FIFTY%YEARS%AFTER%THE%

EQUAL%PAY%ACT%

Assessing%the%Past,%Taking%Stock%of%the%Future

National%Equal%Pay%Task%Force

June%2013
2

Table&of&Contents

Table!of!Contents..........................................................................................................................................2

I.!!The!50th Anniversary!of!the!Equal!Pay!Act!of!1963...................................................................................4

A. Foreword...........................................................................................................................................4

B. Introduction:!The!Evolution!of!Women’s!Economic!Status!Between!1963!and!2013......................5

The!Equal!Pay!Act!and!the!Decades!of!Civil!Rights!Legal!Advances!That!Followed..............................5

Economic!and!Social!Progress,!But!a!Persistent!Pay!Gap!Remains ......................................................6

Occupational!Segregation!and!Other!Barriers!to!Equality!Remain.......................................................6

The!Pay!Gap!Narrows,!But!Not!Enough ................................................................................................7

The Way!Forward..................................................................................................................................7

C. Five!Decades!of!Equal!Pay!History ....................................................................................................8

1960W1980:!!A!Time!of!Social,!Political!and!Economic!Transformation!for!Women.............................8

An!Overview!of!the!Political!Climate!and!Legislative!Developments...............................................8

Increases!in!Women’s!Labor!Force!Participation!and!Educational!Attainment...............................9

Early!Enforcement!of!the!Equal!Pay!Act .........................................................................................13

1980W2000:!!Women!Advance!in!the!Emerging!Information!Age.......................................................13

An!Overview!of!the!Social,!Economic!and!Political!Climate............................................................13

Soaring!Educational!Gains!and! Labor!Force! Participation! Continue!Through! the!End! of! the! 20th

Century............................................................................................................................................14

Women’s! Labor! Force! Participation! Rates! Continue! to! Increase;! Married! Women! Maintain!

Participation!Rates!through!Prime!Child!Bearing!and!Child!Rearing!Years ....................................16

Contribution!of!Married!Women’s!Income!to!Family!Income!Grows............................................17

Wage!Gap!Narrows!Significantly!in!the!1980s,!but!Progress!Slows!During!the!1990s...................17

Enforcement!Actions.......................................................................................................................18

2000W2010:!!Progress!Stalls,!Enforcement!Efforts!Redoubled............................................................19

An!Overview!of!the!Economic!Climate ...........................................................................................19

Increased!Educational!Attainment!and!its!Effect!on!Earnings........................................................20

Changes!in!Labor!Force!Participation!Rates....................................................................................20

Contribution!of!Married!Women’s!Income!to!Family!Income........................................................21

Enforcement!Actions.......................................................................................................................22

II.!2010!and!Beyond:!!Working!to!Close!the!Gap........................................................................................23

A. 50!Years!Later!– Not!Equal,!Not!Yet................................................................................................23

B. Closing!the!Gap!– The!Way!Forward...............................................................................................29

C. Achievements!of!the!National!Equal!Pay!Task!Force......................................................................29
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D. 2011!– 2013:!!Establishing!the!Infrastructure!for!Improved!Equal!Pay!Enforcement....................30

E. 2013!and!Beyond:!!The!Way!Forward.............................................................................................34

Addressing!Occupational!Segregation ................................................................................................34

Addressing!the!Overlay!of!Discrimination!Based!on!Race,!Ethnicity!and!Gender!in!Compensation..35

Addressing!Discrimination!Against!Mothers!and!Caregivers..............................................................35

III.!Conclusion:!!Closing!the!Gap!– What’s!at!Stake.....................................................................................36
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I.&&The&50th Anniversary&of&the&Equal&Pay&Act&of&1963

A. Foreword

Fifty! years! ago,! President! John! F.! Kennedy! signed! landmark! legislation! to! guarantee! equal! pay! for!

women!and!men!performing!equal!work!for!the!same!employer.!!The!Equal!Pay!Act!of!1963!was!the!first!

in!a!series!of major!federal!and!state!laws!that!had!a!profound!effect!on!job!opportunities!and!earnings!

for!women!over! the! next!half! century,!and!laid the foundation! for! the!movement! of!women!into! the!

paid!labor!force at!unprecedented!levels.!!The!following!year,!another!groundbreaking!law!passed:!!the!

Civil! Rights! Act! of! 1964! prohibited discrimination! on! the! basis! of! sex, race,! color,! national! origin,! and!

religion.! ! Further! cementing! workplace! protections! between! 1965! and! 1967, President! Lyndon! B.!

Johnson! issued! a! series! of! Executive! Orders designed! to! ensure! nonWdiscrimination! among Federal!

contractors.! ! These! critical! legal! advances!bolstered five! decades! of!economic!and! social! progress! for!

women!– but!much!more!remains!to!be!done.

Since! passage! of! the! Equal! Pay! Act, several! generations! of! women! have! transformed! our! workplaces!

and,!in! turn,! our!economy.!!Women! have!integrated!many! previously!exclusively!male!job! fields,!and!

have! achieved! success! at! the! highest! levels! of! many! fields.! ! Women! have! achieved! higher! levels! of!

education! than! ever! before,! and! now! serve! at! the! highest! levels! of! government,! the! judiciary,! in!

Congress,! and! in! private! industry.! ! They! have! become! important! sources! of! job! creation,!

entrepreneurship,!and!innovation.

This!progress!notwithstanding,!in 2011, the!average!woman!still!earned!only!77!cents! for!every!dollar!

earned!by!men.1

!!Moreover,!women!continue!to!comprise!a!majority!of!employees!in!many!lowWwage!

sectors. For! example,! in! 2012,! fiftyWtwo! percent! of! all! women! in! the! fullWtime! labor! force!worked! in!

service,!sales!and!office!occupations,!such!as!secretaries,!cashiers,!retail!sales!persons,!maids,!child!care!

workers! and! customer! service! representatives,! and! comprised an! overwhelming! majority! of! the!

workers2 in!each!of!those!sectors.!!

These!sobering!statistics!matter.!!Women!comprise!nearly!half!of our!workforce,!and!many!women!are!

the!primary!breadwinners!for!their!families.!!Their!level!of!earnings!drive!essential!economic!decisions!–

including! decisions! about!quality! of! housing,! access! to!medical! treatment,!educational! attainment! for!

children,!child!care,!clothing,!and!food!and!other!essentials.!!And!of!course,!these!earnings!have!a!longW

term!effect!on!a!woman’s!ability!to!save!and!prepare!for!retirement.!!When!women!are!shortWchanged,!

their! personal! financial! stability! suffers, and! their! families! suffer.! ! But! that! is! not! all:! !women’s! lower!

earnings! impact! all! levels! and! sectors! of! the!economy,! as! well! as local! communities,!since lower! pay!

means!fewer!dollars!are!spent!within!neighborhood!businesses or!invested!in!new!ventures.! For!these!

reasons,!equal!pay!is!important! for!our!nation,!the!broader!economic!security!of!our! families,!and!the!

growth!of!the!middle!class!in!our!economy.!

Fifty! years! ago,! Congress! and! the! President!recognized that! the! Equal! Pay! Act! was! the! first! step! to!

address!overt!sexWbased!compensation!discrimination!in!employment!that!impeded women’s!ability!to!

achieve!workplace equality.!!The!United!States! has!made! significant! progress!in!widening! the! path! to!

greater!opportunities! for!women,!but!our!work!is!not!yet!complete.!!With!this!report,!we!reaffirm!our!

steadfast!commitment!to!America!and!our!national!imperative!of!workplace!equality!for!all.!!
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The$Task$Force$thanks$the$Council$of$Economic$Advisors$for$their$contributions$to$Part$II$of$this$report.

B. Introduction:&The&Evolution&of&Women’s&Economic&Status&Between&1963&

and&2013&

The Equal!Pay!Act!established a!basic!labor!standard! requiring!employers!to!pay!women!and!men! the!

same!wages! when! performing! jobs! that! are!equal, or! substantially!equal, in! content.! !It! was! the! first!

national! labor! standard! to! address! a! widespread! practice! of! paying! women! less! simply! because! they!

were!women,!and!it!laid!the foundation!for!future!workforce!policies.!!Other!important!legislation!and!

policies!soon!followed,!which helped!broaden!employment!opportunities!for!women!and!strengthened!

their!ability!to!challenge!unlawful!discrimination.

Fifty! years! after! passage! of! the Act, major! shifts! in! the! socioWeconomic! status! of! women! have!

transformed!our!nation’s!workplaces,!communities, and! families.!!This! report!explores! the!increase!of!

women!in! the!paid!labor! force! since!passage!of! the!Equal!Pay!Act,!and! the!passage!of!laws! that!have!

expanded!civil!rights!protections!for!women!experiencing!unlawful!pay!discrimination.!!The first!part!of!

this!report contains!an!assessment!of workforce!trends!in!three!timeframes: 1960W1980;!1980W2000;!and!

the!early!years!of!the!21st Century,!from!2000W2010.!!!Using data!on!labor!force!participation,!earnings,!

occupations,! educational! attainment! and! entrepreneurship,! and! available! data! examining the!

differences!among!women!by!race/ethnicity!and!age,!this!report!describes!the!progress!of!women!in!the!

paid! labor! force! since! the! passage! of! the! Equal! Pay! Act.! ! It! also! compares! women’s! status! in! the!

workforce! to!that! of!men! and! analyzes! the! evolution! of! women’s! and! men’s! roles! in! the! workplace,!

community, and!family.

After!reviewing!five!decades!of!data,!the!report!addresses!the!status!of!equal!pay!for!women!today,!the!

pay!gap!and!other!persistent!challenges that!remain!in!light!of!the fact!that!continued!momentum!has!

stalled! in! recent! years.! ! In! the final! section entitled,! “2010! and! Beyond,” the! report! reflects! on! the!

efforts!of!President!Barack!Obama’s Administration! to!eliminate! the!pay!gap!and!on!the! federal!equal!

pay!agenda!moving!forward.!!!

The&Equal&Pay&Act&and&the&Decades&of&Civil&Rights Legal&Advances&That&Followed

One! year! after! passing the! Equal! Pay! Act,! Congress! enacted! the! Civil! Rights! Act of! 1964,! a!sweeping

federal! ban!on! discrimination.!!Title!VII! of! the!Act! banned!employment! discrimination!on! the! basis!of!

race,!color,!religion,!national!origin,!and sex.!!One!year!later,!Executive!Order!11246!prohibited federal!

government!contractors!from discriminating in!employment!and!required!them!to!engage!in affirmative!

action!to!ensure!equal!opportunity!based!on!race,!color,!religion,!and!national!origin.!!Noticeably!absent!

was!any! prohibition! based! on! sex.!!In!1967,!Executive!Order!11246!was!amended! by!Executive!Order!

11375, which prohibited discrimination!on!the!basis!of!sex!in!hiring!and!employment!within!the!federal!

government.!!Additionally, Title!IX!of!the!Education!Amendments!of!1972!opened!the!doors!for!women!

to! pursue! education! free! from! discrimination! in! those! educational! institutions! that! received federal!

financial! assistance.! ! The! Pregnancy! Discrimination! Act! of! 1978! strengthened! employment

discrimination protections for!women!who!were!pregnant, gave!birth,!or!had!related!medical!conditions.!!

And!in! the!1990s,!the!Civil!Rights!Act!of!1991!and! the!Family!and!Medical!Leave!Act!of!1993!provided!

further! protections! for! American! workers,! including! broadening workplace leave rights for! men! and!
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women! and! beginning! to! address! critical! barriers! to! full! economic! equality! that! stem! from! medical!

conditions!and!care!giving!responsibilities.!

Economic&and&Social&Progress,&But&a&Persistent&Pay&Gap&Remains

Women!have!made significant!progress!since!the!passage!of!the!Equal!Pay!Act.!!!Women’s!labor! force!

participation!rate!in!2012!was!57.7!percent,!over!fifty!percent!higher!than!it!was!in!the!early!1960s.3

!!In!

1960,!roughly 15! percent! of! managers! were! women;! by! 2009,! almost! 40 percent of!managers! were!

women.4

!!The!ratio!of!women’s!to!men’s!annual earnings!has!narrowed!from!59!cents!for!every!dollar!

paid!to!men!in!1963,!to!77!cents!in!2011.5

!!The!educational!progress!of!women,!who!now!outnumber

men!in!their!attainment!of!Bachelor’s Degrees,!Master’s!Degrees!and!Doctoral!Degrees,6 has!driven!the!

gains!in!earning!power.!!Yet!today, 50!years!after!the!Equal!Pay!Act!became!law,!a!pay!gap!still!exists,!

and!studies! have! demonstrated! that! a! significant! portion! of! the! wage gap! cannot! be! fully! explained!

when!controlling!for factors!such!as!labor!market!experience!and!job!characteristics.

The!movement!of!women!into!the!entrepreneurial!ranks!has!offered!women!new earning!opportunities.!!!

According! to! the! Economic! Census,! in! 1972,! 486,009! firms! were! owned! by! women, but! by! 1982,! the!

number! had! exploded! to! 2,612,621! firms.! ! In! 1982,! receipts! of! womenWowned! firms! reached!

$101,856,490,!and! they!employed!1,254,588!employees!and!had!payroll!costs!of!$11,561,025.

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!!More!

recently,! the! 2007! Census! Survey! of! Business! Owners! reported! that! women’s! business! ownership!

accounted! for!over!a!quarter!of!all!businesses!nationwide!and!generated!over!$1.2! trillion!in!business!

receipts.8

! ! That! same! year,! the! number of! employees! working! in! womenWowned firms! reached 7.6!

million,! with! nearly! half! (45.9! percent)! of! all! womenWowned! businesses! operating! in! repair! and!

maintenance! industries;! personal! and! laundry! services;! health! care! and! social! assistance;! and!

professional,!scientific!and!technical!services.9

Occupational&Segregation&and&Other&Barriers&to&Equality&Remain

Although! working! women! have! made progress! in! many areas,! the! workforce! continues! to! be!

characterized by!occupational!segregation!of!women!and!men!into!different!types!of!jobs.!!In!Part!II,!this

report!discusses!the!potential!impact!of!occupational!segregation!on!the!pay!gap!and!some!of!the!ways!

federal!agencies!intend!to!tackle!that!problem!going!forward.

In! 1960,! nearly! twoWthirds! of! working! women! were! employed! in! clerical,! service! or! sales! positions.!!

Thirteen! percent! of! women! held! professional! jobs,! but!even! these posts were!likely! to! be! traditional!

women’s!jobs!such!as!nursing!or!teaching!positions.10!!Indeed,!even!the!classified!section!in!newspapers!!

listed!jobs! separately! for!men!and! for!women,!a!practice! that!would!persist!into! the!next!decade.!!As!

women’s!educational!attainment!increased! during! the! 1980s!and!beyond,!so! did!women’s!movement!

into! higherWpaying! professional! and! management! jobs,! where! women! now! compose 51.5! percent! of!

employed! workers.

11 However,! even! today,! women still are much! more! likely! to! enter occupations!

where! the! majority! of! workers! are! female,! including! the! healthcare,! education! and! human! services!

fields. In!addition, over!half of!all!women!continue! to!be!employed!in!lowerWpaying! sales,! service!and!

administrative! support! positions.!!Despite! substantial!gains!in! the!management! fields,!women! still!lag!

behind!in!other!nonWtraditional!fields!such!as!transportation,!construction,!and!the science,!technology,!

engineering!and!mathematics!(STEM)!fields.12
7

In!addition! to!gender!differences!in!occupations,!there!are!differences based!on! race!and!ethnicity,!as!

well!as!differences!for!women!who!are!mothers.!!For!example,!White!and!Asian!women!are!more!likely!

to! work! in! higherWpaying!management,! professional! and! related! occupations! than! Black! and! Hispanic!

women,!who!are!more!likely!to!work!in lowerWpaying!service!occupations!and!significantly!more!likely!to!

be!among!the!working!poor.13!!And!mothers!of!children!under!18!years!of!age!in!2011!had!lower!median!

weekly!earnings!compared!to!other!women.14

The&Pay&Gap&Narrows,&But&Not&Enough

Over the! last! 50!years,! the! wage! gap between! women! and!men! has! closed! by! 17! percentage! points.!!

Women!earned!on!average!59.8!percent!of!men’s!pay!in!1963,!and!today,!the!wage!ratio!is!77!percent.15!!

The!narrowing!of!the!wage!gap!reflects!in!part larger!economic!changes!affecting!men!and!families.!!For!

instance,! a! change! in! the! wage! gap! results! not! only! from! a! raise! in! women’s! real! earnings! (those!

adjusted! for!inflation),!but!also! from!a drop!in real!earnings! for!men!since!the!midW1970s.16 Women’s!

real!earnings!have!increased!by!about!71!percent!from!$21,646!in!1960!to!$37,118!in!2011,!while!men’s!

earnings! have!increased!at!a! significantly!lower! rate,! 35! percent,! from! $35,675!in! 1960! to! $48,202!in!

2011.17 Major! shifts! in! our! economy! over! the! last! fifty! years,! particularly! in! the! move! from! a!

manufacturing!base!to!services,!information!and!communications!technologies,!have!changed!the!skills!

and!education!workers!need!to!compete!successfully!in!a!global!market.18!!These!changes!have!not!been!

easy! for! some! workers! to! navigate as! new! skills! and! education! requirements! have! become! more!

important.!!These!economic!shifts!have!contributed!to!the! transformed! role!of!women!in!our!nation’s!

families.19!!Today,!the!wages!of!women,!both!as!single!parents!and!as!coWbreadwinners,!are!critical! to!

the!overall!economic!health!and!stability!of!a!majority of!the!nation’s!families.20

Even!as!women!made!inroads!into!nonWtraditional!higherWpaying!occupations,!pay!for!women compared!

to!men across!most!occupational!categories!reflects a!wage!gap,!regardless!of!the!gender!composition!

of! detailed! occupations.! !The! higherWpaying!supervisory! and!management!positions manifest many! of!

the! largest! pay! differences.

21! ! This! persistent! wage! gap,! even! among! higherWpaying! professions,! is! a!

longstanding!problem.!!In 1983,!twenty!years!after!the!law!began!to!require!equal!pay!for!equal!work,!

female!managers!and!administrators!earned!just!64!percent!of!the!pay!of!male!workers!in!these!jobs.22!!

In! addition,! women! – particularly! Black! women,! who! traditionally! have! had! higher! labor! force!

participation!rates!and!more!experience!in!the!labor!market!than women of!other!race/ethnic!groups!–!!

experienced difficulty! advancing into! leadership! positions.23! ! This! persistent! barrier! to! career!

advancement!into!the!top!tiers!of!management!drew!the!attention!of!the!public!and!is!known!popularly

as!“the!Glass!Ceiling.”!!Highly!educated!and!skilled!women!of!all!races!and!ethnicities!began!reporting!

resistance! and! outright! discrimination! that! prevented! them! from! moving! into! the higher ranks! of

management.!!In!2011,!some!of the!greatest!differences in!the!median!weekly!earnings!of!women!and!

men!occurred in!the category!of management occupations.24

The&Way&Forward

The 50Wyear!economic,! social!and!political!history!described!in! the!next! section of! this! report! sets! the!

stage! for! the!choices!and!challenges!we! face! today.!!While! the!law! recognizes!the!basic! right! to!equal!

pay!for!substantially!equal!work!and!freedom!from!wage!discrimination,!women’s!earnings!still!fall!short!

of! men’s.! ! Although! a! generation! of! political! organizing! and! cultural! change! has! eliminated! many!

barriers,! women! still! face! challenges! entering! the! most! highlyWpaid! occupations.! ! And! although! our!
8

country’s! prosperity! depends! on! women! at! every! level! – from! the! family! budget! to! the! national!

economy!– we!still!cannot!say!we!fully!and!fairly!value!their!contributions.!!With!that!reality!in!mind,!in!

the!final!section!of!this!report,!we!turn!to!the!policy,!enforcement,!education!and!outreach!work!federal!

agencies!are!implementing!– and the!plan!going!forward!– to!ensure!that!equal!pay!becomes!a!reality.!!

