91

Development of Oil Palm Plantation

Based on Greenhouse Gases: 

Critical Perspectives

Writers:

Norman Jiwan

Nurhannudin Ahmad

Jefri G. Saragih

Editor:

Prof Bambang Hero Saharjo, MAgr

Lay Out & Graphic

Y. Hadiyana

Published by:

Sawit Watch

Jl. Sempur Kaler No. 28

Kota Bogor – 16129

Phone: 0251 – 8352171, 

e-mail : info@sawitwatch.or.id

October 2009

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

Foreword

The strong will to save the Earth from global warming and climate change that have negative

impacts on human beings, is a wise and noble thing to do, thus should be supported through the

implementation of real field activities. The efforts to save environment require agreements from

many parties, especially world’s leaders to really carry out their commitments without any

doubts since this is associated with people’s lives. 

The publication of this book entitled “Development of Oil Palm Plantation Based on Greenhouse

Gas: Critical Perspectives” is a simple effort to raise the problems of global warming and climate

change due to oil palm expansion. This book talks about the background and impacts of

increased greenhouse gases in Indonesia that have contributed to global warming due to oil palm

expansion on peatlands that caused the carbon storage of peatland to break open. This book also

discusses the impacts of oil palm sludge industry in increasing global warming. This is further

worsened by the controversies of Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) Regulation No. 14 of 2009 that

allows peatlands to be converted into oil palm plantations. 

This book is expected to provide new insights and better understanding on the efforts to save the

environment with regard to oil palm plantations establishment on peatlands. 

Bogor, August 2009 

Sawit Watch

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CONTENT

 Page 

Foreword....................................................... 1

Content............................................................... 2

Terminology and Abbreviation.......................................... 5

I. INTRODUCTION 

A. Background of Plantation Development in Indonesia 9

B. Social and Environmental Impacts of Oil Palm Expansion 15

II. DEVELOPMENT OF OIL PALM PLANTATION BASED ON GREENHOUSE 

GASES 

A. Global Warming Impacts of Increased Greenhouse Gases 17

B. Types of Greenhouse Gases......................................................... 

1. Water vapour............................................................ 19

2. Carbon dioxide................................................ 20

3. Methane......................................................... 21

4. Nitrogen oxide................................................ 21

5. Other gases...................................................... 21

C. Global Warming Impacts................................... 23

1. Weather and climate............................................................ 25

2. Drought............................................................................. 25

3. Rising sea water level.............................................. 26

4. Agriculture............................................................................... 26

5. Pests and diseases spread............................................... 26

6. Biodiversity decline............................................................ 27 

7. Hazards............................................................................... 28

D. Global Warming Impacts on Human Rights 28

1. Relationships between climate change, environmental hazards and 

human rights .................................................................. 30

2. Impacts on certain rights ........................................ 30

3. Various effects on specific groups ................... 35

III. IMPLICATION OF GLOBAL WARMING ON INDONESIA 

A. Increased Air temperature .................................................. 41

B. Flood, Drought and Decreasing Agricultural Products ......... 41

C. Rising Sea Water Level and Threats on Small Islands ............ 41

D. Biodiversity ................................................... 43

1. Flora............................................................................ 43

2. Fauna.................................................................................. 44

E. Diseases............................................................................. 46

IV. REASONS FOR GLOBAL WARMING IN INDONESIA 

A. Forest and Land Fires .................................. 47

1. Forest fires in 1982/1983.................................................. 48

2. Forest fires in 1987............................................................. 48

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3. Forest fires in 1991............................................................. 48

4. Forest fires in 1994............................................................. 49

5. Forest fires in 1997/1998................................................... 49

6. recent fires ............................................. 49

7. Greenhouse gas emission from forest and land fires........................ 49

8. Distribution of smoke .....................................................................54

9. Background on causes of Fires............... 55

B.Forest Cutting............................................... 57

1. Forest.............................................................................. 57

2. Deforestation........................................................................ 58

C.Animal Husbandry......................................................... 59

V. CARBON STORAGE IN PEATLANDS 60

A. Peatland ............................................................................ 61

1. Forest and Peat Conversions ............................................. 62

2. Commercial Use of Peat ......................... 63

3. Fires in Peatland ............................................ 63

4. Carbon storage in peatlands .............................. 66

B. Biomass and Carbon Storage ..................................... 68

1. Above ground biomass on peatland ....................... 68

2. Carbon storage ..................................................................... 69

VI. GREENHOUSE GAS PRODUCTION FROM OIL PALM DEVELOPMENT AND 

OIL PALM PROCESSING MILLS 

A. Development of Oil Palm Plantation............................ 74 

1. Oil palm biomass .......................... 78 

2. Carbon storage in oil palm ............ 80

B. Greenhouse Gases from Development of Oil Palm Plantation and Oil palm Mill 

1. Emission produced during the development of oil palm and processing 

of Fresh Fruit Bunch (FFB) .... 82 

2. Emission produced from change in carbon storage during new plants 

development and within the plants..... 84

VII. CONTROVERISES OF MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE REGULATION 

NO.14 OF 2009

A. Minister of Agriculture Regulation No.14/PL.110/2/2009 

1. Considerations ................................................ 91

2. Aim and objective....................................... 91

3. Peatland criteria .............................. 91

4. Level of peat ripeness.................. 92

5. Soil fertility ........................ 92

6. Land clearing....................................... 92

7. Drainage regulation................................. 93

8. Maintenance and conservation............... 94

B. Controversies of Minister of Agriculture Regulation........................ 95

REFERENCES .......................... 100

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ATTACHMENT ......................................... 105

TERMINOLOGIES AND ABBREVIATIONS:

1. Fire is the rapid release of heat energy stored in plants through photosynthesis process.

2. Smoke is the collection of solid and soft particulates emitted from incomplete burning of

carbon and other flammable materials.

3. Fuel is living or dead vegetation found above or below ground that have the potentials to

cause fire.

4. Ground fuel is fuel that lies below the ground, such as peat.

5. Living fuel is fuel found within forest originated from living plants.

6. Dead fuel is fuel found within forest originated from dead plants (part of plants).

7. Above ground fuel is fuel found on forest floor (surface).

8. Crown fuel is fuel found between crowns of ground cover and trees.

9. Available fuel is parts of the whole fuel that can burn under certain condition.

10. Forest and land fires prone areas are areas identified as having high forest and land fire

incidents. 

11. Forest and land fires early detection are activities for early detection of forest and land fires

so that prevention measures can be accurately taken and can be conducted immediately

before further spread of fire.

12. Organized detection is detection that is carried out with organization and specificity.

13. Forest is an ecosystem unit comprising of natural resources that are dominated by trees and

interrelated environmental elements.

14. Natural forest is forest comprising of naturally grown trees.

15. Conservation forest is forest that is design for the protection of wildlife and their habitats,

often found within national parks and other conservation areas.

16. Conversion forest is forest that is design (with Izin Pemanfaatan Kayu (IPK) Timber

Utilisation permits) for land clearance and permanent conversion to other forest land use,

especially for wood industries or plantation.

17. Protection forest is forest with main role to regulate environmental functions, especially for

the maintenance of vegetation cover and soil stability on steep slopes and to protect stream

flow areas.

18. Plantation forest is forest that is established to increase the potentials and quality of

production forest with the application of intensive silviculture.

19. Forest area refers to particular area determined or designated by the government as

permanent forest.

20. Natural fire is fire caused by natural causes such as thunder.

21. Ground fire is a fire incident that consumes organic matters found below the soil.

22. Forest fire is a condition where fire occurs on forest and damage the forest or forest

products causing economic loss as well as loss of science development and or values of

living environment. 

23. Land fire is a condition where fire occurs on land causing economic loss a s well as loss of

science development and or values of living environment.

24. Alertness is an effort to anticipate forest and land fires through the organization of

appropriate and beneficial steps.

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25. Land is an area outside forest, whether vegetated (Imperata cylindrica, shrubs, cultivated

crops, trees etc) or non-vegetated that is intended for the development of agriculture,

plantation, forestry, mining etc.

26. Mitigation refers to activities that stops or reduce negative known effects of forest and land

fires on human beings and environment.

27. Combustion is a burning process where there is a dependent and controlled spread of flame.

28. Land clearing without the use of fire is a land preparation activity that is carried out without

the use of fire.

29. Imaging is the process of transforming data into information. 

30. Fire control is an activity comprising of preventing, extinguishing and post fire management

31. Land preparation is a land clearing activity that is conducted prior to planting activities

32. Land/vegetation coverage is the surface condition of Earth that illustrates the coverage of

land/vegetation.

33. Early warning is information on the occurrence of forest fire in a particular time and area.

34. Plantation is a form of agriculture that is carried out intensively by developing plants with

multiple harvests.

35. Shifting cultivation is a non-permanent form of agricultural activity by following rotations

for certain periods from one rotation to another.

36. Forest mapping is the process of preparing a map consited of forestry data collection,

processing and presentation.

37. Remote sensing is an acquisition of information of an object, area or phenomenon through

data analysis by the use of a variety of devices without direct contact with the studied

object, area or phenomenon. 

38. Map is a visual representation of Earth’s surface on a flat plain, drawn with certain

projections and scale depicting natural and man-made elements and other required

information.

39. Radiation describes any process in which energy emitted by one body travels through

electromagnetic wave to be absorbed by another body without any contact.

40. Fire spot is a warning/information of a fire incident on particular coordinates and latitudes.

41. Hot spot is a warning/information of an increase temperature based on satellite information.

42. Global warming is the increase n the average temperature of Earth’s atmosphere, sea and

surface caused by heat accumulation in the atmosphere due to greenhouse gases.

43. Not all solar radiation in the form of long wave that is reflected back to the Earth can passes

through the atmosphere where some will be absorbed by gases within the atmosphere

known as the Greenhouses Gases.

44. Greenhouse effect illustrates the similar process happening in the actual green house.

45. Increase of Earth’s average temperature will in time cause a change of climatic elements,

such as change in rainfall pattern and air pressure, increased evaporation in air or change of

sea water temperature etc. As a whole, these are known as climate change. 

46. United Nation Frame Work Convention on Climate (UNFCC) defines climate change as a

change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the

composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate variability

observed over comparable time periods (IPCC, 2007).

47. Water vapour is the main greenhouse gas that occurs naturally such as water evaporation

from sea, lake and river and is responsible for most of the greenhouse effect. 

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48. Carbon dioxide is the release of gases to the atmosphere during the combustion of fossil

fuels, solid wastes, and wood to heat buildings, generate vehicles and produce electricity.

49. Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon in the form of gas. The concentration of methane in

the atmosphere is 1.7 ppm, where it is almost 2.5 times higher that its concentration 300

years ago. Methane in the atmosphere is assumed to have a life span of 10 years. Methane

is the principal component of natural gas and is an effective insulator that can trap about 20

times the heat of carbon dioxide.

50. Nitrous oxide is mainly produced during fossil fuels combustion and from agricultural land.

The life span of NO2 in the atmosphere is 150 years. 

51. Carbon calculation is the process of estimating the amount of carbon found on different

parts of a system. Each tree has different ability in absorbing carbon due to the particular

ability to absorb sunlight, different water content and soil fertility which all affect the rate

of photosynthesis. 

52. Photosynthesis is defined as the conversion of CO2 and H2O into sugar using chlorophyll

and the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis is the assimilation of carbonic compounds

where organic compounds such as CO2 and H2O are converted into C6H12O6 molecule using

the energy from sunlight and chlorophyll. 

53. Peatland is an area formed from an accumulation of partially decayed dead ancient plant

materials, comprising of a minimum of 12-18 % C-organic with minimum depth of 50 cm.

Peat has double meaning, as an organic material (peat) and organic soil (peat soil). Peat and

peat soil have different functions. Peat as organic material is source of energy, medium for

plant growth or organic fertilizer, while peat as organic soil is used for agricultural purposes

and can be manage within agricultural system. 

54. Peat has irreversible drying property, meaning upon drying, the peat will not returned to its

original state (similar when the peat is burned, it will not go back to its original form due to

the damaged peat). 

55. Topogenous peat is often found in swamp areas where there is an accumulation of shallow

organic materials (< 50 cm). The area is inundated by river water during rainy season when

they receive nutrients to maintain forest biomass sustainability. 

56. Ombrogenous peat is the true peat swamp (organic materials > 50 cm), where water and

nutrients supplies are obtained only from the air such as from aerosol, debris and rainwater;

it is situated far from river bodies and cover flow areas between water catchments.

57. Smoldering combustion is a type of combustion associated with a condition of limited

oxygen (wind). 

58. Biomass is the weight of organic matters of an organism per unit area on a particular time.

Organic matter weight is generally stated in dry weight unit or sometimes in ash free dry

weight. Therefore the unit for biomass is gr/m2 or kg/ha or tonnes/ha

59. Biomass can be categorized as above ground and below ground biomass.

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I. INTRODUCTION

Figure 1. Oil palm seedlings in Cikidang (dok. Nanang S)

A. Background of Plantation Development in Indonesia

Cangkul, cangkul, cangkul yang dalam, menanam jagung di kebun kita, ..... (Hoeing, hoeing,

deep hoeing, planting corn on our field...)

When we were toddlers, we sang that song with happiness and hard claps. Do our plantations

today still reflect the situation in that song? Perhaps some would say otherwise. 

 

Kartodirdjo & Suryo (1991) remarks that “the history of plantation development in developing

countries such as Indonesia cannot be separated from the history of colonialism, capitalism and

modernization. In developing countries, plantations are generally the extension of western

agricultural capitalism that was introduced through colonial economic system. During its early

development, plantation arise as a novelty in economic system, that is as commercial agricultural

economic with colonial character. Such system was basically European style of plantation

system which is different than the garden system that has been used in developing countries

during pre-colonial times”. 

The term “garden system” overlaps with several existing terms in Indonesia such as community

plantation, agroforestry, and people-managed areas, etc. Even there exists a kind of customary

management by indigenous or traditional people. Some of the local terms having similar

meaning with garden system are repong damar, simpunk, tembawang, etc. Various terminologies

also refer to the actors involve in garden system, including independent gardener, traditional

community, indigenous community etc.

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Garden system refers to plantation at household scale as an additional effort in agriculture

especially related to cash crops. This is often found in small scale, does not required much

investments, narrow use of land, labours come from household members, not market oriented

and focus more to serve subsistence needs. This is differ from plantation system or currently

known as large scale plantation system which is part of a commercial agricultural economic and

capitalistic. This system is large scale, monoculture, require big investments, extensive use of

land, intensive labours, detailed job descriptions, use of wage labourers, complex work

relationship structure and market oriented (export commodities). 

Table 1. Differences between Large Scale Plantation Company and Garden System

Item Plantation System Garden System

Actors

Investor only invest and

does not become involve

with direct planting

Involve with direct planting

Land Area Large scale, often > 25

Ha Most are less than 10 Ha

Orientation Market and profit Household needs

Capital Financial (rich in

investment) Labour (rich in labour)

Developed Plants Plants that are in market

demand

Recognized plants and can

fulfil household

requirements

Source : Surambo, A. 2007. Sistem Kelola Rakyat Vs Sistem Kebun Besar. Bogor. Sawit Watch 

As discusses already, there are two type of plantation model, i.e., large scale and garden system.

Both models were illustrated as black and white (opposites). Currently, both models are a

continuum where at one extreme is the garden system and on the other extreme is the large

plantation system. Therefore, apart from the two extreme models of plantation, there is a mix of

both known as petty cultivation referring to plants that are planted for subsistence and trade

purposes. This suggests that agricultural products are not only for subsistence purposes but could

also be traded in markets. 

Varieties of Local Agricultural System

Indonesia has many local agricultural systems that have adapted to the natural condition. If there

is a change in nature, then the existing agricultural system will also change, meaning a new

adapted agricultural system. These systems show the diversity of plants, land tenure, economical,

cultural, technological and environmental motives that influence agriculture. 

There are four agricultural systems known to exist, (Kartodirdjo & Suryo, 1991): 

- Shifting cultivation system – a type of agricultural system which is done nomadically,

by planting many short lived crops especially food crops. This agricultural system is

marked by the ecological imitation nature of temporary agriculture, plant diversity and

associated with low human population density.

- Wet rice cultivation system – a type of agricultural activity using wet rice as the main

crop. Wet rice system is marked by one principal crop that is paddy rice. The system is

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also marked by complex agricultural irrigation, higher density compare to other systems

and a model of centred power.

- Garden system – is a type of agricultural system that manages perennial plants or crops

planted on permanent land. Usually the planted crop is hard woods. Some experts suggest

that this system has been established in Indonesia since centuries ago, to be exact on

1200 BC. This garden system comprises of mix plants and garden dominated by specific

species. Mix plant garden is often planted with hard woods and medicinal plants while

garden dominated by specific plants often comprise of nutmeg-fuli, pepper, clove or

coffee, rubber, etc. In several places, the gardens are developed on dry fields and often

planted with pepper, coffee or rubber. After planting is done, plants are left alone until

fruiting season. This system is found outside Java, such as in Sumatra, Kalimantan and

Sulawesi. For sure, this type of plantation system does not produce high yields like an

intensive care garden.

- Dry field system – is a type of permanent food crop planting on dry field. One of the

main crops is the dry field rice and mix crops (palawija).

Large Oil Palm Plantations

As discussed above, plantation can be divided into three types, i.e: commercial plantation that

serves the market, subsistent plantation and petty cultivation. Oil palm is included as commercial

plantation that serves the markets or large plantation. Initial identification of large plantations

development suggests that plantation was initiated during the Dutch colonials when they

introduced coffee to West Java (Bumi Priangan). This happened prior to liberal period (before

1870), of which during this period, there was a kind of “pilot project” of how to establish large

plantation system to serve European markets. 

It is still debatable where oil palm originated. Some believe it is originated from West Africa,

while others believe from South America. Some experts believe that Africa and America used to

be one, thus oil palm is found in these two places. 

Oil palm entered Indonesia in 1848, where there were only four trees that were cultivated in

Bogor Botanical Garden of which two were from Hortus Botanicus Amsterdam and the other

two from Mauritus, hence oil palm in Indonesia probably originated from Africa although

through different access. In order to develop the oil palm, it was cultivated in Banyumas (Java)

and Palembang, and in 1875, oil palm plantation was established in Deli area (North Sumatra).

Large scale oil palm plantation was established by Adrian Hallet in 1911 in Sungai Liput

(Eastern Coast of Aceh) and Pulo Raja (Asahan). On the same year, K.L.T. Schadt also planted

oil palm in Sungai Itam Ulu (Deli). By 1914, therefore the area of oil palm plantation totalled to

3,250 Ha. 

Recently, Indonesia has a total area of 7.8 million Ha (see Table 2), which makes Indonesia as

the largest oil palm producers in the world. The extent of the plantation itself was possible by

converting forests and community forests into oil palm plantations. These were triggered by two

things, firstly, the Indonesian government’s policy to become the world’s largest palm oil

producer country in order to obtain various facilities such as licenses, low wage labours, etc.

Secondly, high demand for biofuel especially those of palm oil. 

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Table 2. Extent and Expansion Plan of Oil Palm Plantation in Indonesia

PROVINCE 2008

EXISTING (ha) EXPANSION (ha)

BANGKA BELITUNG 138,367 -

BANTEN 17,375 -

BENGKULU 200,000 500,000

DAERAH ISTIMEWA YOGYAKARTA - -

DKI JAKARTA - -

GORONTALO - -

WEST PAPUA - -

JAMBI 694,310 1,000,000

JAWA BARAT 11,881 20,000

WEST KALIMANTAN 434,459 5,054,600

SOUTH KALIMANTAN 391,671 500,000

CENTRAL KALIMANTAN 737,556 1,934,200

EAST KALIMANTAN 338,205 1,404,000

KEPULAUAN RIAU 14,936 -

LAMPUNG 164,786 500,000

M A L U K U 61,590 -

NORTH MALUKU - -

NANGGROE ACEH DARUSSALAM 283,283 930,000

WEST NUSA TENGGARA BARAT - -

EAST NUSA TENGGARA TIMUR - -

P A P U A 97,000 5,000,000

RIAU 1,800,000 3,024,600

SOUTHSULAWESI 72,133 500,000

CENTRALSULAWESI 81,307 500,000

SOUTHEAST SULAWESI 3,602 900,000

NORTHSULAWESI - -

WEST SULAWESI 310,281

WEST SUMATERA 310,281 500,000

SOUTH SUMATERA 618,000 1,000,000

NORTH SUMATERA 1,044,230 1,159,800

TOTAL 7,825,253 24,427,200

Source: Various sources, Sawit Watch (2009)

Table 3. Oil palm development during Indonesian Government

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Phase Conditions Influencing

actors

Soekarno This phase is marked by the Indonesian independence from Dutch

and Japan. Social revolution was happening everywhere. One

such practice was by evicting colonials. National assets owned by

the colonials were taken over. One example was the sporadic

occupation of plantations by Indonesian people. Even Bung Hatta

stated that the current lands at the time were the results of

“robbing” public lands. In relation to this statement, it was

understandable why the land occupation occurred. One result of

the Round Table Conference was the returned of foreign assets to

the companies including the occupied lands. This situation was

tragic, since Bung Hatta was the one who made the agreement but

he was also the one to revoke.

Another result from Round Table Conference was the returned of

West Papua to Indonesia a year later. Due to the long term of

such returned, Soekarno government has taken several

monumental steps. Firstly, Soekarno’s government hit hard on all

debts to the Dutch colonials. Another phenomenal step was the

nationalization of all Dutch companies. Due to lack of

professionals at the time, militaries were involved in holding

several plantation companies.

The peak of Soekarno’s popular policies was the land reform plan

through the issued of Agrarian Law No 5 of 1960, where one

object of land reform was large scale plantation. Before this land

reform area can be conducted, unfortunately Soekarno’s

government experienced a fall. There were no significant steps

during the course of land occupation on plantations, even some

large plantations were neglected. 

Large scale 

foreign 

companies, 

Soekarno’s 

government 

whom some 

are militaries,

national 

movement 

leaders

Soeharto 

– 

reformati

on 

During this phase, massive plantations were developed using a

model of three principals, i.e, stability, growth and equivalent.

