizations. DOL funded five sites, and the Ford Foundation funded two. 

Each site served 50 to 100 students. The QOP was mainly an after-school program with a model 

consisting of the following four components: case management and mentoring, education, 

developmental activities, and community service.

The first report, by Maxfield et al. (2003), sought to determine how well the QOP model was 

implemented, how much it cost to administer, and its short-term impacts on participants’ 

outcomes, as measured while they still should have been in high school. The second report, by 

Schirm et al. (2007), estimated the impacts of the QOP on participants’ outcomes, as measured a 

little more than three years after they should have graduated from high school.

STUDY SITES: Seven QOP sites: Cleveland, Ohio; Fort Worth, Texas; Houston, Texas; 

Memphis, Tennessee; Washington, D.C.; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Yakima, Washington

DATA AND METHODS: To be eligible for the program, students were required to be entering 

the ninth grade in fall 1995 at a high school participating in the QOP demonstration and have a 

grade point average below the 67th percentile. Eligible students could not be repeating ninth 

grade. The nearly 1,100 students deemed eligible were randomly assigned to either a program 

group, which allowed them to participate in QOP, or a control group, which could not 

participate.

Data for the studies were obtained through annual site visits; participant surveys, one 

administered during spring of the fourth year of the demonstration (which should have 

corresponded to students’ senior year in high school) and the other a little more than three years 

after students should have graduated high school; achievement test scores from spring of the 

fourth year of the demonstration; and high school transcripts, obtained after the demonstration 

period. The impact of the program was estimated by comparing the outcomes of interest 

(academic achievement, graduation, postsecondary education/training, and risky behavior) for 
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

90

the program group and the control group. Program implementation was assessed through a 

qualitative analysis.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Sites had varying levels of success implementing the QOP 

model: all sites implemented the developmental component, and most implemented case 

management and mentoring, but few implemented the education component. No site fully 

implemented the community service component, with all sites scheduling far fewer activities 

than recommended by the program model.

As measured in spring of the fourth year of the demonstration, participation in QOP increased 

the likelihood of high school graduation and enrollment in postsecondary education. The most 

positive effects were generally observed in the sites that most strictly adhered to the QOP model. 

At the same time, the QOP did not improve grades and achievement test scores or reduce risky 

behaviors. Impacts were substantially attributable to the Ford Foundation sites, Philadelphia and 

Yakima.

When the outcomes were examined several years after students should have graduated from high 

school, however, these findings did not persist. Overall, the QOP programs did not increase 

participants’ likelihood of graduating from high school, their earnings, or their odds of finding 

employment. The reading and math achievement scores were the same for both the program and 

the control groups, and QOP participants were three percentage points more likely to have 

committed a crime in the three months leading up to the final interview and six percentage points 

more likely to have been arrested for or charged with a crime in the two years before the final 

interview. QOP did decrease the likelihood of participants using illegal drugs in their early 20s. 

Outcomes might have depended on how well each site implemented the QOP model; participants 

spent only about one-fourth as much time participating in the program as was recommended.

QOP appeared to have had more beneficial effects for younger enrollees than for older ones. For 

the younger group of participants, QOP increased the likelihood of receiving a high school 

diploma by seven percentage points.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

91

Youth Offender Demonstration Project

From 1999 to 2003, DOL funded 52 sites, in three rounds, for the Youth Offender 

Demonstration Project (YODP). The projects were designed to get youth at risk of criminal 

involvement, youth offenders, and gang members ages 14 to 24 into long-term employment at 

wage levels that would prevent future dependency and would break the cycle of crime and 

juvenile delinquency. Three broad types of projects were included in the demonstration: those 

focusing on community-wide approaches to dealing with at-risk youth, those providing schoolto-work education and training to youth in juvenile correctional facilities, and those that worked 

to develop linkages across existing youth service providers in order to provide comprehensive 

services to youth.

Studies in this section include a process study of Round One grantees (Miller and 

MacGillivray 2002); a process study of Round Two grantees (MacGillivray et al. 2004); an 

evaluation of Round Three grantees (Jenks et al. 2006); and a study documenting the challenges 

of implementing a random assignment evaluation of YODP (Dunham and Wiegand 2008).
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

92

Miller, Ed, and Lois MacGillivray. “Youth Offender Demonstration Project Process Evaluation: 

Final Report.” Chapel Hill, NC: Research and Evaluation Associates, Inc., 2002. Available 

at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=228

8&mp=y&start=121&sort=7.

MacGillivray, Lois, Ed Miller, Snehal Shah, and Stephen Jenks. “Youth Offender 

Demonstration Project Process Evaluation Final Report: Round Two.” Chapel Hill, NC: 

Research and Evaluation Associates, Inc., 2004. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=237

8&mp=y&start=61&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Youth, ex-offenders, reentry, community partnerships

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This process study sought to document the 

implementation process of 12 of the 14 Round One and all 9 Round Two youth offender 

demonstration projects (YODPs), noting achievements and challenges. The other two sites were 

evaluated separately under a Department of Justice agreement.

STUDY SITES: 12 Round One and 9 Round Two YODP grantees nationwide

DATA AND METHODS: The process study was designed to collect information on ten key 

questions covering topics such as the community context in which grantees operated, 

stakeholders’ involvement with the programs, recruitment of staff and participants, and services 

provided.

Data primarily came from the three visits made to each of the projects. During the visits, 

evaluators interviewed key staff, attended project advisory board meetings, observed training 

sessions, and spoke with project participants. In addition, evaluators collected information about 

each project, reviewed participants’ records to determine the kinds and duration of services 

received, and obtained management information system data. Evaluators subsequently prepared 

site visit reports and used qualitative analytic methods to compare and contrast the programs.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Participants indicated that the promise of jobs at a decent wage 

drew them to the local projects and kept them engaged. The projects with the most potential to 

affect youths’ outcomes had the following characteristics: they established partnerships with the 

juvenile justice system, collected and maintained data about participants and their outcomes, 

established connections between the workforce system and the juvenile justice system, and 

shared leadership and information with key stakeholders. Factors outside the control of the 

grantee, such as the local economy and the degree to which the community supported the 

grantee’s mission, could considerably help or hinder the grantee’s efforts. Finally, a lock-step 

approach to providing services did not address the varied needs of youth participants; services 

and educational curricula had to be flexible to accommodate these needs.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

93

Jenks, Stephen S., Lois MacGillivray, and Karen Needels. “Youth Offender Demonstration 

Project Evaluation Final Report – Volume One.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy 

Research and McNeil Technologies, 2006. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=237

6&mp=y&start=81&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Youth, ex-offenders, reentry, community partnerships

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This report discussed the lessons of the YODP 

demonstration, including the employment and educational outcomes of participants; how well 

the programs served their target populations; and how relationships between YODP, employers,

and the workforce development system evolved. This particular report focused on the 29 

projects that were implemented in Round Three of YODP.

STUDY SITES: 29 Round Three YODP grantees nationwide

DATA AND METHODS: The evaluation consisted of three components. The outcomes study 

focused on employment, education, and criminal justice outcomes for participants and used 

administrative and management information system data collected by the grantees. Descriptive 

and regression analysis methods were used to analyze this data. The extended model study 

examined a sample of eight Round Three projects in depth through interviews with staff and 

partner organizations, observations and focus groups with youth, and interviews with other 

stakeholders. Finally, the focused project model study was an in-depth examination of 11 

grantees selected because they had been awarded supplemental grants or because they offered 

services to special populations, such as youth with drug or alcohol addictions.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study reported many findings. Projects were generally 

implemented well. Virtually all youth received case management (route counseling), and the 

route counselor served as the most important link to services. The reentry services were 

generally provided by the justice system. The main workforce services were work readiness and 

job placement services.

Few youth achieved their educational goals; however, youth ex-offenders and those at risk of 

involvement with the criminal justice system were able to find subsidized or unsubsidized 

employment. Youth were more likely to complete training programs in projects that emphasized 

vocational training in a specific high-demand industry. In addition, few youth got into trouble 

with the judicial system while actively involved with YODP, but projects enrolling more 

offenders had higher rates of arrests in the follow-up period.

The in-depth studies of projects indicated that some sites struggled to provide services that 

participants needed and some had trouble developing strong, well-coordinated partnerships. For 

example, participants had unmet needs for housing, anger management, substance abuse, and 

mental health problems. However, over time many grantees successfully developed a 

comprehensive set of services for the target population. Some grantees accomplished this goal 

by designing individual service plans for participants.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

94

Dunham, Kate, and Andrew Wiegand. “The Effort to Implement the Youth Offender 

Demonstration Project (YODP) Impact Evaluation: Lessons and Implications for Further 

Research.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy Research Associates, 2008. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=241

1&mp=y&start=41&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Youth, ex-offenders, reentry, random assignment implementation, impact study 

implementation

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In the summer of 2005, ETA commissioned an 

impact evaluation of the Youth Offender Demonstration Program (YODP). According to the 

planned evaluation, courts in six jurisdictions were to use random assignment to place youth 

offenders in a control group, which would receive standard incarceration, or one of two treatment 

groups: youth in treatment group one were to be incarcerated and receive YODP after-care 

services and those in treatment group two were to receive YODP services with no incarceration. 

Ultimately, the courts and YODP grantees in the included jurisdictions did not agree to the study 

methodology, and the plan was abandoned. This report documented lessons learned from the 

attempted evaluation and made recommendations for future studies.

STUDY SITES: Six local workforce investment areas in Brockton, Massachusetts; Bronx, New 

York; Honolulu, Hawaii; Nashville, Tennessee; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and San Diego, 

California

DATA AND METHODS: Data for the recommendations were drawn from the evaluators’ 

experiences attempting to implement the evaluation in each of the six demonstration sites. The 

authors also drew on their experiences implementing previous random assignment studies.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Based on their experiences, the authors recommended the 

following for future evaluations: Grantees involved with random assignment and other key 

stakeholders should understand the study methodologies before being included in the evaluation; 

study requirements should not be changed after site selection; and sites must see random 

assignment as ethical, which requires an excess of potential participants and strong program 

options. The authors suggested that future evaluations taking place in the context of the court 

system should assemble the evaluation team before selecting study sites and require that courts 

either give explicit agreement to participate in the evaluation or apply to participate.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

95

Other Youth Activities

Leshnick, Sukey Soukamneuth, Anna Rubin, Jennifer Henderson-Frakes, Heather Lewis-Charp, 

Kimberly Foley, and Jill Leufgen. “Evaluation of School District-Based Strategies for 

Reducing Youth Involvement in Gangs and Violent Crime.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy 

Research Associates, 2011. Available at 

KEYWORDS: At-risk youth, violence prevention, dropout prevention

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=245

5&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In 2007, DOL awarded grants to five school 

districts in cities with high youth unemployment rates so that they could improve their services 

to youth with a history or risk of involvement with gang activity or the justice system. The 

grantees developed programs aimed at increasing academic performance, decreasing dropout 

rates, and reducing criminal and gang activity. They were required to form ties with the 

workforce investment system, the juvenile justice system, law enforcement, the local mayor’s 

office, and the U.S. Attorney General’s Office. The grantees also developed relationships with 

community organizations that provided additional supports for the youth participants. Each 

grantee received $5.86 million dollars; 3,765 youth at 41 schools and program sites were served 

by the grants, of whom 17 percent were out-of-school youth.

The study’s aim was to document the implementation of the youth programs. It assessed which 

methods were associated with better educational, employment, and juvenile justice-related 

outcomes for the student participants.

STUDY SITES: Five grantees: the Baltimore City Public School System, Chicago Public 

Schools, Milwaukee Public Schools, the Orange County Public School System, and School 

District of Philadelphia

DATA AND METHODS: Researchers conducted three rounds of site visits to each of the five 

grantees. The visits included interviews with administrators, teachers and principals, staff from 

partner organizations, employers who had worked with participants, and students. In addition, 

the study used data from the grants’ management information system to gather information on 

youth characteristics and outcomes. Data analyses for the implementation study relied mostly on 

qualitative methods; the outcomes analysis used descriptive quantitative methods.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The grantees developed their strongest partnerships with the 

workforce system, while relationships with the juvenile justice system centered on referrals. 

Partnerships with law enforcement and community-based organizations were fairly weak, while 

the mayor’s offices were more involved.

The services that the school districts provided with the grant funds included support for schools 

and programs in their provision of remedial academic, credit retrieval, job preparation, 

subsidized employment, case management, and violence prevention activities to in-school and 

out-of-school youth. The grantees created five alternative high schools, which offered a team 

approach, small class sizes, online instruction, and wrap-around supportive services.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

96

Job preparation classes and services were the most commonly provided workforce services. 

Youth participants consistently pointed to the quality of case management and counseling staff 

as a core strength.

In terms of student outcomes, data on the reading and math levels (for those grantees that 

reported them) showed that 40 percent of participating youth had performance gains equivalent 

to two grade levels in each subject. Youth offenders showed noticeably lower gains in math and 

reading than did other participants. Few grant-funded programs showed increases in graduation 

rates, but this was probably because most grantees served youth who were still in school. Three 

grantees reporting the measure did not see a significant change in the ninth-grade retention rate. 

Twenty-two percent of participants transitioned into unsubsidized employment. Finally, 12 

percent of the 615 youth offenders recidivated, although criminal justice data were somewhat 

incomplete.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

97

Abrazaldo, Wally, Jo-Ann Adefuin, Jennifer Henderson-Frakes, Charles Lea, Jill Leufgen, 

Heather Lewis-Charp, Sukey Soukamneuth, and Andrew Wiegand. “Evaluation of the 

YouthBuild Youth Offender Grants: Final Report.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy Research, 

2009. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=242

0&mp=y&start=41&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: YouthBuild, ex-offenders, youth, vocational training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: YouthBuild USA offers education, constructionrelated training, counseling, leadership development, and community service opportunities for 

out-of-school youth ages 16 to 24. DOL provided Youth Offender grants to 34 YouthBuild sites 

in program years 2004 to 2006 to extend services to youth offenders. The aim of the Youth 

Offender grants was to decrease recidivism rates. This study sought to describe the 

implementation of the YouthBuild Youth Offender grants and participants’ outcomes through 

September 2007.

STUDY SITES: 34 YouthBuild sites nationwide

DATA AND METHODS: Data were obtained from two in-depth site visits to each grantee, 

which included interviews with program administrators, staff, instructors, partners, employers, 

and participants in the spring and fall of 2007. The study also gathered data on the 1,001 youth 

offender participants from each program’s management information system as well as Local 

Area Unemployment Statistics from July 2006 to June 2007.

Site visit data were analyzed using qualitative methods. For the outcomes analysis, the

researchers generated means and frequencies of the administrative data, with regressions as 

appropriate.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The implementation analysis found that many grantees used 

selective screening processes in an attempt to ensure that they enrolled committed participants, 

as substance abuse and substantial personal problems were common causes of low attendance 

and poor outcomes. Case management procedures varied among sites with advantages to both 

lenient and formal approaches observed. In general, grantees recognized the unique challenges 

faced by participants and offered educational services that were more comprehensive than those 

in traditional schools. Grantees commonly focused on GED attainment as the end goal and 

offered a range of activities related to applying to and enrolling in postsecondary education

institutions. Grantees also offered vocational training in a range of construction activities, 

provided leadership opportunities, and included a community service component.

In terms of outcomes through December 2007, almost three-quarters of participants had a 

positive criminal justice outcome, meaning that they did not re-offend or have probation or 

parole revoked. More than a third of participants earned a GED after entering YouthBuild, and 

more than half obtained unsubsidized employment. Analyses suggested that several aspects of 

the programs were related to more-positive outcomes, including lower participant-to-staff ratios, 

a higher number of worksite staff, educational training on site, vocational training that was 

linked to educational instruction, and grantee ownership or management of their own worksites.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

98

Monsma, Stephen V., and Corwin E. Smidt. “An Evaluation of the Latino Coalition’s 

Reclamando Nuestro Futuro (Reclaiming our Future) Program.” Grand Rapids, MI: Calvin 

College, 2009. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=241

0&mp=y&start=41&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Faith-based and community organizations (FBCOs), Latino youth, ex-offenders

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In 2004, the Latino Coalition, a coalition of faithbased and community organizations (FBCOs), received a $10 million, three-year ETA grant to 

deliver educational and workforce skills to at-risk and adjudicated Latino youths ages 14 to 21. 

The Latino Coalition developed a program Reclamando Nuestro Futuro (RNF), through which it 

made 28 grants to FBCO subgrantees in five cities. The three types of services they offered were 

mentoring, job preparedness training, and job skills training. The Latino Coalition served as an 

intermediary, distributing funds to subgrantees over the three-year grant period. This study 

examined the unique challenges faced by Latino youth, the services of RNF, and the outcomes of 

program participants.

STUDY SITES: Grantees in Dallas, Denver, Houston, Los Angeles, Phoenix, and San Diego 

(the number of grantees in each city varied by year of funding; 19 programs, subject of this 

study, were funded in the third year of the grant period)

DATA AND METHODS: Researchers conducted interviews with Latino Coalition staff, 

facilitated youth focus groups, interviewed community partners, and conducted site visits to 

19 subgrantees that received funding in fall 2007 for the process study. In addition, researchers 

collected information from the Latino Coalition’s management information system on 

participants’ characteristics and outcomes.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The process study found that the Latino Coalition was highly 

effective in working with its subgrantees and put in place control systems that enabled some of 

the subgrantees to be in a position to sustain their programs after the RNF funding ended. The 

report attributed this success to the Latino Coalition’s case management system, which was used 

by all the subgrantees; the use of consultants to design programs and provide technical assistance 

to subgrantees; and the well-trained city project directors, who served as intermediaries between 

the Latino Coalition and the subgrantees in each of the cities in which programs operated.

In general, the RNF programs emphasized mentoring the most, job preparedness training second 

most, and job skills training the least. The participation data indicated that slightly more than 

two-thirds of the RNF participants received no job skill training; this percentage varied greatly 

by site.