We!ask!Congress!to!do!its!part!by!passing!the!Paycheck!Fairness!Act,!and!we!identify!the!major!steps!we!

must!take!to!close!the!pay!gap!once!and!for!all.!!A!half!century!after!President!Kennedy!made!a!national!

commitment! to! the! cause! of! equal! pay,! our! work! remains! unfinished.! ! Today,! we! renew! our!

commitment!to!the!principle!of!equality!for!all!of!America’s!workers.!

C. Five&Decades of&Equal&Pay&History

1960T1980:&&A&Time&of&Social,&Political and&Economic&Transformation&for&Women

An!Overview!of!the!Political!Climate!and!Legislative!Developments

On! June! 10,! 1963,!President! Kennedy!gathered!a!group! of!influential!women!in! the!Oval!Office!as! he!

signed! the! historic! Equal! Pay! Act! into! law.! ! Attending! the! ceremony!were!women! and!men!who! had!

championed! the!legislation!and!made! the!case! for!its!urgency.

25 In! signing! the!bill,!President!Kennedy!

stated:

The!lower! the! family!income,! the!higher! the!probability! that! the!mother!must!work.! Today,!1!

out!of 5!of!these!working!mothers!has!children!under!3.! Two!out!of!5!have!children!of!school!

age.!!Among!the!remainder,!about!50!percent!have!husbands!who!earn!less!than!$5,000!a!year –

– many!of!them!much!less.! I!believe!they!bear!the!heaviest!burden!of!any!group!in!our!Nation.!!

Where! the!mother! is! the! sole! support! of! the! family,! she! often! must! face! the! hard! choice! of!

either! accepting! public! assistance! or! taking! a! position! at! a! pay! rate! which! averages! less! than!

twoWthirds!of!the!pay!rate!for!men.26!!

While!just over!a! third!of!all!women!were!in! the!labor! force!in!1963,

27 the!issue!of!pay!discrimination!

was!critically!important!to!those!working!women!and!their!families.

President!Kennedy!and!advocates!for!the!Equal!Pay!Act!understood!that!the!workforce!was!segregated

greatly by!gender and! race.!!They!also!understood! that, because! the!Act focuses on!women!and!men!

working!in!the!same!occupations for!the!same!employer,!its reach!would!have!limited!benefits! for!the!

majority!of!women who!did!not!work!in!jobs!substantially!the!same!as!men’s!jobs.!!However,!they!saw!

the!Act!as!an!important!first!step.28

Despite! its! limitations,! passage! of! the! Equal! Pay! Act! firmly! supported! women’s! economic! rights and!

improved!earnings.! ! At! the! signing,! President! Kennedy!explained! that! additional! proposals! to! address!

the!economic!status!of!women!were!needed,!and!he!fully!expected!his!new!Commission!on!the!Status!of!

Women,!led!by!Eleanor!Roosevelt!and!Assistant!Labor!Secretary!Esther!Peterson, to!outline!additional!

measures!to!boost!the!economic!status!of!working!women.!

In!October!1963,!the!Commission!released!American$Women:$Report$of$the$President’s$Commission$on$

the$Status$of$Women.!!The!report acknowledged the!important,!traditional!roles!of!wife!and!mother. It!

also extensively! documented! the! employment! challenges! women! frequently! faced! when! seeking!

employment!and!after!becoming!employed.!!These!challenges!included!discriminatory!practices!that!still!
9

resonate! for!women! today!– being!denied!employment!and/or promotion,!receiving!unfair wages!and!

fewer!benefits,!experiencing!sexual!harassment!and!workplace!hostility,!or!facing!discrimination!on!the!

basis!of being pregnant.

29!!These!employment!attitudes!and!actions!impeded!women’s!ability!to!obtain!

employment!and!advance!in!the!workplace.!!

On!the!heels!of!the!Commission’s!report,!Congress!passed!and!President!Johnson!signed!the!Civil!Rights!

Act!of!1964.!!In!Title!VII, the!new!law!specifically!addressed!employment!discrimination!on!the!basis!of!

race,! color,! religion,! national! origin,! or! sex.! ! Sex! was! not! originally! among! the! prohibited! bases! of!

discrimination!in!the!draft!bill,!but!was!inserted!as!an!amendment!during!debate.!!When!it!passed!with!

sex!included,!women!gained!a!powerful!new!legal!tool!to!fight!workplace!discrimination.30

An! important! factor! in! the! tremendous! changes! in! women’s! labor! force! participation,! educational!

advancement,!increased!earnings!and!the!role!of!mothers!in!the!workforce!over!the!last!fifty!years!was!

the!second!wave!of!the!U.S.!women’s!movement.!!A!growing!political!movement!of!women,!including

the!leaders!of!traditional!women’s!organizations,!as!well!as!new!advocates!who!had!been!active!in!the!

civil! rights! movement,! began! visibly! organizing. They recognized! the! need! for! a! parallel! political!

movement! to! challenge! sexWbased! discrimination! in! a! broad! range! of! areas,! including! employment,!

housing,!health!care,!access!to!credit,!education, and!child!care.31

As!increasing!numbers!of!women!became!politically!active!and states!formed!their!own!commissions!on!

the!status!of women, the!call!for!more!serious!attention!to!discrimination!against!women!grew!louder.32

In! 1970,! the Department! of! Labor! issued! sex! discrimination! guidelines! interpreting! Executive! Order!

11246! (prohibiting! federal!government!contractors! from!discriminating!in!employment!on! the!basis!of!

race,!color,!religion,!national!origin!and,!because!of!the!later!amendment,!sex)!and!addressed!some!of!

the!more!overt!practices!of!discrimination!and!occupational!segregation,!such!as!advertising!positions!as!

“male!help!wanted”!or!“female!help!wanted.”33

Equal! pay! rights!expanded!in! 1972,!with!a! series! of!key!amendments! to!existing!laws.!!Title!IX of! the!

Education! Amendments! of! 1972,! signed! by! President! Richard! M.! Nixon,! prohibited! discrimination! at!

educational!institutions receiving!federal!funding.!!The!prohibited!discrimination!included!discrimination

in!rates!of!pay!or!any!other!form!of!compensation,!and!changes!in!compensation.

34!!The!1972!Education!

Amendments! also! expanded! the! Equal! Pay! Act! to! cover! executive,! administrative,! professional! and!

outside!sales!employees.35!!In!addition,!in!1972,!Congress!strengthened!Title!VII!by broadening!its!reach!

to! public! employers,! educational! institutions, and! more! private! employers. As! a! result! of! these!

legislative! changes,! more! women! would! have! legal! recourse! for! sexWbased! wage! discrimination! and!

other!civil!rights!violations.

As! the! 1970s! drew! to! a! close,! another! significant! piece! of! legislation! for! women! –– the! Pregnancy!

Discrimination!Act!–– was!signed!into!law!by!President!Jimmy Carter.!!This!law!amended!Title!VII!of!the!

Civil!Rights!Act!to!prohibit!discrimination!against!pregnant!workers,!and to!require!that!employers!treat!

workers! with! pregnancyWrelated! limitations! the! same! way! they! treat! other! employees! similar! in! their!

ability!or!inability!to!work.

36

Increases!in!Women’s!Labor!Force!Participation!and!Educational!Attainment

Against!the!backdrop!of!these laws!that!helped!provide!new employment!and!educational!opportunities

for! women, and! a! growing! socioWpolitical! movement,! women! began! to! enter! the! paid! labor! force! in!
10

greater! numbers! and! to! seek! higher! levels! of! educational! attainment.! ! Women’s! labor! force!

participation!rate!rose!from!37.7!percent!in!1960!to!43.3!percent!in!1970,!and!to!51.5!percent!by!1980.

37!!

The!expansion!of!the!overall! female!labor! force!largely!reflected!the!influx!of!working!mothers,!whose!

labor!force!participation!rates!nearly!doubled!–– from!27.6!percent!in!1960!to!54.1!percent!by!1980.

38

Another! noteworthy! trend! during! this! time! was! that, as! the! 1960s! began,! women’s! labor! force!

participation!rates!varied!greatly!by race/ethnicity!and marital!and!parental!status.!!White!women!had!a!

lower labor! force participation!rate!than! nonWWhite!women, but more!specific! data! by! race/ethnicity

was!not!collected!during!this!time.

39 Labor!force!statistics!for!Hispanic!women!were!not!collected!by!the!

Bureau! of! Labor! Statistics! until! 1973;! and,! even! then,!the labor! force! participation! rate! for! Hispanic!

women,!hovering!at!41!percent, was below!that!of Black!and!White!women’s!participation!rates, which!

were! 49.8! and! 44.1! percent,! respectively.! ! By! 1980,!the labor! force! participation! rates! of! Black! and!

White!women!were!closer, at!53.1!and!51.2!percent! respectively,!while!Hispanic!women’s!labor! force!

participation!rate!had!climbed!to!47.4!percent.!!Data!for!Asian!women!was not!collected!until!1990.40

For!women!with!children,!marital!status!also!was!a!significant!factor!in!labor!force!participation.!!When!

data on!mothers!by!marital! status first!was!collected!in!1968,! female! single!parents!had!a!labor! force!

participation!rate!of!61!percent,!compared!to!37!percent!for!married!mothers.!!By!1980,!female!single!

parent! participation! rates! had! climbed! to! 68! percent! while! married! mothers! had! increased! their!

participation!rates!to!56!percent.

41

Prior! to!1980,! the!graphic! representation! of!women’s!labor! force! participation! rate! by!age! resembled!

the!letter!“M,”!with!a!dip!in!women’s!participation!during!the!prime!child!bearing!and!rearing!years!of!

ages! 24W44.! ! In! contrast,! men’s! graphic! representation! of! labor! force! participation! rates! by! age!

resembled an!arc, and!their!participation!reached its peak!at ages!25W44.!!By!1980,!the!trend!in!greater!

labor! force! participation! rates! for! women!with! children!erased! this! graphical! difference!– so! that! the!

peak!year!of!participation!for!women!at!ages 20W24!was!followed!by a!slight!decline!by!ages 25W34!and!

35W54.
11

Source:!Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!Current!Population!Survey.!“Civilian!labor!force!participation!rates!by!age!and!

sex,!annual!averages!1948W2012.”!(Unpublished!table).

In!addition!to!women’s increased!presence!in!the!labor!force,!the!1960sW1980s!witnessed!a!surge!in!the!

percentage of!women!obtaining!Bachelor’s,!first!professional!and!Master’s!Degrees.!!In!1960,!only!35.3!

percent! of! all! Bachelor’s Degrees! were! awarded! to! women,! but! by! 1980,! this! figure! had! reached! 49!
12

percent.! !More! dramatically,! the!proportion of!first!professional!degrees awarded! to!women! climbed!

from!3.6!percent!in!1965!to!24.8!percent!by!1980.!!Master’s!Degrees awarded!to!women!climbed!from!

31.6!percent!in!1960!to!49.2 by!1980.42!!The!increase!in!women’s!educational!attainment!from!1960!to!

1980!is!one!factor!that!contributed!to!a!rise!in!earnings!for!women!during!the!period.!!In!contrast,!real!

earnings!for!men!increased!greatly!from!1960!and!reached!a!peak!in!1973,!when!they!slowly!began!to!

fall!through!1980.!!

By!1980,!thanks!to!advances in!women’s!educational!attainment, the!number!of!women!in!STEM!fields

began! to! increase! – even! though! women! still! comprised! 25! percent! or! less! of! the! total! employed! in!

STEM! occupations.! ! By! 1980,! the! most! common nonWtraditional! occupations! for! women! included!

engineering!and!science!technicians,!computer!specialists,!physicians,!dentists!and!related!practitioners,!

as! well! as! transport! equipment! operators,! protective! service! and! other! positions! on! farms,! handling!

stock!or!sales, or!working!as!janitors.

43

Occupations 1960 1980

Farmers,!managers,!&!tenant!farmers 1 5

Farm!laborers,!wage!workers 2 6

Accountants!&!auditors 3

Janitors!&!sextons 4 2

Buyers!and!department!heads,!stores 5

Stock!clerks!&!storekeepers 6

Salesmen!&!sales!clerks,!manufacturing 7

Real!estate!agents!&!brokers 8

Managers,!food!&!dairy!stores 9

Postal!clerks 10

Nonfarm!laborers!WW!stock!handlers 3

Transport!equipment!operatives 1

Engineering!&!science!technicians 4

Computer!specialists 8

Protective!service 7

Physicians,!dentists,!&!related!practitioners 9

Sales!workers,!except!clerks,!retail!trade 10

Sources:44Herman,4A.4M.,4&4Castro,4I.4L.4(1998).4“Equal4Pay:4A4ThirtyIFive4Year4

Perspective”.4Washington:4U.S.4Department4of4Labor.4Page4194I4Table42.

Top4Ten4Nontraditional4Occupations4for4Women4in4Rank4Order4by4Number4of4

Women,419604and41980

The! change! in! the! wage! gap! during! this! time period reflects! the! broader! changes! in! women’s! labor!

participation!and!educational!attainment.! In!1960, the!women’s!to!men’s!earnings!ratio!stood!at!60.7!

percent, and! it!widened over! time! as!men’s! real!earnings! climbed! faster! and!more! dramatically! than!

women’s, reaching its!widest!point – 56.6!percent – in!1973.!!But!by!1980,!the!earnings!ratio was!nearly!

back!to!where!it!was!in!1960!– 60.2!percent.

44
13

Early!Enforcement!of!the!Equal!Pay!Act

During!the!1960s!and!1970s,!the!Wage!and!Hour!Division!of!the!Department!of!Labor!enforced!the!Equal!

Pay!Act.!!By!1965,!the!Department!already!had!recovered!a!total!of!$156,202!under!the!Equal!Pay!Act!on!

behalf! of! 960!employees.!!Only!a!year!later,!the! number!of!workers! found! to! be! underpaid! had! risen!

dramatically! to! 6,633!– due! a! total! of! $2,097,600 under! the! Equal!Pay!Act.! !By! 1969,! the! number! of!

workers!found!to be!underpaid!under!the!Act nearly!tripled!to!16,100!workers!due!$4,585,344.

45 By!the!

end!of!1978,!the!Department!of!Labor had!recovered!$162,063,460!for!over!269,601!workers.

During! this!twentyWyear!period!– thanks! to!cases! filed!by!government!agencies!and!private!plaintiffs –

federal!courts!established!some!key!interpretations!of!the!Equal!Pay!Act.!!In!1969,!Associate!Solicitor!of!

Labor! Bessie! Margolin! argued! the! first! appeal! of! an! Equal! Pay! Act case,! Schultz v.! Wheaton$ Glass$

Company, and!successfully!convinced! the!United!States Court!of!Appeals! for! the!Third!Circuit! that! the!

Equal!Pay!Act only!required!jobs!to!be!“substantially!equal,”!not!identical.46 The!case!involved! female!

“selectorWpackers”!who!were!paid!less!than!male!“selectorWpackerWstackers.”!!!!In!1974,!in!Corning$Glass$

v.$ Brennan, the! Supreme! Court! held! that! a! wage! differential! arising! “simply! because!men! would! not!

work!at!the!low!rates!paid!women”!was!illegal!under!the!Equal!Pay!Act.47!!In!1979,!enforcement!of!the!

Equal!Pay!Act!was! transferred from! the!Department!of!Labor and! the!Civil!Service!Commission! to! the!

U.S.!Equal!Employment!Opportunity!Commission!(EEOC).48

1980T2000:&&Women&Advance&in&the&Emerging&Information&Age

An!Overview!of!the!Social,!Economic!and!Political!Climate

The! last! two! decades! of! the! 20th Century! were marked! by significant! growth! in! the! educational!

attainment!of!women,!a!narrowing!of! the!wage!gap!between!women!and!men,!and!resistance! to the!

occupational! segregation! and! workplace! barriers! that! limited! advancement! opportunities! for! working!

women.!!In!1980,!the!wage!ratio!between!women!and!men!stood!at!60.2!percent.!!Over!the!next!two!

decades,! the! wage! gap! narrowed! noticeably! – reaching! 71.6! percent! by! 1990,! and! 73.7! percent! by!

2000.49

The! 1980s! began!with! a! focused! strategy! among! the! leaders! in!women’s! organizations! and! unions! to!

raise! women’s! pay! and!to! clarify! the! differences! between! the! Equal! Pay! Act! and! Title! VII! of! the! Civil!

Rights! Act’s! prohibition! against! sexWbased!wage! discrimination.! !In!1981,! the! Supreme! Court! ruled, in!

County$of$Washington$v.$Gunther,

50 that!Title!VII!was!not!limited!by!the!equal!work!standard! found!in!

the!Equal!Pay!Act.!!Strengthened!by this!decision,!many! state!and!local!coalitions!of!unions,!women’s!

and!civil!rights!organizations!worked!together!to!challenge!the!lower!pay!given!to women!who!worked!

in!traditionally!femaleWdominated!occupations!where!few!men!were!employed.

Over! 20! states,! a! number! of! local! governments! and! some! private! sector! firms! began! conducting! job!

evaluation! studies, and! some! made! wage! adjustments! to! ensure! that! men! and! women! working! in!

different! types!of!occupations, but!with! similar!job!evaluation! scores, were! paid! comparable!wages.51

Much of!this!action!was!achieved!through!union!negotiation!and!state!or!local!legislation.

In! addition! to! pay! issues,! working! women! frequently! encountered! outright! sexual! harassment! and!

hostile!workplaces.!!In!1980,!the!EEOC!issued!guidelines!on!sexual!harassment,!and!the!Supreme!Court!

ultimately! agreed! in! 1986! that! Title! VII’s! ban! on! sex! discrimination! in! employment! includes! sexual!
14

harassment.52 In! 1991,! Congress! created!the! Glass! Ceiling! Commission! to! explore! the! challenges! to!

women!and!people!of!color!advancing!in!the!labor!force.!!In!March!1995, the!Commission!issued!Good$

for$ Business:$$Making$Full$Use$ of$ the$Nation’s$Human$ Capital, a! report! documenting! that!women!and!

minorities! faced! serious! barriers! to! advancement! to! management! and! executive! level! positions.!!

Further,! where there! were! women! and! minorities! in!more! senior! positions,! their! compensation! was!

lower!than!that!of!White!males.53!!

In!the!1990s,!new!federal!laws!ensured!continued!civil!rights!progress.!!Congress!passed!and!President!

George!H.W.!Bush!signed!amendments!to!protect!and!expand!Title!VII!following!several!Supreme!Court!

decisions!limiting!its!application.!!The!Civil!Rights!Act!of!1991!allowed!Title!VII!plaintiffs,!including!those!

suing!for!intentional!pay!discrimination,!to!recover!both!compensatory!and!punitive!damages!subject!to!

caps.

An!additional!barrier!to!the!advancement!of!women!in!the!workplace!was!lifted!in!1993!when!President!