One of the Soeharto’s policies was the issue of foreign

inverstments laws. One concept was partnership based, that is,

the concept of People’s Nucleus Estate (Perkebunan Inti Rakyat -

PIR) which was part of green revolution, where in a large scale

plantation there are nucleus and plasm. Nucleus had the

responsibility of providing agricultural production facilities,

market guarantee, and guarantor in the Bank; while plasm had the

responsibility to supply land, labours and produced plantation

results to the nucleus. PIR-plantation was firstly initiated through

financial funding from World bank in 1997 on two locations,

Alue Merah, Aceh and Tabenan, South Sumatra. This project was

known as NES (Nucleus Estate Smallholder), and continued until

NES V. For Kalimantan region, the PIR project was developed in

Department 

of 

Agriculture 

with its 

perangkat-ny

a, largescale 

plantation 

companies, 

NGOs, 

Farmers 

union, 

indigenous 

people, and 

labour union

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

two regions, i.e., in Sanggau, West Kalimantan and Paser, East

Kalimantan at the end of the 1980s. The PIR concept was rapidly

developed and even integrated with other government’s project,

i.e., transmigration through the issue of Presidential Instruction

No 1 of 1986 on PIR – Transmigration. Several concepts on PIR

are presented in Table 4. If we compare PIR with forced planting

work, there are similarities and differences as tabulated in Table

5.

During Soeharto’s government, large scale oil palm plantations

were developed though the conversion of forests. Currently,

Indonesia has the largest oil palm plantation in the world covering

a total of 7.8 million ha (Sawit Watch, 2009). These large scale

plantations caused severe impacts both for the environment and

human being (social). Environmentally, the resulting impacts

include forest fire, flood, landslides and water pollution due to

wastes. Socially, development of these plantations produced

conflicts between indigenous people and plantation companies as

well as horizontal conflicts between labours and farmers and/or

indigenous peoples. Based on data monitoring by Sawit Watch

there are as many as 576 conflicts cases across oil palm

plantations in Indonesia. 

The monetary crisis in 1997 caused political crisis in Indonesia,

which also resulted in the downfall of Soeharto government for

30 years and replaced by Reformation Order. One significant

change was the application of decentralisation instead of

centralization in the governance. Under this governance, regional

governments are given higher authorities. One of such is the

issuing of licences to develop large scale plantation. As a result,

there have been massive large scale plantations especially those of

oil palm’s. There were increasing impacts of large scale

plantations during the new order. The SBY-JK government

introduced what is called by agricultural revolution concept. This

concept clearly supports the previous plantation system which

clearly did not benefit the people.

The most significant thing occurring during this phase was the

occurrence of companies with land power conglomerates, see

Table 6. Indonesia dependence in 1945 through revolution did not

change the current plantation system where it is adopted from the

development of Liberal Phase during the Dutch colonials. 

B. Social and Environmental Impacts of Oil Palm Expansion

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Introduction

Agrofuel – or is best known as biofuel1 – has been promoted as a solution to the problem of

global warming due to its ability to continuously supply the global energy needs by producing

carbon emissions that are lower than other fuels. Even European Union plans to establish 10

percent of all its transportation fuels from agrofuel by the year 2010. 

Several organizations see the economic opportunities of agrofuels in proving employments and

increasing welfare of developing countries, while others see it as a process of land and large

scale resource privatization with the entrance of big companies. This could also trigger global

warming since commodities producing agrofuels are mainly planted on converted forests and

peatlands. Therefore, if accurately calculated, the total carbon released from forests and peat

clearance for agrofuel will be higher than wastes of gases from transportation sector and

factories using agrofuels.

As a result, oil palm plantations are accused as the main cause of forest clearance in Indonesia

that has destroyed the lives of rare species including orangutan and tigers. The burning

mechanism applied to clear and drain peatlands for the purpose for oil palm plantation, produces

million tonnes of carbon dioxides (CO2) and placed Indonesia as the third major contributor of

CO2 emissions in Indonesia.

Apart from the threatened Indonesian forests, the lives of about 60-90 millions Indonesian

indigenous peoples and local communities are also threatened by the expansion of oil palm

plantations. They have managed their lands for generations, planting food and commercial

crops, harvesting medicinal plants and obtain building materials from plants. Some of the areas

were protected communal forest. oil palm plantations have transformed their lands into

monoculture plantation and field results indicate that the transformation process is detrimental to

the communities. 

Impacts of Oil Palm Expansion

a. Environmental Impacts

Based on 2009 data from Sawit Watch, oil palm plantation expands annually with an

average of 400 thousands ha. Out of this figure, forest clearance (primary and secondary)

reaches 200 - 300 thousands annually. While for converted peat swamp areas could

amounts to 100 – 150 thousands ha annually. Communal land managed by indigenous

peoples and local communities could total to 50 – 100 thousand ha annually. As a result,

annual floods occur, smokes during end of dry periods, scarcity of water, water and soil

pollutions due to wastes and biodiversity decline which all point to global warming and

climate change. 

b. Social Impacts

The most vulnerable group due to oil palm expansion is the indigenous/traditional

communities inhabiting or living adjacent to forests and peatlands. According to report

by Sawit Watch there are at least 50 – 100 thousands ha of communal gardens and lands

that are forced to be hauled by palm oil industries. Only few receive little compensation

in the form of plantings, while for the majority, no compensations are given.

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Furthermore, there are at least 20 indigenous communities that each year must face the

law which tend to end up on criminal punishment since they show resistances for their

management rights. 

Furthermore, schemed smallholders or oil palm farmers who are used as the slogan for oil

palm plantation also receive negative impacts. Various forms of exploitation have been

carried out by oil palm companies such as the return of land to the farmers often not on

time/not as promised, the low quality and unsuitable in terms of size, amount of debts and

high credit interests and not transparent. As well as the monopolisation of procurement of

seed, fertilizers, pesticides and other working equipments by the mother company or its

partners, one sided determination of FFB price by the mother company, increase credit

amounts and debt interests for replanting and the establishment of new scheme of

partnership under unilateral or one management would all inflict the farmers.

Other social impacts include seizement of labour rights in oil palm plantation. There is a

minimum protection from hazardous working conditions, insufficient wages, and

vulnerability to various forms of abuse and out of the total of 3 million labours working

on oil palm plantations, about 65% are labours with no working contracts. 

c. Cultural Impacts

The arrival of oil palm plantation has altered the social life system of indigenous peoples

and local communities and destroys their cultures and indigenous values and knowledge

leading to the loss of indigenous cultures. In some places, significant cultural places

including ancestors’ burial sites were destroyed and replaced with oil palm. 

Tradition and rituals which have become parts of the local agricultural practices are also

loss often due to the loss of sacred sites. As a result, local traditions and languages are

also lost. Indigenous peoples’ cultures are often not put in writings, thus if such culture

dies, the whole important cultural components will also die along. 

The expansions of unsustainable palm oil industries in Indonesia have caused the loss of forests

and peatlands that are often buffer the areas from natural disasters and preventing global

warming. Furthermore, many traditional communities loss their land and access to water and

must live improper life. The once dependent communities now turn to be dependent on debts and

must work hard to obtain access to education and fulfil their food requirements. In line with the

destruction of Indonesian forests and wildlife, traditions and cultures are also destroyed due to

this expansion process. 

 

Oil palm companies and their funding organizations as well as Indonesia government must be

responsible for the environmental degradation and local communities’ conditions due to oil palm

expansion in Indonesia. In addition, European countries and other international organizations

should also be responsible in pressuring the consumption rate of agrofuel, especially

consumption of palm oil. For the sake of social and environmental sustainability. For the one

Earth that should be suitable for all human beings.

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II. Development of Oil palm Plantation Based on Greenhouse Gases 

A. Global Warming Impacts of Increase Greenhouse Gases

Figure 2.1. Melting Ice in Greenland (Photo: Jiwan, July 2006)

Sun is the source of energy for Earth in the form of short wavelength (Tampang, 2009). Earth

comprises of atmospheric layers, i.e., troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere.

Troposphere is the bottom layer (closest to Earth). Benny (2007) mentions that 35% of solar

radiation does not reach the Earth because it is absorbed by thermosphere, mesosphere and

stratosphere. Other radiations are emitted back to the atmosphere. About 65% of solar radiation

that enters troposphere is absorbed by water vapour, debris and certain gases and approximately

37% are radiated directly to Earth. When solar energy (short wave energy) enters the Earth,

sunlight is converted into heat that warms the Earth. 

Some of the solar energy that is emitted back will be absorbed by atmospheric gases covering the

Earth thus trapping the heat in the atmosphere. The trapped heat causes the Earth’s temperature

to keep increasing and subsequently resulted in what is known as “global warming”. Wikipedia

Online (2007) defines global warming as the increase of average atmosphere, sea and Earth

temperatures due to heat accumulation by the atmosphere caused by gases that produce

Greenhouse Effect. Greenhouse effect illustrates the real warming condition of plants within the

real green house especially in cold climate areas. The warm effect occurs due to the presence of

glass cover to trap solar radiation to keep the green house temperature warm. 

Greenhouse effect (SLI, 2008) actually warms the Earth and makes it inhabitable for human and

other forms of living things. Unfortunately, there is an over-accumulation of gases, which traps

more heat from the sun causing global warming. Gases responsible for greenhouse effect are

known as greenhouse gases. 

Greenhouse Gases

Theoretically, global warming is related to the presence of solar radiation in the form of short

wave that passes through the atmosphere and changes it to a long wave when it reaches the

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91

Earth’s surface (SLI, 2008). When reaches the Earth, some of the waves are retransmitted to

atmosphere. Some of the solar radiation in the form of long wave that is re-emitted by the Earth

is trapped by the gases found within the atmosphere or what is known as the Greenhouse Gases

(GHG). The repeated trappings caused an accumulation of solar radiation on the Earth’s

atmosphere that in turn increases the Earth’s temperature. This is known as Greenhouse Effect

(GHE), an analogue to the real condition within a green house. 

B. Type of Greenhouse Gases

Under the United Nations Convention (SLI, 2008) on climate change (United Nation Framework

Convention on Climate/ UNFCC), there are 6 types of gas classified as Greenhouse Gas, these

are: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Dinitrioxide (N2O), Methane (CH4), Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6),

Perfluorocarbon (PFCs) and Hydro fluorocarbon (HFCs). Sources of Greenhouse Gases based on

activities are shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Source of Greenhouse Gases (SLI, 2008)

Greenhouse Gases Source

Carbon dioxide CO2) Fossil fuels combustion in energy, industry, transportation, 

agriculture sectors, deforestation

Methane (CH4) Agriculture, land use change, biomass combustion, garbage end 

disposal

Nitroxide (N2O) Fossil fuels combustions, industry, agriculture

Hydro fluorocarbon (HFCs) Manufacture industry, freon industry, use of aerosol

Perfluorocarbon (PFCs) Manufacture industry, freon industry, use of aerosol

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) Electricity transmission, manufacture, freon industry, use of aerosol

The dominant sources of Greenhouse Gases that contribute the most to the increase emissions of

greenhouse effect are CO2, CH4 and N2O (SLI, 2008), while HFCs, PFCs and SF6 only

contribute about 1 % of the total greenhouse gas emissions although they have higher potentials

to cause warming than CO2, CH4 and N2O. 

 Table 2.2. Index of global warming potentials of several greenhouse gases on

CO2 within 100 year (GWP, 1994) and their sources

Type of Gas Index of Global Warming Potentials

CO2 1

CH4 21

N2O 310

HFCs 500

SF6 9,200

Source: KNLH, 1999

Actually GHE warms the Earth’s temperature, making it inhabitable, where otherwise, Earth’s

temperature would be very cold. Unfortunately, various human activities have increased the

GHE that are emitted to the atmosphere thus changing the GHG’s compositions in the

atmosphere that in turn increase trapped solar radiation which increases the Earth’s temperature.

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This phenomenon is known as Global Warming which is marked by increased temperature

which could be felt for the past two decades. 

Figure 2.2. A simple diagram of greenhouse effect (SLI, 2008)

The IPCC (2007) mentions that the periods of 1995-2006 are considered as the 11 out of 12

years of the warmest Earth’s temperature since 1850. The increased average temperature of

Earth’s surface in turn cause changes in the climatic components such as change in rainfall

pattern and air pressure, increased vaporization or change of sea water temperature etc. As a

whole this whole process is known as Climate Change as defined by the United Nation

Framework Convention on Climate (UNFCC) as a change of climate which is attributable

directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and

which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’ (IPCC,

2007). Wikipedia online (2007) states that apart from the six greenhouse gases causing

greenhouse effect (based on Kyoto Protocol), water vapour is another recognize greenhouse gas

(Tampang, 2008). 

1. Water vapour

Water vapour is the most dominant greenhouse gas that occurs naturally from evaporation from

sea, lake and river and is responsible for most of the greenhouse effect. Water vapour

concentration fluctuates at regional scale and human activities have indirectly effect water

vapour except at local scale. Increased temperature in atmosphere will increase water vapour

within the troposphere with a more constant relative humidity. Increase water vapour will

increase greenhouse effect; which will increase temperature and increase water vapour in the

atmosphere. This process continues until it reaches equilibrium. The amount of water vapour in

the atmosphere is also indirectly affected by the formation of clouds. As much as 25 % of the

solar energy that reaches the Earth will be reflected by clouds or other particles in the

atmosphere, 25% will be absorb by clouds, 45% is absorb by Earth’s surface and the other 5%

are re-emitted by Earth’s surface (LAPAN, 2008). Clouds will re-emit infrared radiation to the

surface thus increasing the temperature. According to Acehpedia Online, increase in water

vapour in the atmosphere due to global warming will increase greenhouse effect.

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Some solar radiation is 

reflected by the atmosphere 

and Earth’s surface

Some of the solar 

radiation is reflected 

by Earth’s surface

Solar radiation 

passes through 

the atmosphere

Sun

Some solar energy is 

absorbed by the Earth’s 

surface and warms it

Some of the solar radiation that is 

reflected by Earth’s surface are 

absorbed by the gases in 

atmosphere. This prevent the 

heat to be loss in atmosphere

Earth

The Greenhouse Effect
91

2. Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is the dominant greenhouse gas that contributes the most to global warming.

According to Admin (2008), the natural concentration of CO2 is only 0.03 percent of the

atmosphere and this gas is naturally used by plants during photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is

generated during the combustion of fossil fuels, solid wastes and wood to warm up buildings,

generate vehicles and produce electricity. At the same time, the number of trees that are able to

absorb carbon dioxide decreases due to increase logging and expansion of agricultural lands.

Although the sea and other natural processes able to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere, human activities in releasing carbon dioxide to the air are far more rapid than the

ability of nature to reduce it. In 1750, there are about 281 carbon dioxide molecules per one

million of air molecules (281 ppm). As of January 2007, carbon dioxide is at a concentration of

383 ppm (an increase by 36 percent). If currently there is an accurate prediction, then by 2100,

the concentration of carbon dioxide will reach about 540 to 970 ppm. A higher estimation gives a

figure of triple fold compared to pre-industrial revolution. Murdiyarso (2007) reports that based

on 1997 emission data which comprised the previous 5 year data, the CO2 emissions in

Indonesia amounted to 800 million tonnes where most of them originated from land use (change

600 million tonnes), placing Indonesia third as a country with the highest CO2 emissions.

 Sun

Figure 2.3. A Simple Carbon Cycle (Tampang, 2009)

3. Methane

Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon in the form of gas. The concentration of methane in the

atmosphere is 1.7 ppm, where it is almost 2.5 higher that its concentration 300 years ago.

Methane in the atmosphere is assumed to have a life span of 10 years. Methane is the principal

component of natural gas and is an effective insulator that can trap about 20 times the heat of

carbon dioxide. Methane is release during the production and transportation process of coal,

natural gas and kerosene. Methane is also produced from decaying organic wastes in landfills, as

well as from animal’s wastes especially cows as a by product from digestion. The burning of

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Combustio

Fossil Fuels

Respiration

Decomposition Photosynthesis

Organic Materials

Atmosphere
91

one molecule of methane with oxygen will release one molecule of CO2 and two molecules of

water (H2O) with the following chemical reaction: 

 

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O.

4. Nitrous oxide

According to Admin (2007), nitrous oxide is mainly produced during fossil fuel combustion and

from agricultural land. The life span of NO2 in the atmosphere is 150 years. The concentration

of this gas has increased by 16% compare to its concentration prior to the industrial revolution.

Nitrous oxide is a very strong heat insulator gas and can trap 300 times more heat than carbon

dioxide. 

5. Other gases

Other greenhouse gases are generated through various manufacturing process (Tampang, 2009).

Fluoronation mix is generated through the aluminum melting. Hydrofluorocarbon (HCFC-22) is

form during manufacture of various products. Some refrigerators in several developing countries

are still using chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) as a cooling media that can prevent heatloss from the

atmosphere as well as reducing ozone layer (layer that protect the Earth from ultraviolet

radiation). HCFC has the capability of reducing or thinning ozone layers compare to CFC, since

one chlorine atom of HCFC is replaced by hydrogen atom, reducing the weight of chlorine.

The instability of HCFC causes its structure to disintegrate before reaching the ozone layer.

CFC contributes about 15% of greenhouse effect (Pelangi, 2007). CFC on stratosphere will

release chlorine when exposed to sunlight. Chlorine is then reacted with ozone to form chlorine

monoxide (ClO) and oxygen, but ClO will disintegrate again releasing chlorine, followed by the

process of ozone reduction. 

The 2007 IPCC’s report (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) shows that in average the

global human activities since 1750 has cause warming. Change in the abundant of greenhouse

gases and aerosols due to sun radiation and Earth’s surface affect the balance of climate energy

system (Tampang, 2009). Radiative Forcing is a measurement to determine whether the global

climate has become hot or cold, it can be concluded that global warming is mainly caused by

human activities. The increase in amount and concentration of greenhouse gases are due to

human activities such as fossil fuels combustion for the purpose of producing energy,

transportation, industries, forest fires, land use changes for agriculture and animal husbandry

(Tampang, 2009).

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Figure 2.4. Ozone disintegration by chlorine (Murdiyarso, 2007)

C. Global Warming Impacts

Research results in Mauna Loa Observatorium, Hawaii (Saharjo,2008) shows that CO2 abundant

in the atmosphere has reached its highest on March 19 2004, having a figure of 379 ppm as

reported by Russel Schnell (Deputy Director of NASA). The annual increase is estimated to be 3

ppm greater than the average annual increase of the previous decades, which was 1.8 ppm. Last

year, the CO2 abundant was 376 ppm, while during the pre-industrial era and prior to the use of

fossil fuels, it was estimated to be only 280 ppm and IPCC estimates that by 2100 the figure will

reach 650-970 ppm, hence IPCC predicts that there will be an increase of global temperature of

1.4-5.8°C between the years of 1990 and 2100. While Dr Eric Rignot and friends at NASA’s Jet

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Release of Chloride by Ultraviolet

Chloride

Destruction of Ozone by Chloride

Oxygen

Ozone

Oxygen

Chloride

Chloride
91

Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California as stated in Science (October, 2003) said that

Patagonia Ice field has lost its ice at the rate as the increase of sea level, i.e. 0.04 mm per year

between 1975-2000 or equal to 9 % from the yearly total of global increase of sea level

generated by mountain glacier according to IPCC Scientific Assessment (2001). Research by

NASA as stated by Roger Peilke Sr, of Colorado State University shows that logging, urban

development and plantation have contributed in increasing greenhouse gases. If land use pattern

tend to be the same, it is estimated than within 50 years, the concentration of CO2 in the

atmosphere will double. For example, if farmers transform their forestland into plantation, there

would be less water to be evaporated that correlates with increase temperature of the area.

However, according to Thomas Karl and Kevin Trenberth as reported by Science, industrial

emissions are the dominant factor in changing climate pattern during the past 50 years. With this

in mind, they have calculated that there will be an increase of global temperature of 1.7-4.9°C

during the periods of 1990-2100. 

One of the international research centre (Saharjo, 2008) as written in Nature, predicts that by

2050, approximately 18 – 37% of the species on Earth would become extinct as an impact of

global warming. Similar statement also provided by Prof. Johanes Foufoulos of Michigan

University (School of Natural Resources and Environment) whom remarks that each species

required specific habitat and suitable environmental conditions to live in which was provided in

the past years. Currently, human activities have caused fragmentations of ecosystem. While

Kim Sorensen (1992) comments that the current carbon sequestration system of peat and other

tropical rainforests will be impacted by climate change due to the disturbance of tree’s

abundance due of lack of associations. If global warming continues, then tropical rainforest will

disappear due to increase dryness of the equator. Thus, based on geological record, it could be

certain that Southeast Asia will become hotter and drier due to decreased biomass and high CO2

concentration in the atmosphere (Kim Sorensen, 1992). 

Global warming is the result of accumulated greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause the

rise of Earth’s temperature. Based on IPCC Report in Kencana (2009) the average global air

temperature increase was 0.6oC between 1850 and 2000. Jakarta has experienced a temperature

of 37oC, where the normal temperature is 33oC, while in Medan, North Sumatra, there was an

increase of 0.17oC/year during 1980-2002, and 0.87oC/year in Denpasar (Kadarsah, 2008).

During this past century, Earth’s temperature rises by 0.6 C. The main factor causing global

warming is the increase of Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. For the past decades, the CO2

emissions has doubled from 1400 million tonnes/year to 2900 million tonnes/year, while CO2

concentration in the atmosphere in 1998 was 360 ppmv with annual increment rate of 1.5 ppmv

(Houghton et al., 2001). CO2 emissions are 35 % higher in 2006 than 1990, a higher increase rate

than expected (Candall, 2007). As a result, within the next 100 year, the average temperature on

Earth is expected to up to 4.5oC which will eventually have devastating impacts on human’s lives

(Murdiyarso, 2003). 

Warming leads to many severe impacts often mediated by water (Stern, 2007):

1. Melting glaciers will increase flood risk during the wet season and strongly reduce

dry-season water supplies to one-sixth of the world’s population, predominantly in the

Indian sub-continent, parts of China, and the Andes in South America.