According to subgrantees’ data for the 2,784 participants in the RNF programs, 70 percent of 

participants were in school, 76 percent were aged 14 to 17, and 82 percent were Latino. Ninetyone percent of participants avoided offending (measured as conviction or parole or probation 

revocation), and 20 percent of the participants had positive employment outcomes. These 

positive employment outcomes included finding their first unsubsidized employment, getting 

hired for an additional job, or entering the military. Only 2.7 percent of participants began either 

long-term occupational training or full-time postsecondary education, and 10.8 percent 

completed an education milestone. At-risk youth generally had better outcomes than adjudicated 
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

99

youth: for example, 97 percent of at-risk youth avoided offending compared to 87 percent of 

adjudicated youth.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

100

McNeil Education, Training and Research. “Process Evaluation of the Demand-Side Youth 

Offender Demonstration Project (Phase II).” Chapel Hill, NC: McNeil Education, Training 

and Research, 2008. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=241

5&mp=y&start=41&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: At-risk youth, ex-offenders, community partnerships

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In 2003, ETA awarded a grant to implement the 

Demand-Side Youth Offender Demonstration Project (DSYOP) to connect employers at four 

sites with ex-offenders and at-risk youth ages 18 to 25. DSYOP facilitated these connections by 

establishing business resource centers (BRCs), which employers could visit to fill their demand 

for qualified employees.

BRCs opened in three phases. Initially, three BRCs opened in Chicago, New York, and 

Washington, D.C. In the second phase of the initiative, a fourth center opened in Los Angeles. 

This study examined the implementation of Phases I and II of the DSYOP. It investigated how 

effective the model was in each site and the outcomes for participants. Successes and challenges 

of the implementation were observed so that future programs could learn from them.

STUDY SITES: Chicago, Illinois; New York, New York; Washington, D.C.; Los Angeles, 

California

DATA AND METHODS: 1,279 participants were enrolled across the demonstration sites. 

Quantitative data included data from the grantee’s management information system and 

information from UI wage records. Researchers also conducted site visits to each location, 

where they conducted interviews with employers, grantee staff, participants, and referring 

organizations.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The process study found that the BRCs formed ties with 602 

employers over the course of the program. These employers represented a wide range of 

industries and sizes. Employers liked the fact that the BRCs screened candidates for them, 

saving time and money. Job seekers and employers alike thought the BRCs prepared 

participants well for job interviews.

Many of the jobs did not provide employee benefits, which might have been limiting for 

participants with families. Even with better-paying jobs, some of the youth continued to struggle 

with punctuality, the availability of transportation and child care, and soft skills.

Of the 1,279 enrolled participants, 950 were deemed eligible for employment. Of these 

participants, 413 were placed in employment at retention wages. The average wage for placed 

participants was $9.52 an hour. Women earned more on average than men. Additionally, 

participants with higher levels of education earned more than those with less education. 

However, almost 20 percent of participants who were placed did not complete the six months of 

work to which they agreed. Common reasons for this included attendance problems, poor 

performance, and disapproval of job or pay.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

101

Lerman, Robert I. “Programs to Support Out-of-School Youth.” Submitted to the U.S. 

Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration. Washington, DC: 

American University and Urban Institute, 2005. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=238

6&mp=y&start=61&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Youth, out-of-school youth, program design, program evaluation

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Since the 1960s, the Federal government has 

funded programs for disadvantaged youth aimed at building work and life skills essential for 

adulthood. Evaluation results for these programs have been mixed. This paper examined the 

evaluations of several past DOL programs aimed at serving out-of-school youth, considering the 

unique policy and economic context for each. In addition, the paper included examples of recent 

programs. Drawing from the previous literature, the study sought to construct guiding principles 

and recommendations for future demonstrations serving out-of-school youth.

DATA AND METHODS: The study drew on results from six past DOL demonstrations and 

programs with associated random assignment evaluations: the JTPA Youth Component, the 

National Job Corps Study, Conservation and Youth Service Corps, JOBSTART, the Center for 

Employment and Training Replication, and YouthBuild.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Lessons learned from reviewing past evaluations were that the 

biggest payoffs are likely to come only from long-term, intensive programs and that the 

programs must display success in raising participants’ employability in order to attract more 

applicants.

Considering lessons learned from the literature review, the paper presented three demonstration 

options that could potentially have a high impact for youth: (1) Employer-Led Training in High 

Wage Careers, a demonstration modeled after the apprenticeship system. The associated 

evaluation would focus on participant employment outcomes and employer satisfaction. 

(2) Second Chance Armed Forces Training and Military Employment, a demonstration that 

would enroll youth who would not typically qualify for military service. After three to six 

months of intensive training and mentoring, youth would be allowed to enter mainstream 

military service. Israel has a successful model of this program. (3) Civilian Service and Job 

Market Linkage, a demonstration that would link completion of a remedial education course to 

acceptance into Americorps or a similar community service program. Past evaluations of such 

programs have found improvements to participants’ life skills.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

102

Lerman, Robert I. “Improving Career Outcomes for Youth: Lessons from the U.S. and OECD 

Experiences.” Research and Evaluation Monograph Series 01-D. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, 2001. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=225

2&mp=y&start=161&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Youth, vocational training, apprenticeship, literacy, OECD

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In February 1999 the Organization for Economic 

Co-Operation and Development (OECD) sponsored a conference, “Preparing Youth for the 21st 

Century: The Transition from Education to the Labour Market,” to discuss youth employment. 

This study drew heavily on the OECD-sponsored conference and sought to describe trends in 

youth employment, schooling, and training in the United States and other OECD countries; 

catalogue approaches to increasing youth employment in OECD countries; and use these to 

derive recommendations for improving the effectiveness of youth employment and training 

programs in the United States.

DATA AND METHODS: The study relied on the conference volume of papers presented at 

“Preparing Youth for the 21st Century: The Transition from Education to the Labour Market” as 

well as referenced scholarly articles. The author synthesized the existing literature and presented 

recommendations based on the lessons learned from it.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The most important trend across the OECD countries was the 

increase over time in formal schooling; the proportion of 18-year-olds attending school rose from 

about 50 to 67 percent from 1984 to 1997. In many countries, this was accompanied by rapid 

reductions in youth employment.

Although the U.S. experience reflected broader OECD trends in many respects, the U.S. had a 

notably higher percentage of youth with low literacy (nearly 25 percent of 16-to-25 year olds 

compared with 5 percent in Germany and 6 percent in Belgium and the Netherlands). 

Several OECD countries such as Germany use a dual system of apprenticeship and vocational 

education. The apprenticeship experiences of the OECD countries suggest that close 

institutional links between industries and schools are critical to aligning incentives of employers 

and youth; this encourages employers to hire and train students in career-oriented positions and 

encourages students to do well in school. According to the report, the United States is one of the 

few countries not taking aggressive steps to promote apprenticeships. The vocational education 

and apprenticeship systems in the U.S. are decentralized.

Recommendations included the following: Youth employment programs should go beyond 

focusing solely on labor and take into account the social and environmental contexts of the 

youth. Programs should focus on career development rather than rapid employment. In 

addition, when community service employment is offered, the program should link participants 

to further education and career opportunities.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

103

D’Amico, Ronald D., Mary Kimball, Michael Midling, Pamela L. Smith, A. Lee Bruno and 

Michele L. Johnson. “Evaluation of the School-to-Work Out-of-School Youth 

Demonstration and Job Corps Model Centers: Final Report for the Job Corps Model 

Centers.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy Research Associates & Center for Human 

Resources, Brandeis University, 2000a. Available at 

KEYWORDS: School-to-work (STW), out-of-school youth, classroom training

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=222

5&mp=y&start=181&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In 1997, in an effort to provide academic 

instruction to out-of-school youth, DOL awarded 30 Job Corps centers grants to become 

designated model centers and implement high-quality school-to-work (STW) principles. STW 

teaches academic skills in a career context and uses active learning methods to engage students. 

Each center received $60,000 for each of the two years of the demonstration. This report sought 

to describe the initiative’s design and implementation.

STUDY SITES: 30 model centers nationwide

DATA AND METHODS: Data for the implementation study came through in-person visits to 

23 of the 30 centers and telephone contact with the remaining 7 centers. The researchers 

conducted discussions with center administrators, planners, curriculum planners, instructors, and 

staff, supplemented by observations of instructional activities.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Most centers made more progress on changing their work-based 

learning than school-based instruction to align with STW principles. Traditionally, Job Corps 

has had a strict separation between academic and vocational departments, complicating the 

implementation of STW. On the other hand, certain program elements of Job Corps, such as 

assessments and Training Achievement Records, are consonant with STW principles.

The report named four major challenges to implementing STW principles and some best 

practices to overcome each of them. The first was building support for the STW 

implementation. To achieve high levels of support, staff recommended working aggressively for 

buy-in, identifying and addressing all concerns, and creating planning groups that incorporate 

diverse staff. In addition, leadership should hold a clear vision of the STW implementation and 

communicate that it is a high-priority issue.

The second challenge was obtaining adequate resources (time and knowledge) to support the 

change. Overcoming this challenge required major adjustments in scheduling and staffing, 

devoting more time to planning groups and other new priorities, and investing in staff 

development activities.

The third challenge was changing the methods of classroom learning. To break down the 

barriers between vocational and academic learning that had existed in Job Corps centers 

previously, staff needed to have regular planning sessions with both sets of teachers present. 

Together, the teachers designed new methods for the classrooms to combine curricula.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

104

The final challenge to implementation was ensuring quality and consistency across work-based 

learning sites. Centers needed to develop better monitoring techniques for the sites and start 

regular meetings with the center teachers and employer supervisors.
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

105

D’Amico, Ronald D., Mary Kimball, Michael Midling, Pamela L. Smith, A. Lee Bruno, and 

Michele L. Johnson. “Evaluation of the School-to-Work Out-of-School Youth 

Demonstration and Job Corps Model Centers: Final Report for the Out-of-School Youth 

Demonstration.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy Research Associates & Center for Human 

Resources, Brandeis University, 2000b. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=222

4&mp=y&start=181&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: School-to-work (STW), out-of-school youth, classroom training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In 1997, in an effort to adapt and incorporate 

school-to-work (STW) principles in services to out-of-school youth by offering academic 

instruction in a career context, DOL awarded 11 Out-of-School Youth (OSY) demonstration 

project grants ranging in size from $100,000 to $140,000. Grantees were established 

employment and education providers serving the OSY population using a variety of approaches. 

They included adult or alternative high schools, local government agencies, employer 

organizations, and community-based organizations. At the time of grant application, applicants 

were expected to display some design elements of STW in their current service model. The 

grants were to be used to incorporate STW concepts further into their service models over a grant 

period of 15 months. This report sought to describe the design and implementation of STW 

elements at the OSY demonstration sites.

STUDY SITES: 11 OSY sites: Austin, Texas; Baltimore, Maryland; Cambridge, 

Massachusetts; Lancaster, Pennsylvania; Memphis, Tennessee; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; New 

York, New York; Columbus, Ohio; Phoenix, Arizona; Warwick, Rhode Island; and Yakima, 

Washington

DATA AND METHODS: Data collection was conducted through two site visits to each site. 

Each site visit entailed two days of interviews with key grantee administrators, grantee staff in 

charge of recruitment, and curriculum planners/instructors; observations of learning 

environments (classroom and work); focus groups with participants; and studying lesson 

materials. Researchers also had regular telephone conversations with key respondents between 

the site visits.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Grantees fell into three broad groups: (1) adult or alternative 

high schools focused on high school diploma or GED achievement; (2) programs following the 

YouthBuild model, alternating times in academic, vocational, and work skills training; and 

(3) programs that grew out of workforce development programs.

Partnership experiences varied. Work-based learning experiences were more likely to be 

integrated with classroom activities when employers knew the goals of the program. Existing 

STW systems were noticeably absent as they did not focus on meeting the needs of OSY.

The report listed effective practices for implementing STW elements in established 

organizations. Demonstration staff recommended that future efforts begin system changes by 

setting a small number of clear goals and a plan to evaluate progress over time. Leadership 

should define individual responsibilities for all members of the system and be certain to provide 

enough resources to the coordination effort. New services or activities introduced as part of the 

system change should be sustainable (for example, funding or staff).
Youth Programs Other Than WIA

106

The OSY population can be difficult to serve; connections with area schools and neighborhoods 

are important for recruitment of this population. To retain students, organization staff should 

inform them about program rules and expectations from the beginning. Leadership should 

involve students in the system change planning and take their opinions on services, peer 

discipline, and learning goals into account. Smaller organizations should look to form a network 

with other programs with similar missions and service populations, and not expect to serve all 

needs of every student with their limited capacity. Partnerships are effective when members 

know their individual responsibilities well.

As the youth prepare to join the workforce in internships or work-based learning, organizations 

should be certain to teach all aspects of the industry and discuss expectations in the workplace. 

Soliciting employer input when planning the system changes will likely give the employer a 

sense of ownership, benefiting both the employer and the organization. To ensure quality workbased learning, the organization should designate a workplace liaison that develops explicit 

student training plans with each employer.
Training Programs Other Than WIA

107

TRAINING PROGRAMS OTHER THAN WIA

This section contains summaries of training programs not funded through WIA. Two papers 

(Trutko et al. 2007 and Nightingale et al. 2008) studied the High Growth Job Training Initiative 

grants. Duscha and Graves (2006 and 1999) studied employer-focused customized training 

programs, while Isbell et al. (1996) studied employer-based training programs.

Other studies looked at more specific aspects of non-WIA training programs. Salzman et al. 

(2011) examined customers' use of career advancement accounts to seek training of their choice. 

Mikelson and Nightingale (2004) examined expenditures on training from a variety of sources. 

Coffey (2002) looked only at those training programs funded by H-1B visa fees. Finally, Burron 

et al. (1999) examined the effectiveness of promotional materials in attracting incumbent

workers to training programs.
Training Programs Other Than WIA

108

High Growth Job Training Initiative (HGJTI) Programs

Trutko, John, Carolyn O’Brien, Pamela Holcomb, and Demetra Smith Nightingale. 

“Implementation and Sustainability: Emerging Lessons from the Early High Growth Job 

Training Initiative (HGJTI) Grants.” Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2007. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=234

4&mp=y&start=101&sort=7.

Nightingale, Demetra Smith, Lauren Eyster, John Trutko, Carolyn O’Brien, and Kate Chambers. 

“Implementation Analysis of High Growth Job Training Initiative (HGJTI) Programs.” 

Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 2008. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=239

0&mp=y&start=61&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: High Growth Job Training Initiative (HGJTI), high-growth industry, publicprivate partnerships

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The President’s High Growth Job Training 

Initiative (HGJTI) is a DOL-funded effort to promote market-driven strategic partnerships 

between the private and public sectors. Between 2001 and 2006, 156 grants ranging from 

$150,000 to nearly $10 million supported training programs as well as capacity building for them

(for example, developing curricula, hiring qualified instructors, and buying communication 

technology). A multi-component evaluation of HGJTI assessed the progress of the grantees.

The first implementation report (Trutko et al. 2007) sought to describe the early implementation 

lessons and project sustainability of 20 grant recipients from the earliest rounds of funding. The 

final implementation report (Nightingale et al. 2008) contained a more in-depth examination of 

six selected grantees, their projects, and lessons learned from implementation.

STUDY SITES: 20 HGJTI grant recipients from the earliest rounds of funding (Trutko et al. 

2007); site visits to six purposively selected grantees (Nightingale at al. 2008): Miami-Dade 

College (Florida), Columbia Gorge Community College (The Dalles, Oregon), Chicago Women 

in Trades (Illinois), JobPath, Inc. (Tucson, Arizona), Louisiana Department of Labor, and 

Oklahoma Department of Career and Technology Education/High Plains Technology Center 

(Woodward, Oklahoma).

DATA AND METHODS: The study sample for the Trutko et al. report included the 20 grant 

recipients from the earliest rounds of funding, which included postsecondary institutions, 

industry/business organizations, unions, workforce development agencies, and economic 

development service providers. Data for this report came from telephone discussions conducted 

in fall 2006 with each grantee’s administration. Analytic methods included qualitative analysis 

and synthesis of responses across the sample.

Two data sources were used in the Nightingale et al. report: (1) all grantee applications and 

quarterly reports submitted to ETA on the nature and progress of grant-funded training and 

capacity building efforts and (2) site visits to six grant projects selected to reflect variety in 

geography, industry, and organization. Researchers calculated frequencies and tabulations and 

synthesized information across site visits.
Training Programs Other Than WIA

109

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Findings based on 20 early grantees: The grant recipients were 

diverse in many respects. The number of project clients ranged from 17 to 3,000, with an 

average of approximately 400. Some projects chose to serve areas within one state and others 

reached nationwide. The most common industry sectors involved were advanced manufacturing 

(four grants), health care (four grants), automotive (two grants), and energy (two grants).

Lessons learned from the implementation of the grants included the following: form 

partnerships with organizations that share a similar vision and maintain the partnerships with 

regular information sharing and discussions of roles and responsibilities; develop a strong team 

for outreach and recruitment and offer support services (such as child care) to trainees; and focus 

early on strategies to sustain the projects after the grant period ends.

After the grant period had ended, 8 of the 20 grantees were able to sustain their projects at a 

similar size. Ten grantees continued to run the projects, but had to scale down efforts or cease 

certain activities. Two grantees, at the time of the early implementation study, had stopped 

activities and were seeking resources to continue in the future. Of those that secured sustainable 

funding, 5 used WIA funds and 3 used funds from industry associations or unions. Other sources 

included employer contributions, Pell grants, and individual training accounts.

Final implementation findings: Among the 156 HGJTI grantees, most were associated with the 

health care sector (21 percent), the advanced manufacturing sector (21 percent), or the 

biotechnology sector (10 percent). Thirty percent of grantees provided services nationwide. The 

average grant amount was $1.9 million, and most projects leveraged the grant with other funds 

averaging $700,000. The grantees most often targeted populations of youth (36 percent) and 

incumbent workers (35 percent).

The main priority of the six grantees selected for the in-depth implementation analysis was 

training. They often provided multiple, short (80 hours or fewer) training components that 

included classroom and on-the-job training (for example, apprenticeships or internships). 

Another priority of the projects was capacity building, which included developing outreach 

materials and new curricula, increasing the student body and number of instructors, and 

providing more training options.