William!J.!Clinton!signed!the!Family!and!Medical!Leave!Act.!!This!law provides eligible!employees!with up!

to 12!weeks!of!jobWprotected, unpaid!leave for!their!own! serious!illness,! that!of! their! spouse,!child!or!

parent,! and!following! the! birth! or! adoption!of! a! child.! ! Employees! are! eligible! for! leave! if! they! have!

worked! for!their!employer!at!least!12!months,!at!least!1,250!hours!over! the!past!12!months,!and!at!a!

location!where!the!company!employs!50!or!more!employees!within!75!miles.54

Soaring!Educational!Gains!and!Labor!Force!Participation!Continue!Through!the!End!of!the!20th

Century

Women! who! were! born! in! the! wake! of! the! Equal! Pay! Act,! Title! VII! and! Title! IX! of! the! Education!

Amendments!Act came!of!age!with!a!wide!array!of!new!educational!and!workforce!opportunities.!!These!

young! women! achieved higher! levels! of! education,! while! older! women! headed! back! to! school,! thus!

changing!the!maleWtoWfemale!ratio!at!colleges!across!the!United!States.!!By!1981,!women!were!earning!

half! of! all! Bachelor’s! and!Master’s!Degrees! and! over! that decade! gradually! took! the! lead,!earning! 53!

percent! of! all! those! degrees! in! 1990.! ! This! upward!movement! extended! into! the! 1990s! with! women!

earning! 57! percent! of! all! Bachelor’s Degrees! and! 58! percent! of! all!Master’s!Degrees! in! 2000.

55 With!

regard!to first!professional!degrees,!women!earned!25!percent!of!such!degrees!in!1980,!38!percent!in!

1990, and!45!percent!by!2000.!!Among! those!seeking!Doctoral Degrees,!women!earned!30!percent!of!

such!degrees!in!1980,!36!percent!in!1990, and!44!percent!by!2000.

56
15

Source:! Data! from! the! National! Center! for! Education! Statistics,! (2010)! “Degrees! Conferred! by! degreeWgranting!

institutions,!by!level!of!degree!and!sex!of!student:!Selected!years,!1869W70!through!2019W20.”

Women!who!increased!their educational!attainment saw!substantial!gains!in!income but!did!not!match!

the!earnings!of!men!with!comparable!education!levels.!!By!1985,!women!with!a!Bachelor’s!Degree!or!

higher!witnessed their!median!weekly!earnings!match!those of!men!holding!just!a!high!school!diploma!

or!equivalent.!!In!1992,!these!women’s wages!continued!to!climb!until!they!bypassed!the!wages!of!men!
16

having! received some! college! education! or! holding! an! associate’s! degree.! ! These! increases! in! wages!

continued through! the! remainder!of! the!1990s,!but!the!wages!of!women!with!a!Bachelor’s!Degree!or!

higher! remained lower! than!those! of!men! with! similar! levels! of! education.! ! Men! with! four! years! of!

college! or!more! also! saw! real!wage! increases! during! this! timeframe,! so, in! 2000,! their!earnings! were!

approximately!35!percent!higher!than!that of!women!with!the!same!level!of!education.

57

The!increased!educational!attainment!of!women!contributed!greatly!to!their!overall!increased!earnings

from! 1980! to! 2000!– with! women’s! usual!median! weekly!earnings! growing! by! 23.4! percent! over! this!

time period.58!!However,!most!of!the!gains!in!earning!power!were!reserved!for!women!with!a!Bachelor’s!

Degree!or!higher.!!The!pay!for!these!women!increased by!approximately!31!percent from!1980!to!2000.!!

In!comparison,!women!with!less!education!saw!much!smaller!or!even!no!changes!in!earnings.!!Pay! for!

women!with! some!college! rose!by!approximately!9!percent, while!the! real!earnings!of!women!with!a!

high!school!diploma!were!virtually!unchanged!and!decreased!for!women!having less!than!a!high!school!

diploma.

59

Women’s! Labor! Force! Participation! Rates! Continue! to! Increase;! Married! Women! Maintain!

Participation!Rates!through!Prime!Child!Bearing!and!Child!Rearing!Years!

Over!the!last!two!decades of!the!20th Century,!women!of!all!races!continued!to!participate!in!the!labor!

force!in!increasing!numbers!– with!gains!especially!noticeable!among!married!women!with!children.!!In!

1980,!White!women’s!labor!force!participation!rates!were!close!to!that!of Black!women!at!51.2!and!53.1!

percent,! respectively,! while! Hispanic! women’s! labor! force! participation! rate! had! climbed! to! 47.4!

percent.!!Between!1990!and!2000,!Black!women!took!the!lead!again!in!labor!force!participation!– with!

58.3! percent!in! 1990!and! 63.1!percent!in! 2000,! compared! to!White!women, whose participation! rate!

was 57.4!percent!in!1990!and!59.5!percent!in!2000.!!Hispanic!women’s!labor!force!participation!rate!also!

grew!from!53.1!percent!in!1990!to!57.5!percent!by!2000.!!When!labor!force!participation!data!for!Asian!

women! first!was!collected!in!1990, it!showed! the!same!labor! force!participation! rates!between!White!

and! Asian! women! in! 1990! and! 2000.60! ! Even! more! significant! was! the! increase! in! the! labor! force!

participation! rate!of!married!mothers!with!children,!which!climbed! from 54.1!percent!in!1980 to 66.3!

percent!in!1990!and!70.6!percent!in!2000.

61

For!women!with!young!children,!marital!status remained!a!significant!factor!in!labor!force!participation.!!

In!1980,!mothers!with!children!had!similar!labor!force!participation!rates!whether!they!were!single!(52!

percent)! or! married! (54.1! percent),! while! women! who! were! divorced,! widowed! or! separated! had! a!

higher! labor! force! participation! rate! of! 69.4! percent.! ! By! 2000,! all! mothers! had! increased! their!

participation!rate. For!those!who!were!divorced,!widowed!or!separated, it!reached!82.7!percent,!while!

the!rate!for!single!mothers!rose!to!73.9!percent,!and!married!mothers!had!a!slightly!lower!participation!

rate!of!70.6!percent.

62!!The! trend! toward!women!remaining attached! to! the!labor! force! through! their!

prime! child! bearing! and! child! rearing! years! continued! during! the! latter! half! of! the! 20th Century and!

began!to!follow!the!pattern!of!men’s!labor!force!participation.!!In!1980!and!1990,!women’s!labor!force!

participation!rate!by!age!peaked at!ages!25W34,!similar!to!the!years!that!men’s!labor!force!participation!

rate!was!highest.!!However,!by!2000,!the!peak!years! for!labor! force!participation!had!edged!up!to!the!

35W44!year!age!brackets!for!both!women!and!men.

63
17

Contribution!of!Married!Women’s!Income!to!Family!Income!Grows

The! contribution! of!married! women’s!earnings! to! overall! family! income!also! grew! steadily! during! the!

latter!half!of!the!20th Century!– from!just!over!a!quarter!of!all!family!income! (26.7!percent)!in!1980!to!

oneWthird! of! family!income! (33.5 percent) in! 2000.

64!!In! 1987,! the! Bureau!of! Labor!Statistics! began! to!

collect!data!on!the!percentage!of!wives!whose!earnings!were!higher!than!their!husband’s,!noting!that, in!

1987,!23.7!percent!of!wives!earned!more!than!their!husbands,!some!of!whom!may!not!have!worked!at!

all.!!Among!couples!where!both!the!husband!and!wife!worked,!17.8!percent!of!wives!earned!the!higher!

wages.!!This!trend!grew!steadily!throughout!the!1990s,!and!by!2000,!29.9!percent!of!wives!had!higher!

earnings!in! families!where! the! husband!may! not! have! been!working.!!In! families!where! both! spouses!

worked,!23.3!percent!of!wives!earned!higher!wages!than!their!husbands.65

!!

Women’s!increased!education!and!movement!into!higherWpaying!jobs!may!be!one!factor!that!accounts!

for! the! growth! in! families! with! higherWearning! wives;! however,! another! likely! factor! is! the! lack! of!

increase!in!real!earnings!for!men!from!1980!to!2000.!!During!this!timeframe,!women’s!real!earnings!rose!

by!23.4!percent!on!average,!but!men’s!earnings!were!essentially!unchanged.

66!!In!its!September!1997!

report,!Money$Income$in$the$United$States:$$1996,!the!U.S.!Census!Bureau!noted!that!the!narrowing!of!

the! wage! gap! was! not! necessarily! cause! for! celebration.! ! “Recent! increases! in! the! femaleWtoWmale!

earnings!ratio!have!been!due!more!to!declines!in!the!earnings!of!men!than!to!increases!in!the!earnings!

of! women,”! it!said.

67 By! 2000,! earnings! for! both! men! and! women! had! started! to! rise!slowly! again;!

however,!the!wage!gap!held!steady!at!73.7!percent.

68

Wage!Gap!Narrows!Significantly!in!the!1980s,!but!Progress!Slows!During!the!1990s

The! last! two! decades! of! the! 20th Century! were marked! by significant! growth! in! the! educational!

attainment!of!women,!as!well!as!a!significant!narrowing!of the!wage!gap!between!women!and!men as!

women! enjoyed! the! returns! on! their! higher! investments! in! education! and! accumulated! laborWmarket!

experience.!!In!1980,!the!ratio!between!women’s!and!men’s!earnings!stood!at!60.2!percent.!!Over!these!

two!decades,!the!wage!gap!narrowed!considerably!– the!wage!ratio!reached!71.6!percent!by!1990,!and!

73.7!percent!by!2000.69

In!1998,!the!President’s!Council!of!Economic!Advisors!(CEA)!issued!a!report!which!found!that,!although!

the! pay! gap! had! narrowed! substantially! between! the! signing! of! the! Equal Pay! Act! in! 1963! and! 1998,!

“there! still! exists! a! significant! wage! gap! that! cannot! be! explained! by! differences! between! male! and!

female! workers! in! labor!market! experience! and! in! the! characteristics! of! jobs! they! hold.”! ! The! report!

cited!a!detailed!longitudinal!study!in!the!1980s!that!found!about!oneWthird!of!the!gender!pay!gap!was!

explained!by!differences!in!the!skills!and!experience!that!women!bring!to!the!labor!market,!and!another!

28! percent! was! due! to! differences! in! industry,! occupation! and! union! status!among!men! and! women.!!

Roughly!40!percent!of!the!pay!gap!could!not!be!explained.!!The!CEA!concluded!that!“one!indirect!and!

rough! measure! of! the! extent! of! discrimination! remaining! in! the! labor! market! is! the! ‘unexplained’!

difference!in!pay.”70
18

Enforcement!Actions

In!the!1980s!and!1990s,!the!EEOC!enforcement!activities!included!significant!work!on!behalf!of!working!

women! seeking!equal! opportunity!and!equal! pay.! !In! 1980,! the! EEOC! held! hearings! on! sexWbased! job!

segregation! and! wage! discrimination;! and,! commissioned! by! the! EEOC,! the! National! Academy! of!

Sciences! published! a! report! in! 1981!entitled,!Women,$Work$ and$Wages:$$ Equal$ Pay$ for$ Jobs$ of$Equal$

Value.!

In!1984,!General!Motors!Corporation!(GM)!and!the!United!Auto!Workers!agreed!to!pay!$42.4!million!to!

resolve!an!EEOC!Commissioner!charge!alleging!the!company!engaged!in!a!“pattern!and!practice”!of!race!

and!sex!discrimination.!!The!settlement!also!provided!that!GM!would!promote!a!substantial!number!of!

minorities!and!women!into!managerial!jobs,!as!well!as! recruit!minorities!and!women!into!highWpaying!

apprenticeship! and! craft! programs.! ! At! that! time,! the! settlement! was! the! largest! nonWlitigated!

settlement!in!the!history!of!the!EEOC.

One! significant! compensation! case,! EEOC$ v.$ Allstate$ Insurance,! resulted! in! a! 1985! consent! decree!

between! the! EEOC! and! Allstate,! resolving! an! Equal! Pay! Act! claim! that! the! company! paid! a! lower!

guaranteed!minimum!salary!to!females!than!to!males!performing!the!identical!job!of!sales!agent.! Under!

this! decree,! $5! million! was! distributed! to! approximately! 3,200! women.! ! In! the! same! year,! the!

Commission!successfully!settled!a!sex!discrimination!suit!against!Teachers!Insurance!and!Annuity!Equity!

Fund.! ! This! suit! resulted! in! recalculating! pension! benefits! in! a! “sex! neutral!manner”! for! over! 800,000!

female!workers.

In!1986,!the!EEOC!published!its!Interpretations!of!the!Equal!Pay!Act,!replacing!those!issued!by!the!U.S.!

Department!of!Labor.!

In!1995,!the!EEOC!held!a!series!of!meetings!devoted!to!hearing!the!views!of!experts!and!advocates!on!

the!effectiveness!of!the!EEOC!in!its!enforcement!of!laws!prohibiting!discrimination!in!employment.!!In!

his! opening! statement,! EEOC! Chairman!Gilbert! F.! Casellas! observed! that! “[t]he! Commission! has! been!

criticized! for!paying!insufficient!attention!to!wage!disparity”!and!stated!that!“[o]ur!summons,!with!the!

help!of!the!organizations!present!today,!is!to!better!use!the!tools!provided!by!our!existing!authority!to!

force! employers! who! perpetuate! wageWbased! inequities! to! examine! their!motivations! and! rectify! the!

wrongs.”!!In!1994,!9,600!charges!of!wage!discrimination!were!filed!with!the!Commission!under!the!Equal!

Pay! Act,! Title! VII! of! the! Civil! Rights! Act,! Title! I! of! the! Americans! with! Disabilities! Act,! and! the! Age!

Discrimination! in! Employment! Act.! !Most! of! the! charges! were! brought! under! Title! VII,! and! the! lion’s!

share!of!the!Title!VII!cases!were!based!on!race!and/or!gender.

In!1997,!the!EEOC!issued!an!Enforcement!Guidance!on!Sex!Discrimination!in!the!Compensation!of!Sports!

Coaches!in!Educational!Institutions.

71 The!Commission!issued!this!guidance!because, although!Congress!

had! outlawed! sexWdiscrimination! in! schoolWsponsored! athletics! programs! over! twentyWfive! years! prior!

(with! the!passage!of!Title!IX),! thenWrecent!studies!showed! that! the!overall!pattern!of! the!employment!

and! compensation! of! coaches! by! educational! institutions! was! still! far! from! genderWneutral.! ! The!

Commission! wanted! to! assist! both! coaches! and educational! institutions! in! better! understanding! their!

rights!and!responsibilities.
19

In! addition! to! the! EEOC’s efforts,! at the! U.S.! Department! of! Labor,! the! Office! of! Federal! Contract!

Compliance! Programs! (OFCCP)! initiated! significant! enforcement! actions! for! continued wage!

discrimination by federal! contractors! under Executive! Order! 11246 (prohibiting! federal! government!

contractors!from!discriminating!in!employment!on!the!basis!of!race,!color,!religion,!national!origin!and,!

because! of! the! later! amendment,! sex).! ! The! single! largest! financial! recovery! under! Executive! Order!

11246! was! obtained! in! 1989! against! the! Harris! Trust! and! Savings! Bank! in! Chicago,! Illinois.! ! This!

settlement! brought! to! conclusion! an! 11Wyear! race! and! sex! discrimination! case! raising! issues! involving!

placement,! pay,! and! promotion,! with! the! bank! agreeing! to! pay! $14! million! to! women! and! minority!

group!members!who!were!employed!between!May!1973!and!December!1988.!!In!1993,!OFCCP!began!a!

practice!of!soWcalled!“glass!ceiling!audits,”!specifically!focusing!on!corporate!management!practices.!!The

first!settlement!under!this!program!was!with!Fairfax!Hospital!in!Virginia,!which!provided!over!$600,000!

in! back! pay! and! salary! adjustments! to! 52! women.!!

Through! these! specialized! reviews! and! other! regular!

compliance! evaluations! and! complaint! investigations,!

OFCCP!investigators!found!and!remedied!other!instances!

of! pay! discrimination.! ! For! example,! in! 1999,! after!

concluding! that! Texaco! Corporation! underpaid! 186!

female!workers,!OFCCP! recovered!a! total!of!$3.1!million!

in! back! pay! and! salary! increases! on! their! behalf.! ! That!

same!year,!OFCCP! reached!a! settlement! for!$4.5!million!

with!the!Boeing!Company!in!a!sex!and!pay!discrimination!

case.!!Boeing!also!agreed!to!redesign!its!tracking!process!

for!hiring!and!promotions.

2000T2010:& & Progress& Stalls,& Enforcement&

Efforts&Redoubled

An!Overview!of!the!Economic!Climate

The! 21st Century! unfolded! with! great! hope! and!

expectations.! ! As! technology! transformed! our! basic!

means! of! communication! and! revolutionized! our!

workplaces,!it!carried!a!promise! for!easing! the!workWlife!

challenge! experienced! by! the! majority! of! working!

families,! opening! more! opportunities! for! women! in! the!

growing! technology! sector! and! continued! progress! in!

closing!the!wage!gap!between!women!and!men.72!!Yet, despite!these!hopes,!the!early!years!of!the!21st

Century!are!notable!for!stalled!progress!and!dips!in!labor!force!participation,!particularly!among!working!

mothers!of!young!children.

A!volatile!first!decade!of!the!21st Century!brought!the!worst!economic!crisis!since!the!Great!Depression,

which!greatly!changed the!economic!conditions!of!our!nation!and!increased!the!economic!pressure!felt!

by! families!all!across!the!country.!!The!heightened!need! for!security!and!buildWup!of!military!units!also!

brought!with!it!more!opportunities! for!women! to! serve!in! the!ultimate!nonWtraditional jobs!– military!

occupational! specialties! in! the! U.S.! armed! forces.! ! The! number! of! women! in! the! military! has! varied!

Military!Conflict

Number!of!

Women!

Served

SpanishWAmerica!War 1,500

WW1!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 10,000+

WW2!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40,000

Korean!War!!!!!!!!!!!! 120,000

Vietnam!Era!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7,000

Persian!Gulf!War!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 41,000

OEF!/!OIF!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 200,000+

Source:! U.S.! Department! of! Veterans! Affairs.! America's! Women!

Veterans:!Military Service!History!and!VA!Benefit!Utilization!Services!

(2011),http://www.va.gov/vetdata/docs/SpecialReports/Final_Wome

ns_Report_3_2_12_v_7.pdf
20

greatly! over! the! years,! but! reached! a! high! of! over! 200,000! women! during! the! Operation! Enduring!

Freedom!and!Operation!Iraqi!Freedom!(OEF/OIF)!conflicts.73

While! women’s! contributions! to! family! income! rose! in! importance! in! the! leadWup! to! 2000,! the! new!

century’s! economic! challenges! illustrated! that! women’s! earnings! often! proved! crucial! to! families’!

financial!survival.

Increased!Educational!Attainment!and!its!Effect!on!Earnings

The!new!century!began!with!women!holding solid!majorities!in!the attainment of!Bachelor’s,!Master’s!

and! Doctoral! Degrees, earning! 57! percent! of! all! Bachelor’s Degrees! and! 58.5! percent! of! all! Master’s!

Degrees!in!2000.!!These!numbers!held!steady!for!Bachelor’s Degrees!through!2009 but!increased!slightly!

for!postWgraduate!degrees,!with!women!awarded!60.4!percent!of!all!Master’s!Degrees,!49!percent!of!all!

first!professional!degrees,!and!52.3!percent!of!Doctoral!Degrees!by!the!end!of!the!decade.