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2. Declining crop yields, especially in Africa, are likely to leave hundreds of millions

without the ability to produce or purchase sufficient food. At mid to high latitudes, crop

yields may increase with moderate temperature rise (2 – 3°C), but then decline with

greater amounts of warming. At temperature of 4°C and above, the global food

production may obtain severe impacts.

3. In higher latitudes, cold-related deaths will decrease. Climate change will increase

worldwide deaths from malnutrition and heat stress. Vector-borne diseases such as

malaria and dengue fever could become more widespread if effective control measures

are not taken.

4. Rising sea levels will result in tens to hundreds of millions more people flooded each

year with a warming of 3 or 4°C. There will be serious risks and increasing pressures for

coastal protection in Southeast Asia (Bangladesh and Vietnam), small islands in the

Caribbean and the Pacific, and large coastal cities, such as Tokyo, New York, Cairo and

London. It was estimated that in the middle of this century, about 200 millions people

will loose their home permanently due to rise of sea level, severe flood and extreme

drought.

5. Ecosystems will be particularly vulnerable to climate change, with one study estimating

that around 15 – 40% of species face extinction with an increase of temperature by 2°C.

Ocean acidification, a direct result of rising carbon dioxide levels, will have major effects

on marine ecosystems, with possible adverse consequences on fish stocks. 

Higher temperatures will increase the chance of triggering abrupt and large-scale changes (Stern,

2007):

1. Warming may induce sudden shifts in regional weather patterns like the El Ninochanges would have severe consequences for water availability and flooding in tropical

regions and threaten the livelihoods of billions.

2. Many studies suggest that the Amazon forest is vulnerable to climate change, through

the models that display significant dryness on this area. For example, one model found

that an increase of 2-3°C will significantly destroy the Amazon rainforest which may

not go back to its original state.

3. The melting ice will eventually threaten the land which is currently home to 1 of 20

people.

According to the Indonesian Law No 17 of 2004 (Tampang, 2009), the impacts of global

warming include decreased food production, disturbance of water availability, spreading of

plants pests and diseases as well as human diseases, rising of sea level, lost of small islands and

extinction of biodiversity.

1. Weather and Climate

Temperature rising (Tampang, 2009) causes ecological change resulting in climate change

(unpredictable climate). There will be prolong planting period in some areas. Temperature

during cold season and night time will tend to increase. Hot season will become hotter and

cold season will become more humid. 

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Warmer areas tend to become more humid due to the increase water vapour from the sea. High

humidity will increase rainfall, on average about 1 percent for every Fahrenheit. The global

rainfall has risen about 1 percent within the last 100 years. The late rainy season 1 month later

has impacted on the reduce production of rice in Java/Bali of 7-18% (Naylor et al, 2006 in Boer,

2007). The weather becomes unpredictable and more extreme. High rainfall increases the risk of

flood while low rainfall results in droughts. The global effect is prolong dry periods (drought)

and shorter rain periods as well as more frequent storms and floods, El-Niño and La Nina. The

attachment of the Minister of Health Decree No. 289/Menkes/SK/III/2003 states that the impacts

of El-Nino is global warming where prolong dry periods results in droughts and one of the main

factor causing forest fires (Tampang, 2009). Indonesia has the risk of receiving impacts of

El-Nino.

2. Drought 

Increasing temperature will increase water evaporation from soil, thus causing some areas to

become drier than previously known (Tampang, 2009). This drying condition would cause

freshwater crisis. Drought also reduces food security due to lack of water on agricultural lands.

As cited by daenk.co.cc (2008) based on clippings in mass media, Kompas and Gatra, that during

2005-2006, West Java has experienced reduction in rice production by 368,645 tonnes while in

East Java (Brantas Watershed) during 2006-2007, the production declined to 220.519 tonnes and

during the same period in Central Java, rice production fall to 350,436 tonnes.

During dry periods, wind will blow even harder and probably with different patterns. Storms

obtain energy from water vapours thus will occur more frequently with greater power (Tampang,

2009). Droughts also increase vulnerability an area to forest fires. Hot temperature will dry

forest biomass making them prone to fires, which triggers the increase of greenhouse gases

which in turn cause global warming. These interrelationships of factors occur in a causal loop

cycle.

3. Rising Sea Level

When the atmosphere warms up (Tampang, 2009), sea water surface will also warms up

giving rise to its volume and rise of sea level. Warming will also melt the ice in the Arctic

that cause water volume in the sea to rise, increasing sea levels. A scientist from the

University of Trent, Canada as cited in Kompas dated 15 September 2008, remarks that

melting of ice cap with a size of Manhattan city broke and fell off from Ellesmere Island in

the North Arctic, which shows that the layer of ice is thinning thus not able to hold the

whole ice blocks. 

When sea level reaches river delta, the resulting flood due to tide will occur inland.

Increase of sea level could drown small islands, especially in Indonesia which is an

archipelagic country. Indonesia has 17.504 islands, and due to sea level rising, the total

islands declines to 17.480. Sea water surface in Jakarta Bay has risen to 0.57 cm and land

surface decreases by 0.8 cm/year (SLI, 2008). According to Masnerliyati Hilman (Deputy for the

Minister of Environment Divison of Natural Resources Conservation and Environmental

Degradation Control) due to global warming, Indonesia sea level rises by 0.8 cm annually which

cause the drowning of small islands almost one meter within the next 15 years. Sea level rising

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91

can also increase pH of sea water that will inhibit the growth as well as kill marine biota and

corals.

4. Agriculture

Climate change effects agriculture. The southern part of Canada (Tampang, 2009) may receive

benefits from higher rainfall and prolong planting season, although there are areas that plants

cannot grow due to increase temperature, such as in several parts of Africa with semi arid

tropical agriculture.

5. Spread of Pests and Disease

Temperature rise increases the attacks of pests and disease on food crops. One example is

pest known as Rapa that increases due to warmer cold season thus is conducive for such pest to

thrive. This disease that never occurs in Scotland has spread from England. (Tampang, 2009).

Global warming increases the temperature in Scotland, allowing Rapa to thrive under warmer

cold weather. In addition, global warming has also caused the spread of diseases among humans.

Based on data by WHO cited by Kadarsah (2008), global warming has increased malaria in

several countries and the occurrence of new diseases. This may allow tropical epidemics, such

as diseases caused by mosquitoes and other carriers, to be spread further to areas which are

previously too cold for these carriers to thrive. Dengue and malaria mosquitoes are more

dangerous in areas where their life cycle and incubation period becomes shorter. Shift in

ecosystem could cause increase of waterborne and vector-borne diseases. Global warming is

also responsible for the increase of diseases such as ISPA (due to long drought or forest fires),

dengue fever (due to uncertain rainy periods). Prof Umat Fahmi Achmadi as cited in a national

newspaper (Kompas) remarks that the increase of Earth’s temperature pushed the heart to work

harder to cool the body thus increasing asthma and skin cancer. Furthermore, Kadarsah (2008)

reports that the people of Argentina, Chile and New Zealand are vulnerable to skin cancer, such

as in Punta Arena Chile. The number of skin cancer patients increases 66 % during the years of

1994-2004 (Tampang, 2009). 

6. Biodiversity Decline

According to Dr. David Bramwell (Director for Jardon Botanical Garden) in WAH (2009)

“About half of the 400 thousands plant species in the world and 100 other unidentified

species are threatened to be extinct if the Earth’s temperature rises between 2-3oC within

the next 100 years”. Moreover, Huang Hongwen (Director for Wuhan Botanical Garden)

stated that currently, the rise of temperature of 0.6oC has caused the migration of hundreds

species of butterflies, birds, plants, bats to the north and south poles. Temperature rising

has caused the lost of several species of flora and fauna. The aspens of Great Lakes have

disappeared leading to the loss of forest biodiversity. The rise in temperature by 1-2oC will cause

coral bleaching while a temperature rise above 2oC will kill an extensive area of corals (IPCC,

2007 in Kencana, 2009). Furthermore, it is stated that several lakes have shown signs of

decrease number of fish with an increase of temperature close to 1oC. Based on Kompas Online

dated 23 December 2008 (Tampang, 2009), global warming also effects the sexual interaction of

several animals where a rise in temperature produces more males than females. For examples as

the case for reptiles, sex is determined by the temperature at which the eggs are incubated during

embryonic development until they hatch. If the temperature is above average (pivotal

temperature) the hatchlings are dominated by males. Similar conditions occur with fish such as

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91

that of genus Menidia and Apistogramma. These incidents will produce risks for the

sustainability of such animals.

According to Prof. Eberhard Bruenig of Ramkamhaeng University, climate change in tropical

countries during the next 50 years will include: 

a. An increase of global temperature by 2 °C and 4 °C on local scale

b. Increase of sea surface temperature above 27°C that cause many hurricanes and

storms

c. Increase of average humidity on water surface and forest land

d. Specifically on areas located on equator, there will be an increase of rain by 10 %

While the environmental changes on wet tropical areas due to climate change include:

a. Increase in respiration, transpiration and evaporation from plants, vegetation and

soil surface

b. Quicker nutrients cycle and greater soil leaching

c. Increase attacks of pest and diseases

d. Increase harmful hazards

e. Increase frequency and threats of thunder on tree crowns

f. Increase risk of fire

g. Increase heat pressure and dryness on tree crowns

To reduce the impacts due to climate change, Kim Sorensen (1992) recommends to:

a. Lowering carbon emission by reducing the use of fossil fuels, changing current 

land use pattern and animal husbandry system

b. Recognize species responses on the changes of chemical components of 

atmosphere and climate change such as increased CO2, reduced ozone, 

temperature increase and change in rainfall pattern

c. Use biospheric solution through tree plantation

7. Hazards

Indirect impacts of global warming will lead to hazards such as storms, landslide and flood due

to extreme rain or tidal flood with the rising of water level. These hazards have taken the lost of

so many lives, material and long term trauma (Tampang, 2009). Climate change has also caused

disturbance on agricultural system including expansion of pests and diseases, in addition to

drought that resulted in harvest failure which in turn increase the number of hungry people. This

is worsened by the increase of type and extent of disease that attack human due to global

warming. Bill McGuire, a geologist from the University College London stated that Earth

quakes, volcano eruption, tsunami and landslide were all related to climate change (Kencana,

2009). Due to melting of ice, the Earth’s crust located under the Earth try to find new

equilibrium thus triggers the activity of magma and Earth quakes. 

D. Global Warming Impacts on Human Rights

This sub-chapter becomes very important in relation to impacts of climate change on human

rights in Indonesia. Indonesia has ratify several United Nations International Conventions

related to human rights especially Civil and Political rights, Economical, Social and Cultural

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rights, Children’s Rights, Racial Discrimination Abolishment Women Discrimination

Abolishment and other ILO conventions. Despite the reservation and declaration of the

convention when they were ratified, Indonesia is tied to the international legal rights to obey and

carry out the various stated articles as outline in all of the conventions. 

This section discusses the relationship between climate change and its impacts on human rights

and how they are related as well as providing short illustration on the condition of human rights

within the perspective of international human rights as reported by The United Nations High

Commissioner for Human Rights on January 20092. The following discussion is taken from the

Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights for

dissemination purposes and public education on various impacts of climate change, relationship

and impacts on the fulfilments of human rights. 

Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights outlines the

relationship between climate change, environmental hazards and human rights. The report

comments on the effects on specific rights: (1) the right to live, (2) The right to adequate food (3)

the right to water, (4) the right to health, (5) the right to adequate housing, and (6) the right to

self-determination; and effects on specific group especially (1) women, 92) children, and (3)

indigenous people; displacement; conflicts and security risks and human rights implications of

response measures.

1. Relationship between climate change, environmental hazards and human rights

The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and Reports of the Office of the

High Commissioner and the Secretary-General recognizes that climate change has a strong

relation with environmental hazards and human rights. In their report, UNHRC reports that an

increase in global average temperature of approximately 2° C will have a dominant and negative

effects on ecosystems across the globe, on the good and services they provide. Currently, climate

change is among the most important drivers of ecosystem changes, along with overexploitation

of resources and pollution3. Moreover, global warming will exacerbate the harmful effects of

environmental pollution, including higher levels of ground-level ozone in urban areas. In view of

such effects, which have implications for a wide range of human rights, it is relevant to discuss

the relationship between human rights and the environment. 

Principle 1 of the 1972 Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human

Environment (the Stockholm Declaration) states that there is “a fundamental right to freedom,

equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of

dignity and well-being”. The Stockholm Declaration reflects a general recognition of the

interdependence and interrelatedness of human rights and the environment4.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child provides that States parties shall take appropriate

measures to combat disease and malnutrition “through the provision of adequate nutritious foods

and clean drinking water, taking into consideration the dangers and risks of environmental

pollution5. Convention on Children Rights provides direction for a country to take appropriate

steps to fight against diseases and malnutrition “through the provision of nutritious food and

clean water by considering the hazards and threats of environmental pollution”.

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Equally, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) has clarified that the

right to adequate food requires the adoption of “appropriate economic, environmental and social

policies” and that the right to health extends to its underlying determinants, including a healthy

environment6. 

2. Impacts on certain rights

Global warming will potentially have implications for the full range of human rights especially

of rights which seem to relate most directly to climate change-related impacts as identified by

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change).

.

a. The rights to life

.

The right to life is explicitly protected under the International Covenant on Civil and

Political Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child7. Moreover, the

Committee has clarified that the right to life imposes an obligation on States to take

positive measures for its protection, including taking measures to reduce infant mortality,

malnutrition and epidemics8. The Convention on the Rights of the Child explicitly links

the right to life to the obligation of States “to ensure to the maximum extent possible the

survival and development of the child”9. According to the Committee on the Rights of

the Child, the right to survival and development must be implemented in a holistic

manner, “through the enforcement of all the other provisions of the Convention,

including rights to health, adequate nutrition, social security, an adequate standard of

living, a healthy and safe environment ...”10

A number of observed and projected effects of climate change will pose direct and

indirect threats to human lives. IPCC AR4 projects with high confidence an increase in

people suffering from death, disease and injury from heat waves, floods, storms, fires and

droughts. Equally, climate change will affect the right to life through an increase in

hunger and malnutrition and related disorders impacting on child growth and

development; cardio respiratory morbidity and mortality related to ground-level ozone.

11

Climate change will exacerbate weather-related disasters which already have devastating

effects on people and their enjoyment of the right to life, particularly in the developing

world. For example, an estimated 262 million people were affected by climate disasters

annually from 2000 to 2004, of whom over 98 per cent live in developing countries 12.

Tropical storm hazards, affecting approximately 120 million people annually, killed an

estimated 250,000 people from 1980 to 200013.

Protection of the right to life, generally and in the context of climate change, is closely

related to measures for the fulfilment of other rights, such as those related to food, water,

health and housing. With regard to weather-related natural disasters, this close

interconnectedness of rights is reflected in the operational guidelines on human rights and

natural disasters by Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC)14. 

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b. The right to adequate food

The right to food is explicitly mentioned under the International Covenant on Economic,

Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Convention

on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and implied in general provisions on an

adequate standard of living of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

Discrimination against Women and the International Convention on the Elimination of

All Forms of Racial Discrimination. In addition to a right to adequate food, the

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights also enshrines “the

fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger”15. Elements of the right to food

include the availability of adequate food (including through the possibility of feeding

oneself from natural resources) and accessible to all individuals under the jurisdiction of

a State. Equally, States must ensure freedom from hunger and take necessary action to

alleviate hunger, even in times of natural or other disasters16.

As a consequence of climate change, the potential for food production is projected

initially to increase at mid to high latitudes with an increase in global average

temperature in the range of 1-3° C. However, at lower latitudes crop productivity is

projected to decrease, increasing the risk of hunger and food insecurity in the poorer

regions of the word17. According to one estimate, an additional 600 million people will

face malnutrition due to climate change 18 with a particularly negative effect on

sub-Saharan Africa 19. Poor people living in developing countries are particularly

vulnerable given their disproportionate dependency on climate-sensitive resources for

their food and livelihoods20

The Special Rapporteur on the right to food has documented how extreme climate events

are increasingly threatening livelihoods and food security.

21 In responding to this threat,

the realization of the right to adequate food requires that special attention be given to

vulnerable and disadvantaged groups, including people living in disaster prone areas and

indigenous peoples whose livelihood may be threatened.

22

c. Rights to water

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has defined the right to

water as the right of everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and

affordable water for personal and domestic uses, such as drinking, food preparation and

personal and household hygiene23. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with

Disabilities explicitly refer to access to water services in provisions on an adequate

standard of living, while the Convention on the Rights of the Child refers to the provision

of “clean drinking water” as part of the measures States shall take to combat disease and

Malnutrition24.

Loss of glaciers and reductions in snow cover are projected to increase and to negatively

affect water availability for more than one-sixth of the world’s population supplied by

melt water from mountain ranges. Weather extremes, such as drought and flooding, will

also impact on water supplies25. Climate change will thus exacerbate existing stresses on

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water resources and compound the problem of access to safe drinking water, currently

denied to an estimated 1.1 billion people globally and a major cause of morbidity and

disease26. In this regard, climate change interacts with a range of other causes of water

stress, such as population growth, environmental degradation, poor water management,

poverty and inequality27.

As various studies document, the negative effects of climate change on water supply and

on the effective enjoyment of the right to water can be mitigated through the adoption of

appropriate measures and policies28

d. Rights to health

The right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health (the right to

health) is most comprehensively addressed in article 12 of the International Covenant on

Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and referred to in five other core international

human rights treaties29. This right implies the enjoyment of, and equal access to,

appropriate health care and, more broadly, to goods, services and conditions which

enable a person to live a healthy life. Underlying determinants of health include adequate

food and nutrition, housing, safe drinking water and adequate sanitation, and a healthy

environment30. Other key elements are the availability, accessibility (both physically and

economically), and quality of health and health-care facilities, goods and services 31.

Climate change is projected to affect the health status of millions of people, including

through increases in malnutrition, increased diseases and injury due to extreme weather

events, and an increased burden of diarrhoeal, cardio respiratory and infectious diseases32.

Global warming may also affect the spread of malaria and other vector borne diseases in

some parts of the world33. Overall, the negative health effects will disproportionately be

felt in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and the Middle East. Poor health and malnutrition

increases vulnerability and reduces the capacity of individuals and groups to adapt to

climate change.

Dimensions of poverty and environment34

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Climate change constitutes a severe additional stress to health systems worldwide,

prompting the Special Rapporteur on the right to health to warn that a failure of the

international community to confront the health threats posed by global warming will

endanger the lives of millions of people35. Most at risk are those individuals and

communities with a low adaptive capacity. Conversely, addressing poor health is one

central aspect of reducing vulnerability to the effects of climate change.

Non-climate related factors, such as education, health care, public health initiatives, are

critical in determining how global warming will affect the health of populations 36.

Protecting the right to health in the face of climate change will require comprehensive

measures, including mitigating the adverse impacts of global warming on underlying

determinants of health and giving priority to protecting vulnerable individuals and

communities. 

e. The right to adequate housing

The right to adequate housing is enshrined in several core international human rights

instruments and most comprehensively under the International Covenant on Economic,

Social and Cultural Rights as an element of the right to an adequate standard of living.

37

The right to adequate housing has been defined as “the right to live somewhere in

security, peace and dignity”38. Core elements of this right include security of tenure,

protection against forced evictions,

39 availability of services, materials, facilities and

infrastructure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location and cultural adequacy 40.

Observed and projected climate change will affect the right to adequate housing in

several ways. Sea level rise and storm surges will have a direct impact on many coastal

settlements41. In the Arctic region and in low-lying island States such impacts have

already led to the relocation of peoples and communities 42. Settlements in low-lying

mega-deltas are also particularly at risk, as evidenced by the millions of people and

homes affected by flooding in recent years.

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The erosion of livelihoods, partly caused by climate change, is a main “push” factor for

increasing rural to urban migration. Many will move to urban slums and informal

settlements where they are often forced to build shelters in hazardous areas43. Already

today, an estimated 1 billion people live in urban slums on fragile hillsides or flood-prone

riverbanks and face acute vulnerability to extreme climate events 44.

Human rights guarantees in the context of climate change include: (a) adequate

protection of housing from weather hazards (habitability of housing); (b) access to

housing away from hazardous zones; (c) access to shelter and disaster preparedness in

cases of displacement caused by extreme weather events; (d) protection of communities

that are relocated away from hazardous zones, including protection against forced

evictions without appropriate forms of legal or other protection, including adequate

consultation with affected persons45.

6. The right to self-determination

The right to self-determination is a fundamental principle of international law. Common

article 1, paragraph 1, of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural

Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights establishes that “all

peoples have the right of self-determination”, by virtue of which “they freely determine

their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural

development”.46 Important aspects of the right to self-determination include the right of a

people not to be deprived of its own means of subsistence and the obligation of a State

party to promote the realization of the right to self-determination, including for people

living outside its territory.

47 While the right to self-determination is a collective right held

by peoples rather than individuals, its realization is an essential condition for the effective

enjoyment of individual human rights.

Sea level rise and extreme weather events related to climate change are threatening the

habitability and, in the longer term, the territorial existence of a number of low-lying

island States. Equally, changes in the climate threaten to deprive indigenous peoples of

their traditional territories and sources of livelihood. Either of these impacts would have

implications for the right to self-determination

The inundation and disappearance of Small Island States would have implications for the

right to self-determination, as well as for the full range of human rights for which

individuals depend on the State for their protection. The disappearance of a State for

climate change-related reasons would give rise to a range of legal questions, including

concerning the status of people inhabiting such disappearing territories and the protection

afforded to them under international law (discussed further below). While there is no

clear precedence to follow, it is clear that insofar as climate change poses a threat to the

right of peoples to self-determination, States have a duty to take positive action,

individually and jointly, to address and avert this threat. Equally, States have an

obligation to take action to avert climate change impacts which threaten the cultural and

social identity of indigenous peoples.