All six selected grantees expressed the importance of employers for all project aspects—

recruitment, curriculum development, funding, and job training. They also felt that it was 

beneficial to adopt new technology in the classroom and hands-on training outside it. The 

grantees noted that it was challenging to retain quality industry-knowledgeable teachers; often 

the educational institution could not offer competitive salaries to recruit them.
Training Programs Other Than WIA

110

Customized and Employer-Based Training Programs

Duscha, Steve, and Wanda Lee Graves. “The Employer as the Client: State-Financed 

Customized Training.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Education and 

Training Administration, 2006. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=234

5&mp=y&start=81&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: incumbent worker, customized training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: State-funded customized training programs are 

employer-focused and view training as a source of economic development. Such programs offer 

training that is directed to one or more employers. This study sought to describe state-funded 

customized training and presented a case study of California’s program.

STUDY SITES: All 47 states operating customized training programs in 2006

DATA AND METHODS: Data for the study were composed of public documents, lists of 

projects, press releases, statutes, and regulations. The authors also examined state budget 

documents and attended the National Association of Industry-Specific Training Directors annual 

meeting in 2005. In addition, the authors interviewed a representative from each state’s 

customized training program to verify the data collected from public sources and ask additional 

questions. The study relied on the following data from 1989 to 2006 for quantitative analyses: 

real state spending, per capita real state spending, and five-year average and per-capita spending. 

Analytic methods included a qualitative analysis of state programs and quantitative analyses of 

numerical data.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: State-funded customized training programs served 

approximately one million people in 2006, costing $571 million. State funding averaged $525 

per trainee, and no state funded the full cost of training. California, Iowa, and Louisiana were the 

top three states in total funding during 2006, spending between $44 million and $62 million. 

State funding came from UI-associated taxes and general funds, with more than half of the 

funding focused on incumbent workers.

Although the scope of customized training varied widely across states, with flexibility and few 

limits on types of training, most programs focused training on manufacturing sectors. Very little 

evaluation was conducted by states to assess the impacts of the programs.

The California case study indicated that the state’s customized training program, the 

Employment Training Panel (ETP), offered a typical level of funding per participant. It targeted 

funding to manufacturing and other trade sectors that were deemed to have competition from 

businesses outside California. The ETP limited training to employers that offered high wages, 

generally $12 to $13 per hour. Each customized training participant had to receive at least 24 

hours of instructor-led or computer-based training, for which the ETP reimbursed employers a 

flat fee. The employer contributed at least half of the cost of training.
Training Programs Other Than WIA

111

Duscha, Steve, and Wanda Lee Graves. “State Financed and Customized Training Programs.” 

Silver Spring, MD: KRA Corporation, 1999. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=221

0&mp=y&start=201&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Incumbent workers, customized training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: As of the time of this report (1999), 45 states 

operated programs that subsidized customized training for individual businesses. In contrast to 

Federal employment and training programs, which tend to emphasize social goals, state 

customized training programs were created as economic tools to attract and retain jobs and are, 

therefore, more employer-centered. This report sought to describe the states’ customized, 

employer-specific training for incumbent workers and new employees.

STUDY SITES: All states except Montana, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon, and 

Wyoming

DATA AND METHODS: All states that operated state-funded customized training programs 

were included. Data consisted of telephone interviews with chief administrators of customized 

short-term training programs. The selected programs were customized for individual employers 

or groups of employers and funded solely by the state. The study involved a qualitative analysis.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The scope and funding levels for training programs varied 

widely. In 1998 and 1999, states spent $593 million on customized training, ranging from 

several hundred dollars to more than $2,000 per trainee. States funded customized training 

through bonds and UI-associated taxes. Nearly 60 percent of new money budgeted for 

customized training since 1988 was designated for incumbent workers. Twelve states required 

companies to use community or vocational colleges to provide training, whereas the remaining 

states had no such restrictions. States conducted very little evaluation regarding the impact of 

the training programs.
Training Programs Other Than WIA

112

Isbell, Kellie, John W. Trutko, Burt S. Barnow, Demetra Smith Nightingale, and Nancy Pindus. 

“Involving Employers in Training: Case Studies.” Arlington, VA: James Bell Associates, 

Inc., 1996. Available at 

KEYWORDS: Partnerships, incumbent workers, customized training, employer-based training

programs

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=154

6&mp=y&start=221&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In order to remain competitive in an increasingly 

global economy, employers have to continuously upgrade the basic and job-specific skills of 

their workforce. ETA funded a study to investigate best practices in employer-based training 

(EBT) programs, focusing on how to customize lessons and teaching methods to be most 

effective for employers and employees. This report sought to describe and assess several 

exemplary EBT programs.

STUDY SITES: Seventeen sites in Arizona, California (3 sites), Maryland, Massachusetts 

(2 sites), Michigan, North Dakota (3 sites), Ohio, Oregon, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin 

(2 sites)

DATA AND METHODS: Nominations for exemplary EBT programs were solicited from DOL 

regional offices, national organizations involved in training, and job training experts around the 

country; 17 study sites were chosen from among the nominees. The case studies involved site 

visits to each EBT program; visits included interviews with company management, work 

supervisors, training instructors, and workers. Key factors recorded for each program include 

association with JTPA agencies, training curriculum, cost, and outcomes. A qualitative analysis 

was performed for each EBT program.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Nine case studies of EBT programs were associated with the 

JTPA system and eight programs were not (mostly privately financed). For each program, the 

study reported a description and purpose of training, the training provider, the curriculum, 

participant recruiting, fees and costs, and training outcomes. The report did not draw 

conclusions across sites.
Training Programs Other Than WIA

113

Other Non-WIA Training

Salzman, J., A. Wiegand, J. Leufgen, and S. Harvey. “Evaluation of the Career Advancement 

Accounts Demonstration Project: An Implementation Study.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy

Research Associates, 2011. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_resultDetails&pub_id=2474&

mp=y.

KEYWORDS: Career Advancement Account (CAA), credential attainment, occupational 

training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In 2006, ETA instituted the Career Advancement 

Account (CAA) Demonstration Project in eight states as a streamlined, customer-focused 

approach to workforce training. Under the demonstration’s approach, individuals pursuing job 

training were given accounts worth up to $3,000 annually for up to two years. The funds could 

be used to pay fees associated with the education and training programs participants chose, as 

long as the programs resulted in a portable, industry-recognized credential. In contrast to 

individual training accounts, customers did not have to progress through WIA core and intensive 

services before accessing training. This study documented the implementation of the CAA 

Demonstration Project in eight states.

STUDY SITES: Local workforce investment areas (LWIAs) in eight states: Georgia, Indiana, 

Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wyoming.

DATA AND METHODS: The eight states that participated in the CAA Demonstration Project 

either volunteered to be involved or were selected because they were negatively affected by 

automotive plant closures (Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Wyoming volunteered).

Researchers conducted site visits during which they interviewed relevant staff members at each 

state grantee and at two LWIAs implementing the demonstration project in each state.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Researchers found that the organization and structure of the 

demonstrations varied greatly for the eight states and LWIAs visited. Six of the states indicated 

that serving incumbent workers was a primary objective of the demonstration, and six viewed 

CAAs as an opportunity to receive more training money. Four states indicated that providing 

short-term training was a primary objective.

Many states struggled to implement CAAs. Some encountered problems aligning CAAs with 

other state and local policies. Others—those affected by automotive plant closures—had to shift 

their target groups as it became clear that nearly all those workers affected by plant closures were 

TAA-eligible. CAA training was tightly linked with existing workforce programs in the eight 

states examined.

Although CAAs were meant to increase customer choice by not requiring customers to access 

WIA core and intensive services before training, states and LWIAs still imposed some 

restrictions, such as limiting training to occupations in high demand and requiring that the 

training yield a nationally-recognized certificate. Even with these restrictions, however, five 

states were able to markedly reduce the level of LWIA staff involvement with decisions relating 

to customer training.
Training Programs Other Than WIA

114

Mikelson, Kelly, and Demetra Smith Nightingale. “Estimating Public and Private Expenditures 

on Occupational Training in the United States.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of 

Labor, 2004. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=232

1&mp=y&start=101&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: occupational training, incumbent worker training, on-the-job training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Many entities provide funding for occupational 

training, including the Federal government, state and local governments, employers, and 

philanthropic foundations. This study sought to estimate the amount of funding for occupational 

training that each source provides and the average cost per trainee.

DATA AND METHODS: Funding from each entity was calculated using different data sources 

and assumptions outlined in the study text.

Federal Government: Occupational training funds provided from 1998 to 2000 by seven Federal

departments were included in this analysis: Departments of Labor, Education, Health and 

Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Veterans Affairs, Interior, and Justice. Data 

were obtained through agency representatives, public reports, and Web sites.

States: This analysis included occupational training funds provided in 1998 and 2003 by eight 

states with the highest level of funding for incumbent worker training programs in 1998: 

California, Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Texas. In 

1998, the National Governors Association estimated that these states accounted for half of all 

state funding for occupational training programs. This study assumed that these states would 

represent half of the funding through 2003. Data regarding current levels of funding were 

obtained from state officials.

Private Organizations: Four sources were used to estimate funding from the employers’ 

perspective: the American Society for Training and Development, the Survey of EmployerProvided Training, Training Magazine, and the National Employer Survey. Sample sizes for 

these surveys ranged from 276 to 4,501 firms. Three surveys were used to estimate funding from 

the trainees’ perspective: the Survey of Income and Program Participation, the National 

Household Education Survey, and the Current Population Survey.

Other Private Sources: To obtain additional information on private funding, representatives of 

the following labor-management partnerships, nonprofit organizations, and foundations were 

contacted: the Wisconsin Regional Training Partnership, the Building and Trades Department of 

the AFL-CIO, the Center for Employment and Training, Seedco, Morgan Memorial Goodwill 

Industries, the Abell Foundation, and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Business spending on training exceeded all sources of 

government funding, with $46 billion to $54 billion spent each year. The Federal government 

spent between $3.2 and $5.3 billion on occupational training in 2002, with one-third from DOL 

programs, one-third from the Department of Education’s Pell Grants, and the remainder split 

among several other programs. States contributed $500 to $700 million in training funds. 

Employers were more likely to provide training to more skilled workers than to less-skilled 

workers. The average cost per trainee was less than $1,000 for state and business programs, 
Training Programs Other Than WIA

115

between $100 and $3,000 for most DOL workforce programs, and $6,000 for programs that 

focused on individuals with disabilities.
Training Programs Other Than WIA

116

Coffey, Lester. “Exemplary Practices in High-Skill U.S. Department of Labor H-1B Training 

Programs.” Bethesda, MD: Coffey Communications, LLC, 2002. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=227

9&mp=y&start=141&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Information technology training, Web-based training, H-1B visa, incumbent 

workers

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: A major provision of the 1998 Competiveness and

Workforce Improvement Act was the introduction of a fee ($1,000 per worker) for employers 

who hire foreign workers under the H-1B visa authority. The fees went to fund demonstration 

projects that followed five guiding principles: training for shortages in high-skill occupations, 

including information technology; partnership sustainability; business involvement; use of 

innovative and effective tools; and targeting all segments of the population. In 2000, 43 projects 

received grant funding ranging from $1.5 million to $3 million for two years. This report sought 

to compare some of the demonstration project approaches and highlight interesting practices for 

consideration in future sites. The study was conducted too early in the demonstration period to 

produce outcome data.

STUDY SITES: Six demonstration projects in Pima County, Arizona; Hampden County, 

Massachusetts; Anchorage, Alaska; New York City, New York; the state of Vermont; and 

Clarksville, Tennessee

DATA AND METHODS: Sites were selected for the study based on whether they were close 

to meeting their target enrollment numbers, the training methods used, and geographic diversity. 

Site visits occurred in late 2001 or early 2002 and included interviews with directors, site staff, 

training institutions, and participants. The study team conducted qualitative analysis and 

synthesis across the visits, highlighting common themes.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The six demonstration sites served varying geographic regions, 

but generally had similar target enrollments of 200 to 300 participants. Each site partnered with 

from less than 10 to over 50 employers, and some also partnered with community colleges, fouryear colleges or other training providers, and unions or trade associations. All sites offered 

classroom training; four also offered Web-based learning; and one used interactive television. 

The grant regulations required that 25 to 50 percent of funds had to be matched by nonfederal 

funding. Most programs called on employers to match funds, using a system in which employers 

paid workers for classroom hours as if they were work hours.

Project staff named factors conducive to strong, timely implementation: enthusiastic 

participation from employers, a good pool of candidates meeting educational prerequisites for 

the training program, staff with previous experience managing fund-matching grant programs, 

and teaching from an established curriculum.
Training Programs Other Than WIA

117

Burron, Larry, Larry Orr, and Satyendra Patrabansh. “The Lifelong Learning Demonstration: 

Final Evaluation Report on the Experimental Site.” Bethesda, MD: Abt Associates Inc., 

1999. Available at 

KEYWORDS: Incumbent workers, continuing education, outreach, lifelong learning

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=221

2&mp=y&start=201&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The Lifelong Learning Demonstration was 

established in 1995 as a result of collaboration among DOL, the Maryland Higher Education 

Commission, and 12 educational institutions in the greater Baltimore area. The goal of the 

demonstration was to test the effectiveness of informational brochures in promoting continuing 

education and training opportunities among incumbent workers.

STUDY SITES: 12 educational institutions in the greater Baltimore area

DATA AND METHODS: The demonstration sample included more than 200,000 identified 

incumbent workers. A randomly selected half of the sample received informational brochures in 

the mail, and half did not. The brochures explained the benefits of additional education and 

options for financial aid.

Data for the evaluation came from five sources: (1) the participating educational institutions 

provided enrollment and financial aid records; (2) the Maryland Higher Education Commission 

provided additional enrollment data; (3) the Maryland DOL provided wage records; 

(4) Experian, a national consumer data vendor, provided demographic and geographic data; and 

(5) the study administered a follow-up survey two years after the mailings to a subsample of 

research participants. Analytic methods included statistical analysis of data, generating means 

and frequencies of key variables, and estimating impacts of the mailings on school enrollment.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that the public information campaign had no 

significant impact on enrollment in participating schools or in Maryland higher education 

institutions more broadly, the number of credits earned, the receipt of financial aid, or student 

loan amounts. The study authors concluded that the informational mailing was not a strong 

enough intervention to affect individuals’ behavior regarding such a major decision as investing 

in additional education.
Literacy

118

LITERACY

This section contains papers about the literacy of different types of workers and its 

relationship to their labor market participation and outcomes. In particular, the studies examined 

the literacy of non-native-English-speaking workers (Norris et al. 2010) and adults more broadly 

(Jin and Kling 2010); the working poor (Bruno et al. 2010a); female public assistance recipients 

(Amodeo et al. 2010); incarcerated adults (Amodeo et al. 2009); and young adults (Jin and Kling 

2009). One study (Bruno et al. 2010b) examined literacy’s role in worker transitions. 

Most of the papers in this section relied on the National Assessment of Adult Literacy 

(NAAL), which assessed the English literacy of 19,200 adults in the United States, as the 

primary data source. Conducted in 2003, the NAAL evaluated literacy using prose, document, 

and quantitative scales. It also contained background information on the respondents’ 

demographic and socioeconomic characteristics.
Literacy

119

Norris, Dwayne, Lee Bruno, and Ying Jin. “Survival Literacy Training for Non-Native-EnglishSpeaking Workers.” Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research, 2010. Available 

at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=245

4&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: English as a second language (ESL), immigrant workers, workplace safety, 

teaching ESL

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Many immigrant workers are concentrated in the 

agriculture, construction, production, and service industries; because of the physical nature of the 

work and the potential for accidents, safety training is necessary in these industries. In 2010, 

DOL’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) issued a memorandum to its 

compliance officers instructing them to make certain that all workers received OSHA trainings in 

a language they understood. This paper discussed potential methods for improving literacy and 

English language skills among non-native-English-speaking workers, specifically to ensure 

safety in the workplace.

DATA AND METHODS: The paper used data from the National Assessment of Adult Literacy 

(NAAL). The sample for this study included 2,728 adult workers older than 18 who did not 

speak English before starting school. Analyses included descriptive statistics and multivariate 

analyses for levels of English proficiency, educational attainment, and employment.

The second half of the paper discussed new methods for teaching English as a second language 

(ESL) and basic skills, according to evidence from previous literature.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The non-native-English-speaking population in America at the 

time of the survey was 62 percent Hispanic, and 37 percent did not hold a high school diploma. 

Although this population was less educated and less proficient in English than native English 

speakers, the non-native population had a higher overall employment rate. Low rates of 

computer and Internet usage and of attendance in basic skills classes presented challenges to 

training the non-native-English-speaking worker population using conventional methods.

A review of several ESL teaching methods informed a proposed course design for survival 

literacy of non-native-English-speaking workers. The new model would integrate ESL and 

literacy training into the workplace and target all with low literacy, regardless of English 

proficiency. All instruction in the classroom and the work setting would be in English, an

immersion approach. The model would be efficient and motivate workers to learn quickly 

(presumably improving comprehension of safety and training instructions).
Literacy

120

Jin, Ying, and Joanna Kling. “Overcoming the Language Barrier: The Literacy of Non-NativeEnglish-Speaking Adults.” Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research, 2010. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=244

8&mp=y&start=21&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Non-native-English speakers, literacy

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Recently, the United States experienced an influx 

of immigrants whose first language was not English. The National Assessment of Adult Literacy 

(NAAL) showed that literacy levels were lower for non-native-English-speaking adults than for 

their native-English-speaking counterparts, even when non-native speakers learned English soon 

after starting school. This study examined the correlations between literacy and work-related 

outcomes for non-native English speakers.

DATA AND METHODS: The study used information from the NAAL. The non-nativeEnglish-speaking sample for the study was composed of the 2,807 adults in the sample who did 

not speak English before they started school. The rest formed the group of native English 

speakers. The researchers conducted regression analyses to describe the characteristics of nonnative English speakers and their work-related outcomes.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that low prose literacy was most common in 

Hispanic or black non-native-English-speaking adults. More than a third of the non-nativeEnglish-speaking adults did not have a high school diploma or the equivalent. Though more than 

half of non-native-English-speaking adults reported having a computer with Internet access in 

their households, nearly half were not computer-literate.