74

Education!continued!to!be!an!important!factor!in!increasing!women’s!earnings!throughout!the!first!part!

of! the! 21st Century,! but! the! earnings! gains! were! not! shared! equally! by! women! of different!

races/ethnicities.! ! In! 2011,! among! women! of! all! race/ethnic! groups! with! Bachelor’s! Degrees,! Asian!

women had!the!highest median!weekly!earnings,!at!$946.!!White!women!followed!with!median!weekly!

earnings! of! $939,! while! Hispanic! women! and! Black women! had! significantly! lower! median! weekly!

earnings – $862!and!$843,!respectively.

75

From! 2000! to! 2010,! real! median! earnings! for! fullWtime,! yearWround! male! workers! remained! mostly!

unchanged,! while! women’s! earnings! edged! up! by! 3.4! percent! early! in! the! decade,! then! held steady!

through!2011.

76 Educational!attainment!was!an!important!factor!in!earnings, even!though!a!wage!gap!

between educated! women! and! men! persisted.! CollegeWeducated! workers! saw! the! highest! financial!

returns to! their! education. Meanwhile,! men! without! advanced! education! saw! earnings! drop, and!

women!with!lower!educational!attainment!saw!little!movement!in!wages.

77 These!trends!influenced!the!

slight!change!in!the!femaleWtoWmale!wage ratio, which!rose!from!73.7!percent!to!76.3!percent!between!

2000!and!2001. The!wage!ratio has!hovered!near this!point! throughout! the! remainder!of! the!2000s!–

hitting!a!high!of!77.8!percent!in!2007,!only!to!retreat!to!77!percent!in!2011.

78

Changes!in!Labor!Force!Participation!Rates!

Between! 2000! and! 2010,! labor! force! participation! rates! declined! slightly! for! all! women,! but! most!

dramatically!for!Black!women,!going!from!a!high!of!63.1!percent!in!2000!to!59.9!percent!by!2010.!!Black!

women! still!maintained! higher!labor! force! participation! rates!than other!women,!who! saw!only! slight!

declines! in! their! participation! rates.! ! In! 2010,!White! women’s! labor! force! participation!rate!was! 58.5!

percent,!Hispanic!women’s!rate!stood!at!56.5!percent, and!Asian!women!were!at!57.0!percent.79!!During!

this! time period,!the!labor! force!participation! rates!of!men also!dropped,!reflecting the!impact!of! the!

recession,!as!well!as!an!increase!in!the!number!of!older!workers!retiring!from!the!labor!force.

The! labor! force! participation! rate! of!married!mothers, with! spouse! present, also! declined! during! this!

period,!dropping!from!70.6!percent!in!200080 to!69.7!percent!in!2010.

81!!For!women!with!young!children,!

being!married!was!associated!with!a!lower!labor!force!participation!rate.!!In!2010, mothers!with!children!

under! age! 6! who! were! married,! with! spouse! present,! had! a! labor! force! participation! rate! of! 62.5!
21

percent, while!mothers!with!all!other!marital!statuses!had!a rate!of!68.2!percent.

82 The!drop!in!married!

mothers’! labor! force! participation! rate,! particularly! the! rate! for! those! with! young! children,! led! to!

considerable!public!discussion!about!the!difficulties!that!professional!women!with!children!faced!in!the!

workforce.

The! older! workers’ role! in! the! economy! also! took! on! greater! significance during! the! early! 2000s.!!

Women’s!labor!force!participation!rates!by!age!continued!to!follow!the!trends!for!men!through!the!early!

part!of! the!21st Century,!with!both!men!and!women having! the!highest!labor! force!participation! rates

later in!life!– in!the!45W54!yearWold!age!bracket.!!This!shift!in!the!ages!of!peak!labor!force!participation,!

with a!higher!participation!rate among the!45W54!year!olds, is markedly!different!from!the!previous fifty!

years! and! is! one! reflection! of! the! greater! presence! of! older! workers! in! the! labor! force as! the! U.S.!

population!ages.83

Contribution!of!Married!Women’s!Income!to!Family!Income

The! contribution! of! married! women’s! earnings! to! overall! family! income! continued! to! grow! steadily!

throughout the! first! decade of! the! 21st Century,! going! from! 33.5! percent! in! 2000! to! 37.6! percent! by!

2010.

84!!The!percentage!of!wives!with!higher!incomes!than!their!husbands!grew!even!more!dramatically.!!

In!2000,!29.9!percent!of!wives!earned!more!than!their!husbands,!some!of!whom!may!not!have!worked!

at!all,!and!by!2010,!this!figure!had!reached!38.8!percent.!!Among!couples!where!both!the!husband!and!

wife!worked,!23.3!percent!of!wives!had!higher!earnings!than!their!husbands!in!2000,!while!29.2!percent!

of!wives!were!the!higher!earner!by!2010.

85

Source:!U.S.!Census!Bureau.!(2011).!“Women's!Earnings!as!a!Percentage!of!Men's!Earnings!by!Race!and!Hispanic!

Origin.”!Historical$Income$Tables.!!http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/people/.
22

Enforcement!Actions

From!fiscal!year!2000!to!2009,!the!EEOC!found!reasonable!cause!to!believe!discrimination!had!occurred!

in! 829 charges! of! pay! discrimination! under! all! of! the! statutes! it! enforces,! and! recovered! over! $52.7

million for charging!parties!in!those!cases!through!administrative!enforcement.86!!The!EEOC!also!litigated!

a!significant!number!of!sexWbased!wage!discrimination!cases!throughout!this!decade,!including!the!2004!

case!EEOC$v.$Morgan$Stanley$&$Co.,!in!which!the!EEOC!obtained!$54!million!for!sexWbased!discrimination!

in!compensation,!promotion,!and!other!aspects!of!employment.

With!more!women!serving!as!the!primary or!coWbreadwinner!in!families,!concern increased about!long!

working!hours!and! the!conflict!experienced!by!women!and!men!who!were!both!in! the!workforce!and!

responsible! for! caring for young! children,! elderly! parents! or! disabled! family! members.

87! ! The! EEOC!

sought! to! address this! issue! in! 2007! with! enforcement! guidance! on! unlawful! disparate! treatment! of!

workers!with!caregiving!responsibilities.88

In! 2007,! the! Supreme! Court! issued! its! ruling! in! Ledbetter$ v.$ Goodyear$ Tire$ &$ Rubber$ Co.,89 igniting!

controversy!when!it! struck!down!the!longstanding!interpretation!of!Title!VII's! timeliness! rules!held!by!

the!EEOC!and!many!courts.!!The!case!began!in!March!1998,!when!Lilly!Ledbetter,!who!was!employed!at!

the! Gadsden,! Alabama,! plant! of! Goodyear! Tire! and! Rubber! Company,! filed! a! charge! with! the! EEOC!

alleging! that! she! had! received!a! discriminatorily!low! salary!as!an!area!manager! because of! her! sex!in!

violation!of!Title!VII!of!the!Civil!Rights!Act.!!Ledbetter!only!discovered!how!much!her!male!coWworkers!

were!making!when! someone!left!an!anonymous!note!in!her!mailbox! showing!her!pay!and! that!of! the!

three!males!who!were!doing!the!same!job.!!In!an!interview,!she!stated!that!she!worked!for!a!company!

that!told!her,!“You!do!not!discuss!wages!with!anyone!in!this! factory.”90!!The!court!ruled!that,!because!

the!later!effects!of! past!discrimination! did! not! restart! the! clock! for! filing!an!EEOC! charge,!Ledbetter’s!

claim! was! untimely. The! outcome! was! at! odds with! the! longstanding! interpretation! of! wage!

discrimination timeliness! rules! held! by! the! EEOC! and! many! courts,! and! highlighted! the! significant!

problem!of!pay!secrecy.

The!Ledbetter!case!helped! raise!the!visibility!of! the!equal!pay!issue!and!generated!a!major!organizing!

campaign! to! reverse! the! decision! in! Congress.! ! In! response,! Congress! passed! and! President! Obama!

signed!the!Lilly!Ledbetter!Fair!Pay!Act!of!2009,!effectively!restoring!the!previous!timelines!for!filing!Title!

VII! charges! of! pay! discrimination! with! the! EEOC.! ! Further,! President! Obama! addressed! the! ongoing!

challenge!of!equal!pay!and!the!persistent wage!gap!between!women!and!men by!creating!the!National!

Equal!Pay!Task!Force!in!January!2010.91

During! this! decade,! OFCCP! continued! to! address! pay! discrimination! through! its! enforcement! activity!

under!Executive!Order!11246.!!In!2002,!a!$4.1!million!settlement!with!Coca!Cola!for!pay!discrimination!

on!the!basis!of!race!and!sex!benefitted!over!900!current!and!former!female!employees!at!the!company’s!

Atlanta,!Georgia,! headquarters,!many! of! whom! held! professional! positions.! In! 2004,!OFCCP! resolved!

another!large!systemic!pay!discrimination!case!combining!the!issues!of!pay!and!sex!discrimination!in!a!

$5.5! million! settlement! with! Charlotte,! North! CarolinaWbased! Wachovia! Corporation.! ! In! that! case,!

OFCCP!alleged!that!more!than!2,000!female!workers!had!been!underpaid.
23

II.&2010&and&Beyond:& Working&to&Close&the&Gap

We!have!witnessed five!decades!of!economic!progress!for!women,!supported!by!the!expansion!of!civil!

rights! and! sweeping! changes! in! the! role! of! women! in! the! workplace! and! our! national!economy.! ! Yet!

women!still! face!a!significant!gender!gap!in!pay,!one! that!seems! to!be!closing! far!more!slowly! than!in!

earlier!decades,!despite!significant!gains!in!education!and!workforce!participation.!!

There! are! multiple! ways! to! measure! the! pay! gap! – but! under! all! of! them,! and! with! or! without!

considering!occupation,! female!and!minority!workers!earn! significantly!less than!White!male!workers.!!

According!to!the!latest!Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics!data,!women’s!weekly!median!earnings!are!about!81

percent of!men’s.92!!And!looking!at!annual!earnings!reveals!even!larger!gaps!– approximately!23!cents!

less!on!the!dollar!for!women compared!with!men.93 The!wage!gap!also!is!greater!for!women!of!color:!

Black women!earn approximately!70!cents!and!Hispanic!women make!approximately!60!cents!for!every!

dollar!earned!by!a!nonWHispanic!White man,!according!to!Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics!data;!and!64!cents!

for!Black!women!and!56!cents!for!Hispanic!women,!according!to!Census!data.! Minority!men!face!a!wage!

gap! as! well! when! compared! to! White! men! – about! 21! cents! for! Black men! and! about! 29! cents! for!

Hispanic! men based! on! weekly! wage! data.94 Ultimately,! no! matter! how! you! look! at! the! data,! a!

persistent!pay!gap!remains.!!Decades!of!research!shows!a!gender!gap!in!pay!even!after!factors!such!as!

the! type! of! work! performed! and! qualifications! (education! and! experience)! are! taken! into! account.!

These! studies! consistently! conclude! that! discrimination! likely!explains! at! least! some! of!the! remaining!

difference. 95!!!

Fifty! years later, we! still! have! much! work! to! do.! We! can! continue! to! improve! existing! federal!

enforcement! efforts! through! better! strategic! collaboration,! and! improve! data! collection! and!

investigative! tools.!!We!can!pass! the!Paycheck!Fairness!Act,!so! the!Equal!Pay!Act!will!better!safeguard!

the!right!to!equal!pay!for!equal!work. Finally,!we!can!expand!our!vision!of!equal!opportunity.!!We!can!

take!on the!array!of!practices and!preconceptions!– such!as occupational!segregation – that!contribute!

to! inequality! for! working! women! (and! some!men). We! can! break! down! the! remaining! barriers! that!

prevent!us!from!achieving!true!equality!in!the!workplace.

Closing!the!pay!gap!is!not!just!a!moral!imperative;!it!would!confer!broad!economic!and!social!benefits!on!

our! nation,! its! workers, and! their! families.!! Ensuring! that! workers! who! are! underpaid! due! to!

discrimination! can! earn! a! fair! wage! means! they! can! better! support! themselves! and! their! families,!

thereby!lifting!countless!children!out!of!poverty. It!also!will!help!grow!the!middle!class. Over!the!longW

term,!equal!pay!will!provide!a!broader!economic!base!for!our!nation!– one!that!benefits!all!workers and!

their!families.

A. 50&Years&Later&– Not&Equal,&Not&Yet

Today,! the! U.S.! workforce! is! rich! in! diversity! of! gender,! race! and! age.! ! Overall,! 58.1! percent! of! U.S.!

women!were!in!the!labor!force!in!2011,!with!Black women!continuing!to!lead!at!59.1!percent!and!White!

women!close!behind!at!58!percent.!!Asian!women’s!participation!in!the!labor! force!stood!at!56.8, and!

Hispanic! women! had! the! lowest! rate! at! 55.9! percent.96! ! Working! mothers! continue! to! represent! a!

significant!number!of!working!women,!and!their!labor! force!participation!rates!were!highest! for!single!

mothers!at!74.9!percent,!while!married!women!had!a!rate!of!69.1!percent.!!A!majority!of!older!women,!

59.5!percent!of!those!aged!54!to!65, were!present!in!the!workforce.!!These!figures!are!just!slightly!lower!

than!the!historic!labor!force!participation!rates!that!were!achieved!in!1999,!and!show!that!a!majority!of!

women!remain!strongly attached to!paid!employment.97
24

Women! continue! to! lead! in! educational! attainment,! earning! more! Bachelor’s,! Master’s! and! Doctoral!

Degrees! than!men!and! nearly! half! of!all! professional! degrees.!!Women’s! choice! of! college!major!also!

holds! promise! for! greater! gains! in! nonWtraditional! occupations.! ! Recent! female! college! graduates! are!

now!earning!nearly!half!of!all!the!degrees!in!natural!resources!and!conservation,!homeland!security!and!

law! enforcement,! half! of! all! business! administration! degrees,! and! more! than! half! of! all! degrees! in!

biological!sciences!and!the!health!professions.98

And!in!the!field!of!entrepreneurship,!women’s!growing!presence!represents!a!total!economic!impact!of!

nearly!$3!trillion!to!the!U.S.!economy.!!!In!2008,!women!entrepreneurs!produced!employment!for!over!

23!million!workers!– especially!significant!considering!that!only!20!percent!of!womenWowned!firms!had!

employees.

Despite!these!gains,!the!workforce!continues!to!be!segregated!by!race!and!gender!– particularly!when!it!

comes!to!occupation.!!This!occupational!segregation!has!important!implications!for!closing!the!pay!gap,!

because!women!are segregated!into!lowWpaying!occupations and!also!typically!earn!less!than!men!in!the!

same! field.! ! Addressing! the! barriers! that! prevent! women! from! having! equal! access! to! higherWpaying!

occupations and ensuring!fair!pay!within!occupations!are!critical!strategies!for!closing!the!pay!gap.

In!addition!to!gender!differences!in!occupations,!there!are!differences based!on!race!and!ethnicity.!!For!

example,!White!and!Asian!women!are!more!likely!to!work!in!higherWpaying!management,!professional!

and!related!occupations!than!Black!and!Hispanic!women,!who!are!more!likely!to!work!in!lowerWpaying!

service!occupations!and!significantly!more!likely!to!be!among!the!working!poor.99

Occupational!segregation!has!decreased!since!the!midW20th Century!but!is!far!from!elimination.

100!!FortyW

four! percent! of! employed! men! work! in! occupations! that! are! over! threeWquarters! male,! while! only! 6!

percent!of!working!women!are!in!these!same!occupations.101!!As!recently!as!2010,!nine!of!the!ten!most!

common! occupations! for! women! were! majority! female! – administrative! assistants,! nurses,! cashiers,

retail! salespersons,! nursing!and! home! health!aides,!waitresses,! retail! sales! supervisors!and!managers,!

customer! service! representatives,! and! house! cleaners.102! ! Examples! of! fields! that! remain! at! least! 75

percent male! include! manufacturing! salespersons,! farmers! and! ranchers,! architects,! transportation!

supervisors,!cutting!workers,!detectives!and!investigators, and!computer!programmers.103!!

Occupational! segregation! has! persisted! despite! the! many! other! economic! and! social! transformations!

described!in! Part!I! of!this! report.!!Indeed,! the! top! 10! occupations! held! by!women! did! not!vary!much!

between!1960!and!1980.!!Nursing!aides,!orderlies!and!attendants!appeared!among!the!top!10!list!for!the!

first!time!in!1975,!but!remained!among!top!jobs!for!women!until!2000.104!!In!2010, the!list!looked!little!

different!than!in!1980!– with!variation!in!the!leading!occupations!often!due!to!changes!in!definitions!and!

occupational!groupings!over!time.
25

Occupations 1960 1980 2000 2010

Private!household!workers 1 8 WWW

Secretaries*(1) 2 1 1

Retail!trade,!sales!clerks*(2) 3 3

Elementary!school!teachers*(3) 4 7 4

Bookkeepers*(4) 5 2

Waiters!and!waitresses 6 5 7

Nurses,!professional!(Registered!Nurses) 7 6 6 2

Sewers!and!stichers,!manufacturing 8 WWW

Typists 9 9 WWW

Cashiers 10 4 8 4

Nursing!aides,!orderlies,!&!attendants*(5) WWW 10 7

Retail!&!personal!sales!workers,!including!cashiers*(2) 2

Managers!&!administrators,!n.e.c. 3

Sales!supervisors!&!proprietors 5

Bookkeepers,!accounting,!&!auditing!clerks*(4) 9

Accountants!&!auditors 10

Secretaries!&!administrative!assistants*!(1) 1

Elementary!&!middle!school!teachers!*(3) 3

Cashiers 4

Retail!salespersons!*(2) 5

Nursing,!psychiatric,!and!home!health!aides!*(5) 6

FirstWline!supervisors/managers!of!retail!sales!workers 8

Customer!service!representatives 9

Maids!&!housekeeping!cleaners 10

Sources:44Census!Bureau.!!U.S.$Census$Population:$1960,$Vol.$1;$Statistical$Abstract$of$the$United$

States:$1963;$and!U.S.!Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,$Labor$Force$Statistics$Derived$from$the$Current$

Population$Survey:$A$Databook,$Vol.$1$(1982),$and$U.S.$Department$of$Labor$Women's$Bureau,$

"Leading$Occupations$for$Women$in$2000",$and$"20$Leading$Occupations$of$Employed$Women,$

2010$Annual$Averages"$(based$on$BLS$Current$Population$Survey$data).

Ten4Leading4Occupations4of4Women4in4Rank4Order4by4Numbers4of4Women,41960,41980,4

20004and42010

Notes:44*()!notes!a!change!in!the!name!and!or!occupational!grouping!with!a!number!that!

corresponds!to!a!closely!related!occupation

In!1960,!among!nonWtraditional!occupations!for!women – those!in!which!women!constituted!25!percent!

or!less!of those!employed – women!mostly!held!jobs!on!farms,!in!offices!and!retail!establishments,!or!as!

clerks!and!sales!positions! for!manufacturers,!real!estate!or!postal!offices.!!Over!the!next!twenty!years,!

many!of!these!occupations!began!to!employ!even!greater!numbers!of!women,!so!they!no!longer!were!

maleWdominated! occupations.! ! For! instance,! buyers! in! department! stores,! real! estate! agents,! sales

representatives and! clerks!in!manufacturing! facilities,!managers!in! food!and! dairy! stores,!accountants!
26

and! auditors! and! postal! clerks! all! moved! off! the! list! of! jobs! that! were! nonWtraditional! for! women.!!

Indeed,!the!decline!in!occupational!segregation!between!1970!and!2009!was!largely!a!result!of!women!

moving into! traditionallyWmale, whiteWcollar occupations;105 as!a! result,!heavily!male!jobs!have!become!

increasingly!blueWcollar.!!!

