Proceedings of the Fourteenth Meeting of Caribbean Foresters

in Dominica

April 29-May 2, 2008

A Publication of the USDA Forest Service

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

Río Piedras, Puerto Rico

2009

LINKING CONSERVATION, TOURISM AND 

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE CARRIBEAN.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Caribbean foresters enjoy an excursion on the Sindicate Nature Trail located at 550 m in the 

Lower montane rain forest of north central Dominica. The recreation site, managed by the 

Dominican Forest Service, contains several majestic, centuries-old specimens of gommier 

(Dacryodes excelsa) and the elaborately buttressed Chataignier (Sloanea spp.). 

Cover photo: Cabris National Park encompasses a peninsular coastal dry forest of >500 ha 

in northwestern Dominica overlooking Prince Rupert Bay near the town of Portsmouth. 

The ruins of Fort Shirley, an 18th century British garrison that housed 600 soldiers, is one of 

the island’s favorite tourist attractions. 

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, 

national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, 

genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance 

program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication 

of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice 

and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., 

Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider 

and employer.
LINKING CONSERVATION, TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT IN THE CARIBBEAN

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FOURTEENTH MEETING

OF CARIBBEAN FORESTERS INDOMINICA

APRIL 28-MAY 2, 2008

Compiled and Edited by 

Peter L.Weaver and Gerald P. Bauer

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

A Publication of the USDA Forest Service

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

Río Piedras, Puerto Rico

2009
TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE iv

COUNTRY REPORTS (LISTED ALPHABETICALLY BY COUNTRY)

Linking conservation, tourism and sustainable development in the 

Caribbean -- Barbados

Michelle Wilson 1

The contribution of national parks and ecotourist sites to the socio-economic

development of Dominica

Cyrille John 6

 

Tourism and Sustainable development in French Guyana

Jean Obstancias 13

Linking conservation, tourism and sustainable development in Guadeloupe F.W.I.

Samuel Lardeux, René Dumont, and Fabien Chelles 16

Sustainable forest management in Guyana

Jagdesh Singh 22

Linking conservation, tourism and sustainable development in the

Caribbean – Jamaica 

Glen R. Ivey and Ainsworth D. Grant 28

Conservation, tourism and sustainable development in Montserrat 

Lloyd Martin 33

Conservation, tourism and sustainable development across the Caribbean:

Country report – St. Lucia

Michael Bobb 36

Foraging linkages with conservation, tourism and development in 

St. Kitts and Nevis

Ronel Browne 40

ii
Linking conservation, tourism and sustainable development: St. Vincent and

the Grenadines 

Andrew Lockhart 44

Linking conservation tourism and sustainable development in Suriname

Bryan R.I. Pinas 49

Linking conservation, tourism and sustainable development in the 

Caribbean - Tobago situation

William A. Trim 52

Integrating biodiversity conservation into the tourism sector in Trinidad 

– A case study of effective local community participation

Kathleen Belcon 55

PHOTO GALLERY

 Conference, Sindicate Nature Trail, Cabris National Park 70

ADDITIONAL PAPERS

 (LISTED IN ORDER OF MEETING PRESENTATIONS)

Permanent plot monitoring in Grenada’s montane rain forest

Peter L. Weaver, Dean Jules and the Grenada Forestry Department staff 74

Conservation strategies: long-term monitoring of permanent plots in 

Caribbean forest reserves

Peter L. Weaver 81

SUMMARY OF WORKING GROUP PRESENTATIONS:

Linking forest, ecotourism, and sustainable development

Constance Carpenter 101

LINKING FORESTRY, ECOTOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE 

DEVELOPMENT: A CALL TO ACTION 104

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS AND CONTRIBUTORS 106

iii
PREFACE

iv

The afternoon before the start of the 14th meeting of Caribbean Foresters I checked into 

my hotel room at Dominica and enjoyed the beautiful ocean view from my hotel room. Clearly we 

were staging our meeting in a tropical island paradise. The next day as soon as I woke up, I opened 

the windows to enjoy the view, and to my surprise, there was what appeared to be a gigantic building obstructing my view to the ocean. Quickly I realized that it was not a building but a cruise ship 

that had arrived during the night and moored in front of my hotel room. With that shock, I realized 

that Dominica had changed dramatically since Caribbean Foresters met there in 1988. Walking the 

streets of Roseau, the capital city of Dominica, I could see the new economic activity in the vicinity of the docks, where these gigantic ships arrived periodically with a great number of tourists that 

could temporarily increase and even double the human population of the island, thus increasing the 

pressure on its natural resources.

The nature and magnitude of the effects of tourism in the Caribbean Islands was the subject 

of the meeting that took me to Dominica, and this publication summarizes what each island representative had to say about the subject. The picture that emerges is that Caribbean Islands have an 

enormous appeal to tourists and have a lot to offer and benefit from tourism. However, the natural 

resources are vulnerable to intensive use and are beginning to show the wear and tear of overuse. 

When is too much enough? Could tourism kill the goose that lays the golden egg in the Caribbean? 

What are the plusses and minuses of this economic activity that clearly has a lot to offer to the wellbeing of islanders and their governments?

The meeting and this publication culminated with a call to action (p 104), which clearly 

states the issues and provides reasonable and urgent actions that all governments in the Caribbean 

should consider. There are ways for Caribbean Islands to benefit from the marvelous natural resources that they possess, for the world to share this natural wealth, and to do so without destroying 

the resource or impoverishing the region. For me, I very much enjoyed the view from my room 

the day after the ship left, and the whole experience made me realize the difficult issues facing 

resource managers in the region and how difficult the discussions must be when governments plan 

the critical balance between social, economic, and ecological sustainability. I trust this publication 

will help enlighten the discussion.

Ariel E. Lugo

Río Piedras, Puerto Rico

October 10, 2009.
1

LINKING CONSERVATION, TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE 

DEVELOPMENT IN THE CARIBBEAN -- BARBADOS

Michelle Wilson

INTRODUCTION

Barbados, situated approximately 480 

km north of South America, is the most easterly of the chain of islands in the Caribbean 

Sea. It is located at a latitude of 13o 10’ N and 

longitude 59o 35’ W. The island is pear-shaped 

and has a total land area of 432 km2. Barbados 

measures 54 km from north to south and 22 km 

at its widest point from east to west. Barbados 

has a tropical maritime climate. The average 

annual rainfall is 1500 mm and average daily 

temperatures range between 24 and 29 oC. The 

prevailing north easterly trade winds average 

14 to 24 km/hr. 

Barbados is an oceanic island which 

is made up of coral limestone overlaying base 

materials of sand, shale, and mudstone. The 

topography is undulating, rising from the south 

to west in a series of gently sloping coral terraces interrupted by deep gullies with almost 

vertical cliffs. Mount Hillaby, located in the 

north-central area at the edge of the Scotland 

District, rises to 336 m and is the highest point 

on the island. 

The Scotland District, shaped like a 

triangle, is located in northeastern Barbados. 

Accounting for 14% of the island’s area, the 

topography of the District is somewhat different from the rest of Barbados. The terrain is 

naturally rugged and houses the only remaining primary forest on the island. Recently, 

ecotourism has increased within the District.

Barbados, with a population of approximately 281,000, is one of the most densely 

populated islands in the Caribbean. Historically, its economy was chiefly based on agriculture and related activities. Today, however, 

the mainstay of the economy is tourism and 

light manufacturing while agriculture plays a 

supportive role.

TOURISM IN BARBADOS

 Barbados is considered to be one of the 

more mature Caribbean tourism destinations 

and it is believed to be one of the first islands 

in the West Indies to recognise the potential 

of tourism as a business. The island was an 

attraction for wealthy British nationals before 

World War II; however, large scale tourism development only dates back to the late 1950s 

and early 1960s (Ministry of Tourism and International Transport 2001). 

 In the mid-1950s, political leaders 

supported the gradual move of the economy 

from agriculture to tourism through a range of 

government supported initiatives to encourage 

private investment in tourism. In 1958, the 

Barbados Tourism Board was established and 

the government promoted loans for the construction and purchase of hotels and associated 

real estate. In the early 1960s and 1970s, there 

was an upsurge in the tourism industry with 

total tourist arrivals increasing from 17,829 

in 1956 to 222,080 in 1973 (Table 1). Steady 

growth in the industry increased tourist arrivals from 369,915 in 1980 to 461,259 in 1989. 

Hotels and infrastructural development also 

increased. During this expansion, little attention was given to long-term integrated planning or to environmental and social carrying 

capacities. Achievement of economical objectives was emphasized rather than sustainable 
2

Year

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

UK

1170

1398

1523

1735

2102

2901

3363

4765

6174

6673

8304

9622

11493

10168

12083

13621

14851

17690

23782

24802

25843

25481

35718

49430

56226

72090

51145

47662

46274

38822

47590

79152

101231

118122

94890

88166

88759

100071

123455

126621

139588

155986

186690

202772

226787

217466

192606

202564

213947

202765

Canada

1859

2142

2499

3359

3755

5429

7944

9991

10923

14212

16372

18293

27879

31617

39609

53690

61918

68639

77246

75517

73005

83749

91192

92745

84934

69897

56619

53198

67307

70573

60285

64349

65667

65564

57841

46287

49999

49190

52286

53373

54928

58824

59946

57333

59957

52381

46754

49641

50032

47690

USA

4133

6721

7072

8554

9716

10322

11688

13154

15138

19811

23827

29813

41287

52689

57111

68487

75525

74779

66237

54984

56041

70389

85473

91354

85971

74472

75511

113989

140201

148093

166250

175093

170773

154269

143295

119069

110685

112733

109092

111983

111731

108095

106300

104953

112153

106629

123429

129326

129664

131005

CARICOM

Countries

7380

9461

9335

11668

14638

13985

16220

16975

19261

20842

23149

24713

24117

25517

33450

33892

36608

36349

38139

38070

38515

47491

54333

75966

84398

86859

81577

83789

83774

70884

61471

63455

63380

62840

62298

57988

52831

52462

51487

58635

56752

63581

70358

86127

87424

80085

89611

96809

104564

114511

Other

3287

4051

4516

4933

5324

4423

4843

5712

6129

6880

7452

9124

10921

14312

14164

19385

21447

24623

25314

28203

30910

42204

50167

61421

58386

49237

35943

29700

30096

30763

34174

39810

50434

60464

73768

82712

83198

81523

89312

91495

84084

85804

89103

63429

58375

50517

45433

52871

53295

51563

Total 

Tourist 

Arrivals

17829

23775

24495

30249

35535

37060

44058

50597

57625

68418

79104

91565

115697

134303

156417

189075

210349

222080

230718

221486

224314

269314

316883

370916

369915

352555

303795

328338

367652

359135

369770

421859

451485

461259

432092

394222

385472

395979

425632

442107

447083

472290

512397

514614

544696

507078

497899

531211

551502 

547534

Cruise Ship 

Passengers

12391

10802

12145

17044

24172

26943

24658

27184

41671

52664

51593

45451

75981

80899

79635

79159

100086

114469

119524

98546

99406

103077

125988

110073

156461

135782

110753

102519

99166

112222

145335

224778

290993

337100

362611

372140

399702

428611

459502

484670

509975

517888

506610

432854

533278

527597

523253

553119

721270

563588

Total 

Visitor 

Arrivals

30220

34575

37090

47293

59707

64003

68716

77781

99296

121082

130697

137016

191678

215202

236052

268234

310435

338549

350242

320032

323720

372391

442871

480989

526376

488337

414548

430857

466818

471357

515105

646637

742478

798359

794703

766362

785174

824590

885134

929777

957058

990178

1017007

947468

1077974

1034675

1021152

1090330

1272772

1111122

Table 1. Visitor arrivals in Barbados from 1956-2005.1

1

Source: Ministry of Tourism and International Transport 2005.
3

tourism. The expansion had negative impacts 

on the marine, coastal, and terrestrial environment, as manifested by beach erosion, and the 

degradation of wetlands, coastal woodlands, 

forests, and wildlife habitat. The expansion 

also threatened fisheries and caused a decline 

in corals.

 In the early 1990s there was a steady 

decline in tourist arrivals and Barbados had 

no choice but to review the tourism industry 

in a holistic manner. It was determined that 

the industry needed sustainable development 

through the wise use of the country’s resources.

SUSTAINABILITY OF TOURISM IN 

BARBADOS

 It is often said that tourism is an industry that destroys the resources that it needs 

for its existence. Finding the balance between 

economic development and natural resource 

protection has been a challenge for both developed and developing nations. The challenge in 

Barbados is greater because several sectors are 

competing for a limited land resource.

 During the years 1995 to 2006, Barbados received 6.1 million stay over visitors and 

6.5 million cruise passenger visitors (Ministry 

of Tourism and International Transport 2008). 

The threat posed to the environment is not difficult to imagine when the daily operation and 

waste disposal of the various hotels, resorts, and 

cruise ships are considered. Because of tourism’s large contribution to the gross domestic 

product, Barbados’ only option is to ensure the 

sustainable development and wise use of its 

natural resources. To ensure the orderly and 

progressive development of land, and to preserve and improve related amenities, the government of Barbados: (1) revised the Physical

Development Plan in 2003; (2) compiled a Na

tional Park Plan; and (3) began to implement 

both the Integrated Coastal Zone Management 

Plan and the Scotland District Development 

Plan.

 The Ministry of Tourism saw the need 

for a policy framework to guide the sustainable development of the industry and thus developed a “Green Paper” (Ministry of Tourism 

and International Transport 2001). The document highlights the need for conservation of 

the island’s natural and cultural heritage, and 

recognises that sustainable tourism can be a 

catalyst for conservation and improvement of 

the natural environment.

 For many years the beaches of Barbados were polluted by waste water seepage 

from residences and hotels along the coastline. 

To alleviate this problem, the government constructed the Bridgetown and South Coast Sewerage Treatment Plants. Moreover, it proposed 

to develop a West Coast Treatment Plant for 

the collection, treatment, and reuse of effluent for golf courses and agricultural irrigation. 

This would reduce pollution on the beaches 

and promote the conservation of scarce water 

resources. The move towards conservation has 

also extended to the private sector where several hotels and resorts have adopted self-imposed environmental initiatives. Seven hotels 

and resorts have gone further by being Green 

Globe certified. 

Green Globe 21 is a voluntary certification system which ensures the sustainable 

development of the travel and tourism industry worldwide by quantitatively measuring 

economic, social, and environmental development. It provides tourists with the assurance 

that their tourism operator honours their commitment to conservation and sustainability.
4

Case Study # 1 – Scotland District

 The Scotland District is a part of the 

proposed national protected area and has been 

designated as a special development area. It 

occupies 57 km2 and contains 15% of the island’s potential arable land (Agricultural Planning Unit 2002). The Scotland District, because of geological and hydrological factors, 

has been seriously affected by landslides and 

erosion. Realising the fragile nature of the environment, the government developed a comprehensive agricultural plan for the District. 

The Soil Conservation Unit, one of the departments of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural 

Development, played a major role in reducing 

soil erosion within the District. The comprehensive agricultural plan seeks to: (1) increase 

land productivity owned by the crown; (2) conduct land conservation activities; (3) maximise 

marketing opportunities for agricultural commodities and related services; and (4) create 

linkages with other sectors of the economy to 

maximise economic opportunities in the District. The plan recommends the development of 

agricultural activities in conjunction with forestry to ensure sustainable development within 

the District. This Plan, in conjunction with 

the Special Development Area Act and several 

government incentives, provides tax rebates 

and other benefits to businesses and individuals who are operating or are willing to operate 

businesses in the District. Entrepreneurs have 

taken advantage of the opportunities during the 

past 6 years, increasing ecotourism activities 

within the District.

Case Study # 2 – Almond Resorts 

 Barbados has three Almond Resorts - 

the Almond Casuarina Beach Resort, the Almond Beach Village, and the Almond Beach 

Club Resort and Spa. The first is located on 

the south coast in a lush tropical setting at Dover Woods, Christ Church. Before associating 

with the Almond Brand, the resort was operated as the Casuarina Beach Club. It was 

renowned worldwide for its environmental 

policies and was one of the first on the island 

to receive Green Globe certification. Subsequently, the hotel has received several prestigious environmental awards both locally and 

worldwide. The Almond Beach Village is in a 

former sugar plantation located in St. Peter on 

the west coast. It offers an all inclusive 395 

guest room facility for adults and children. 

The Almond Beach Club Resort and Spa, also 

located on the west coast, has 161 guestrooms 

with accommodations for adults only. All of 

the Almond hotels and resorts in Barbados 

are green globe certified. This certification 

assures guests that hotel management plays 

a crucial role in the protection and enhancement of the environment as well as a role in 

the social enhancement of the local communities. The hotels have made a commitment to 

(Loreto Duffy-Mayers 2008, pers. comm., see 

endnotes):

• Apply sound environmental practices in 

all their operation while complying with 

laws, regulations, and industry standards.

• Utilise programmes which minimise the 

use of energy, water, and non renewable 

resources without compromising services.

• Minimise hazardous chemical use by using natural alternatives.

• Reduce the quantity of waste produced.

• Encourage guest and business partners to 

participate in enhancing and protecting 

the environment.

• Adopt a purchasing policy that supports 

environmental products and local products and services, and communicate all 

environmental policies and practices to 

employees, guests, and suppliers. 

• Mitigate environmental impacts to eco-
5

systems.

• Regularly monitor their environmental 

performance relative to policies, objectives, and targets.

• Continuously improve their environmental practices on a yearly basis. 

SUMMARY

The case studies illustrate that sustainable tourism development has made progress 

in Barbados. They also highlight the roles that 

both the government and the private sector can 

play in linking conservation, tourism, and sustainable development. Many believe that considerable development is required for tourism 

to be viable but the case study of the Scotland 

District shows that nature based tourism is a 

viable option in some areas. In fact, landowners would be less inclined to sell to developers 

if they could participate in nature based ecotourism. The case studies also highlight that 

tourism can be linked with conservation and 

sustainable development through responsible 

planning and management practices consistent 

with the environment.

ENDNOTES

Loreto Duffy–Mayers. 2008. Director of Environmental Programmes, Almond Casuarina 

Resort, St. Lawerence Gap, Christ Church, 

Barbados.

REFERENCES

Agricultural Planning Unit. 2002. Draft agricultural development plan for the Scotland 

District. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural 

Development.

Government of Barbados. 2003. Physical Development Plan Amended (2003).

Ministry of Tourism and International Transport. 2001. Green paper on the sustainable 

development of the tourism in Barbados: A 

policy framework.

Ministry of Tourism and International Transport. 2005. Ministry of Tourism and International Transport (Tourism) Annual Tourism 

Statistical Digest.

Ministry of Tourism and International Transport. 2008. Performance of the tourism sector 

in Barbados, 1994 – 2007.
6

THE CONTRIBUTION OF NATIONAL PARKS AND ECOTOURIST SITES 

TO THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF DOMINICA

Cyrille John

INTRODUCTION

Dominica, the “Nature Island,” is distinguished by an extremely rugged landscape, 

with towering mountains shrouded in mist, 

narrow valleys, deep gorges, abundant freshwater in cascading streams and waterfalls, 

grey volcanic sand beaches, luxuriant tropical 

rainforest, and a diverse flora and fauna. The 

island’s relatively unspoilt landscape is considered to be the most dramatically beautiful 

and pristine in the Eastern Caribbean.

Dominica is approximately 750 km2 in 

area and is the largest of the English speaking islands in the Eastern Caribbean. The island’s principal economic base is agriculture. 

However, given the difficulties of the banana 

industry, tourism is seen as a viable area for 

economic growth, and is rapidly emerging as 

one of the dominant sectors in the national 

economy.

Dominica’s conservation efforts began 

as early as 1949 when Forestry and Wildlife Division, the island’s primary resource management agency, was established as a unit within 

the Department of Agriculture. A few years 

later it became a separate department. Efforts 

for the development of Dominica’s national 

park system began as far back as the 1960s. 

In 1975, the island established its first national 

park, Morne Trois Pitons National Park. The 

second unit, Cabrits National Park, located on 

the northwest coast, was established in 1986. 

The third, Morne Diablotin National Park, in 

the north central part of the island, was set side 

in 2000. These three national parks are managed under the legislative framework of the 

National Parks and Protected Areas Act (Chap. 

42:02). Subsequently, various regulations have 

been enacted to support the parent Act. 

Recognizing that Dominica is not the 

traditional “sun, sea and sand” destination, and 

that its real competitiveness lies in the diversity of its natural resources, the country took 

a conscious decision to promote nature-based 

tourism as its own special niche in the market 

place. Consequently, its approach to tourism is 

one geared at marketing and positioning the island as an ecotourism destination. Dominica’s 

approach to ecotourism was born out of a tradition of strong conservation practices and the 

realities of a fragile environment base. Visitors have the opportunity to experience a wide 

range of land based activities associated with 

forest resources combined with the island’s 

cultural heritage.

In June 1997, to help diversify the 

economy and to capitalize on increased visitor arrivals, Dominica implemented a system 

of fees for access to 11 selected ecotourism 

sites on the island. Major infrastructural investments were made at these sites, including 

the construction of visitor centers, and in some 

cases, washroom facilities. Fees are collected 

at the following sites, under Statutory Rules 

and Orders No.27 of 1997: Boeri Lake, Boiling Lake, Botanic Gardens, Cabrits National 

Park, Emerald Pool, Freshwater Lake, Indian 

River, Middleham Falls, Soufriere Sulphur 

Springs, Syndicate Nature Trail, and Trafalgar 

Falls. Seven of the 11 sites are located within 

established national parks.
7

The success of the tourism sector and 

ecotourism in Dominica depends on the extent to which residents in local communities 

are able to share the benefits. Today, many are 

benefiting either directly or indirectly in and 

around ecotourism sites. As of April 11, 2008, 

the island had 265 certified taxi operators, 215 

certified tour guides, and 195 certified vendors, 

a large percentage of which to do business at 

tourism sites. National parks, in addition to 

tourism, contribute to domestic water supply 

and hydroelectric generation, which represents 

approximately 45% of the island’s power supply.

DOMINICA’S NATURAL RESOURCE 

BASE

Mountains, forests, fresh water, and 

fauna make up Dominica’s natural resource 

base. The following list of natural assets indicates why experienced travelers rate Dominica 

at the top of their list for sheer beauty and adventure.

Mountains

Major volcanic piles include: the Morne 

Diablotin (1447 m), Morne Trois Pitons (1424 

m), Morne Watt (1225 m), Morne Macaque 

(1221 m), Les Resources (1156 m), Morne 

Anglais (1123 m), Morne Aux Diable (862 m), 

Morne Plat Pays (804 m), Morne Turner (714 

m), and Morne Espagnol (365 m).

Forests

The forests of Dominica consist of the 

following major vegetation types: Dry scrub 

woodland, Littoral woodland, Seasonal forest, Tropical rain forest, Montane rain forest, 

and Elfin woodland. Other vegetation types 

include: Savannah, Fumarole vegetation, Wetlands, and Secondary rain forest. Approximately 155 families, 672 genera, and 1,226 

species of vascular plants are found on the 

island. Currently, vegetation covers >60% of 

the island.

Freshwater Resources

The major water resources include: 

• Lakes: Boeri (1.82 ha), Boiling (0.37 ha), 

Freshwater (3.64 ha), and Woodford Hill 

(0.88 ha).

• Rivers: Blanc, Castle Bruce, Hampstead, 

Indian, Layou, Melville Hall, Pagua, Rosalie, and Roseau.

• Waterfalls: Brandy, Bwa Nef, Emerald 

Pool, Fond England, Jack, Middleham, 

Penrice, Sari Sari, Victoria, and Trafalgar 

Falls,

Fauna

Dominica’s fauna includes: 15 species 

of mammals; 179 species of birds, including 

two endemic parrots; 13 species of reptiles; 4 

species of amphibians; 20 species of crabs; 55 

species of butterflies; and 11 species of stick 

insects.

NATIONAL PARKS

The development of a National Parks 

System for Dominica was first proposed in the 

late 1960s when the Canadian Timber Company DOMCAN TIMBERS began logging and 

sawmilling operations on the island. In 1970, 

a United States based foundation recommended that about 7300 to 7700 ha should be established as a national park in the south-central 

part of the island. 
8

Morne Trois Pitons National Park 

(MTPNP)

In 1975, the MTPNP was established 

through the National Parks and Protected Areas Act (Chapter 42:02 of the 1990 revised 

laws of Dominica). The Park covers an area of 

about 6880 ha, 380 ha of which were donated 

to Dominica through The Nature Conservancy 

by Mr. John D. Archibald, former owner of the 

Middleham Estate. Some features within the 

Park include lakes and waterfalls such as: Boiling Lake (largest boiling lake in the world), 

Boeri, Emerald Pool, Fond England, Freshwater, and Middleham lakes, and a large area of 

fumaroles called the Valley of Desolation. Major vegetation types include Rain forest, Montane rain forest, Palm brake, and Elfin woodland. There is also a laval tube commonly 

known as “Tou Santi.” The park is the source 

of six major rivers and has an impressive trail 

network. In 1997, the MTPNP was enlisted as 

a World Heritage Site by the United Nations 

Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). In August 1998, the Park was 

formally inscribed as a World Heritage Site, the 

first in the Eastern Caribbean.

Cabrits National Park (CNP)

Cabrits, Dominica’s second National 

Park as of December 1986, covers an area of 

532 ha, 81% of which is marine. The Park 

contains the remnants of Fort Shirley, an extensive 18th century garrison. In addition, 

Cabrits protects the island’s largest tract of dry 

coastal forest as well as its largest wetland. 

Many migratory bird species visit the Cabrits 

wetlands during North American winters. Two 

of the more recent projects at Cabrits include 

the construction of the Cruise Ship Berth and 

the Visitor Center during the 1990s. Currently, 

restoration of the officer’s quarters at Fort Shirley is underway. 

Morne Diablotin National Park (MDNP)

Dominica’s National Park System 

was expanded in January 2000 to include the 

MDNP, the first declared national park of the 

new millennium. MDNP covers an area of 

3410 ha, which includes 3328 ha of the Northern Forest Reserve and the 82 ha of Parrot Preserve created from the former Dyer and Syndicate Estates. In addition, two parcels of land 

were acquired by the Rare Species Conservatory Foundation but have not formally been 

added to the park. Primary forest (i.e., mature 

tropical Rain forest, Montane rain forest, Montane thicket, and Elfin woodland) as well as 

secondary rain forest covers most of the park. 

The primary rain forest habitat of MDNP is believed to support the highest diversity of plant 

and animal life in Dominica and is the stronghold for Dominica’s two endemic species of 

parrots, the Sisserou (Amazona imperialis) and 

the Jaco (Amazona arausiaca), both of which 

are endangered. MDNP also contains several 

species of endemic plants. 

Elevations within MDNP vary between 213 and 1447 m. Rainfall is abundant 

and landslides occur because of steep terrain. 

The park contains 15 species of mammals, 51 

species of birds, 9 species of reptiles, 2 species 

of amphibians, and 24 species of butterflies. 

IMPORTANCE OF NATIONAL PARKS

The importance of National Parks to 

Dominica can be clearly seen in terms of several functions, including:

• Protection of biodiversity - Tropical rain 

forests provide a rich source of genetic 

material. Plants and animals are fully protected within the island’s parks. 

• Tourist attraction and development - Visitors wanting a wilderness experience find 

national parks and other natural areas as at-
9

tractive sites to visit. Nature tourism is expanding very rapidly and Dominica must 

take advantage of this growth.

• Watershed protection - Water is essential in 

quantity and in quality. Forest cover reduces erosion and increases the infiltration 

of water into the soil. 

• Nature conservation - Forests protect wildlife.

• Environmental education and researchNational Parks and protected areas are living laboratories where students can undertake studies of nature and tropical forest 

ecology, such as the ongoing parrot monitoring programme.

• Recreation - Parks provide opportunities 

for hikers, photographers, birdwatchers, 

and biologists, among others.

• Carbon sink - Forests have the capacity to 

help absorb carbon dioxide emissions. 

• Economic value - Public and private sectors 

benefit from Dominica’s national parks

In summary, national parks and ecotourism sites offer many benefits and have become a source of revenue for Dominica. Since 

June 1997, all non-residents require an entry 

ticket to access eco-tourism sites. The private 

sector generates revenue through the tours 

they offer in parks and other sites. Other beneficiaries include vendors, taxis and bus operators, artisans, and tour operators. Park ticket 

vendors receive 5% commission on their ticket 

sales.

PARK ADMINISTRATION AND 

MANAGEMENT

The administration, management, and 

control of the National Park System are vested 

in the Minister of Agriculture under the provision of Section 3 of the National Parks and 

Protected Areas Act. The Director of Forestry, 

Wildlife and Parks currently exercises administrative control over the other officers within 

the Parks Unit. In 1997, the National Park 

Unit was strengthened to facilitate the implementation of a use fee system.

Other sections within the division assist the National Parks Unit in the implementation of its programmes. The Forestry Wildlife and Parks Division regularly maintains 

trails and other infrastructure within the park 

and at ecotourism sites. However, the Ministry of Tourism maintains visitor facilities at 

Emerald Pool, Freshwater Lake, Middleham 

Falls, and Trafalgar Falls. Other sites have 

been ear-marked for development under the 

site development project. The island government is in the process of exploring management (e.g., community management) options 

for these sites.

MAIN ECOTOURISM ACTIVITIES ON 

DOMINICA

Bird Watching

Bird watchers find their way to the nature island to have a glimpse of the Sisserou 

Parrot, which is the largest species in the Amazona genus. The mere sighting of this bird is 

breath taking. Its close relative the Jaco Parrot 

is charming but less colourful. Tours are conducted to various habitats, preferably in early 

morning or late afternoon hours, to see select 

bird species. 

Soft Adventure Tourism

Some adventure activities provided by 

Wacky Rollers and Cobra Tours are designed 

for physically fit tourists. The tours listed 

below allow for the discovery of virtually 

unknown places on the island, deservedly famous for being the greenest and wildest in the 
10

Lesser Antilles: 

• River hiking (i.e., descend river, includes 

walking, swimming, jumping, and sliding) at Belfast, River Blanc, and Titou. 

• River rafting and tubing (i.e., descend 

river with special inflatable boats or 

tubes) at Layou, Pagua, and Roseau. 