A higher percentage of low-literacy non-native-English-speaking adults had full-time jobs than 

their low-literacy native-English-speaking counterparts. Non-native-English-speaking adults 

were more likely to have a job in the service occupations than in any other occupational group.
Literacy

121

Bruno, Lee, Ying Jin, and Dwayne Norris. “Building Career Ladders for the Working Poor 

through Literacy Training.” Washington, DC: American Institute for Research, 2010a. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_resultDetails&pub_id=2452&

mp=y.

KEYWORDS: Literacy, working poor

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: According to the U.S. Census Bureau data, 7.1 

million American workers lived below the Federal poverty level in 2007, placing them in the 

category of the working poor. This report sought to discern the characteristics that distinguished 

the working poor from other workers, the literacy requirements that pose barriers to occupations 

that could potentially lift workers out of poverty, and ways to address those barriers. This is one 

of a series of papers on the literacy of the foreign-born adult population in the U.S.

DATA AND METHODS: The study used data from the National Assessment of Adult Literacy 

(NAAL). With a sample size of 9,296 workers, researchers distinguished between the working 

poor (whom they defined as earning wages less than 125 percent of the Federal poverty level for 

a family of three, assuming full-time employment) and working nonpoor (all other workers). 

The researchers then compared the two groups’ demographic characteristics, prose and 

quantitative literacy test scores, and occupations.

Analytic methods included generating frequencies and means for key variables, comparing the 

results of each group.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that the working poor typically had lower 

literacy than the general population, suggesting a link between literacy levels and employment 

outcomes. The report found that some high-growth occupations would require only a modest 

increase in the literacy skills of the working poor, representing an opportunity for them to 

increase their earning potential with modest effort.
Literacy

122

Amodeo, Andrea, Ying Jin, and Joanna Kling. “Gaining the Skills for Employment: The

Literacy of Female Public Assistance Recipients.” Washington, DC: American Institutes 

for Research, 2010. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=245

0&mp=y&start=21&sort=7

KEYWORDS: Literacy, TANF, welfare

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study examined the correlations between 

literacy and work-related outcomes for women receiving public assistance.

DATA AND METHODS: The study used information from the National Assessment of Adult 

Literacy (NAAL). A sample of current welfare recipients was composed of 331 women who 

reported that they had received public assistance in the past year. The study compared the 

literacy of women who reported having received public assistance with the literacy of women 

who reported never having received public assistance. “Public assistance” included receipt of 

TANF or other state or local welfare payments within the past year. The researchers conducted 

regression analyses to describe the characteristics of current public assistance recipients.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Women who were current recipients of public assistance had 

lower prose and quantitative literacy skills than women who reported never receiving public 

assistance. Those under 18, unmarried mothers, women without a high school diploma, and 

unemployed women were more likely to receive public assistance. Women with lower 

educational attainment, black women, and women who had participated in a job training program 

were more likely to have below basic literacy.
Literacy

123

Amodeo, Andrea, Ying Jin, and Joanna Kling. “Preparing for Life beyond Prison Walls: The 

Literacy of Incarcerated Adults Near Release.” Washington, DC: American Institute for 

Research, 2009. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=245

1&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Ex-offenders, literacy, reentry

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The population of incarcerated adults in the U.S.

increased more than 300 percent in the past three decades, reaching more than two million in 

2006. Thus, formerly incarcerated adults have become a significant part of the workforce; those 

with low literacy levels might find the job market especially difficult. This report sought to 

describe the literacy levels of incarcerated adults near their release dates.

DATA AND METHODS: The study used data from the National Assessment of Adult Literacy 

(NAAL) Prison Survey. The sample of interest (N = 702) was defined as incarcerated adults 

(ages 16 and older) who indicated that they were within two years of their scheduled release 

date. They were compared to adults in households (approximately 18,000 individuals) and to 

incarcerated adults who were not within two years of their scheduled release date (approximately 

500 individuals). Key variables included demographics, literacy test scores, and literacy-related 

behaviors. Analytic methods included descriptive analysis and generating frequencies and 

means.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The literacy rates (prose and quantitative) of near-release 

incarcerated adults were lower than those of the general household population. Computer 

literacy among the inmates was very low (16 percent) compared with the household population 

(70 percent).

The proportion of inmates near release with a GED or a high school diploma was similar to the 

proportion of the general prison population. However, more inmates near release reported 

enrolling in a life and career skills class. Among inmates near release, two-thirds held a prison 

job; half of those jobs did not involve reading or writing tasks.
Literacy

124

Jin, Ying, and Joanna Kling. “Preparing Youth for the Future: The Literacy of America’s 

Young Adults.” Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research, 2009. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=244

9&mp=y&start=21&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Literacy, youth

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Gaining access to career jobs can be difficult for 

young adults, and there are additional challenges for youth without postsecondary education. 

Improving literacy has been found to enhance employment prospects. This report sought to 

describe the background characteristics and literacy levels of youth, focusing particular attention 

on high school dropouts.

DATA AND METHODS: The study used data from the National Assessment of Adult Literacy 

(NAAL). For purposes of this study, 2,960 adults were identified as young adults 16 to 24 years 

old. The sample was subsequently divided into two cohorts, those ages 16 to 18 and 19 to 24, for 

analysis. Key variables included basic demographic information; prose, document, and 

quantitative literacy test scores; and high school dropout status. Analytic methods included 

computing descriptive statistics and conducting regression analyses.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Results showed that the most common jobs held by young adults 

were in the service and sales industries. The vast majority of the sample members were

computer-literate (92 percent of 16- to 18-year-olds and 80 percent of 19- to 24-year olds). 

Youth who dropped out of high school were more likely to be male and Hispanic or black, have

children, and receive public assistance. Low scores on the prose literacy test were correlated 

with low computer literacy, not having a GED or a high school diploma, and not speaking 

English before entering school.
Literacy

125

Bruno, Lee, Ying Jin, and Dwayne Norris. “Workers in Declining Industries: Literacy’s Role in 

Worker Transitions.” Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research, 2010b. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=245

3&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Literacy, structural unemployment, declining occupations, dislocated workers

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: One barrier to transitions between jobs and 

occupations is the fact that literacy levels of workers in declining industries are often lower than 

those of people in the general population. This study examined how literacy deficiencies can 

prevent workers in declining occupations from transitioning into high-growth occupations.

DATA AND METHODS: The study used information from the National Assessment of Adult 

Literacy (NAAL). In addition to the NAAL, the researchers used data from the Occupational 

Information Network (O*NET) to assess the literacy requirements of the declining and growing 

occupations. The authors chose 50 high-growth occupations that did not require a college degree 

and created multiple regression models that integrated the O*NET data and NAAL measures to 

estimate their literacy requirements. These requirements were then compared with the average 

literacy levels of respondents in the declining occupations.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The analysis revealed that workers in declining occupations did 

not differ from the general population of workers on most observable characteristics. The 

exceptions were notable: NAAL data showed that workers in declining occupations had lower 

literacy levels and educational attainment than the general population. The authors hypothesized

that this lower literacy could be the barrier that hinders such workers from transitioning into 

high-growth occupations.
Literacy

126

Cross-References for the Literacy Section

Glazerman, Steven, Peter Schochet, and John Burghart. “National Job Corps Study: The Impact 

of Job Corps on Participants’ Literacy Skills.” See p. 14.

KPMG/Economic Valuation Services. “An Examination of the Delivery of Literacy Services at 

Job Corps Centers.” See p. 26.
Population-Specific Programs

127

POPULATION-SPECIFIC PROGRAMS

ETA supports a number of programs targeted toward specific populations of workers. This 

section contains studies related to some of these programs. Target populations in these studies 

included agricultural workers (Pena 2011); immigrants (Koralek et al. 2010); limited English 

proficient and Hispanic workers (Holl et al. 2010); Indians and Native Americans (D’Amico et 

al. 2000); and the homeless (Trutko et al. 1998).
Population-Specific Programs

128

Pena, Anita Alves. “The Effect of Continuing Education Participation on Agricultural Worker 

Outcomes.” Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University, 2011. Available at 

KEYWORDS: Agricultural workers, migrant workers, adult education

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=247

1&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The National Farmworker Jobs Program (NFJP) 

provides job training for migrant farmworkers. A sample from this population who participated

in educational classes intended to strengthen skills important for supplemental occupations 

during off-season was identified. Available programs included English, English as a second 

language (ESL), citizenship, literacy, job training, GED/high school equivalency, college or 

university, and adult basic education. This study sought to determine how adult educational 

programs affected economic outcomes for migrant seasonal farmworkers.

DATA AND METHODS: The study used information from the U.S. Department of Labor’s 

National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS), a representative survey of employed 

farmworkers in the United States. It used only data from 1993 to 2006 because the earlier 

versions of the survey did not include descriptive information on educational participation. With 

this restriction in place, the sample size was 37,426 workers.

Because participation in an NFJP program was not identifiable in the NAWS, respondents were

categorized as participating in an adult education program if they reported participating in 

English/ESL, citizenship, literacy, job training, GED/high school equivalency, 

college/university, adult basic education, migrant education, or other classes while in the United 

States. The study used propensity scores to match adult education participants to nonparticipants 

in the data set using a number of observable characteristics, including nativity, legal status, and 

demographic and work-related characteristics. It then examined the differences in outcomes 

between the matched participants and nonparticipants.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that participation in adult education programs 

increased wages and reduced the likelihood of poverty.
Population-Specific Programs

129

Koralek, Robin, Heidi Johnson, Caroline Ratcliffe, and Tracy Vericker. “Assisting Newcomers 

through Employment and Support Services: An Evaluation of the New Americans Centers 

Demonstration Project in Arkansas and Iowa.” Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, 

2010. Available at 

KEYWORDS: Immigrants, New Americans Centers

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=244

0&mp=y&start=21&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The New Americans Centers Demonstration 

Project sought to ease the transition and improve employment outcomes of recent immigrants. 

DOL offered $850,000 in grants to Arkansas and Iowa to implement the centers for a period of 

three years (2006 to 2008) within One-Stop Career Centers in areas with large immigrant 

populations. Each state created four New Americans Centers called New Arkansan Resource 

Network centers in Arkansas and New Iowan Centers in Iowa. While specifics varied among 

centers, the centers primarily served individuals. To a lesser degree, sites also provided services 

to employers and the local community. This study sought to evaluate program operations, 

services, sustainability, and participant outcomes.

STUDY SITES: Four sites in each of Arkansas and Iowa

DATA AND METHODS: Information for the implementation study came from two site visits 

conducted in May 2007 and April and May 2008. The visits featured interviews with project 

directors, staff, and other key people involved with the centers. Focus groups with participants 

were conducted in two sites during the second site visit. Quarterly progress reports from each of 

the eight sites were also used in the qualitative implementation analysis.

Only those New Iowan Center participants who gave their Social Security number were included 

in the analysis of employment and earning outcomes; data were insufficient for an outcome 

analysis of the New Arkansan Resource Network center participants. In total, 1,435 individuals 

were included. Data for the outcomes analysis included the Annual Services and Referrals 

Provided report, which included service receipt data, and IWORKS, Iowa’s data management 

system. The earnings and employment outcomes from UI wage data were analyzed using 

descriptive and regression techniques.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The New Americans Centers were viewed as a useful resource 

by staff, community partners, and employers. A successful component of the initiative was the 

integration of newcomers into the community through opportunities for increased civic 

engagement and access to available resources and services. In Iowa, participants saw an increase 

in employment and earnings following service receipt, although it could not be conclusively 

attributed to the services provided by the centers. The demand for New Americans Center 

services by participants, employers, and the community indicated a need for such a resource. 

Despite initial success, the New Arkansan Resource Network was unable to obtain long-term 

funding and subsequently shut after the three-year demonstration. The New Iowan Centers were 

able to procure state funding and continued operation.
Population-Specific Programs

130

Holl, Douglas B., Lisa Kolovich, Deborah Santiago, and Sally Andrade. “Evaluation of the 

Limited English Proficiency and Hispanic Worker Initiative Final Report.” Bethesda, MD: 

Coffey Consulting, 2010. Available at 

KEYWORDS: Limited English proficiency, Hispanic workers, vocational training

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=243

8&mp=y&start=21&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The Limited English Proficiency and Hispanic 

Workforce Initiative (LEPHWI) was a demonstration program designed to pilot learning 

strategies that simultaneously taught English and occupational skills to people with limited 

English proficiency (LEP). In 2006, ETA awarded five LEPHWI grantees funding to create 

centers that taught vocational skills and English language classes. Grant recipients included a 

partnership between a corporation and a community college to train LEP incumbent workers and 

jobseekers in San Diego; a non-profit organization serving unemployed and underemployed 

recent newcomers from Africa through tiered general workplace and job search skills in 

Minnesota; a community college providing career advancement training to incumbent workers 

and basic English and workplace skills to the general LEP population in Omaha; a group of 

community colleges addressing the needs of the retail and hospitality industries in New York 

City; and a non-profit organization providing self-paced English as a second language instruction 

geared to the food service and hospitality industries for Hispanic workers in Texas. Targets for 

participants served ranged from 150 to 2,430. 

This study documented the implementation of the programs. Specifically, the study examined: 

(1) which organizations were awarded grants, (2) how the programs were organized, (3) methods

the programs used to teach language and occupational skills, (4) participants in LEPHWI 

projects, (5) the short-term outcomes for the participants, and (6) implications for implementing 

similar programs in the future.

STUDY SITES: Grant programs in San Diego, California; Minneapolis, Minnesota; Omaha, 

Nebraska; New York City, New York; and Dallas–Fort Worth, Texas

DATA AND METHODS: The implementation study primarily used qualitative methods to 

analyze site visit information, grantee documents on program operations, cost data, projectrelated documents, and secondary sources. During the site visits, the researchers conducted 

interviews with program staff members, participants, and employers. In addition, the researchers 

used data the grantees provided on participant characteristics and outcomes. A separate analysis 

was performed for each site.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Several factors were associated with successful implementation. 

The programs in convenient locations had greater levels of participation, and grantees’ ability to 

create strong relationships with employers was crucial. The most successful programs offered 

flexibility on class scheduling, location, and level of instruction.

The projects faced common challenges in maintaining the engagement of employer partners, 

changing management, enhancing instructional offerings and approaches, and performing 

effective outreach and assessment.
Population-Specific Programs

131

Select findings by site include the fact that in Minnesota, 78 percent of participants who were 

placed in jobs were still working 6 months later; in Omaha, 75 percent of the 593 participants 

with scores demonstrated at least one level of learning gain on Rosetta Stone’s test of English 

language skills; and in New York City, at least 84 percent of the 362 participants were employed 

at the end of the program.
Population-Specific Programs

132

D’Amico, Ronald, Sengsouvanh Soukamneuth, Kristin Wolff, Stuart Tonemah, and Mary Ann 

Brittan. “An Evaluation of the JTPA, Section 401, Indian and Native American Program.” 

Menlo Park, CA: Social Policy Research Associates, 1999. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=222

0&mp=y&start=181&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: JTPA, Indians and Native Americans, credential attainment, occupational 

training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The JTPA Title IV Section 401 Indian and Native 

American (INA) program was designed to assist Native Americans in securing employment and 

training. The program received about $50 million in annual funding for about 175 grantees in 

the late 1990s. These grantees, which included tribal governments, nontribal Native American 

organizations, and agents of state governments, served about 19,000 participants every year. 

This study examined program implementation, documenting grantee goals, designs, particular 

challenges and successes, and effectiveness at meeting participant needs.

STUDY SITES: Sample of 113 INA grantees nationwide (survey) and 23 randomly selected 

sites (visits)

DATA AND METHODS: The data collection consisted of two main parts. The first was a 

survey that all 175 grantees were asked to complete in early 1998. The response rate was about 

70 percent, with 113 grantees completing the survey. It included sections on program goals, 

obstacles encountered, and strength of the programs’ ties to DOL. The second part consisted of 

site visits to 23 randomly selected grantees, including tribal and nontribal programs, and 

programs in various geographical locations, sizes, and socioeconomic contexts. The visits lasted 

two or three days and included in-depth interviews with staff, participants, and community 

partners. Qualitative methods were used to synthesize findings and provide recommendations 

for the future.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Grantees reported that INA programs played an integral role in 

providing training to people in Native American communities. Grantees reported having 

multiple objectives for their programs, which encompassed traditional employment and training 

services along with providing temporary income, supportive services, and generating a sense of 

community. Grantees reported being fairly successful at meeting their goals.

Respondents were generally satisfied with the JTPA performance measurement system, with 

two-thirds saying that they believed the system allowed them to run programs as they saw fit. At 

the same time, grantees reported challenges with funding, participant motivation, and providing 

equitable access for all potential participants. They also did not always manage to address longterm needs of participants because short-term needs, such as immediate income, were more 

pressing.

The study had several recommendations for improving programs. It suggested that grantees 

make a stronger effort to reach potential applicants, perhaps by forging partnerships with other 

community organizations. In addition, the report noted that programs would be stronger if DOL

funds could be used to promote economic development and other individual and community 

needs. DOL was urged to show commitment to working in partnership with the INA 
Population-Specific Programs

133

community. Finally, the study called for reform of performance standards to allow flexibility

while ensuring accountability.
Population-Specific Programs

134

Trutko, John W., Burt S. Barnow, Susan K. Beck, Steve Min, and Kellie Isbell. “Employment 

and Training for America’s Homeless: Final Report on the Job Training for the Homeless 

Demonstration Project.” Washington, DC: U.S. DOL, ETA, 1998. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=154

4&mp=y&start=221&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Homeless, Job Training for the Homeless Demonstration Program (JTHDP), 

JTPA

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The Job Training for the Homeless Demonstration 

Program (JTHDP), implemented and administered by DOL, aimed to increase employment 

among homeless individuals. The initiative began in September 1988 with grants to 

32 demonstration sites and was implemented in four phases over seven years: Phase 1 was 

exploratory and aimed to test the program’s feasibility; Phase 2 was devoted to developing sound 

program designs, with sites having flexibility to select participants and services; in Phase 3, sites 

were required to implement a strategy for housing assistance; and in Phase 4, sites were 

encouraged to partner with local JTPA programs. This study sought to examine the 

implementation of JTHDP and to synthesize lessons useful for future efforts to aid homeless 

populations. It also examined the employment and earnings outcomes of participants.