In! recent!decades,! two!areas! that!historically!were!almost!exclusively!male!– the!STEM! fields!and! the!

military! – have! begun! to! open! to! women.! ! By! 1980,! thanks! to! advances! in! women’s! educational!

attainment,! the! number! of! women! in! STEM! fields! began! to! increase – even! though! women! still!

comprised!25!percent!or!less!of!the!total!employed!in!the!STEM!occupations.!!Notably,!women!who!hold!

STEM!degrees!and!work!in!STEM!occupations!earn!33!percent!more,!on!average,!than!women!in!nonW

STEM!jobs;!and,!while!women!in!nonWSTEM!occupations! typically!earn!23!percent!less!than! their!male!

colleagues,!the!salaries!of!their!counterparts!in!STEM!fields!are!only!14!percent!less!than!those!of!their!

male!coWworkers.106

Women’s! service!in! the!active! duty!armed! forces! steadily!increased,!especially!after! 2000.!!A! total! of!

41,000!women!served!in!the!military!during!the!Persian!Gulf!War.107!!!By!the!end!of!November!2012,!the!

number! of! women! in! the!military! reached! 204,973.! ! Of that! total,! 38,378! women! were! officers,! and!

164,021!women!were!enlisted.108!!!

In! recent!years, changes!in!both!law!and!policy!have!altered!women’s! roles!and! the!military!jobs!they!

are! allowed! to! perform.! ! Throughout! U.S.! military! history,! various! rules! and! regulations! have! limited!

women’s!official!involvement,!rank!attainment,!and!role!within!the!services. However,!according!to!the!

Pentagon,! women! frequently! found! themselves! in! combat during! the! wars! in! Iraq! and! Afghanistan.!!

Hundreds! of! thousands! of! women! have! deployed! in! those! conflicts and,! unlike! in! previous! wars,!

performed! numerous! functions! that! effectively! put! them! directly! in! harm’s! way.109! ! In! January! 2013,!

thenWSecretary!Leon!Panetta! recognized!the!exceptional!service!of!women!in!the!Iraq!and!Afghanistan!

wars!by!moving!to!open!more!military!positions!– including!positions!in!ground!combat!– to!women.

While! occupational! segregation! is! sometimes! described! as! a! simple! matter! of! women’s! choices,!

historical! patterns! of! exclusion and! discrimination! paint! a! more! complex! picture.! ! Two! general!

frameworks!can!explain!occupational!segregation:! one!based!on!workers!and!one!based!on!employers.!

On! the! employer! side, occupational! segregation! may! be! due! to! discrimination! that! can! take! several!

forms,!including!outright!refusal!to!hire,!severe!harassment!of!women!in!nonWtraditional!jobs,!or!policies!

and! practices! that! screen!qualified!women! out! of! positions! but!are! not!jobWrelated.110 An!alternative!

framework! emphasizes! worker! differences.! ! For! example,! one! group! may! be! more! willing! to! accept!

unpleasant!or!dangerous!work,!longer!hours,!or!physical!strain!in!return! for!higher!wages.! As!another!

example,!women!may!enter!occupations!that!require!less!investment!and!result!in!less!earnings!growth!

because!they!expect!abbreviated!and!discontinuous!labor!force!activity.111

These!two!frameworks!are!not!incompatible:! the!interaction!between!labor!market!discrimination!and!

societal!discrimination!may!have!indirect!effects! that! reinforce!gender!differences.!For!example,!labor!

market! discrimination! can! affect! women’s! economic! status! indirectly! by! reducing! their! incentives! to!

invest!in!themselves!and!to!acquire!particular!job!qualifications.112

For!example,!women!are!significantly!underrepresented!in!STEM!fields.!!According!to!statistics!available!

from! the! National! Center! for! Education! Statistics,! in! 1970,! fewer! than! 10! percent! of! new! Bachelor’s!

Degree!graduates!in!business,!computer!science,!engineering!and!newly!graduating!doctors!and!lawyers!

were!women.!!By!2010,!women!were!equally!likely!to!graduate!in!business,!law,!and!medicine!as!men.!!
27

However,!less!than!oneWthird!of!new!computer!science!graduates,!and!an!even!smaller!fraction!of!new!

engineers, were!women.!!A!survey!of!undergraduate!women!at!the!University!of!Minnesota!found!that!

female! undergraduates! expressed! lack! of! interest,! had! expectations! of! not! being! welcome! in! the!

profession,!as!well!as!exaggerated!impressions!of!difficulty!of!the!coursework!in!these!fields.113!!Another!

study! found! that! women! were more! likely! to! leave! engineering! compared! to! other! fields! because! of!

dissatisfaction!over!pay!and!promotion!opportunities.114

Regardless! of! the! underlying! causes,! occupational! segregation! fuels! the! wage! gap! because! average!

wages!in!“female”!occupations!are lower,!even!holding!constant!other!observable!characteristics!such!as!

education.!!This!pattern!is!illustrated!in!Table!1, which!highlights! the!most!segregated!occupations! for!

each!type!of!degree!required.!!As!the!table!shows,!average!wages!in!typically!“female”!occupations!are!

significantly!lower!for!each!degree!requirement!category.

Male4Dominated4Professions4

Requiring4a4High4School4Diploma

Percent4

Male

Average4

Wage

Female4Dominated4Professions4

Requiring4a4High4School4Diploma

Percent4

Female

Average4

Wage

Brickmasons,!blockmasons,!and!stonemasons 99.9 $!!45,410 Secretaries!and!administrative!assistants 95.3 $!34,660

Tool!and!die!makers 99.2 $!!39,910 Childcare!workers 94.1 $!19,300

Pipelayers,!plumbers,!pipefitters,!and!steamfitters 98.7 $!!46,660 Hairdressers,!hairstylists,!and!cosmetologists 92.8 $!22,500

Carpenters 98.4 $!!39,530 Receptionists!and!information!clerks 91.5 $!25,240

Electricians 98.2 $!!48,250 Tellers 87.3 $!24,100

Average $4443,952 Average $425,160

Male4Dominated4Professions4

Requiring4a4Bachelor's4Degree4or4Higher

Percent4

Male

Average4

Wage

Female4Dominated4Professions4

Requiring4a4Bachelor's4Degree4or4Higher

Percent4

Female

Average4

Wage

Mechanical!engineers 95.5 $!!78,160 SpeechWlanguage!Pathologists 95.2 $!66,920

Computer!control!programmers!and!operators 91.6 $!!71,380 Occupational!Therapists 94 $!72,320

Aerospace!engineers 91 $!!97,480 Dietitians!and!nutritionists 93.3 $!53,250

Electrical!and!electronics!engineers 91 $!!87,180 Librarians 86.8 $!54,500

Chiroprators 88.7 $!!67,200 Special!education!teachers 86.2 $!53,220

Average $4480,280 Average $460,042

Source:!Bureau!of!Labor!Sta ti s tics,!Current!Popula tion!Survey,!Occupa tional!Outlook!Handbook.

Table41:4Average4Wages4for4Male4and4Female4Dominated4Professions

Note:!Occupa tions!grouped!by!entryWlevel!educa tion!requi rement!reported!in!the!BLS!Occupa tional!Outlook!Handbook.

To! see! the! extent! to! which! occupational! segregation! affects! average! wages,! we! plot! the! relationship!

between! the!average!wage!in! the!occupation—relative! to!what!would!be!expected!given! the!age!and!

education!level!of!the!workers!in!the!occupation—and!the!share!of!females!in!the!occupation.115!!Figure!

1! shows! these! results.! ! Each! observation! corresponds! to! an! occupation.! ! There! is! a! distinct! negative!

relationship!between!average wage!in!the!occupation!and!female!share,!with!every!10!percentage!point!

increase!in!female!share!associated!with!a!4!percent!decline!in!average!wages.!!In!other!words,!women!

in!femaleWdominated!occupations!seem!to!earn!less!than!we!would!otherwise!expect!based!on!their!age!

and! education.! ! And! while! we! do! not! know! the! extent! to! which! this! phenomenon! is! explained! by!

historical! patterns! of! exclusion! and! presentWday! discrimination,! or! by! worker! decisions,! or! by! a!

combination! of! the! two,! decreasing! the! degree! of! occupational! segregation! could! have! a! significant!

impact!on!closing!the!wage!gap.
28

In!addition! to! the!effects!of!occupational!segregation,! research!findings!and!Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics!

data!show!women!regularly!are!paid!less!than!men!working!in!the same!occupation!and!in!some!cases!

even!the!same!job.! Controlling!for!differences!in!the!types!of!jobs!women!and!men!typically!perform,!

women! earn! less! than!men! in! maleWdominated! occupations! (such! as! managers,! software! developers,

and! CEOs)!and!in! femaleWdominated!occupations!(such!as teachers,! nurses, and! receptionists).

116 The!

pay! gap!exists! for!women! with! advanced! degrees,! corporate! positions,! and! highWpaying and highWskill!

jobs, just! as! it! does for! lowW and! middleWincome! workers.! ! For! example,! in! a! recent! study! of! newly!

trained!doctors,!even!after!controlling!for!the!effects!of!specialty,!practice!setting,!work!hours!and!other!

factors,!the!gender!pay!gap!was!nearly!$17,000!in!2008.117

A widely!debated!contention!about!the!pay!gap!is!that!it is!attributable!to!women’s!choices!to!put!family!

ahead!of!work.!!However,!the! gender!pay!gap!exists!for!women!working!full!time!as!well!as!part!time,!

and! begins! when! women! are! first! employed,! which! is! often! well! before! they! have! children.118!!

Regardless!of!whether!work!hours!could!explain!some!portion!of!the!wage!gap,!research!shows!there!is!

a!“motherhood!penalty” for!female!workers!with!children,!stemming!from!stereotypes!and!biases!about!

working!mothers.!!Researchers!have!found!the!mere!fact!of!parenthood!for!women!leads!to!perceptions!

of! lowered! competence! and! commitment,! and! lower! salary! offers.119! ! The! same! research! shows,!

however,!that!men!are!not!penalized!for!having!children!and!in!some!ways!benefit.!!

To!the!extent!discrimination!limits!the!opportunities!for!women to!enter!more!highly!paid!occupations,!

we!need!strategies!designed!to!open!these!doors.!!To!the!extent!that!equal!pay!for!equal!work!remains!

elusive, we!must! redouble!our!efforts.!!Understanding! the!impact!of! family! responsibilities!on! the!pay!

gap!and!ensuring!that!women!are!not!penalized!for!their!status!as!mothers!is!another!important!part!of!

closing! the! gap! over! the! long! term.! ! The! next! section! sheds! light! on those! strategies! – including!

enforcement,!education,!training, and!more!tools!for!workers!to!know!their!worth!and!how!to!act!on!it.
29

B. Closing&the&Gap&– The&Way&Forward

On!January!27,!2010,!during!his!State!of!the!Union!address,!President!Obama!pledged!“to!crack!down!on!

violations!of!equal!pay!laws!– so!that!women!get!equal!pay! for!an!equal!day's!work.”120 !!To!carry!out!

that!pledge!to!strengthen!federal!equal!pay!enforcement,!the!White!House!simultaneously!announced!

the!creation!of!a!National!Equal!Pay!Task!Force!composed!of!the!major!federal!agencies!that!enforce!our!

nation’s! pay! discrimination! laws.! ! The!Task! Force! brings! together! the!expertise! and! resources! of! four!

federal! agencies:! the! Equal! Employment! Opportunity! Commission! (EEOC),! the! Department! of! Justice!

(DOJ),! the!Department! of! Labor! (DOL),! and! the! Office! of! Personnel!Management! (OPM).! Collectively,!

these! agencies! have! jurisdiction! over! several! key! federal! employment! laws! that! protect! our! nation’s!

public!and!private!sector!workers.121!!Both!the!achievements!of!the!Task!Force!and!its!member!agencies!

and!its!agenda!for!the!coming!years!help!frame!a!national!strategy!to!close!the!pay!gap!once!and!for!all.

As!the!White!House!announcement!explained:

The! President! is! establishing! a! National! Equal! Pay! Task! Force. To! make! sure! we! uphold! our!

nation’s! core! commitment! to! equality! of! opportunity,! the! Obama! Administration! is!

implementing!an!Equal!Pay!initiative!to!improve!compliance,!public!education,!and!enforcement!

of!equal!pay!laws. The!Task!Force!will!ensure!that!the!agencies!with!responsibility!for!equal!pay!

enforcement! are! coordinating! efforts! and! limiting! potential! gaps! in! enforcement. The!

Administration!also!continues!to!support!the!Paycheck!Fairness!Act,!and!is!increasing!funding!for!

the!agencies!enforcing!equal!pay!laws!and!other!key!civil!rights!statutes.122

The!Task!Force!approach!also!reflected!the larger!goal!of!developing!a!unified!civil!rights!agenda!in!the!

federal! government.! ! Just! as! intelligence! agencies! must! share! information! to! protect! our! national!

security,!so!too!must!civil!rights!agencies!work!together!to!safeguard!the!rights!and!economic security!of!

all!workers.

C. Achievements&of&the&National&Equal&Pay Task&Force

Shortly! after! the! Task! Force’s! creation,! members! developed! a! set! of! recommendations! and! goals! to!

structure! its! collaboration! on! compliance,! public! education, and! enforcement.123! ! Those!

recommendations! addressed! five! identified! “persistent! challenges” to! the! effective! enforcement! of!

equal!pay!laws, providing!a!road!map!for!the!work!of!the!Task!Force!member!agencies!over!the!coming!

years:

1. Interagency!Coordination.!!Different! federal!agencies!have!different! federal! responsibilities! for!

equal! pay! enforcement! under! different! laws,! and! lack! of! coordination! leaves! gaps! in!

enforcement.!!!The!Task!Force!proposed!to!close!those!gaps!and!maximize!the!impact!of!existing!

enforcement!tools!through strengthened!interagency!coordination.

2. Available!Data!Sources.!!Existing!available!data!sources!on!the!private!workforce!are!inadequate.

The! Task! Force! recommended! improvements! in! data! collection! on! the! private! workforce! to!

better!understand!the!pay!gap and!better!apply!limited!enforcement!resources.

3. Outreach! and! Public! Education.! ! Both! employees! and! employers! lack! information! about! the!

wage! gap! and! their! legal! rights! and! responsibilities.! ! In! response,! the! Task! Force! planned!
30

extensive! outreach! and! public! education! materials! for! employers! and! employees,! as! well! as!

training!programs!for!the!investigators!at!their!member!agencies.

4. Pay!Gap!in!Federal!Workforce.!!An!elevenWcent!wage!gap! for! the! federal!workforce!shows! the!

need! to! address! these! issues! for! public!

employees.!!The!Task!Force!directed the EEOC!

and! OPM! to! develop! a! plan! to! identify! the!

sources!of!this!gap!and!address!them.

5. Passage!of! the!Paycheck!Fairness!Act.!!Current!

laws! addressing! unequal! pay! could! be!

strengthened! through! additional! legislation.!!

The! Task! Force! supported! passage! of! the!

Paycheck! Fairness! Act! to! address! loopholes! in!

current!law.

In!July!2010,!Vice!President!Biden!publicly!released!the!

Task!Force!recommendations.124!!Since!then,!Task!Force!

member!agencies!have!been!building!the!infrastructure!

for!an!unprecedented!level!of!collaboration!across! the!

federal!government.!!By!putting!aside!old! turf!battles!and!seeking!opportunities! to! reduce!duplication!

and!maximize!efficiency,!Task!Force!members!have!been!working!to!ensure!that!all!workers!get!fair!pay.!

D. 2011&– 2013:&&Establishing&the&Infrastructure&for&Improved&Equal&Pay&

Enforcement

The!early!years!of!the!Equal!Pay!Task!Force’s!work!largely!consisted!of!developing!the!infrastructure!for!

improved!enforcement!of!equal!pay!laws,!including achieving!a!number!of!specific!milestones!related!to!

implementing! the! first! recommendation! of! improved! interagency! coordination.! ! This! infrastructure!

development! rested!on! two! pillars:!! the! development! of!mechanisms! for!interagency! collaboration! to!

enhance! federal!law!enforcement!agencies’!capacity! to!identify!and! remedy!illegal!pay!discrimination,!

and!efforts!to!ensure!federal!regulations!and!policy!provided!the!strongest!possible!framework!for!the!

enforcement!of!equal!pay!laws.!

The! development! of! mechanisms! for! improved! interagency! collaboration! on! equal! pay! laws! also!

fostered!a!more!integrated!federal!approach!to!civil!rights!enforcement!broadly.!!Under!the!leadership!

of! EEOC! Chair! Jacqueline! Berrien,! Assistant! Attorney! General! for! Civil! Rights! Tom! Perez! and! OFCCP!

Director! Patricia Shiu,! agencies! reinvigorated! existing! Memoranda! of! Understanding to! facilitate!

information! sharing,! conducted! pilot! projects! aimed! at! improving! interagency! collaboration! in!

enforcement,!built!interagency! relationships,! facilitated!joint!outreach!efforts,!and! trained! together! to!

ensure!a!shared!understanding!of!civil!rights!laws!and!of!each!agency’s!role!in!enforcing!them.!!

In!November!2011,!the!EEOC!and!OFCCP!issued!a!revised!Memorandum!of!Understanding (MOU) aimed!

at! strengthening! collaboration! between! the! two! agencies.! ! The! revised! MOU promotes! effective!

collaboration!in!the!agencies’!enforcement!efforts,!reduces!duplication, and!maximizes!efficiency.!!The!

EEOC! and! OFCCP! conducted! a! pilot! project! in! 2011! and! 2012,! focused!on! improving! collaboration! in!

enforcement,! facilitating! joint! outreach,! and! maximizing! efficiencies! through! joint! training! and! cross!

training.!!Drawing!on! the!improved!information! sharing!provisions!in! the! revised!MOU,!the!EEOC!and!

In$ June$ 2011,$ OFCCP$ settled$ a lawsuit$

against$ multi`national$ pharmaceutical$

corporation$ AstraZeneca,$ involving$ claims$

the$ company$ paid$ certain$ female$ sales$

associates$less$than$their$male$counterparts.$

Under$ the$ terms$ of$ the$ settlement,$

AstraZeneca$agreed$to$pay$$250,000$to$124$

female employees$ who$ worked$ at$ the$

company’s$ business$ center$ in$ Wayne,$

Pennsylvania.$ AstraZeneca$ also$ agreed$ to$

re`examine$its$pay$practices$in$offices$across$

13$ states$ and$ the$ District$ of$ Columbia,$ to$

determine$ if$ women$ in$ that$ position$ were$

being$ underpaid$ and to$ adjust$ salaries$

accordingly.
31

OFCCP! worked! collaboratively! on! dozens! of! investigations! and! audits,! conducted! dozens! of! joint!

outreach! events,! and! trained! together! on! areas! of! shared! jurisdiction,! such! as! compensation!

discrimination.! ! The! collaboration! conserved! valuable! tax! dollars! by! avoiding! duplicative! effort,! and!

helped!lay!the!groundwork!for!interagency!collaboration!on!more!complex!issues!in!the!future.

The!EEOC!and!DOJ!also!worked!to!improve!interagency!collaboration!in!the!enforcement!of!federal!civil!

rights!laws,!including!equal!pay!laws.!!Through!a pilot!project!involving!the!EEOC's!Philadelphia,!Chicago,!