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3. Various effects on specific groups

The effects of climate change will be felt most acutely by those segments of the population who

are already in vulnerable situations due to factors such as poverty, gender, age, minority status,

and disability48. Under international human rights law, States are legally bound to address such

vulnerabilities in accordance with the principle of equality and non-discrimination. 

Vulnerability and impact assessments in the context of climate change largely focus on impacts

on economic sectors, such as health and water, rather than on the vulnerabilities of specific

segments of the population49. Submissions to this report and other studies indicate awareness of

the need for more detailed assessments at the country level and point to some of the factors

which affect individuals and communities. 

1. Women 

Women are especially exposed to climate change-related risks due to existing gender

discrimination, inequality and inhibiting gender roles. It is established that women,

particularly elderly women and girls, are affected more severely and are more at risk

during all phases of weather-related disasters: risk preparedness, warning communication

and response, social and economic impacts, recovery and reconstruction50. The death rate

of women is markedly higher than that of men during natural disasters (often linked to

reasons such as: women are more likely to be looking after children, to be wearing

clothes which inhibit movement and are less likely to be able to swim). This is

particularly the case in disaster-affected societies in which the socio-economic status of

women is low51. Women are susceptible to gender-based violence during natural disasters

and during migration, and girls are more likely to drop out of school when households

come under additional stress. Rural women are particularly affected by effects on

agriculture and deteriorating living conditions in rural areas. Vulnerability is exacerbated

by factors such as unequal rights to property, exclusion from decision-making and

difficulties in accessing information and financial services52.

Studies document how crucial for successful climate change adaptation the knowledge

and capacities of women are. For example, there are numerous examples of how

measures to empower women and to address discriminatory practices have increased the

capacity of communities to cope with extreme weather events53.

International human rights standards and principles underline the need to adequately

assess and address the gender-differentiated impacts of climate change. In the context of

negotiations on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, States

have highlighted gender-specific vulnerability assessments as important elements in

determining adaptation options54. 

2. Children 

Studies show that climate change will exacerbate existing health risks and undermine

support structures that protect children from harm55. Overall, the health burden of climate

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change will primarily be borne by children in the developing world56. For example,

extreme weather events and increased water stress already constitute leading causes of

malnutrition and infant and child mortality and morbidity. Likewise, increased stress on

livelihoods will make it more difficult for children to attend school. Girls will be

particularly affected as traditional household chores, such as collecting firewood and

water, require more time and energy when supplies are scarce. Moreover, like women,

children have a higher mortality rate as a result of weather-related disasters.

Today’s children and young persons will shape the world of tomorrow, children are

central actors in promoting behaviour change required to mitigate the effects of global

warming. Children’s knowledge and awareness of climate change also influence wider

households and community actions57. Education on environmental matters among

children is crucial and various initiatives at national and international levels seek to

engage children and young people as actors in the climate change agenda58.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child, which enjoys near universal ratification,

obliges States to take action to ensure the realization of all rights in the Convention for all

children in their jurisdiction, including measures to safeguard children’s right to life,

survival and development through, inter alia, addressing problems of environmental

pollution and degradation. Importantly, children must be recognized as active participants

and stewards of natural resources in the promotion and protection of a safe and healthy

environment59.

3. Indigenous peoples 

Climate change, together with pollution and environmental degradation, poses a serious

threat to indigenous peoples, who often live in marginal lands and fragile ecosystems

which are particularly sensitive to alterations in the physical environment60. Climate

change-related impacts have already led to the relocation of Inuit communities in Polar

Regions and affected their traditional livelihoods. Indigenous peoples inhabiting

low-lying island States face similar pressures, threatening their cultural identity which is

closely linked to their traditional lands and livelihoods61.

Indigenous peoples have been voicing their concern about the impacts of climate change

on their collective human rights and their rights as distinct peoples 62. In particular,

indigenous peoples have stressed the importance of giving them a voice in policymaking

on climate change at both national and international levels and of taking into account and

building upon their traditional knowledge63. As a study cited by the IPCC in its Fourth

Assessment Report observes, “Incorporating indigenous knowledge into climate change

policies can lead to the development of effective adaptation strategies that are

cost-effective, participatory and sustainable”64

The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples sets out several

rights and principles of relevance to threats posed by climate change.

65 Core international

human rights treaties also provide for protection of indigenous peoples, in particular with

regard to the right to self-determination and rights related to culture.

66 The rights of

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indigenous peoples are also enshrined in ILO Convention No. 169 (1989) concerning

Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries.

Indigenous peoples have brought several cases before national courts and regional and

international human rights bodies claiming violations of human rights related to

environmental issues. In 2005, a group of Inuit in the Canadian and Alaskan Arctic

presented a case before the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights seeking

compensation for alleged violations of their human rights resulting from climate change

caused by greenhouse gas emissions from the United States of America.

67 While the

Inter-American Commission deemed the case inadmissible, it drew international attention

to the threats posed by climate change to indigenous peoples.

D. Displacement

The First Assessment Report of the IPCC (1990) noted that the greatest single impact of climate

change might be on human migration. The report estimated that by 2050, 150 million people

could be displaced by climate change-related phenomena, such as desertification, increasing

water scarcity, and floods and storms68. It is estimated that climate change-related displacement

will primarily occur within countries and that it will affect primarily poorer regions and countries

69

.

There are four main climate change-related displacement scenarios 70 where displacement is

caused by: (1) Weather-related disasters, such as hurricanes and flooding; (2) Gradual

environmental deterioration and slow onset disasters, such as desertification, sinking of coastal

zones and possible total submersion of low-lying island States; (3) Increased disaster risks

resulting in relocation of people from high-risk zones; and (4) Social upheaval and violence

attributable to climate change-related factors.

Persons affected by displacement within national borders are entitled to the full range of human

rights guarantees by a given State,

71 including protection against arbitrary or forced displacement

and rights related to housing and property restitution for displaced persons.

72 To the extent that

movement has been forced, persons would also qualify for increased assistance and protection as

a vulnerable group in accordance with the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement.

However, with regard to slow-onset disasters and environmental degradation, it remains

challenging to distinguish between voluntary and forced population movements. 

Persons moving voluntarily or forcibly across an international border due to environmental

factors would be entitled to general human rights guarantees in a receiving State, but would often

not have a right of entry to that State. Persons forcibly displaced across borders for

environmental reasons have been referred to as “climate refugees” or “environmental refugees”.

The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the International

Organization for Migration and other humanitarian organizations have advised that these terms

have no legal basis in international refugee law and should be avoided in order not to undermine

the international legal regime for the protection of refugees73.

The Representative of the Secretary-General on human rights of internally displaced persons has

suggested that a person who cannot be reasonably expected to return (e.g. if assistance and

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protection provided by the country of origin is far below international standards) should be

considered a victim of forced displacement and be granted at least a temporary stay.

74

One possible scenario of forcible displacement across national borders is the eventual total

submergence of small island States75. Two working papers of the Sub-Commission on the

Promotion and Protection of Human Rights point to some of the human rights issues such

situations would raise, such as the rights of affected populations vis-à-vis receiving States and

possible entitlement to live in community76. Human rights law does not provide clear answers as

to the status of populations who have been displaced from sinking island States. Arguably,

dealing with such possible disasters and protecting the human rights of the people affected will

first and foremost require adequate long-term political solutions, rather than new legal

instruments77.

E. Conflicts and Security Risks 

Recent reports and studies identify climate change as a key challenge to global peace and

stability78 This was also recognized by the Norwegian Nobel Committee when, in 2007, it

awarded the Nobel Peace Prize jointly to the IPCC and Al Gore for raising awareness of

man-made climate change79 Equally, in 2007, the Security Council held a day-long debate on the

impact of climate change on peace and security.

According to one study, the effects of climate change interacting with economic, social and

political problems will create a high risk of violent conflict in 46 countries - home to 2.7 billion

people80 These countries, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and Latin America, are also the

countries which are particularly exposed to projected negative impacts of climate change.

Climate change-related conflicts could be one driver of forced displacement. In such cases, in

addition to the general human rights protection framework, other international standards would

be applicable, including the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, international

humanitarian law, international refugee law and subsidiary and temporary protection regimes for

persons fleeing from armed conflict. Violent conflict, irrespective of its causes, has direct

implications for the protection and enjoyment of human rights. It should be noted, however, that

knowledge remains limited as to the causal linkages between environmental factors and conflict

and there is little empirical evidence to substantiate the projected impacts of environmental

factors on armed conflict81

F. Human rights implications of response measures

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol commit

States parties to minimize adverse economic, social and environmental impacts resulting from

the implementation of measures taken to mitigate or adapt to climate change impacts (“response

measures”)82. With regard to measures to reduce the concentration of greenhouse gases in the

atmosphere (mitigation), agro-fuel production is one example of how mitigation measures may

have adverse secondary effects on human rights, especially the right to food83.

Whereas agro-fuel production could bring positive benefits for climate change and for farmers in

developing countries, agro-fuels have also contributed to increasing the price of food

commodities “because of the competition between food, feed and fuel for scarce arable land”84.

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CESCR has urged States to implement strategies to combat global climate change that do not

negatively affect the right to adequate food and freedom from hunger, but rather promote

sustainable agriculture, as required by article 2 of the United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change. Apart from the impact on the right to food, concerns have also been raised that

demand for biofuels could encroach on the rights of indigenous peoples to their traditional lands

and culture85.

Concerns have also been raised about possible adverse effects of reduced emissions from

deforestation and degradation (REDD) programmes. These programmes provide compensation

for retaining forest cover and could potentially benefit indigenous peoples who depend on those

forest resources. However, indigenous communities fear expropriation of their lands and

displacement and have concerns about the current framework for REDD. The Permanent Forum

on Indigenous Issues stated that new proposals for reduced emissions from deforestation “must

address the need for global and national policy reforms, respecting rights to land, territories and

resources, and the rights of self-determination and the free, prior and informed consent of the

indigenous peoples concerned86

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III. IMPLICATION OF GLOBAL WARMING ON INDONESIA

At global and national scales, global warming and climate change are believed to have caused

the increase of temperature that trigger various negative impacts on human and environment

(SLI, 2008). Theoretically, global warming and climate change will increase the average Earth’s

temperature, change rainfall pattern and increasing sea level. These changes are potential to

cause health problems and environmental alterations such as flood and drought which seems to

expand these recent years, declining productive lands area, extinction of various flora and fauna

as well as habitat degradation, disturbance of coastal areas including small island and

development of various diseases harmful to human health. 

A. Increased Air Temperature

IPCC (2007) classified Indonesia in group with other countries having increased temperature

between 0,2oC to less than 1 o C for the periods of 1970-2004. At global level, since the end of

the 19th century to early 21st century, the average increase of Earth’s temperature is 0,76 o C.

B. Flood, Drought and Decreasing Agricultural Products

Global warming is very likely to cause drought and extreme rainfall which eventually will result

in a much bigger climate hazard (IPCC, 2007; KNLH, 2007). Related to this, the United Nations

Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs has identified that Indonesia is one of the

countries that are vulnerable to climate-related hazards (SLI, 2008). One of the main influence

on Indonesian climate is the “El-Nino Southern Oscillation” which every certain period of years

triggered extreme climate incidents. El-Nino is related to the various changes in sea current in

the Pacific which cause the sea water to become extremely warm (SLI, 2008). El-Nino is often

associated with long drought periods, whereas during La Nina, sea current becomes very cold.

There is a potentially high rainfall during la Nina resulting flood in many areas. 

In association with climate-related disasters (SLI, 2008), within the periods of 2003-2005 alone,

there were about 1,429 disaster incidents in Indonesia, where approximately 53.4% are

hydro-meteorological disasters. Out of this, flood occurs most often (34%) followed by

landslides (16%). Change of rainfall pattern due to climate variability (SLI, 2008) or season

often followed by temperature increase, which results in water scarcity that could caused other

inflicting side impacts. 

C. Rising Sea Level and Threats on Small Islands

IPCC (2007) reports that the average sea level has rise to 1.8 mm/year in association with global

warming. Sea level since 1961 was in average within the range of 1.3 and 2.3 mm/year and

increase to 3.1 mm/year with range of 2.4 and 3.8 mm/year since 1993. At global scale, this is

related to glacier melting and ice melting in Antarctic.

Table 3.1. Increase of sea level on various monitoring station (SLI, 2008)

Location of

Station

Rising sea water surface

(mm/year)

Source

Cilacap 1.30 Hadikusuma, 1993

Belawan 7.83 ITB, 1990

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91

Jakarta 4.38 ITB, 1990

7.00 Based on 1984-2006 data

Semarang 9.37 ITB, 1990

5.00 Based on 1984-2006 data

Surabaya 1.00 Based on 1984-2006 data

Sumatra 5.47 ITB, 1990

Panjang,

Lampung

4.15 P3O-LIPI, 1991

Source: MoE, 2007

Based on monitoring in certain areas, Indonesia sea water level experiences a rise between 1 -

9.7 mm/year. Unfortunately this has increased the potential lost of small islands. Study of

climate change and sea level rise in Indonesia and their impacts on the lost of small islands have

not been specifically carried out. However, the actual lost of several small islands based on data

by Ministry of Marine and Fisheries (Table 3.2) indicates that this condition is currently

occurring and further lost should be anticipated. Table 3.2 shows that Indonesia has lost 24

small islands between 2005 and 2007.

Table 3.2. Number of lost islands in several provinces in Indonesia

No. Province Lost islands

1 Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam 3

2 North Sumatra 3

3 Islands of Riau 5

4 West Sumatra 2

5 South Sulawesi 1

6 Jakarta 7

7 Papua 3

Total 24

Global warming and climate change are also potential causes of sea temperature rising that can

cause disturbance on sea and costal ecosystems. Burke et al., (2002) in KNLH (2007) remarks

that increase in sea water temperature especially during the 1997 El-Nino, has caused serious

damages on the coral ecosystems, which was the main reason for destruction of about 18% of

coral ecosystem in Southeast Asia. In Indonesia, coral bleaching occurs in many places

including Eastern part of Sumatra, Java, Bali and Lombok. In Thousand Islands, almost all

corals (90-95%) on depth of 25 m were identified as having bleached (KNLH, 2007). 

D. Biodiversity

1.Flora

Indonesia is a mega-diversity country with high biodiversity comprising of ecosystem,

species and genetic diversities. As the biggest archipelago in the world with

approximately 18,000 islands and its condition and geographical nature, Indonesia is

second after Brazil as country with the highest biodiversity (SLI, 2008).

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About 12% of world’s mammals (515 species) can be found in Indonesia, 16% reptiles

(781 species) and 35 species of primates have placed Indonesia fourth in the world.

Furthermore 17% of the total bird species (1,592 species) and 270 amphibians placed

Indonesia at fifth and sixth positions (Milttermier et al, 1997).

Table 3.3. Rank of countries with the highest biodiversity and endemism in the world

No Country Biodiversity value Endemism Value Total Value

1 Brazil 30 18 48

2 Indonesia 18 22 40

3 Colombia 26 10 36

4 Australia 5 16 21

5 Mexico 8 7 15

6 Madagascar 2 12 14

7 Peru 9 3 12

8 China 7 2 9

9 Filipina 0 8 8

10 India 4 4 8

Source: Mittermeier et al., 1997, in IBSAP, 2003

Indonesia ranks fifth in the world in terms of plants diversity, comprising of more than

38,000 species where 55% are endemic and 10% (about 27,500) are flowering species.

Indonesia palm diversity ranks first with 477 species. More than 350 species of

Dipterocarp family have significant economic value in Indonesia, where 155 species are

endemic to Kalimantan (Newman, 1999).

Uncontrolled increased of natural resources utilization will threaten the existence of

various ecosystems and related life systems. Habitat alteration due to shifting cultivation,

forest conversion to agriculture, settlements, tourism, climate change, introduction of

exotic species in an ecosystem could trigger the lost of the ecosystem and extinction of

endemic species which at the end will result in genetic lost of that species (SLI, 2008). 

Forest clearance into oil palm plantation, has contributed to the destruction of forest

areas. Throughout 2003, the total area of oil palm plantation was 5.25 million ha and in

2005 was 5.59 million ha. It was estimated that expansion of oil palm plantation would

continue up to 2020 to about 13.8 million ha. Conversion of natural forest into oil palm

plantation is a serious threat for biodiversity, especially since conversion was mostly

done on lowland tropical forest which is the ecosystem with the highest diversity.

Therefore, development of oil palm plantation should not be conducted on natural

forest but rather on abandoned lands (SLI, 2008). 

2. Fauna

Extinction of flora and fauna can be caused by natural factor such as evolution process

and increased human activities where during the past decades they are assumed to cause

species extinction at the rate of 40 to 400 times the natural extinction rate (SLI, 2008).

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91

Human activities such as hunting, illegal wildlife trades, habitat destruction, over

exploitation, illegal logging, forest encroachment and introduction of exotic species have

placed Indonesia as a country with a long list of threatened species (SLI, 2008). The list

includes 140 species of birds, 63 mammals and 21 reptiles. As many as 382 species have

been put under protection and there is a possibility that the number will grow in relation

to the higher threats faced by various species in Indonesia.

Table 3.4. Protected fauna and flora

FAUNA

No Class/family Number of species

1 Mammal 70

2 Aves (birds) 193

3 Reptiles 31

4 Insects 20

5 Pisces 7

6 Anthozoa 1

7 Bivalva 14

FLORA

1 Palmae 14

2 Orchidaceae (orchids) 29

3 Dipterocarpaceae 13

4 Nephentes 1

5 Rafflesia 1

Source: Departemen Kehutanan, 2007

Recently, there are about 58 rare plant species (wood, rattan, orchid, etc) where some are as

medicinal plants (Table 3.5). 

Table 3.5. Several rare medicinal plants in Java Island

No Scientific Name Family Local Name Status

1. Alstonia scholaris (L) R. Br. Apocynaceae Lame, pulai, pule Rare

2. Alyxia reinwardtii Bl. Apocynaceae Pulasari, cukangkang Rare

3. Arcangelisia Flava (L) Merr. Menispermaceae Ki koneng Vulnerable

4. Cibotium barometz (L) J.Sm. Dikcsoniaceae Paku simpai Rare

5. Cinnamomum sintoc Bl. Lauraceae Sintoc, kiteja, tejo Extinct

6. Curcuma petolata Roxb. Zingiberaceae Koneng putri, temu badur Threatened

7. Euchresta horsfieldii (Lesch.) Benn. Fabaceae Pranajiwo, ki jiwo Rare

8. Kadsura scandens (BL) BL Schisandraceae Wera areuy, ki lembur Rare

9. Merremia mammosa (Lour.) Hallier f. Convolvulaceae Widara upas, telo ndurak Rare

10. Oroxylum indicum (L) Vent Bignoniaceae Pongporang, gompong, pedang-pedangan Rare

11. Parameria laevigata (Juss.) Moldenke Apocynaceae Kayu rapet, congkangkang Rare

12. Parkia roxburghii G.Don Fabaceae Kedawung, peundeuy Rare

13. Pimpinella pruatjan Molkenb. Apiaceae Antanan gunung Threatened

14. Rafflesia padma Bl. Rafflesiaceae Kembang padma Vulnerable

15. Rafflesia zollingeriana Koord. Rafflesiaceae Padma Threatened

16. Scutella javanica Jungh. Lamiaceae Perlutan, hamperu lemah Extinct

17. Strychnos ignatii Berg. Loganiaceae Cetek Rare

18. Symlocos odoratissima (BL) Choisy Symplocaceae Ki sariawan Rare

Source : Rifai, et al., (1992): Zuhud, 2001

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91

E. Diseases

Other than influencing the decrease of agricultural products, climate change also cause the

development of various diseases that disturbed plants (SLI, 2008). Within the last 5 years for

example, the Gemini disease has attacked the production centre of chilli and potatoes in Java

(Bogor, Cianjur, Brebes, Wonosobo, Magelang, Klaten, Boyolali, Kulonprogo, Blitar and

Tulungagung). This viral disease is carried by Bemisia tabaci Gennadius.

Climate change (SLI, 2008) is believed by various groups to cause the development of diseases,

such as increase incidents of dengue fever. There is an indication that dengue fever is indicated

to significantly increase during the past few years (Figure 3.1).

 Figure 3.1. Dengue fever incidents and distance of infected cities and sub-districts, 1968- 2003 

(SLI, 2008)

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”

e

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sub-districts

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91

IV. REASONS FOR GLOBAL WARMING IN INDONESIA

A. Forest and Land Fires

The first forest fire incident in Indonesia (Saharjo, 2008) was found in East Kalimantan

(Goldammer and Seibert, 1990). 14C-data from charcoaled soil found along the East-West

transect between Sangkulirang in Makassar Straits and about 75 km inland suggests that forest

fires occurred between 17,510 and 350 BP. The fire was probably of natural cause during drier

periods than today, although at such time human also burn forest for more than 10,000 years to

facilitate hunting and clearance of agricultural plots (Saharjo, 2008). Written historical records as

well as verbal information from people who conduct forest clearance showed that forest fire is

not a novelty. 

Forest Fire in Indonesia

The first documented report of impact of extreme drought in East Kalimantan was provided by

Bock(Goldammer, 1996), a Denmark zoologist who travel the lowland forest area of east

Kalimantan in 1878. he reported the presence of drought and hunger during his visit

(Goldammer, 1996). He recorded that one third of all the trees found in the forest around Kaman

muara within the intern Mahakam died of drought. Grabobsky, in 1890 (Saharjo, 2008) reported

two fires within two mountain range, on Batu Puno in the centre part of South Kalimantan,

which occur several years before his visits on 1881-1884, where the two mountain ranges died of

fire. During 1914-1915, forest fire is again reported in Borneo. A recorded publication found in

Sabah showed that 80.000 ha of tropical forest and peatlands were burned following drought.

On wet tropical forest, a long drought will drastically change the nature of fuels and their ability

to burn. Monthly rainfall of less than 100 mm and a period without rain for at least two weeks

will cause progressive heat on the heat through the increased drying.