STUDY SITES: 32 demonstration sites

DATA AND METHODS: Data included sites’ quarterly outcomes and financial reports, clientlevel data, and local evaluation reports. Additional data came from site visits, regular contact 

with the sites, grantee conferences, and grant applications. Methods included a qualitative 

analysis and generating frequencies and means of client-level data.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: During the demonstration, JTHDP served more than 45,000 

homeless individuals, with nearly 35,000 receiving training and 36 percent placed in jobs.

The implementation study found that many types of organizations, both public and private, were 

successful at implementing JTHDP. Homeless individuals often faced multiple barriers to 

employment and required ongoing case management; often JTHDP sites had to coordinate with 

other service providers to meet all of the clients’ needs. Housing services were necessary as was 

long-term support. Sites attributed success, in part, to their ability to tailor training to 

participants’ interests and needs and to ensuring that participants had necessary supports 

throughout the training period.

After the completion of the demonstration, many JTHDP sites continued to offer services, 

although most had to reduce the number of people served and the range of services available.
Population-Specific Programs

135

Cross-References for the Population-Specific Programs Section

Nisbet, Elizabeth. “Policy and Wage Labor Supply: A Case Study of Policy and Farm Labor 

Markets in New York.” See p. 149.
Older Workers

136

OLDER WORKERS

This section summarizes four studies relating to the labor market experiences of older 

workers, defined as workers who are age 55 and above. Two studies examined retention: a study 

by the Johns Hopkins Hospital (2008) examined strategies to retain experienced older workers in 

the health care sector while Eyster et al. (2008) examined the issue more generally. O’Leary 

(2006) compared the experiences of older UI recipients to those of their prime-age counterparts. 

Finally, Poulos and Nightingale (1997) discussed the implications of the baby boom and the

accompanying relative increase in older workers for employment and training programs.
Older Workers

137

Johns Hopkins Hospital. “Final Report: Assessment of Strategies to Retain Experienced 

Technical and Professional Healthcare Personnel after Retirement Age: Mature Healthcare 

Workers Focus Group Research.” Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Hospital, 2008. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=235

4&mp=y&start=81&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Older workers, mature workers, healthcare workers

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In response to the increasing shortage of skilled 

health care workers, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Cedars-Sinai Health System, and Hospital 

Corporation of America saw a potential solution in retaining older professional and technical 

health care workers. This study sought to determine effective strategies for retaining nurses and 

allied health workers beyond the age of retirement by conducting focus groups with current and 

retired health care workers. The findings of the study were presented to an expert panel, which 

then made several recommendations.

STUDY SITES: Seven hospitals from three hospital systems: Johns Hopkins, Cedars-Sinai, and 

Hospital Corporation of America

DATA AND METHODS: Twenty-one focus groups were conducted from October 2006 to 

January 2007. Seven groups were composed of practicing registered nurses; three were 

composed of recently retired or separated registered nurses; eight were composed of active allied 

health care workers; and three were composed of recently retired or separated allied health care 

workers. All focus group members were older than 50. Efforts were made to include a 

representative sample of current and retired health care workers. The researchers used 

qualitative methods to synthesize findings across groups and derive recommendations for future 

practice.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that, by implementing some changes, hospitals 

could extend the age of retirement for some health care workers and encourage retired workers to 

return to work; most respondents, active and retired alike, indicated a continuing desire to work. 

However, reductions in support staff, higher patient-to-nurse ratios, and 12-hour shifts put a 

burden on mature workers. In addition, most respondents reported not feeling valued, 

particularly because younger workers with less experience were paid roughly the same as they 

were.

Based on the focus group findings, the expert panel developed a list of recommendations in the 

areas of scheduling, benefits, retirement, value and respect for older workers, compensation, 

roles and responsibilities for mature workers, working conditions, and education. Selected 

findings included allowing self-scheduling, in which within certain parameters—such as the 

number of hours and weekends to work—workers can determine their own schedules; finding 

ways to show older workers that their experience is valued, such as putting them on committees 

or hosting service recognition events; offering pay incentives to long-time employees; and 

educating older workers on the use of new technologies to diminish the physical demands of the 

job.
Older Workers

138

Eyster, Lauren, Richard W. Johnson, and Eric Toder. “Current Strategies to Employ and Retain 

Older Workers.” Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, 2008. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=234

8&mp=y&start=81&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Older workers, mature workers

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Many older workers who are close to the

traditional retirement age need or prefer to work fewer hours while they collect retirement 

benefits. Employers might need to adjust their practices to attract and retain such workers. This 

literature review sought to describe employer strategies for attracting and retaining older 

workers, as well as strategies of nonprofit organizations, governments, and educational 

institutions to facilitate their employment.

DATA AND METHODS: The report compiled information from numerous studies on older 

worker populations and employers that altered practices to appeal to them. The authors used this 

information to suggest practices for increasing the employment rates of older workers.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that to attract and retain older workers, some 

employers offered flexible work arrangements and phased retirement plans wherein older 

workers had the option of part-time work, telework (in-home work), and snowbird work 

(working for the same company across two locations). Employers had also moved away from 

the traditional defined benefit retirement plans, which pay out only when employees leave their 

jobs, to defined contribution and hybrid plans, which allow older workers to start collecting 

pension payments while still working some hours.

Nonprofit organizations, educational institutions, and government agencies had worked to 

customize job search and training services for older clients and encouraged employers to hire 

older workers through awareness and education campaigns. However, the authors noted that 

employers’ use of these strategies depends on whether there is a worker shortage.
Older Workers

139

O’Leary, Christopher. “Unemployment Insurance and Reemployment among Older Workers.” 

Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 2006. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=237

7&mp=y&start=81&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Older workers, mature workers, UI

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Older workers have more difficulty finding new 

jobs and are more likely to experience wage declines after job loss, compared with younger 

workers. This study sought to compare the reemployment, earnings, and job stability of older 

and prime-age workers following a claim for UI.

STUDY SITE: A large Midwestern state

DATA AND METHODS: All UI claimants in the state older than 30 in 2001 were included in 

the analytic sample, for a total of 329,935 individuals. Workers ages 30 to 49 were considered 

prime age, and those 50 and older were considered older. The study used state administrative 

data on UI claims and quarterly earnings records for each UI claimant provided by employers to 

the state employment security agency. The study used regression analyses to predict 

reemployment rates, earnings, and employment stability for older workers compared with primeage workers.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Controlling for other characteristics, older workers had lower 

rates of reemployment and wage replacement than prime-age workers after filing for UI benefits. 

However, older workers who gained reemployment remained at their new places of employment 

for a longer time than prime-age workers. The author suggested that employers should be aware 

of the reliability and loyalty offered by older workers when filling their staffing needs.
Older Workers

140

Poulos, Stacy, and Demetra Smith Nightingale. “The Aging Baby Boom: Implications for 

Employment and Training Programs.” Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1997. Available 

at 

KEYWORDS: Older workers, mature workers, baby boomers

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=154

3&mp=y&start=221&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: During the baby boom between 1946 and 1964, 

an average of four million babies were born per year, compared with an average of fewer than

three million per year in the 20 preceding years. As the baby boom generation has aged, it has 

changed the demand for everything from market products to social services. As the baby 

boomers turned 50, DOL investigated the effect of this demographic shift on changes to U.S. 

employment and training programs. This report sought to describe the baby boom cohort, its 

defining characteristics, and the distinctive factors affecting the generation.

DATA AND METHODS: The report gathered statistics from a variety of sources, including 

the U.S. Census Bureau, the Social Security Administration, JTPA, and the Older American 

Almanac. Analytic methods included computing basic statistics—averages and frequencies of 

key variables such as age, income, and social service receipt.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: There were 83 million baby boomers in 1995, which constituted 

41 percent of the population 16 years and older (working age). Boomers were forecast to 

continue to be a major fraction of the working age population—25 percent in 2025.

The baby boomer generation generally had done better than past generations in educational

attainment and income. However, boomers without a high school diploma had incomes 12 

percent lower than those of similarly educated people in their parents’ generation. The study 

hypothesized that there will be more older disadvantaged adults and fewer younger 

disadvantaged adults in 2005 than in 1995.

At the time of the report (1995), only three percent of the disadvantaged (JTPA-eligible) 

population ages 45 to 70 participated in Federal employment and training programs. Given past 

trends, the number of people 45 years and older in Title IIA adult programs was expected to 

nearly double from 1995 to 2005. In preparation, the authors recommended that budgets for job 

training programs such as JTPA and the Senior Community Service Employment Program 

should be increased to accommodate more clients. In addition, Federal policymakers should 

work to encourage business practices that will support older workers, such as flexible hours and 

phased retirement plans.
Older Workers

141

Cross-References for the Older Workers Section

Zhang, Ting. “Workforce Investment Act Training for Older Workers: Toward a Better 

Understanding of Older Worker Needs During the Economic Recovery.” See p. 37.
Trade Adjustment Assistance

142

TRADE ADJUSTMENT ASSISTANCE

The TAA Program, established first in 1962 and adjusted and expanded with the 2002 Trade 

Act and the 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, is a Federal program that provides 

compensation, reemployment services, and training to eligible workers who have experienced a 

trade-related job loss. Nearly $260 million in TAA funds supported 42,000 new participants in 

Fiscal Year 2008.

This section contains four studies on different facets of the TAA program. The first (Park 

2011) investigated whether TAA helped the reemployment of participants. The second (Dolfin 

and Berk 2010) examined the characteristics of TAA participants and their early program 

experiences. The last two studies looked at the link between TAA and other programs, such as 

Rapid Response (Salzman 2009) and WIA (Mack 2009).
Trade Adjustment Assistance

143

Park, Jooyoun. “Does Occupational Training by the Trade Adjustment Assistance Program 

Really Help Reemployment? Success Measured as Matching.” Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, 2011. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=246

6&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: TAA, dislocated workers, occupational training, on-the-job training, 

reemployment

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Most TAA beneficiaries receive some form of 

training, which includes occupational skills, remedial, on-the-job, and customized training. 

However, many participants are unable to secure employment in the fields in which they were 

trained. This study sought to investigate the relationship between occupational skills training 

and the economic welfare of participants, specifically in terms of reemployment, earnings, wage 

replacement, and retention.

STUDY SITES: TAA programs nationwide

DATA AND METHODS: TAA program participants from the last quarter of 2005 to the last 

quarter of 2008 were included in this study, totaling 143,300 individuals. Individual-level data 

were obtained from the Trade Act Participant Report, which records information on participants’ 

characteristics, services received, and outcomes. Outcomes of beneficiaries who received 

occupational skills training were compared with those who received other types of training and 

those who did not participate in training.

The relationships of occupational skills training with reemployment and retention were examined 

using probit analyses, while its relationships with earnings and wage replacement were examined 

using linear regressions.

REPORTED FINDINGS: Participants in occupational training had a 5 percentage point higher 

reemployment rate than those who received no training. Reemployment rates were highest 

among recipients of on-the-job training, a difference of 10 to 11 percentage points. However, 

training did not seem to be related to higher employment retention or earnings.

Individuals who received unsuccessful occupational training, defined as failing to secure a job in 

the occupation of the training program, fared poorly at three quarters after program exit. Such 

participants had lower earnings and lower wage replacement rates than participants who received 

no training. It is likely that characteristics of participants who received unsuccessful training 

were a factor in the negative outcomes.
Trade Adjustment Assistance

144

Dolfin, Sarah, and Jillian Berk. “National Evaluation of the Trade Adjustment Assistance 

Program: Characteristics of Workers Eligible under the 2002 TAA Program and Their Early 

Program Experiences.” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 2010. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=244

2&mp=y&start=21&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: TAA, dislocated workers, manufacturing workers

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: After the reforms specified by the 2002 Trade 

Act, DOL funded an evaluation of the TAA program to assess its effectiveness in improving 

participants’ labor market outcomes. This report, part of that broader evaluation, sought to 

describe the eligible population’s characteristics and early experiences with the program.

DATA AND METHODS: The study used survey data collected from a nationally 

representative sample of workers who were TAA-eligible under the 2002 amendments 

(identified based on UI claims data files). The baseline survey was administered to 4,381 

workers from March 2008 to April 2009. Key variables for the process study included workers’ 

demographic and labor market characteristics and experiences with TAA.

Analytic methods included descriptive statistics. Subgroup analyses were conducted on groups 

defined by demographic, job market, and program experience variables.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The typical TAA-eligible worker had been with his former 

employer full-time for an average of 13 years, earning a high wage and benefits. Compared with 

other displaced manufacturing workers, TAA-eligible workers on average were more highly paid 

and were more likely to be full-time workers with long tenure at their previous job. The TAA 

program’s outreach to the population was fairly successful, as 80 percent of participants and 65 

percent of nonparticipants remembered receiving information about the program. 

Approximately half of all eligible workers participated in the TAA program and 98 percent of 

participants received Trade Readjustment Allowances. Women, workers older than 50, and 

those holding a high school diploma were most likely to participate. The main reason 

participants gave as motivation was the opportunity to receive training services (65 percent).

Nearly all TAA participants (94 percent) reported receiving reemployment services through OneStop Career Centers, and most found them helpful in their job search. Sixty percent of 

participants knew about the Health Care Tax Credit benefit (which covers 65 percent of health 

insurance premiums), and 28 percent applied for it. The most-cited reasons for not applying 

were already having health coverage or considering such coverage to be too expensive. Most 

participants (60 percent) and some nonparticipants (14 percent) received training services, 

usually through two-year colleges.
Trade Adjustment Assistance

145

Salzman, Jeffrey. “Rapid Response and TAA.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy Research 

Associates, 2009. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=242

6&mp=y&start=21&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Dislocated workers, Rapid Response, TAA

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: TAA provides compensation and training to 

workers who have been laid off because of increased imports or plant relocations. Rapid 

Response teams, which operate at the state level, provide early intervention services for 

dislocated workers and can help to further the aims of the TAA program. This paper described

Rapid Response implementation, how Rapid Response teams handled trade-related dislocations, 

and how TAA and Rapid Response were linked.

STUDY SITES: 48 One-Stop Career Centers providing TAA services and the state-level 

offices of the 23 states in which they were located

DATA AND METHODS: Data were collected from site visits to 48 One-Stop Career Centers 

that provided TAA services. Researchers also visited the state-level offices of the 23 states in 

which the centers were located. While on the site visits, they interviewed TAA program 

administrators and staff, as well as staff from One-Stop Career Center partner programs. These 

visits took place from mid-2004 to mid-2006.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: In most states that were part of the study, the TAA program was 

located in the same organization as the Rapid Response program. Only a small number of TAA 

staff were on the Rapid Response team, but coordination and information sharing between the 

two programs still occurred. In general, the link between TAA and Rapid Response functions 

seemed to be beneficial to the TAA program.

Rapid Response teams emphasized the importance of TAA in One-Stop Career Center services. 

However, presentations on the program especially highlighted general reemployment services, 

depicting TAA training as a last resort for workers who had already tried to find employment.

The study noted that challenges sometimes arose because Rapid Response and TAA operated on 

different time lines: Rapid Response generally occurred immediately after a mass layoff and 

tended to be short in duration, whereas TAA did not usually get involved until after a trade 

certification had occurred. A certification involves determining whether a group of workers has 

been adversely affected by foreign trade and typically requires an investigation.
Trade Adjustment Assistance

146

Mack, Melissa. “Assessment, Case Management and Post-Training Assistance for TAA 

Participants: Occasional Paper Prepared as Part of the Evaluation of the Trade Adjustment 

Assistance Program.” Oakland, CA: Social Policy Research Associates, 2009. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/eta_default.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_resultDetails&pub_id=2424

&bas_option=Title&start=1&usrt=4&stype=basic&sv=1&criteria=TAA.

KEYWORDS: TAA, WIA, ES, dislocated workers

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This paper is a substudy associated with a broader 

evaluation of the net impacts of the TAA program. This study sought to examine the services 

provided to TAA participants, including assessment, case management, and post-training 

assistance.

STUDY SITES: 48 One-Stop Career Centers nationwide

DATA AND METHODS: Data collection activities consisted of site visits to One-Stop Career 

Centers and interviews with 23 state-level offices. During the site visits, interviews were 

conducted with state and local TAA program administrators, fiscal and management information 

system staff, One-Stop Career Center directors, and case managers. Findings from a previous

report on TAA, the “WIA and TAA Co-Enrollment Pilot Project” (not summarized), were also 

used. Researchers performed a qualitative analysis and synthesis of the site visit data.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The level of assessment, case management, and post-training 

assistance services that TAA participants received depended largely on staff effort and

participants’ co-enrollment in WIA programs and service needs. Customers who did not require 

or elect to participate in training received less detailed assessments and lower levels of case 

management than did other customers. Participants who co-enrolled in WIA services received 

more comprehensive services than those who were enrolled only in TAA. Many TAA programs 

did not have funding for post-training services and referred customers to other One-Stop Career 

Center partners. In spite of the benefits of WIA services, many TAA sites failed to encourage 

co-enrollment.
Trade Adjustment Assistance

147

Cross-References for the TAA Section

Dunham, Kate. “Linkages between TAA, One-Stop Career Center Partners, and Economic 

Development Agencies.” See p. 53.
Labor Market Research

148

LABOR MARKET RESEARCH

Studies in this section are examples of research on various topics broadly relevant to the 

labor market. They include farm worker labor in New York (Nisbet 2011), effects of 

immigration on the U.S. labor market (Borjas 2005), and trends in the changing skill 

requirements of work (Dickerson 2003).
Labor Market Research

149

Nisbet, Elizabeth. “Policy and Wage Labor Supply: A Case Study of Policy and Farm Labor 

Markets in New York.” Rutgers University, 2011. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=247

0&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Migrant and seasonal farm workers, immigration, labor market trends, H-2A 

visa

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Farmers struggle to secure an adequate supply of 

farm labor and often seek government policy interventions. There is a link between immigration 

policies and labor supply of farm workers, and such policies have become more restrictive since 

1986. Other policies, such as those related to labor standards and social programs, can also 

affect labor supply. This study sought to describe the impact of immigration policy changes on 

the supply of farm workers in the United States with a focus on New York.

STUDY SITE: New York

DATA AND METHODS: New York state served as a case study for examination. Interviews 

were conducted with 13 employers/supervisors, 23 policymakers/experts, and 58 workers, who

were not randomly selected. Additional data included the National Agricultural Workers Survey 

(NAWS) and information from the New York and Federal Departments of Labor on 

nonimmigrant foreign temporary workers for seasonal agricultural labor participating in the H2A visa program.