Los!Angeles!and!San!Francisco!District!Offices,!the!EEOC!and!DOJ!worked!to!improve!collaboration!early!

in! EEOC's! investigations! of! charges! of! discrimination! against! state! and! local! government! employers,!

thereby!reducing!the!need!for!timeWconsuming!and!duplicative!supplemental!investigations.!!Since!2010,!

the!EEOC!and!DOJ!have!collaborated!on!over!220!charges,!on!issues!including!pay!discrimination and sex!

segregation!in!assignment.!!To!date,!lawsuits!filed!as!a!result!of!the!project!have!included!one!involving!

sexWsegregated!job!assignments!at!a!correctional!facility!in!Ohio!and!one!involving!the!termination!of!an!

employee!after!she!announced!her!pregnancy.!!Additionally,!since!the!Task!Force!began,!the!EEOC!and!

DOJ!worked!together!to!bring!a!joint!enforcement!action!against!the!Texas!Department!of!Agriculture!in!

which!the!agencies!obtained!monetary!relief!under!the!Equal!Pay!Act and!Title!VII!for!three!women!who!

were!paid!less!than!their!male!counterparts.

In! addition! to! developing! the! infrastructure! to! support! a!

robust! interagency! approach! to! equal! pay! enforcement,!

Task! Force! agencies! spent! considerable! resources!

developing! the! strongest! possible! regulatory! and! policy!

framework! to! support! it.! ! One! of! the! most! notable!

achievements!in! this!area!was! the! rescission!of! two!2006!

guidance! documents! known! as! the! “Compensation!

Standards”! and! “Voluntary! Guidelines”! that! created!

arbitrary! barriers! to! OFCCP! enforcement! of! pay!

discrimination! in! violation! of! Executive! Order! 11246.! ! In!

addition!to!rescinding!the!old!guidance!documents,!OFCCP!

provided! new! guidance! for! contractors! and! other!

interested! stakeholders! setting! forth! the! procedures,! analysis! and! protocols! OFCCP! will! utilize! going!

forward.! ! These! new! procedures! align! OFCCP! enforcement! with! Title! VII! principles,! and! with! the!

approach!of!its!sister!agencies!on!the!Task!Force, the!EEOC!and!DOJ.125

Since! 2010, the! Task! Force! also! has! been! working! to! implement! the! second! recommendation! on!

improved!data!collection.!!In!August!2010,!the!EEOC!commissioned!a!study!by!the!National!Academy!of!

Sciences!to!determine!the!type!of!pay!data!the!EEOC!should!collect!to!enhance!wage!discrimination!law!

enforcement,!and!how!best!to!collect!that!data.126!!The!National!Academy!of!Sciences!issued!its!report!in!

August! 2012,! calling! on! the! EEOC,! DOJ! and! OFCCP! to! develop! a! comprehensive! plan! for! the! use! of!

compensation! data,! and! providing! analysis! of! how! compensation! data! may! be! used! in! enforcement!

efforts.127!!In!August!2011,!OFCCP!issued!an Advance!Notice!of!Proposed!Rulemaking!(ANPRM)!soliciting!

stakeholder!input!on!the!design!and!use!of!a!potential!compensation!data!collection!tool.

128!!The!EEOC,!

OFCCP!and!DOJ!are!working!in!close!coordination!to!develop!integrated,!complementary!plans! for!pay!

data!collection.!!!

Task!Force!member!agencies!also!have!made!progress!on!the!third!recommendation,!better!education!

and! outreach! for!employees! and!employers.! !In! collaboration! with! other!National! Equal! Pay! Act! Task!

Force!members,!both! the! EEOC! and the Women’s! Bureau! initiated!education!and! outreach!events! in!

Tabatha$Wagner$learned$ that$she$was$paid$

less$ than$ a$ male$ colleague$ who$ was$ hired$

after$her$at$Hyundai$Ideal$Electric$Company.$

After$ she$ raised$ the$ issue,$ she$ was$ fired$ in$

retaliation$ for$ complaining.$The$EEOC$ sued,$

and$ in$ May$ 2011,$ Hyundai$ Ideal$ Electric$

agreed$ to$ pay$ $188,000$ to$ Ms.$ Wagner$ to$

settle$the$lawsuit.$As$part$of$the$settlement,$

the$company$also$agreed$to$provide$training$

for$ all$ human$ resource$ personnel$ and$

employees$ at$ their$ Mansfield,$ Ohio$ facility,$

to$ help prevent$ future$ violation$ of$ federal$

employment$discrimination$laws.
32

cities!across!the!nation!to!educate!women!about!their!rights!and!employers!about!their!responsibilities.!

The! Bureau! released! two! new! publications,!A$Woman’s$Guide$ to$ Equal$ Pay$ Rights and!An$Employer’s$

Guide$to$Equal$Pay,!and!an!Equal!Pay!Toolkit, which!can!be!found!on!the!agency’s!website.129!!Led!by!the!

Women’s! Bureau,! the! Department! of! Labor,! in! conjunction! with! the! Equal! Pay! Task! Force,! issued! an!

“Equal! Pay! App! Challenge.”! This! challenge! invited! developers! to! use! publicly! available! data! and!

resources! to! create! applications! that! accomplish! at! least! one! of! the! following! goals:! provide! greater!

access!to!pay!data!broken!down!by!gender,!race,!and!ethnicity;!provide!interactive!tools!for!early!career!

coaching;! help! inform! negotiations;! or promote! online! mentoring.! ! The! winning! apps,! which help!

empower! and!educate! users, were!announced! at! a! ceremony! at!the!Department! of! Labor during! the!

summer!of!2012.130

All! agencies! also! are! collaborating! on! outreach! and! on! training! within! their! agencies,! which! saves!

resources!and!ensures!a!consistent!federal!strategy!on!equal!pay.!!Some!highlights!include:

x The! Department! of! Labor’s!Women’s! Bureau,! in! partnership! with! the! Department’s! Office! of!

Public!Engagement!and!Center!for!FaithWBased!Neighborhood!Partnerships,!convened!a!series!of!

briefings! to! highlight! the! plight! of! America’s! most! vulnerable! workers.! The! series,! named!

“Vulnerable!Women!Workers,”!assembled!national!women’s!organizations,!private!foundations!

and! government! agencies! to! learn!more! about! the! working! conditions! and! genderWbased! pay!

equity!challenges!of!vulnerable!workers.

x In! 2011,! the! EEOC! hosted! twentyWeight! Equal! Pay! Day! events! around! the! country! with!

participation! from! Task! Force! agency! members,! experts in! equal! pay! advocacy, and! private!

sector! leaders.! Over! 2,000! people! attended! the! various! events,! in! cities! such! as! Atlanta,!

Birmingham,!Boston,!New!York,!Phoenix,!Miami,!Nashville,!Cheyenne,!Los!Angeles,!and!Salt!Lake!

City.

x A! 2012! Equal! Pay! Tweet! Up,! hosted! by!the! Department! of! Labor with! participants! from! the!

EEOC,!DOJ! and! community! leaders,! was! a! nationally! trending! topic! and! generated! substantial!

discussion!and!visibility!around!equal!pay!efforts.

x In! 2013,! the!Women’s! Bureau! coWled!eighteen!Equal! Pay!Day!events!around! the! country!with!

participation! from! Task! Force! agency! members,! experts! in! equal! pay! advocacy, and! private!

sector!leaders.! Over!1,100!people!attended!the!various!events,!in!cities!such!as!Atlanta,!Kansas!

City,!Boston,!Dallas,!Denver,!San!Francisco,!Seattle,!Philadelphia,!and!Chicago.

x Also! in! 2013,! in! collaboration! with! the! Department! of! Labor’s! OFCCP and! Office! of! the! Chief!

Economist,! the! Women’s! Bureau! hosted! an! equal! pay! web! chat.! ! Experts! from! each! of! the!

agencies!were!on! hand! to! discuss!wage!inequality!and! ongoing! policy!initiatives,!and! directed!

participants!to!resources!designed!to!help!workers.!!More!than!350!people!participated!in!the!

chat!and!received immediate!responses!to!their!many!questions.!
33

x Finally,! the!Women’s! Bureau!maintains!a!webpage! dedicated! to! providing! the!public!with! the!

most! current! tools,! resources! and! information! on! equal! pay.! ! The! page,! found! at!

http://www.dol.gov/equalpay/, includes! the! latest! translations! of! guides for! women! and!

employers! on!equal! pay! rights! and! obligations,! links to! the!facts! sheets! on! women’s!earnings

developed!by! the!Women’s!Bureau!and! the!Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!and!OFCCP’s!Equal!Pay!

Enforcement!statistics.

The! Task! Force! also! is! working! to! ensure! the! federal!

government! is! a! model! employer! when! it! comes! to!

ensuring!equal! pay! for!all! workers,!addressing! the! fourth!

recommendation outlined! above.! ! The! EEOC! and! OPM!

continue! to! work! closely! on! equal! pay,! building! on! the!

commitment!made!by!EEOC!Chair! Jacqueline!Berrien!and!

thenWOPM! Director! John! Berry! in! their! July! 2011! joint!

memorandum! to! federal! employees! pledging! their!

commitment! to! the! vigorous! enforcement! of! pay!

discrimination! laws! as! they! apply! to! federal! employees.!!

Task! Force! members,! led! by! OPM,! have! developed! a!

number! of! programs! aimed! at! improving! women’s!

participation! at! the! highest! levels! of! federal! service,!

including!the!development!of!an!online!portal! for!Federal!

Women! Program! Managers and! programs! on! WorkWLife!

Effectiveness.!

In! order! to! further! understand! how! the! practices! of! executive! departments! and! agencies! (agencies)!

affect!the!compensation!of!similarly!situated!men!and!women,!and!to!promote!gender!pay!equality!in!

the! federal! government! and! more! broadly,! President! Obama! issued! a! May! 10,! 2013! Presidential!

Memorandum,!titled “Advancing!Pay!Equality!in!the!Federal!Government!and!Learning!from!Successful!

Practices.”! ! The! Presidential! Memorandum! directs! OPM! to! submit! a! governmentWwide strategy! to!

address! any! gender! pay! gap! in! the! federal! workforce.! ! Each! agency! is! required! to! review! pay! and!

promotion!policies!and!practices!to!facilitate!development!of!the!strategy.

During!this!time,!each!agency!also!has!substantially!increased!its!effectiveness!in!the!enforcement!of!pay!

discrimination! laws,! as! a! result! of! all! of! these! specific! improvements! in! collaboration,! coordination,!

policy,!outreach,!training, and!individual!agency!initiatives.!!!

x From! the!Task!Force’s! formation!in! January!2010!through!March!31,!2013,! the!EEOC!obtained!

over! $78!million! in! relief! for! victims! of! sexWbased! wage! discrimination! through! administrative!

enforcement.

x OFCCP! similarly! has! recovered! more! than! $33! million! in! back! wages! and! nearly! 7,000! job!

opportunities! on! behalf! of! over! 60,000! victims! of! discrimination.! ! During! this! period,! OFCCP!

reviewed! the! pay! practices! of! over! 14,000! businesses! that!employ! over! 5.6!million!workers!–

and! closed! more! than! 80! compliance! evaluations! with! financial! settlements! remedying! pay!

discrimination!on!the!basis!of!gender!and!race.!!Through!those!efforts,!OFCCP!recovered!a!total!

of! $2.5! million! in! back! pay! and! salary! adjustments! for! more! than! 1,200! workers who! were!

victims!of!pay!discrimination.!!In!2011,!OFCCP!more!than!doubled!the!number!of!compensation!

Lorelei$ Kilker$ is$ an$ analytical$ chemist$ for$ an$

environmental$ laboratory.$ $ She$ lives$ in$

Brighton,$Colorado$with$her$domestic$partner$

and$their$two$children. In$October$2011,$Ms.$

Kilker$ was$ one$ of$ a$ class$ of$ women$ who$

benefitted$ from$ the$ EEOC’s investigation$ of$

alleged$ systematic$ sex$ discrimination$ at$ her$

former$ employer.$ $ The$ EEOC$ found$ that$

Western$ Sugar$ denied$ women$ training$ and$

promotions,$ gave$ them$ less$ desirable$ work$

assignments$ and segregated$ positions$ by$

gender,$denied$year`round$employment,$and$

paid$ lower$ wages$ to$ women$ at$ its$ Ft.$

Morgan,$Colorado facility.

The$ EEOC$ obtained$ back$ wages$ and$

significant$ remedial$ relief$ through$

conciliation$with$the$employer.$
34

cases!closed!with!financial!remedies!over!the!number!closed!in!2010!– and!successfully!resolved!

an!even!greater!number!of!compensation!cases!in!2012.!!

x DOJ! concentrated!on!opening! opportunities! for!women!in! the! higher! paying!law!enforcement!

jobs! and! entered! into! settlements! with! police! departments,! correctional! facilities,! and! other!

public!employers!where!women!are!underrepresented!in!nonWtraditional!positions.131

E. 2013&and&Beyond:&&The&Way&Forward

As!we!mark!the!50th Anniversary!of!the!Equal!Pay!Act!in!2013,!the!Task!Force!has!achieved!a!number!of!

the!milestones!that!it!set!for!itself!in!2010 and!is!continuing!to!move!forward,!working!toward!passage!

of!the!Paycheck!Fairness!Act!and!addressing!the!broad!array!of!issues!that!contribute!to!inequality! for!

working!women.

In!2013, Task!Force!agencies!are!moving!from!exploring!collaboration!and!developing!collaboration!tools!

to!making! interagency! collaboration! a! regular! component! of! their! agencies’! enforcement! work.! ! This!

effort!includes!regular!triWagency!meetings!with!the!leadership!of!the!EEOC,!OFCCP!and!Department!of!

Justice!Civil!Rights!Division,!active!implementation!of!the!revitalized!MOU!to!ensure!regular!informationW

sharing!between!the!EEOC!and!OFCCP!at!the!headquarters!level!and!among the!agencies’!field!offices,!

and! the!application! of! the!lessons!of! the!interagency! pilot! projects! to!make! specific!improvements!in!

enforcement!procedures.

In!addition,!Task!Force!agencies!are!focusing!on!how!better!data!can!improve!enforcement.!!One!of!the!

biggest!obstacles!to!combating!pay!discrimination!is!that!so!many!women!do!not!know!they!are!being!

underpaid!due!to!discrimination!and!many!employers!prohibit!the!sharing!of!pay!data.!!To!address!the!

implications!of!pay!secrecy!norms!and!policies,!the!Task Force!continues!to!focus!on!the!importance!of!

pay!data!collection.!!The!EEOC,!OFCCP!and!DOJ!continue!to!work!closely!together!as!they!consider!the!

use!of!pay!data!in!enforcement!efforts.!

Better!enforcement!of!existing! civil! rights!laws!will!help,! but! those!laws!also!leave!gaps! that!must! be!

filled.! ! Congress,! too,! has! an! important! role! to! play,! by! passing! the! Paycheck! Fairness! Act.! ! This! Act!

would! address! the! current! loopholes! in! existing! law;! strengthen! remedies! for! pay! discrimination;!

increase!outreach!and!education! to!working!women;!provide! technical!assistance! to! small!businesses;!

ensure! that! employees! can! discuss! their! wages! without! risk! of! being! fired;! and! provide! additional!

research!and!resources!to!fight!pay!inequity.

Finally,!even!with!better!enforcement!and!better!laws,!we!also!need!an!equal!pay!agenda!that!addresses!

the!broad!array!of!issues!that!contribute!to!wage!inequality.!!!We!must!continue!to!enforce!the!nation’s!

laws!prohibiting!employers! from!paying!women!and!men!differently! for! the! same work.!!And we!also!

must! address! pay! discrimination within! a! broader! framework! of! practices! that! may! limit! the! full!

economic!participation!of!women!workers.

Addressing&Occupational&Segregation

For!example,!we!must!break!down!discriminatory!barriers!that!exclude!women!from!traditionally!maleW

dominated!occupations,!which!pay!more!than!traditionally! female!dominated!occupations.!!In!its!work!

on!sex!discrimination!issues,!the!DOJ has!focused!on!cases!that!open!nonWtraditional!positions – such!as!
35

police! and! correctional! officer! jobs – to! women,! and! OFCCP! has! renewed! its! focus! on! increasing!

opportunities!for!women!in!the!construction!industry.!!OFCCP’s!new!pay!discrimination!guidance!also!is!

intended!to!broaden!the!agency’s!focus!on!practices!such!as!channeling!and!glass!ceilings!that!wrongly!

exclude!women!from!higher!paying!job!opportunities.!!The!EEOC!always!has!been!a!leader!in!addressing!

systemic! discrimination! against!

women! in! employment! through!

administrative! enforcement! and!

litigation! efforts,! and! will! continue! to!

be!a!leader!in!this!realm!in!the!future.!!

In! sum,! the! agencies! are! working! to!

ensure! that! these!jobs!– solid!middleW

class! jobs! that! allow! workers! to!

provide!for!their!families’!futures!– are!

not! closed! to! women! workers! on! the!

basis!of!sex.

In! addition! to! improved! enforcement,!

we!can!educate!and!empower!workers!

to!take!better!advantage!of!these!open!

doors.! !One!example! is! the! focus! that!

the! Council! on! Women! and! Girls! and!

White! House! Office! of! Science! and!

Technology! have! placed! on! increasing!

the!participation!of!women!and!girls,!as!well!as!other!underrepresented!groups,!in!the!fields!of!science,!

technology,!engineering,!and!mathematics.!!Strategies!include!increasing! the!engagement!of!girls!with!

STEM! subjects! in! formal! and! informal! environments,! encouraging! mentoring! to! support! women!

throughout!their!academic!and!professional!experiences,!and!supporting!efforts!to!retain!women!in!the!

STEM!workforce.!!Another!example!is!providing!workers!better!information,!mentoring!and!negotiation!

tools,!through!apps such!as!those!developed!by!the!Department!of!Labor’s!app challenge.

Addressing& the& Overlay& of& Discrimination& Based& on& Race,& Ethnicity& and& Gender& in&

Compensation&

The! pay! gap! for! women! of! color! compared! with! White! men! is! bigger! than! the! gap! for! all! women!

compared!with!men.!!Task!Force!agencies!enforce!laws!that!challenge!illegal!pay!discrimination!whether!

it!is!based!on!race,!national!origin,!disability,!or!gender,!or!a!combination!of!factors.!!Understanding!and!

addressing!how!the!pay!gap!impacts!women!(and!men)!of!color!will!be!another!important!focus!in!2013!

and!beyond.!

Addressing&Discrimination&Against&Mothers&and&Caregivers

Addressing! the wage!gap! for!women!also!includes!addressing! the!problem!of!discrimination!based!on!

stereotypes! about! the! proper role! of! women! and! mothers.! ! Pregnancy! and! caregiver! discrimination!

continue! to! limit! the! employment! opportunities! of! women,! and! require! enforcement! and! public!

education!to!equal!employment!opportunity!in!our!nation’s!workplaces.!!