• Rowing wooden boats, particularly on the 

Indian River, where outboard motors are 

banned. 

Hiking

This activity involves walking trails 

that vary in distance and degree of difficulty. 

Some of the more popular trails include Boeri 

Lake, Boiling Lake, Emerald Pool, Middleham Falls, Morne Diablotin, and Syndicate 

Nature Trail. 

Sightseeing and Special Interest Tours

These activities involve traveling either across the country or to specific sites on 

mini-buses or coaches to enjoy scenery. Tours 

go to places such as the Carib Territory (i.e., 

Carib Indian Reservation), Emerald Pool, and 

Trafalgar Falls. Special interest tours are available for botanists, (e.g., floral exploration), 

ecologists, ornithologists, and other groups.

Other Activities

Scuba diving and snorkeling offers 

visitors opportunities to see underwater plants 

and animals just as diverse as the island’s terrestrial component (e.g., the marine section of 

the Cabrits National Park). Horseback riding 

and all terrain vehicles are relatively new outdoor activities in Dominica and are restricted 

to private forests. 

SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT

The Dominican economy continuously 

benefits from >50 years of protecting its natural environment. To date approximately 20% 

of the island’s land mass is under some form 

of legal protection which will help balance 

future human needs with resource conservation. There is a growing interest in nature 

conservation around the world and Dominica 

is no exception. Tourist arrivals on the island 

have shown a steady increase during the past 

5 years, particularly within the cruise ship sector, where numbers have almost doubled since 

2001 (Table 1).

Revenue generated from the collection of user fees at selected ecotourist sites has 

benefited both the state and private sector. The 

state collects a net revenue of just above $EC 

1 million annually (Table 2) whereas commissions paid to vendors over the past 5 years average about $EC 53,000 (Table 3). The tourism sector continues to show a steady increase 

to the island’s gross domestic product over 

the last five years (Table 4). Many individuals and private sector businesses also benefit 

from national parks and ecotourist sites either 

as vendors, tour guides, tour operators, or in 

other related services. For example, community groups have emerged within and around 

national parks such as Wammae L’etang to 

provide boat and kayak tours on Freshwater 

Lake.

The Cabrits National Park is a demonstration site for the Organization of Eastern 

Caribbean States (OECS) Protected Areas and 

Associated Livelihood Project (OPAAL Project). OPAAL recognizes that people are an 

essential part of ecosystems and must be accommodated in plans for biodiversity conservation. OPAAL, therefore, embraces human 

activity with protected areas and encourages 

opportunities for sustainable livelihoods.
11

Visitor Type Year

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Cruise Ship 177,044 383,614 301,511 379,643 354,515

Stay Over 73,190 80,087 79, 257 84,041 ----

Excursion 3,928 2,577 650 926 ----

Table 2. Net revenues from user fees.

Year (July-June) Net revenue (EC$)

2002-2003 670,504

2003-2004 1,058,424

2004-2005 1,085,060

Year (July-June) Net revenue (EC$)

2002-2003 35,003

2003-2004 55,549

2004-2005 56,549

2005-2006 56,808

2004-2007 61,664

1

1

Data not yet available

1

In millions of EC $. Data for 2007 not yet available.

Sector 2003

Year

2004 2005 2006

Agriculture 106.24 114.49 115.22 118.39

Tourism 15.06 17.66 18.81 21.63

Forestry 3.70 3.71 3.71 3.72

 

Table 4. Contribution of key sectors to gross domestic product.1 

Table 1. Tourist arrivals in Dominica.

Table 3. Commission paid to user fee ticket vendors.
12

CONCLUSIONS 

Dominica’s conservation efforts 

through the Forestry, Wildlife and Parks Division have resulted in 20% of the island’s 

land mass being protected as forest reserves 

and national parks. The island is now a major ecotourism destination in the Caribbean. 

Moreover, national parks and complimentary 

ecotourism sites have contributed to the social 

and economic well being of persons working 

in the tourism sector. Some have been certified as tour guides, taxi drivers, and vendors 

while others have found employment in related services. Finally, communities around 

these ecotourist sites may create employment 

opportunities that will lead to an improvement 

in their standard of living.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to acknowledge 

the contribution of: Davia Shillingford, for 

typing the presentation and for providing moral support; David Williams, Arlington James, 

Jacqueline Andre, and Minchinton Burton for 

their assistance during peer review of the document; and other persons who have contributed towards the compilation of this work. 

REFERENCES

Christian, C.S. 2001. Morne Trois Pitons National Park - Dominica’s experience with ecotourism. UNESCO’s World Heritage Review. 

November issue.

Evans, P.G.H. 1986. Dominica multiple land 

use project. Ambio 15(2):82-89. 

Evans, P.G.H. 1988. Imperial and Rednecked 

parrots on the island of Dominica, West Indies. 

Study Report No. 27. Cambridge, UK: International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP).

John, C. 2007. User fee system for eco-tourism 

sites in Dominica (Lecture notes)

Nicholson, D.H. 1991. Flora of Dominica, part 

2. Dicotyledoneae. Smithsonian Contributions 

to Botany. 77. 

Walsh, G. 2007. Activity report on user fee 

system for ecotourism sites in Dominica –Forestry, Wildlife and Parks Division

William, D.; John, C. 2003. Dominica’s Country Report for workshop on Management of 

Forest Resources for Ecotourism in the Caribbean Islands. 
13

TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN FRENCH 

GUYANA

Jean Obstancias

GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT AND 

TOURIST ASSETS

French Guyana has belonged to France 

since 1663 and today it is an overseas department of France, or an overseas peripheral region of the European Community. Virtually all 

of French Guyana survives as a natural area, or 

pristine rain forest. The population density is 

very low with only 200,000 inhabitants living 

on 80,000 km2 (2.5 inhabitants/km2). During 

the past 10 years, the country’s population 

doubled from 100,000 to 200,000 people.

Ecological and human diversity

French Guyana has an extraordinary 

natural and cultural wealth. The diverse flora 

includes sources of precious woods, perfume, 

biological medicines, and rain forest fruits. 

Moreover, many different communities exist 

within its boundaries: Amerindian (Wayanas, 

Wayampis, Kalinas, Palikurs, Emerillons), 

Creole, Bushinengue (maroon: Alukus, Djukas, and Saramakas), Europeans (“metropolitans”), Brazilian, Caribbean, H’mong (from 

the mountains of Indochina, Laos, and Vietnam), Chinese, and Libanese. 

Unique Economic History

In the past, French Guyana suffered 

from a lack of workers. Indian populations had 

been decimated by new diseases and the number of slaves was insufficient for many economic activities. France tried to compensate

 for the lack of workers through the creation of 

large prisons (i.e., “bagnes de Cayenne, Kourou, and Saint Laurent) but that program never 

succeeded. About 30 years ago, the space 

industry provided new opportunities. Today, 

the country hosts a large military presence to 

protect the space facilities and to maintain order (e.g., eradicate illegal gold mining). The 

tourist industry benefits from the space museums, which attract many visitors, and from 

the political stability guaranteed by European 

support and a military presence.

ACTUAL TOURISM

The tourist industry currently cannot 

accommodate many visitors. Most of tourist sites are near waterways, some in deep 

rainforest. Comfortable hotels or lodges are 

lacking as is the capacity to host large groups. 

Sleeping in a in a shelter on a hammock, with 

a palm roof and no walls (“carbet”), is exotic 

but not conducive to stays of more than a night 

or two.

Image of Adventure

Guides lead groups deep within the 

forest along footpaths without signposts or interpretation. Visitors usually sleep in temporary shelters like hammocks under a tarpaulin. 

About 1000 visitors per year enjoy this type 

of experience. Most stay in the pirogues and 

see only butterflies and trees. Large animals, 

hunted by local folks, are absent in areas frequented by tourists.
14

“Affinity tourism”

About 90% of the visits to tourist sites 

in French Guyana are made by users visiting 

for business or familial affairs. Residents also 

frequent tourist sites with acquaintances during holidays or week ends.

Current Ecotourism 

The current ecotourism program is 

characterized by good intentions but with bad 

habits and no control. Some poor practices 

relate to game hunting, observing sea turtles 

with dogs or cameras, and handling young 

crocodiles to show them to visitors. Guides 

do not have training or diplomas, and do not 

present background information regarding the 

environment and wildlife. Moreover, they 

do not provide a meaningful message regarding sustainable development. Lastly, security 

problems exist (e.g., equipment used by guides 

does not conform to legal standards).

Traditional communities are not yet 

ready and not willing to welcome visitors. 

Some lack the financial means to maintain infrastructure, even in large towns. Moreover, 

private enterprise is very limited. The state administration offers fiscal support but new laws 

and regulations are hard to implement.

FUTURE TOURISM

Future tourism calls for new networks 

of tourist facilities and new ways to maintain 

them.

Green Belts

The Littoral Conservatory, the French 

National Forest Service (ONF), and local communities are planning a network of sites near 

towns and villages to educate youth and the 

public about the environment and sustainable 

development. Until today, however, financial 

resources for their maintenance have been insufficient. Attempts are being made to create 

economic activity by contracting private operators to maintain sites that highlight natural or archaeological patrimony. At each site, 

“discovery paths” or short trails are planned. 

Booklets will explain and illustrate features of 

interest along the trails and guided or free tours 

will be available.

Maintaining forests in the landscape 

helps to promote tourist activities in populated 

areas. Unfortunately, urban and land developers view the forest as an unlimited resource 

that they can remove. Given that settlers ask 

for land to deforest and squatters don’t, green 

belts are viewed as an alternative to help protect forests near towns. Private enterprise will 

be obligated to comply with environmental 

clauses and ONF will review and approve all 

contracts and agreements.

New Sustainable Tourism Products

Among the new sustainable tourism 

products are footpaths, canoe trips, and other 

types of trails. Two long distance footpaths 

were studied in eastern and western French 

Guyana near Cayenne and Saint Laurent. Two 

others, in the east and south, will be studied 

next soon. At each stop along the path, a “carbet,” or an inn or lodge with beds and bathrooms will be managed by private operators. 

An organisation composed of private operators 

and a public institution will develop and maintain the footpaths. The organisation will derive 

income by selling the tourist package to travel 

agencies, and will maintain the paths and other 

common areas. It will also be in charge of logistical matters (i.e., movement of people and 

materials between accommodations), as well 

as cultural and environmental activities, including sports. The project has an economic 

base (e.g., an international market of trekking 
15

like “Amazonian trek”) and social and environmental certification. Paths are studied to 

determine plausible routes through forests yet 

avoid sensible areas. Guidebooks, short field 

tours, and cultural activities are proposed as 

part of the program.

A guidebook for canoeing down the 

Maroni River was recently prepared. This is 

the first of a proposed collection designed to

discover the country’s most attractive water

ways. With this initiative, tourist operators can develop other products, including 

hiking, canoe travel, and ventures with a 

pirogue escort. Also planned are extended 

horse trails and mountain bike paths. Similar products could be prepared by any of the 

communes along the various routes in the 

forest.
16

INTRODUCTION

The Guadeloupe archipelago offers 

a variety of natural landscapes and ecosystems, including sandy beaches, cliffs, rain 

forest, coastal forest, lakes, wetlands, rivers, 

volcanoes, and stunning coral reefs. Timber 

production is not a goal for the island. The 

natural areas such as forests, however, are frequented by local people and also tourists from 

all over the world, each one seeking a specific 

goal such as rest, enjoying lunch, learning, and 

sports. 

The main aim of this paper is to show 

how Guadeloupe’s foresters are working in order to link conservation, tourism, and sustainable development. The first part presents the 

Guadeloupe archipelago with its assets and its 

weakness followed by two approaches:

• A global approach including all of Guadeloupe.

• A focal approach on a single site, the Petite-Terre Nature Reserve. 

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Archipelago of Guadeloupe

The archipelago of Guadeloupe is 

composed of six main islands: Basse-Terre 

and Grande-Terre, which are separated by 

a narrow salt river; Les Saintes, including 

Terre-de-Haut and Terre-de-Bas; and the 

islands Marie-Galante and Desirade. Guade

loupe occupies 1,700 km2 and is inhabited by 

447,000 persons, giving it a population density 

of about 258/km2. Until 2006, Saint Barthélemy and part of Saint Martin were dependants 

of Guadeloupe. Today, they are French overseas territories that have no administrative relations with Guadeloupe.

Economic situation and tourism in 

Guadeloupe

The local economy is characterized 

by >27% unemployment and an unfavourable 

trade balance. Most of Guadeloupe’s economy depends on agriculture, including banana 

and sugar cane production. Presently, the local 

economy is in crisis because these products are 

not competitive with produce from Africa and 

South America. 

Tourism is virtually the only sector contributing to the economy. In 2007, about 1.2 

million passengers from France and 140,000 

foreigners went in Guadeloupe (INSEE, 2006). 

Eco-tourism or green tourism motivates many 

to spend holidays in Guadeloupe. Several natural sites are frequently visited throughout the 

year, including:

• Crayfish waterfall with >400,000 visitors 

per year.

• Carbet waterfalls.

• Soufrière mountain, the highest summit of 

the Lesser Antilles at 1467 m.

• Footpaths covering >300 km through different islands of the archipelago.

LINKING CONSERVATION, TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE 

DEVELOPMENT IN GUADELOUPE F.W.I.

Samuel Lardeux, René Dumont, and Fabien Chelles
17

• New “green” activities such as canyon, 

trail, mountain bike, and cultural or 

historical footpaths with interpretative 

information.

Conservation tools for natural space management

Guadeloupe is a French department 

with all French and European experience 

needed to manage natural space. Managers 

must combine aims such as ecosystem conservation, tourism, and other land uses to establish different types of protection. The main 

local protected areas are:

• One of nine French National Parks, Guadalupe National Park was created in 1989.

It is composed of a central zone of 17,300 

ha with good protection and low human 

impact (i.e., II on IUCN protected area categories) and a peripheral zone of 16,200 ha 

with some inhabitants. The forests, ranging from dry to rain forest, contain 300 

species of trees, 270 different ferns, and 

100 species of orchids, and include several 

endemic plants and animals.

• Two Nature Reserves (i.e., II on IUCN 

protected area categories), including: (1) 

Grand Cul de Sac Marin Nature Reserve, 

created in 1987 and managed by National Parks, which covers 3706 ha and has 

a marine area of 2115 ha. Since 1993, 

this area has also been a Biosphere Reserve and a RAMSAR wetland; and (2) 

Petite-Terre Nature Reserve, created in 

1998 and co-managed by the French National Forestry Service (ONF) and a local 

NGO Ti-té. The reserve covers 990 ha, 

including a marine area of 841 ha. Conservation, tourism, and sustainable development will be linked in this reserve.

• Most of the coastline in Guadaloupe is 

public space: (1) one-third is “Forêt Domaniale du Littoral” or littoral public forest, protected and managed by the National 

Forestry Office (ONF); and (2) one-third is 

non-wooded natural space, mainly beaches 

and grasslands, which are protected by law 

and managed by another French public organisation, the “Conservatoire du Littoral,” 

or Littoral Conservatory.

• The main part of Guadeloupe wetlands 

are also public spaces, with >5000 ha of 

mangroves, saline swamp forest, and herbaceous ponds known as “Domaine Public 

Maritime and Lacustre.” These areas are 

managed by Conservatoire du Littoral with 

help from the ONF and National Parks.

• Centre Basse-Terre with 27,754 ha is managed by the “Forêt Départementalo-Domaniale” which belongs to a Guadeloupe authority and the French State. The ONF and 

National Parks currently manage this area.

Guadeloupe also contains open spaces 

that are exposed to human activities, and experience a different level of nature protection and 

conservation. In all cases, within each part of 

the archipelago, land managers have to reconcile ecosystem conservation and tourism with 

socio-economic development.

GLOBAL STRATEGY LINKING CONSERVATION AND TOURISM AT THE 

ARCHIPELAGO SCALE

The ONF is one of the main actors developing and managing natural areas in Guadeloupe. To manage well, the characteristics 

of the areas and interests of the public must be 

known. In May 2006, two landscape architects 

working with the ONF carried out a 3-month 

study.
18

Study Goals

The manager’s work is tempered 

by the diversity of natural areas in Guadeloupe, the complexity of their management, 

and public involvement. The principal aim 

of the study was to obtain a global vision of 

the managed natural areas so that the ONF 

could pursue a coherent management policy 

and harmonize the developments, especially 

with regard to parking areas and facilities. 

The study was divided into three phases: 

• An inventory of the main natural areas of 

Guadeloupe (exhaustively for those managed by the ONF). An information sheet 

and photographs were completed for each 

site with data on the number of visits, 

parking areas, and furniture along with 

spatial information.

• Classification of each area into different 

site groups. Each natural group classification was described and explained for use 

by the public.

• Specific management actions were proposed according to site groups.

Results and Limitations

Eighty natural sites were inventoried 

and described, 71% of which are managed 

by the ONF and the remainder by National 

Parks and local authorities. Most are located 

on coastlines (i.e., 28% beaches, 23% coastal 

forests, 15% wetlands, and 10% cliffs). The 

others are in rain forest, frequently close to 

rivers. With regard to public visits, 73% of 

the sites were used for picnics, 70% for sunbathing, and 61% for walking. Sometimes 

visitors combined uses and certain sites were 

more frequently visited than others. Analyses 

were then conducted based on all parameters:

• Main use – bathing, walking (trails), discovery (vistas), aquatic sports.

• Location – rivers, beaches.

• Number of visits – low, medium, or high.

• Importance of forest cover.

Subsequently, 10 site classes were describedby combining parameters:

• Sport beaches (2 sites) – infrequently 

visited natural sites welcoming mainly 

kite-surfers.

• Popular urban beaches (14 sites) - beaches 

with a poor vegetation cover frequently 

visited for picnics and sunbathing.

• Popular beaches with vegetation (7 sites) 

- beaches highly frequented for picnicking 

and sunbathing, but the presence of vegetation (i.e., forest, swamp, mangrove).

• Secondary urban beaches (9 sites) - less 

frequented beaches with little vegetation.

• Wild beaches (9 sites) – less visited 

beaches with vegetation cover, used 

mainly by outdoor enthusiasts.

• Vistas (3 sites) – vistas, usually coastal 

and near roads or parking areas, but without picnic areas.

• Picnic and discovery areas (7 sites) - areas 

mainly for picnics (i.e., benches and 

tables) but also with vistas. 

• Trailheads (11 sites) - areas with different types of trails (i.e., botany, discovery, 

sport loops, or walking). 

• Trailhead and picnic areas (9 sites) – sites 

mainly for walking, resting, and picnicking.

• River bathing (9 sites) - river sites used 

for bathing and picnics.
19

Information was proposed for development, tourism, and conservation within each 

class of sites. These included suggestions 

for parking areas, site access, regeneration of 

vegetation, illumination, facilities for picnic

and resting areas (benches, tables), waste disposal, diversification of activities, and handicap access. Several limits of the study were 

also listed:

• Results for the ONF managed sites were 

exhaustive but not for other areas. Unfortunately, the island of Desirade and the 

Saintes archipelago were not inventoried.

• Time was insufficient to analyse site visits 

quantitatively. 

• Sociological aspects of users were not 

analysed (i.e., differences between local 

people and tourists).

• The inventory needs to be updated regularly.

Territorial Approach Optimal?

Is the territorial approach useful to 

optimise conservation, tourism, and sustainable development? A global vision of Guadeloupe’s natural sites and their attributes allows 

the ONF to optimize its policy in terms of: 

• Adapting equipment and materials to each 

site.

• Focusing visits on targeted sites to better 

conserve others.

• Improving the information and advice on 

landscape and environmental protection 

made available to visitors.

• Conserving the identity, or particular attributes, of each site.

Tourism 

• Providing quality information and equipment in sufficient quantities.

• Linking natural sites with known attributes.

• Managing visitors reception and adapting 

 equipment to the amount of use. 

Sustainable development 

• Controlling the level of visit use by infrastructure (i.e., size of parking areas and 

amount of equipment).

• Locating small restaurants and souvenir 

stores on targeted areas to foment employment.

• Improving systems (equipment and information).

PETITE TERRE NATURE RESERVE

The Petite Terre Nature Reserve, one 

of the most famous tourist destinations in the 

archipelago, is one of the few protected areas 

where site analyses were finished. For European tourists, Petite-Terre is a perfect “picture” 

of the Caribbean: an unoccupied island with 

sunny weather all year, large sandy beaches, 

a clear water lagoon, underwater wildlife, and 

easily photographed iguanas.

Brief History

The Nature reserve area is composed 

of two small islands, Terre-de-Bas and Terrede-Haut together occupying 170 ha, and a surrounding marine zone of 830 ha. The reserve 

lies off of the eastern coast of Guadeloupe 

and is managed from Desirade. From 1750 to 

1850, Europeans occupied Petite-Terre where 

they built houses and harvested cotton. Guadeloupe’s first lighthouse was built on Terre 
20

de Bas in 1840 when the island had 28 people. 

In 1972, the last inhabitants of the island, the 

lighthouse guardian and his wife, departed. In 

1990, the Littoral Conservatory bought the islands and in 1998 the Nature Reserve was created. Today, a local NGO Ti-tè and the ONF 

co-manage the reserve.

Reasons for the Nature Reserve 

These two islands, distant from the 

coastline of Guadeloupe, are naturally protected from human activities and contain 

many different ecosystems within a small 

area, including sandy beaches, salt ponds 

and a lagoon, beach-rocks, dry forest, and 

coral reefs. Visiting scientists have observed numerous important species such as:

• Sponges, gorgonians, corals, molluscs, sea 

urchins, and shell fish.

• Sea turtles (Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata, and Dermochelys coracea).

• Marine mammals (Megaptera novaeanglica and Tursiops truncatus).

• 135 bird species, including and 28 shorebirds and 28 terrestrial migratory birds, 

and Sterna antillarum, Dendroica petechia, and Phaeton aethereus.

• The most important population of Iguana 

delicatissima, about 8000 individuals, in 

the Caribbean. 

• Animals such as Hémidactyle mabouia

and Scinque mabouya.

• Guaïacum officinale, a rare tree in Guadeloupe. 

Linking conservation and socio-economic 

aspects

Before the creation of the nature reserve, the most important visits to the islands 

were made by tour operators on pleasure cruises. Many problems arose: (1) boat anchors 

damaged the lagoon bottom; (2) visitors cut 

wood cut for barbecues; (3) visitors wandered 

around without interpretative materials; (4) 

inadequate structures were built on the beach; 

and (5) wastes were left at the site. Conflicts 

arose among stakeholders. Management began after creation of the Nature Reserve in 

1998 with a manager from the ONF and 3 wardens belonging Ti-tè. Different equipment, facilities, and structures were acquired or built:

• Six yellow buoys to demarcate the nature 

reserve boundary.

• Five moorings for visiting professionals 

and 10 moorings for tourists.

• An office, storage room, tables, barbecues, a wooden house for wardens, and 

an exhibition room in the lighthouse.

• A foot path on Terre de Bas with interpretative information.

• A 7-m patrol boat and a small motor boat. 

Today, nothing can be removed from 

any part of the reserve and tourists may not 

visit Terre de Haut. Research and tourism 

may occur elsewhere but activities are designed to minimise human impact on wildlife. 

Ten companies, with all or part of their activities on Petite Terre, provide 15 direct jobs. In 

2007, about 40,000 people visited the reserve. 

About 20% of them came from Guadeloupe 
21

or other Caribbean islands and arrived in their 

own boats. The remaining 80% visited with 

commercial tour operators. Restrictions exist to protect the reserve (e.g., day charters are 

limited to 50 visitors, with no more than 200 

per day for the entire reserve). Each visitor is 

charged a tax. 

Several important fishermen communities are working around the reserve, Desirade 

being the most important. Also, scientists 

from universities and other institutions conduct studies in the reserve. A balance exists 

among several uses -- nature protection, scientific activities, tourism, and local interests. The 

nature reserve team must continue to interact 

with stakeholders and adopt a management 

program encouraging sustainable development. Local and national TV reports, publications, and radio broadcasts provide positive 

feedback regarding the reserve. 

REFERENCES

Comité du Tourisme des îles de Guadeloupe. 

2007. http://www.lesilesdeguadeloupe.com/

Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes 

Economiques. 2006. http://www.insee.fr/FR/

insee_regions/guadeloupe/home/home_page.

asp

Ministère de l’écologie et du développement 

durable. 2003. Atlas du Parc National de la 

Guadeloupe. 68 p.

Office National des Forêts. 2004. Réserve Naturelle de Petite-Terre, Plan de Gestion 2004-

2008.
22

SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT IN GUYANA

Jagdesh Singh

BACKGROUND

Guyana, a country of exceptional natural beauty, is a splendid combination of the 

Caribbean and South America. The country 

has a population of about 700,000 and a land 

area of 216,000 km2. Guyana has six major 

groups of people: the Amerindians (Guyana’s 

first group of people), East Indians, Africans, 

Europeans, Portuguese, and Chinese.

The nation’s capital and primary port 

is Georgetown. Guyana was first a Dutch colony and later a British colony. It gained its 

independence on May 26, 1966 and became a 

republic on February 23, 1970. Guyana consists of three major counties -- Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice.

 

 

GUYANA’S FORESTS

Guyana is situated on the northern 

coast of South America and is considered an 

integral part of the Guiana Shield (Figures 1 

and 2). Due to its proximity to the Amazon 

Basin, about 76% of Guyana (i.e., 163,777 

km2) is still covered with tropical forests. 

Guyana’s forested area is composed of a blend 

of seasonal, dry evergreen, montane, swamp, 

marsh, mangrove, and mixed forests. The forests contain approximately 8000 plant species 

and >1000 species of terrestrial vertebrates.

The forest resources of Guyana are 

used for multiple purposes, including the forest produce, agriculture, research, eco-tourism, 

protected areas, biodiversity reserves, and AmFigure 1. Geographic location of Guyana
23

Figure 2. State forest boundary and transportation in Guyana
24

erindian reservations. Forests are an integral 

part of Amerindian culture, and communities 

make use of forest resources as a source of 

food, building materials, fibers for textiles and 

weaving, medicine, tanning, and dyes. Several communities are involved in commercial 

harvesting and utilization of forest resources.

Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC)

The management of Guyana’s rainforest comes under the jurisdiction of the 

GFC. Formed in 1979, the GFC is a semiautonomous organization that is governed by 

the Forestry Act of Guyana and guided by National Forest Policy. The GFC is governed by 

a Board of Directors appointed by the Minister and has responsibility for the forestry sector. The GFC is headed by the Commissioner 

of Forests who is the Chief Executive Officer. 

The Commissioner, an ex-officio member of 

the board, is responsible for the daily management of the Commission.

The GFC consists of five divisions and 

an internal audit unit which allows it to execute its mandate. The divisions are: (1) Planning and Development Division; (2) Forest 

Resources Management Division; (3) Forest 

Monitioring Division; (4) Finance Division; 

and (5) Human Resources and Administration 

Division.

National Forest Policy

The National Forest Policy was approved in 1997 and mandates the Commission to emphasize the importance of multiple 

uses in Guyana’s immense forest; moreover, 

it must also focus on forest product diversification and value-added processes to promote a vibrant industry. The stated objective 

of national forest policy is “the conservation, 

protection, management and utilization of 

the nation’s forest resources, while ensuring 

that the productive capacity of the forests for 

both goods and services is maintained or enhanced.” A national forest plan and new forest legislation were also developed outlining 

programmes necessary for the achievement of 

the national forest policy. The process of approving legislation in Parliament, however, is 

very tedious.

Timber Harvesting and the Code of Practice for Timber Harvesting.

The Amerindians and Dutch have been 

harvesting timber in Guyana for many years. 

Selective, low intensity logging has been the 

traditional approach used to extract commercial species above a specific diameter. A draft 

Code of Practice (CoP) for forest operations 

was developed by the Commission to guide 

concession operators during logging activities. The CoP is currently voluntary; however, 

the commission will be in a better position to 

monitor forest resources once the new draft 

forestry act is approved by the government. 

GFC’s Forest Monitoring Division 

monitors harvesting practices through regular field visits. In addition, 30 forest stations 

located strategically around Guyana monitor forest concessions, sawmills, and lumber 

yards. One major system of forest monitoring 

is log tagging where tags are issued to concessionaires based on quotas for each forest concession. Three types of forest concessions are 

allocated based on size of areas and duration:

• Timber sales agreements (TSA) – granted 

for up to 25 years for areas >24,000 ha.

• Wood cutting leases – granted for up to 

10 years for 8000 to 24,000 ha.

• State forest permissions – granted for 2 

year periods on ≤8000 ha.
25

Training

Formal training in forestry for diploma, certificate, and BSc. and MSc. levels is 

offered by the University of Guyana and the 

Guyana School of Agriculture. The certificate 

in Forestry provides practical forestry skills 

for industry in areas such as tree identification 

and timber grading. The GFC has a memorandum of understanding with University of 

Guyana, Forestry Department. Curriculum 

development, staff training, and increased 

field exposure for students have benefited the 

Forestry Department. GFC also provides inhouse training for its staff on technical issues, 

and also provide the staff with opportunities 

for training overseas when available. 

The Forestry Training Centre Incorporated (FTCI) results from a partnership between 

the GFC and the Forest Products Association 

of Guyana and the Tropical Forest Foundation 

(Virginia, USA) with funding from International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) 

and the Department of International Development in England. The FTCI was established 

to implement a reduced impact logging programme focusing on demonstration and training during timber harvesting operations in 

Guyana and the region.

Research and Conservation Programmes in 

Guyana

The GFC works in close collaboration 

with other research programmes in Guyana:

Iwokrama -- The Iwokrama Interna

tional Centre for Rain Forest Conservation and 

Development is an autonomous non-profit institution established by Guyana and the Commonwealth. The Centre manages the 371,000 

ha Iwokrama Forest in central Guyana. The 

purpose is to demonstrate tropical forest conservation and sustainable use by providing 

ecological, social, and economic benefits to 

local, national, and international communities.

Tropenbos International (TBI) –

TBI is a non-governmental organization 

based in the Netherlands. TBI facilitates the 

formulation and organization of participatory, objective-oriented, multidisciplinary research and development programmes to meet 

the needs of policy makers and forest users. 