Qualitative methods were used to analyze the interview data. Tabulations and frequencies were 

used to analyze data from the survey and other sources. The author also reviewed the policy 

framework affecting farm labor markets, using government and interest group records.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: According to the NAWS data, the share of migrants in the farm 

worker population had declined, and the shares of Mexican-born and undocumented workers had 

leveled off from 1998 to 2006. These three groups were more likely to work on harvest-related 

tasks for fruits or vegetables than on other farm tasks. Data also showed flat real wages and a 

low share of receipt of benefits such as UI, worker’s compensation, and health insurance. Real 

incomes had increased, likely due to increased labor hours, but more than a third of the 

agricultural workers surveyed had incomes below the Federal poverty level.

Farmers in New York expressed concern about new immigration policies, perceived as more 

restrictive, and their implications for the availability of agricultural workers. As increased 

enforcement of immigration policies made it more difficult to employ undocumented workers, 

farmers in New York turned to the H-2A guest worker visa program.
Labor Market Research

150

Borjas, George J. “Immigration and the Effects on the U.S. Labor Market (1960–2000).” 

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 2005. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=238

2&mp=y&start=61&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Immigrants, foreign-born workers, labor market trends, relative wages, 

immigration policy

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Immigration to the United States revived

following the 1965 amendments to the Immigration and Nationality Act, which repealed the 

origins quota system. The percentage of foreign-born workers in the labor market rose from less 

than five percent in 1970 to more than 13 percent in 2000. A large influx of immigrants into the 

country should affect the U.S. economy and labor market, but exactly how it would do so has 

been debated. This paper described what is known about the effect of immigration on the U.S. 

labor market and recommended some potential demonstration projects that would improve our 

understanding.

DATA AND METHODS: The report used individual-level data from the decennial censuses 

from 1960 to 2000. Analytic methods included descriptive statistics and regression analyses.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The average wages of immigrant workers compared with those 

of native-born workers decreased from 1960 to 1990, but as more immigrants entered the hightech industry starting in the 1990s (upon the introduction of H-1B visas), the wages of 

immigrants relative to native-born workers began to rise again. The economic success of 

immigrants over the period differed substantially based on country of origin but, within country 

of origin, was generally stable over time. The study suggested that immigration had an adverse 

effect on native labor market opportunities at the national level, and that natives adjusted for the 

adverse effects by moving away from areas with large immigrant enclaves. Overall, the study 

found that the United States receives a net benefit from immigration of about $20 billion per 

year, but also experiences great wage redistribution as immigration lowers wages and increases 

the income of those who employ immigrant workers.

The report listed four potential programs or studies that would improve our understanding of 

important aspects of immigration. First, it suggested a pilot program that provides training and 

education to immigrants to help them retool some country-specific work skills to the U.S. work 

environment. Second, it proposed a study that compares immigrants who choose to settle near 

an immigrant enclave and those who do not; this would provide additional information regarding 

the benefits and costs of immigrant enclaves. Third, the report suggested a demonstration to 

study the effects of back-and-forth immigration, in which an immigrant frequently returns to his 

or her country of origin. The final suggestion was for a study that observes an occupation in the 

process of becoming “foreignized” (experiencing an influx of immigrant worker supply), which

would provide insights into how immigrants affect the labor market.
Labor Market Research

151

Dickerson, Niki. “Navigating the U.S. Labor Market: Trends and Prospects for Workers.” New 

Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, 2003. Available at 

KEYWORDS: Labor market trends, income inequality, technological change

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/eta_default.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_resultDetails&pub_id=2366

&bas_option=Title&start=1&usrt=4&stype=basic&sv=1&criteria=navigating.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This report examined the structure of the labor 

market in an effort to inform government managers, policymakers, and practitioners on how to 

design effective programs to increase worker employability. The report focused on three main 

themes: (1) the Profile of Work and Workers, which described the state of the economy and the 

characteristics of work and workers; (2) the New Occupational Hierarchy and Changing Skill 

Requirements, which described the earnings gap between skilled and unskilled workers; and (3) 

Work, Workers and Inequality, which investigated conditions faced by the average worker and 

elaborated on inequality among workers and its effect on the labor force.

DATA AND METHODS: The study analyzed data from BLS and presented tabulations and 

frequencies.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: (1) Profile of Work and Workers: The report predicted that total 

employment would rise by 14 percent from 1998 to 2008 and that almost all of this job growth 

would occur in the service sector. It discussed the changing nature of work and documented 

trends the decrease in job security for men, and especially black men. In addition, work hours 

had increased as workers sought to make up for lower wages.

(2) The New Occupational Hierarchy and Changing Skill Requirements: The report noted an 

increased earnings gap between skilled and unskilled workers and considered ways to better 

match employee training to employers’ needs. It noted that occupations with higher skill 

requirements were growing more rapidly than those with lower skill requirements. In addition, 

skill levels were increasing in a range of manufacturing and service industries.

(3) The Work, Workers and Inequality section outlined the general trends and conditions for the 

average worker over the past 20 years, focusing on pay inequality, occupational segregation, 

structural organization, residential segregation, and regional variations in economic trends.
Reentry Programs

152

REENTRY PROGRAMS

Studies in this section examined programs to assist formerly incarcerated adults to 

reintegrate into the broader society. Reentry programs can include services such as job training, 

job search assistance, and mentoring. In particular, the section includes a study of the 

Beneficiary Choice program (Bellotti et al. 2010), the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (Bellotti and 

Paxton 2009), and Ready4Work (Bauldry and McClanahan 2008). Studies pertaining to 

programs for youth who have had or are at risk for involvement with the criminal justice system 

are summarized in the section on “Youth programs other than WIA” (p. 86).
Reentry Programs

153

Bellotti, Jeanne, Michelle Derr, Jillian Berk, and Nora Paxton. “Examining a New Model for 

Prisoner Re-entry Services: The Evaluation of Beneficiary Choice.” Princeton, NJ: 

Mathematica Policy Research, 2011. Available at 

KEYWORDS: Beneficiary Choice, ex-offenders, reentry, faith-based and community 

organizations, performance-based contracting

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=247

2&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Beneficiary Choice was a DOL-funded initiative 

to help ex-prisoners successfully reintegrate into society. In January 2007, DOL awarded five 

grantees a total of $10 million. Each grantee was expected to serve approximately 450 

participants. Grant recipients were supposed to enter into performance-based contracts (wherein 

payments were disbursed only upon meeting certain goals related to key outcomes) with at least 

five local faith-based and community organizations (FBCOs). The FBCOs acted as specialized 

service providers (SSPs) offering three core services—workforce readiness training, career 

counseling, and six months of follow-up—along with supplemental services that varied by SSP.

Participants could select the SSP with which they wanted to work. This study sought to describe 

the implementation of the Beneficiary Choice program, the short-term outcomes of participants, 

and the costs of providing services.

STUDY SITES: Five Beneficiary Choice sites: Phoenix, Arizona; Denver, Colorado; Chicago, 

Illinois; Indianapolis, Indiana; and Des Moines, Iowa

DATA AND METHODS: The study used four types of data: (1) in-depth site visits that 

included discussions with administrators and staff at the grantee and SSP agencies, participants, 

employers, One-Stop Career Centers, and other partners; (2) data on participant characteristics at 

intake, services received, and short-term outcomes collected using the program’s management 

information system (MIS); (3) state administrative criminal justice data, when available; and (4) 

information on grantees’ expenditures and performance-based payments to SSPs.

Methods included a qualitative analysis and synthesis of site visit data; generating frequencies 

and means of MIS and criminal justice data, with t-tests and regressions as appropriate; and 

calculating the average cost per participant.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: As it evolved over time, the program offered less intensive 

services over a short duration period and adopted a work-first approach. Small, inexperienced 

FBCOs in particular faced challenges combining participant choice of SSP and the performancebased contracting specified by DOL in awarding the grants. Local grantees were able to address 

some of these challenges by redefining contract benchmarks and easing documentation 

requirements to facilitate payments to SSPs. SSPs were paid an average of $1,455 per 

participant.

About 65 percent of participants across the five sites were placed in jobs, whereas 34 percent 

were rearrested for a new crime in the 12 months after program enrollment. These rates varied 

widely across the five grantees. Recidivism was likely underreported in the MIS.
Reentry Programs

154

Bellotti, Jeanne, and Nora Paxton. “Evaluation of the Prisoner Re-Entry Initiative.” Princeton, 

NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 2009. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=240

5&mp=y&start=41&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Ex-offender, faith-based and community organizations, partnerships, Prisoner 

Re-Entry Initiative (PRI)

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In 2005, ETA awarded $39.5 million in grants to 

30 faith-based and community organizations to help formerly incarcerated individuals find stable 

employment and facilitate their adaptation to life outside prison. This effort, called the Prisoner 

Re-Entry Initiative (PRI), provided 12,000 former prisoners with job training, housing referrals, 

and mentoring services. PRI was also expected to have positive benefits for the communities to 

which prisoners returned. This study examined the implementation of PRI, its costeffectiveness, and its outcomes.

STUDY SITES: 30 PRI grantees in urban communities in 20 states

DATA AND METHODS: Researchers conducted interviews with program staff and partner 

representatives during two rounds of site visits to each grantee. They also used information 

about participants collected using a management information system, data on grantee 

expenditures, project documents, and secondary data sources. Methods included a qualitative 

analysis of the site visit data and quantitative analysis of participants’ outcomes and program 

costs.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The implementation study found that sites primarily emphasized

finding work for participants quickly. Many grantees relied on partners in other fields, such as 

criminal justice entities that helped recruit project participants, to assist them. However, sites 

had trouble forming relationships with programs that could address participants’ housing and 

substance abuse treatment needs.

Employment and recidivism outcomes were better for women, older participants, non-black 

participants, and participants with a high school diploma or the equivalent at time of enrollment 

than for others. Participants who served longer sentences and those who had served time in 

Federal institutions also had more successful outcomes than other prisoners. From 72 to 80 

percent of participants reported no involvement with the criminal justice system in the year 

following release; this rate is significantly lower than national recidivism rates.

Over the first two years of the program, the average cost per participant was $2,495. This lowerthan-expected cost per participant probably reflected the fact that the average amount of time 

participants spent in the program was short. Some participants exited the program shortly after 

enrolling, and the average duration of program involvement was 12 weeks. PRI grantees offered 

incentives such as gift cards to enrollees to encourage continued participation.
Reentry Programs

155

Bauldry, Shawn, and Wendy McClanahan. “Ready4Work: Final Research Report.” 

Philadelphia, PA: Public/Private Ventures, 2008. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=239

7&mp=y&start=61&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Ready4Work, reentry, ex-offenders, mentoring

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Ready4Work was a three-year demonstration 

program funded by DOL, the Annie E. Casey Foundation, and the Ford Foundation. It offered 

employment readiness and job placement services along with the support of mentors and case 

managers to help ex-prisoners during reentry to the community. It was implemented in 10 cities 

in 2003 and one in 2004, serving a total of 4,483 formerly incarcerated individuals. Participants 

were required to be between the ages of 18 and 34 and had to enroll no more than 90 days after 

release from their most recent incarceration, which had to be for a nonviolent felony offense. 

This study sought to examine the implementation of Ready4Work and participants’ employment 

and recidivism outcomes.

STUDY SITES: One for-profit organization, one city program, and nine non-profit 

organizations (seven of which were faith-based) in Chicago, Illinois; Detroit, Michigan;

Houston, Texas; Jacksonville, Florida; Los Angeles and Oakland, California; Memphis, 

Tennessee; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; New York, New York; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and 

Washington, D.C.

DATA AND METHODS: Data for the study were obtained from the Ready4Work 

management information system, questionnaires completed by 3,827 participants, and criminal 

justice authorities, which supplied recidivism records. Methods included a qualitative analysis 

for the implementation study and descriptive quantitative analyses, with regressions, as 

appropriate, for outcomes.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The implementation study found that Ready4Work sites were 

successful at recruiting participants, and the average duration in the program was eight months. 

Participants were more likely to be male and had a higher average level of education than the 

general population of ex-offenders. At the beginning, participants typically received training in 

résumé writing and workplace etiquette as well as job search skills. Programmatic goals

regarding case management and employment services were met in most sites, with 80 percent of 

participants receiving employment services. On average, participants met with a case manager 

for five months for about two hours per month. 

Mentoring was a distinctive aspect of Ready4Work, provided with the technical assistance of 

Public/Private Ventures. Program retention was higher for participants who received mentoring, 

black participants, more educated participants, and those who had prior arrests.

Fifty-six percent of participants worked at some point during their enrollment in the program, 

and more than 60 percent of those remained employed for at least three consecutive months. In 

addition, recidivism rates were lower among participants than the general population of exoffenders. A little more than half of the participants were rearrested within three years, and one 

in three returned to jail or prison with a new sentence. Although findings suggested that 

participants who met with a mentor had better outcomes, sites had difficulty implementing the 

mentoring component, with only slightly more than half of participants receiving it.
Entrepreneurship Training

156

ENTREPRENEURSHIP TRAINING

This section contains two studies on entrepreneurship training or self-employment 

assistance. Benus et al. (2009) is a study of Project GATE, a demonstration project, while 

Kosanovich et al. (2002) examines states’ Self-Employment Assistance programs.
Entrepreneurship Training

157

Benus, Jacob, Theodore Shen, Sisi Zhang, Marc Chan, and Benjamin Hansen. “Growing 

America Through Entrepreneurship: Final Evaluation of Project GATE.” Columbia, MD: 

IMPAQ International, LLC, 2009. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=244

4&mp=y&start=21&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Project GATE, self-employment, UI recipients, entrepreneurship

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Project GATE (Growing America Through 

Entrepreneurship) was a demonstration supported by DOL and the Small Business 

Administration to help participants start, maintain, and expand their own small businesses. 

Seven sites implemented Project GATE between fall 2003 and summer 2005, using existing 

One-Stop Career Centers as locations for participant recruitment and enrollment. Project GATE 

services included: (1) a personal needs assessment, (2) training courses on business 

management, and (3) one-on-one business counseling and assistance in applying for financing. 

This study sought to evaluate Project GATE’s implementation, long-term impacts, and costs and

benefits to participants and society.

STUDY SITES: Seven sites in Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Maine

DATA SOURCES AND METHODS: The demonstration and associated experimental

evaluation occurred over 60 months in seven sites in three states; four of the sites were rural. 

About half of the 4,198 applicants were randomly assigned to the participant group (receiving 

Project GATE services), and half were assigned to the comparison group (no Project GATE

services offered).

The study used four sources of data: (1) the participant tracking system with records for all who 

expressed interest in participating in Project GATE; (2) site visits, which included interviews 

with staff and clients; (3) telephone surveys to the evaluation participants at 6, 18, and 60 months 

after random assignment; and (4) UI administrative data.

The implementation analysis used the first two sources, synthesizing site visit data and 

computing basic descriptive statistics on service receipt and costs. The impact and cost-benefit 

analyses involved a comparison of the mean outcomes in the participant and comparison groups, 

mainly employing the latter two data sources.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Project GATE service providers, training courses, and outreach 

methods varied across sites and attracted a broad range of applicants to each center. Program 

participants received, on average, 13 more hours of training than nonparticipants.

The impact analyses showed that Project GATE increased the probability of owning a business 

in the first few quarters after random assignment. Project GATE participants started their 

businesses sooner than nonparticipants, and their businesses had greater longevity. Men were 

significantly more likely to benefit from Project GATE than women. Project GATE did not 

affect long-term earnings, UI receipt or public assistance benefits. Impacts were stronger for 

participants receiving UI at the time of random assignment than for the full sample.
Entrepreneurship Training

158

The average cost for each participant was $1,321. Costs exceeded benefits for the full sample, 

but UI-receiving participants and society had a net benefit of $4,500 and $2,200, respectively, 

per UI recipient participant.

One of the study’s lessons was that self-employment services were readily available in the 

community, including through One-Stop Career Centers. Indeed, 78 percent of the control group 

received some self-employment services over the 60-month observation period. Another finding 

was that increased business ownership did not necessarily lead to an increase in self-employment 

earnings.
Entrepreneurship Training

159

Kosanovich, William, Heather Fleck, Berwood Yost, Wendy Armon, and Sandra Siliezar. 

“Comprehensive Assessment of Self-Employment Assistance Programs.” Arlington, VA: 

DTI Associates, 2002. Available at 

KEYWORDS: Self-employment, UI claimants, entrepreneurship

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=229

3&mp=y&start=121&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Congress initially authorized Self-Employment 

Assistance (SEA) programs as part of the North American Free Trade Act in 1993. In SEA 

programs, states are allowed to aid UI claimants in establishing themselves as self-employed. 

Such claimants may receive funding from SEA instead of unemployment compensation. 

However, they must spend a great deal of time engaged in activities that will support their selfemployment. SEA participants receive entrepreneurial training, business counseling, and 

technical assistance. This study sought to document the outcomes and impacts of the eight SEA 

programs established between 1995 and 1999.

STUDY SITES: Programs in eight states: California, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, New Jersey, 

New York, Oregon, and Pennsylvania

DATA AND METHODS: Data sources for the study included wage records and UI 

administrative claims data. In addition, approximately 600 former program participants and 600 

eligible nonparticipants were randomly selected for telephone interviews. The researchers

described the characteristics and outcomes of SEA participants. To determine program impacts, 

600 SEA participants (200 each in Maine, New Jersey, and New York) were compared with a 

group of nonparticipants who had been determined eligible for SEA but had drawn regular UI 

benefits instead of participating in SEA.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: At the time of the interview in 2000, the outcomes study found 

that participants were 19 times more likely to be self-employed at any time after their spell of 

unemployment than nonparticipants. Program participants expressed high levels of satisfaction 

with being self-employed, and they ranked the entrepreneurial training and business plan 

development to be the most useful aspects of their training. Participants were likely to have 

higher levels of education, pre-unemployment wages and higher interest in self-employment and 

were more likely to have technical, managerial or professional backgrounds than nonparticipants.