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Figure 4.1. Forest Clearance for Plantation (dok. SW)
91

Table 4.1 Big fire incidents in Indonesia

No. Year Note/Total area (ha)

1 15.510 BC-1650 AD First forest fire in East 

Kalimantan

2 1877 First recorded fire

3 1915 80.000

4 1982/1983 3.600.000

5 1987 66.000

6 1991 500.000

7 1994 5.110.000

8 1997/1998 10.000.000

9 2006 6-8.0000

1. Forest fires in 1982/1983

A big forest fire in Indonesia in the 20th century occurred in 1982/1983 especially in east

Kalimantan where 3.6 million ha of forest and land were burned (Saharjo, 2008). A study by

ITTO-GTZ concludes that the reason for forest fire is the change of vegetation structure due

to logging which was started in 1970s, where millions ha of forestland were divided into

logging concession areas. This has resulted in the log booming in Sumatra and Kalimantan

which change the landscape of the islands for more than two decades. 

As a result, there are many unused logs on the forest that cause the accumulation of fuels

thus vulnerable to fire (Saharjo, 2008). Government and logging concessions’ failures in

protecting logging areas and closing of old logging roads cause invasion by encroacher into

the forest and increase the complexity of the problems since they use forest for land

clearance.

2. Forest fires in 1987

The impact of 1987 forest fire is not as great as the 1982/1983 fire (Saharjo, 2008).

However, many parts of Indonesia experienced such impacts such as Kalimantan, Sulawesi,

Sumatra, Bali, Nusa Tenggara and Timor. Based on government data (MoF), the total

burned area is 66,000 ha. Source of fire was thought to be shifting cultivators as well as

flaming coal which triggered fire on conservation areas particularly on Bukit Soeharto area.

However, this statement was denied by an environmental group who instead blame logging

concession company for causing the fire (Saharjo, 2008).

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91

3. Forest fires in 1991

The 1991 forest fire occurred in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Java, Bali and Nusa

Tenggara (Saharjo, 2008) with a total burned areas of 500.000 ha based on government

official data. The resulting smoke have caused the malfunction of transportation modes and

also resulted in many accidents. Due to this, many domestic flights were postponed due to

short visibility causing a loss of flight operation cost of Rp 6.5 million. According to the

Minister of Forestry at the time, the assumed loss due to the fire was Rp.175 trillion. The

cause of fire was land use change by Industrial Forest Plantation companies and shifting

cultivators.

4. Forest fires in 1994

The 1994 forest fire (Saharjo, 2008) causes a lost of 5.4 million ha of forest and land. The

provinces of Sumatra and Kalimantan suffer the main lost due to the resulting smoke that

also spread to neighbouring countries including Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei. The

visibility was less than 500 m in Singapore and the impacts of the smoke only ended on

September 1994. The short visibility cause disturbance of flight schedules which resulted in

the drastic decrease number of tourists (Saharjo, 2008). 

Some of the fire happens on agricultural land. Peat is vulnerable to burning and the

relatively long period of combustion cause overproduction of smoke (Saharjo, 2008). The

loss of log based on data from MoF was US$ 15.4 million. While the cause of fire was

clear-cut-burn activities by logging concessions/industrial forest plantation and plantations,

although based on the remarked by the Minister of Forestry at the time, another possible

cause was intended burning due to the conflict between local communities and logging and

plantation companies.

5. Forest fires in 1997/1998

The 1997/1998 forest fire was the worse fire occurred within the last two decades (Saharjo,

2008). According to ADB, the total burned areas was 9.75 million ha spread across several

islands including Sumatra 1.7 million ha, Kalimantan 6.5 million ha, Java 0.1 million ha,

Sulawesi 0.4 million ha, and Irian Jaya 1 million ha. Based on the type of burned forest

were: upland forest 0.1 million ha, lowland forest 3.3 million ha, peat 1.5 million ha,

agricultural lands and Imperata cylindrica 4.5 million ha, Industrial plantation forest and

plantation 0.3 million ha. The cause of fire were: conversion for large-scale business

purposes, cultivators, burning by logging concession, burning on agricultural lands, intended

burning and negligence (Saharjo, 2008).

6. Recent fires

Recent fires especially for the past 5 years were caused by the land clearance by local people

or companies both forest and plantation companies. This became worse when ex-logging

concession and ex-plantation areas are used by third parties (Saharjo, 2008). There were

increasing environmental impacts due to the internal involvement of some authorities. The

results were severe impacts on the people and environment.. Fires happen during 2002,

2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009.

7. Greenhouse gas emissions from forest and land fires

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91

All organic materials store carbon. The average amount of stored carbon in organic

materials range between 46 % of its dry weight, hence when the trees are burned, they will

release a big amount of carbon to the air. Based on data provided by WWF, the 1997-1998

forest fire in Indonesia has released greenhouse emission of 0.81-2.57 Giga tonnes of carbon

to atmosphere. On peatlands, there is an accumulation of organic materials due to the slow

decomposition rate is compared to accumulation rat of organic materials on forest floor.

Globally, Peatlands stored about 329 - 525 Giga tonnes (Gt) of carbon and about 14 % (70

Gt) are found in tropical areas (Murdiyarso et al, 2004). This source of carbon causes the

high release of carbon when peatlands are burned, which in turn will result in global

warming. Forest fires have placed Indonesia on third place in global CO2 emissions behind

USA and China.

Figure 4.2. CO2 emissions from peatlands in Indonesia and other Southeast Asian countries

as compared to emissions from other peatland regions in the world (Hoojier et

al, 2006)

The hazard (main danger) of fire incidents or forest and land is the production of smoke with

presence of particles (Saharjo, 2008). Flame is the spectacular part of a fire (Debano et al,

1998), a common symbol of fire is smoke. Hundreds of elements are produced during the

exothermic reaction of combustion. These elements are released through oxidation and to

atmosphere. Many of these compounds have high evaporation temperature, as a

consequence always ready to condense and become soot, tar and water inside air condenser

above fire, causing formation of clouds from visible smokes. The impacts of smoke on

environment vary from local that is preventing visibility to global warming (Saharjo, 2008).

These impacts are mostly the results of principal chemical products and secondary emission

of burning.

Principal chemical products

The principal chemical elements of combustion are easily vaporized elements (but not

oxidized) during combustion process, forming partial chain or the whole perfect oxidation

from organic fuel materials and forming pyrosynthesis throughout the combustion. Some of

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91

these products include C2 and water vapour, are normal elements of atmosphere, but often

the other products are air pollutants such as particulates, CO, SO2, NO2, and Ozone (O3).

CO2

The biggest emission released to the atmosphere as a result of combustion is CO2. Together

with water vapour, CO2 amounts to 90 % from fire emission where mostly (80-90%) are C

emissions. CO2 is 99 % resulted from C emission from efficient combustion that is

combustion that used up the whole most of the fuels, if not all from available fuel materials,

but, but only 50% in low intensity smoldering fire. The chemical compounds are not air

pollutants but greenhouse gases thus have the potentials of causing global warming. 

CO

Carbon monoxide (CO) is generally produced through the incomplete burning of humid

(wet) fuel materials, including air pollutants. The amount of CO released into atmosphere is

a function of combustion efficiency, and increased with a decrease in efficiency

(inefficient). The impacts of CO on human health depend on the burning period,

concentration of CO and level of physical activity. Fire extinguishers who are directly

involved with extinguishing fires would be careful of the impacts of CO such as nausea,

tiredness and loss of concentration and orientation.

Particulate

Particulate (Saharjo, 2008) is an important chemical element release by fire due to its impacts

on human health and visibility. Emission of particles degrades air quality by reducing

visibility and in several cases disturbs human health through breathing disturbance.

Distribution of particle size in smoke vary, mostly depending on chemical element and fuel

type that was consumed and released heat which are characteristic of each individual fire.

Monitoring smoke plume from the air that is generated from vegetation wastes combustion is

known to have size of 0.15μm and > 43μm (Radke et al, 1990). Bigger particles are in smoke

plume that is form de to air turbulence not through burning. Small particles found in plume

smoke allow several particles to be carried into the lungs. 

Hydrocarbon

Hydrocarbons are released by many combustions (Saharjo, 2008) and are groups of various

elements and different in their atmospheric reaction depending on their chemical structure.

Aliphatic hydrocarbon relatively non-active on the air. This saturated hydrogen compound

produce about 15% of hydrocarbon emissions in smoldering fire, and 30 % during flaming

phase from one fire incident (Sandberg et al, 1975).

Hydrocarbon (Saharjo, 2008) as a group is not considered as criteria of air pollutant,

although hydrocarbon traces could impact air quality (reduce visibility) and human health.

Hydrocarbon related to air quality and human health are aldehyde and Polynuclear Aromatic

Hydrocarbon (PAH). Aldehyde found within smoke will cause eye, nose and stomach

irritations. Aldehyde also influences the performance of firemen through depression of

breathing rate. Aldehyde production in combustion ranges between 0.6 to 2.5 % of fuel

weight.

Methane

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91

Methane (Saharjo, 2008) is the third abundant greenhouse gas that contributes to global

warming. About 10 % of methane is release into atmosphere each year generated by

biomass combustions (Andreae, 1991). Other hydrocarbons that are released into the

atmosphere have on the average rate of 70% of methane emissions.

Nitrogen and SO2

The production of NO(x) from fire mostly depend on the N content of the consume fuel.

Both NO and NO2 are reactive gases that are emitted from fire (Lobart and Warnatz, 1993).

Thermal NO is a stable product of combustion. Although NO2 is not less stable than NO, its

abundant will increase in smoldering fire. Conversion of N fuel to NO(x) can vary and about

5 % for wood and close to 40 % for organic soil. There is a linier relationship between N

fuel and NO(x) emissions into the atmosphere in the form of smoke plume (Clements and

McMahon, 1980). Nitrogen oxide is classified as air pollutants and as a way for ozone

formation and other air pollutants. Other nitrogen compounds that are release during

combustions are ammonia, nitrite, hydrogen cyanide, acetronitrile, nitric acid, amino acids

and heterocyclic N. 

Sulphur oxide makes S as the principal fire emission. SO2 is an air pollutant although not

really been considered, mostly because of its small fraction in cloud formation. Between 40

to 60 % of S in consumed fuel are left as ash. 

A collaboration research between Japan and Indonesia (Saharjo, 2008) was conducted on

September 1997 in South Sumatra (peat area) and found that there is an increase of carbon

monoxide as much as 40 times, methyl chloride 123 times, methyl bromide 15 times and

methyl iodide 43 times. Levine et al., (1999) also reported that fires occurred in Sumatra and

Kalimantan in 1997 have increased gases by folds compared to the 1991 explosion of oil

refinery in Kuwait, or similar to carbon dioxide gas 2.5 times, carbon monoxide 50 times,

methane 8 times, nitrogen 197 times and particles 9 times.

Table 4.2. Type of emissions, amount of gas and particles release during the 1997/1998 fire

(Levin et al, 1999).

Emission type Land use type (vegetation) Total emissions (million metric tonnes)

CO2 Agriculture 9.234

Forest Fire 11.080

Peat 171.170

Total emission 191.485

CO Agriculture 0.785

Forest Fire 0.942

Peat 31.067

Total emission 32.794

NH3 Agriculture 0.10

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91

Forest Fire 0.12

Peat 2.563

Total emission 2.585

CH4 Agriculture 0.030

Forest Fire 0.035

Peat 1.780

Total emission 1.845

NOx Agriculture 0.023

Forest Fire 0.027

Peat 5.848

Total emission 5.898

O3 Agriculture 0.177

Forest Fire 0.213

Peat 6.710

Total emission 7.100

Total particle matter Agriculture 0.046

Forest Fire 0.547

Peat 15.561

Total emission 16.154

Based on a formula by Seiler and Crutzen (1980), Levine et. al., (1999) has calculated the

amount f gas emissions from combustions on agriculture, forest and peatlands in 1997 from

Sumatra and Kalimantan with a total burned areas of 45,600 km2 with the following results:

carbon dioxide gas 191.5 million metric tonnes where 171 million metric tonnes originated from

peat combustion, carbon monoxide gas 32.8 million metric tonnes where 31 million tonnes

generated by peat combustion, methane gas 1.84 million metric tonnes where 1.78 million tonnes

generated by peat combustion and particulates 16 million metric tonnes where 15.6 million

metric tonnes generated through peat combustion. As a result, the 1997/1998 fire that consumes

up to 10 million ha of forest and lands, produced 1 Giga tonnes of carbon dioxide which place

Indonesia as one of the largest carbon dioxide producer country in the world since 22% of

carbon dioxide products originated from Indonesia. 

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91

Figure 4.3. Estimation of annual average carbon emission due to peatland fire (Hoojier et al,

2006)

8. Smoke distribution

Figure 4.4. Smoke from forest fire that covers the earth’s surface in the afternoon 

Smoke distribution (Saharjo, 2008) is very much effected by weather condition especially

wind (velocity and direction) and stability of atmosphere (stable, unstable and neutral). On

unstable atmospheric condition where air masses from the surface experience uplift and air

masses will keep increasing, then smoke will easily spread and mix with air, hence smoke is

not trap on the troposphere layer f the atmosphere. This situation is hazardless in seen from

the pollution perspective. On stable atmosphere where air masses will be uplifted until

certain altitude and down lifted again, hence this will he hazardous because it will lift the

smoke and put it down on other areas. This explains why smoke in Indonesia could be

carried to neighbouring countries or what is known as transboundary haze pollution. On

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91

neutral atmospheric condition where air masses is neutral (not uplifted nor down lifted), the

resulting smoke will be maintain on the origin of smoke thus is hazardous for human health

and disturb activities. Small particles will be carried by wind movement as gases and also

through air vertical particle movement (convection) hence can be carried to the upper layer

of the atmosphere. 

9. Reasons for the occurrence of fires

Fire has been used since 500,000 years ago, but the use of fire commenced only about 20,00

years ago (Johnston, 1970). Various historical records suggest how fire was use then and

now (Saharjo, 2008). One example of use of fire is by the Aborigines of Australia. Fire was

use to clear dense vegetation to open up roads, regenerate plants suitable for cash crops and

use of fire prevention around tents. 

For most ecosystems (Saharjo, 2008), fire is a natural catalyst for their diversity and

stability. Without fire, forest communities become homogen and allow the existence of

similar species, accumulation of fuel materials, stagnation and inappropriate reproduction

thus easily attack by pests and diseases. 

Currently, fire a management tool that is relatively cheap, easy and quick. Controlled fire

can be use to protect land from wild fire and also to eliminate unwanted species to increase

diversity within community and other reasons (Saharjo, 2008). 

The risk of fire (Saharjo, 2008) will dramatically increased through the conversion of forest

into rubber and oil palm plantation, Industrial Plantation Forest and logging in natural forest

that open up tree crowns causing dryness of ground cover. Field results suggested that

forest fires are easily occurred on secondary damage forest due to previous logging

operations. 

Logging activities increase the risk of fires and destruction (Mackie, 1984). Accessible roads

will allow migrants and local people to enter and use the land. Furthermore, logging

activities will cause log accumulations (generated from unused logs). Around 65-80 % of

the 1997/1998 forest fire was found on forest concession areas and plantation (Saharjo,

2008). Furthermore, the increase demand of raw materials for pulp and paper which tend to

increase by years cause the need for increase and sustainable supplies. To maintain

production sustainability, there need to be some alternative raw materials which are

renewable and this is through the establishment of Industrial Plantation Forest.

Unfortunately, due to high demand of raw materials, the only way to realize this is by

preparing land through the use of fire. Furthermore the tradition of using fire to clear land

used by shifting cultivators is the only practical way, cheap and quick, thus this kind of land

clearing activity will be encounter every dry season/drought. Specifically for those

cultivators, there is a tendency that they are not only clearing land for survival but also for

business purposes, since the working area covers tenths of hectares and the plant type also

change to rubber or oil palm.

Forest fires (Saharjo, 2008) dot not easily occurred since stands/vegetations have certain

effective prevention mechanism. Such efforts is done through maintaining the relative

temperature and humidity inside the stands thus allowing fuel materials to slowly experience

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91

dehydration and distillation and pyrolysis. This is done through establishing dense crown

and stands. Through this mechanism, sunlight has difficulty to reach forest floor beyond its

normal range, thus reduce the risk of change in temperature, humidity and wind velocity.

As a result, the stand will have lower temperature with high humidity thus reduces the

occurrence of fire. All of these can only be done if photosynthesis process (by trees and

ground cover) can occur without disturbance. For ground cover, the optimum condition for

a photosynthesis process could stimulate the growth of micro organism and grow on forest

floor allowing decomposition process to take place (Saharjo, 2008).

However, if undisturbed, water availability will decrease due to prolong drought thus ground

water level decease and disturb the photosynthesis process (Saharjo, 2008). Under such

disturbance, leaves will wither and dry thus relatively easy to burn. As a result, the micro

climate under the stands, both above and below the ground changes. Temperature will

increase, humidity will decrease and wind velocity will increase. With such changes, the

risk of fire is higher. Once rainfall is below 100 mm per month and within two to three

weeks without rain, forest vegetation will shed their leaves progressively with increase dry

level. Furthermore, water content of surface fuels become low, while woody fuels and

litters underneath form layers hat allow the spread of fore on above ground fire.

(Goldammer, 1996).

The risk of fire (Saharjo, 2008) will dramatically increase through the conversion of forest

materials into rubber and oil palm plantations as well as exploitation of natural forest that

open up crowns and lost of ground covers. Plants become drier and trees fill every available

space compare to tropical rain forest, which allow fire to spread. There are many proofs that

fires are easier to occur on secondary disturbed forest through logging. Selection cutting

have damage ground covers and destroy crown that provide cover causing forest fire (WWF,

1998).

This information showed that natural forest (Saharjo, 2008) can get burned if there is a

disturbance on the natural processes within the ecosystem causing other disturbances such as

photosynthesis process that disturbs the function of plants’ organs. One of the factors that

can disturb ecosystems is prolong drought or the presence of El-Nino on certain periods

(Saharjo, 2008). Ecosystem disturbance can also be caused by human activity through

logging such as unregulated logging causing drier micro climate within the stands allowing

more pyrolysis process to take place thus increasing the chance of forest fire. According to

Fuller (1991) climate and weather can influence forest fires since: 1. Climate determine the

amounts of available fuels, 2. Climate determine the length and nature of fire season, 3.

Weather regulate water content and ease of fuels to burn and 4. Weather affects the flaming

process and spread of fire.

B. Forest Cutting 

1. Forest

Forest as an investment in national development provides real benefits for living things including

ecological, social, cultural and economical benefits. (Saharjo, 2008). Therefore forest must be

managed, protected and utilize sustainably for the welfare of Indonesian people, in this

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91

generation and future generations. With regard to its role as a life support system, forest has

given significant benefits for human beings. Forest balance global environment thus its position

within global level becomes very important although focus should still be on national needs

(Explanation of Law of Forestry No.41 year 1999). 

Forest resources have significant roles in supplying industrial raw materials, income sources,

establishing employment and work opportunities (Saharjo, 2008). Forest products are

commodities that can be transform into processing products to get their additional value and

open up opportunities for employment and work. Forest products processing should not degrade

the forest as the supply of raw materials for industries. In order to maintain balance between the

ability to supply raw materials and their processing industries, thus regulation, management and

development of upland processing industries for forest products should be regulated by the

Minister of Forestry. Forest utilization is not limited only for wood and non-wood products, but

must also be extended to utilization of plasma nutfah and environmental services, to obtain a

more optimum forest utilization (as explained in Act No.41 of 1999).

2. Deforestation

Based on the integration and harmonization of 1999 Forest Land Use by Consensus (TGHK) –

Provincial Spatial Planning (RTRWP), the total natural forest was estimated to be approximately

120,353,104 ha (Purnama, 2003), where 50 million ha was estimated to be the total degraded

forest (Haeruman, 2003). Based on satellite imagery, the rate of deforestation of natural forest

during 1985 - 1997 was 1.6 million ha/year, during 1997 - 2000 was 2.8 million ha/year and

become even more uncontrollable during 2000 - 2003 (Purnama, 2003). As a result, Indonesia

has experienced national loss about Rp 30,000 billions. Ironic that a country with rich natural

endowments but poor people. Moreover, due to the extensive deforestation, have caused

environmental degradation such as flood, drought, fires, pests and diseases, global warming, land

slides and erosion that all have contributed to the sufferings of Indonesian community and

people (Darusman, 2003). Unfortunately, some of logging licenses were obtained from the

government and related authorities and have been happening for years such as in Riau Province. 

Based on 2001data from FWI/GFW, it was known that since 1900-1997 especially during the

periods of 1985-1997, the Island of Sumatra has lost about 61% of its terrestrial forest or equal to

3,391,400 ha. This was based on an assumption that in 1900 the total forest cover was

16,000,000 ha which decreased to 5,559,700 ha in 1985 and again decreased to 2,168,300 ha by

1997. During the same period, Kalimantan Island has lost 58% of its terrestrial forest and

Sulawesi has lost 89%, of which the average lost of terrestrial forest of the three islands on the

average was 60% during the periods of 1985-1997.

An interesting issue from the forestry sector is that the deforestation rate in Indonesia is

considered very high (SLI, 2008). During the years of 2000-2006 alone, the deforestation rate

was about 1.09 million ha/year with the highest rate occurring in Sumatra and Kalimantan. The

alarming rate of deforestation is blamed for the occurrence of million hectares of critical lands,

estimated to reach about more than 77 million ha both in and out of formal forest areas (SLI,

2008). The biggest critical lands are found in West Kalimantan Province, East Kalimantan and

Riau. Deforestation rate during 1982-1990 reached a figure of 900,000 ha/year; year 1990-1997

reached 1.8 million ha/year and year 1997-2000 reached 2.83 million ha/year. During

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2000-2005, its rate decreases to 1.09 million ha/year. There are many factors causing the high

deforestation rate and land degradation, where change of land use for agriculture/plantation is

thought to be the prime factor. Expansion of oil palm plantation in Riau Province made

deforestation rate as the highest. For a very long time, land and forest resources have

economically contributed great benefits to the country (Saharjo, 2008). Unfortunately, these

benefits were exchanged with land and forest resources degradation. Million hectares of critical

lands were formed due to the unsustainable utilization of land and forest resources. 