The Tropenbos-Guyana Programme was established in 1989 to continue collaboration 

between the University of Guyana and the 

Utrecht University. Its objectives were to develop guidelines for conservation and sustainable utilization of Guyana’s forests for timber, 

other forest products, and services, and also to 

strengthen research capacity in Guyana. The 

programme ended in 2001 when TPG formally handed over all assets to the Guyana Forestry Commission, which in turn, established 

a Research Unit within the GFC to promote 

forestry research Guyana. 

Conservation International Guyana 

Foundation (CIG) – CIG, active as early as 

1990, was officially established in Guyana in 

1996. CIG was allocated a TSA of 80,000 ha 

of State Forest for 25 years in 2002 (Figure 

3). No logging will be carried out on this concession; however, the GFC will be compensated based on a timber concession valuation. 

CIG is also very active in projects located in 

the Kanuku Mountains, and in the Koashen 

District with the WaiWais.

Kanuku Mountains - CIG is the lead 

agency for the Kanuku Mountains Protected 

Areas project and has been working for the 

last 5 years with 18 Amerindian communities 

which will benefit from the establishment of 

the Kanuku Mountains as a protected area. 

The Kanuku Mountains, located in the Rupununi Savannahs, are believed to be one of the 
26

Figure 3. Iwokrama Forest and Conservation 

International in Central Guyana.

most biologically diverse regions in Guyana. 

This area includes savannahs, as well as gallery, lowland, and montane evergreen forests. 

The area has about 350 species of birds, onehalf of the species found in Guyana. Threatened animals of the Kanukus include the harpy 

eagle, the giant river otter, the black caiman, 

and the jaguar.

Koashen District - the Koashen District lies in the southern most part of Guyana 

and is owned by the Wai Wais Amerindian 

tribe of Guyana through an absolute grant by 

the Government of Guyana. The Wai Wais requested that CIG work with them to help protect their lands and to have them established 

as a community owned conservation area to be 

included in the National System of Protected 

Areas. The area contains >600,000 ha of pristine rainforest with spectacular biodiversity 

and the Wai Wais are afraid that outside threats 

may put their lands at risk. CIG is currently 

working with the Wai Wais to develop a management plan for the area, with the long-term 

goal of having it included to the National System of Protected Areas.

GFC Reserves and Pilot Plantation Sites

Forest concession holders are required 

to set aside 4.5% of their concessions as biodiversity reserve. The GFC also has 10 forest 

reserves where various types of research were 

conducted. At seven of these sites, attempts 

were made to establish Pinus caribaea, and 

to a lesser extent, Acacia mangium (Figure 

4). In 2005, the GFC established enrichment 

plots and three research plots with indigenous 

trees species. Currently, information is being 

collected on survival rates, and diameter and 

height growth for future use.

Forest Certification

The Certification process in Guyana 

began in 2000 with technical support of United 

Nations Development Programme for Forests 

(PROFOR). An interim working group representing stakeholders from social, environmental, economic, and institutional interests was 

formed to select a certification option for Guyana. In 2001, the working group voted to start 

the development of a national standard based 

on the FSC principles and criteria. To date 

only one large TSA is certified. Other companies are rapidly working towards certification.

Forestry and Social Development

In 2000, the GFC reaffirmed its 

commitment to social forestry issues by launching a Social Development Programme. This 

programme has an overall objective to “contribute to the effective realization of social re-
27

sponsibilities, satisfaction of social needs and 

attainment of social benefits by the stakeholders of the forestry sector.”

REFERENCES

www.forestry.gov.gy

Guyana Forestry Commission. 2005. Forestry 

in Guyana 2005, facts sheet.

Zagt, R., 2000. The Tropenbos-Guyana Programme – An overview of the research programme and scientific outputs, 1989-2000. 

Tropenbos Guyana Programme.

Figure 4. Government Forestry Commission plantation sites in Guyana.
28

LINKING CONSERVATION, TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT IN THE CARIBEBAN – JAMAICA

Glen R. Ivey and Ainsworth D. Grant

INTRODUCTION

Jamaica is an island nation of the 

Greater Antilles, 240 km in length and as much 

as 85 km in width, situated in the Caribbean 

Sea. It is 635 km east of the Central American 

mainland, 150 km south of Cuba, and 180 km 

west of the island of Hispaniola. It is the third 

largest Caribbean Island and the fourth largest Caribbean country. Highlands occupy the 

interior and a narrow coastal plain, where most 

major towns are located, surrounds the island. 

The chief towns include the capital city Kingston, Spanish Town, Mandeville, Ocho Rios, 

Port Antonio, and Montego Bay.

Jamaica’s climate is tropical, with hot 

and humid weather, although inland regions 

have more temperate conditions. Some regions on the south coast, such as the Liguanea Plain and the Pedro Plains, are relatively 

dry rain-shadow areas. Jamaica’s geographic 

location, climate, and topography, make the 

island a major tourist destination. The government and the Forestry Department have implemented strategies to encourage the participation of all stakeholders in the conservation 

and sustainable development of the environment, including environmental groups, local 

forest management committees, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). 

Bauxite, followed by tourism and agriculture, are Jamaica’s chief foreign exchange 

earners. A recent study of land use in Jamaica 

showed that nearly one-third (336,000 ha) of 

the island’s 1.08 million ha of land area is in 

forest cover (Figure 1). 

Figure 1. Forest cover in Jamaica, 1999.

FORESTRY DEPARTMENT GOALS

The functions of the Forestry Department are mandated by the Forest Act of 1996 

and focus on managing Jamaica’s forests on 

a sustainable basis to maintain and increase 

their environmental benefits and services 

(Figure 2). The goals of the forestry sector 

address four broad values to society: environment; national wealth and rural development; 

energy; and, recreation and tourism. Some of 

the essential functions include:

Forest-closed

Forest-other

Mixture of Forest and

Cultivation

Non-Forest

8%

39%

30%

23%
29

• Sustainable management and effective 

conservation of forests on Crown lands 

and forest reserves.

• Controlling the harvesting of forest 

resources through the establishment of 

adequate systems for the renewal of those 

resources.

• Controlling and supervising the cutting, 

harvesting, milling, and sale of timber 

and other forest products.

• Granting licenses and permits described 

under the Forest Act.

• Enforcing compliance with the provisions 

of the Forest Act.

• Promoting the development of forests on 

private lands.

• Establishing and maintaining a forest 

research programme.

• Promoting agroforestry and social forestry programmes for the benefit of farmers, 

schools, and other interested individuals 

and groups.

• Developing and promoting public education programmes to increase awareness 

of the contribution of forests to the wellbeing and development of the nation.

Conservator of 

Forest

Senior Director

Accounts and

HRM

Forest

Supervisors

Forest

Supervisors

Forest

Supervisors

Foresters

Forest

Wardens

Forest

Wardens

Forest

Wardens

Foresters Foresters

Figure 2. The Forest Department in Jamaica.
30

The purposes of the Forest Awareness programme are to gain support from

the public, to inform stakeholders regarding 

the sustainable management of forests in upper watersheds, and to improve the image and 

visibility of the Forestry Department. The 

programme works closely with other organisations involved in environmental awareness. 

Activities undertaken by the programme include: 

• Annual school competitions and the

annual production of calendars.

• Presentations to schools, service clubs, 

and summer camps. 

• Setting up information centres at agricultural shows. 

• Regular media submissions on forestrelated topics.

• Development and production of forestry 

educational resources.

• Production of the community drama 

“Magic Trees.”

• Development of the Forestry Department 

web site.

• Production of a video for children called 

“You are tree.”

Other activities underway include the 

production of a series of 3-minute videos based 

on a “forest heroes” theme and the production 

of a dendrology manual for the trees of Jamaica. 

Forest Land Use Data Bank 

A forest resources data bank has 

been designed and is being implemented. A 

Geographic Information System (GIS) Unit

has been established in the Forestry Depart

ment with trained personnel and the required

equipment. Information is readily available

and is being provided to outside users, in

cluding government agencies, NGOs, consultants, research institutions, and students. 

The success of the GIS Unit was internationally recognised when the Forestry Department 

was presented with a “Special Achievement in 

GIS” award at the Environmental Systems Research Institute’s 20th annual conference held 

in California in 2000. 

 

Collection and Analysis of Forest 

Resource Information 

This activity is intended to provide the 

Forest Department with the capacity to continue a periodic forest inventory and to provide 

the forest land use and inventory information 

required for national and local forest management plans. Outputs include: 

• Black and white aerial photography of the 

island (1:40,000).

• One nation-wide biophysical forest inventory (1:100,000). 

• A detailed forest inventory of selected 

forest reserves (1:15,000). 

• Forest Department personnel trained in 

image interpretation and sampling procedures.

• Technical manuals on procedures. 

The biophysical inventory and mapping of the Buff Bay-Pencar Watershed Management Unit (WMU) has been completed. 

The inventories of the Rio Minho WMU and 

Dolphin Head Mountain, which has been proposed for a national park, are also completed. 

Work has also begun for areas in the cockpit 

country. 

Forest Awareness Programme
31

Reforestation Programme 

The purpose of the reforestation programme is to promote tree planting initiatives 

and to develop the capacity to produce, distribute, and successfully plant tree seedlings. The 

main achievements reported under this activity 

are: 

• Upgrading the Mt. Airy, Williamsfield, 

and Moneague nurseries.

• Restoration of the mango germplasm 

bank at Orange River Experimental Station.

• Establishment of a germplasm bank at 

Hope Gardens in collaboration with the 

National Arboretum Foundation and the 

Environment Foundation of Jamaica.

• Preparation of a Five-Year National Reforestation Plan. 

The production and distribution of seedlings as 

well as the provision of technical assistance to 

tree growers is one of the key functions of the 

Forest Department and an activity that is crucial to watershed protection and management.

Local Forest Management Plans 

The purpose of management plans is to 

promote sustainable management of forests on 

Crown land and in forest reserves, to provide 

for the effective conservation of forests, and 

to develop and protect forests on private land. 

This is to be achieved through the development 

of: 

• A participatory methodology for planning 

forestry and other land uses.

• A plan of action for land use, forest management, rehabilitation of critical areas, 

and soil and water conservation in the 

selected pilot area of Buff Bay-Pencar 

WMU.

• A monitoring system designed to meet the 

needs of watershed management. 

Two Local Forest Management Committees (LFMC) were convened, one for the 

Buff Bay sub-watershed and another for the 

Pencar sub-watershed. Membership in the 

committees was drawn from government 

agencies and organisations, NGOs, and the 

private sector. Both committees held several 

meetings as well as elections, and they ratified 

their constitutions. The process to convene the 

LFMCs involved discussions with other parish and national level agencies working with 

the local government. Moreover, a draft Local Forest Management Plan (LFMP) for Buff 

Bay-Pencar WMU was prepared and is ready 

for review. The process to consolidate the 

LFMP will include a series of meetings in the 

watershed to inform and receive input from the 

general public on the draft local plan. A participatory monitoring system still needs to be 

developed. Feedback will be required to guide 

the actions in the pilot area and in other areas 

where the Forestry Department intends to replicate the model (e.g., the next LFMP is scheduled for the Rio Minho WMU). 

Forestry Extension

The development and implementation 

of technological packages are essential for the 

management of the watershed by its inhabitants. These packages must be compatible with 

traditional land uses, human needs, biological 

limitations, and economic constraints in the 

market place. The Forest Department’s extension programme is now well developed in the 

Buff Bay-Pencar WMU and is being set up in 

the Rio Minho watershed. Activities to date 

include:

• Agroforestry and forestry extension programs that have reached schools, NGOs, 

and individual farmers.
32

• Organization of eight demonstration 

farms.

• Involvement of four schools in agroforestry demonstration plots and activities.

• Training sessions reaching 157 farmers 

and 7 schools.

• Distribution of >32,000 seedlings to >100 

farmers.

• Establishment of 20 m of live fences and 

9 m of windbreaks.

• Preparation and printing of the extension 

procedures manual. 

The extension programme works 

closely and in collaboration with other institutions such as the Jamaica Agricultural Society, 

the Rural Agricultural Development Authority, 

the Coffee Industries Board, and local NGOs.

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN 

JAMAICA

Since the 1980s, greater emphasis has 

been placed at the international level on utilising an integrated approach, which combines 

soil conservation and rural development elements with strategies to improve conditions 

for the land and people. A number of proposals to implement environmental protection

have come from various United Nations initiatives.

Jamaica’s awareness of the need for 

soil conservation and watershed protection 

dates as far back as the 1930s. In 1945, an 

economic policy committee report noted that 

steps must be taken to combat widespread 

watershed degradation. During the past three 

decades, Jamaica has had one of the highest 

rates of deforestation in the world, resulting 

in serious problems of soil erosion and loss of 

biodiversity. The management crisis pointed 

to a need for a new approach, especially government-led initiatives such as the preparation 

of a new watershed policy -- the 2001 Policy 

and Legislative Framework for Watershed 

Management in Jamaica. This plan divides 

the island into 26 WMUs and includes >100 

streams and rivers. These WMUs are essentially watershed composites which fall within 

10 regions. 
33

CONSERVATION, TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

IN MONTSERRAT

Lloyd Martin

INTRODUCTION

Several elements link conservation 

and tourism to sustainable development in 

Montserrat, including: protected areas, new 

legislation, economic evaluation, tourism, hiking, bird watching, diving, volcano viewing, 

monitoring, research, species action planning, 

and mining of volcanic products. Terrestrial 

natural resource management, and in particular biodiversity conservation, are the responsibility of Montserrat’s Department of the Environment (DOE).

PROTECTED AREAS

Protected areas on Montserrat help 

conserve the island’s biodiversity, watersheds, 

and tourism. 

Centre Hills 

As a result of volcanic activity starting 

in the late 1990’s, about 60% of Montserrat’s 

forest ecosystems were destroyed. The Centre Hills contain the largest remaining intact 

forest on Montserrat. The Centre Hills forest 

provides a number of important environmental 

goods and services to the island’s people. The 

Hills also provide habitat for three endemic and 

potentially endangered species: the Montserrat 

oriole, the national bird; the Montserrat galliwasp, a lizard; and, the Montserrat orchid.

Pipers Pond Wetland

Pipers Pond is the largest wetland remaining on Montserrat. It provides habitat for 

a large number of bird species, including waders, waterfowl, and North American migrants. 

It also harbors a number of species of fish and 

marine crustaceans. 

NEW LEGISLATION

Existing laws pertaining to the management of the Centre Hills were revised and updated through the Centre Hills project, which 

is now called C.E.M.A (Conservation and Environmental Management Act 2008). This act 

will improve species protection in and around 

the Centre Hills. The Act also allows for setting aside other protected areas and strengthens regulations so that the act can be updated 

when necessary.

ECONOMIC EVALUATION

An economic evaluation was completed under Montserrat’s Centre Hills Project to 

assign a monetary value to natural resources 

and ecological services that the Centre Hills 

provide. This was done through a survey using questionnaires that targeted people living 

in different parts of Montserrat. Focus groups 

were also used as a tool to capture input from 

people directly involved with the management 

of Centre Hills.
34

TOURISM

Tourism in Montserrat is focussed on 

nature. A number of sustainable activities are 

available for visitors to the island.

Hiking 

There are 14 hiking trails on Montserat, 

12 in Centre Hills Protected Area, some of 

which are frequented by visitors. Trail usage is 

monitored on some trails using automated data 

loggers. The information is used for planning 

and management. Exit surveys at the airport 

show that 57% of the visitors hike on these 

trails. Montserrat’s main tour guides are provided by the DOE staff.

Bird watching 

Some visitors come to Montserrat mainly for bird watching. Typically they look for 

rare or endemic species such as the Montserrat Oriole, the Forest Thrush, and the Bridled 

Quail Dove.

Diving 

There are two main dive operators on 

Montserrat that attract numerous visitors. They 

conduct boat tours to view the island from the 

sea, including the volcano. These operators 

also run diving courses and host excursions to 

coral reefs.

Volcano Viewing

After several relocations, a state-ofthe-art building was constructed to monitor 

ongoing volcanic activity. The new building 

houses the latest instruments to monitor volcanic activity on a 24-hour basis. Visitors are 

permitted to tour the building, which showcases Montserrat’s volcanic experience. When

 volcanic activity is low, taxi tours allow visitors to see the volcano and its remnants from 

closer viewpoints.

RESEARCH

Research has played a big part in 

Montserrat since volcanic eruptions began in 

July 1995. Much of this research has involved 

DOE partnering with overseas research and 

conservation agencies, including the Royal 

Society for the Protection of Birds, the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust, and the Royal 

Botanic Gardens at Kew. Continuous monitoring of the frog known locally as the Mountain chicken, the Montserrat Oriole, and 40 

other species of forest birds, began in the late 

1990s.

Species Action Planning

In October 2007, after years of monitoring and the preparation of a biodiversity assessment, species action plans were initiated. 

Five endemic and endangered species were 

included: the Mountain chicken, Montserrat 

galliwasp, two endemic plants (an orchid and 

a shrub), and the Yellow-shouldered volcano 

bat. The species action plan for the Mountain 

chicken has been completed and the one for the 

Montserrat galliwasp is in progress. The project ends in 2009 by which time all plans will 

have been successfully completed. 

National Biodiversity Database

DOE and the Physical Planning Unit 

are constructing a database to store past and 

future biodiversity monitoring data. The final 

product will be accessible through ArcView 

GIS and improve information flow and outputs 

between local ministries and a wide range of 

users.
35

MINING VOLCANIC PRODUCTS

Although the volcano did tremendous 

damage to the island, it also produced valuable ash and lahars (mud flows). Six operators 

have been mining these volcanic products for 

about 4 years. They are used locally for making concrete blocks and construction activities, 

and are also exported within the region.
36

CONSERVATION, TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ACROSS 

THE CARIBBEAN: COUNTRY REPORT – SAINT LUCIA

Michael Bobb

INTRODUCTION

Conservation, as defined and advocated, is an indispensable requirement for development that is equitable, sustainable, and 

harmonious. Natural and cultural resources 

are the capital upon which a country’s development can be built, and this is particularly 

true in the context of Saint Lucia and the Caribbean where economies are largely based on 

the use of natural resources. Maintenance and 

enhancement of that capital -- soils, forests, 

landscapes, water, and culture -- are indispensable if development is to be achieved and sustained.

This responsibility for conservation 

belongs to the present generation, which aspires to a higher quality of life and seeks to 

meet needs beginning with such essentials as 

food, shelter, health, and education. The conservation of a country’s biodiversity and cultural heritage must be the cornerstone of its 

development strategy, because conservation 

aims to maintain and sustain the delivery of 

essential goods and services. Saint Lucia, as 

a developing island, is faced with a number of 

environmental issues which are exacerbated in 

a rapidly evolving world. The economic challenges of shifting from agriculture to tourism 

require infrastructural development and significantly impact coastal resources. Factors of 

size, openness, fragility, and interrelatedness 

all combine to threaten a scarce and impoverished resource base. Moreover, they undermine a vulnerable cultural foundation and 

maintain the dependent nature of an economy, 

which was built to serve distant fluctuating interests. 

COUNTRY BACKGROUND

Saint Lucia, a small tropical developing state, is the second largest of the Windward 

Islands. It has an area of 616 km2 and lies 39 

km south of Martinique and 34 km north of 

Saint Vincent. The island is of volcanic origin, 

with Mount Gimie at 960 m being the highest 

peak. The most spectacular landmarks are the 

Pitons, two conical-shaped tree-clad volcanic 

dikes rising nearly 800 m out of the sea. Rain 

forest lies in the mountainous interior where it 

shelters a wide variety of tropical plants and 

birds, including wild orchids, giant ferns, and 

the endemic Saint Lucian Parrot (Amazona 

versicolor). Native forests comprise about 

20% of the island.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS – 

SAINT LUCIA

For people in small island states of 

the Caribbean, environmental concerns are 

a real life challenge. Small island states are 

concerned about the loss of biodiversity, water shortages, and air pollution; moreover, 

individuals feel incapable of solving such 

problems. People in developing countries are 

also more likely than those in industrialized 

nations to be dissatisfied with their country’s 

environmental regulatory system. This is due 

to many factors -- limited natural resources, 

the choice of particular areas for development, and the effects of climate change and 

natural disasters on the landscape (Figure 1). 

The public of Saint Lucia is showing concern 

for the environment (e.g., hotel development 

in coastal areas) but these same activities also 

improve the social and economic conditions 
37

of the average family by providing infrastructural development and job security. 

 

Land use policy

Land ownership is a major issue in 

strategic planning for development. St. Vincent has three main categories of land ownership: government forest reserves, 15%; Crown 

Lands, 10%; and private lands, 75%. The latter 

group contains agricultural lands and private 

forest, including tropical dry forest (Figure 1). 

Many of the private lands are very scenic and 

will attract local or overseas investors. 

With tourism being a lucrative business, private lands are sold at astronomical 

prices to overseas investors making it impossible for government to purchase them for conservation. While this is disturbing, tourism and 

development have yielded a positive growth in 

the country’s gross domestic product. Many 

believe that during the first stages of development, pollution grows rapidly because people 

are more interested in jobs and income than 

they are in clean air or the loss of biodiversity. 

Regulation is weak, and communities, government agencies and NGOs do not have the finances to alleviate the situation. 

TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE

 DEVELOPMENT

Despite the warm and friendly “Saint 

Lucia Simply Beautiful” greeting for visitors, 

strong debates about sustainable development 

(wise use) and tourism persist. By definition, 

sustainable development is “economic development without polluting the environment” 

(Encarta dictionary). Likewise, tourism is 

“travel to benefit from a particular service or 

activity that is unavailable at home.” Some 

suggest that economic growth and environmental quality are incompatible. If so, a naFigure 1. The northeast cost of Saint Lucia, a main area for ecotourism 

development and home of the iguana.
38

tion that opted for growth would eventually 

find that it had become unsustainable because 

the natural resources had run out, or because 

the assimilative capacity of the environment for 

waste had been exhausted, or both. Managers 

on Saint Lucia, a small island state with limited 

resources and threats of natural disasters like 

hurricanes need to know when to stop development. Current policy allows ecotourism to 

develop all major coastal areas. These actions 

violate the protocols of wise use management 

and international conventions that the island 

has signed. If trade-offs are not recognized, 

the tourism vs. sustainable development debate 

will continue to run. With the development of 

a strategic management plan, however, tourism 

can be sustainable. 

CHALLENGES AND 

OPPORTUNITIES

Islands like Saint Lucia must work with 

major stakeholders to simultaneously protect 

natural resources for economic growth and expand infrastructure. Sustainable land use and 

management policies must be integrated into 

government planning to advance local capability and improve the regulatory framework

(Figure 2). Environmental issues must be adequately addressed in environmental projects 

and partnerships. 

Monitoring environmental trends is 

important but costly. Monitoring provides information on air and water pollution, deforestation, erosion, and sedimentation, as well as 

their impacts on ecosystem services. It also 

builds environmental capacity for programs 

dealing with wise use. Education and advocacy must promote stakeholder participation, and 

help build consensus in society. Environmental authorities should become more accountable for their services. 

CONCLUSIONS

Saint Lucia’s Forestry Department will 

continue to work together with stakeholders 

and communities to make tourist development 

sustainable. This is critical since most of the 

island’s biodiversity is on private lands. Saint 

Lucia’s land use policy must be completed so 

that it will serve as a management tool for sustainable development. 
39

Figure 2. Land classification map of Saint Lucia.
40

FORAGING LINKAGES WITH CONSERVATION, TOURISM

AND DEVELOPMENT IN ST. KITTS AND NEVIS

Ronel Browne

INTRODUCTION

The economies of the small island states 

of the Caribbean are very fragile and narrowly based and, among other things, are highly 

vulnerable to external economic and political 

influences. More and more, governments are 

taking advantage of obvious linkages as part 

of their strategic plans for sustainable development. From all indications, the services sector offers significant scope for forging linkages 

among tourism, conservation, and sustainability.

July 2005 marked the demise of the 

sugar industry that had dominated the socioeconomic landscape of St.Kitts and Nevis as 

the main stay of the economy for >350 years. 

The government is now faced with the task of 

diversifying the economy and improving the 

operation of other traditional sectors to generate increases in productivity and exports. The 

main challenge is to sustain economic and social development programs. This will be done 

by drawing on existing resources and embracing new opportunities to be derived from service industries like tourism. This is the new 

strategy designed in response to new conditions. 

CONSERVATION, TOURISM, AND DEVELOPMENT

Economic Activities

St. Kitts and Nevis was the last sugar 

monoculture in the Eastern Caribbean until 

the government decided to close the industry 

in 2005 after decades of losses in the state-run 

company. To compensate, the government embarked on a program to diversify the agricultural sector and stimulate the development of 

other sectors of the economy. Tourism, which 

has been developing for two decades showed 

the greatest growth and is now a major foreign 

exchange earner. This is evidenced by an 83% 

increase in direct foreign investment in a range 

of tourism-related projects, including the five 

star Marriott Hotel and Convention Center 

that opened in December 2002. The manufacturing and financial services sectors have also 

grown.

The economy of St. Kitts and Nevis 

experienced strong growth for most of the 

1990s, but hurricanes in 1998 and 1999, and 

the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks hurt 

the tourism sector. Economic growth picked 

up again in 2004, with a real gross domestic product growth rate of 6.4%, followed by 

4.1% growth in 2005. In 2006, the economy 

posted a growth of 4.6%, mostly as a result 

of diversification in tourism and a boost in the 

construction industry.

Tourism 

Formerly on St. Kitts, tourism development was characterized by small operations 

scattered around the island such as small hotels or former plantation houses converted to 

luxury accommodations. This has now shifted 

toward cruise ship tourism and resort complexes on the South East Peninsula. Visitor 

statistics indicate a general trend in growth, 

with a temporary depression after the Sep-
41

tember 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the United 

States (Table 1). 

The St. Kitts Tourism Authority announced on 16 April 2007 that cruise arrivals 

will increase by over 70% in 2008, largely due 

to a cruise line which will be added to the island’s cruise ship roster. This will be the first 

cruise ship to call weekly on a year-round basis. 

Both independent travelers and disembarking 

cruise ship passengers may chose from a selection of tours and activities, including shopping 

excursions, fishing, horseback riding, scuba 

diving, snorkeling, rainforest hikes, plantation 

tours, and beach relaxation. Tourism is one of 

the principal benefits derived from protection 

since it depends on the environment. Protection 

also benefits the sugar lands, structures in water 

catchment areas like Wing Field, trails like the 

Rain Forest Trail, and historical structures like 

Brimstone Hill National Fortress. In St. Kitts 

there are several water catchments which provide potable water. The government’s land use 

policy considers the need to protect them notwithstanding the phenomenal expansion in 

the housing sector that is also part of government’s development programme. The increasing population pressure coupled with a rising

demand for agricultural lands could lead to 

an increase in the rate of deforestation. Safeguarding water quality by proper management 

of forested watersheds is of vital importance. 

A couple of measures have been adopted 

to assure the protection of catchment areas: 

• Restricting development in certain areas 

of the island such as the Basseterre Valley 

Aquifer which sustains the major portion 

of potable water on St. Kitts.

• Establishing an integrated system of hiking trails, interpretative stations, camping 

sites, scenic viewpoints, and picnic areas 

not only for tourist recreation but also as 

avenues for income generation.

Forest Conservation and Sustainability in 

Protected Areas

The introduction of legislation in the 

late 1990s was premised on its potential impact on sustainable development. The implementation of the National Conservation and 

Environment Protection Act (NCEPA) not only 

raised the level of priority given to forestry 

but confirmed the government’s awareness of 

Item 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Stay-over 

arrivals

95,973 87,008 76,350 74,227 728052 94,617 124,158

Cruise 

Passenger 

Arrivals

151,475 139,338 170,887 259,134 171,814 156,284 260, 566

Number of 

calls

322 284 343 358 263 270 373

Estimated 

visitor expenditure

75.9 67.8 58.5 61.9 56.3 75.6 96.7

Table 1. Visitors statistics for St. Kitts and Nevis, 1998-2004

 In millions of $US. Source: Statistics Department, Ministry of Sustainable Development, 

taken from St. Christopher and Nevis National Physical Development Plan. 

1

1
42

the importance of conservation in economic 

diversification. The legislation provides the 

framework for promoting conservation as part 

of long-term development planning as well 

as for the selection and establishment of protected areas (i.e., National Parks, Nature Reserves, Botanic Gardens, and Historic Sites). 

The legislation’s major objectives reflect the 

institutionalization of this all important initiative which protects wildlife and historical 

structures. Section 3(4) (a)-(d) of NCEPA 

states that “Any protected area designated under the Act shall have one or more of the following broad purposes and objectives:

• To preserve biological diversity of wild 

flora and fauna species that may be 

endemic, threatened, or of special concern and the land and marine habitats 

upon which the survival of these species 

depend.

• To protect selected examples of representative or unique biological communities, 

both on land and in marine areas, and 

their physical environments.

• To sustain natural areas important for protection and maintenance of life-support 

systems (air, water) and basic ecological 

processes including water recharge and 

soil regeneration.

• To protect selected natural sites of scenic 

beauty or of special scientific, ecological 

historic or educational value, including 

sites that are already degraded and need 

protection for restoration or sites that 

may become degraded if not protected.”

In addition, NCEPA is the principal 

law governing the environment in St. Kitts 

and Nevis. The major initiatives in national

environmental reporting and policy planning 

include:

• Preparation of a national Environmental 

Profile in 1991 – a compilation of natural 

resources data, an examination of the key 

environmental issues, and recommendations for policy directions.

• Preparation of a National Environmental 

Action Plan in 1994 – identification of 

the major environmental problems of the 

country and recommendations for appropriate policies and actions to address 

problems.

• Preparation of a National Biodiversity 

Strategy and Action Plan.

• Preparation of the National Environmental 

Management Strategy and Action Plan, 

2005-2009.

With the closure of the sugar industry, 

the government decided to shift its focus to 

maximizing the tourism sector. Several initiatives were undertaken to protect and conserve 

natural resources and historical structures. 

With the introduction of the Organization of 

Eastern Caribbean States Protected Areas and 

Associated Livelihoods (OPAAL), the Federation tailored its tourism sector into rainforest 

guided tours to the crater and to Dos D’ane 

Pond, which lies within the mouth of one of 

the many volcanic vents. The government 

took the initiative to protect the lands above 

the 305 m contour (1000 feet) which fell within the boundary of the Central Forest Range. 