The comparison group analysis suggested that SEA participants in Maine, New Jersey, and New 

York experienced higher rates of both self-employment and wage or salary employment than 

nonparticipants. Program participants in these states were four times more likely to have 

obtained employment of any kind than nonparticipants. Participants also had higher levels of UI 

benefit receipt.
Registered Apprenticeship

160

REGISTERED APPRENTICESHIP

The Registered Apprenticeship (RA) system, overseen by DOL’s ETA and state agencies,

offers a framework for developing and registering apprenticeship programs. RAs consist of onthe-job training, mentoring, classroom instruction, and gradual wage increases as apprentices 

progress through training. Offered nationwide, RA programs are set for a fixed period of one to 

five years, after which the apprentice receives an industry-recognized credential. In Fiscal Year 

2007, there were nearly 28,000 RA programs, with over 465,000 apprentices.

This section contains two studies on the RA program. Lerman et al. (2009) focused on the 

perceptions of RA sponsors—employers, groups of employers, or unions—about the program,

while Gunn and De Silva (2008) wrote an in-depth study of RA programs in five states.
Registered Apprenticeship

161

Lerman, Robert, Lauren Eyster, and Kate Chambers. “The Benefits and Challenges of 

Registered Apprenticeship: The Sponsors’ Perspective.” Washington, DC: The Urban 

Institute, 2009. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=242

1&mp=y&start=41&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Registered Apprenticeship (RA), on-the-job training, occupational training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This study sought to gain a better understanding 

of the perspectives of Registered Apprenticeship (RA) sponsors, which can be employers, groups 

of employers, or unions.

STUDY SITES: 947 RA sponsors across the country

DATA AND METHODS: A survey was administered to a sample drawn from a pool 

consisting of 90 percent of private sector sponsors from the 32 states that fully participated in the 

RA Information System database in 2006 and six additional states that provided individual-level 

data. Among this group, equal-sized samples of sponsors were drawn from the industry 

classifications—high-growth, construction, and all others combined—for a total sample of 1,792 

sponsors; 974 of these participated in the survey. Cross-tabulations and regressions were used to 

analyze the survey data.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: There was high support for the RA program among sponsors, 

with almost 90 percent indicating that they would strongly recommend it. Most sponsors also 

rated their state apprenticeship agencies highly. Sponsors were concerned about competitors 

poaching their apprentices after training. Most sponsors used current employees to recruit 

apprentices, but expressed a desire to have help finding and screening applicants. Very few 

sponsors used the workforce investment system for recruitment.
Registered Apprenticeship

162

Gunn, Pahl, and Lalith De Silva. “Registered Apprenticeship: Findings from Site Visits to Five 

States.” Rockville, MD: Planmatics, Inc., 2008. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=240

4&mp=y&start=61&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Registered Apprenticeship (RA), on-the-job training, occupational training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Traditionally, registered apprenticeships (RAs)

existed mainly in the construction and manufacturing industries. More recently, DOL worked to 

expand RA programs into high-growth industries such as health care, transportation, and 

information technology. In order to understand issues affecting RA programs, DOL 

commissioned a study consisting of an RA sponsor survey and site visits to five states. This 

report sought to describe the apprentice and employer populations, discuss their satisfaction 

levels, and present recommendations for the future.

STUDY SITES: RA programs in five states: Iowa, New Hampshire, North Carolina, 

Pennsylvania, and Texas

DATA AND METHODS: States were chosen to include those where programs were registered 

by state agencies and by ETA. Researchers conducted week-long visits to each of the five states. 

Visits included interviews and group discussions with key stakeholders—State Apprenticeship 

Agency staff (19 total), One-Stop Career Center managers (14), classroom training providers 

(29), employers (37), and apprentices (79). Researchers used qualitative analysis techniques to 

identify common themes across sites.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: Approximately one-quarter of the RA sponsors interviewed were 

in high-growth industries; the remaining sponsors were in traditional RA industries. Most 

sponsors employed 25 to 60 workers, and one-third of the programs were jointly run with 

organized labor as a partner. Apprentices ranged in age from late teens to mid-50s, but most 

were 20 to 30 years old. Less than 15 percent of apprentices were female and less than 20 

percent belonged to racial minorities.

Sponsors and apprentices alike reported overall satisfaction with the RA program. Sponsors 

appreciated it as a way to gain access to knowledgeable workers, and apprentices enjoyed the 

opportunity to earn an income during training with prospects for good wages in the future. 

Drawbacks included difficulty finding qualified instructors for the classroom instruction 

component, the long training period with low initial wages for apprentices, and high time 

demands on apprentices for work and classroom training.

Recommendations for improving the program included greater monitoring of program quality, 

increasing links with the workforce investment system for referrals and support, and reducing 

paperwork. If the RA system were to expand, state agency capacity would have to increase.
Welfare-to-Work

163

WELFARE-TO-WORK

This section contains two studies on aspects of welfare-to-work programs, which aim to help 

individuals receiving public assistance find employment. The first study (Butz 2011) examined 

the provision of services to TANF participants and whether particular types of service providers 

were more effective than others. The second study (Eberts 2002) looked at an assessment and 

referral system for TANF that was implemented as a pilot program in Michigan.
Welfare-to-Work

164

Butz, Adam M. “Privatization and Employment in the Implementation of Temporary Assistance 

for Needy Families (TANF): A Multi-Level Analysis.” Lexington, KY: University of 

Kentucky, 2011. Available at 

KEYWORDS: welfare-to-work, TANF

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=246

5&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: In 1996, the passage of the Personal 

Responsibility Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act marked the seminal reform of public 

assistance in the United States, transforming the former Assistance to Families with Dependent 

Children into TANF. TANF is a program of block grants to states to be used for a variety of 

activities aimed at promoting transitions of low-income parents to economic self-sufficiency. 

Under this legislation, states also gained the ability to contract out welfare services to private 

entities. Many believed that privatization would increase the efficiency of welfare programs and 

lead to better programs for participants. Others worried that privatized organizations might be 

less apt to serve participants who were harder to place in jobs.

This study investigated the patterns of welfare contracting across the United States. It then 

examined the relationship between privatization of TANF services and employment outcomes 

for participants in Florida.

STUDY SITES: National; Florida

DATA AND METHODS: For the study of contracting rates, the study used state-level 2001 

data from the U.S. General Accounting Office on the value of privatized TANF contracts as a 

percentage of total TANF spending; this measure served as the primary dependent variable of 

interest. The study also broke out private contracts into those awarded to for-profit and nonprofit organizations. Regression analyses were carried out to explain these contracting rates 

using variables such as a proxy for competition in service supply, public employee strength, 

political and ideological factors, fiscal conditions, and the extent to which low-income 

individuals were mobilized to vote.

For the analysis of TANF participants’ outcomes, the study used a Department of Health and 

Human Services database to find information on TANF clients in Florida from 2000 to 2005. A

hierarchical linear model with participants nested within program type was used to analyze 

employment outcomes for TANF participants by type of program operator. 

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The analysis of contracting rates nationwide found that a modest 

31 percent of the variation in state contracting rates was explained by the model. Greater state 

population, higher percentage of African Americans on caseloads, and weaker fiscal capacity 

were associated with greater TANF contracting. 

In Florida, privatized arrangements were rarely found to have a significant relationship with 

participants’ outcomes over the period of study. Participants at for-profit or nonprofit service 

providers were no more or less likely to leave TANF than those served in public settings. In 

addition, all groups had similar work participation and sanction rates among open cases.
Welfare-to-Work

165

Eberts, Randall W. “Design, Implementation, and Evaluation of the Work First Profiling Pilot 

Project.” Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 2002. 

Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=228

7&mp=y&start=121&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: welfare-to-work, Work First, employability score

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: This report described the implementation of a new 

assessment and referral system, the Work First Profiling Pilot, developed by the W.E. Upjohn 

Institute and designed to assist local welfare-to-work program staff in targeting employment 

services more effectively. The system was created to be integrated into an existing intake 

process and to require minimal (if any) additional operations staff. The Kalamazoo-St. Joseph 

Workforce Investment Board in Michigan piloted the system in its existing Work First welfareto-work program.

When a participant enrolled in Work First, staff determined her employability score. This score, 

which was generated using a statistical data tool, reflected an assessment of the participant’s 

ability to find and retain a job. Using these scores, the project staff referred participants to one of 

three service providers that offered the services and delivery approach that was expected to best 

meet their particular needs.

This study sought to determine whether the new referral system increased the overall 

effectiveness of the Work First program, as measured by the percentage of participants employed 

for 90 consecutive days in a qualifying job, known as the 90-day retention rate.

STUDY SITES: A two-county area in southwestern Michigan

DATA AND METHODS: The pilot was conducted from January 1998 through March 2000. 

During that time nearly 3,600 single-parent welfare recipients enrolled in the program. 

Participants were first given an employability score based on the statistical tool. They were then 

placed into a low-, middle-, or high-employability group. Within each employability category, 

participants were randomly assigned to either the treatment group, which received a targeted 

referral, or the control group, which received a referral at random. The study estimated the 

effectiveness of the referral program by comparing the 90-day retention rates of the treatment 

group members with those of the control group members.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The study found that targeted referrals based on employability 

scores made the program more effective; participants who had received targeted referrals had 25 

percent higher employment retention rates than those who did not. This suggested that using 

employability scores could be a promising way to increase the effectiveness of welfare-to-work 

programs in helping customers find and keep jobs. The benefits-to-costs ratios ranged between 

3.25 and 5.8, depending on assumptions about the duration of the earnings differential between 

the treatment and control groups.
Services to Military Personnel, Veterans and Military Spouses

166

SERVICES TO MILITARY PERSONNEL, VETERANS, AND MILITARY SPOUSES

This section contains the results of a study on training accounts for military spouses (Zaveri 

et al. 2009). In addition, two cross-references are provided, one for a study of National 

Emergency Grants, which were given to military bases to train military personnel and, later, their 

spouses, and the other on the implementation of the priority of service provision in the workforce 

investment system.
Services to Military Personnel, Veterans and Military Spouses

167

Zaveri, Heather Hesketh, Caterina Pisciotta, Linda Rosenberg, and Karen Needels. “The 

Implementation Evaluation of the Military Spouse Career Advancement Accounts 

Demonstration (2009).” Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, 2011. Available at 

http://wdr.doleta.gov/research/keyword.cfm?fuseaction=dsp_puListingDetails&pub_id=245

6&mp=y&start=1&sort=7.

KEYWORDS: Military Spouse Career Advancement Account (CAA), military spouses, 

credential attainment, occupational training

TOPIC AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: The Military Spouse (MilSpouse) Career 

Advancement Account (CAA) demonstration was a joint initiative between DOL and the 

Department of Defense. The goal of the demonstration was to help military spouses develop 

and/or maintain careers, which in turn would increase family satisfaction with military life and 

service-member retention. In 2007, eight states containing military bases and One-Stop Career 

Centers received grant funding to provide military spouses with CAAs to defray tuition and 

related expenses for portable postsecondary degrees or industry-recognized credentials. Each

CAA totaled $6,000 over two years. This study sought to describe the implementation of the 

MilSpouse CAA demonstration and to document the characteristics of early participants.

STUDY SITES: California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Maine, North Carolina, and 

Washington

DATA AND METHODS: All eight demonstration sites were included in the implementation 

study. The study used three types of data: (1) in-depth site visits conducted six to eight months 

after program launch and consisting of staff interviews, client focus groups, and observations of 

staff-client interactions; (2) telephone interviews with staff, focusing on CAA management 

systems; and (3) weekly report data from each state, including program- and individual-level 

data.

Methods included a qualitative analysis and synthesis of findings from site visits and telephone 

interviews, generating descriptive characteristics of 2,630 participants, and compiling award 

totals through time.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: The qualitative portion of the evaluation found that the 

partnership between the military and workforce development agencies (One-Stop Career 

Centers) was crucial to the success of the program. The military personnel were heavily 

involved in outreach, marketing, orientation meetings, and eligibility determinations. The 

workforce development staff primarily managed the accounts, which proved to be challenging as 

each organization had to develop and maintain its own management system. Focus group 

discussions with clients revealed that the program had differing effects on clients’ desire to 

continue life with the military—some felt more likely to stay with the military (higher 

satisfaction with the military lifestyle) and others were more inclined to leave (more prepared for 

their spouses’ retirement from the military).

As of May 2009, 5,366 awards had been disbursed, which was 72 percent of the demonstration 

target. The most common career industry among participants was the health field (2,900 

awards). Most clients were unemployed women with young children.
Services to Military Personnel, Veterans and Military Spouses

168

Cross-References for the Services to Military Personnel, Veterans, and Military Spouses 

Section

Needels, Karen, Jeanne Bellotti, Mina Dadgar, and Walter Nicholson. “Evaluation of the 

Military Base National Emergency Grants: Final Report.” See p. 43.

Trutko, John, and Burt Barnow. “An Evaluation of the Priority of Service Provision of the Jobs 

for Veterans Act by the Workforce Investment System in Providing Services to Veterans 

and Other Covered Persons, Final Report.” See p. 52.
Index

169

INDEX

Abrazaldo, Wally, Jo-Ann Adefuin, Jennifer 

Henderson-Frakes, Charles Lea, Jill Leufgen, 

Heather Lewis-Charp, Sukey Soukamneuth, and 

Andrew Wiegand. “Evaluation of the YouthBuild 

Youth Offender Grants: Final Report.”.......................97

Almandsmith, Sherry, Han Bos, and Lorena Adams 

Ortiz. “Evaluation of the Strengthening 

Connections between Unemployment Insurance and 

the One-Stop Delivery Systems Demonstration 

Projects in Wisconsin.” ................................................54

Amodeo, Andrea, Ying Jin, and Joanna Kling. 

“Gaining the Skills for Employment: The Literacy 

of Female Public Assistance Recipients.”..................122

Amodeo, Andrea, Ying Jin, and Joanna Kling. 

“Preparing for Life beyond Prison Walls: The 

Literacy of Incarcerated Adults Near Release.” .........123

Barnow, Burt S., and Christopher T. King. “The 

Workforce Investment Act in Eight States.” ................47

Barnow, Burt, Amy MacDonald Burk, Patricia Billen, 

Richard Nathan, Dan O’Shea, and Christopher King. 

“The Workforce Investment Act in Eight States: 

State Case Studies from a Field Network Evaluation, 

Volume 1.”...................................................................48

Barnow, Burt, and Daniel Gubits. “Review of Recent 

Pilot, Demonstration, Research, and Evaluation 

Initiatives to Assist in the Implementation of 

Programs under the Workforce Investment Act.” ........41

Bassi, Laurie, and Daniel McMurrer. “Unemployment 

Insurance in a Federal System: A Race to the 

Bottom?”......................................................................68

Bauldry, Shawn, and Wendy McClanahan. 

“Ready4Work: Final Research Report.” ....................155

Bellotti, Jeanne, and Nora Paxton. “Evaluation of the 

Prisoner Re-Entry Initiative.”.....................................154

Bellotti, Jeanne, Linda Rosenberg, Samina Sattar, 

Andrea Mraz Esposito, and Jessica Ziegler. 

“Reinvesting in America’s Youth: Lessons from the 

2009 Recovery Act Summer Youth Employment 

Initiative.” ....................................................................32

Bellotti, Jeanne, Michelle Derr, Jillian Berk, and Nora 

Paxton. “Examining a New Model for Prisoner Reentry Services: The Evaluation of Beneficiary 

Choice.” .....................................................................153

Benus, Jacob, Theodore Shen, Sisi Zhang, Marc Chan, 

and Benjamin Hansen. “Growing America Through 

Entrepreneurship: Final Evaluation of Project 

GATE.” ......................................................................157

Borjas, George J. “Immigration and the Effects on the 

U.S. Labor Market (1960–2000).” .............................150

Bos, Johannes M., Fannie M. Tseng, Fred Doolittle, 

and Deana N. Tanguay. “Working with 

Disadvantaged Youth: Thirty-Month Findings from 

the Center for Employment Training Replication 

Sites.” .......................................................................... 87

Bruno, Lee, Ying Jin, and Dwayne Norris. “Building 

Career Ladders for the Working Poor through 

Literacy Training.” .................................................... 121

Bruno, Lee, Ying Jin, and Dwayne Norris. “Workers 

in Declining Industries: Literacy’s Role in Worker 

Transitions.” .............................................................. 125

Burghardt, John, and Peter Schochet. “National Job 

Corps Study: Impacts by Center Characteristics.”...... 12

Burghardt, John, Peter Z. Schochet, Sheena 

McConnell, Terry Johnson, R. Mark Gritz, Steven 

Glazerman, John Homrighausen, and Russell 

Jackson. “Does Job Corps Work? Summary of the 

National Job Corps Study.” ........................................... 7

Burghardt, John, Sheena McConnell, Alicia 

Meckstroth, Peter Schochet, Terry Johnson, and 

John Homrighausen. “National Job Corps Study: 

Report on Study Implementation.” .............................. 21

Burron, Larry, Larry Orr, and Satyendra Patrabansh. 

“The Lifelong Learning Demonstration: Final 

Evaluation Report on the Experimental Site.”........... 117

Butz, Adam M. “Privatization and Employment in the 

Implementation of Temporary Assistance for Needy 

Families (TANF): A Multi-Level Analysis.”............ 164

Chimerine, Lawrence, Theodore S. Black, and Lester 

Coffey. “Unemployment Insurance as an Automatic 

Stabilizer: Evidence of Effectiveness over Three 

Decades.”..................................................................... 63

Chrisinger, Colleen K. “Earnings Progression among 

Workforce Development Participants: Evidence 

from Washington State.” ............................................. 34

Coffey, Lester, Wayne Vroman, Michael Ye, E.A. Rett 

Hensley, Richard Sullivan, William Sullivan, and 

Lawrence Chimerine. “Evaluation of State 

Implementation of Section 303(K), SSA: Final 

Report.” ....................................................................... 64

Coffey, Lester. “Exemplary Practices in High-Skill 

U.S. Department of Labor H-1B Training 

Programs.”................................................................. 116

Cook, Robert F., Wayne Vroman, Joseph Kirchner, 

Anthony Brinsko, and Alexander Tan. “The Effects 

of Increasing the Federal Taxable Wage Base for 

Unemployment Insurance.” ......................................... 67
Index

170

Corson, Walter, Karen Needels, and Walter Nicholson. 