For$a$number$of$years$Amanda$McMillan$of$Jackson,$Mississippi$

worked$ as$ a$ secretary$ for$ the$ owner$ of$ a$ Forrest$ City$ Grocery$

Company.$ She$ was$ doing$ many$ of$ the$ same$ duties$ as$ male$

salespeople,$ but$ at$ lower$ pay.$ Despite$ repeatedly$ asking$ for$ a$

promotion$to$the$better$and$higher`paying$job$in$sales,$she$was$

told$ by$ the$ company$ that$ the$ job$ of$ a$ salesman$ was$ too$

dangerous$ for$ a$ woman,$ and$ that$ she$ would$ not$ be$ a$ good$

mother$if$she$were$on$the$road$meeting$customers.$

The$EEOC sued$Forrest$City$for$sex$discrimination$on$McMillan’s

behalf,$ and$ obtained$ $125,000$ in$ monetary$ damages$ and$ an$

agreement$to$provide$ongoing$training$for$management$on$sex$

discrimination.$$

When$asked$why$she$has$pursued$the$case,$McMillan$said,$“I’m$

doing$this$because$it$was$wrong$and$I$could$never$look$my$girls$

in$the$face$and$then$tell$them$they$live$in$America$and$could$be$

anything$they$wanted$to$be.”$
36

III.&Conclusion:&&Closing&the&Gap&– What’s&at&Stake

Closing!the!pay!gap!is!the!right!thing!to!do!– but!it!is!also!an!economic!necessity.!!Closing!the!gap!could!

have!broad!benefits!for!reducing!poverty,!growing!the!middle!class!and!boosting!our!nation’s!economic!

growth.!!Economists!widely!agree!that!reducing!inequality!is!a!net!economic!positive!– both!in!terms!of!

the!ability!of!individual!workers! to!get!better!jobs!at!better!pay,!and!in!terms!of! the!overall!beneficial!

effect!on!our!economy.!!!

Discrimination! imposes! real! costs! on! our! economy! – preventing! our! nation! from! fully! enjoying! the!

talents!of!all!its!workers,!and!unfairly!limiting!the!employment!and!wage!prospects!for!entire!classes!of!

people.! ! In! recent! decades,! increases! in! U.S.! economic! inequality! have! fallen! disproportionately! on!

women! and!minorities.! ! For!example, the! declining!value! of! the!minimum!wage! has! had! a! significant!

negative!effect!on!women!– who!head!one!quarter!of!households!with!children.

Ultimately,! the! differences! in! pay! for! women! and! men! compound! over! the! years.! ! According! to! an

analysis!by!the!Department!of!Labor’s!Chief!Economist,!by!age!25,!the!average!young!woman!working!

full!time!would!have!already!earned!$5,000!less!over!the!course!of!her!working!career!than!the!average!

25Wyear! old! man.! If! that! earnings! gap! is! not! corrected,! by! age! 65, she! will! have! lost! hundreds! of!

thousands!of!dollars!over!her!working!lifetime.

132!!Fewer!dollars!for!workers!and!their!families!means!a!

real!loss!of!economic!security,!at!a!time!when!no!family!can!afford!to!be!earning!less.!!

Since!the!1960s,!women!have!moved!into!the!paid!labor!force!in!record!numbers.!!The!share!of!women!

participating!in!the!paid!labor!force!has!increased!from!37.7 percent!in!1960!to!57.7!percent!in!2012.!!By!

2012,!female!earners!contributed!to!family!income!in!65!percent!of!the!families!with!at!least!one!wage!

earner.! ! Among! families! with! children,! the! share! is! even! larger! at! 70! percent.! ! Given! the! rising!

importance!of!women’s!earnings!in!family!income,!closing!the!pay!gap!is!important!to!improving!family!

outcomes,!such!as!reducing!the!number!of!individuals,!and!especially!children,!who!live!in!poverty.!!

What! would! happen! to! poverty! rates! if! women’s! hourly! wages! were! increased by! 10! percent,! an!

increase! that!still!would!not! fully!close! the!pay!gap?!!In!2011,!approximately!46.2!million!individuals!–

including!nearly!16!million!children!– were!living!in!poverty.!!Raising!all!working!women’s!wages!by!10!

percent! would! lift! nearly! 1.3! million! individuals! out! of! poverty,! including! more! than! half! a! million!

children.133

Reducing!occupational!segregation!also!is!likely!to!benefit!not!only!individual!workers!and!their!families,!

but!the!economy!as!a!whole.!!Reducing!inequality!means!that!individual!workers!facing!illegal!barriers!to!

good!middleWclass!jobs!or!a!fair!paycheck!will!see!personal!gains!in!employment!and!wages.!!Improving!

the! economic! prospects! of!millions! of! American! workers! and! their! families! will! increase! demand! and!

boost!job!creation!overall.!!Indeed,!a recent!paper!by!Hsieh,!Hurst,!Jones!and!Klenow!(2013)!finds!that!

15!to!20!percent!of!aggregate!wage!growth!between!1960!and!2008!was!due!to!a!decline!in!barriers!to!

occupational!choice.134!!Employers!also!stand!to benefit! from!a!more!equal!society,!as!workers!can!be!

better! matched! to! jobs! and! workplaces! increase! access! to! the! diverse! talent! we! need! to! help! our!

companies!compete!in!a!21st Century!global!economy.

Hard!work! should!lead! to!a!decent!living! for!all!Americans.!!Workers! should!know! their!worth!and!be!

empowered!to!claim!it.!!Federal!agencies!should!safeguard!the!right!to!equal!pay!and!make!certain!all!

employers! play! by! the! same! rules.! ! Employers! should! share! best! practices! for! providing! equal!

opportunity!in!the!workplace.!!!It!should!not!take!another!fifty!years!to!close!the!wage!gap.!
37

In!marking Equal! Pay!Day! this!year,! the!President!said,! “[w]age!inequality! undermines! the! promise!of!

fairness!and!opportunity!upon!which!our!country!was! founded.”!! Fifty!years!after! the!Equal!Pay!Act’s!

passage,!we!have!taken!important!steps!toward!fulfilling!that!promise,!but!our!journey!is!not!complete.

As!we!pause!to!honor!this!anniversary, we!recommit!ourselves!to closing!the!gap!– once!and!for!all.!!!
38

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 U.S.!Census!Bureau. “Women's!Earnings!as!a!Percentage!of!Men's!Earnings!by!Race!and!Hispanic!Origin.”

Historical$Income$Tables,$Table$P`40. (2011). http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/people/.! 2 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “Employed!persons!by!occupation,!sex!and!age.”!Current$

Population$Survey. (2013).!http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat09.htm. 3 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Employment!status!of!the!civilian!noninstitutional!

population!by!age,!sex,!and!race.”$Current$Population$Survey.!(2012).!http://bls.gov/cps/cpsaat03.htm;!Bureau!of!

Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Labor!Force!Participation:!75!Years!of!Change,!1950W98,!and!1998W

2025.”!(1999).!http://www.bls.gov/mlr/1999/12/art1full.pdf. 4 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“Percentage!of!Managers!who!are!women:!1940W2009.”!Women$in$the$Labor$Force.!(2010).!

http://www.census.gov/newsroom/pdf/women_workforce_slides.pdf. 5 U.S.!Census!Bureau. “Women's!Earnings!as!a!Percentage!of!Men's!Earnings!by!Race!and!Hispanic!Origin.”

Historical$Income$Tables,$Table$P`40. (2011). http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/people/.! 6 National!Center!for!Education!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Education.!“Bachelor’s,!master’s,!and!doctor’s!

degrees!conferred!by!degreeWgranting!institutions,!by!sex!of!student!and!discipline!division:!2010W2011.”!Digest$of$

Education$Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d12/tables/dt12_317.asp. 7 Herman,!A.!M.,!&!Castro,!I.!L. U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay:!A!ThirtyWFive!Year!Perspective.”!62,!Table!7.

(1998).

8 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“Census!Bureau!Reports!WomenWOwned!Firms!Numbered!7.8!Million!in!2007,!Generated!

Receipts!of!$1.2!Trillion.”!Newsroom.$(2010).!

http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/business_ownership/cb10W184.html. 9 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“Census!Bureau!Reports!WomenWOwned!Firms!Numbered!7.8!Million!in!2007,!Generated!

Receipts!of!$1.2!Trillion.”!Newsroom.$(2010).!

http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/business_ownership/cb10W184.html. 10 Herman,!A.!M.,!&!Castro,!I.!L. U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay:!A!ThirtyWFive!Year!Perspective.”!17.!(1998). 11 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “Employed!persons!by!detailed!occupation!and!sex,!2012!

annual!averages.”!Current$Population$Survey. (2013).!http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat11.htm. 12 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Women!in!the!Labor!Force:!A!Databook,!2012.”!BLS$

Reports. (2013).!http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlfWdatabookW2012.pdf. 13 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Women!in!the!Labor!Force:!A!Databook,!2012.”!BLS$

Reports. (2013).!http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlfWdatabookW2012.pdf. 14 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Median!usual!weekly!earnings!of!fullWtime!wage!and!salary!

workers,!by!sex,!marital!status, and!presence!and!age!of!own!children!under!18!years!old,!2011!annual!averages.”!

Highlights$of$Women’s$Earnings$in$2011. 45.!(2012)!http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2011.pdf. 15 U.S.!Census!Bureau. “Income,!Poverty,!and!Health!Insurance!Coverage!in!the!United!States:!!2011,”!48,!Table!AW

4.!(2012).!http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p60W243.pdf. 16 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!"Income,!Poverty,!and!Health!Insurance!Coverage!in!the!United!States:!2008."!36.!(2009).!

http://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/p60W236.pdf.! 17 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“FullWtime,!yearWround!workers!by!median!earnings!and!sex:!1960!to!2011.”!Historical$

Income$Tables.$http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/people/. 18 Lacey,!T.A!and!Wright,!B.!“Employment!Outlook:!2008W18,!Occupational!employment!projections!to!2018.”!!

Monthly$Labor$Review, November$2009.!82W123. (2008). www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2009/11/art5full.pdf.! 19 Levitan,!S.A!&!Belous,!R.S. “Working!wives!and!mothers:!!What!happens!to!family!life?”!!Monthly$Labor$Review,

September$1981.$26W30. (1981).!www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1981/09/art4full.pdf. 20 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Employment!Characteristics!of!Families—2011.”!BLS$

Reports.!(2012).!http://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.nr0.htm. 21 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “Median!usual!weekly!earnings!of!fullWtime!wage!and!salary!

workers,!by!detailed!occupation!and!sex,!2011!annual!averages.” Highlights$of$Women’s$Earnings$in$2011. Table!2.!

(2012). http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2011.pdf.!
39

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 22 U.S.!Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Median!usual!weekly!earnings!of!fullWtime!wage!and!

salary!workers!by!occupation!and!sex,!1983!and!2000!annual!averages.”!Highlights$of$women’s$Earnings$in$2000. 8.!

(2000).!http://bls.gov/cps/cpswom2000.pdf.! 23 U.S.!Glass!Ceiling!Commission. “Glass!Ceiling!Commission:!!Good!for!Business!Making!Full!Use!of!the!Nation’s!

Human!Capitol.”!(March!1995).

http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1118&context=key_workplace. 24 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “Median!usual!weekly!earnings!of!fullWtime!wage!and!salary!

workers,!by!detailed!occupation!and!sex,!2011!annual!averages.” Highlights$of$Women’s$Earnings$in$2011.$Table!2.!

(2012).!http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2011.pdf. 25 This!included!Members!of!Congress!Florence!Price!Dwyer,!Edith!Green,!Charles!Goodell,!Elizabeth!Kee,!Edna!

Kelly,!Catherine!May,!Maurine!Neuberger,!Carlton!Sickles,!and!Leonor!K.!Sullivan.!!Also!in!attendance!were!Vice!

President!Lyndon!B.!Johnson,!Assistant!Labor!Secretary!and!Director!of!the!Women’s!Bureau!Esther!Peterson,!

former!Women’s!Bureau!Director!Mary!Anderson, and!leaders!from!women’s!organizations!and!labor!unions,!

including!National!Federation!of!Business!and!Professional!Women!President!Dr.!Minnie!Miles,!National!Council!of!

Negro!Women!President!Dr.!Dorothy!Height,!National!Council!of!Jewish!Women!President!Pearl!Larner!Willen,!

YWCA!Director!Ethlyn!Christensen,!United!Auto!Workers!Women’s!Director!Caroline!Davis,!AFLWCIO!Legislative!

Director!Andrew!Biemiller,!and!General!Federation!of!Women’s!Clubs!Legislative!Director!Mary!M.!Chittenden.!

26 Kennedy,!John!F.!“Remarks!Upon!Signing!the!Equal!Pay!Act.”!The$American$Presidency$Project.$(1963).!

http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=9267. 27 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Labor!Force!Participation:!75!Years!of!Change,!1950W98,!

and!1998W2025.”!(1999). http://www.bls.gov/mlr/1999/12/art1full.pdf. 28 Harrison,!Cynthia.!“The!Equal!Pay!Act!of!1963:!!Compromise!and!Victory.”!On$Account$of$Sex:$$The$Politics$of$

Women’s$Issues$1945`1968.$89W108. (1988). 29 U.S.!Government!Printing!Office. “American!Women:!Report!of!the!President’s!Commission!on!the!Status!of!

Women!(1963).”! 30 110!Cong. Rec.!2577W2584!(1964). 31 Goodman,!B. &!Wagner,!P.M. “Makers:!!Women!Who!Make!America.”!Public$Broadcasting$System$(PBS). (2013)!!

http://www.pbs.org/makers/home/. 32 Goodman,!B. &!Wagner,!P.M. “Makers:!!Women!Who!Make!America.”!Public$Broadcasting$System$(PBS). (2013)!!

http://www.pbs.org/makers/home/. 33 Frankel,!M.!Tighter$Rules$on$Job$Prejudice$Against$Women$Issued$by$U.S,$N.Y.!Times,!June!10,!1970.! 34 Herman,!A.!M.,!&!Castro,!I.!L. U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay:!A!ThirtyWFive!Year!Perspective.”!51.!(1998). 35 29!CFR!§!541.0. 36 Equal!Employment!Opportunity!Commission. “Timeline!of!Important!EEOC!Events.”

http://www.eeoc.gov/youth/history.html. 37 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Labor!Force!Participation:!75!Years!of!Change,!1950W98,!

and!1998W2025.”!(1999).!http://www.bls.gov/mlr/1999/12/art1full.pdf. 38 Herman,!A.!M.,!& Castro,!I.!L. U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay:!A!ThirtyWFive!Year!Perspective.”!Appendix!A,!

Table!1.!(1998).

39 Herman,!A.!M.,!&!Castro,!I.!L. U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay:!A!ThirtyWFive!Year!Perspective.”!19.!(1998). 40 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “Labor!force!participation!rates!by!sex,!race,!and!Hispanic!

or!Latino!ethnicity,!1972W2009!annual!averages.”!Labor$Force$Characteristics$by$Race$and$ethnicity,$2009. (2010).!

http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsrace2009.pdf. 41 B.I.G.!Enterprises,!Inc.!and!the!Institute!for!Women’s!Policy!Research.!“An!analysis!of!pay!disparities!between!

women!and!men!by!selected!demographic!characteristics,!1960!to!2010.”!White$Paper,$Prepared$for$the$U.S.$

Department$of$Labor,$Women’s$Bureau. (2012).! 42 Herman,!A.!M.,!&!Castro,!I.!L. U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay:!A!ThirtyWFive!Year!Perspective.”!Appendix!A,!

Table!2.!(1998).

43 Herman,!A.!M.,!&!Castro,!I.!L. U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay:!A ThirtyWFive!Year!Perspective.”!19.!(1998).
40

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 44 Herman,!A.!M.,!&!Castro,!I.!L. U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay:!A!ThirtyWFive!Year!Perspective.”!Appendix!B,!

Table!1.!(1998).

45 Herman,!A.!M.,!&!Castro,!I.!L. U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay:!A!ThirtyWFive!Year!Perspective.”!Appendix!A,!

Table!3.!(1998).

46 U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “Women’s!History/Our!History:!!The!Remarkable!Bessie!Margolin,”!!DOL$News$Brief,!

March$14,$2013.!http://www.dol.gov/_sec/newsletter/2013/20130314.htm;!Schultz!v.!Wheaton!Glass!Co., 421!

F.2d!259!(3d Cir.!1970),!cert.!denied!398!U.S.!905!(1970). 47 Corning!Glass!Works!v.!Brennan,!417!U.S.!188!(1974). 48 Herman,!A.!M.,!&!Castro,!I.!L. U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay:!A!ThirtyWFive!Year!Perspective.”!52.!(1998). 49 U.S.!Census!Bureau. “Income,!Poverty,!and!Health!Insurance!Coverage!in!the!United!States:!2011.”!!48,!Table!AW

4.!(2012).!http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p60W243.pdf. 50 County!of!Washington!v.!Gunther, 452!U.S.!161!(1981). 51 National!Committee!on!Pay!Equity.!“Questions!and!Answers!on!Pay!Equity.” (2013). http://www.payW

equity.org/infoWQ&A.html.! 52 Equal!Employment!Opportunity!Commission. “Policy!Guidance!on!Current!Issues!of!Sexual!Harassment.” (1990).

http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/currentissues.html;!Meritor!Savings!Bank!v.!Vinson, 477!U.S.!57!(1986). 53 U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“The!!Federal!Glass!Ceiling!Commission,!A!Solid!Investment:!!Making!Full!Use!of!the!

Nation’s!Human!Capitol.” (March!1985).!http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/reich/reports/ceiling2.htm. 54 U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Wage!and!Hour!Division,!The!Family!and!Medical!Leave!Act!Overview.”!(2013).!

http://www.dol.gov/whd/fmla/index.htm. 55 National!Center!for!Education!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Education. “Degrees!Conferred!by!degreeWgranting!

institutions,!by!level!of!degree!and!sex!of!student:!Selected!years,!1869W70!through!2019W20.” (2010).!

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/2011015_3b.pdf. 56 National!Center!for!Education!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Education. “Degrees!Conferred!by!degreeWgranting!

institutions,!by!level!of!degree!and!sex!of!student:!Selected!years,!1869W70!through!2019W20.” (2010).!

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/2011015_3b.pdf. 57 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Median!usual!weekly!earnings!of!fullWtime!wage!and!salary!

workers!25!years!and!older,!in!constant!(2011)!dollars,!by!sex and!educational!attainment,!1979W2011!annual!

averages.”!Highlights$of$Women’s$Earnings$in$2011. 67W68.!(2012). http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2011.pdf. 58 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Median!usual!weekly!earnings!of!fullWtime!wage!and!salary!

workers!25!years!and!older,!in!constant!(2011)!dollars,!by!sex!and!educational!attainment,!1979W2011!annual!

averages.”!Highlights$of$Women’s$Earnings$in$2011. 60.!(2012). http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2011.pdf. 59 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Median!usual!weekly!earnings!of!fullWtime!wage!and!salary!

workers!25!years!and!older,!in!constant!(2011)!dollars,!by!sex!and!educational!attainment,!1979W2011!annual!

averages.”!Highlights$of$Women’s$Earnings$in$2011. 67.!(2012). http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2011.pdf. 60 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “Civilian!labor!force!participation!rates!by!age,!sex,!race,!

and!ethnicity,!1990,!2000,!2010,!and!projected!2020.”!(2012).!http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_table_303.htm. 61 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“Employment!status!of!women!by!marital!status!and!presence!and!age!of!children:!1970!to!

2009.” (2012). http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0599.pdf.! 62 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“Employment!status!of!women!by!marital!status!and!presence!and!age!of!children:!1970!to!

2009.” (2012). http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0599.pdf.! 63 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“Civilian!labor!forceW percent!distribution!by!sex!and!age:!1980!to!2010.”!(2012).!

http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0592.pdf.! 64 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “Contribution!of!wives’!earnings!to!family!income,!1970W

2010.”!Women$in$the$Labor$Force:$A$Databook.$81.!(2013).!http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlfWdatabookW2012.pdf.! 65 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Wives!who!earn!more!than!their!husbands,!1987W2010.”!