With the implementation of the OPAAL management scheme, forest rangers stationed at 

several interpretation centres will brief tourists about various rare species found within 

the Protected Central Forest Reserve as they 

explore the forest. 
43

Central Forest Management Plan, Tourism, 

and Sustainable Development

The Central Forest Reserve National 

Park (CFRNP) is designated to include all the 

land on the island ≥305 m contour, a total of 

approximately 5060 ha, or about 25% of St. 

Kitts. Because the CFRNP is so large and centrally located relative to the island, its area of 

influence is effectively the entire island, except 

for the South East Peninsula.

One of the main priorities of the development policy makers is the need to coordinate for the proper management of protected areas. In the Central Forest Reserve, 

part of the government’s priority is to prevent 

pollution of spring water and to develop the 

necessary infrastructure (e.g., access roads, 

trails), objectives that are linked to the tourism plan. The area is experiencing significant 

trail use, especially during the winter season 

when visitor arrivals increase. The boost in 

future tourism marketing initiatives and anticipated increases in cruise ship arrivals in 2008 

could drastically increase demand for access 

to the Forest Reserve. Tourists would see the 

CFRNP as a unique destination, and in turn, 

increase the demand for visits to the area.

Wildlife Management

The government has tried to protect 

wildlife by declaring lands above the 305 m 

contour, where several endemic species are

found, as reserves. Wildlife management in

St.Kitts is regulated under the NCEPA. The 

act placed responsibility on the Department of

 Physical Planning and Environment to educate 

and to incorporate constant dialogue among 

farmers and other forest users. In keeping 

healthy relationships and constant community 

consultations with individuals, the Department 

is able to improve its capability to regulate activities in the Central Forest. Forest rangers 

are better able to monitor the forest with the 

assistance of individuals who depend on the 

forest for their livelihood (e.g. fishermen making fish pots, craftsman, or charcoal producers). 

In the pre-1980s, much criticism was 

leveled at the government for not establishing 

a competitive edge in the new paradigm linking sustainability, conservation, tourism, and 

development. Indeed, St. Kitts became the 

central backbone of the Federation after the 

sugar industry ended. The economy benefits 

greatly from scenic trails and tours. From all 

indications, the institutionalization of coordinating mechanisms has impacted economic 

growth. Tourism continues to develop as a major foreign exchange earner for St. Kitts-Nevis 

as evidenced by the 83% increase in direct foreign investment. Braving the devastation by 

destructive hurricanes and the loss of the principal income earner ‘King Sugar,” the Federation continues to register economic growth, 

drawing on a promising tourism industry. The 

government will continue to mainstream conservation management into its development 

plan to sustain economic growth. 
44

LINKING CONSERVATION, TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES

Andrew Lockhart 

INTRODUCTION

Conservation denotes the ‘wise use’ of 

resources. The term emerged in the late 19th 

century and was linked to the establishment of 

national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and game 

reserves for the protection of environmental 

resources. Today, conservation is viewed in 

a wider framework because of human population growth, competing demands for land, and 

the goods and services provided by natural 

systems like forests. The sphere of conservation has widened from the protection of wildlife species and habitats to embrace rural development, outdoor recreation, and tourism.

Indeed, tourism is the lead economic sector in St. Vincent and the Grenadines 

(SVG). The nation’s landscape and seascape 

combined with a rich culture and history have 

made the country an enviable tourism destination. The pristine waters, white sand beaches, 

and coral reefs of the Grenadines beckon to 

sailors, scuba divers, and sea-bathers, while 

the lush rainforests, waterfalls, and rugged 

mountain trails on mainland St. Vincent offer opportunities for various forms of naturetourism, including ecotourism. A vibrant sustainable tourism sector is intricately linked to 

healthy, well-managed ecosystems. Forests 

are visually appealing, provide habitats for a 

diversity of wildlife, protect soils, and prevent siltation of coral reefs while providing 

water for hydro electricity, cooking, drinking,

and recreation. Destructive practices such as

deforestation and reclamation of mangrove 

swamps and salt marches are the antithesis of 

conservation and sustainable development. 

Often, negative practices occur in the absence 

of a focused public awareness programme, or 

where law enforcement is ineffective.

One must appreciate the foreign exchange earnings from tourism and the positive ‘trickle-down’ effects into other areas of 

the economy and society. Simultaneously, the 

potential negative impacts of tourism on vulnerable groups and communities must be kept 

in mind. While not a major contributor to the 

country’s gross domestic product (GDP), the 

forestry sector of SVG plays a significant supportive role to other economic sectors such as 

agriculture, tourism, water, and energy.

Sustainable development is aimed at 

empowering local communities to benefit socially and economically from tourism while 

ensuring that monies are made available to 

support integrated conservation efforts. This 

report highlights some of the initiatives being 

taken to conserve and promote national forest 

and wildlife resources for recreation as part of 

the SVG tourism product within a sustainable 

framework. It also presents some opportunities and challenges that may impact efforts 

to support, promote, and develop sustainable 

tourism.
45

COUNTRY PROFILE

Location

SVG is an archipelago situated at 13° 

00 ́ N and 61° 15 ́ W in the Windward Islands 

of the Caribbean. It is bounded on the north 

by St. Lucia, on the south by Grenada, and to 

the east by Barbados. The nation comprises 32 

islands and cays, nine of which are inhabited: 

mainland St. Vincent, Young Island, Bequia, 

Mustique, Canouan, Mayreau, Union Island, 

Palm Island, and Petit St. Vincent, at southwestern end of the island chain.

Demographics

The country measures 389 km2. Mainland St. Vincent is 345 km2, and the Grenadines occupy 44 km2. The 2001 census estimates the national population at 110,000 with 

a density of 284/ km2. Tourism, agriculture, 

and light manufacturing are the major economic sectors, and contribute 18, 11, and 4%, 

respectively, to the GDP. Agriculture occurs 

mostly on the mainland while tourism, boat 

building, and fisheries are the main activities 

in the Grenadines.

Geology and Vegetation

Volcanic in origin, St. Vincent is one 

of the youngest Caribbean islands. Its principal peak, La Soufriere at 1234 m is one of 

the region’s most active volcanoes. Eruptions 

occurred in 1718, 1812, 1902, 1971, and 1979. 

The mainland’s topography is characterized by 

a central ridge from which emanates a series 

of steep, rugged peaks, lush valleys, and a narrow coastal plain. Conversely, the Grenadines 

are primarily low-lying coral islands that consist mainly of coastal dry vegetation consisting of low trees and shrubs. A 1993 inventory 

shows that forests occupy approximately 38%

of SVG, with 5% being mature, undisturbed 

primary forest. Mangroves, coastal dry scrub, 

Montane, rainforest, Palm brake, and Elfin 

woodland are the main forest types.

Biodiversity Assets

Notwithstanding its small size, SVG 

possess a relatively wide diversity of local 

and regional endemic flora and fauna. These 

include 400 species of plants, 90 species of 

birds, and 18 species of terrestrial amphibians 

and reptiles. 

CONSERVATION, LEGISLATION AND 

POLICY

Efforts to conserve the nation’s biodiversity and support outdoor recreation began 

as early as 1765 with the establishment of the 

16-ha St. Vincent Botanic Gardens, the oldest 

of its kind in the western hemisphere. Also, 

the Kings Hill Enclosure Ordinance of 1791 

is one of the oldest pieces of environmental 

legislation enacted for the conservation of a 

forest reserve to protect the hydrology of the 

surrounding lands “...to increase the clouds 

and rains [thereto]...” Essentially, the Act established the Kings Hill Forest Reserve as one 

of the oldest of its kind in the western hemisphere. This legislation was repealed and replaced by the National Forest Resource Conservation Act (NFRCA) No. 47 of 1992.

National Forest Policy, the Wildlife 

Protection Act No. 16 of 1987, the amended 

Wildlife Protection Act No. 16 of 1991, and 

the NFRCA provide for the protection, conservation, management, development, and 

enhancement of the country’s forest resources 

in harmony with national programmes and development plans. The laws emphasize wildlife and watershed protection, the maintenance 

of biological diversity, and the sustainable use
46

of the national forests for recreation, tourism, 

education, interpretation, and research, among 

others. 

Forest Recreation

During the early 1980s, the Forestry 

Division began a programme to expose nationals and visitors to forest recreation. The 

programme involved the establishment and 

maintenance of trails to vistas, such as La Soufriere, Trinity Falls, and the Falls of Baleine. 

Financing for these early efforts were provided 

by the government’s consolidated funds. In 

1988, the Nicholls Wildlife Complex was established in the Botanical Gardens. This facility houses breeding and display aviaries for 

captive St. Vincent Parrots (Amazona guildingii), the national bird of SVG and flagship 

species for conservation. The Jersey Wildlife 

Preservation Trust and the Los Palmitos Park 

provided funding for the construction of the 

wildlife complex.

From 1989 to 1994 was a major turning point for forest recreation in SVG. Buoyed 

by funding under the SVG-Canadian International Development Agency Forestry Development Project, major work was done to 

enhance the physical appearance and amenities of three premier outdoor recreation areas: 

Owia Salt Pond (1989);Vermont Nature Trails 

(1991); and the Bamboo Range picnic site 

and La Soufriere Trail (1992). Similar work 

was done later at Walliabou and Trinity Falls, 

and at the Falls of Baleine. In addition, the 

Forestry Division maintained various beaches through weekly clean ups and by planting 

ornamentals. Several ornamental gardens 

were also established on the fringes of Kingstown and in suburban areas. All these activities took place from the 1980s through 2001. 

The National Parks, Rivers and Beaches Authority now manages beaches and nature-based 

outdoor recreation sites in SVG.

National Tourism 

Tourism is the lead economic sector 

of SVG. This represents a change from the 

previous economy based on agriculture, and 

was occasioned primarily by falling prices and 

the end of preferential treatment for Caribbean 

bananas in European markets. From January 

to August 2007, visitor arrivals to SVG totaled 

253,112, an increase of 25% over the corresponding period in 2006. Cruise ship and 

yacht arrivals were the main growth earners. 

Total gross visitor expenditure in 2006 was 

US$112.5 million compared with US$103.2 

million in 2005. The projection for 2007 was 

US$119.4 million.

Tourism Development Project

SVG has embraced sustainable tourism as an effective means of macro-economic 

diversification. Natural and cultural heritage 

resources which form the basis for national 

tourism are fragile and irreplaceable; therefore, tourism development must be carefully 

planned and managed. In 2005, to help move 

the sector forward, the government initiated a 

3-year Tourism Development Project (TDP) 

with major funding from the European Union. 

The TDP aims to strengthen the management 

and sustainable development of the tourism 

sector so that it can contribute to the long-term 

development of SVG. In this regard, sustainable development is viewed as the optimal use 

of natural and cultural resources for national 

development on a self-sustaining basis. Development will provide pleasant experiences 

for visitors and improve the quality of life on 

SVG through partnerships among government 

agencies, the private sector, and communities.
47

The TDP has two main components, 

the establishment of: (1) the National Parks, 

Rivers and Beaches Authority (NPA) and (2) 

the National Tourism Authority (NTA). The 

NTA will have responsibility for overall planning, coordination, and management of tourism development in SVG. It is also expected 

to address pertinent issues like standards, compliance, and certification in the industry. These 

issues will feature prominently in a tourism 

master plan to be developed and implemented 

by the NTA. In the capital budget estimates 

for 2008, US$1.8 million is budgeted for the 

development of recreational sites and to establish the operational framework for the NPA 

and the NTA. 

National Parks, Rivers and Beaches 

Authority (NPA)

SVG was traditionally a ‘sun, sea and 

sand’ destination. Accordingly, most emphasis 

was placed on developing tourism infrastructure in what was then the ‘tourist belt’, or the 

southwestern end of mainland St. Vincent, and 

in the Grenadines. Recently, however, with the 

government’s thrust to diversify the national 

economy, particularly the tourism product, the 

National Parks, Rivers and Beaches Authority 

Act 2002 was enacted to establish the NPA. 

The NPA was formalized as a statutory body in 

2007. The Act outlines the powers and functions of the NPA, and includes the following:

• Control over all rivers, streams, springs, 

swamps, waterfalls, water pools, and 

beaches in the State.

• Management and maintenance of all 

national parks inclusive of the above, and 

other national and historic resources of the 

state as assigned by the minister.

• Advocate and promote conservation.

• Foster the use of natural and historic resources for recreation and tourism.

• Establish priorities and mechanisms for 

selecting, establishing, and managing a 

national park.

• Ensure permanent protection of species 

and habitats, especially those that are 

threatened, rare, endemic, or commercial 

species, as well as representative habitats.

• Maintain the natural beauty of national 

parks as a tourist attraction.

• Prepare management plans for each national park, including information gathering and research, to provide the scientific 

basis for the plans.

• Establish and operate an effective interpretation programme.

• Regulate use in national parks and their 

adjacent buffer zones. 

• Provide security and enforce regulations.

• Establish public information and education campaigns to create conservation 

awareness at the national level.

Institutional Arrangements

In 2004, a report suggested that modalities of cooperation should be developed 

where there was a potential for overlapping 

jurisdiction among State agencies. It was also 

recommended that the government should embrace the principle of “delegation of management” where responsibilities for recreation 

sites would be delegated to non-governmental 

organizations (NGOs), community groups, and 

to other government agencies already involved 

in management. This is currently thought to 

be the best management practice for national 

parks systems worldwide. The government 

and all stakeholders in tourism should realize 

its enormous potential and help transfer it from 

a “sun, sea and sand” model and to consolidate 

and extend it to take advantage of emerging 

market segments. The following are viewed as 
48

current challenges:

• The under-developed condition of some 

tourism sites.

• The less than optimal coordination between various government agencies that 

work on tourism issues.

• The lack of public consciousness about 

the importance of tourism in the daily 

lives of people in SVG.
49

LINKING CONSERVATION TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE 

DEVELOPMENT IN SURINAME

Bryan R.I. Pinas

INTRODUCTION

There is a logical connection between 

nature conservation, tourism, and sustainable 

development when nature in its pristine state 

is viewed as a tourist product. Tourists are 

willing to pay people living in pristine areas 

so that they may enjoy an encounter with nature, and local people, in turn, will sustain that 

aspect of nature to protect their livelihoods. 

At this point, conserving nature through tourism is possible. The purpose of this report is 

to provide a short description of Suriname and 

then clarify the above assumption by answering three questions: 

• What is worth conversing in Suriname?

• How is Suriname conserving nature?

• Which are the ingredients for the sustainable development of Suriname’s tourism 

industry?

DESCRIPTION OF SURINAME

The Republic of Suriname is situated 

along the north coast of South America. It is 

the second of the three Guianas in size and 

population. About 450,000 people live in an 

area of 163,250 km2 making the country one 

of the least densely populated tropical rainforest areas in the world 

About 90% of the inhabitants of Suriname are concentrated in and around the capital city of Paramaribo near the mouth of the 

Suriname River, and in smaller settlements 

along the coastal lowlands. The remaining 

10% live in small villages, mainly along big 

rivers. About 90% of the country is uninhabited.

Land Surface in Suriname

Mainland Suriname may be divided 

into four major ecological zones: (1) young 

coastal plain, divided into the estuarine zone, 

an area influenced by coastal changes and tidal 

action, and farther inland, freshwater wetlands, 

where rains prevail over tidal intrusions; (2) 

old coastal plain; (3) savanna belt; and (4) interior (residual) uplands, covering 132,000 km2

, 

or 80% of the Suriname’s land surface.

Tourism in Suriname

Direct flights arrive at the Suriname 

International Airport from North America, Europe, Brazil, and the Caribbean. Suriname’s 

eastern and western borders can be crossed by 

ferry.

Tourism is steadily growing in Suriname and employs circa 6000 people. The current value of tourism revenue is difficult to ascertain but estimates for 1997 range from $17 

to 42 million, or 3 to 8% of foreign exchange 

earnings. More than 3/4 of international air arrivals are Dutch citizens, virtually all of them 

with historic or familial ties to Suriname. Also, 

the number of Dutch interns is increasing dramatically. They characteristically stay for long 

periods but spend little. True tourists, those 

coming primarily to Suriname for a holiday, 

probably do not number >3000 annually. 
50

WORTH CONSERVING

Pristine Tropical Rainforest.

Suriname is well-situated to preserve 

its unique tropical rainforest. Although relatively small, Suriname is important internationally because it has the highest proportion 

of tropical rainforest in the world (>80% of the 

total landscape). Moreover, the deterioration 

rate is <0.1% per year. 

Endangered Wildlife

The country’s ecosystems provide 

habitat for a number of species including the 

Cock-of-the-Rock, the flagship species of the 

Guiana avifauna. Suriname contains some of 

the best sea turtle nesting beaches in the world 

and is one of the best places to view giant river 

otters, black caiman, tapir, and harpy eagles.

Cultural Diversity

Surinamese culture is unique and different from the rest of South America. It is a 

colorful mix of ethnic groups, including: indigenous peoples or Amerindians (3%), and 

Maroons (Bushnegroes), the descendants of 

early runaway African slaves (9%). Most indigenous peoples and Maroons live south of 

the coastal plain. Other groups include: Creoles, or the descendants of plantation slaves 

(30%), the Chinese (3%), Indians (33%), 

and Javanese (14%), all of whom settled in 

the coastal plain. Brazilians, mainly garempeiros or gold miners (6%), recently settled 

in the interior uplands. The remaining 2% 

of the population lives mainly in Paramaribo 

and has roots in Europe, Lebanon, Korea, Japan, or the United States. Together they form 

a multi-cultural community with exotic food, 

traditional costumes, rituals, and music. Most 

emphasis in this paper, however, is placed on 

the conservation of nature.

CONSERVATION OF NATURE

The government is aware of the importance of diversity in Suriname. There are protected areas together covering a combination 

of ecosystems, each with it own valuable flora 

and fauna. Wildlife is regulated by legislation, 

not only in the protected areas but also in the 

rest of the country.

Conservation through Legislation

Nature conservation activities in Suriname started >50 years ago with the publication of the Game Law and the Nature Preservation Law. Wildlife management inside of 

the nature reserves focuses on the protection 

of all fauna. Wildlife management outside the 

nature reserves and in Multiple Use Management Areas is regulated by the Game Law and 

by game resolutions. Enforcement of these 

laws -- the Law on Forest Management, the 

Fish Protection Law, and related laws -- is 

done by game wardens of the Nature Conservation Division of the Suriname Forest Service. 

Another organization responsible for 

nature conservation is the Foundation for nature Conservation in Suriname (STINASU). 

STINASU is a non-profit, semi-government 

agency founded in 1969 for the explicit purpose of stimulating and implementing the use 

of the nature reserves for scientific research, 

education, and nature tourism. Suriname has 

16 protected areas accounting for 14% of the 

country, among them 11 Nature Reserves, 

three Multiple Use Management Areas, and 

one Nature Park. 
51

INGREDIENTS FOR SUSTAINABLE 

TOURISM

Development of Sustainable Tourism

Surinamers have long recognized the 

potential of their country as a tourism destination. In the 1970’s, Suriname was one of 

the first countries in the Americas to develop 

rainforest tourism. However, after political 

unrest in the 1980s, Suriname’s early market 

was lost, and today the country finds itself far 

behind in a very competitive tourism market. 

During the past 10 years, Suriname has benefited from the technical and financial support 

of foreign donor organizations. Guidelines 

were drafted for the integrated development of 

tourism programs highlighting nature tourism 

in protected areas.

Tourism Planning and Development

Constraints to tourism development 

still exist, ranging from the lack of legislation 

to ineffective marketing. In 1997, a national 

tourism policy was established to promote 

sustainable tourism development benefiting 

communities. All tourism facilities at several 

destinations are small in scale, owned by Surinamers, and involve local communities in their 

operations. These are the basic ingredients for 

sustainable development.

REFERENCES

Olsder, Kike. 2004. Sustainable Ecotourism in 

the Guiana Shield Region. Amsterdam.

IUCN.

Teunissen, Pieter. 2001. Conservation Action 

Plan Suriname, 2001-2005. Paramaribo, 

Suriname. 

http://hitchcock.itc.virginia.edu 

http://www.stinasu.com

http://www.surinamevacations.com/en/suriname.html 

http://suriname-tourism.org/cms/index.
52

LINKING CONSERVATION, TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT IN THE CARIBBEAN – TOBAGO SITUATION

William A. Trim

INTRODUCTION

The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 

became independent in 1963 and a republic in 

1976 (APA Productions 1987). The country 

is part of the wider Caribbean, bounded on the 

windward by the Atlantic Ocean and on the 

leeward by the Caribbean Sea. Tobago, the 

smaller of the two islands, is located at approximately 11° N and 61° W (Phillip 1998). Tobago’s name was derived from its resemblance 

to that of a cigar. The island is roughly 302 

km2 (about 45 km long and 10 km at its widest point). The island, shaped topographically 

like a turtle’s back, is 35 km from northeastern 

Trinidad. 

The northeast trade winds constantly 

fan Tobago and the island experiences occasional hurricanes and tropical storms (Phillip 

1998, ffrench 1991). The seasonal variations 

of Tobago are a dry season from December to 

April and a wet season from May to November. The average minimum temperature is 22° 

C and the average maximum temperature is 

32° C. Rainfall averages 2250 mm/yr (Bacon 

1978, APA Productions 1987). According to 

the 2000 census, the island has about 55,000 

persons. Tobago is a small and for purposes 

of promotion it is referred to as “clean, green, 

safe, and serene”

THE RESPONSIBLE AGENT

The Department of Natural Resources 

and the Environment (DNRE), Tobago House 

of Assembly (THA), is responsible for the

management of natural resources in Tobago. 

DNRE is made up of four units, namely: 

Wildlife, Parks and Recreation, Environment, 

and Watershed. Some responsibilities of the 

watershed unit are: (1) rehabilitating degraded 

watersheds, (2) providing extension services 

in agro-forestry systems and practices, (3) establishing plantations and enrichment stands 

with mixed hardwood species, (4) implementing wild land fire detection and suppression 

programmes, (5) managing a site with forest 

recreation activities, (6) sensitising the public 

in public awareness programmes, (7) representing the THA on national committees, (8) 

enforcing laws, (9) reviewing environmental 

impact statements and providing comments, 

and (10) implementing commemorative activities for World Forestry Day, World Environment Day, and others. Despite these 

programs, Tobago is developing rapidly with 

typical consequences -- natural resources are 

over-harvested, lands are degrading, wildlife 

is becoming rare and extinct, and endemic 

species are threatened. 

LOCAL SITUATION

The following are examples of the local situation as they relate to conservation, 

tourism, and sustainable development:

• Revisition of the old and outdated forest 

policy of Trinidad and Tobago, and the 

development of a protection area policy 

for the islands.

• Management of St. Giles Island and Little 

Tobago, previously set aside as bird sanctuaries, but now with visitors at Little 
53

Tobago.

• Maintenance of the Botanic Gardens in the 

main town of Scarborough.

• Protection of Turtle Beach Open Park, a 

major site for turtle watching and turtle 

nesting.

• Demonstration of agroforestry practices 

with trees, apiaries, and handicrafts. 

• Reforestation along the popular Argyle 

Waterfall using hardwood species in an 

enrichment system.

• Use of the Louis D’or Wetland for birding.

• Private management, offering of major 

tourism services at: Tobago Plantations 

Ponds, Mt. Pleasant Credit Union Sewer 

Ponds, Adventure Farm, Arnos Vale Hotel 

Grounds, and the Cuffie River Resort.

• Wise management of terrestrial resources 

to help prevent damage to beaches such 

as Englishman’s Bay and Man-of-war 

Bay, and to help protect five major reefs, 

including the Buccoo Reef.

• Management of Bloody Bay Recreational 

Site and Nature Trails within the MRFR.

 

BLOODY BAY RECREATIONAL SITE 

AND NATURE TRAILS

The Bloody Bay Recreation Site and 

Nature Trails are located within the Main Ridge 

Forest Reserve (MRFR) and are accessible 

from both ends of the Roxborough-Bloody Bay 

Main Road. The MRFR is about 4050 to 5670 

ha in size and spreads along the central ridges 

of Tobago. The reserve, the first and oldest of 

its kind in the Western Hemisphere, was declared a protected reserve in 1765 to capture 

rainfall and provide watershed benefits (Hart 

1965, Beard 1944). For the past four consecutive years, Tobago has been seen as home to 

the best eco-destination of the region, winning 

the #1 Eco-Destination Award in the Caribbean. Tourism contributes 56% of Tobago’s revenues yet tourism and agriculture contribute 

less than 3% of Trinidad and Tobago’s GDP. 

Three types of rain forests exist within 

the MRFR (Beard 1944). Of these, only the 

Lower montane rain forest still exists and it 

is a major feature within the reserve (Thelen 

and Faizool 1980). The major features of the 

Bloody Bay Recreation Site and Nature Trails 

are (Bacon 1978; ffrench 1991; Kaiser et al. 

1995; THA 2004):

• A Lower montane rain forest containing 

the Licania-Brysonima forest association (Beard 1944) within the oldest forest 

reserve in the Western Hemisphere. 

• Center Hill, the highest point on the island 

at 547 m.

• A cool micro-climate, high rainfall, and 

numerous cascades.

• The outstanding White-tailed Sabrewinged Hummingbird, one of 210 species 

of birds in Tobago, ranking the island as 

one of the top 10 islands with high bird 

density.

• Seventeen species of bats, including one 

nocturnal fish-eating species.

• Fourteen species of frogs, including the 

Bloody Bay Poison Frog. 

• A visitors’ center with both guided and 

self-guided tours.

Some of the tourism services associated 

with the site are: photography, birding, hiking, 

relaxation, solitude, painting, video taping, 

bathing, swimming, fishing, camping, catering of local food and beverages, educational 

classes (biology, research, geology, lecturing, 

dendrology, and visiting the interpretative centre), and cultural and religious activities. 
54

CONCLUSION

Because of Tobago’s small size and 

vulnerability, the island must link conservation, tourism, and sustainable development. 

The forest and protection policies that are being developed, with input from stakeholders, 

will set the guidelines for future sustainable 

development. 

LITERATURE CITED

APA Productions. 1987. Insight guides Trinidad & Tobago. Singapore. APA Press Pte Ltd.

Bacon, P.R. 1978. Flora and fauna of the Caribbean. Port-of-Spain, Trinidad. Key Caribbean Publications. 153 p.

Beard, J.S. 1944. The natural vegetation of the 

island of Tobago, British West Indies. Ecological Monographs 14:135-163.

ffrench, R. 1991. A guide to the birds of Trinidad and Tobago. Christopher Helm (Publishers) Ltd., USA

Hart, C.C. 1965. The new Trinidad and Tobago. London, UK. Collins.

Phillip, G. 1998. Phillip’s certificate atlas for 

the Caribbean. London, UK: George Phillip 

Limited.

THA (Tobago House of Assembly). 2004. 

Capital of paradise. Scarborough, Tobago. Department of Tourism. 2 p.

Thelen, K.D.; Faizool, S. 1980. System of national parks and other protected areas in Trinidad and Tobago. Port-of-Spain, Trinidad: Forestry Division.

Kaiser, H.; Dwyer, C.M.; Feichtinger, W.; 

Schmid, M.. 1995. A new species of Eleutherodactylus (Anura: Leptodactylidae) from 

Tobago, West Indies and its morphometric and 

cytogenetic characterization. Herpetological 

Natural History 3(2):151-163.
55

INTEGRATING BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION INTO THE 

TOURISM SECTOR IN TRINIDAD – A CASE STUDY OF EFFECTIVE 

LOCAL COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

Kathleen Belcon

INTRODUCTION

The nations of the world have come to 

recognise diversity among living organisms - 

at the levels of genes, species and ecosystems 

– is of vital importance to human well being. 

Accordingly, the United Nations Convention 

on Biological Diversity (CBD) (see Appendix 

Table for acrynoms), which entered into force 

in December 1993 (Article 6), calls upon subscribing nations to develop national strategies 

and plans for biodiversity conservation and to 

integrate biodiversity concerns into relevant 

sectors of the economy. 

Under the leadership of United Nations 

Environment Programme (UNEP), a Biodiversity Planning Support Programme (BPSP) 

has been established to strengthen national 

capacity to prepare and implement National 

Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP). The BPSP encompassed eight thematic 

studies, including the integration of biodiversity into: (1) the national agriculture sector, (2) 

the national fisheries sector, (3) the national 

forestry sector, (4) the national tourism sector, 

and (5) environmental assessment procedures. 

It also included: (6) improved use of economic tools in national biodiversity planning, (7) 

improved financial planning for the national 

biodiversity strategy and action plans, and (8) 

harmonisation of legal obligations under biodiversity-related multilateral environmental 

agreements.

Study 4 above on tourism is germane 

to this paper. Tourism is one of the world’s 

largest industries, generating an estimated

 11% of global gross domestic product (GDP), 

employing 200 million people, and transporting more than 700 million international travelers per year. The preliminary results of the 

World Tourism Organization (WTO) indicated 

that the number of international tourist arrivals 

recorded worldwide grew by 5.5% in 2005 and 

exceeded 800 million for the first time ever, 

despite various terrorists’ attacks, a tsunami, 

and long and strong hurricane seasons. The 

WTO’s 2020 vision forecasts that international 

arrivals are expected to reach 1.26 billion by 

2015. 

International arrivals from the Americas are expected to grow at a rate of 3.0% 

from 338.4 million in 1995 to reach 611.2 million by 2015. The Caribbean is expected to 

receive 88 million of these arrivals. Tourism 

arrivals to Trinidad and Tobago (T&T) grew 

from 144,521 in 1990 to 398,559 in 2000, and 

to 442,555 in 2004. Given the strong correlation between visitor arrivals and the world real 

GDP for the period 1970-2004, T&T tourism 

arrivals are expected to grow at a rate of 4% 

to 509,349 in 2006, to 635,591 in 2011, and to 

755,498 by 2015.