“Emergency Unemployment Compensation: The 

1990’s Experience (Revised Edition).” ........................75

Curnan, Susan P., Andrew B. Hahn, Lawrence N. 

Bailis, Joseph Frees, Christopher Kingsley, Lisa A. 

LaCava, Susan Lanspery, Alan L. Melchior, and 

Erika L. Moldow. “Innovating Under Pressure: The 

Story of the 2009 Recovery Act Summer Youth 

Employment Initiative: Chicago, Detroit, 

Indianapolis & Marion County, Phoenix & 

Maricopa County.”.......................................................31

D’Amico, Ronald D., Mary Kimball, Michael Midling, 

Pamela L. Smith, A. Lee Bruno and Michele L. 

Johnson. “Evaluation of the School-to-Work Outof-School Youth Demonstration and Job Corps 

Model Centers: Final Report for the Job Corps 

Model Centers.” .........................................................103

D’Amico, Ronald D., Mary Kimball, Michael Midling, 

Pamela L. Smith, A. Lee Bruno, and Michele L. 

Johnson. “Evaluation of the School-to-Work Outof-School Youth Demonstration and Job Corps 

Model Centers: Final Report for the Out-of-School 

Youth Demonstration.” ..............................................105

D’Amico, Ronald, Kate Dunham, Annelies Goger, 

Charles Lea, Nicole Rigg, Sheryl Ude, and Andrew 

Wiegand. “Findings from a Study of One-Stop 

Services: A Case Study Approach, Final Report.”......45

D’Amico, Ronald, Sengsouvanh Soukamneuth, Kristin 

Wolff, Stuart Tonemah, and Mary Ann Brittan. “An 

Evaluation of the JTPA, Section 401, Indian and 

Native American Program.”.......................................132

Decker, Paul T., and Irma L. Perez-Johnson. “What 

Can We Expect under Personal Reemployment 

Accounts? Predictions and Procedures.”.....................79

Decker, Paul T., Robert B. Olsen, and Lance Freeman. 

“Assisting Unemployment Insurance Claimants: 

The Long-Term Impacts of the Job Search 

Assistance Demonstration.” .........................................81

Dickerson, Niki. “Navigating the U.S. Labor Market: 

Trends and Prospects for Workers.”...........................151

Dolfin, Sarah, and Jillian Berk. “National Evaluation 

of the Trade Adjustment Assistance Program: 

Characteristics of Workers Eligible under the 2002 

TAA Program and Their Early Program 

Experiences.” .............................................................144

Dunham, Kate, and Andrew Wiegand. “The Effort to 

Implement the Youth Offender Demonstration 

Project (YODP) Impact Evaluation: Lessons and 

Implications for Further Research.” .............................94

Dunham, Kate, Jeff Salzman, and Vinz Koller. 

“Business as Partner and Customer under WIA: A 

Study of Innovative Practices.”....................................51

Dunham, Kate, Melissa Mack, Jeff Salzman, and 

Andrew Wiegand. “Evaluation of the WIA 

Performance Measurement System: Survey Report.”.. 60

Dunham, Kate, Melissa Mack, Jeffrey Salzman, and 

Andrew Wiegand. “Evaluation of the WIA 

Performance Measurement System.”........................... 59

Dunham, Kate. “Linkages between TAA, One-Stop 

Career Center Partners, and Economic Development 

Agencies.” ................................................................... 53

Duscha, Steve, and Wanda Lee Graves. “State 

Financed and Customized Training Programs.” ........ 111

Duscha, Steve, and Wanda Lee Graves. “The 

Employer as the Client: State-Financed Customized 

Training.” .................................................................. 110

Eberts, Randall W. “Design, Implementation, and 

Evaluation of the Work First Profiling Pilot 

Project.”..................................................................... 165

Eyster, Lauren, Richard W. Johnson, and Eric Toder. 

“Current Strategies to Employ and Retain Older 

Workers.” .................................................................. 138

Eyster, Lauren. “Ensuring the Quality of Training 

Providers under the Workforce Investment Act 

(WIA).” ....................................................................... 39

Fishman, Michael, Scott Scrivner, David Stapleton, and 

Adam Tucker. “Literature Review and Empirical 

Analysis of Unemployment Insurance Recipiency 

Rates.” ......................................................................... 73

Fortson, Jane, and Peter Z. Schochet. “Analysis of 

Associations between Contemporaneous Job Corps 

Performance Measures and Impact Estimates from 

the National Job Corps Study.” ................................... 11

Garcia, Yvonne. “Study of Hispanics in Job Corps: 

2004–2005.” ................................................................ 15

Ginsburg, Kenneth R., Christine M. Forke, Sara B. 

Kinsman, Eric Fleegler, Eric K. Grimes, Tamar 

Rosenbloom, John S. Schneider, Donald F. Schwarz, 

Avital Cnann, Huaqing Zhao, Brian M. Cohen, and 

Kathleen P. Gibbs. “Retention in the United States 

Job Corps: Analysis and Recommendations.” ............ 25

Glazerman, Steven, Peter Schochet, and John 

Burghardt. “National Job Corps Study: The Impact 

of Job Corps on Participants’ Literacy Skills.”............ 14

Gritz, Mark, and Terry Johnson. “National Job Corps 

Study: Assessing Program Effects on Earnings for 

Students Achieving Key Program Milestones.” .......... 13

Gritz, R., Mark, Terry R. Johnson, Audra Wenzlow, 

and Fred B. Dong. “Dynamic Models of 

Unemployment Insurance Benefit Receipt: Survival 

Rate Analysis Report.” ................................................ 76
Index

171

Gunn, Pahl, and Lalith De Silva. “Registered 

Apprenticeship: Findings from Site Visits to Five 

States.” .......................................................................162

Heinrich, Carolyn J., Peter R. Mueser, and Kenneth R. 

Troske. “Workforce Investment Act NonExperimental Net Impact Evaluation.” ........................35

Holl, Douglas B., Lisa Kolovich, Deborah Santiago, 

and Sally Andrade. “Evaluation of the Limited 

English Proficiency and Hispanic Worker Initiative 

Final Report.”.............................................................130

Hollenbeck, Kevin, Daniel Schroeder, Christopher T. 

King, and Wei-Jang Huang. “Net Impact Estimates 

for Services Provided through the Workforce 

Investment Act.” ..........................................................36

Isbell, Kellie, John W. Trutko, Burt S. Barnow, 

Demetra Smith Nightingale, and Nancy Pindus. 

“Involving Employers in Training: Case Studies.” ...112

Jackson, Russell H., Jamie Diamandopoulos, Carol 

Pistorino, Paul Zador, John Lopdell, Juanita LucasMcLean, and Lee Bruno. “Youth Opportunity 

Grants Initiative (YO).” ...............................................29

Jenks, Stephen S., Lois MacGillivray, and Karen 

Needels. “Youth Offender Demonstration Project 

Evaluation Final Report – Volume One.” ....................93

Jin, Ying, and Joanna Kling. “Overcoming the 

Language Barrier: The Literacy of Non-NativeEnglish-Speaking Adults.”.........................................120

Jin, Ying, and Joanna Kling. “Preparing Youth for the 

Future: The Literacy of America’s Young Adults.”..124

Johns Hopkins Hospital. “Final Report: Assessment of 

Strategies to Retain Experienced Technical and 

Professional Healthcare Personnel after Retirement 

Age: Mature Healthcare Workers Focus Group 

Research.” ..................................................................137

Johnson, Terry, Mark Gritz, and Mary Kay Dugan. 

“National Job Corps Study: Job Corps Applicants’ 

Programmatic Experiences.”........................................16

Johnson, Terry, Mark Gritz, Russell Jackson, John 

Burghardt, Carol Boussy, Jan Leonard, and Carlyn 

Orians. “National Job Corps Study: Report on the 

Process Analysis.”........................................................19

Kaiser, Joyce, and Linda Winges. “An Assessment of 

the Low-Wage Worker Retention and Advancement 

Demonstration Project.”...............................................42

Koralek, Robin, Heidi Johnson, Caroline Ratcliffe, and 

Tracy Vericker. “Assisting Newcomers through 

Employment and Support Services: An Evaluation 

of the New Americans Centers Demonstration 

Project in Arkansas and Iowa.” ..................................129

Kosanovich, William, Heather Fleck, Berwood Yost, 

Wendy Armon, and Sandra Siliezar. 

“Comprehensive Assessment of Self-Employment 

Assistance Programs.” ............................................... 159

KPMG/Economic and Valuation Services. “An 

Examination of the Delivery of Literacy Services at 

Job Corps Centers.”..................................................... 26

KRA Corporation “Employee Leasing: Implications 

for State Unemployment Insurance Programs.” .......... 66

Lerman, Robert I. “Improving Career Outcomes for 

Youth: Lessons from the U.S. and OECD 

Experiences.”............................................................. 102

Lerman, Robert I. “Programs to Support Out-ofSchool Youth.” .......................................................... 101

Lerman, Robert, Lauren Eyster, and Kate Chambers. 

“The Benefits and Challenges of Registered 

Apprenticeship: The Sponsors’ Perspective.”........... 161

Leshnick, Sukey Soukamneuth, Anna Rubin, Jennifer 

Henderson-Frakes, Heather Lewis-Charp, Kimberly 

Foley, and Jill Leufgen. “Evaluation of School 

District-Based Strategies for Reducing Youth 

Involvement in Gangs and Violent Crime.” ................ 95

MacGillivray, Lois, Ed Miller, Snehal Shah, and 

Stephen Jenks. “Youth Offender Demonstration 

Project Process Evaluation Final Report: Round 

Two.”........................................................................... 92

Mack, Melissa. “Assessment, Case Management and 

Post-Training Assistance for TAA Participants: 

Occasional Paper Prepared as Part of the Evaluation 

of the Trade Adjustment Assistance Program.”......... 146

Maxfield, Myles, Allen Schirm, and Nuria RodriguezPlanas. “The Quantum Opportunity Program 

Demonstration: Implementation and Short-Term 

Impacts.” ..................................................................... 89

McConnell, Sheena, and Steven Glazerman. “National 

Job Corps Study: The Benefits and Costs of Job 

Corps.”........................................................................... 7

McConnell, Sheena, Elizabeth Stuart, Kenneth Fortson, 

Paul Decker, Irma Perez-Johnson, Barbara Harris, 

and Jeffrey Salzman. “Managing Customers’ 

Training Choices: Findings from the Individual 

Training Account Experiment—Final Report.”........... 38

McNeil Education, Training and Research. “Process 

Evaluation of the Demand-Side Youth Offender 

Demonstration Project (Phase II).”............................ 100

Mikelson, Kelly, and Demetra Smith Nightingale. 

“Estimating Public and Private Expenditures on 

Occupational Training in the United States.” ............ 114
Index

172

Miller, Cynthia, Johannes Bos, Kristin Porter, Fannie 

Tseng, and Yasuyo Abe. “The Challenge of 

Repeating Success in a Changing World: Final 

Report on the Center for Employment Training 

Replication Sites.”........................................................87

Miller, Ed, and Lois MacGillivray. “Youth Offender 

Demonstration Project Process Evaluation: Final 

Report.”........................................................................92

Monsma, Stephen V., and Corwin E. Smidt. “An 

Evaluation of the Latino Coalition’s Reclamando 

Nuestro Futuro (Reclaiming our Future) Program.”.....98

Mueser, Peter, and Deanna Sharpe. “Anatomy of Two 

One-Stops: Camdenton, Missouri and Columbia, 

Missouri.” ....................................................................46

Nathan, Richard, Patricia Billen, Burt Barnow, Amy 

MacDonald Buck, Dan O’Shea, Christopher King et 

al. “The Workforce Investment Act in Eight States: 

State Case Studies from a Field Network Evaluation: 

Volume Two.”..............................................................48

National Association of State Workforce Agencies. 

“Unemployment Insurance: Assessment of the 

Impact of the 2002 Reed Act Distribution—Final 

Report.”........................................................................65

Needels, Karen, and Walter Nicholson. “An Analysis 

of Unemployment Insurance Durations since the 

1990-1992 Recession.” ................................................74

Needels, Karen, Jeanne Bellotti, Mina Dadgar, and 

Walter Nicholson. “Evaluation of the Military Base 

National Emergency Grants: Final Report.” ...............43

Needels, Karen, Walter Corson, and Michelle Van 

Noy. “Evaluation of the Significant Improvement 

Demonstration Grants for the Provision of 

Reemployment Services for UI Claimants.” ................80

Needels, Karen, Walter Corson, and Walter Nicholson. 

“Left Out of the Boom Economy: UI Recipients in 

the Late 1990s.” ...........................................................72

Nightingale, Demetra Smith, Lauren Eyster, John 

Trutko, Carolyn O’Brien, and Kate Chambers. 

“Implementation Analysis of High Growth Job 

Training Initiative (HGJTI) Programs.” .....................108

Nisbet, Elizabeth. “Policy and Wage Labor Supply: A 

Case Study of Policy and Farm Labor Markets in 

New York.”................................................................149

Norris, Dwayne, Lee Bruno, and Ying Jin. “Survival 

Literacy Training for Non-Native-English-Speaking 

Workers.”...................................................................119

O’Leary, Christopher, and Kenneth Kline. “Use of 

Unemployment Insurance and Employment Services 

by Newly Unemployed Leavers from Temporary 

Assistance to Needy Families: Final Report.”.............83

O’Leary, Christopher, and Randall W. Eberts. 

“Personal Reemployment Accounts: Simulations 

for Planning Implementation.” .................................... 77

O’Leary, Christopher. “Unemployment Insurance and 

Reemployment among Older Workers.”.................... 139

Park, Jooyoun. “Does Occupational Training by the 

Trade Adjustment Assistance Program Really Help 

Reemployment? Success Measured as Matching.”... 143

Pena, Anita Alves. “The Effect of Continuing 

Education Participation on Agricultural Worker 

Outcomes.” ................................................................ 128

Poulos, Stacy, and Demetra Smith Nightingale. “The 

Aging Baby Boom: Implications for Employment 

and Training Programs.”............................................ 140

Salzman, J., A. Wiegand, J. Leufgen, and S. Harvey. 

“Evaluation of the Career Advancement Accounts 

Demonstration Project: An Implementation Study.” 113

Salzman, Jeffrey, Katherine Dickenson, Ruth Fedrau, 

and Melissa Lazarin. “Unemployment Insurance in 

the One-Stop System.” ................................................ 55

Salzman, Jeffrey. “Rapid Response and TAA.” ............ 145

Schirm, Allen, Elizabeth Stuart, and Allison McKie. 

“The Quantum Opportunity Program 

Demonstration: Final Impacts.”.................................. 89

Schochet, Peter Z. “National Job Corps Study: 

Methodological Appendixes on the Impact 

Analysis.” .................................................................... 22

Schochet, Peter Z. “National Job Corps Study: Eligible 

Applicants.”................................................................. 17

Schochet, Peter Z., and Steven Glazerman. “National 

Job Corps Study: The Impacts of Job Corps on 

Participants’ Employment and Related Outcomes.”...... 7

Schochet, Peter Z., John Burghardt, and Sheena 

McConnell. “National Job Corps Study and LongerTerm Follow-Up Study: Impact and Benefit-Cost 

Findings Using Survey and Summary Earnings 

Records Data: Final Report.”........................................ 9

Schochet, Peter Z., John Burghardt, and Steven 

Glazerman. “National Job Corps Study: The ShortTerm Impacts of Job Corps on Participants’ 

Employment and Related Outcomes.”........................... 6

Schochet, Peter. “National Job Corps Study: 

Characteristics of Youths Served by Job Corps.” ........ 18

Schochet, Peter. “National Job Corps Study: 

Methodological Appendixes on Sample 

Implementation and Baseline Interviewing.”............... 23
Index

173

Trutko, John W., Burt S. Barnow, Susan K. Beck, 

Steve Min, and Kellie Isbell. “Employment and 

Training for America’s Homeless: Final Report on 

the Job Training for the Homeless Demonstration 

Project.” .....................................................................134

Trutko, John, and Burt Barnow. “An Evaluation of the 

Priority of Service Provision of the Jobs for 

Veterans Act by the Workforce Investment System 

in Providing Services to Veterans and Other 

Covered Persons, Final Report.”..................................52

Trutko, John, and Burt Barnow. “Implementing 

Efficiency Measures for Employment and Training 

Programs: Final Report.” ............................................57

Trutko, John, Carolyn O’Brien, Pamela Holcomb, and 

Demetra Smith Nightingale. “Implementation and 

Sustainability: Emerging Lessons from the Early 

High Growth Job Training Initiative (HGJTI) 

Grants.” ......................................................................108

Vroman, Wayne. “An Analysis of Unemployment 

Insurance Non-Filers: 2005 CPS Supplement 

Results.”.......................................................................70

Vroman, Wayne. “Interstate Competition in 

Unemployment Insurance and Workers’ 

Compensation.”............................................................69

Vroman, Wayne. “Low Benefit Recipiency in State 

Unemployment Insurance Programs.”......................... 71

Vroman, Wayne. “The Role of Unemployment 

Insurance as an Automatic Stabilizer during a 

Recession.”.................................................................. 62

Vroman, Wayne. “Unemployment Insurance, Welfare 

and Federal–State Fiscal Interrelations: Final 

Report.” ....................................................................... 84

Wright, David, and Lisa Montiel. “Workforce System 

One-Stop Services for Public Assistance and Other 

Low-Income Populations.”.......................................... 50

Zaveri, Heather Hesketh, Caterina Pisciotta, Linda 

Rosenberg, and Karen Needels. “The 

Implementation Evaluation of the Military Spouse 

Career Advancement Accounts Demonstration 

(2009).” ..................................................................... 167

Zhang, Ting. “Workforce Investment Act Training for 

Older Workers: Toward a Better Understanding of 

Older Worker Needs during the Economic 

Recovery.”................................................................... 37
www.mathematica-mpr.com

Improving public well-being by conducting high-quality, objective research and surveys

Princeton, NJ ■ Ann Arbor, MI ■ Cambridge, MA ■ Chicago, IL ■ Oakland, CA ■ Washington, DC

Mathematica® is a registered trademark of Mathematica Policy Research