By 2007 (SLI, 2008) land transformation into plantation has reached about 4,741,194 ha and

settlements for transmigration scheme has reached 956,672.81 ha. Based on the available data, it

was known that land use change into plantation in Riau province was the highest reaching a

figure of 1,611,859.68 ha and followed by Central Kalimantan with 619,868.37 ha. Demands for

agriculture and plantation tend to increase, which indirectly were the results of increased demand

for production of certain commodities from agricultural and plantation sectors. In plantation

sector, there is a promising business and prospects of oil palm plantation. This has caused the

expansion of oil palm plantation in several places in Indonesia. In 2006, the production of palm

oil reached a total of 16,080,000 tonnes; 3,800,000 tonnes for national consumption and

12,101,000 tonnes for exports. Indonesian palm oil production has contributed about 41 % of

world’s imports that totalled to 29,178,000 tonnes.

Indonesian government has targeted that by 2010, about 10% of all the national fuel

requirements will be supplied through Biofuels; 70% will be based on oil palm or known as

biodiesel (SLI, 2008). In order to meet this requirements, there has to be an increased of supply

or productivity of oil palm in big amount. Thus the government through the Ministry of

Agriculture has targeted expansion and replanting of oil palm under the plantation revitalization

program for year 2007-2010 as much as 1,375 million ha (expansion) and 125,000 ha

(replanting). 

C. Animal Husbandry

Prior to industrial era (Tampang, 2009) human activities did not contribute much to greenhouse

gases. Unfortunately, increase in human population, forest clearance, animal husbandry,

industries and use of fossil fuels have resulted in the increase of greenhouse gases in the

atmosphere and contribute to global warming. Animal husbandry alone has contributed about 9

percent of carbon dioxide, 37 percent of methane gas (has warming effects of 72 times stronger

than CO2 within 20 years, and 23 times within 100 years), and 5 percent of nitrogen oxide (has

warming effect of 296 times stronger than CO2). Animal husbandry also produces ammonia

through human activities that resulted in acid rain (www.pbbn.or.id).

The transformations of land into husbandry including transformation of land into grassland and

for grazing areas as well as forest clearance for husbandries have contributed about 2.4 trillion

tonnes of CO2 annually (Tampang, 2009). Methane gas that is release during the process of

animal digestion could reach up to 86 million tonnes annually while methane released from

animal wastes could reach 18 million tonnes annually.

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V. CARBON STORAGE IN PEATLANDS

Plant biomass increases because plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and alter it into organic

matter through photosynthesis process (Whitmore, 1985). Estimation of vegetation biomass can

provide information on the amount of carbon and nutrients stored in vegetation. To calculate

vegetation biomass in a tree is not easy. According to Haygreen and Bowyer (1996), biomass is

determined by multiplying volume with wood density. 

Carbon calculation, according to Booth (2003) is a process of estimating the amount of carbon

found on different parts of a system. This is done to estimate the amount of carbon that can be

traded or used as data to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. There are two principal methods of

carbon calculation, i.e., direct calculation by calculating the amount of carbon in a tree, litter and

soil or by using a model to estimate the stored carbon within a system.

Each tree species has different ability to absorb carbon due to their typical differences in the

ability to absorb sunlight, water level and soil fertility that are affecting photosynthesis. Carbon

is stored in dead materials such as litters, log, fallen trees decayed (Whitmore, 1985). 

The reduced carbon concentration in the atmosphere occurs through photosynthesis process by

green plants. Photosynthesis is defined as the conversion of CO2 and H2O into sugar using

chlorophyll and the energy from sunlight. Photosynthesis is the assimilation of carbonic

compounds where organic compounds such as CO2 and H2O are converted into C6H12O6

molecule using the energy from sunlight and chlorophyll. On converted lands that are

experiencing degradation, carbon emissions can be reduced by replantation to trap increased soil

carbon emission through photosynthesis (Brown et al., 1993).

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Our atmosphere consists of 60,249 x 10 15 carbon molecules comprising of 59.9 x 10 12 CO2

molecules; 0.33 x 10 15 CH4 molecules and 0.19 x 10 15 CO molecules. Carbon emission occurs

during several activities such as: 1) plant, animal and human respiration, 2) fossil fuels

combustion such as kerosene, coal etc, 3) forest fires and 4) volcano eruption.

Basically, carbon (Soedomo et al., 2001) is generated through anthropogenic and natural

activities. The main source of CO2 is organic materials from micro-organism activities, gas

exchanges on sea, forest cutting, respiration by animal, human and fossil fuels combustion.

Anthropogenic activities such as industries, use of fossil fuels and land transformations (cutting,

land clearance and huge forest fires are the principal sources of carbon emissions). 

A preliminary study estimated that the decomposition of peatland and peatland combustion in

Indonesia amounts to 2000 Mt CO2/year, where most are cause by deforestation (Uryu et al.,

2008).

A. Peatland

Peat swamp forest (Saharjo, 2008) is a type of forest with specific conditions where the peat is

formed from previous forest generation’s remains. Peatlands are areas formed from an

accumulation of partially decayed dead ancient plant materials, comprising of a minimum of

12-18 % C-organic with minimum depth of 50 cm. Peat has double meaning, that is peat as

organic material (peat) and organic soil (peat soil). Peat and peat soil have different functions.

Peat as organic material is source of energy, medium for plant growth or organic fertilizer, while

peat as organic soil is used for agricultural purposes and can be manage within agricultural

system (Andriesse, 1988).

There are three known organic materials based on decomposition level of the parent materials,

i.e., fibric, hemic and sapric (Saharjo, 2008). Fibric is generally has a bulk density of less than

0.1 g/cm3, fibre content of 2/3 of its volume, and water content during saturation ranges between

850 % to more than 3000 % based on oven dry weight, colour is generally yellowish brown, dark

brown or reddish brown. Hemic has a moderate decomposition level, with bulk density between

0.07-0.18 g/cm3 and normal fibre content between 1/3 – 2/3 of its volume. Maximum water

content during saturation ranges between 250-450 %, greyish brown to dark reddish brown in

colour. Sapric has a bulk density bigger than or equal to 0.2 g/cm3 and average fibre content

less than 1/3 of its volume. Maximum normal water content during saturation is less than 450 %

and dark grey to black in colour. The total peatland area in Indonesia varies, some estimate

about 18.4 million ha and some estimate about 15.5 million ha where 10.5 ha occur on tidal

swamp agroecosystem and 4.99 million ha occur on valley swamp agroecosystem. Typical of

peat is the low pH (3-4.5), relatively low organic matters compared to mineral soils especially P

and K, and irreversible drying property, meaning upon drying, the peat will not returned to its

original form (similar when the peat is combusted, it will not go back to its original form due to

the damaged peat). 

Tropical peatland comprises 10-15 % of all global peatlands estimated to be 400 million ha with

relatively greater depth and may store about 70 Gt or about 20 % of all soil carbons (Immirzi and

Maltby, 1992). The extent of peatlands in Indonesia ranges between 16.5-27 million ha, an

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estimation that reflects the different definition related to its thickness (Sugandhy, 1997). The

dominant peatland and peat swamp areas in Sumatra, Kalimantan and Papua make up

approximately 99.5 % of all peatlands in Indonesia; Sulawesi with 340,000 ha (0,2%) and

Maluku with 42,000 ha (0.25%). In Sumatra alone, peat ecosystem dominates an area of 4.6

million ha along the eastern coast of North Sumatra to South Sumatra. In Kalimantan, peatland

dominates 3.5 million ha especially on the western coast of West Kalimantan, middle part of

Central Kalimantan and on several parts on East Kalimantan. In Papua, peatland dominates most

of the southern coast and some on south-western coast with a total area of 8.7 million ha

(Sugandhy, 1997). 

There is a general classification of peat based on depth, where less than 100 cm is classified as

shallow peat, between 100-200 cm as moderate peat and more than 200 cm as deep peat

(Radjagukguk, 1992). Nevertheless, there is no information of any peat areas that are included

under this category. Depth of peat varies between 0.5 m to more than 10m. The average depth

of peat is not known, 3 meter maybe considered too low but 5 meter seems unlikely (Rieley et

al., 1997). There are two main categories of peat in Indonesia, topogenous and ombrogenous.

Topogenous peat is often found in swamp areas where there is an accumulation of shallow

organic materials (< 50 cm). The area is inundated by river water during rainy season when they

receive nutrients to maintain forest biomass sustainability. Ombrogenous peat is the true peat

swamp (organic materials > 50 cm), where water and nutrients supplies are only obtained from

the air such as aerosol, debris and rainwater; they are situated far from river bodies and

mengangkangi flow areas between water catchments.

In Indonesia, the lowland peat swamp supports forest vegetation, although some have been

degraded and on upland peat are dominated by sedge and pandan thickets (Saharjo, 2008). Peat

swamps forest consists of a catena of forest types which replace each other from the swamp

perimeter near to rivers and their tributaries to their centre (Dilmy, 1965; Anderson, 1963); this

change reflects variations in peat depth, water logging and nutrients availability for tree growth.

The principal characteristics of this zonation is replacement of the higher canopy forest of the

edge zone (35-40 m high) by a denser, lower growing pole forest in which tree diameters rarely

exceed 30 cm and the canopy of which is less than 20 m high (Anderson, 1963). Trees of the low

pole forest show an increasing tendency to xeromorphism and chlorosis of their foliage. Whilst

peat swamp forest vegetation is less diverse than dry land rain forest, it has been recognised as

an important reservoir of plant diversity in Southeast Asia (Whitmore 1984). The tree diversity

varies from only 30-50 spp. ha-1 in the low pole forest up to 240 spp. ha-1 in the mixed swamp

marginal forest (Anderson 1963).

1. Forest and Peat Conversions 

There is a limited commercial use of forest and forest land resources up to the middle of

this decade (Saharjo, 2008). The most drastic change occurred when the Law of Forestry

was issued in 1967. Million hectares of forest land have been given licences as forest

concession areas at the end of 1960s and early 1970s became the leading wood booming

in Sumatra and Kalimantan that alter the spatial planning of the two islands for more than

two decades. Government policies and allocation procedures and forest concession

supervision are not regulated and full of corruption that resulted in serious impacts of

forest ecosystem, biodiversity and people inhabiting the forest. Forest management and

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land use practice in Sumatra and Kalimantan have developed rapidly fro these past three

decades (Scweithelm, 1998). Indonesian forests have been exploited at the rate of 40

million m3 per year, a rate that is almost twice the recommended rate by the Minister of

Forestry for sustainable yield (UNCHS, 1999). Based on landsat imagery, in 2000 less

than 101.73 million ha out of the total forest and land areas have been degraded where

59.62 million ha are forest where 10.52 million ha are in protection forest; 4.69 million

ha in conservation forest and the rest about 44.42 million ha in production forest. The

deforestation rate during 1985-1997 was estimated to be about 1.6 million ha/year, during

1997-2000 increase drastically about 3.8 million ha/year and during 2000-2003 was

difficult to estimate due to difficulty in monitoring (Purnama, 2003) or estimated to be

around 2.8 million ha/year.

2. Commercial Use of Peat 

There is wide spread and unabated conversion of peatland for agriculture and forestry

(Maltby et al., 1996). Other forms of conversion such as mining for energy or horticulture

and aquaculture are much more limited and mainly experimental. In Indonesia, 3.72

million ha (18% of the total peat swamp forest) have had some forms of development

(Silvius and Giessen, 1996) of which at least 500.000 ha have been cultivated by the

transmigration farmers (Notohadiprawiro, 1996). Much of the land cleared for agriculture

has been abandoned subsequently for a number of reasons which derived from a

consideration of the hydro physical and biochemical properties of peat and

socio-economic limitations to sectoral development of peatlands (Maltby et al., 1996).

About 20% of peat swamps in Indonesia have been developed mostly for agriculture, a

sector that influences the remaining peat swamp forest resource (Rieley et al., 1997).

Extensive use of peat swamp areas have resulted in mush of it being deforested and

drained under Indonesia government and foreign aid-funded programs whilst an

additional large area has been occupied by spontaneous settlers (Rieley et al., 1997). A

large population and high pace of economics development, have increased pressure for

the development of tropical peatland for different land use. 

3. Fires in Peatland

Peat is a type of fuel that is found below the ground, therefore it is one of the fuels

forming ground fuels (Saharjo, 2008). Ground fuel has higher water content compared to

above ground fuels (litters, twigs and log) and crown fuels (tree crown, leaves, moss and

epiphytes). If ground fire occurs, the spread of fire will be slow because it is not effected

by wind (found below ground), causing uneven distribution of fire and difficulty in

detecting where the fire might occur. The only thing that is seen is the white smoke on

the surface. This type of combustion is known as smoldering combustion that is

combustion without the help of oxygen (wind). 

Ground fire does not appear on its own (Saharjo, 2008) but very often initiated with

surface fire. Due to surface fire, heat will penetrate to lower surfaces through the pores of

the peats, burned logs and roots of shrubs where the upper parts have been burned. Heat

(Saharjo, 2008) can penetrates below the ground if the peat water content is sufficiently

low thus allowing combustion to occur, but if the water content is high, heat penetration

will be inhibited. Therefore, surface fires can transform into ground fires due to lower

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water content within the peat. It is understandable why particular traditional

communities are reluctant to burn peatlands during dry period, since such activity would

be be harmful because depth of the burning peat will increase as compare to burning

during rainy season (although not dense). While for oil palm companies, they can

regulate the height of the water level through canals that they established. 

Smoldering phase normally follows flaming combustion, although slowly (< 3 cm/hour)

and flameless (Saharjo, 2008). Smoldering is the initial combustion phase in these fuel

types (peat) while on fire consuming non-peat fuel is tahapan penyalaan (filled with

oxygen). There are two zones characterizing this smoldering phase: 1) a pyrolysis zone

with evolving combustion products and 2) a charcoal zone with no visible combustion

product release. The rate of fire spread decreases because the fuels are not able to supply

combustible gases in concentrations and at rates needed to support vigorous combustions.

Subsequently, heat release declines and temperature drop, causing larger amounts of

gases to condense into smoke. Smoke persists near the ground in high concentrations and

atmospheric emissions double or triple over those released during the flaming phase

(Johansen et al, 1989). Particulate product emissions during the smoldering phase are

greater than those of the flaming phase. An increasing proportion of smoldering during

flaming combustion can result in a doubling or tripling of the particulate (Debano et al,

1998). When smoldering combustion dominates, the volatile gas and vapour products that

are characteristic of pyrolysis in the pre-ignition and the flaming phases cease to evolve.

Particulate emissions can then increase tenfold and charcoal builds up on the surface of

woody fuels when smoldering predominates.

The above information suggest that burning peatland (Saharjo, 2008) will occur slowly

(resulting in a complex management), with imperfect combustion process (lack of

oxygen) forming more gases as compare to burning process where the flaming is more

dominant (Saharjo, 2008). This occurs because peats (organic materials) found below

ground have different decomposition level (fibric, hemic dan sapric) with high water

content. 

According to Usup et al., (2001) there are two types of peatland fire in Central

Kalimantan; the first type is ground fire that occur on upper layer of the peat on depth of

10-20 cm with spreading rate of 3.8 cm/hour; and the second type occur on the peat layer

on depth of 20-25 cm with spreading rate of 1.3 cm/hour.

Most tropical fires are set or spread accidentally or intentionally by humans and are

related to several causative agents; some of them limited to subsistence livelihood, others

to commercial activities (Qadri 2001). Foremost among the various underlying causes of

catastrophic fires in Southeast Asia in 1997-1998 are the uses of open burning techniques

for conversion of forestland to other land use, e.g., estate crops, industrial plantation and

other commercial enterprises, traditional slash-burn agriculture and speculative burning

to stake land claims (Qadri 2001). 

Forest plants communities are important in regulating regional, local and global climate

(Saharjo, 2008). At local level, trees provide protection and regulate water that provides

cooling effect during hot weather. Trees also act as barrier of storms and reduce the lost

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of heat energy in cold season. At regional level, water evaporation from trees is release

to atmosphere and return as rain. The lost of vegetation in areas such as the Amazon and

West Africa could reduce the average regional rainfall. At global level, plant growth

relates to carbon cycle. The lost of vegetation would reduce the absorption of carbon

dioxide that resulted in greenhouse effect. Plants also produce oxygen necessary for

animals and human beings (Primack et al., 1998).

In Riau Province, one of Indonesia provinces in Sumatra (Saharjo, 2008), most of the

smoke produced recently, are due to land preparation using fire for oil palm and

plantation forests. Sumatra is home to approximately 6.3 million ha or 33% of Indonesia

tropical freshwater wetlands (RePPProT, 1996). These inlands freshwater wetlands

include both peat and alluvial swamps. With dry land areas already extensively

developed, the wetlands of Sumatra are increasingly the focus of economic activities,

including large-scale forestry and oil palm plantations, particularly in Riau and North

Sumatra. The companies believed (Saharjo, 2008) that peat lands are suitable for

large-scale tree plantation because they are vast and largely uninhabited, with few land

claims, unlike the dry land areas. Forestry plantation companies in Riau covered about

1.5 M ha where peat lands included in, while oil palm plantation is covered about 3.13 M

ha which 390.000 of it was in peat (Saharjo, 2008). Recently, worst situation appeared in

several district governments mostly in Riau province. The opinion made by the

companies that wetlands is suitable for oil palm plantation is followed by the District

Government’s collaboration with oil palm companies to open the peat land areas with

ambitious plan that is to open, e.g., 40,000 ha for oil palm plantation that unfortunately

using fire for the land preparation. 

South Sumatra province receives large influxes of transmigrants since 1969 and around

30,000 ha of pristine coastal peat swamp forest were reclaimed by chainsaw, drainage

and fire to accommodate many of the new arrivals (Dis 1986). At least 28,000 ha people

were settled on tidal swamp schemes to the north and east of Palembang (Danielsen and

Verheugt 1990). Intended for tidal rice cultivation, the schemes were conspicuously

unsuccessful and in many cases failed completely. The drainage has caused a marked

reduction in the dry season water table over large areas, and this, together with the

grassland and shrub vegetation that replaced the forest, has substantially increased fire

risk that is low in the undisturbed ecosystem (Bowen et al., 2000). Extensive legal and

illegal logging has devastated widespread areas and increased fire risk in others parts of

the swamps. Some of the most heavily exploited areas are now being planted to pulp and

timber species. The use of fire to clear the land is standard, and in 1997 one logging

company that had applied to government for authorization to convert to pulpwood estate,

systematically burnt 40,000 ha of peat land in anticipation of approval (Nicolas and

Bowen 1999). The growing of sonor rice is a tradition of people living along rivers in the

wetlands of South Sumatra and has now been taken-up by transmigrants (Bowen et al.,

2000). It is practiced only at the end of at least a three months drought when long-straw

local rice varieties are direct-sown into a rising water table. The crop is harvested by

boat. The dangers come from the fires set to clear the land. The farmer’s prospect to find

most fertile soils and clear up to five times more land than is sown, wildfires are

inevitable consequences (Bowen et al., 2000). It had been reported that in 1997 alone at

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91

least 75,000 ha were cleared for sonor alone in South Sumatra (that is still practiced until

today) while the total of coastal wetlands burned was 500,000 ha. Bowen et al., (2000)

identified that the source of fire in South Sumatra mostly from commercial logging which

produced high fuel load, forest conversion and shifting cultivation. 

In Jambi there was about 341,000 ha of peat or 7.4 % of all peats in Sumatra and 162,700

ha is found within Berbak National Park. Unfortunately, due to illegal logging and fire,

only 30 % of the area are currently left as forest (Lubis and Suryadiputra 2004). Mega

rice project in Central Kalimantan was one of the best examples where more than 1

million ha of peat swamp forest had dissapeared.

4. Carbon storage in peatland

It is estimated that peatland stored about 25-30% out of the total terrestrial carbon or equal

to 550,000-650,000 million tonnes of CO2 or 75% of the atmospheric carbon or 100 years

of fossil fuel emission. Therefore, peat helps in preventing global warming for more than

10,000 years through absorbing 1,200 billion tonnes of CO2 (Murdiyarso, 2005). 

The majority of soil carbon found in peatland ranges between 329-528 Gt (Graham, 1991;

Immirzi dan Maltby, 1992; Page et al., 2004). This means that 20% of global soil carbon

can be found in peatland (Page et al., 2004).

When wetland is drained to be converted into agricultural land or other land use, the soil

will be exposed to oxygen. The carbon content that is resistant to decay under anaerobe

prevalent within wetland could be lost through respiration under aerobe condition

(Minkkinen dan Laine, 1998 in Watson et al., 2000).

A collaboration research between Japan and Indonesia (Saharjo, 2008) was conducted on

September 1997 in South Sumatra (peat area) and found that there is an increase of carbon

monoxide as much as 40 times, methyl chloride 123 times, methyl bromide 15 times and

methyl iodide 43 times. Levine et al., (1999) also reported that fires occurred in Sumatra

and Kalimantan in 1997 have increased gases by folds compared to the 1991 explosion of

oil refinery in Kuwait, or similar to carbon dioxide gas 2.5 times, carbon monoxide 50

times, methane 8 times, nitrogen 197 times and particles 9 times. Based on calculation

using the formula by Seiler and Crutzen (1980), Levine et al., (1999) has calculate the

amount of gas emissions that was released by fires occurring in agriculture, forest and peat

in 1997 in Sumatra and Kalimantan with a total of burned areas of 45,600 km2 with the

following results: carbon dioxide gas 191.5 million metric tonnes where 171 million metric

tonnes originated from peat combustion, carbon monoxide gas 32.8 million metric tonnes

where 31 million tonnes originated from peat combustion, methane gas 1.84 million metric

tonnes where 1.78 million tonnes originated from peat combustion and particle materials

16 million metric tonnes where 15.6 million metric tonnes originated from peat

combustion. Hence, the 1997/1998 forest fires resulted in the destruction of 10 million ha

of forest and land producing about 1 Giga tonnes of CO2 that put Indonesia as one of the

largest carbon producers in the world since 22% of world’s carbon was produced by

Indonesia. However, early November 2002, a script in a recognized journal, “Nature”

reported that the 1997/1998 Indonesian forest and land fires have released 2.6 trillion

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91

carbons into the atmosphere that is far from the previous estimation of 1 trillion tonnes in

1999. With 1 trillion tonnes, Indonesia ranks first as the largest carbon producer in the

world with 22% of world’s carbon resulted from Indonesia 1997/1998 fires. For

comparison purpose, human activities during 1990s produced an average of 6 trillion

carbons annually. A production of 2.6 trillion tonnes of carbon is equal to 13-40 percent of

global carbon production. This indicates that fires on peatland resulted in more hazards

thus require early preventions. 