T&T, rich in natural and cultural assets, 

has excited the tourism sector, particularly ecotourism and cruise ship tourism. Side by side 

with the development of sectors has been the 

preparation of a (NBSAP) for T&T. One of the 

principal strategies incorporated in the plan is 

the institutionalisation of public participation 

in the development of government policy for 

the conservation and management of biodiversity. 
56

STRATEGIES AND PLANS FOR T&T

 In 1992, T&T was one of 157 countries that signed the CBD at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Brazil. Ratification took place in 

1996 signaling T&T’s intention to conform to 

the articles of the Convention. The NBSAP of 

T&T is aimed at increasing knowledge about 

natural resources, and the sustainable management and conservation of biological diversity 

in the context of its socio-economic development. 

The size, location, and geological relationship shared with the South American 

continent are primarily responsible for T&T’s 

abundance and variety of biological resources. 

The island’s population has historically been 

closely linked to those biological resources 

through agriculture, fishing, recreation, tourism, and culture, thus the necessity of sustainable use of natural resources.

 The preparation of the NBSAP in T&T 

was conducted through working partnerships 

with the Environmental Management Authority (EMA), the national focal point for 

the CBD, in collaboration with the Ministry 

of Agriculture Land and Marine Resources 

(MALMR). These two agencies spearheaded process that involved the participation of 

stakeholders across the nation.

 During the past 17 years rural communities have organised themselves into formal 

groups for the purpose of making a more effective contribution to resource management. 

This relationship has resulted in an improved 

cooperation among the state, private enterprise, 

and communities through co-management of 

natural resources. This form of management 

has enhanced the ownership of the NBSAP by 

the stakeholders.

OVERVIEW OF TOURISM 

DEVELOPMENT

Relative Importance in National 

Economy

T&T are the two main islands of an archipelagic state situated at the southern end of 

the Windward Islands. Both islands lie on the 

South American Continental Shelf and are directly influenced by the Orinoco and the South 

Equatorial Current. Separation from the continental mainland occurred in recent geological 

times, about 11,000 years ago for Tobago and 

1,500 years ago for Trinidad. Trinidad lies 32 

km from Tobago at its closest point but only 

13 km from the Venezuela. The two islands 

have a combined land area of 5,126 km2 and 

have an “exclusive economic zone” of roughly 75,000 km2

. The climate is tropical, with 

annual rainfalls between 1200 and 3500 mm 

and a mean temperatures ranging between 22 

to 31 °C. The climate is characterised by distinct wet and dry seasons. Marine conditions 

are heavily influenced by rainfall, nutrients, 

and the large freshwater volume flowing out 

of the Orinoco River. 

The terrestrial habitats and biota of 

Trinidad reflect the ecology of equatorial 

South America unlike the other Windward Islands which are more isolated. The terrestrial 

ecosystems include: (1) evergreen seasonal, 

semi-evergreen seasonal, deciduous seasonal, 

and littoral woodlands; (2) lower montane, 

montane, seasonal montane, and summit elfin 

woodlands; and (3) swamp forests, including 

mangrove woodlands, palm swamps, marshes, and savannahs. These ecosystems support 

considerable diversity on T&T -- 2500 species 

of plants, 420 birds, 100 mammals, 25 amphibians, and 85 species of reptiles, including 

55 snakes.
57

The economy of Trinidad is based on 

the hydrocarbon industry. Historically, oil 

production and refining have dominated the island’s economy. Recently, natural gas has increased. This sector is projected to grow based 

on new finds and the establishment of liquefied 

natural gas plants during the past few years. It 

is not surprising, then, to find that the tourism 

sector has been eclipsed by the hydrocarbon 

sector. However, changes seem apparent. The 

creation of the T&T Tourist Board in 1946 reflected the official recognition and encouragement for the development of a tourist industry. 

In recent times, state agencies have been very 

supportive of tourism as a source of generating 

revenue for the country. Although the tourism industry contributes just 3% to the GDP, 

its potential as a sustainable environmentally 

friendly industry has been recognised and is 

being promoted. 

 The tourism industry to date owes its 

success to the Tobago House of Assembly. 

A healthy balance exists whereby Trinidad 

promotes the hydrocarbon and manufacturing industries while Tobago, with its superior 

beaches, reefs, moist tropical forests, and sport 

fishing concentrates on the tourism industry. 

The T&T government, mindful of the vulnerability of a hydrocarbon dominated economy 

and the vicissitudes of fluctuating oil prices, 

continues to work towards diversifying the 

economy to include manufacturing and tourism. This new impetus by the state is reflected 

in an increase in stay-over arrivals and cruise 

ship visitors to the island.

IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGICAL 

DIVERSITY 

Current data indicate that T&T has a 

high percentage of species diversity to surface area ratio. The biological resources of 

the country play a major role in the lives of 

all sectors of society at both national and local 

levels. Rural communities depend upon wild 

flora and fauna for their sustenance via hunting, fishing, craft manufacture, tour guiding, 

and other nature-based activities. 

The flora and fauna of T&T offers several opportunities for environmental tourism. 

The numerous ecosystems provide habitat for 

terrestrial mammals and waterfowl species like 

the Scarlet ibis (Eudocimus ruber), which are 

popular with scientists and nature lovers. Nature tours to bird sanctuaries and hiking forest 

trails generate revenue for rural communities 

living nearby. A few communities on the northern and eastern coasts of Trinidad (Matura, 

Grand Riviere, Fishing Pond) and on Tobago 

(Mt. Irvine, Grafton, and Great Courland) are 

nesting sites for marine turtles, particularly the 

Leatherback. Because of these large nesting 

areas, T&T has been included in international 

studies on turtle conservation and recovery.

Trinidad has five terrestrial species of 

game animals that have traditionally supported 

a hunting industry worth hundreds of thousands of dollars annually. Wildlife fauna and 

flora have also been a source of stock for the 

pet (i.e., tropical fish, reptiles, and birds) and 

horticultural markets. However, the capture of 

wild stock for the pet trade is illegal and remains a threat to biological diversity, as does 

illegal hunting.

Historical Perspective

Prior to T&T’s ratification of the CBD, 

environmental management was carried out 

through a number of governmental ministries 

and statutory bodies. This type of management 

often resulted in the duplication of efforts, uncertainty regarding resource utilisation, overlap among agencies involved in the management of resources, conflicting legislation in 

the area of enforcement, penalties, identifiable 

gaps, and legislation of some vintage.
58

The daily management of biological resources falls within the purview of the 

MALMR, which has various divisions for specific resources. Wildlife and the National Parks 

fall under the Forestry Division. The former 

regulates hunting, conducts wildlife research, 

and implements the CITES and Ramsar Conventions while the latter oversees all state lands 

that have been designated as national parks or 

recreational areas. 

The Forestry Division through the line 

ministry MALMR has the responsibility to 

manage wildlife conservation. The University of the West Indies has been collaborating 

with the Forestry Division, non-governmental 

organisations (NGOs), and community-based 

organisations (CBOs) to conduct research of 

biological resources. 

Environmental Management Act and 

the CBD

In response to the need for a singular 

and integrated approach to management of the 

environment, the Environmental Management 

Act was passed by Parliament in 1995. The 

EMA was established as the body with the responsibility for coordinating and co-operating 

with private and state agencies and to meet the 

goals and requirements of the Act. The Act 

essentially provides for the EMA to set environmental standards, regulate activities that 

impact on the environment, and protect vulnerable habitats (and species), and to institutionalise national policy for the environment. 

The Certificate of Environmental Clearance 

provisions of the Act are intended to regulate 

activities across the country. 

The Environmental Management Act 

allows the EMA to enter into a Memorandum 

of Understanding with state and private agencies and institutions to establish jurisdiction 

and guidelines for integrated environmental 

management programmes. In the context of 

this Memorandum, EMA can appoint environmental officers to assist with environmental 

management as well as inspectors to examine 

premises to ensure that clients comply with 

the prescribed standards and regulations of the 

Act. In addition, the Act allows the Authority to designate any defined land area and any 

living species of plant or animal as “environmentally sensitive.” This designation gives the 

state the authority to determine the type of activities that are permissible when managing the 

resources. 

Types of Tourism Practiced

Numerous recreational activities are 

available in T&T, but ecotourism is the most 

sought after activity. 

Ecotourism

This segment continues to grow annually and correlates directly T&T’s rich biological resources. Some of the major activities 

sought after by eco-tourists are:

• Hikes in: the range of mountains along the 

north coast from Toco in the northeast to 

Chaguaramas in the northwest; Central 

Range, Trinity Hills; Aripo savannas; Caroni and Nariva swamps; Buccoo; Speyside Reefs; and waterfalls in Tobago.

• Bird viewing at: Asa Wright Nature Centre; PAP Wildfowl Trust; Pax St. Benedict; 

Caroni and Grafton Bird Sanctuaries; and 

Little Tobago Island. 

• Turtle nesting: Grande Riviere Beach; 

Orosco Beach, Matura; Fishing Pond; 

Manzanilla Beach; and Mt. Irvine Bay.

• Educational ecology tours: Pointe-APierre Wildfowl Trust; Asa Wright Nature 

Centre; Caroni Bird Sanctuary; Botanic 

Gardens; and Tobago Main Ridge.
59

• Community life experiences: Brasso 

Seco Village, Matura; and Grand Riviere 

--Blanchisseuse and Lopinot. 

• Nature Parks and recreation visits: Caroni 

Swamp; Cleaver Park.

• Sporting activities: Deep sea fishing and 

diving; golf, tennis, cricket, hockey, and 

football.

Public Sector

The Ministry of Tourism develops policy and plans and helps with the drafting of 

applicable laws. The principal law governing 

activities in the tourism industry is the Tourism 

Development Act of 2000. The Act facilitates 

the development of tourism by providing incentives and concessions to entrepreneurs and 

investors. The Tourism and Industrial Development Company (TIDCO) administers the 

incentives and concessions under the Act and 

implements the Ministry’s policies and plans. 

TIDCO’s Tourism Division implements action 

plans in three functional areas: (1) marketing, (2) product development and consumer 

relations, and (3) destination information and 

administration.TIDCO’s Division of Government Policy and Special Projects has engaged 

in a number of tourism infrastructure developments, including: (1) enhancement and development of beach and river facilities; (2) 

construction of Caroni Swamp National Park 

headquarters; and (3) refurbishment of the visitor facilities at Pitch Lake.

Private Sector

The principal role of the private sector 

is the ownership and operation of tourism facilities. These include accommodationfacilities (hotels, guesthouses, and eco-lodges), 

marinas, water sport facilities, charter boats, 

transportation, convention centers, and golf 

courses. Companies involved in destination 

management and ground tour operations also 

belong to the private sector.

Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

The principal role of NGOs lies in the 

work of advocating sustainable tourism. The 

Caribbean Forest Conservation Association, 

for example, lobbies for the conservation of 

forest ecosystems as a basis for sustainable 

ecotourism. The Crusoe Reef Society, and 

Fishermen and Friends of the Sea are NGOs 

with a special interest in the conservation of 

the marine environment.

Apart from advocacy work, two NGOs 

stand out as ecotourism operators. The PointeA-Pierre Wildfowl Trust has successfully 

developed a wetland into a site for captive 

breeding of avifauna, as well as a highly visited tourism and environmental education centre. The Asa Wright Nature Centre operates a 

highly successful lodge that is frequented by 

international bird watchers.

Local Communities

Nature Seekers Inc. (NSI) is the most 

visible local community activity in the tourism 

industry. This group is involved in the protection of the Leatherback turtle nesting beaches. 

NSI has won numerous international awards 

for their turtle protection programme. In like 

manner to the NSI, the Grande Riviere Environmental Awareness Trust (GREAT) has also 

gained international recognition for their work 

in protecting Leatherback turtles on north 

coast beaches. Both these groups also engage 

in guided tours of turtle beaches during the 

March through September nesting season.

TIDCO has sponsored a thrust to have 

local communities profitably manage their 

tourism resources through a community tour-
60

ism action programme. This thrust has led 

to the creation of a number of tourism action 

committees which are now grouped under an 

umbrella body called the Foundation for Sustainable Community Tourism.

Tourism Education and Training 

The principal institution for tourism 

education and training is the T&T Hospitality 

Training Institute. This Institute is the successor to the T&T Hotel School that was set up in 

1996 with an International development Bank 

grant administered by the T&T Hotel, Restaurants and Tourism Association. The Institute 

has campuses in Trinidad and in Tobago. The 

institute offers Associate Degrees in Tourism 

Management and Hospitality Management, and 

Certificate Programmes in Food and Beverage 

Supervision, Culinary Arts, Customer Service, 

Front Office Operations, and Travel Operations. The Institute, also awards certificates to 

tour guides trained by accredited private sector 

tour operators. The Institute has entered into 

arrangements with tertiary educational institutions in North America to have their certification accredited and applicable there.

TIDCO’s Division of Government Policy and Special Projects held special courses, 

including one on Sustainable Tourism Best 

Practice. The Division also provided training for communities in tourism planning and 

education. Other tourism trainers include: 

• SERVOL (a self-development group) - 

hospitality at the vocational level.

• University of the West Indies (UWI) Faculty of Social Sciences – hotel management.

• UWI Institute of Business (under contract 

to TIDCO) – service excellence, management development, training of trainers (for 

personnel in public agencies).

• UWI School of Continuing Studies – 

small hotel and institutional management, 

and tourism management and development.

• Youth Training Employment Partnership 

Programme (tour guiding).

• Forestry Division (nature interpretation 

and turtle beach guiding).

APPLICATION OF SUSTAINABLE 

TOURISM

At the level of tourism-related activities, sustainable tourism can be compromised 

by the improper design and construction of 

tourism sites, the unsatisfactory operation of 

tourism facilities, and the recreational behaviour of the tourist. Best practices to minimise 

impacts in all these areas are well documented 

and available to private sector owners and operators of tourism sites. New tourism facilities are subject to the development approval 

process of the Town and Country Planning Division, which invariably demands an Environmental Impact Statement.

The environmental assessment process 

is overseen by EMA. Under the enabling legislation that established the EMA, provision 

has been made for follow-up environmental 

compliance auditing. At the level of government policy and planning, best practice guidelines for sustainable tourism are in a state of 

evolution. 

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) approaches for the 

sustainable use of biological resources in a 

tourism regime might be termed best practice 

guidelines for integrating biodiversity into 

tourism planning. Expressed as critical conditions that enhance the sustainability of biodiversity uses, they are:
61

• Institutional structures for appropriately 

scaled management and control that provide positive incentives, negative sanctions, and good governance.

• Management and control systems that 

take account of land tenure, access rights, 

regulatory systems, traditional knowledge, 

and customary law.

• Local peoples’ participation in all phases 

of the operation from planning to implementation.

• Equitable sharing and greater in situ concentration of benefits

• Effective monitoring and feedback mechanisms.

• The capacity to adjust management in light 

of monitoring results.

MAIN ECOTOURISM ATTRACTIONS

T&T offer a unique diversity of ecotourism potential. Together they contain some 

spectacular scenery areas, birds, wildlife, and 

historical sites. 

Asa Wright Nature Centre

This world famous nature resort has 

functioned both as a wildlife sanctuary and 

nature lodge since its inception in 1967, and 

has received many of the world’s leading ornithologists and naturalists. Asa Wright has become a model for sustainable development and 

ecotourism projects in the Caribbean. 

Caroni Swamp Bird Sanctuary

 Covering an area of about 5000 ha, the 

Caroni Swamp represents the best example of 

a mangrove swamp in the country. It provides 

optimum habitat for the Scarlet ibis, one of the 

national birds. It is also an important and readily accessible recreational and educational resource. Caroni serves as a nursery ground for 

fish and crustaceans and contributes to the subsistence of fishermen in surrounding villagers. 

The area is a legal protected area and visits to 

the Scarlet ibis nesting area are conducted by 

approved boat tour operators. The area is controlled by the Forestry Division.

Nariva Swamp

 Located on the east coast, the Nariva 

Swamp is the largest freshwater ecosystem 

within the country. It provides a habitat for 

numerous wildlife species, including 171 birds 

and 55 mammals, and is also used for kayaking. The area is a legally constituted Forest 

Reserve that the Forestry Division has recommended for national park status.

Pointe-A-Pierre Wildfowl Trust

 This 33-year-old Trust is a non-governmental, non-profit organisation that encompasses two lakes in a 26 ha area nestled in the 

heart of an oil refinery. The Trust has active 

programmes in research, captive breeding, and 

re introduction of wetland birds to the wild.

Pitch Lake

 This natural landmark covers about 36 

ha and is located in the oil belt of the south. 

It is a geologically unique phenomenon and 

is reputed to be the world’s largest source of 

natural asphalt. Historically it is linked to Sir 

Walter Raleigh when he landed in the early 

1500s to caulk his ships with material from the 

lake.

Matura and Grande Riviere Turtle Nesting 

Beaches

 Visitors flood these beaches during the 

Leatherback nesting season. The Forestry Di-
62

vision has had to step in and facilitate the development of community-based organisations 

to control the local situation – NSI at Matura 

and GREAT at Grande Riviere. These organisations monitor activities for local and international agencies, including nightly beach 

patrol during the nesting season, and the conduct organized tours for both local and foreign 

visitors. 

Waterfalls: Maracas, Paria, Rio Seco, and 

Edith Falls

 Waterfalls in the Northern Range are 

visited for scenery, photography, and river 

bathing: Maracas Falls, in the proposed Maracas National Park; Paria Falls, in the sphere 

of influence of the Brasso Seco-Paria Tourism Action Committee; Rio Seco Falls, in the 

Matura National Park; and, Edith Falls, in the 

Chaguaramas National Park. 

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION -- 

ROLE OF NGOS AND LOCAL 

COMMUNITIES

 There is a wide cross section of NGOs 

and CBOs actually participating in biodiversity 

conservation, such as service clubs, environmental organisations, trusts, and community 

groups. Many of the environmental organisations are affiliated through an umbrella group 

known as the Council of Presidents of the 

Environment, which facilitates collaboration 

among members. The NGOs and CBOs are 

engaged in biodiversity conservation through 

initiatives in research, management of species 

and ecosystems, and education, despite inadequate funding. 

 The T&T Field Naturalists’ Club has a 

long tradition of scientific research on the biota of the islands. This organization has contributed knowledge in their areas of interest, 

for example, horticultural species, orchids, 

birds, and game fish. The Zoological Society 

of T&T and the Pointe-a-Pierre Wildfowl Trust 

carry out ex-situ species management whereas 

the Fishing Pond Environment and Community 

Group, GREAT, NSI, and the Toco Foundation all conduct within habitat species protection. Ecosystem management is conducted by 

the Asa Wright Nature Centre on their forested 

lands in the Arima and Aripo Valleys. The Caribbean Forest Conservation Association has 

been involved in biodiversity planning as consultants to the World Bank on the project to establish pilot national parks.

OVERVIEW OF NATIONAL PARKS AND 

PROTECTED AREAS

Legal Basis

 The first wildlife sanctuary in T&T was 

created in 1928. An ordinance to protect wildlife was passed in 1933 under which forest reserves were set aside as game reserves and all 

forms of hunting were prohibited. This ordinance was superseded by the Conservation of 

Wildlife Ordinance No.16 of 1958 which provides for the establishment of wildlife sanctuaries. Under this legislation, all forest officers 

are wildlife wardens and the Chief Game Warden, with the Minister’s approval, may modify 

sanctuary boundaries. 

 A comprehensive policy (i.e., legislation, objectives, categories, and procedures) 

for the establishment and management of a 

national park network was initiated in 1979-

1980 in conjunction with the Organization of 

American States (OAS). At that time, existing legislation governing protected areas was 

found inadequate to ensure proper protection. 

The Forestry-OAS project identified 61 areas 

-- irrespective of actual land use or ownership 

– that were worthy of protection. They covered 

about 69,000 ha and were classified under six 

different categories, as follows: 13 scientific re-
63

serves; 8 national parks; 8 natural landmarks; 

13 nature conservation reserves; 6 scenic landscapes; and, 13 recreation parks. At the time, 

31% of the lands were forest reserves and another 12% were game sanctuaries. In addition, 

several marine reserves were proposed. The 

eight proposed national parks, Caroni Swamp, 

Chaguaramas, Madamas, Maracas, Matura, 

Nariva Swamp in Trinidad and Buccoo Reef 

and Eastern Tobago in Tobago, cover almost 

one-half the proposed protected areas system. 

The T&T government agreed in principal with 

the proposals, but legislation was not enacted. 

Subsequent amendments were made to existing wildlife and land use legislation, however, to control poaching, squatting on forested 

lands, and agricultural fires.

LINKAGES -- TOURISM 

DEVELOPMENT, BIODIVERSITY,

CONSERVATION AND PLANNING

Economic

 The economic policies operating in 

the various sectors of the economy primarily 

target development. Planning for the environmental consequences of economic development policy is still in its infancy. Economic 

incentives exist for tourism but there is a need 

to ensure that they will foster sustainable development. There is also a need to develop a 

regime of disincentives aimed at discouraging 

unsustainable tourism practices. 

 The use of financial instruments as 

management tools to achieve the aims and 

objectives of the CBD, and nationally for 

the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, needs attention. Financial instruments can facilitate conservation efforts by 

demonstrating the monetary value of ecosystems and their components. Biodiversity’s 

contribution to the national economy must be 

quantified if its management and sustainable 

use are to become national priorities. Difficulties in determining the real value of these 

services, however, has contributed to the low 

priority previously given to them at the macro 

economic level. Failure to allocate financial 

resources to biodiversity causes the loss of 

life and property. These “hidden costs” are 

then passed onto the society through the destruction of biodiversity. Two examples are 

flooding due to the loss of forests and pollution of rivers, and potable water supplies, 

by industry. The repercussions for agencies 

that manage and maintain infrastructure and 

public utilities are serious and expensive. 

Social

 There are several active NGOs and 

CBOs involved in environmental and biodiversity conservation issues with focuses as 

varied as the groups themselves: 

• Public education and advocacy for changing national legislation for conservation.

• Projects that affect wildlife populations or 

habitats 

• Lobby and developmental groups for 

specific resource users (e.g., fishermen).

• Promotion of practices that lessen human 

impacts on the environment like organic 

farming. 

• Organisation of communities to adopt 

low impact environmental activities (e.g., 

tourism and tour guiding) or to represent 

user groups (e.g., hunters associations 

and logging interests).

Most of these organisations are relatively small and traditionally receive funding 

for their operations from members’ contributions and donations. These funding sources 

are being superseded in some groups by environmental consultancies, grant funding, and 

participation in ecotourism. To have a greater 
64

impact on conservation, a more proactive approach is required. The general view among 

groups is that their efforts are not appreciated, 

that they are not consulted on matters, and that 

they are perceived as a nuisance by state managers. Several of them have complained of no 

support from state officials when they report 

illegal activities. 

 The growth and capacity of NGOs and 

CBOs in terms of biodiversity conservation is 

also constrained by a lack of support by some 

state agencies, and this limits their effectiveness. NGOs and CBOs have tremendous potential and need be encouraged. They represent a committed constituency that could form 

productive partnerships with state institutions. 

Their continued growth and strength is tied to 

the state’s perception of them and collaboration with them. 

 The capacities of state agencies and 

NGOs to jointly manage and conserve biodiversity are linked. Strengthening linkages 

would benefit the country’s biodiversity resources. Neither state agencies nor NGOs will 

ever have the resources required to manage 

biodiversity independently. The mutual development and support of stakeholders and their 

institutions is required to build the country’s 

capacity to manage biodiversity in its broadest 

sense. 

Technical (Managerial)

 The legal authority for the conservation of biodiversity in T&T resides with government agencies. Their efforts are often frustrated by their inability to effectively enforce 

laws and they are, therefore, constrained in 

their efforts to achieve their objectives. Some 

of the factors that inhibit the state agencies 

are: (1) the inability of many institutions to 

adapt to environmental, social, and economic changes; (2) failure to keep abreast with 

changing global trends in management; (3) 

gaps in the collaborative efforts of agencies 

(public sector, private sector, NGOs, CBOs, 

and research institutions); and (4) resistance 

to change in some sectors of public service. 

This resistance or inability to change is reflected in: (1) poor staffing levels, dearth of 

motivation, and personnel commitment; (2) 

low training levels and gaps in training; (3) 

inadequate and inappropriate deployment 

of finances; (4) inappropriate prioritisation 

within departments; (5) non-participatory approaches to planning and management; and 

(6) insensitivity to community needs.

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION, 

TOURISM AND

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

 The advent of nature based tourism 

has forced authorities to scrupulously examine ways to protect the environment. One of 

the most pressing issues confronting administrators is how to cope with increasing tourist 

demands while protecting the ecosystems that 

attract them. The consequences of increasing demands for resources may result in the: 

(1) inability to maintain an adequate waste 

disposal system; (2) destruction of ecosystems by exceeding carrying capacities; and 

(3) possible introduction of harmful exotic 

pathogens. Unplanned tourist activities such 

as hiking, camping, horseback riding, and 

mountain biking may contribute to the loss 

of ground cover as well as wildlife. Clearing 

of areas for campsites and picnic spots even 

if done with care can also adversely affect 

biodiversity through the loss of the ground 

cover. 

Proposed Strategies and Solutions

 Some of the priorities and strategies 

stated in the NBSAP for the integration of 

biological diversity into all sectors of devel-
65

opment, including tourism, are: 

• Education and awareness: (1) build education and awareness programmes in biodiversity conservation on existing initiatives 

and fill gaps in formal and informal approaches; (2) foster greater collaboration in 

conservation and education initiatives between all the stakeholders; and (3) heighten 

the sensitisation of communities to biodiversity concerns by involving them directly 

in the planning and management phases for 

these resources.

• Legislation and enforcement: (1) make 

legislation and regulations more effective 

management tools through harmonisation, 

and by incorporating the use of new technologies and greater stakeholder involvement; and (2) improve law enforcement 

and utilise it as an important tool for management and biodiversity conservation.

• Capacity: (1) establish a structured mechanism for sharing information, training, 

and experiences amongst agencies and 

their stakeholders; (2) develop advocacy 

tools for building consensus on biodiversity issues at the highest political levels; 

and (3) strengthen NGOs and CBOs so 

that they may play a greater role in the 

conservation and management of biodiversity towards sustainable livelihoods

.

Policy and Commitment

Policy objectives for biodiversity conservation must be integrated into policy statements for all sectors. This could be achieved 

by:

• Establishing a national commission for sustainable development to integrate T&T’s 

obligations under the CBD and other agreements into the country’s policies.

• Organising ministerial workshops to consider the integration of biodiversity concerns into sector policies, discussing their 

implications for plans, programmes, and 

projects in all Ministries.

• Initiating a systematic review of government policies which affect biodiversity 

and conservation, and adopt proactive 

policy interventions to ensure biodiversity 

concerns are addressed.

• Conducting periodic assessments to determine how institutions can be strengthened 

to develop an integrated policy process.

• Developing a policy process for adoption 

by the government and NGOs to ensure 

that strategic action plans incorporate 

conservation issues regarding biodiversity 

and the environment as a whole.

CASE STUDY – NSI IN TRINIDAD

Introduction

 Matura Beach Protected Area, an 8 km 

stretch of beach on Trinidad’s northeast coast, 

is one of the five most valuable nesting rookeries on earth for the endangered Leatherback 

sea turtle. In the last 3 years, >7000 nesting 

Leatherbacks have been documented. Until 

recently, hundreds of nesting Leatherbacks 

were killed and thousands of their eggs were 

poached annually. 

 In the late 1980s, the annual slaughter of turtles by subsistence hunters during 

the nesting season was beyond the capacity 

of local wildlife authorities to handle. Since 

it was impossible to compensate the villagers financially, a strategy was developed to 

reward them by linking turtle protection with 

a sustainable livelihood. The authorities organised the local villagers and provided them 

with training to combine beach patrolling with 
66

tour guiding. NSI was formed and it helped 

to make the beach safe for turtle nesting since 

the livelihood of the villagers depended on it. 

NSI members were both ecotourism guides 

and environmental educators. 

Participatory Approach for Sustainable 

Leatherback Management

 For >20 years, the efforts of the Forestry Division to prevent nightly slaughtering 

of Leatherback turtles and egg poaching during the nesting period at Matura Bay, Trinidad, was ineffective. This was due to the paucity of officers to patrol the beaches and the 

scarce financial resources allocated to wild 

life conservation. In 1989, through the efforts 

of Carol James, the Head of the Wildlife Section, approaches were initiated with community activists to assist with turtle protection. 

The state offered little support for the new 

initiative. The response from the community, 

however, was overwhelming and a genuine dialogue continued between the Forestry Division and community youths, women, teachers, 

political activists, and other villagers. This 

was followed by 18 months of information 

sharing, education, and training, culminating 

in 1990 with the creation of the NSI, a CBO. 

This transformed a sleepy little village into 

a proud group of people whose efforts were 

appreciated and supported by foresters who, 

without realizing it, had changed forever relations between the state and communities. 

Subsequently, this partnership developed into 

an ecologically sustainable turtle management 

programme with strong economic and social 

benefits for the state and for the community of 

Matura.

 NSI’s involvement reversed the scenario from the slaughter of 60 turtles per 

month to protection of turtles along the 8-km 

beach. Today, state assistance continues in the 

following areas: (1) training in basic biological conservation and benefits from sustainable 

use of the resource; (2) training in ecologically sensitive tour guiding with emphasis on 

turtle nesting sites; (3) declaring the beach

as a Protected Area; (4) developing basic research and resource assessment programmes 

in collaboration with the community; and (5) 

supporting national and international scientific investigations. The government now responds to community requests for guidance, 

enabling new policy measures to be implemented as they evolve. In turn, the community receives socio-economic and conservation 

benefits that have accrued from its effective 

participation. 

Participatory Approach and Villager Ownership 

 NSI consists mainly of villagers from 

Matura who share a concern and love for the 

turtles. In 1990, the proclamation of Matura 

Beach as a prohibited area evoked protests 

from the villagers who felt that it was unfair. 

The beach was, and still is, a recreational site 

for most of them. Prior to the ban, the annual 

nesting season represented a part-time income 

for some through the sale of turtle meat. NSI 

was born as a response to the possible loss of 

seasonal income and a recreation site. 

 The first step was taken when villagers 

participated in joint discussions with government for access to the beach. An agreement 

was reached when villagers were given permits to conduct tours in the protected area, 

protecting both turtles and the beach. A few 

villagers were appointed as Honorary Game 

Wardens and the number will likely increase. 