Women$in$the$Labor$Force:$A$Databook.$82.!(2013).!http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlfWdatabookW2012.pdf. 66 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“FullWtime,!yearWround!workers!by!median!earnings!and!sex:!1960!to!2011.”!Historical$

Income$Tables. (2011) http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/people/.!!
41

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 67 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“Money!income!in!the!United!States:!1996.”!(1997).!

https://www.census.gov/prod/3/97pubs/P60W197.PDF.! 68 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“Women's!Earnings!as!a!Percentage!of!Men's!Earnings!by!Race!and!Hispanic!Origin.”!

Historical$Income$Tables,$Table$P`40.!(2011).!http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/people/. 69 U.S.!Census!Bureau. “Income,!Poverty,!and!Health!Insurance!Coverage!in!the!United!States:!2011.”!!48,!Table!AW

4.!!(2012).!http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p60W243.pdf. 70 Council!of!Economic!Advisors,!The!White!House.!“Explaining!Trends!in!the!Gender!Wage!Gap.”!(1998).!!

http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/CEA/html/gendergap.html. 71 U.S.!Equal!Employment!Opportunity!Commission.!!EEOC!Notice!No.!915.002. (October!29,!2007).

http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/coaches.html. 72 Advisory!Group!of!Women!of!Silicon!Valley.!“Unfinished!Business:!!The!Women!in!Silicon!Valley!Economy.”

Collaborative$Economics. (April!2011).!http://www.coecon.com/Reports/Archives/UnfinishedBusiness.pdf. 73 National!Center!for!Veterans!Analysis!and!Statistics, U.S.!Department!of!Veterans!Affairs. America’s$Women$

Veterans,$Military$Service$History$and$VA$Benefit$Utilization$Statistics. (November!23,!2011).!!

http://www.va.gov/VETDATA/docs/SpecialReports/Final_Womens_Report_3_2_12_v_7.pdf. 74 National!Center!for!Education!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Education. “Degrees!Conferred!by!degreeWgranting!

institutions,!by!level!of!degree!and!sex!of!student:!Selected!years,!1869W70!through!2019W20.” (2010).!

http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/2011015_3b.pdf. 75!!Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “Median!usual!weekly!earnings!of!fullWtime!wage!and!

salary!workers!25!years!and!over!by!sex,!race,!Hispanic!or!Latino!ethnicity,!and!educational!attainment,!annual!

averages!1979W2011.”!(unpublished!table). 76 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!"Income,!poverty,!and!health!insurance!coverage!in!the!United!States:!2011."!48,!Table!AW4.!

(2012).!http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p60W243.pdf. 77 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“Educational!AttainmentWWFullWTime,!YearWRound!Workers!25!Years!Old!and!Over!by!Median!

Earnings!and!Sex:!1991!to!2011.”!Historical$Income$Tables.$(2011).!

http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/people/. 78!!U.S.!Census!Bureau.!"Income,!poverty,!and!health!insurance!coverage!in!the!United!states:!2011."!48,!TABLE!AW

4.!(2012).!http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p60W243.pdf.! 79 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Civilian labor!force!participation!rates!by!age,!sex,!race,!

and!ethnicity,!1990,!2000,!2010,!and!projected!2020.” (2012). http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_table_303.htm. 80 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “Unpublished!marital!and!family!tables.”!Current$

Population$Survey.!!49,!Table!3.!! 81 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Employment!status!of!the!civilian!noninstitutional!

population!by!sex,!age,!presence!and!age!of!youngest!child,!marital!status,!race,!and!Hispanic!origin,!March!2010.”!

Current$Population$Survey. 25,!Table!3.!(2010).! 82 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “Employment!status!of!women!by!presence!and!age!of!

youngest!child,!marital!status,!race,!and!Hispanic!or!Latino!ethnicity,!March!2010.”!Women$In$the$Labor$Force:$A$

Databook. 15,!Table!6.!(2011). http://bls.gov/cps/wlfWdatabookW2011.pdf. 83 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“Civilian!Labor!ForceW Percent!Distribution!by!sex!and!age:!1980!to!2010.”!

(2012). http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0592.pdf. 84 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Contribution!of!wives’!earnings!to!family!income,!1970W

2010.”!Women$in$the$Labor$Force:$A$Databook.$81.!(2013). http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlfWdatabookW2012.pdf. 85 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Wives!who!earn!more!than!their!husbands.”!Women$in$

the$Labor$Force:$A$Databook. 82.!(2013).!http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlfWdatabookW2012.pdf. 86 Equal!Employment!Opportunity!Commission. “Equal!Pay!Act!Charges!(includes!concurrent!charges!with!Title!VII,!

ADEA!and!ADA)!FY!1997W FY!2012.”!(2013). http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/statistics/enforcement/epa.cfm.! 87 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics, U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “More!Couples!are!Working!Longer,”!Working$in$the$21st

Century:$$Chartbook.!(2013).!http://www.bls.gov/opub/working/page17b.htm. 88 Equal!Employment!Opportunity!Commission. “Employer!Best!Practices!for!Workers!With!Caregiving!

Responsibilities.”!(2007). http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/caregiverWbestWpractices.html.
42

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 89 Ledbetter!v.!Goodyear!Tire!&!Rubber!Co., 550!U.S.!618!(2007). 90 TAP$Talks$with$Lilly$Ledbetter.!The!American!Prospect,$April!23,!2008.

http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=tap_talks_with_lilly_ledbetter. 91 National!Equal!Pay!Enforcement!Task!Force. “National!Equal!Pay!Enforcement!Task!Force.”!The$White$House.$.!

(2010).!http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/equal_pay_task_force.pdf. 92 In!2010,!women!on!average earned!81!cents!for!every!dollar!earned!by!a!man.!!Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!

Department!of!Labor.!!Women$at$Work. (2011).! In!2011!and!2012,!that!figure!fluctuated!between!80!and!82!cents.!!

Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Labor!Force!Statistics!from!Current!Population!Survey.”!

Current$Population$Survey.!http://www.bls.gov/cps/earnings.htm#demographics;!Updated!quarterly!CPS!earnings!

figures!by!demographics!by!quarter!through!the!end!of!2012!available$at

http://www.bls.gov/news.release/wkyeng.t01.htm. 93 U.S.!Census Bureau. “Income,!Poverty!and!Health!Insurance!Coverage!in!the!United!States.”!Current$Population$

Reports$2011. (Sept.!2012). http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p60W243.pdf.!! 94 Calculated!from!Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics!CPS!data,!available$at$http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsrace2011.pdf. 95 A!March!2011!White!House!report!entitled!“Women!in!America:!Indicators!of!Social!and!Economic!WellWBeing,”!

found!that!while!earnings!for!women!and!men!typically!increase!with!higher!levels!of!education,!maleWfemale!pay!

gap!persists!at!all!levels!of!education!for!fullWtime!workers!(35!or!more!hours!per!week),!according!to!2009!Bureau!

of!Labor!Statistics!wage!data.!!Potentially!nonWdiscriminatory!factors!can!explain!some!of!the!gender!wage!

differences. Even!so,!after!controlling!for!differences!in!skills!and!job!characteristics,!women!still!earn!less!than!

men. Council!of!Economic!Advisors.!!“Explaining!Trends!in!the!Gender!Wage!Gap.”!(June!1998);!see$also,$

Hegewisch,!A.,!Williams,!C.,!Harbin,!V.!The Gender$Wage$Gap$by$Occupation. (2012).!(women’s!median!earnings!

less!than!men!in!virtually!all!occupations);!LoSasso,!A.!T.,!et!al.!“The!$16,819!Pay!Gap!For!Newly!Trained!Physicians:!

The!Unexplained!Trend!Of!Men!Earning!More!Than!Women.”!30$Health$Affairs 193. (2011).!!Ultimately,!the!

research!literature!still!finds!an!unexplained!gap!exists!even!after!accounting!for!potential!explanations,!and!finds!

that!the!narrowing!of!the!pay!gap!for!women!has!slowed!since!the!1980s.!Jacobsen, J.P. The$Economics$of$Gender.

44. (2007);!Blau,!F.D.!&!Kahn, L.M. “The!U.S.!gender!pay!gap!in!the!1990s:!slowing!convergence.” 60$Industrial$and$

Labor$Relations$Review$45. (2006).!!In!addition!to!the!gender!pay!gap,!scholars!have!found!race!and!ethnicityW

based!pay!gaps!that!put!workers!of!color!at!a!disadvantage. Altonji,!J.G. and!Blank, R.!M. “Race!and!Gender!in!the!

Labor!Market,”!in Handbook$of$Labor$Economics (Ashenfelter,!O. and!Card,!D.,!eds.).!3143. (1999). 96 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Women!in!the!Labor!Force:!A!Databook”!BLS$Reports. 12W

13,!Table!3.!(2013). http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlfWdatabookW2012.pdf. 97 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Women!in!the!Labor!Force:!A!Databook”!BLS$Reports. 1;!

13W15,!Table!4.!(2013). http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlfWdatabookW2012.pdf. 98 National!Center!for!Education!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Education.!“Bachelor’s,!master’s,!and!doctor’s!

degrees!conferred!by!degreeWgranting!institutions,!by!sex!of!student!and!discipline!division:!!2009W10.”!!U.S. Digest$

of$Education$Statistics.!Table!290.!(2011).!http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d11/tables/dt11_290.asp.! 99 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Women!in!the!Labor!Force:!A!Databook,!2012.”!BLS$

Reports. (2013).!http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlfWdatabookW2012.pdf. 100 Goldin,!C. Understanding$the$Gender$Gap:$An$Economic$History$of$American$Women (1990). 101 CEA!calculations!based!on!Current!Population!Survey. 102 Women’s!Bureau,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor. “20!Leading!Occupations!of!Employed!Women,!2010.”!(2010).!

http://www.dol.gov/wb/factsheets/20lead2010.htm. 103 Women’s!Bureau,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Nontraditional!Occupations!of!Employed!Women!in!2010.”!

(2010).!http://www.dol.gov/wb/stats/NontraJobs_2010.htm.! 104 Herman,!A.!M.,!&!Castro,!I.!L. U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay:!A!ThirtyWFive!Year!Perspective.”!18.!(1998). 105 Blau,!F.D.,!Brummund,!P.!and!YungWHsu!Liu,!A. “Trends!in!Occupational!Segregation!by!Gender!1970W2009:!

Adjusting!for!the!Impact!of!Changes!in!the!Occupational!Coding!System.”!NBER$Working$Paper. (2012). 106 U.S.!Department!of!Commerce,!Economics!and!Statistics!Administration. “Women!in!STEM:!A!Gender!Gap! to!

Innovation.”!(August!2011).
43

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 107 U.S.!Department!of!Veterans!Affairs.!“America’s!Women:!!Past,!Present!and!Future,!(2007).”

http://www.va.gov/VETDATA/docs/SpecialReports/Womenveterans_Past_Present_Future_9W30W07a.pdf. 108 U.S.!Census!Bureau.!“Facts!for!Features:!Women’s!History!Month.”!Newsroom.$(2013).!

http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb13`ff04.html. 109 Alliance!for!National!Defense.!“Women!in!Combat.”!Issue$Paper.

http://www.4militarywomen.org/Women_in_Combat.htm. 110 Becker,!G. The$Economics$of$Discrimination. (1957);!Goldin,!C. “A!Pollution!Theory!of!Discrimination:!Male!and!

Female!Differences!in!Occupations!and!Earnings.”!NBER$Working$Paper.!(2002). 111 Mincer,!J. and!Polachek,!S. “Family!Investments!in!Human!Capital:!Earnings!of!Women.”!Journal$of$Political$

Economy 82:2. (1974). 112 Blau,!F.D.,!Ferber,!M.A.,!Winkler,!A.E.!The$Economics$of$Women,$Men,$and$Work$(6th$Edition).!(2010). 113 Weinberger,!Catherine!J.!“An!Economist’s!Perspective!on!Women!in!the!IT!Workforce.” Encyclopedia$of$Gender$

and$Information$Technology,$Information$Science$Publishing$(Idea$Group). (2006). 114 Hunt,!J.!“Why!do!Women!Leave!Science!and!Engineering?”!NBER$Working$Paper. (2010). 115 U.S.!Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Employed!persons!by!occupation,!sex!and!age.”!

Current$Population$Survey. (2013).!http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat09.htm. 116 Institute!for!Women’s!Policy!Research.!!“New!Study:!!Men Earn!More!Than!Women!Within!Nearly!All!the!Most!

Common!Occupations.”!(2012).!!http://www.iwpr.org/pressWroom/pressWreleases/newWstudyWmenWearnWmoreW

thanWwomenWwithinWnearlyWallWtheWmostWcommonWoccupations.!In!a!recent!review!of!2010!Census!data,!Bloomberg!

found!only!one!of!285!major!occupations!where!women’s!median!pay!was!higher!than!that!of!men!– personal!care!

and!service!workers.!Bass,!F.!Shining!Shoes!Best!Way!Wall!Street!Women!Outearn!Men,!Bloomberg.!!(Mar.!16,!

2012).!Available$at http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012W03W16/shiningWshoesWbestWwayWwallWstreetWwomenW

outearnWmen.html 117 LoSasso,!A.!T.,!et!al.!“The!$16,819!Pay!Gap!For!Newly!Trained!Physicians:!The!Unexplained!Trend!Of!Men!

Earning!More!Than!Women.”!30$Health$Affairs$193. (2011). Available$at

http://content.healthaffairs.org/content/30/2/193.abstract.!!Catalyst!also!reviewed!2011!government!data!

showing!a!gender!pay!gap!for!women!lawyers,!and!that!data!confirms!that!the!gap exists!for!a!range!of!

professional!and!technical!occupations. Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!!“Median!weekly!

earnings!of!fullWtime!wage!and!salary!workers!by!detailed!occupation!and!sex.”!(2012).!

http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat39.pdf. 118 Bureau!of!Labor!Statistics,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!!“Median!weekly!earnings!of!fullWtime!wage!and!salary!

workers!by!detailed!occupation!and!sex.”!(2012).!http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat39.pdf;! LoSasso,!A.!T.,!et!al.!“The!

$16,819!Pay!Gap!For!Newly!Trained!Physicians:!The!Unexplained!Trend!Of!Men!Earning!More!Than!Women.”!30$

Health$Affairs$193. (2011). Available$at http://content.healthaffairs.org/content/30/2/193.abstract. 119 Benard,!S.,!Paik,!I.,!and!Correll,!S.!J.!“Cognitive!Bias!and!the!Motherhood!Penalty.”!!59$Hastings$L.J.$1359.!!(2007W

2008);!Benard,!S.,!Paik,!I.,!and!Correll,!S.!J.!“Getting!a!Job:!!Is!There!a!Motherhood!Penalty?”!!112!Am.$J.$of$

Sociology$5.!!(March!2007).!http:/gender.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/motherhoodpenalty.pdf. 120 Office!of!the!Press!Secretary.!“Remarks!by!the!President!in!the!State!of!the!Union!Address.”!The$White$House.$

(2010).!http://www.whitehouse.gov/theWpressWoffice/remarksWpresidentWstateWunionWaddress.!! 121 These!include!Title!VII!of!the!Civil!Rights!Act!of!1964!(enforced!by!the!EEOC,!DOJ!and!OPM),!the!Equal!Pay!Act!

(enforced!by!EEOC!and!OPM),!and!Executive!Order!11246!(enforced!by!DOL).

122 Sutphen,!M. “Putting!Washington!at!the!Service!of!the!Middle!Class.”!The$White$House$Rural$Council.$(2010).

http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2010/01/27/puttingWwashingtonWserviceWmiddleWclass. 123 National!Equal!Pay!Enforcement!Task!Force. “National!Equal!Pay!Enforcement!Task!Force.”!The$White$House.$

(2010).!http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/equal_pay_task_force.pdf. 124 Office!of!the!Vice!President.!“Vice!President!Biden!Holds!Middle!Class!Task!Force!Event!on!Work!and!Family.”!

The$White$House. (2010).!http://www.whitehouse.gov/theWpressWoffice/viceWpresidentWbidenWholdsWmiddleWclassW

taskWforceWeventWworkWandWfamily. 125 Both!the!Notice!of!Rescission!and!the!new!guidance!information!can!be!found!at!

http:www.dol.gov/ofccp/compguidance.!
44

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 126 Division!of!Behavioral!and!Social!Sciences!and!Education.!“Measuring!and!Collecting!Pay!Information!from!U.S.!

Employers!by!Gender,!Race,!and!National!Origin”!The$National$Academies.$(2010).!

http://www8.nationalacademies.org/cp/projectview.aspx?key=49344. 127 The!National!Acadamies!Press.!“Collecting!Compensation!Data!from!Employers.”!National$Acadamies$of$

Sciences. (2012). http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13496.! 128 76!Fed.!Reg. 49398!(Aug. 10,!2011).! 129 U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay.” (2012).!http://www.dol.gov/equalpay/ 130 The!Women’s!Bureau,!U.S.!Department!of!Labor.!“Equal!Pay!App!Challenge:!!Final!Results!and!Prize!Winners.”!

(2012). http://www.dol.gov/equalpay/appsWwinners.htm. 131 The!White!House.!“Accomplishments!of!the!Equal!Pay!Task!Force:!!Fighting!for!Fair!Pay!in!the!Workplace.” (April!

2012). http://m.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/equal_pay_task_force.pdf. 132 White!House!Council!on!Women!and!Girls. “The!Key!to!an!Economy!Built!to!Last.” (April!2012).

http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/keeping_americas_women_moving_forward.pdf. 133 See!Appendix!for!methods!used!to!calculate!new!poverty!figures. 134 Hsieh,!C.,!Hurst, E. Jones,!C.!I.,!Klenow,!P.!J.!“The!Allocation!of!Talent!and!U.S.!Economic!Growth.”!NBER$

Working$Paper.!(2013).

Appendix:&Methods&Used&to&Compute&New&Poverty&Rates

To!simulate!what!would!happen!if!we!increased!female!earnings,!we!used!data!from!the2012!March!

Annual!Social!and!Economic!Supplement!to!the!Current!Population!Survey!(CPS).!!Using!the!same!

poverty!universe!incorporated!by!the!Census!Bureau!(http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p60W

243.pdf),!we!increased!the!annual!earnings!of!working!women!age!18!and!over!by!10!percent.!!Doing!so!

would!lift!nearly!1.3!million!individuals!out!of!poverty!(Table!A1,!column!5).!!It!would!also!lift!more!than!

700,000!people!out!of!poverty!who!live!in!single!femaleWheaded!families!with!children.!!About!550,000!

children!would!be!brought!out!of!poverty!under!such!an!exercise,!with!over!400,000!children!coming!

from!families!with!single!mothers.
45

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Number!in!Poverty Percent Number!in!Poverty Percent Number Percent

Total4Individuals 46,247 15.0 44,952 14.6 1,295 0.4

Individuals4in4Families4with4Children4

Under418 27,505 18.5 26,535 17.8 969 0.7

!!!Female!Reference!Person!Family 15,193 42.7 14,460 40.7 733 2.1

!!!HusbandWWife!Family 10,434 9.9 10,203 9.7 231 0.2

Individuals4in4Families4with4No4

Children4Under418 18,742 11.8 18,417 11.6 325,735 0.2

Children4in4Families4with4Children4

Under418 15,963 21.7 15,416 21.0 547 0.7

!!!Female!Reference!Person!Family 9,525 46.2 9,086 44.1 440 2.1

!!!HusbandWWife!Family 5,320 11.0 5,214 10.8 106 0.2

Source:!Current!Population!Survey,!March!2012

Note:!!Families!include!related!and!unrelated!subfamilies

Table4A1:44Individuals4and4Children4in4Poverty4Before4and4After4Increasing4Female4Earnings410%44(Number4in4Thousands)

Original New Difference

Individuals

Children