Using a satellite image of a 2.5 million ha land area located on the 1 million ha ex-PLG

(ex-mega rice Project) in Palangkaraya, Central Kalimantan before and after the 1997 fire,

Page et al., (2002), finds that 0.73 million ha (91.5%) out of the total 32 % (0.75 million

ha) of burned area was peat. Based on field calculation on various peat depths, it is

estimated that about 0.19-0.23 Giga tonnes (Gt.) of carbon that was released into the

atmosphere during combustion and other 0.05 Gt. carbon from vegetation burning that

burns the surface. By using extrapolation based on the above figures, it can be estimated

that the carbon release during combustion process in Indonesia in 1997 ranged between

0.81 to 2.57 Gt. The total amount of carbon released during Indonesia 1997 fire is more or

less equal to 13-40% of the average annual global carbon emissions originated from fossil

fuels.

Due to gas emissions during activities such as deforestation, forest and land fires and

drainage, have placed Indonesia as the third largest producer of greenhouse gases after

South America and China (Hoojiers et al., 2006). Nevertheless, if gas emission on peatland

is not counted, then Indonesia’s position drops to 21. Forestry activities contributed the

most in terms of gas emission, where in Indonesia, it is about 75% of all gas emissions

which reaches an amount of about 3 Gt (Peace, 2007), where 57 % originates from

deforestation and conversion where forest and land fires are the main causes. 

B. Biomass and Carbon Storage

Biomass is the total amount of living organic materials that is stated in oven dry weight per tonne

per unit area (Brown, 1997). According to Whitten et al., (1987), forest biomass is the total

amount of dry weight of all parts of living plant, whether for all or parts of organism, production

or community and is stated in dry weight per unit area (tonne/ha). Chapman (1976) stated that

biomass is the total weight of organic materials of an organism per unit area on a particular

place, and weight of organic materials is often stated in dry weight or sometimes in ash free dry

weight. Thus, the unit for biomass is gr/m2 or kg/ha or tonnes/ha. The biomass production rate is

the rate of accumulated biomass at certain time, thus the unit is stated in per unit time, such as

kg/ha/year. 

Biomass can be differentiated into two categories, above ground and below ground biomass.

The main storage of carbon in a plant is the upper parts that include stem, branch, twigs, leave,

fruit, flower and lower parts that include root, dead organic materials (necromass), soil and those

stored in the form of wood product that will be emitted in the form of long term product (Brown

et al., 1998). Atmosphere acts as a medium in carbon cycle. The flow of biotic carbon between

atmosphere and forest/land is the net fixation of carbon through photosynthesis process (net

primary productivity) and heterostophic respiration (decomposition on soft and course litters,

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91

dead roots and soil carbon). For land areas, it is the process of regrowth and recover, whereas for

forest, it is a natural growth. Some of the fixed carbon from photosynthesis will be transferred to

water system through stream as absorbed organic materials and the amount for wet tropical area

is estimated to be approximately 0.1 x 10-6 million tonnes of C/ha/year (Brown et al, 1998). 

The whole organic materials or biomass can be use for fuels with various means. Biomass is

formed from carbohydrate compounds that consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen of which all

are produced by photosynthesis (White and Plaskett, 1981). Plant biomass increases because

plant absorbed CO2 from the air and changes it into organic materials through photosynthesis.

The rate of biomass fixation is called gross primary productivity, which is dependent on the

leave area that receives sunlight, light intensity, temperature and specific plant characteristics.

Remain of respiration product is called net primary production (Whitten et al., 1990) or simply

means that biomass is the difference between photosynthesis product and consumption through

respiration and logging process.

According to Soerianegara (1964), uncontrolled logging activities cause forest

degradation/changing of forest environmental condition from climax (primary) into unstable

condition (ex-logging). The resulting ecological impacts from such degradation cause the

reduction in productivity (biomass), biological diversity and disturbance of ecosystem stability.

As stated by Whitten et al., (1987), unwise forest management such as forest clearance and

change of land use will reduce biomass. 

1. Above ground biomass on peatland

Based on a research conducted by Siregar et al., (2004) the average biomass of stands in

peat forest of Central Kalimantan totalled to 582,820 tonnes/ha; root biomass is 179,922

tonnes/ha and ground storey biomass is 45,340 tonnes/ha totalling to an average of

808,082 tonnes/ha above ground biomass of peat forest (Table 5.1 ).

Table 5.1. Estimation of above ground biomass per ha of peat forest in Central

Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004).

No. Component Plot 1

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 2

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 3

(tonnes/ha)

Average

(tonnes/ha)

1 Stand biomass 904,416 358,517 485,528 582,820

2 Root biomass 122,848 163,381 163,381 179,922

3 Ground cover biomass 34,575 33,548 33,548 45,340

Total 1.061,839 679,949 682,457 808,082

A research was carried out in Central Kalimantan to determine the amount of below

ground biomass in peat forest (Siregar et al., 2004) using 3 (three) plots on 5 (five)

different depths that vary between 310-384 cm (Table 5.2).

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
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Table 5.2. Peat depth in the study area in Central Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004).

Plot Sub-plot Depth (cm)

I 1 334

2 327

3 338

4 320

5 330

Total 1.649

Average 329,8

II 1 308

2 337

3 316

4 330

5 313

Total 1.604

Average 320,8

III 1 370

2 380

3 370

4 374

5 384

Total 1.878

Average 375,6

On the same peatland (Siregar et al., 2004), it was known that the average below ground

biomass of peat with depth of 0-30 cm, 0-100 cm and 0-300 cm are 8,380 tonnes/ha,

116,447 tonnes/ha and 534,360 tonnes/ha respectively (Table 5.3).

Table 5.3. Estimated below ground biomass of Central Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004).

No. Depth (cm) Plot 1

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 2

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 3

(tonnes/ha)

Average

(tonnes/ha)

1 0-30 6,756 11,712 6,672 8,380

2 0-100 108,48 135,12 105,74 116,447

3 0-300 534,36 534,36 534,36 534,360

The total above and below ground biomass of peat forest in Central Kalimantan (Siregar

et al., 2004) on depth of 0-30 cm is 816,462 tonnes/ha; total above ground biomass on

depth of 0-100 cm is 924,529 tonnes/ha and above ground biomass on depth of 0-300 cm

is 1.342,442 tonnes/ha (Table 5.4) 

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Table 5.4 Total biomass of peat forest in Central Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004).

No. Component Plot 1

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 2

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 3

(tonnes/ha)

Average

(tonnes/ha)

1 Above ground biomass 1,061.839 679.949 682.457 808.082 

2 Soil 6.756 11.712 6.672 8.380 

Total (0-30 cm) 1,068.415 691.661 689.129 816.462 

3 Soil 108.48 135.12 105.74 116.447 

Total (0-100 cm) 1,170.319 815.069 788.197 924.529 

4 Soil 534.36 534.36 534.36 534.36 

Total (0-300 cm) 1,596.199 1,214.309 1,216.817 1,342.442 

2. Carbon storage

Based on a research conducted by Siregar et al., (2004) on peat forest in Central

Kalimantan, it was known that the average above ground carbon storage is 521.703

tonnes/ha; if added together with below ground stock on depth of 0-30 cm, the total

carbon storage is 526.541 tonnes/ha; on depth 0-100 cm is 588.564 tonnes/ha and on

depth 0-300 the carbon storage is 796.401 tonnes/ha (Table 5.5).

Table 5.5 Total carbon storage of peat forest in Central Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004)

No. Component Plot 1

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 2

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 3

(tonnes/ha)

Average

(tonnes/ha)

1 Above ground biomass 681,791 413,191 470,128 521,703

2 Soil 3,901 6,764 3,85 4,838

Total (0-30 cm) 685,692 419,955 473,978 526,541

3 Soil 62,133 77,866 60,585 66,861

Total (0-100 cm) 743,924 491,057 530,713 588,564

4 Soil 274,698 274,698 274,698 274,698

Total (0-300 cm) 956,489 687,889 744,826 796,401

On other types of land use such as ex-logging, ex-burned and Imperata cylindrica areas,

it was known that the carbon storage varied (Siregar et al., 2004), i.e., 216.04 tonnes/ha,

187.725 tonnes/ha and 9.661 tonnes/ha respectively. The total above and below ground

carbon storages for the three land use types are also varied. For ex-logging areas, the

total above ground carbon storage on depth 0-30 cm, 0-100 cm and 0-610 cm are 413.972

tonnes/ha, 970,359 tonnes/ha, and 4,263.339 tonnes/ha respectively. For ex-burned areas,

the total above ground carbon storage on depth 0-30 cm, 0-100 cm and 0-610 cm are

411.349 tonnes/ha, 1,065.056 tonnes/ha and 4,036,986 tonnes/ha. The total above ground

carbon storage on depth 0-30 cm for Imperata cylindrica area is a little bit lower compare

to the previous two areas, that is 252.855 tonnes/ha whereas for depth of 0-100 cm and

0-580 cm, the carbon storages 746.399 tonnes/ha and 3,613,507 tonnes/ha respectively

(Table 5.6).

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Table 5.6. Carbon storage on ex-logging areas, ex-fire areas and Imperata cylindrica in

Central Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004).

No. Land use type Carbon storage

above ground

(tonnes/ha)

Carbon storage below

ground

Total carbon

storage

(tonnes/ha)

Depth of 

peat (cm)

Carbon 

storage 

(tonnes/ha)

1 Ex-logging 

areas

216,04 0-30 197,392 413,972

0-100 754,393 970,359

0-350 2747,515 2963,565

0-420 2979,354 3195,393

0-500 3743,422 3959,462

0-610 4407,299 4263,339

2 Ex-fire areas 187,725 0-30 223,6237 411,349

0-100 877,331 1065,056

0-350 2663,98 2851,785

0-420 3082,75 3270,475

0-500 3240,627 3428,352

0-610 3849,261 4036,986

3 Imperata 

cylindrica

9,661 0-30 241,1935 252,855

0-100 736,7379 746,399

0-350 2607,478 2617,139

0-420 3270,751 3280,412

0-580 3603,846 3613,507

Based on literature studies (Table 5.7) on carbon storage on peatland with water table

more than 25 cm (Verwer et al., 2008), it was known that the above ground carbon

storage of wet tropical forest (Lasco, 2002) in average was 323 t C/ha, while in Sumatra

it is 250 t C/ha (Murdiyarso and Wasrin, 1995). The Net Primary Productivity (NPP) in

peat swamp forest is 25 t C/ha/year (Murdiyarso dan Wasrin, 1995) while the Net

Ecosystem Productivity (NEP) in primary peat swamp forest is 5.32 t C/ha/year (Suzuki,

1999). 

On peatland (Table 5.7) with table more than 25 cm it was known that the above ground

carbon storage of disturbed tropical forest is 181 tonnes/ha (Lasco, 2002), GPP (Gross

Primary Productivity) for Central Kalimantan is 34.34 tonnes/ha/year (Hirano et al.,

2007) and NEP (Net Ecosystem Productivity) is -4.33 tonnes/ha/year (Hirano et al.,

2007).

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
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Table 5.7. Carbon budgets (without inserting the available below ground carbon) from

undisturbed and disturbed peat forests and oil palm plantation in several

locations in Southeast Asia based on literature studies (Verwer et al, 2008).

Peat with water table > 

25 cm

Total Unit Source Location

Above ground carbon 

storage

323 t C/ha Lasco (2002) Average wet 

tropical rain 

forest

250 t C/ha Murdiyarso and

Wasrin (1995)

Sumatra

CO2 emissions from soil 

and root respiration

9,55 t C/ha/year Jauhiainen et al

(2005)

Central 

Kalimantan 

10,64 t C/ha/year Muruyama and 

Bakar (1996)

Western part of 

Johor

9,28 t C/ha/year Jauhiainen et al

(2005)

Recovering 

forest

NPP (Net Primary 

Productivity)

25 t C/ha/year Murdiyarso and

Wasrin (1995)

Peat swamp 

forest

NEP (Net Ecosystem 

Productivity)

5,32 t C/ha/year Suzuki (1999) Peat swamp 

primary forest

5,22 t C/ha/year Suzuki (1999) Peat swamp 

secondary forest

1,62 t C/ha/year Henson (2005) Undisturbed 

peat swamp 

forest

Peat with water table <

20 cm

Total Unit Source Location

Above ground carbon 

storage

181 t C/ha Lasco (2002) Average for 

disturbed 

tropical forest

CO2 emissions from soil 

and root respiration

21 t C/ha/year Melling et al 

(2005)

Sarawak

GPP (Gross Primary 

Productivity)

34,34 t C/ha/year. Hirano et al 

(2007)

Central 

Kalimantan 

NEP (Net Ecosystem 

Productivity)

-4,33 t C/ha/year. Hirano et al 

(2007)

Central 

Kalimantan 

Based on a research on primary dry land in Jambi, it was known that the above ground

carbon storage was 252.34 tonnes/ha, on secondary dry land was 58.07 tonnes/ha

(Prasetyo et al., 2000) while the above ground carbon storage from primary dry forest

land in Nunukan was 230.1 tonnes/ha and secondary dry forest land was 58.0 tonnes/ha

(Lusiana et al., 2005). The carbon storage for shrubs in Nunukan was 19.4 tonnes/ha

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
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(Lusiana et al., 2005), while the above ground carbon storage for shrubs in Jambi was

15.0 tonnes/ha and for grasslands was 6.0 tonnes/ha (Prasetyo et al., 2000).

Table 5.8 Carbon storage above ground on forest and non-forest areas

No. Land cover Carbon

(T C/ha)

Source

Forest

1 Primary dryland forest in Jambi 252.34 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

2 Secondary dryland forest in Jambi 58.07 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

3 Primary dryland forest in Nunukan 

Regency

230.1 Lusiana et al., (2005)

4 Secondary dryland forest in Nunukan 

Regency

58.0 Lusiana et al., (2005)

5 Primary forest in Sumatra 300 Lasco (2002) in Lusiana et al., 

(2005)

6 Primary mangrove forest in Nunukan 

Regency

176.8 Lusiana et al., (2005)

7 Plantation forest 124.4 Handayani (2003)

Non forest

1 Shrubs in Nunukan Regency 19.4 Lusiana et al., (2005)

2 Shrubs in Jambi 15.0 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

3 Grassland in Jambi 6.0 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

4 Grassland in Indonesia 10.0 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

5 Plantation in Indonesia 172 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

6 Young oil palm plantation in Nunukan 

Regency

91 Toemich et al., (1998) in Lusiana 

et al., (2005)

7 Rubber in Jambi 35.5 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

8 PGHEebunan hasil Earth di Jambi 28.0 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

9 Settlements 0.5 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

10 Rice field in Nunukan Regency 4.8 Lusiana et al., (2005)

11 Rice field in Jambi 7.5 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

12 Rice field in Indonesia 3.5 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

13 Fish pond in Indonesia 1 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

14 Open space in Jambi 0 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

15 Marginal land in Indonesia 37 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

16 Imperata cylindrica in Nunukan 

Regency

4 Lusiana et al., (2005)

17 Upland field in Jambi 7.6 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

18 Cultivated land and settlement in Jambi 3.7 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

19 Mosaic of mixed unproductive lands 35 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

20 Cultivated land and secondary 

vegetation in Jambi

35.5 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

VI. GREENHOUSE GAS PRODUCTION FROM OIL PALM DEVELOPMENT AND

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

PROCESSING MILL (CPO)

A. Development of Oil Palm Plantation

Figure 6.1. Wet tropical forest after cut, burn and ready to be converted into oil 

palm plantation

Oil palm (Elaeis guinensis Jack) originates from Nigeria, West Africa, although some said that it

is originally from Latin America, to be specific from Brazil since there are more oil palm species

found within Brazil than Africa (Fauzi et al, 2002). Oil palm is firstly introduced by the Dutch

colonial in 1848. At the time there were four oil palm seeds that were brought from Mauritius

and Amsterdam and were planted in Bogor Botanical Garden. Commercially, oil palm was

cultivated in 1911. The first businessman in oil palm plantation was Adrien Hallet, a Belgian

who studied oil palm in Africa.

Growth and production of oil palm are effected by internal and external factors associated with

oil palm itself, which can be divided into environmental, genetic and technical agronomy factors

of which all are interrelated. To produce maximum oil palm production, these three factors must

be in optimum conditions (Fauzi et al, 2002). 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
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 Figure 6.2. 1983/1984 Oil palm plant in Tanah Grogot, East Kalimantan

In 2005, Indonesia plantation has reached a total of 18,489,589 ha across 28 provinces (BPS,

2005) where in general they are mostly found within Sumatra and Kalimantan. There are 5

biggest commodities in these plantations: Oil palm (6,594,914 ha), Coconut (3,788,891 ha),

Rubber (3,346,427 ha), Cacao (1,320,821 ha) and Coffee (1,255,105 ha). The total area for these

commodities during 2004-2007 has increased especially for oil palm plantation that increases to

1 million hectare from 2005 to 2006. During 2006, large oil palm plantations were found in

Riau, North Sumatra, South Sumatra, Central Kalimantan and Jambi Provinces. 

Within the year 2007, there have been conversions to plantation from forest lands (4,741,194 ha)

and transmigration settlements (956,672.81 ha). Based on the available data, it was known that

land use change into plantation in Riau province was the highest reaching a figure of

1,611,859.68 ha and followed by Central Kalimantan with 619,868.37 ha. Demands for

agriculture and plantation tend to increase, which indirectly caused by the increased demand for

production of certain commodities from agricultural and plantation sectors. In plantation sector,

there is a promising business and prospects of oil palm plantation. This has caused the

expansion of oil palm plantation in several places in Indonesia. In 2006, the production of oil

palm reached a total of 16,080,000 tonnes; 3,800,000 tonnes for national consumption and

12,101,000 tonnes for exports. Indonesian oil palm production has contributed about 41 % of

world’s imports that totalled to 29,178,000 tonnes.

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 Figure 6.3. Total plantation area in 2005 (SLI, 2008)

Indonesian government has targeted that by 2010, about 10% of all the national fuel

requirements will be supplied through Biofuels; 70% will be based on oil palm or known as

biodiesel (SLI, 2008). In order to meet this requirements, there has to be an increased of supply

or productivity of oil palm in big amount. Thus the government through the Ministry of

Agriculture has targeted expansion and replanting of oil palm under the plantation revitalization

program for year 2007-2010 as much as 1,375 million ha (expansion) and 125,000 ha

(replanting). 

Table 6.1. Total plantation area of 5 (five) biggest commodities in Indonesia in 2006

No Province Total Plantation Area (Ha)

Oil palm Coconut Rubber Cacao Coffee

1 NAD 308,560 112,212 117,711 42,107 107,544

2 North

Sumatra

979,541 124,737 456,986 75,925 78,962

3 West Sumatra 315,618 89,313 124,256 36,360 48,093

4 Riau 1,547,942 554,718 369,911 5,586 10,816

5 Jambi 568,751 120,319 433,739 1,417 24,458

6 South

Sumatra

630,214 60,792 648,754 3,006 276,864

7 Bengkulu 165,221 8,650 71,334 13,654 120,832

8 Lampung 157,229 147,875 81,466 40,045 164,006

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9 Bangka

Belitung

133,284 10,266 28,845 177 43

10 Riau Islands 6,933 37,246 30,929 2 156

11 DKI Jakarta - - - - -

12 West Java 9,831 191,045 52,336 13,364 21,002

13 Central Java - 234,339 30,135 7,732 35,525

14 DIY - 44,024 - 3,868 1,832

15 East Java - 290,006 25,180 41,658 49,868

16 Banten 14,077 83,407 23,507 5,271 8,474

17 Bali - 70,389 95 11,312 31,281

18 NTB - 67,015 - 4,490 12,021

19 NTT - 160,641 - 40,958 69,009

20 West

Kalimantan

492,112 111,468 379,038 8,945 13,937

21 Central

Kalimantan

571,874 87,554 255,657 1,419 8,133

22 South

Kalimantan

243,451 51,476 129,946 1,676 7,701

23 East

Kalimantan

237,765 47,808 58,105 41,414 17,469

24 North

Sulawesi

- 269,368 - 10,623 9,579

25 Central

Sulawesi

48,431 171,705 3,160 221,812 10,714

26 South

Sulawesi

24,490 115,535 19,475 250,233 67,592

27 Southeast

Sulawesi

2,966 54,358 - 200,065 10,703

28 Gorontalo - 62,933 - 9,597 1,642

29 Sulawesi

Barat

75,154 67,643 1,209 137,112 26,730

30 Maluku - 90,310 - 16,574 7,964

31 North Maluku - 209,792 - 41,198 3,129

32 Papua 29,736 31,005 4,619 20,137 708

33 West Papua 31,734 10,942 34 13,084 8,318

INDONESIA 6,594,914 3,788,891 3,346,427 1,320,821 1,255,105

Sumber: Departemen Pertanian, 2007

Table 6.2. Balance between demand and supply of oil palm in Indonesia during 1993-2006

Year (x 1,000 ton)

Initial Stock Production Import Export Consumption End Stock

1993 458 3,421 152 1,632 1,790 550

1994 550 4,008 124 1,632 1,985 380

1995 880 4,480 50 1,265 2,115 550

1996 510 4,899 108 1,672 2,528 880

1997 700 5,449 92 2,968 2,841 510

1998 860 5,930 18 1,479 2,832 700

1999 750 6,456 2 3,299 2,895 860

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2000 975 7,001 4 4,110 2,927 750

2001 700 8,396 1 4,903 2,857 975

2002 750 9,622 9 6,334 2,933 700

2003 700 10,600 4 6,386 3,165 1,753

2004 1,753 12,380 13 8,996 3,313 1,837

2005 1,837 13,920 22 10,476 3,556 1,747

2006 1,747 16,080 11 12,101 3,800 1,937

Growth % 10.36 % 12.64 % 18.29 % 16,66 % 5.96 % 35.244 %

Source: Adapted from Oil World, 2005

Table 6.3. Balance of demand and supply of world’s oil palm in 1993- 2006

Year (x 1,000 ton)

Initial Stock Production Import Export Consumption End Stock

1993 2,134 13,806 9,445 9,446 13,259 2,876

1994 2,876 14,137 10,697 10,889 14,6311 2,291

1995 2,282 15,000 10,424 10,285 14,642 2,794

1996 2,900 16,234 10,669 10,735 16,073 3,025

1997 3,140 17,844 12,309 12,374 17,715 3,203

1998 3,245 17,154 11,528 11,417 17,663 2,688

1999 2,892 20,625 13,939 14,172 19,493 3,701

2000 3,701 21,874 15,217 15,217 21,689 4,015

2001 4,063 23,958 17,604 17,793 23,699 4,133

2002 4,133 25,382 19,363 19,438 25,469 4,020

2003 3,970 28,187 21,995 21,910 28,224 3,710

2004 4,020 30,918 23,965 24,001 29,974 4,727

2005 4,727 33,590 26,308 26,545 33,108 4,971

2006 5,213 73,163 29,178 30,000 36,192 5,363

Growth % 7.11 % 7.91 % 9.06 % 9.30 % 8.03 % 4.91 %

Source: Adapted from Oil World, 2005

1. Oil palm plant’s biomass

A study was conducted in an oil palm plantation in Riau Province to determine the

difference between dry weights of oil palm aged 14 and 19 years old planted on mineral

soil (Tjitrosemito and Mawardi, 2000). The total dry weight of oil palm aged 14 years

(above and below ground) planted on mineral soils was 706,964 kg where on the trunk

itself weight 310,132 kg while for the 19 year old plant, the weight was 672,372 kg

where the trunk alone was 355,720 kg. The total dry weight for oil palm planted on peat

land aged 10 was 213,477 kg where most of the weight was found on the trunk that is

70,960 kg (Tjitrosemito and Mawardi, 2000). 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
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Table 6.4 Dry weight (DW) of various components of oil palm plant (Tjitrosemito and

Mawardi, 2000).