With the acquisition of training in tour guiding skills, NSI earned income from the programme.

 Although guides started making a sustainable living from turtle tours, villagers who 
67

previously sold turtle meat were disgruntled. 

Poaching continued and could not be curbed 

since the Wildlife Section did not have enough 

guards. The NSI then decided to provide volunteer assistance by working a patrol roster. 

During peak nesting season, as many as 10 

guides were out on any given night with the 

patrols. The NSI realized, however, that their 

efforts were not enough to ensure the survival 

of the turtles. In response, the group started 

a community outreach programme to sensitise villagers about turtle protection. When 

the NSI could not reach adults, they targeted 

children through discussions at school feeling that youngsters could influence the adults. 

The NSI boasts that the programme has been 

successful. Today, villagers constantly look 

for threats and call the NSI if they suspect 

poaching. NSI has also managed the growth 

of spin-off industries in Matura, such as bed 

and breakfast accommodations to encourage 

visitors to overnight in the village. 

 As a member of the Wider Caribbean 

Sea Turtle Conservation Network, the programme of NSI has become a model for sea 

turtle conservation, and its methods have been 

used with success elsewhere in the region. 

But such success is not prevalent everywhere. 

The United States and the World Conservation Union classify the Leatherback as endangered and critically endangered, respectively. 

In the Pacific, Leatherback populations have 

plummeted, and some nesting beaches are 

practically deserted. Matura is now a model 

for ecotourism development, and tourism officials show up regularly to study its methods. 

Some local tour guides were former poachers 

or came from poaching families.

 NSI began as a tour guide service for 

visitors who came annually to see Leatherback turtles nesting on Matura Beach. Today 

they are recognised by the United Nations as 

an NGO. During their 18 years of existence, 

they have managed to win several impressive 

ecotourism and conservation awards, including: (1) in 1993, enrollment in the Global 500 

Award Roll of Honour; (2) in 1995, the Caribbean Conservation Association Award; (3) in 

1997, the government of T&T Environmental 

Achievement Award; (4) 1997, EMA certificate of appreciation; (5) in 1998, British Airways Regional Award of the Americas; (6) in 

2000, Caribbean Conservation Association 

Award for innovation in tourism management; 

and also (7) in 2000, an EMA Green Leaf 

Award. 

 

CONCLUSIONS – NSI 

 Tourists to Matura Beach disturbed 

nesting Leatherback turtles, an endangered 

species. Moreover, local fishermen slaughtered turtles for meat and eggs. The creation 

of patrols to monitor beaches during the nesting season promoted conservation while involvement with tourism activities generated 

economic benefits for the area’s residents. 

NSI, a community-based organization, worked 

in cooperation with the Wildlife Section of the 

Trinidad Ministry of Agriculture, Land and 

Marine Resources in the Matura programme. 

Training programs for tour guides were established, generating employment and securing 

greater protection by involving the private sector. The NSI improved the local community 

by blending sustainable tourism, nature conservation, and economic growth.

The Matura programme has already 

had an impact on other communities in Trinidad as well as internationally. Programme 

achievements include: (1) creating a model for 

the protection of natural resources through a 

joint government-community effort; (2) replicating the pilot initiative in Trinidad as well as 

in Sri Lanka; (3) promoting heritage tourism 

and ecotourism as a means to achieve sustainable forms of economic development; (4) ca-
68

pacity-building through training programmes 

for tour guides and wildlife conservationists 

resulting in increased economic development 

opportunities; and (5) reversing a trend that 

was leading to the destruction of an endangered species while making it possible to share 

and exchange lessons learned with others.

REFERENCES

Bacchus, C.F.; Vorran, G.M.C. 1990. The role 

of forestry in biological diversity conservation 

in Trinidad and Tobago. Unpublished document. 21 p. 

Bacon, P.R; ffrench, R.P. 1972. The wildlife sanctuaries of Trinidad and Tobago. 

Wildlife Conservation Committee, Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Fisheries. 80 p.

Beard, J.S. (1944). The natural vegetation of 

Tobago. B.W.I. Ecological Monographs 14: 

135-163. 

Chalmers, W.S. 1981. Forests. p. 78-105. In: 

Cooper, St. G.C.; Bacon, P.R. (Eds.), The natural resources of Trinidad and Tobago. London, 

UK: Edward Arnold. 

Cooper, St G.C.; Bacon, P.R. (eds.) 1981. The 

natural resources of Trinidad and Tobago. London, UK: Edward Arnold. 223 p.

Dardaine, S. 1977. National parks. In: Ramdial, 

B.S. (ed.), Questions and answers on forestry 

and wildlife in Trinidad and Tobago. Port-ofSpain, Trinidad: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry Division. 36 p. 

Davis, S.D.; Droop, S.J.M.; Gregerson, P.; 

Henson, L.; Leon, C.J.; Lamlein Villa-Lobos, 

J.; Synge, H.; and Zantovska, J. 1986.. Plants 

in danger: what do we know? Gland, Switzerland; Cambridge, UK: International Union for 

Conservation of Nature. 461 p. 

http://en.wikipedia,org/wiki/Leatherback_

Sea_Turtle

http://www.bestpractices.org/bpbriefs/environment.html

http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/tt/tt-nr-01-en.

pdf

http://www.newsday.co.tt/features/0,74688.

html

http://www.nssd,net/pdf/resource_book/SDStrat-06.pdf

http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article

http://www.sta.uwi.edu/fsa/maturanp/

http://www.trinidad-tobago.net/Article.

aspx?PageId=11

http://www.unep.org/bps[/Tourism/Case%20

Studies%20(pdf)Trinidad%20&%20Tobago%20(Tourism).pdf

http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/country/tto.

html

Huber, R.M.; Meganck, R. 1987. National 

parks of Trinidad and Tobago. Naturalist 7(3): 

629. 

Meganck, R.A.; Ramdial, A.S. 1984. Trinidad 

and Tobago cultural parks: an idea whose time 

has come. Parks 9(1):15. 

Reddock, R. 1974. Survey of private nature 

parks existing and potential. National Environment and Conservation Council Research 

Paper No. 2/74. 65 p. 

Thelen, K.D.; S. Faizool, S. 1980. Policy for 

the establishment and management of a national park system in Trinidad and Tobago. 
69

Technical Document Forest Division/OAS 

Project on the establishment of a system of national parks and protected areas. Port of Spain, 

Trinidad: Ministry of Agriculture, Forest Division. 26 p. 

UNEP/IUCN. 1988. Coral Reefs of the World. 

Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP 

Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. 

Gland, Switzerland; Cambridge, UK/UNEP; 

Nairobi, Kenya. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 373 p.

Appendix Table. Abbreviations used more 

than once in text, or cited in references.

Acronym

BPSP

CBD

CBO

GDP

CITES

EMA

 

 Meaning

Biodiversity Planning Support 

Programme

United Nations Convention on 

Biological Diversity

Community-based Organization 

Gross Domestic Product

Convention of International 

Trade in Endangered Species 

of Wild Fauna and Flora

Environmental Management 

Authority

GREAT 

IUCN

MALMR

NBSAP

NGO

NSI

OAS

TIDCO

T&T

UNEP

UWI

WTO

Grande Riviere Environmental Awareness Trust 

International Union for Conservation of Nature

Ministry of Agriculture Land 

and Marine Resources

National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans

Non-governmental Organization

Nature Seekers Inc. (a CBO)

Organization of American 

States

Tourism and Industrial Development Company

Trinidad and Tobago

United Nations Environment 

Programme

University of the West Indies

World Trade Organization

World Trade Organization
70

Figure 1. Folk dancers entertained the 

delegates at the opening session.

Figure 2. Caribbean Foresters 

discussion during the country report 

session.

Figure 3. Maria Jose Edtwards from 

Dominica was an invited speaker at 

the CFM. 

PHOTO GALLERY
71

Figure 4. Attractive entrance sign 

to the Syndicate Visitor Center and 

Nature Trail in the Morne Diablotin 

National Park.

Figure 5. Caribbean Foresters hiking 

the Syndicate Nature Trail.

Figure 6. Caribbean Foresters pose 

for group photo along the Syndicate 

Nature Trail.

PHOTO GALLERY
72

Figure 7. Ancient trees dominate the 

landscape along the Syndicate Nature 

Trail. 

PHOTO GALLERY

Figure 8. Large chataignier (Sloanea 

sp.) along the Sindicate Nature Trail. 

Figure 9. Northwest coast of Dominica. 
73

Figure 12. An original cannon lays on 

the grounds of Fort Shirley, Cabrits 

National Park. 

PHOTO GALLERY

Figure 11. Dr. Lennox 

Honeychurch interpreting the 

history of Fort Shirley, Cabrits 

National Park to the Caribbean 

Foresters.

Figure 10. Local historian Dr. Lennox 

Honeychurch led a field trip to Cabrits 

National Park. 
74

PERMANENT PLOT MONITORING IN GRENADA’S 

MONTANE RAIN FOREST

Peter L. Weaver, Dean Jules and

the Grenada Forestry Department staff

ABSTRACT

Long-term monitoring of Montane rain forest 

in Grenada showed that mean dbh (diameter 

at 1.4 m above the ground) for all surviving 

stems ≥4 cm averaged 0.09 cm/yr between 

1994 and 1999, and 0.12 cm/yr between 1999 

and 2007. Hurricane Ivan of 2004 had a major 

impact on the forest, damaging all but an estimated 25 of the 2800 trees on a hectare basis. 

Measurements from 1999 to 2007 showed a 

23% reduction in basal area and an estimated 

54% loss in total aboveground biomass due to 

tree mortality or damage. Biomass mortality 

was >29 times greater and biomass ingrowth 

nearly 11 times greater during the second 

measurement period than during the first measurement period.

INTRODUCTION

Grand Etang lies in south central Grenada where the highest mountains rise to about 

750 m in elevation (Beard 1944a, 1944b). In 

1906 the area around Grand Etang, including 

the peaks known as Fedon’s Camp, Morne 

Quaqua, and lands to the south, were set aside 

as the Grand Etang Reserve (Marshall 1932). 

Today, Lower montane rain forest, Montane 

rain forest, and dwarf forest occupy much of 

the 1750 ha reserve (Weaver 1989a). 

The climate of Grand Etang is cool

 and humid, with a brisk breeze characterizing the more exposed areas. Rainfall on the 

peaks approaches 4000 mm/yr, with about 

20% falling during the months of February 

through May, and 80% the rest of the year 

(Beard 1944a). Due to its location south of 

the major hurricane belt, Grenada has escaped 

most major storms. The exceptions were Hurricane Janet in 1955 and Hurricane Ivan in 

2004. In addition, seven gales were recorded 

between 1768 and 1921 (Knight 1946).

During the 1940s, several of Grenada’s 

forests were surveyed (Beard 1944a, 1949). 

Trees in Montane rain forest rarely exceeded 

12 m in height or 60 cm in dbh. Of the tree 

species that were tallied, Micropholis guyanensis was dominant, accounting for 30% of 

the total (Beard 1944a). Although Beard visited the different forest types, his field surveys 

were limited to general ecological observations and tree species identification by forest 

type (Beard 1949). No permanent plots were 

established. 

The Lesser Antilles have no tradition 

of natural forest monitoring; some efforts, 

however, have been made to re-measure forest plantations. The purpose of this report is 

to show the results of 13 years of permanent 

plot monitoring within Montane rain forest 

at Grand Etang. Changes in forest structure 

and tree growth after the passage of Hurricane 

Ivan were topics of special interest. 

METHODS

In 1994, all trees with a dbh (diameter 

at 1.4 m above the ground) ≥4.0 cm were identified to species and measured to the nearest 

0.1 cm on a 0.04 ha (20 x 20 m) plot located in 

Montane rain forest about 100 m above Grand 

Etang along the trail to Mt. Quaqua. Trees 

were permanently marked using aluminum 

nails and tags placed 15 cm below dbh, a prac-
75

tice which averts future errors in case of swelling. Subsequent measurements were made in 

1999 and in 2007. At that time, survivors from 

1994 were re-measured and ingrowth (trees 

attaining the minimum dbh class) and mortality were also tallied. Height was estimated in 

1994 and 2007. Small trees were included to 

provide information on their early survival and 

growth.

Stem density and basal areas were determined; 

moreover, total aboveground biomass (hereafter, biomass) was estimated using equations de 

rived for Montane forest in Puerto Rico (Weaver and Gillespie 1992):

Y = 4.7962 + 0.0310 D2H, (r2 = 0.86, n = 18),

where Y equals total above ground biomass 

(kg), D equals dbh (cm), H equals height (m), 

r

2

 equals the coefficient of determination, and 

n equals the number of observations. All measurements were carried out with the help of the

Grenada Forestry staff and collaborators (Figures 1 and 2). 

Some measure of caution should apply 

to the results of this study. The sample area 

was small and was not replicated. Moreover, 

the biomass equation was derived from trees 

sampled in pre-hurricane conditions in a Puerto Rican Montane rain forest. 

RESULTS

In 1994, the plot had 13 species with a 

dbh range between 4.2 and 32.3 cm (Table 1). 

Micropholis guyanensis was the dominant species with about 75% of the stems and 80% of 

the basal area. Hurricane Ivan had a major impact on Montane rain forest, damaging all but 

an estimated 25 of the 2800 trees on a hectare 

basis, as follows: leaning = 100 trees, snapped 

= 900, leaning and snapped = 375, uprooted 

= 125, and dead (i.e., snapped, uprooted, or 

standing dead) = 1275 trees. In addition, the

Figure 1. Montane rain forest during the second measurement in 1999. The forest 

understory was easy to walk through.
76

Bagui1 50 0.62 50 0.72 50 0.80 0 0 0.14 0.80 10.4-14.7

Cacoli1 150 2.88 150 3.02 75 2.62 0 75 0.07 0.14 9.8-20.7

Cassipourea guianensis 25 0.02 25 0.02 25 0.05 0 0 0.08 0.08 4.2

Cross grain1 50 0.15 50 0.15 25 0.05 0 25 0.03 0.02 4.6-7.4

Dacryodes excelsa 50 0.12 50 0.12 50 0.15 0 0 0.00 0.07 5.0-6.1

Damaween1 25 0.30 25 0.30 0 0.00 0 25 0.06 NA2 12.5

Laurier caca1 25 0.25 50 0.25 25 0.33 25 25 -0.02 0.18 11.5

Laurier santai1 100 1.35 100 1.35 25 0.23 0 75 0.01 -0.01 6.1-20.0

Micropholis guyanensis 28.90 1900 31.92 25 1000 0.10 0.13 4.2-32.3

Penny piece1 50 0.92 50 0.92 25 0.70 0 25 -0.01 0.06 11.6-18.4

Santai big leaf1 50 0.12 50 0.12 25 0.10 0 25 0.00 0.06 4.3-6.5

Santai sml leaf1 75 0.12 75 0.15 50 0.13 0 25 0.01 0.05 4.6-5.5

Unknown 50 0.03 50 0.02 25 0.01 0 25 0.01 0.01 5.2-13.4

Subtotals/Means 35.81 2625 39.06 50 1325 0.09 0.12 4.2-32.3

Cecropia peltata4 475 0.85 475 0 0 1.58 4.2-6.0

Ocotea sp.4 50 0.01 50 0 0 NA 4.4

Simarouba amara4 25 0.05 25 0 0 1.83 5.5

Subtotals 550 0.91 550 0 0 NA NA

Totals 35.81 2575 39.06 550 1275 NA NA NA

Species Initial Intermediate Final Stem Growth Growth Initial 

 Stems BA Stems BA Stems BA Ingrowth Mortality 94-99 99 - 07 dbh range

 (no./ha)(m2 /ha) (no./ha)(m2 /ha) (no./ha)(m2 /ha) (no./ha)(no./ha) (cm/yr)(cm/yr) 

Table 1. Ranking of species by density and basal area (BA) dominance on a 0.04 ha Montane forest 

plot in Grenada. Measurements: initial in 1994, intermediate in 1999, and final in 2007.

New Species in 20073

Survivors from 1994

1

Data were initially recorded using common names, some of which remain to be identified to species. 2

NA = not applicable and blank spaces = no data.

3

Ingrowth was recorded in 1999; however, all species had been previously noted (see stem ingrowth column).

4

Hurricane Ivan occurred in 2004. Dbh growth rates for Cecropia and Simarouba were based on 3 years only, 

assuming immediate reproduction after the storm. Ocotea sp. may have already been present in the stand when 

the Ivan passed over Grenada.

 2100 1125 23.82

 2800 1525 28.98

 2800 2075 29.89
77

 amount of post-storm foliage on standing trees 

was considerably less in some instances due to 

the snapping or pruning of branches or parts of 

the crowns. Stem numbers were reduced by 

45% and basal area by 20%. 

After Hurricane Ivan, Cecropia peltata 

accounted for 86% of the ingrowth. Assuming 

that it regenerated immediately, its dbh growth 

averaged nearly 1.6 cm/yr during the post-hurricane period (Table 1). Simarouba amara also 

grew rapidly after the storm. Dbh growth averaged about 0.10 cm/yr for Micropholis guyanensis before the passage of Ivan, and 0.13 cm/

yr afterwards, a pattern also noted for other 

species. Micropholis guyanensis grows very

slowly when <10 cm in dbh but rapidly when 

≥15 cm (Figure 3). 

Basal area increased by 9% between 

1994 and 1999, and then declined by 23% between 1999 and 2007 (Table 1). Total aboveground biomass increased by about 10%, or 

3.5 t/ha/yr between 1994 and 1999 (Table 2). 

Between 1999 and 2007, after Hurricane Ivan, 

the decline in biomass was about 54%, with 

most of the loss due to tree mortality (Table 

1). Biomass ingrowth after the hurricane was

 nearly 11 times greater than before the storm, 

and biomass mortality >29 times greater than 

the pre-storm amount. 

DISCUSSION

Hurricane Ivan, the first hurricane to 

pass over Grenada in nearly 50 years, had a 

major impact on the Montane rain forest, leaving much of the area virtually inaccessible 

(Figure 4). Considerable damage was also 

done to other native forest types, cultivated 

crops, homes, business establishments, and infrastructure.

The 13 species tallied in this study 

approximate the 16 tree species noted during an earlier 0.3 ha survey in the same 

area (Beard 1949). In Puerto Rico’s 

Montane rain forest, species numbers averaged 15 on many 0.05 ha plots, and up to 40 

to 45 on a few 0.4 ha plots (Weaver 1989b, 

2000). Although the sample size in Grenada is 

extremely small, the relative paucity of species 

was noted earlier and attributed to past logging 

of the best timber species (Beard 1949). 

 Visitor Type Year

1994 1994-99 1999 1999-2007 2007

 Standing biomass 174.90 193.26 88.57

 Ingrowth 0.38 4.12

 Survivor change2 21.88 -35.01

 Mortality3 -3.72 -73.42

1

Blank spaces indicate no data or not applicable.

2

Damage equals biomass loss due to snapping of stems, reducing their length.

3

Biomass mortality equals the total biomass of all dead stems that died during the measurement period using tree dimensions at the beginning of that period (i.e., for mortality between 1994-99, the biomass of stems as determined 

in 1994)

Table 2. Changes in aboveground biomass on the Montane rain forest plot. 
78

Figure 2. Survey crew during June 2007 on the trail to Mt. Quaqua near the entrance 

to the Montane rain forest plot. 

Figure 3. Mean diameter growth rates by size class for Micropholis guyanensis in 

Grenada’s Montane rain forest.

Micropholis guyanensis growth

Dbh growth (cm/yr)

Dbh (cm)

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0

-0.1

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
79

How do the native forests of Grenada, 

which are less exposed to hurricanes than forests on islands farther north in the Caribbean 

Basin, compare with regard to amounts of 

damage and subsequent recovery? Meaningful 

comparisons would depend on the existence of 

similar data sets – that is, about the same number of well-distributed permanent plots of similar size that encompass comparable periods of 

measurement; unfortunately, such data sets do 

not exist. 

Some observations, however, may be 

made. Pre-Ivan conditions on the Grenada 

plot (about 40 years after Janet) compared 

with 0.05 ha plots sampled in a Puerto Rican 

Montane rain forest (about 50 years after Hurricane San Ciprián in 1932) showed that the 

stem density and total aboveground biomass 

estimates in Grenada were about 15 to 20% 

greater (Weaver 2000). Basal areas tallied on

larger 0.4 ha plots from 15 to 45 years after 

San Ciprián, however, were similar (Weaver 

1989b). 

The post-hurricane increase in dbh 

growth rates observed in Grenada (Table 1) 

was also noted in Puerto Rico. Dbh growth 

rates declined from 0.14 cm/yr in the period 

15-20 years after San Ciprián to 0.09 cm/yr in 

the period 44 to 49 years later (Weaver 1989). 

It is likely that dbh growth on survivors will 

remain comparatively rapid until stem density 

increases.

The >50% loss of biomass by Grenada’s 

Montane rain forest may have been approached 

after San Ciprián in Puerto Rico’s montane rain 

forest. Biomass recovery from 1946 to 1981 

on seven 0.4 ha plots was 23.5 t/ha (i.e., from 

about 120 to 145 t/ha) (Weaver 1989b). Therefore, damage was about 23.5/120 t or about 

Figure 4. Secondary growth, including sawgrass to more than 3 m, makes surveying the Montane rain forest extremely difficult after Hurricane Ivan of 2004. 
80

20%. In addition, an unknown amount of biomass accumulated between 1932 and 1946 at 

a time was increment was undoubtedly rapid. 

Grenada has the only regularly monitored permanent plots in native forests of the 

Lesser Antilles. Continued work on these plots 

could provide much valuable information on 

forest structure, species composition changes, 

and dynamics, including dbh and biomass increment. An interesting story could be told 

about post-hurricane recovery to visitors at the 

Grand Etang Visitor Information Center. 

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many individuals have helped with 

plot establishment and data collection: Martin Barrriteau, Kester Charles, Alban Clark, 

William Hawthorne, Quentin Holden, Alan 

Joseph, Dean Jules, Shawn Philbert, and Augustus Thomas. This work was done in cooperation with the University of Puerto Rico, Río 

Piedras, Puerto Rico.

LITERATURE CITED

Beard, J.S. 1944a. Forestry in the Windward 

Islands, colony of Grenada: development 

and welfare in the West Indies. Bulletin 11. 

Bridgetown, Barbados: Advocate Co., Ltd. p. 

3-44.

Beard, J.S. 1944b. A forest lover in the Caribee Islands, II. On the isle of spice. Journal 

of the New York Botanical Garden 45(534): 

121-126.

 

Beard, J.S. 1949. Natural vegetation of the 

Windward and Leeward Islands. Oxford Forestry Memoirs 21:1-132.

Knight, E.G. 1946. The Grenada handbook 

and directory. Bridgetown, Barbados: The Advocate Company. 392 p.

Marshall, R.C. 1932. Forestry in Grenada. 

Council Paper No. 23. St. George’s, Grenada: 

Government Printing Office. 19 p.

Weaver, P.L. 1983. Tree growth and stand 

changes in the subtropical life zones of the 

Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico. Research Paper SO-190. New Orleans, LA: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest 

Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station, Institute of tropical Forestry. 24 p. 

Weaver, P.L. 1989a. Forestry development – 

Grenada. FO: TCP/GRN/8851, Technical Report. Rome, Italy: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. 111 p.

Weaver, P.L. 1989b. Forest changes after hurricanes in Puerto Rico’s Luquillo Mountains. 

Interciencia 14(4):181-192.

Weaver, P.L. 2000. Environmental gradients 

affect forest structure in the Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico. Interciencia 25(5):254-

259. 

Weaver, P.L.; Gillespie, A.J.R. 1992. Tree biomass equations for the forests of the Luquillo 

Mountains, Puerto Rico. Commonwealth Forestry Review 71(1):35-39.
81

CONSERVATION STRATEGIES: LONG-TERM MONITORING OF 

PERMANENT PLOTS IN CARIBBEAN FOREST RESERVES 

Peter L. Weaver

ABSTRACT

Permanent plot monitoring has a long history 

in the Caribbean region. The earliest plots 

were established in various forest types of 

Puerto Rico and Venezuela during the 1940s 

and 1950s. In 1980, Puerto Rico initiated an 

inventory of secondary forest throughout the 

island, and in 1984 a similar inventory was set 

up on the island of St. Vincent. The Institute 

staff and its collaborators also established permanent plots in the U.S. Virgin Islands, Grenada, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic. 

The plots provide valuable ecological information on tree occurrence, species composition, 

stand structure, and forest dynamics. They 

also facilitate cooperative activities among 

environmental groups and agencies, and present research and educational opportunities for 

teachers and students in botany, ecology, forestry, and related sciences. Permanent plots may 

also provide a novel experience for ecotourists. 

Finally, the plots provide useful environmental information for the management of natural 

areas, and importantly, a friendly presence in 

and surveillance of the natural areas by those 

who recurrently conduct the measurements.

INTRODUCTION

The International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry (IITF) has a long history of permanent plot monitoring in Puerto Rico. Long before today’s permanent plot enthusiasts began 

taking measurements in Caribbean forests, the 

earliest pioneers of monitoring -- Wadsworth 

(1951) in Puerto Rico and Veillon (1957, 1983) 

in Venezuela -- were already responsible for 

nearly one-half of a century of data collection. 

The Puerto Rican plots were located mainly 

in the Luquillo Experimental Forest and the 

Commonwealth forest reserves, including 

mangrove, karst, and interior mountainous 

sites, and ranged from sea level to nearly 1000 

m in elevation. The eight Venezuelan sites included plots ranging from tropical deciduous 

forest at low elevations up to Andean cloud 

forest at 2,700 m. Judged by the aforementioned efforts, it would seem that tagged trees 

on forest plots with <15 or 20 years duration, 

especially if they have not been re-measured, 

would have to be judged as attempts at longterm measurements rather than permanent plot 

monitoring. 

The purpose of this report is to briefly 

review natural forest monitoring on permanent 

plots in the greater Caribbean Basin, highlighting sample plot designs and major results. 

Some previously unpublished results from recently established plots are also included. The 

reference material, although not exhaustive, 

calls attention to the existing literature on forest monitoring and provides current information for a variety of sites. 

METHODS -- DESIGN AND 

MEASUREMENTS

The methods for plot establishment 

and measurement are basically the same regardless of site. All trees on the plot with diameters at or above a specified dbh (diameter 

at 1.4 m above the ground) class are measured. 

All trees are tagged and identified by common 

and scientific names using local references. In 

Puerto Rico, many plots included all stems ≥4 

cm dbh. A diameter tape and rangefinder (or 
82

height pole) were used to measure dbh (to the 

nearest 0.1 cm) and to estimate heights (to the 

nearest 0.5 m), respectively. Trees were tagged 

using aluminum nails placed 15 cm below dbh, 

a practice used to avert future measurement errors in case of swelling around the nail. Trees 

in small dbh classes (i.e., classes between 4 

and 10 cm) were included to provide information on their early survival and growth. 

Subsequent measurements were made 

at intervals, usually 5 to 10 years, at which time 

all survivors were measured again. Moreover, 

ingrowth (trees attaining the minimum dbh 

class) and mortality were also noted. The plots 

may also be surveyed rapidly to assess damage 

after major disturbances like hurricanes. Stem 

density and basal area are determined from the 

basic data, and total biomass is calculated in 

cases where local biomass equations are available. Plot size has varied by vegetation type 

and with sampling objectives. In some cases, 

plots were established along environmental 

gradients (elevation and topography) because 

of an interest in species-site relationships or 

growth differences by site. 

Permanent monitoring plots were first 

established in several of Puerto Rico’s moist 

forests (Tables 1 and 2). Later, plots were set 

up in secondary forest throughout the island, 

at specific Puerto Rican dry forest sites, in the 

U.S. Virgin Islands, and in other countries (Table 3).

MAJOR RESULTS AND BRIEF 

DISCUSSION

Monitoring in Puerto Rico

Researchers at the IITF began using permanent plots to gather information on 

species composition and growth rates as early as 1937 in several different forested areas 

throughout the island (Table 1). The major’ 

effort in the Luquillo Experimental Forest 

(LEF) began in the mid-1940s (Table 2; Figures 1, 2 and 3). After determining basic species compositions and growth rates in the mid1950s, measurements were discontinued until 

the mid-1970s. In 1980, permanent plots were 

established throughout Puerto Rico’s secondary forests (Weaver and Birdsey 1982; Franco 

et al. 1997). Fortunately, both dendrology and 

taxonomy began early in Puerto Rico and the 

U.S. Virgin Islands and continued into the new 

millennium. For nearly a century, researchers published several comprehensive texts describing plants that are found throughout the 

Caribbean Islands (Acevedo-Rodriguez and 

Strong 2005; Acevedo-Rodriguez et al. 1996; 

Britton 1918; Britton and Wilson 1923-26; 

Howard 1979; Howard 1988-1989; Liogier 

1985-97; Little and Wadsworth 1964; Little et 

al. 1974). 

Among the most recent studies in Puerto Rico are those set up in subtropical dry forest in two widely separated locations – at Las 

Cabezas de San Juan in the northeastern tip of 

the island and at Tinaja in the island’s southwestern corner (Table 4). At Las Cabezas de 

San Juan, Leucaena leucocephala invaded and 

grew rapidly in small openings after Hurricane 

Hugo in 1989 (Weaver and Coll Rivera 2002; 

Weaver et al. 1999). Leucaena, however, did 

not regenerate in the understory as the residual 

trees on the plot recovered their canopies indicating that the species will decrease considerably, or disappear altogether in the absence of 

additional disturbance. 
83

Location Description - Forest type, soils, elevation, silviculture (dates

measured)

Subtropical moist forest life zone

St. Just early secondary, volcanic, 60 m, thinned (1952, 1954)

Cambalache secondary, limestone, 40 m, natural regeneration, (1950, 1976)

Carite late secondary volcanic, 725 m, thinned (1951, 1987)

Piñones mangrove mangrove, deep organic, sea level, cleared in 1937, some thinned 

(1938, 1945, 1949, 1951, 1955, 1975)

Subtropical wet forest life zone

Maricao late secondary, volcanic, 930 m, thinned (1951, 1976)

Toro Negro mature, acid clay, 670 m, selective thinned (1951, 1975)

1

Weaver 1979, 1982, 1983.

Table 1. Past permanent plots of the International Institute of Tropical Forestry (IITF) 

in the forests of Puerto Rico1.

Location Size 

(ha)

Elevation 

(m)

Dates measured

(1943 to 2003)

Lower montane forest1 2.32 340-600 ~9 times from 

43 to 03

Lower montane forest2 16.00 150-350 3 times since 90

Lower montane forest3 24.00 180-600 57, 62, 75, mid -90s

Palm brake4 1.05 500-570 ~6 times from 46 to 90

Montane forest5 3.60 640-880 ~7 times from 46 to 90

Dwarf forest

 Plane wreck 6 0.08 1000 72, 86, 98, 05

 Summit plots7 0.15 1000 90, 95, 01, 05

1

Six plots: one of 0.720 ha, three of 0.40 ha, and two of 0.20 ha (Crow 1980; Weaver 1998, 2002). 2

Pan-tropical network of forest dynamics plots (Soil Survey Staff 1995; LTER Sites-Luquillo LTER-LUQ 

2007 (internet)). 

3

The 300-plot study of crop trees in Sabana 4, Sabana 8, and Río Grande 3 (Crow and Weaver 1977). 4

Two plots 0.40 ha, and one 0.25 ha (Frangi and Lugo 1985; Lugo et al. 1995).

5

Nine plots 0.40 ha (Weaver 1986, 1987, 1989).

6

Plane crash site, 1968 (Byer and Weaver 1977; Weaver 2000). 

7

Six plots, each 0.025 ha, stratified by topography (ridge, slope, and ravine). 

 Table 2. Current permanent plots of the International Institute of Tropical Forestry 

(IITF) in the forests of Puerto Rico1.
84

The permanent plots at Tinaja were set 

up in area that had been recurrently burned and 

grazed for nearly a century (Weaver and Chinea 2003; Weaver and Schwagerl 2005; Figure 

3). Grass and scrub woodland dominated the 

landscape. After the elimination of fire and 

grazing in the mid-1990s, native tree species

 along with Leucaena regenerated successfully, greatly increasing the woody cover within 

10 years. Although Leucaena is widely maligned as an invasive species, it should also be 

recognized for its capacity to establish rapidly 

on degraded sites and ultimately shade out 

grass cover in fire-prone areas. 

Location Size (ha) Elevation (m) Dates measured

Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands

Las Cabezas de San Juan1 0.10 50 94, 98

Cartagena Lagoon (Tinaja)2 3.42 20-290 98

Guanica Forest3 1.40 175 early 80s

Secondary Forest 4 --- 5-600+ 80, 85, 90, 02

Cinnamon Bay, St. 0.80 60-240 83, 88, 93, 98, 

03

Other Countries

Guaconejo, Dominican Republic6 1.00 150-450 99

Grand Etang, Grenada7 0.44 500-600 94, 99, 07

Volcan Mombacho, Nicaragua8 2.78 900-1150 98

1

One plot 50 x 10 m in secondary semi-evergreen seasonal forest at Cabezas de San Juan Natural 

Reserve. 

2

Inventory with 109 circular 0.0314 ha plots in the 110 ha in the Cartegena Lagoon National Wildlife Refuge 

(Weaver and Chinea 2003). Partially remeasured in 2003. 

3

One plot in secondary Subtropical dry forest (Lugo and Murphy 1986). 4

Island inventory, 437 ground locations with fixed and variable radius plots (Birdsey and Weaver 1982). 

5

Sixteen plots 500 m2 in late secondary forest (Weaver and Chinea-Rivera 1987). 6

Nine plots 1000 m2 plus a transect 50 x 20 m in mature forest in the Cerro Guaconejo Reserve (University of 

Alicante, Spain; PRONATURA; SODIM) (Pastor 1999). 

7

Plots of 0.4 ha in lower montane and 0.04 ha in montane forest (Weaver 1997). 8

Five plots 0.50 ha and one plot 0.28 ha on Mombacho Volcano (Weaver and Díaz Santos 2002).

Table 3. Permanent plots established since 1980 by the International Institute of Tropical Forestry in Puerto 

Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and other countries1. 
85

Figure 1. Permanent plot monitoring in Lower montane rain forest in the Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico. The first measurements of the El Verde III plot were carried out in 

1943. 

Figure 2. Permanent plot monitoring in Montane rain forest in the Luquillo Mountains of 

Puerto Rico. The first measurements on Colorado slope date to 1946.
86

Figure 4. Permanent plot monitoring in secondary dry forest on the Tinaja tract of the 

Laguna Cartagena Wildlife Refuge in southwestern Puerto Rico. 

Figure 3. Permanent plot monitoring in 

Dwarf Forest at the summits of the Luquillo Mountains in Puerto Rico.
87

Bourreria succulenta 390 70 20 440 0.20 (0.03), 37

Bursera simaruba 40 10 0 50 0.12 (0.04), 4

Capparis hastata 90 0 0 90 0.09 (0.01), 9

C. indica 20 0 0 20 0.06 (0.02), 2

Cassine xylocarpa 200 10 10 200 0.09 (0.02), 19

Citharezylum fruticosum 30 0 0 30 0.03 (0.02), 3 

Coccoloba microstachya 50 0 0 50 0.06 (0.02), 5

Erythroxylum rotundifolium 40 60 0 100 0.06 (0.04), 4

Ginoria rohrii 370 20 50 340 0.03 (0.01), 32

Guapira fragrans 10 10 0 20 0.25, 1

Leucaena leucocephala 180 280 50 410 0.24 (0.02), 13

Maytenus cymosa 10 0 0 10 0.15, 1

Pictetia aculeata 110 0 0 110 0.03 (0.01), 11

Pisonia subcordata 320 40 50 310 0.15 (0.02), 27

Securinega aciditon 30 60 0 90 0.14 (0.10), 3

Tabebuia heterophylla 160 0 20 140 0.06 (0.01), 14

Zanthoxylum monophyllum 120 30 30 120 0.10 (0.02), 9

Subtotal 2170 590 230 2530 0.11 (0.01), 194

Croton astroites 10 0 10

Eugenia biflora 10 0 10

 Total 2160 620 230 2550

Table 4. Changes in stem numbers and diameter growth at Las Cabezas de San Juan Reserve. 

 Total Ingrowth Mortality Total Mean growth (SE), n 

Number of stems/ha

1998 1998 2004 2004 (cm/yr)1

1

SE = standard error; n = number of trees sampled.

Plot composition in 1998

New species: 1998-2004
88

Monitoring on St. John, U.S. Virgin

Islands

In 1982, the Virgin Islands Resource 

Management Cooperative was formed among 

14 agencies to initiate baseline research in the 

Park; by 1988, 29 reports had been completed 

(Anonymous 1988; Rogers and Teytaud 1988). 

In 1992, the integrated approach to marine and 

terrestrial research and status of several on-going studies was reviewed in the Park Science 

bulletin (Rogers 1992). 

The first step toward the establishment 

of long-term research in the U.S. Virgin Islands 

was undertaken in 1982 when the vegetation 

of St. John and Hassel Islands was surveyed 

and mapped (Woodbury and Weaver 1987). 

In 1983, partially based on the survey, several 

sites were selected for continuous monitoring 

within the Cinnamon Bay watershed (Figure 

5). The 20-year period of observation on the 

16 Cinnamon Bay plots included two major 

hurricanes -- Hugo of 1989 and Marilyn of 

1995. Among the major types of information 

available from the monitoring were (Weaver 

1990, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2006; Weaver 

and Chinea-Rivera 1987):

Vegetation structure and diversity in 1983

• about 2700 trees and 70 tree species were 

identified;

• the mean height and diameter for all stems 

was 8 m and 9 cm, respectively;

• the 10 most common tree species accounted for 65% of the stems and nearly 50% of 

the basal area;

• stem density for all plots averaged about 

3430 trees/ha, and varied as follows: 2540/

ha in ravines, 2720/ha on slopes, 4390/ha 

on ridges, and 6600/ha at the summit; 

• stem biomass for all plots averaged 150 t/ha, 

and varied as follows: 159 t/ha in ravines, 

147 t/ha on slopes, 135 t/ha on ridges, and 

206 t/ha at the summit; and 

• the occurrence and relative abundance of 

tree species varied with elevation and topography within the watershed. 

Vegetation dynamics between 1983 and 

1988, and Hurricane Hugo impacts

• diameter growth rate averaged 0.07 cm/yr 

for all surviving trees, and varied by species, topography, elevation, and crown 

class;

• net primary productivity was 10.6 t/ha/yr; 

• the impact by Hurricane Hugo varied significantly by tree species, with the Bay rum 

tree (Pimenta racemosa) showing exceptional resistance to damage (Figure 5); 

Figure 5. Pimenta racemosa (Mill.) 

J.W. Moore (Bay Rum tree) in dry 

evergreen woodland at Cinnamon Bay 

on the Island of St. John.
89

• the tallest tree on 7 of the 16 plots was 

eliminated by Hugo;

• 10 and 19 months after the initial damage caused by Hurricane Hugo, mortality 

eliminated 210 and 228 trees/ha, respectively, and total biomass was reduced by 

>10%; and

• tree damage varied by environmental 

factors with greater damage on: (a) high 

elevation than on low elevation plots, (b) 

on valley and summit plots than on ridge 

or slope plots, and (c) on north-facing 

plots than on east- or west-facing plots.

Between 1984 and 1986, collaborators with the New York Botanical Garden set 

up permanent plots on Bordeaux Mountain, 

L’Esperance, and Hawknest (Earhart et al. 

1988; Reilly et al. 1990; Table 5). After Hugo, 

these plots were assessed for damage (Reilly 

1991, 1992, 1994, 1998; Rogers and Reilly 

1998). In 1988, species diversity and forest 

structure were studied on plots at Mary Point, 

Lameshur, Cinnamon Bay, and Caneel Hill in 

cooperation with the University of Wisconsin 

(Brown and Ray 1993; Ray and Brown 1995a). 

Finally, between 1991 and 1994, collaborators 

in the Smithsonian Institution’s Man and the 

Biosphere Program set up permanent plots on 

Caneel Hill and Cob Hill to determine species composition, stand structure, and dynamics (Dallmeier and Ray 1992; Dallmeier et al. 

1993; Ray et al. 1998).

The monitoring plots on St. John represent differences in vegetation age (i.e., the time 

elapsed since agriculture was abandoned), plot 

sizes, and sampling design and procedures (Table 5). The Cinnamon Bay plots, in forest at 

least 125 years old, totaled 0.8 ha, initially contained 69 species, averaged 3378 trees/ha, and 

had an average basal area of 30.4 m2/ha. The 

other monitoring sites on St. John, between 35 

and 125 years in age, varied in species numbers from 8 to 62, in stem numbers from 1660 

to 8574/ha, and in basal areas from 4.9 to 31.6 

m2/ha on plots between 0.1 and 1.0 ha in size.

As part of the same research initiative, 

a systematic approach to dry forest restoration 

was explored using preliminary analyses to 

determine factors that limit natural regeneration on different sites (Brown and Ray 1993). 

Seed ecology and the use of propagules (seeds, 

seedlings, and rooted cuttings) were tested 

for restoration of degraded lands (Brown et 

al. 1992; Ray 1993; Ray and Brown 1995b). 

Fruiting and flowering events for 66 woody 

species were observed in several areas during 

a 4-year period (Ray and Brown 1994). A survey of fruit dispersal of 148 native woody species showed that 74% was by animals, 18% by 

wind, 4% by sea currents, and 4% by self dispersion. Nearly 60% of the 29 woody species 

tested in shade house conditions showed >80% 

germination. The use of seedlings proved to 

be the most efficient method for restoration of 

abandoned pasturelands.

Monitoring Initiative in Grenada

Much of the initial ecological work in 

Grenada was done >50 years ago when tree 

species lists and abundances were reported 

for different forest types on the island (Beard 

1944a, 1944b, 1949). In the interim, however, 

little has been done in the Lesser Antilles to 

determine forest dynamics, which would call 

for permanent plots and monitoring. In 1994, 

the IITF cooperated with the Grenadian Forestry Department and the U.S. Peace Corps 

to establish permanent forest plots in both the 

lower montane and montane rain forests at 

Grand Etang (Weaver 1997; Figure 6). Initially, all trees were tagged and an attempt was 

made to identify each species using published 

lists of common names (Marshall 1932, 1939; 

Beard 1949; Groome 1970); later, many of the 

species identities were confirmed and others 
90

Forest type Location Age 

(yr)

Datea Plots

Size (no.)

Speciesa

(no.)

Basal 

area 

(m2/ha)

Source

Dry evergreen to 

gallery moist

Cinnamon 

Bay

125 1983 0.05 69 30.4 Weaver and 

Chinea 1987

Upland moist Bordeaux 110 1984 1.00 1 62 31.2 Earhart et al. 1988

Gallery moist L’ Esperance 90 1985 0.50 1 56 31.6 Reilly et al. 1990

Dry evergreen 

woodland

Hawksnest >70 1986? 0.50 1 52 26.5

Secondary Mary Point 35 1988 0.05 2 8 4.9 Brown and Ray 

1993

Secondary Lameshur 50 1988 0.05 2 23 17.9 Ray and Brown 

1995a

Secondary Caneel Hill 100 1988 0.05 2 27 22.9

Secondary Caneel Hill 100 1988 0.05 2 29 25.8

Dry evergreen Cinnamon 125 1988 0.05 2 30 25.3

Dry evergreen 

woodland

Caneel Hill 80-100 1991 1.00 1 49 23.7 Dallmeier et al. 

1993

Dry evergreen 

woodland

Cob Hillb 100-120 1994 1.00 1 45 21.8 Ray et al. 1998

1

Adapted from Rogers and Reilly 1998. The minimum dbh varied by site: Set 1, Cinnamon Bay, 4.1 cm; Set 2, 

Bordeaux, L’ Esperance and Hawksnest, 5.0 cm; Set 3, Mary Point, Lameshur, Caneel Hill, and Cinnamon. 4.0 

cm; Set 4, Caneel Hill, 4 cm and Cob Hill, 2.5 cm. 

a Initial survey data. 

b Also called Minna Hill. 

Table 5. Monitoring plots on St. John1. 

Figure 6. Plot monitoring in Lower montane rain forest at Grand Etang on Grenada. 
91

corrected by visiting botanists.

 In 1994, 27 species were recognized 

on the lower montane plot and >10 on the 

montane plot; basal areas were 51.5 and 35.8 

m2/ha, respectively (Table 6). Dacryodes 

excelsa accounted for 18% of the stems and 

nearly 45% of the total basal area in the lower 

montane forest and Micropholis chrysophylloides for 75% of the stems and nearly 80% of 

the basal area in the montane forest. Species 

diversity for both forests appears low (Beard 

1949) and the basal area of the lower montane 

forest high when compared to similar stands 

in Puerto Rico (Weaver 1983). Many tree species grow on both plots.

During the 5-year period of measurement, stem density declined by 8% in the montane forest and 1% in the lower montane forest 

(Table 7). In the montane forest, virtually all 

of the stems lost were the common dominant, 

Micopholis guyanensis; in contrast, in the 

lower montane forest, most of the losses were 

in species other than the common dominant, 

Dacryodes excelsa. Preliminary estimates 

show typically slow growth rates for trees in 

closed forest (Table 7). 

The Grand Etang area has some of the 

finest rain forest in the West Indies (Beard 

1944b). The forests, although physiognomically mature, are floristically impoverished, a 

fact that was attributed to past logging (Beard 

1949). The occurrence of major logging during the 19th century, however, is questionable. 

Extraction would have required the transport 

of sawn lumber over considerable distances 

using draught animals. Another possible explanation for low species diversity may be the 

lack of major disturbances in Grenada which 

lies south of the major hurricane belt (Knight 

1946). In an environment where disturbance 

is infrequent, species such and Dacryodes excela and Micropholis guyanensis, the largest, 

most common, and possibly the oldest trees in 

the lower montane and montane rain forests, 

respectively, could persist as stand dominants 

for considerable periods. In September 2004, 

however, Hurricane Ivan passed over Grenada causing considerable damage to all forest 

types in Grand Etang (Figure 7). Continuous 

monitoring will provide answers to questions 

regarding the survival and growth of Grenada’s principal forest species. 

 

Category Stems

no./ha

Basal area

m2/ha

Dbh range

(cm)

Montane Forest 2100 28.5 4.2 - 32.3

Micropholis guyanensis 700 7.7 4.2 - 19.6

Remaining 11 species 2800 35.8

 Total

Lower montane forest

Dacryodes excelsa 238 23.1 4.2 - 80.3

Palm spp. 210 9.4 5.3 - 44.3

Remaining 23 species 852 18.9 4.1 - 73.1

 Total 1300 51.4

Table 6. Stem data for Grenada’s montane and lower montane forests in 1994.
92

Residual (1994) stand

Species 1994 1999 1994 1999 cm/yr (SE), n

Micropholis guyanensis

Dacryodes excelsa

Licania ternatensis

Sloanea caribaea

Roystonea oleracea 

Euterpe dominicana

Maytenus grenadensis

Richeria grandis

Sloanea sp.

Byrsonima trinitensis 

Cassipourea guianensis

Myrcia platycada

Simarouba amara 

Myrsine trinitatis

Guatteria caribaea 

Unonopsis umbilicata

Erythroxylum squamatum

Ilex sideroxyloides

Ocotea martincensis

Pithecellobium jupunba

Euphorbiaceae sp.

Guarea macrophylla

Ilex sp.

Quararibea turbinata

Sloanea massoni 

Unknowns

 Subtotal 

Ingrowth (1994-1999)2

Micropholis guyanensis 

Licania ternatensis 

Sloanea caribaea 

Cassipourea guianensis

Dacryodes excelsa

Erythroxylum squamatum

Guarea macrophylla 

Maytenus grenadensis

Sloanea sp. 

 Subtotal

 Total

 

260.0

237.5

202.5

125.0

120.0

90.0

52.5

45.0

37.5

20.0

20.0

15.0

12.5

10.0

7.5

7.5

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

5.0

1300.0

1300

237.5

235.0

197.5

120.0

97.5

85.0

52.5

45.0

37.5

20.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

10.0

7.5

7.5

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

5.0

1235.0

22.5

12.5

5.0

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

55.0

1290

9.79

23.13

4.38

2.24

5.68

3.67

0.78

0.81

0.17

0.12

0.15

0.06

0.17

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.03

0.07

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.03

51.43

51.41

10.36

24.09

4.61

2.56

5.81

3.73

0.84

0.88

0.18

0.13

0.17

0.06

0.16

0.03

0.04

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.03

0.07

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.03

53.87

0.03

0.02

0.01

0

0

0

0

0

0

0.08

53.95

0.05 (0.02), 93

0.10 (0.02), 95

0.05 (0.01), 79

0.05 (0.01), 47

0.04 (0.01), 36

0.02 (0.01), 34

0.09 (0.03), 21

0.09 (0.03), 18

0.03 (0.02), 15

0.02 (0.01), 8

0.08 (0.05), 8

0.01 (0.01), 6

0.09 (0.05), 4

0.03 (0.01), 4

0.07 (0.06), 3

0.07 (0.01), 3

0.05 (0.05), 3

0.04 (0.13), 2

0.05 (0.03), 2

0.08 (0.05), 2

0.06 (0.00), 1

0.00 (0.00), 1

0.02 (0.00), 1

0.02 (0.00), 1

0.00 (0.00), 1

0.04 (0.00), 2

Table 7. Changes in stem numbers and basal area on the lower montane forest permanent plot at Grand Etang, 

Grenada

 Stems (no. /ha) Basal area (m2/ha) Mean dbh growth

1

SE = standard error; n = number of survivors.

2

Zeros in basal area ingrowth indicate values less than 0.005 m2.
93

Figure 7. Damage caused to Lower montane rain forest at Grand Etang in Grenada 

by Hurricane Ivan in September 2004.

Monitoring Initiative in Nicaragua 

In 1998, the IITF helped to establish 

permanent plots in Nicaragua (Table 3). In Nicaragua, six plots totaling 2.78 ha were set up 

along an elevational gradient between 900 and 

1175 m in elevation in the Mombacho Volcano Natural Reserve (Weaver and Díaz Santos 

2002). Fifty-five tree species and 12,615 individual stems were sampled. The 10 most common were: Alsophila firma, Ardisia costarricense, Clusia salvinii, Conastegia oerstediana, 

Palicourea padifolia, Psychotria panamensis, 

Sapium macrocarpum, Senecio arborescens, 

Trophis mexicana, and Verbesina oerstediana, 

along with Hedyosmum sp. Stand density for 

all plots averaged 2100 stems/ha, and basal area 

28.7 m2/ha. The plots were measured again in 

December 2003 to determine growth rates and 

stand changes. 

Monitoring Initiative in the Dominican 

Republic

In 1998, the IITF helped with the establishment of 1 ha of permanent plots in the 

Dominican Republic within the 53 km2 forest 

reserve called “La Reserva Científica Loma 

Guaconejo.” Sixty tree species were tallied. 

The 23 most common species were: Bombacopsis emarginata, Calyptronoma dulcis, Chionanthus domingensis, Clusia rosea, Coccoloba 

pubescens, Cyathea arborea, Cyrilla racemiflora, Didymopanax morotootni, Hirtella rugosa, Manilkara bidentata, Miconia mirabilis, 

Mora abbottii, Ocotea leucoxylon, Ormosia 

krugii, Tabebuia ricardii, Prestoea montana, 

Manilkara gonovensi, Ficus aurea, Casearia 

arborea, Lasianthus lanceolanthus, Smilax 

dominguensis, Smilax havanensis, and Tetragastris balsamifera. Stem density averaged 

1544/ha, varying little by topography (Pastor 

1999). Future plans include plot remeasure-
94

ment to determine growth rates and changes in 

forest composition and structure. In the interim, the Sociedad para el Desarrollo Intergral 

del Nordeste (SODIN), a local NGO responsible for management of the area, will use the 

current information in the development of the 

management plan for the reserve.

Past Work on St. Vincent

In 1984, a reconnaissance survey, including field samples and photo interpretation, 

was carried out on St. Vincent to provide information for the planning, research, and potential use of the island’s forests (Birdsey et al. 

1986, Weaver et al. 1988). Nearly 3,200 photo 

samples were classified, 88 ground locations 

were checked, and 57 plots were marked and 

sampled at 19 separate field locations (Figure 

8). The sampled data were used to provide 

information on forest types, forest areas, tree 

sizes (saplings, pole timber, and saw timber), 

species’ composition, and estimated timber 

volumes. Although established initially to 

serve as a permanent monitoring system, subsequent inventories were never carried out. 

PLOTS AND MONITORING – 

COMMENTARY

Monitoring plots may be established 

jointly by environmental groups and agencies 

to provide information for the management 

of natural areas. When properly designed, 

maintained, and monitored, the plots yield 

baseline information on stand structure, species composition and diversity, growth rates, 

forest dynamics, variation along environmental gradients, estimates of tree ages, and the 

impacts and changes caused by of major climatic events (Table 8). After several cycles of 

data collection, forest modeling could provide 

useful scenarios of changes in stand structure, 

composition, and dynamics under several assumptions, including the impacts of major 

climatic events such as prolonged droughts or 

recurrent hurricanes. 

Most permanent plots designed to 

collect research data, in particular growth or 

successional changes, could be used for more 

detailed studies (e.g., nutrient cycling, phenology, or modeling). Increased traffic on 

the plots, however, could negatively impact 

regeneration, or in the case of regional surveys, infringe on the privacy of land owners. 

Temporary plots, in contrast, provide a less expensive opportunity for certain types of data 

collection (e.g., along gradients for phytosociological information) where continuous monitoring would be difficult or expensive. Simple 

plot designs with geo-referenced center stakes 

could provide a viable alternative for data collection. 

Among the advantages of plots in protected areas, either permanent or temporary, is 

that they provide recurrent surveillance of the 

sites by the individuals working there. In addition, the plots may provide specific data on 

rare or endangered species and educational opportunities for teachers and students in botany, 

ecology, forestry, and related sciences. The 

plots could also provide a novel experience for 

ecotourists interested in learning about field 

research, tree life histories, or possibly plant 

medicinal uses. In all cases, plot monitoring 

uniquely provides data to help characterize 

the role of particular tree species along environmental gradients within the forest as they 

respond to inter-specific competition and recurrent natural events (i.e., tree mortality, hurricanes, and droughts). 

Permanent plot monitoring, if it is to 

succeed, requires money, an efficient sample 

design, and a feasible program of recurrent 

measurements. Climatic events may damage the plots or monitoring equipment located 

on them adding to the work load and costs. 
95

Figure 8. Field crew working on the inventory of St. Vincent forests in 1983.

Table 8. Types of information available from permanent plots

_________________________________________________________________________

Stand characteristics: stem density; species composition; species diversity; information on rare or 

endangered species; typical and maximum tree and stand measures (diameters, heights, basal areas, 

volumes, and biomass); soil organic matter 

Plots along a gradient: species-site relationships; species-structural relationships; changes in species or structure according to elevation, aspect (windward, leeward), exposure (protected, exposed), 

and topography (ridge, slope, and ravine)

Stand dynamics: changes in stem density (tree ingrowth, mortality, and survival), species composition, species diversity, tree sizes (heights, diameters), and stand measures (basal areas, volumes, and 

biomass); changes in stand specific gravities; and productivity (litterfall, biomass change, herbivory 

rates); post-disturbance recovery and rates of change; estimates of tree ages; nutrient dynamics with 

recovery 

Climatic impacts: impacts of persistent wind, heavy rains, drought, and hurricanes; post-hurricane 

mortality, both immediate and delayed; variable resistance to windthrow and uprooting by tree species 

________________________________________________________________________________
96

Changing the frequency of re-measurement, 

or sampling portions of the permanent plots 

in different years, may be alternatives under 

which a sampling regime for permanent plots 

could be economically maintained. Monitoring also calls for continuous evaluation, and 

in cases where objectives have been achieved, 

possible modification or termination of measurements in favor of other research priorities. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many individuals have helped with 

plot establishment and data collection: The 

Dominican Republic -- Antonio Pastor and 

his field crew; Grenada -- Martin Barrriteau, 

Kester Charles, Alban Clark, William Hawthorne, Quentin Holden, Alan Joseph, Dean 

Jules, Shawn Philbert, and Agustus Thomas; 

Nicaragua -- Fabricio Díaz Santos and his colleagues; St. Vincent – John Valenta, and Calvin Nicholls and his staff including G. Cordice, 

L. Quammie, and E. Conner; Puerto Rico and 

the Virgin Islands -- Giglia Beretta, Elizabeth 

Ford, Juan Ramírez, Nelson Repollet, Carlos 

Rivera, Alberto Rodríguez, Miriam Salgado, 

and Iván Vicéns. This work was done in cooperation with the University of Puerto Rico, Río 

Piedras, Puerto Rico.-

LITERATURE -- PUERTO RICO

Acevedo-Rodríguez, P.; Strong, Mark T. 2005. 

Monocots and gynosperms of Puerto Rico and 

the United States Virgin Islands. Contributions 

from the United States National Herbarium 

52:1-415 (65 figures).

Birdsey, R.A.; Weaver, P.L. 1982. The forest 

resources of Puerto Rico. Resource Bulletin 

SO-85. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Forest Service, Institute of Tropical Forestry. 59 p.

Britton, N.L.; Wilson, P. 1923-26. Descriptive 

flora – spermatophyta. Botany of Porto Rico 

and the Virgin Islands. Vols. 5, 6. In Scientific 

Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands. 

New York: New York Academy of Sciences. 

1,289 p.

Byer, M.D.; Weaver, P.L. 1977. Early secondary succession in an elfin woodland in the Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico. Biotropica 

9(1):35-47.

Crow, T.R. 1980. A rainforest chronicle: a 30-

year record of change in structure and composition at El Verde, Puerto Rico. Biotropica 

12(1):42-55. 

Crow, T.R.; Weaver, P.L. 1977. Tree growth in 

a moist tropical forest of Puerto Rico. ITF-22. 

Río Piedras, PR: Institute of Tropical Forestry. 

17 p.

Franco, P.A.; Weaver, P.L.; Eggen-McIntosh, 

S. 1997. The forest resources of Puerto Rico, 

1990. Resource Bulletin SRS-22. Asheville, 

NC: USDA Forest Service, Southern Research 

Station. 45 p. 

Frangi, J.L.; Lugo, A.E. 1985. Ecosystem dynamics of a subtropical floodplain forest. Ecological Monographs 55(3):351-369. 

Howard, R.A. 1979. Flora of the Lesser Antilles, Leeward and Windward Islands. Monocotyledonaceae. Jamaica Plain, MA:Arnold 

Arboretum, Harvard University. Vol. 3. 586 p.

Howard, R.A. 1988-89. Flora of the Lesser 

Antilles, Leeward and Windward Islands. Dicotyledonaceae. Jamaica Plain, MA:Arnold 

Arboretum, Harvard University. Vols. 4-6.

Liogier, H.A. 1985--97. Descriptive flora of 

Puerto Rico and adjacent islands - Spermatophyta. San Juan, PR: Editorial de Puerto Rico. 

Vols. I-V. 2337 p.
97

Little, E.L.; Wadsworth, F.H. 1964. Common 

trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. 

Agricultural Handbook No. 249. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service. 548 p.

Little, E.L.; Woodbury, R.O.; Wadsworth, F.H. 

1974. Trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agricultural Handbook No. 449. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service. 1024 p.

Lugo, A.E.; Bokkestijn, A.; Scatena, F.S. 1995. 

Structure, succession, and soil chemistry of 

palm forests in the Luquillo Experimental Forest. In: Lugo, A.E.; Lowe, C. (eds.) Tropical 

forests: management and ecology. New York, 

NY: Springer-Verlag. Chapter 6, p. 142-177. 

Lugo, A.E.; Murphy, P.G. 1986. Nutrient dynamics of a Puerto Rico subtropical dry forest. 

Journal of Tropical Ecology 2:55-72. 

LTER Sites-Luquillo LTER-LUQ. http:/

www.1ternet.edu/sites/luq/ (internet).

Soil Survey Staff. 1995. Order 1 soil survey 

of the Luquillo long-term ecological research 

grid. San Juan, PR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Resources Conservation Service. 92 p. + map.

Wadsworth, F.H. 1951. Forest management in 

the Luquillo Mountains, I. The setting. Caribbean Forester 12(3):93-114.

Weaver, P.L. 1979. Tree growth in several 

tropical forests of Puerto Rico. Research paper SO-152. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Institute of 

Tropical Forestry. 15 p. 

Weaver, P.L. 1982. Tree diameter increment in 

an upper montane forest of Puerto Rico. Turrialba 32(2):119-122. 

Weaver, P.L. 1983. Tree growth and stand 

changes in the subtropical life zones of the Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico. Research Paper SO-190. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern 

Forest Experiment Station, Institute of tropical 

Forestry. 24 p. 

Weaver, P.L. 1986. Growth and age of Cyrilla 

racemiflora L. in montane forests of Puerto 

Rico. interciencia 11(5):221-228.

Weaver, P.L. 1987. Ecological observations 

on Magnolia splendens Urban in the Luquillo 

Mountains of Puerto Rico. Caribbean Journal 

of Science (3-4):340-351.

Weaver, P.L. 1989. Forest changes after hurricanes in Puerto Rico’s Luquillo Mountains. 

Interciencia 14(4):181-192.

Weaver, P.L. 1998. Hurricane effects and 

long-term recovery in subtropical rain forest. 

In: F. Dallmeier and J.A. Comisky (eds.), Forest Biodiversity in North, Central and South 

America and the Caribbean: Research and 

Monitoring, Man and the Biosphere Series, 

Vol. 22. UNESCO and the Parthenon Publishing Group, Carnforth, Lancashire, UK. p. 249-

270 (Chapter 13). 

Weaver, P.L. 2000. Elfin woodland recovery 

30 years after a plane wreck in Puerto Rico’s 

Luquillo Mountains. Caribbean Journal of Science 36(1-2):1-9.

Weaver, P.L. 2002. A chronology of hurricane 

induced changes in Puerto Rico’s lower montane rain forest. Interciencia 27(5):252-258.

Weaver, P.L.; Chinea, J.D. 2003. Secondary 

subtropical dry forest at the La Tinaja tract of 

the Cartegena Lagoon National Wildlife Refuge, Puerto Rico. Caribbean Journal of Science 39(3): 273-285. 
98

Weaver, P.L.; Coll Rivera, J.L. 2002. Vegetation research at las Cabezas de San Juan near 

Fajardo, Puerto Rico. p. 83-89. Proceedings 

of the 5th Annual Caribbean Urban Forestry 

Conference, May 22-25, 2000, St. Croix, U.S. 

Virgin Islands.

Weaver, P.L. Ramirez, J.L.; Coll Rivera, J.L. 

1999. Las Cabezas de San Juan Nature Reserve (El Faro). General Technical Report 

GTR-IITF-5. Río Piedras, PR: USDA, Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry. 58 p.

Weaver, P.L. and J. Schwagerl. 2005. Early 

recovery of Subtropical dry forest in the absence of grazing and fire. p. 68-75. In Weaver, 

P.L.; González, Kathryn A. (eds.) Proceedings 

of the 12th Meeting of Caribbean Foresters, 

Wildland fire management and restoration, 

June 7-11, 2004. San Juan, Puerto Rico: International Institute of Tropical Forestry. 

LITERATURE – GRENADA

Beard, J.S. 1944a. Forestry in the Windward 

Islands, colony of Grenada: development 

and welfare in the West Indies. Bulletin 11. 

Bridgetown, Barbados: Advocate Co., Ltd. p. 

3-44.

Beard, J.S. 1944b. A forest lover in the Caribee Islands, II. On the isle of spice. Journal 

of the New York Botanical Garden 45(534): 

121-126.

Beard, J.S. 1949. Natural vegetation of the 

Windward and Leeward Islands. Oxford Forestry Memoirs 21:1-132.

Groome, J.R. 1970. A natural history of 

the island of Grenada, W.I. Port-of-Spain, 

Trinidad:Caribbean Printers, Ltd. 115 p.

Knight, E.G. 1946. The Grenada handbook 

and directory. Bridgetown, Barbados: The Advocate Company. 392 p.

Marshall, R.C. 1932. Forestry in Grenada. 

Council Paper No. 23. St. George’s, Grenada: 

Government Printing Office. 19 p.

Marshall, R.C. 1939. Silviculture of the trees 

of Trinidad and Tobago, British West Indies. 

United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. 

247 p.

Weaver, P.L. 1997. Forestry activities in the 

Caribbean Basin with emphasis on Grenada. 

p. 134-140. In Yocum, C.; Lugo, A.E. (eds.) 

Protected Areas Management, Proceedings 

of the eight meeting of Caribbean Foresters 

at Grenada, June 3-7, 1996. Río Piedras, PR: 

Puerto Rico Conservation Foundation; U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International Institute of Tropical Forestry. 

LITERATURE -- VIRGIN ISLANDS

Anonymous. 1988. Abstracts of Virgin Islands 

Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere Reserve Research Report 2-28. St. Thomas, VI: U.S. Department of the Interion National Park Service; 

Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative; Virgin Islands National park. 36 p.

Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. and others. 1996. Flora 

of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Memoirs of 

the New York Botanical Garden 78:1-581.

Britton, N.L. 1918. The flora of the American 

Virgin Islands. Memoirs Brooklyn Botanic 

Garden. Brooklyn, NY: 19-118. 

Brown, B.; Ray, Gary J.. 1993. Restoring Caribbean dry forest: a systems framework for 

site analysis and restoration research. P. 53-61. 

In Leith, H.; Lohmann,M., eds., Restoration of 

tropical forest ecosystems. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 
99

Dallmeier, F.J.; Comisky, J.A.; Ray, G. 1993. 

User’s guide to the Virgin Islands Biosphere 

biodiversity plot 01, U.S. Virgin Islands. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution/Man and 

the Biosphere Biological Diversity Program, 

National Park Service. 210 p.

Dallmeier, F.J.; Ray, G. 1992. Smithsonian 

Institution’s permanent monitoring plot: research opportunities in a rare semi-evergreen 

dry woodland. Park Science 12(2): 5

Earhart, J.E.; Reilly, A.E.; Davis, M. 1988. Initial inventory of three permanent forest plots 

in the Virgin Islands National Park. Biosphere 

Reserve Report No. 27. St. Thomas, Virgin 

Islands: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Virgin Islands Resource 

Management Cooperative. 128 p.

Ray, G.J.; Brown, B. 1995. The structure of 

five successional stands in a Subtropical dry 

forest, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Caribbean 

Journal of Science 31(3-4):212-222.

Ray, G.J.; Dallmeier, F.; Comiskey, J.A. 1998. 

The structure of two Subtropical dry forest 

communities on the island of St. John, US Virgin Islands. In: F. Dallmeier and J.A.

Reilly, A.E. 1991. The effects of Hurricane 

Hugo in three tropical forests in the U.S. Virgin islands. Biotropica 23 (4a): 414-419.

Reilly, A.E. 1992. Impacts of natural and human disturbance on forests of St. John, U.S. 

Virgin Islands. Park Science. 12(2): 3, 4.

Reilly, A.E. 1994. Natural disturbance and 

short-term forest dynamics in three Caribbean 

forests on St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Ph.D. 

dissertation. Athens, GA: University of Georgia. 131 p.

Reilly, A.E. 1998. Hurricane Hugo: winds of 

change ... or not? Forest dynamics on St. John, 

US Virgin islands, 1986-1991. In: Dallmeier, 

F.; Comisky, J.A. eds., Forest Biodiversity in 

North, Central and South America and the Caribbean: Research and Monitoring, Man and 

the Biosphere Series, Vol. 22. Unesco and the 

Parthenon Publishing Group, Carnforth, Lancashire, UK. p. 323-332. (Chapter 18).

Reilly, A.E.; Earhart, J.E.; Prance, G.T. 1990. 

Three sub-tropical secondary forests in the 

U.S. Virgin Islands: a comparative quantitative ecological inventory. Advances in Economic Botany. 8: 189-198.

Rogers, C.S. 1992. An integrated approach to 

marine and terrestrial research in Virgin Islands National park and Biosphere Reserve. 

Park Science 12(2): 1, 27-28.

Rogers, C.S.; Reilly, A.E. 1998. Insights into 

forest dynamics from long-term monitoring on 

St. John, US Virgin Islands. In: F. Dallmeier 

and J.A. Comisky, eds., Forest Biodiversity 

in North, Central and South America and the 

Caribbean: Research and Monitoring, Man 

and the Biosphere Series, Vol. 22. Unesco and 

the Parthenon Publishing Group, Carnforth, 

Lancashire,UK. p. 323-332. (Chapter 16).

Rogers, C.S.; Teytaud, R. 1988. Marine and 

terrestrial ecosystems of the Virgin Islands 

National Park and Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere Reserve Paper No. 29. St. Thomas, VI: 

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park 

Service; Virgin Islands Resource Management 

Cooperative; Island Resources Foundation. 

112 p.

Weaver, P.L. 1990. Tree diameter growth rates 

in Cinnamon Bay Watershed, St. John, U.S. 

Virgin Islands. Caribbean Journal of Science 

26:1-6. 
100

Weaver, P.L. 1992. Forest Service research 

in Virgin Islands National Park. Park Science 

12(2):4-5.

Weaver, P.L. 1994. Effects of Hurricane Hugo 

on trees in the Cinnamon Bay watershed, St. 

John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Caribbean Journal 

of Science 30(3-4):255-261. 

Weaver, P.L. 1996. Forest productivity in 

the Cinnamon Bay watershed, St. John, U.S. 

Virgin Islands. Caribbean Journal of Science 

32(1):89-98.

Weaver, P.L. 1998. The effects of environmental gradients on hurricane impact in Cinnamon 

Bay watershed, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. 

In: F. Dallmeier and J.A. Comisky, eds., Forest Biodiversity in North, Central and South 

America and the Caribbean: Research and 

Monitoring, Man and the Biosphere Series, 

Vol. 22. Unesco and the Parthenon Publishing 

Group, Carnforth, Lancashire,UK. p. 333-348. 

(Chapter 17).

Weaver, P.L. 2006. A summary of 20 years of 

forest monitoring in Cinnamon Bay watershed, 

St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. GTR-IITF-34. 

Río Piedras, PR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International Institute of 

Tropical Forestry. 35 p.

Weaver, P.L.; Chinea-Rivera, J.D. 1987. A 

phytosociological study of Cinnamon Bay watershed, St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Caribbean Journal of Science 23(2):318-336. 

Woodbury, R.O.; Weaver, P.L. 1987. The vegetation of St. John and Hassel Island, U.S. Virgin Islands. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

National Park Service, Southeast Regional Office, Research/Resources Management Report 

SER-83. 103 p.

LITERATURE -- OTHER SITES

Birdsey, R.A.; Weaver, P.L.; Nichols, C.F. 

1986. The forest resources of St. Vincent, West 

Indies. Research Paper SO-229. New Orleans, 

LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 

25 p.

Pastor, A. 1999. Caracterización de bosques 

tropicales primarios de la Reserva Científica 

de Loma Guaconejo, La República Dominicana: composición y estructura. Alicante, España. 5 p. (research proposal).

Veillon, J.P. 1957. Primeros resultados de la 

medición del crecimiento de bosques naturales 

venezolanos. Boletín del Instituto Forestal Latino Americano (Mérida, Venezuela) 2:73-90.

Veillon, J.P. 1983. El crecimiento de algunos 

bosques naturales de Venezuela en relación 

con los parámetros del medio ambiente. Mérida, Venezuela: Universidad de los Andes, Instituto de Silvicultura. 122 p. 

Weaver, P.L.; Birdsey, R.A.; Nicholls, C. 1988. 

Los recursos forestales de San Vicente, Indias 

Occidentales. Research Paper SO-244. New 

Orleans, LA: Southern Forest Experiment Station, Institute of Tropical Forestry. 27 p.

Weaver, P.L.; Díaz Santos, F. 2002. Mombacho Volcano Natural Reserve, Nicaragua. Mesoamericana 6(1-2): 26-35.
101

SUMMARY OF WORKING GROUP PRESENTATIONS: 

Linking forest, ecotourism, and sustainable development 

Constance Carpenter

Attendees identified issues, concerns, and opportunities and sought areas of 

commonality among them. The four issues 

of common concern were:

• A need for a better understanding of climate change and possible implications 

for the islands’ forests.

• A need to identify forestry’s role in dealing with important island issues such as 

food security, human health, and water 

quality.

• Concern over the future of coastal forests in light of rapid development.

• A need to secure funding for cooperative forestry programs and projects.

A formal call to action was then 

developed linking forestry, ecotourism, 

and sustainable development. Discussion 

yielded several management approaches to 

help meet the challenges facing Caribbean 

islands. The enclosed notes do not necessarily reflect consensus although there was 

considerable overlap among issues. The results were organized into five categories. 

Conservation education and stakeholder 

involvement in decision-making

• Make conservation education a strong 

component of the forestry program, 

including conservation education in 

schools and tourist information on a 

host of topics using different approaches 

(e.g., education stations, posters). 

• Educate local people on the consequences of proposed changes (e.g. the tradeoffs between fisheries and marina development in areas such as Cabrits).

• Help local people to benefit from learning about local resources and tap into 

their sense of belonging to conservation 

efforts. Encourage residents to go to the 

field using site visitation as a management tool. 

• Involve local people in conservation initiatives.

• Survey tourists for their knowledge 

about natural resources and their impacts on them. Look for opportunities 

to make them aware of their impacts and 

how they can contribute to conservation 

of the areas that they visit.

• Link conservation in forests with coastal 

conservation to educate people already 

concerned about coastal resources

• Cooperate with other managers and 

stakeholders in the process of strategic 

development plans. 

• Visit other associations dealing with related to topics in order to share perspectives. 

Technology transfer and professional 

training needs

• Use the internet to increase the ability of 

Caribbean foresters to exchange and ex-
102

 information and expertise by developing 

web pages, social networking sites like 

yahoo groups, and maintaining of e-mail 

lists current.

• Develop exchange programs among Caribbean forestry experts to share research 

and monitoring techniques suitable to 

the islands (e.g., management of mountain chickens, or mangrove forests).

• Identify and share available expertise 

to ensure adequate review of complex 

Environmental Impact Assessments prepared by developers. 

• Fill the emerging need to recruit and 

train new foresters in the Caribbean. 

• Seek training relevant to the islands regarding the effects of development, the 

importance of watersheds and biodiversity, and island perspectives on climate 

change. 

• Reinstate the training program at the International Institute of Tropical Forestry, 

including basic field and research techniques for young professionals, and forest management with respect to climate 

change and biodiversity. 

• Develop project management techniques 

to keep stakeholders involved, and include successful volunteer recruitment 

and publication of documents. 

Management

• Use updated approaches in agriculture 

and agro-forestry.

• Work on a watershed basis to achieve 

conservation, linking with surrounding 

waters and reefs.

• Direct technical reforestation assistance 

to private abandoned agricultural land.

• Implement agro-forestry to address food 

security issues. 

• Reduce imports by using local foods to 

capitalize on economic opportunities.

• Develop a strategy to identify conservation areas where mining is prohibited. 

• Increase integration among Caribbean 

Foresters during emergencies to increase 

accurate and relevant information. 

Information needs

• Monitor and evaluate critical resource 

areas in light of on-going development 

and tourism.

• Determine the impacts of ridge to reef 

management.

• Determine the economic values of forest 

resources.

• Update technical information on forest 

practices.

• Integrate social scientists into resource 

management issues.

• Determine forest practices that take into 

account global warming and climate 

change. 

Policy and funding

• Interchange resource laws, acts, and regulations for mutual benefit.

• Revisit and revise legislation to incorporate into future plans (i.e., protection of 

sensitive areas).

• Establish private land regulations that 

allow foresters to comment on proposed 

land uses and provide authority to stop 

illegal activities.
103

• Develop community strategies to accommodate the shift from industry to 

tourism.

• Help other institutions involved in forestry with strategic planning.

• Deal with intellectual property issues to 

facilitate the availability and use of research carried out elsewhere. 

• Help focus decision–makers on the forestry sector, which is a basis for tourism.

• Keep ministers and policy–makers informed and involved in conservation 

matters, including tourism planning, and 

sustainable management of forests and 

marine resources. Develop a “Caribbean Certification” of green development 

(e.g., Green Globe).

• Seek support for forestry programs from 

other sectors of the economy (i.e., water 

commissions, agro-industries) that benefit from forest management.

• Help protect the investments of agroforestry practitioners.

• Indentify funding sources to purchase 

land for protection

• Establish a mechanism to distribute revenue from national parks among stakeholders. 

• Collect user fees from communication 

facilities on public lands. 

• Act regionally to establish a common 

rate to invest tourism money into conservation efforts. 

• Provide feed-back to tourism official not 

in attendance. 
104

LINKING FORESTRY, ECOTOURISM AND 

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: 

A CALL TO ACTION 

Caribbean Foresters from 17 countries 

meeting the week of April 28 to May 2, 

2008 in Dominica observed and resolved 

the following:

Dramatic changes in land cover and level 

of socioeconomic activities typify the Caribbean. Economic conditions in the region 

have improved while conserving vital natural resources such as forests. Today, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization, the area of forests and lands dedicated 

to conservation in the Caribbean are at their 

highest levels since 1990. 

The Caribbean is a “hot spot” of the world’s 

biodiversity and it also harbors a rich cultural and historical heritage dating back 

millennia. The conservation of the historic 

and cultural heritage as well as forests, coral reefs, mangroves, freshwater wetlands, 

rivers, estuaries, coastal dry forests, flora, 

fauna, the night sky, and other vital natural 

resources in the Caribbean is a responsibility of the people of the Caribbean. 

The economic importance of forests and 

other natural resources of the Caribbean become demonstrably significant to economic 

development as the economic strategy of 

the region focuses on ecotourism. 

Sustainable tourism1 depends on a sustainable environment and both make possible 

sustainable development. Paradoxically, as 

the protection of forest resources in the Caribbean reaches historic high levels, the region faces a wave of environmental change 

in the form of climate change and historic 

high levels of tourist visitations, which 

could threaten these forests and jeopardize 

the tourism industry and the economy of 

countries in the Caribbean. 

If not careful, the tourist industry could undercut the natural wealth that attracts tourists to the region in the first place. It would 

be like killing the goose that lays the golden 

eggs. 

The forests and natural resources of the 

Caribbean are vital to assuring water supplies to increasing populations, improving 

quality of life, providing buffers to natural 

disturbances such as hurricanes, landslides, 

droughts, sea level rise, and climate change, 

and supporting the tourism industry and the 

economy. 

We recommend that: 

• Hotel developers and cruise ship companies to assert their environmental responsibility by working collaboratively 

to avoid irreversible losses of forests and 

natural resources and negative environmental impacts of their projects and operations. 

• Government to obey existing laws, sensitize population on environmental issues, 

and promote public disclosure and discussion of development projects in sensitive locations such as the coastal zone, 
105

steep slopes, river margins, mangroves, 

freshwater wetlands, public lands, coral 

reefs, and watersheds. 

• The public to be vigilant of the use of 

natural resources, and consider the longterm consequences of development 

projects and increased crew ship arrivals 

with short-term benefits. 

• Tour operators, hotel operators, and 

communities to help educate the public 

on the sound stewardship of forests and 

the natural resource base of the Caribbean. 

• The establishment of a tourism alliance 

among governments of the Caribbean. 

The alliance would develop regional 

environmental standards and operating 

procedures to assure the viability of the 

Caribbean as a sustainable destination 

for tourism. 

We also recommend that: 

• More of the revenue generated by tourism in the Caribbean is feedback to the 

acquisition, management, and protection 

of forests and the natural resource base 

that supports the tourism activity and the 

economy. 

• Environmental monitoring programs are 

implemented to assure a healthy forest 

environment and a high quality experience to the tourist and the people of the 

Caribbean. 

• Active management is used to sustain 

healthy forests for tourists and avoid 

degradation of natural resources. 

• The nightlights are aimed towards the 

ground to maintain the night sky of the 

Caribbean and minimize artificial light 

effects on sea and terrestrial organisms. 

• The cruise ship industry voluntarily creates a “head tax” and creates an environmental fund, which supports conservation efforts throughout the region. 

• Hotels obtain global green certification 

to demonstrate their commitment to a 

healthy environment. 

• Food security is not compromised by development projects. 

• New legislation is developed to deal effectively with climate change and changing environmental and socioeconomic 

conditions in the Caribbean. 

• Crew ships will not dump wastes at sea. 

• A standard tax for tourists arriving in the 

Caribbean and an independent organization to manage this money on behalf of 

the natural resources of the region. 

1

By sustainable tourism, sustainable development, and sustainable environment we 

mean that tourism, development and environment are activities and conditions that 

occur for the benefit of today’s generations 

without affecting the well being of future 

generations. 
106

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS AND CONTRIBUTORS (with asterisk)

14th Caribbean Foresters’ Meeting

Linking Conservation, Tourism and Sustainable Development in the Caribbean

Jacqueline André *

Assistant Forest Officer

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and the 

Environment

Forestry, Wildlife & National Parks Division

Botanical Gardens

Roseau 

Dominica

Tel. (767) 448-2401 x 3429

E-mail asstforestofficer@cwdom.dm

Gerald Bauer *

International Cooperation

USDA Forest Service

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

1201 Calle Ceiba

Jardin Botanico Sur

San Juan PR 00926-1119

Tel. (787) 766-5335

Fax (787) 766-6302

E-mail jerrybauer1@mac.com

Kathleen Belcon

Assistant Conservator of Forest

Forestry Division

Ministry of Agriculture & 

Marine Resources

Long Circular Road

St. James 

Trinidad & Tobago

Tel. (868) 622-5214

Fax (868) 628-5503

E-mail fullcircle2kathy@yahoo.com

forestry@tstt.net.tt

Claudia Bellot

Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture,

Fisheries and Forestry

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry

2nd Floor, Government Headquarters, 

Kennedy Avenue, Roseau

Tel. (767) 266-3271

Fax: (767) 448-7999

E-mail minagriculture@cwdom.dm

Michael Bobb *

Deputy Chief Forestry Officer

Department of Forestry

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry &

Fisheries

Sir Stanislaus Building

Waterfront

Castries 

St. Lucia

Tel. (758) 468-5636 (758) 468-5635

Fax (758) 450-2287

E-mail michaelbobb_2000@yahoo.com

deptforest@slumaffe.org

Noel Brown *

Former Director UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

789 Oenoke Ridge

New Canaan CT 06840

USA

Tel. (203) 966-7842

Fax (203) 966-2305

E-mail noelbrown@aol.com
107

Ronel Browne *

Forward Physical Planner

Department of Physical Planning & Environment

Bladen Commercial Development

Wellington Road

Basseterre 

St. Kitts and Nevis

Tel. (869) 465-2277

Fax (869) 465-5842

E-mail kyser56@hotmail.com

Minchinton Burton *

Director of Forestry

Forestry Wildlife & Parks Division

Botanical Garden

Roseau 

Dominica

Tel. (767) 448 2471 x 3817

Fax (767) 448-7999

E-mail forestry@cwdom.dm

Miguel Canals *

Management Officer III

Department of Natural Resources & The 

Environment

PO Box 1185

Guanica PR 00653-1185

Tel. (787) 821-5706

Fax (787) 821-5707

E-mail menqui@hotmail.com

Connie Carpenter *

International Cooperation

USDA Forest Service

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

1201 Calle Ceiba

Jardin Botanico Sur

San Juan PR 00926-1119

Tel. (787) 766-5335

Fax (787) 766-6302

E-mail ccarpenter@fs.fed.us

Helen Cortes *

USDA Forest Service

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

1201 Calle Ceiba

Jardin Botanico Sur

San Juan PR 00926-1119

Tel. (787) 766-5335

Fax (787) 766-6302

E-mail hcortes@fs.fed.us

Hugh Cresser *

Deputy Chief of Party

USAID/Rural Enterprise, Agriculture & Community Tourism (REACT) Project

28Pawsey Place

Kingston 5 

Jamaica

Tel. (876) 924-9314

Fax (876) 929-4476

E-mail Hugh.Cresser@PAConsulting.com

Michael Donald

Regional Environmental Advisor

USAID - US Embassy

Leopoldo Navarro No. 12

Santo Domingo 

Dominican Republic

Tel. (809) 754-8589

Fax (809) 221-0444

E-mail mdonald@usaid.gov

Marie Jose Edwards *

Roseau 

Dominica

Tel. (767) 448-2401

Albert (Panman) Bellot

Roseau 

Dominica
108

Ainsworth Daniel Grant *

Acting Regional Manager

Jamaica Forestry Department

113 Lydford Housing Scheeme,

Moneague PO

St. Ann 

Jamaica

Tel. (876) 376-9387

Fax (876) 973-0494

E-mail grantworth_2000@yahoo.com.uk

Glen Roy Ivey

Forester II

Forestry Department

Ministry of Agriculture

173 Constant Spring Road

Kingston 8 

Jamaica

Tel. (876) 924-2667 (876) 377-3470

Fax (876) 924-2626

E-mail grivey197881@yahoo.com

Arlington James *

Forestry, Wildlife & National Parks Division

Botanical Gardens

Roseau 

Dominica

Tel. (767) 448-2401

Cyrille John *

Assistant Forest Officer (Ag,)/National Parks

Forestry, Wildlife & National Parks Division

Botanical Gardens

Roseau 

Dominica

Tel. (767) 448-2401 x 3430

Fax (767) 448-7999

E-mail asstforestofficer2@cwdom.dom

Nigel Jones

Senior Technical Officer

National Botanical Garden

Codrington

St.Michael 

Barbados

Tel. (246) 425-1111

Fax (246) 425-1826

E-mail environ7@hotmail.com

Samuel Lardeux *

Project Manager

Office National des Forêts

Direction Régionale ONF Guadeloupe

Jardin Botanique B.P. 648

Basse-Terre, Cedex 97109 

Guadeloupe

Tel. (590) 99-2900

Fax (590) 31-4877

E-mail samuel.lardeux@onf.fr

Andrew Lockhart *

Forestry Officer III

Forestry Department

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry & Fisheries

Campden Park

Kingstown 

St. Vincent and the Grenadines

Tel. (758) 457-8594 (758) 457-8502

Fax (784) 457-8502

E-mail andy_lockhart65@hotmail.com

 andylockhart65@yahoo.com

Ariel E. Lugo *

Director

USDA Forest Service

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

1201 Calle Ceiba

Jardin Botanico Sur

San Juan PR 00926-1119

Tel. (787) 766-5335

Fax (787) 766-6263

E-mail alugo@fs.fed.us
109

Lloyd Martin *

Environment Technician

Ministry of Agriculture, Land, Housing & 

Environment

PO Box 272

Brades 

Montserrat

Tel. (664) 491-2075 (664) 491-9278

Fax (664) 491-9276

E-mail martinl@gov.ms

Jennifer Maynard

Chief Agricultural Officer

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Lands and 

Surveys

PO Box 1282

St. John’s 

Antigua and Barbuda

Tel. (268)764-9818

Fax (268) 462-6104

E-mail maynard4@candw.ab

Jean Obstancias 

06 94 22 92 24 8

impasse des cerisiers

63200 Ménétrol, France

E-mail Jean.obstancias@orange.fr 

Louis E. Petersen

Commissioner 

Virgin Islands Department of Agriculture 

#1 Estate Lower Love 

Kingshill, VI 00850 

Tel: 340-778-0997 

Fax: 340-778-7977 

email: louis.petersen@doa.vi.gov

Bryan Pinas *

Assistant Coordinator

Nature Conservation Division of State Forestry Service

Cornelis Jongbawstraat 10-14

Paramaribo 

Suriname

Tel. (597) 47-9431

Fax (597) 42-2555

E-mail lbbnb@yahoo.com

lbpinas@natuurbeheer.sr.org

Manuel Rivera

Director de la Division de Manejo de Bosques

Department of Natural Resources and the 

Environment

PO Box 366147,San Juan PR 00936-6147

Tel. (787) 772-2016

Fax (787) 772-2042

E-mail manrivera@drna.gobierno.pr

Ramón Rodríguez

Chief Planning Officer

Dirección de Reforestacion

Secretaría de Estado de Medio Ambiente y 

Recursos Naturales

Subsecretaría de Recursos Forestales

Ave. Heroes de Luperón

Esq. George Washington

Centro de los Heroes, La Feria

Santo Domingo 

Dominican Republic

Tel. (809) 227-7332

Fax (809) 227-7426

E-mail ramon273@hotmail.com

recursosforestales_repdom@yahoo.com

Esther M Rojas

Executive Director

Puerto Rico Conservation Foundation

PO Box 362495

San Juan PR 00936-2495

Tel. (787 760-2115

Fax (787) 760-2070

E-mail fundacionpr@aol.com

erojas52@gmail.com
110

Jadgesh Singh*

Deputy Commisioner

Guyana Forestry Commission

Lot 1 Water Street PO Box 1029

Kingston 

Guyana

Tel. (592) 225-3898 (592) 226-7271/4

Fax (592) 226-8956

E-mail commissioner@forestry.gov.gy

William A. Trim

Forester

Department of Natural Resources and the 

Environment

PO Box 5566

Scarborough 

Tobago

Tel. (868) 735-4351 (868) 860-5529

Fax (868) 639-5232

E-mail trim20031@yahoo.co.uk

Peter L. Weaver

International Cooperation

USDA Forest Service

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

1201 Calle Ceiba

Jardin Botanico Sur

San Juan PR 00926-1119

Tel. (787) 766-5335

Fax (787) 766-6302

E-mail pweaver@fs.fed.us

Mark Willuhn

Executive Director

Mesoamerican Ecotourism Alliance (MEA)

4076 Crystal Court

Boulder CO 80304

USA

Tel. (303) 440-3362 (800) 682-0584

Fax (303) 447-0815

E-mail mark@travelwithmea.org

Michelle Wilson

Forestry Officer

Soil Conservatio Unit

Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development

Haggatts

St. Andrew 

Barbados

Tel. (246) 422-9030

Fax (246) 422-9833

E-mail michellegy22@gmail.com

caomar@caribsurf.com

Jem Winston

Eco-Lodge

Roseau 

Dominica