Parts of oil palm 

plant

Mineral soil Peat soil

14 year 19 year 10 year

Average

DW per 

plant 

(kg)

Average

DW

(tonnes/ha)

Average

DW per 

plant 

(kg)

Average

DW

(tonnes/ha)

Average 

DW per 

plant 

(kg)

Average

DW

(tonnes/ha)

Trunk 310,132 44,349 355,720 50,868 70,960 10,147

Leaflet 54,801 7,837 46,719 6,681 14,911 2,132

Rachis 52,189 7,463 51,918 7,424 14,940 2,136

Petiole 57,037 8,156 66,785 9,550 19,610 2,804

Inflorescent 1,973 0,282 1,536 0,220 1,538 0,220

Fruit bunch 34,927 4,995 21,653 3,096 17,145 2,452

Left over petiole 93,867 13,423 26,989 3,859 18,010 2,575

Coarse root 87,371 12,494 89,356 12,778 40,531 5,796

Fine root 14,669 2,098 11,696 1,673 15,832 2,264

% root 14.430 15.10 26.40

Total Dry Weight 706,964 101,096 672,372 96,149 213,477 30,527

Based on measurement carried out by cutting and weighting the above ground biomass of

25 years old oil palm (planting period 1983/1984) planted on mineral soil in Tanah

Grogot, East Kalimantan with a total plants of 125 trunks/ha, the resulted total dry weight

was 98.91 ton /ha, while biomasses of litters and ground cover amounted to 15.18

tonnes/ha (Table 5.6.)

Table 6.5 Dry weights of various components of 25 years old oil palm plant on mineral soil

Parts of oil palm plant Mineral soil

25 year

Average DW

per plant (kg)

Average DW

(tonnes/ha)

Trunk 674,52 84,32

Pelepah and leaflet 85,95 10,74

Pucuk muda kelapa sawit 1,76 0,22

Fruit bunch 6,24 0,78

Bunga jantan 1,44 0,18

Gulma di batang kelapa 

sawit

21,36 2,67

Total 98,91

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Table 6.6. Dry weights of litters and ground cover found under 25 years old oil palm

plants on mineral soil 

No. Biomass Type Average Dry 

Weight (kg/m2)

Average Dry Weight (tonnes/ha)

1 Dry litters 0.214 2.14

2 Ground cover 0.747 7.47

3 Grass 0.557 5.57

Total 15.18

2. Carbon storage in oil palm plant

The percentage of carbon storage on each part of the oil palm plant vary (Table 5.7)

between 31.26 % on course litter to 41.55 % on the fruit bunch, while the total carbon

storage of the above and below ground is 40.278 tonnes (Tjitrosemito and Mawardi,

2000) or equal to 149.66 ton CO2-eq.. 

Table 6.7 Carbon storage in a 19 year old oil palm on mineral soil (Tjitrosemito and

Mawardi, 2000).

Parts of Oil palm 

Plant

Average Dry Weight

(tonnes/ha)

% C Carbon storage

(tonnes/ha)

Trunk 50.868 36.32 18.475

Leaflet 6.681 37.42 2.500

Rachis 7.424 35.47 2.633

Petiole 9.550 39.81 3.802

Inflorescent 0.220 36.59 0.080

Fruit bunch 3.096 41.55 1.286

Left over petiole 3.859 36.19 1.397

Coarse root 12.778 39.71 5.074

Fine root 1.673 37.79 0.632

Dead root 0.378 40.62 0.154

Necromass 4.771 38.12 1.819

Undergrowth 1.563 35.74 0.559

Coarse litter 3.149 31.26 0.984

Fine litter 2.567 34.36 0.882

Total 40.278

The amount of carbon storage underground under the oil palms vary in numbers based on

the depth of the soil (Table 5.8), where on the depth of 0-5 cm , the amount of carbon is

11.846,4 tonnes/ha and on depth of 20-30 cm is 9.453 tonnes/ha (Tjitrosemito and

Mawardi, 2000) or equal to 34,69 ton CO2-eq.. 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
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Table 6.8 Carbon storage below ground of 19 year old oil palm (Tjitrosemito and

Mawardi, 2000).

Soil depth (cm) % C-organic Bulk density 

(gr/cm3)

Carbon storage

(kg/ha)

0-5 1,28 1,851 11.846,4

5-10 1,02 1,851 9.490,1

10-20 0,83 2,106 17.479,8

20-30 0,46 2,055 9.453,0

Total 48.210,3

A study was conducted in Tanah Grogot, East Kalimantan on July 2009 to determine the

amount of carbon storage in a 25 years old oil palm plant. The study was done by cutting

a 25 years old oil palm that is planted on mineral soil. The results produced a figure of

39.94 tonnes/ha for above ground carbon storage or equal to 146.58 tonnes CO2-eq. The

biggest amount was found on the trunk with 29.13 tonnes/ha or equal to 106.91 tonnes

CO2-eq (Table 5.9). 

Table 6.9 Carbon storage above ground in a 25 year old oil palm on mineral soil in

Tanah Grogot, East Kalimantan.

Parts of oil palm Average Dry Weight

(tonnes/ha)

% C Carbon storage (tonnes/ha)

Trunk 84.32 34.55 29.13

Oil palm fronds and

foliage

 10.74 36.00 3.87

Young oil palm 

shoots

 0.22 31.15 0.07

Fruit bunch 0.78 45.38 0.35

Male flower 0.18 47.79 0.09

Weeds on trunk 2.67 36.30 0.97

Dry litters 2.14 34.05 0.73

Ground cover 7.47 33.17 2.48

Specific grass 5.57 40.32 2.25

Total 39.94

B. Greenhouse Gas Produced from Oil Palm Plantation development and Palm Oil Mills

Greenhouse gas emission produced from oil palm production can be classified into several

sources (Brinkman, 2009):

a. Emissions produced during establishment of oil palm plantation and processing of Fresh

Fruit Bunch which comprise of:

a. Emissions related to fuels utilization for internal transportation in planting area and

machineries use.

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91

b. Emissions related to use of fertilizers.

c. Emissions from fossil fuels utilization in factories and utilization based on the

produced products.

d. Emissions from palm oil mill wastes 

e. Emissions from change in carbon storage during establishment of new plants and

within the plant. This includes changes of biomass above and below ground and soil

organic materials (including peat).

1. Emissions produced during development of oil palm plantation and processing of Fresh

Fruit Bunch (FFB)

a. Emissions related to fuels utilization for internal transportation in planting area

and machineries use.

Fossil fuels are the principal fuels that is use in this activity used for nurseries,

maintenance, harvesting, weaning, mill processing and transportation activities on other

internal planting (Brinkmann, 2009).

Nikander (2007) estimated an amount of 58-70 litter/ha/year of direct consumption of

solar or equal to 3.1 kg CO2-eq/liter or 180-217 kg CO2-eq/ha/year.

Damen and Faaij (2007) assume that all transportation in a planting activity use truck

with capacity of 5 tonnes that consumed as much as 1.8 Mj/km of solar with average

distance from harvesting site to mill between 10-20 km or equal to 20 tonnes of

CO2-eq./TJ solar. This will cause a yearly emission of 94 kg CO2-eq./ha/year. 

Wahid et al., (2006) estimates an amount of 4.7 GJ/ha/year in energy consumption by

vehicles and machineries. With an assumption of 20 tonnes of CO2-eq./TJ solar, hence

within a year, this activity will produce emissions of 94 kg CO2-eq./ha/year.

Based on literature studies (Brinkmann, 2009) it can be concluded that greenhouse gases

that are related to fuel (solar) used for local transportation during planting activities and

use of machineries vary between 180-225 kg CO2-eq/ha/year.

b. Emissions related to use of fertilizers

The most common fertilizer use in oil palm plantation (Brinkmann, 2009) is nitrogen

(Ammonium nitrate, Ammonium sulphate, urea and or Ammonium chloride), Rock

phosphate (P2O5), Potassium chloride (K2O) and Kieserite (MgO). 

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Table 6.10. Commonly used fertilizers in oil palm plantation based on literature studies

(Brinkmann, 2009).

Fertilizer Types Damen and

Faaij (2007)

Corley

(2003)

Nikander

(2007)

ERIA

(2007)

Ammonium nitrate 

(kg N/ha/year)

100 - 96-100 93

Ammonium sulphate

(kg N/ha/year)

- 88.2 - -

Rock Phosphate 

(kg P2O5/ha/year)

45 34.6 28-45 114

Potassium chloride

(kg K2O/ha/year)

205 252 172-205 200

Kieserite

(kg MgO/ha/year)

50 39.2 33-48 27

Greenhouse Gas emissions that are related to the use of fertilizer within oil palm

plantation consist of 2 elements:

1) Emission occurs during production and internal transportation from the

main fertilizer during fossil fuel combustion. The emission varies

between fertilizer types, country and means of production.

2) N2O emission during application of nitrogen fertilizer. According to

IPCC guidelines (1997), as much as 1.25% of N2O-N from a total of

applied N are emitted during the use of fertilizer. Global warming

potential of N2) is 301 times greater than that of CO2. 

Nikander (2008) estimated that the gas emissions from fertilizers and pesticides varied

between 1086-1500 kg of CO2-eq/ha/year. While Wijbrans and Van Zutphen (2005)

estimated that GHG emissions related to fertilizer use amounts to 1409 kg of

CO2-eq/ha/year. ERIA (2007) estimated CO2-eq emissions related to fertilizer (mix) use

is 17.3 kg CO2-eq or equal to 19 tonnes of Fresh Fruit Bunch/ha/year of 330 kg of

CO2-eq/ha/year. However, this figure is far less than results from many studies.

Based on literature studies, it can be concluded that GHG emissions that is relate to

fertilizer use is between 1500-2000 kg of CO2–eq/ha/year (Brinkmann, 2009).

c. Emissions from fossil fuels utilization in factories and utilization based on the

produced products.

Processing mills required heat which is applied through boilers, generally use fibre and

shell materials for fuels. Since these are biomass, then the process of energy generation

is CO2-neutral. Other solid materials that come from mills are empty bunch. These can

be use for mulch in garden, landfilled and fuel materials, where each has specific GHG

emission. The use of mulch/compost has the potentials to contribute reduce GHG

emissions thus can reduce the use of inorganic fertilizers and can improve soil organic

materials (Brinkmann, 2009). Based on literature studies, it can be concluded that there

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91

are no GHG emissions from the use of fuel materials in mills and application of mills

based on the resulting products.

 

d. Emissions from Palm Oil Mill Effluents (POMEs)

Throughout the processes in the mill, liquid wastes will be produced or known as POME.

This liquid waste is full of degradable organic materials (Brinkmann, 2009) or equal to

80,000 mg/l COD and required efforts to reduce it.

Liquid wastes management that is commonly use is pond or lake systems. Unfortunately

the natural availability of oxygen in this system is not enough to cater all the aerobic

decomposition of organic materials in the wastes (Brinkmann, 2009). As a result,

generally the decomposition changed to anaerobic, producing biogas emitted to the

atmosphere. Biogas from this waste is primarily composed of CH4 (methane) ranges

between 55-65 % which illustrate the substance of GHG source of emission.

Wijbrans and Van Zutphen (2005) has calculated the methane emission from released

wastes which is equal to 9 kg/tonnes of FFB (at 0.7 m3 of waste/tonnes FFB), 28 m3

biogas/m3 of wastes (POME) and 65 % of CH4 in the biogas. Other study gave a figure

of 28 m3 CH4/m3 of waste which is considered as standard value. Nikander (2008) use

the emission range from waste (POME) that is 2500-3800 kg of CO2-eq/ha/year. Based

on literature studies, it can be concluded that GHG emissions from liquid wastes range

from 2500-3000 kg of CO2-eq/ha/year (Brinkmann, 2009).

2. Emissions produced from changes in carbon stocks during new plants development and

within the plants

The emissions resulted from changes in carbon storage during the establishment of new

plantation and throughout the operational activities. This includes changes of the above

and below ground biomass from organic soil materials (including peat). 

Development and operationalisation of oil palm plantation will produce three different

impacts on the stored carbon: 

a. Development of plantation will produce changes on every complete forms that are

found above and below grounds such as forest and grasses.

b. An oil palm plantation will store carbon through the growth of its oil palm plants.

c. Development and operationalisation of oil palm plantation on peatlands required

drainage causing oxidation.

a. Emission from above and below ground biomass change

1) Forest

The amount of biomass within wet tropical rainforest vary significantly in respond to their

environment, where biomass from lowland forest will be higher than that of mountain forest

(Brinkmann, 2009).

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Germer and Sauerborn (2007) have conducted reviews on the available data to measure biomass

specifically the above ground biomass and obtain a figure of 295±152 tonnes/ha for lowland

forest suitable for oil palm plantation. This is similar to the figure given by IPCC for the above

ground forest biomass, that is 225 tonnes/ha for Continental Asia and 275 tonnes/ha for Insular

Asia. Germer and Sauerborn (2007) has further calculate the below ground biomass and obtain a

figure of 47±26 tonnes/ha, hence the total above and below ground biomass of lowland forest

that are suitable to be converted into oil palm plantation is 342 ± 178 tonnes/ha.

2) Grassland

Grass biomass is determined by composition and properties of soil, rainfall, fire, wildlife and

other factors. IPCC use the value for above ground biomass in tropical savannah using the range

between 4.9 tonnes/ha-6.6 tonnes/ha, where Savannah is defined as a vegetation formation with

the initial growth of continuous grasses as ground cover. Based on literature study (Brinkmann,

2009) it was known that the above ground grass biomass in a oil palm plantation is 11.2 ± 7.3

tonnes/ha which is greater than cited by IPCC. This is probably due to the difference in soil

fertility level and rainfall on the plantation area. Germer and Sauerborn (2007) concluded that

the biomass of grasses (above and below ground) on land suitable for oil palm plantation is 26.7

± 17.4 tonnes/ha.

3) Emissions from litters’ decomposition

The development of oil palm plantation required losing forest and ground cover such as grasses.

After clearance, if not burned, the remaining biomass will be cleared with the help of termites,

insects and micro organism (Brinkmann, 2009). Decomposition releases carbon stored within the

biomass to the atmosphere as CO2. A fraction of carbon is releases as methane through activity

released by termites. Due to the uncertain impacts of land clearance on the population of rayap

and associated released methane, there are no guidelines on calculating these components in the

IPCC methodology. The released CO2 from decomposition is assumed to be a direct function of

biomass volume from carbon storage (Brinkmann, 2009). IPCC has predicted that the carbon

storage is 50 % from the whole storage. Specifically for Imperata cylindrica, a study showed

that the carbon storage is 43% (Germer and Sauerborn, 2007).

Decomposition of cleared above and below ground biomass is a long process. After vegetation

clearance, the root parts will be rapidly decomposed leaving the big parts to remain. Germer and

Sauerborn (2007) stated that there is an uncertain fixed percentage of decomposition. However,

they remark that decaying of the whole biomass is estimated to take about 25 years which in turn

resulted in the total emission of decomposed biomass of 42±27.3 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha grasses

and 627 ± 326.3 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha for forest. 

4) Emissions from biomass combustion

Emissions from biomass burning from vegetation clearance depend on the level of burning; such

as the proportion of biomass consumed by the fire. IPCC guidelines states that the burning

fraction for biomass that originated from forest combustion is 50%, while the guidelines also

recommends the actual value for local condition.

Germer and Sauerborn (2007) estimated that as a result of repeated burning, about 40% of

carbon stored in the above ground biomass from land clearing that enter the atmosphere through

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91

burning process, while the rest are release through decomposition and some stored in the form of

charcoal. The above ground biomass of grasses are inflammable, thus the burned fraction is

higher than the unburned parts. IPCC recommends in general, values between 80-85% if there

are unknown ranges.

Germer and Sauerborn (2007) have also calculated the total emission from the burned above

ground biomass and above and below ground biomass decays of 43.5 ± 28.3 tonnes of

CO2-eq/ha for grasses and 648.0 ± 337.2 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha for forest.

Based on literature studies (Brinkmann, 2009) it can be concluded that Greenhouse Gases from

above and below ground forest biomass clearance is 635 ± 330 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha, while those

of grasses ranges between 43 ± 28 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha.

b. Reduced emissions through biomass accumulation on oil palm plantation

Biomass on oil palm plantation can be classified a follows (Brinkmann, 2009):

a. Above ground biomass such as oil palm plant without the roots.

b. Below ground biomass, such as oil palm root

c. Biomass from ground cover vegetations

The amount of carbon stored in the oil palm biomass is a function of growth and ground cover.

Values for be above ground biomass of oil palm ranges between 50-100 Mg/ha through to th end

of economic planting that is 25 years.

Root biomass of oil palm increases with the increase of above ground biomass, where the

maximum volume depends on the soil properties and water availability. Germer and Saurborn

(2007) calculates the average root biomass per unit time to 20 ± 5 tonnes/ha.

Biomass of ground cover decreases with increase oil palm plant and reduced sunlight. Germer

and Sauerborn (2007) calculate the average total ground cover biomass per unit time is 2.5±1

tonnes/ha with an assumption a rapid development of ground cover with maximum of 10

tonnes/ha and a linier decrease of biomass due to the increased decline sunlight of 1 tonnes/ha on

crown cover 5 years after planting. Based on this illustration, Germer and Sauerborn (2007)

calculate the total above and below ground biomass of oil palm and provide a figure of 82.5 ± 26

tonnes/ha and carbon fixation of 35.3 ± 11 tonnes/ha within the economical period in oil palm

plantation or equal to 129.3 ± 40.3 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha. Henson (2008) has also quantified the

carbon storage of oil palm in Malaysia. The average carbon storage of 25 years old oil palm is

2.09 tonnes of carbon/ha/year (or equal to 7.66 tonnes of CO2-eq), where 80 % originated from

the average carbon stored in the system (ground cover, litters and 20 % from oil palm

production). The total accumulated carbon by oil palm at the end of the cycle is 44 tonnes of

C/ha. The average carbon stored in a 30 year planted area is 35.4 tonnes/ha, which is more or

less equal to 35.3 tonnes of carbon/ha for the same statement by Germer dan Sauerborn (2007).

Based on literature studies (Brinkman, 2009) it can be concluded that oil palm plant is able to

stored as much as 35 tonnes of carbon for a period of 25-30 year, or equal to 130 tonnes of

CO2-eq/ha.

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

c. Emissions through peat decomposition

Under undisturbed condition, the primary peat forest is able to absorb carbon through the

accumulation of peat and biomass (Brinkmann, 2009). Drainage and degradation of peat

primary forest release carbon primarily through increase peat decomposition. Conversion of peat

into oil palm plantation required drainage on depth of 60-80 cm below ground that will trigger

peat decomposition.

Delft Hydraulic (2006) has conducted observation on the CO2 emission from drained peatlands

in Southeast Asia and produces the following conclusions:

a) Carbon storage in peatlands depends on the type of peat deposits.

In SE Asia, almost all lowland peat is derived from forest vegetation

and has a high wood content, however the degree of decomposition

varies from peatland to peatland and within peatlands. Most studies

consider a value in the order of 60 kgC/m3 to be representative for

SE Asian peatlands in general. 

b) Based on an intensive literature studies on CO2 emissions related to drainage depth

on various land uses, generally it is known that a deeper drainage will produce higher

emission of CO2/ha. However, particular references on CO2 emission from oil palm

plantation gave a figure of about 55 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha/year on drainage with depth

of 60 cm (Melling et al., 2005) and 54 tonnes CO2-eq/ha/year on drainage with depth

of 80 cm (Muruyama dan Bakar, 1996).

c) In a study, the current and future emissions from drained peatlands were quantified

using the latest data on peat extent and depth, present and projected land use and

water management practice, decomposition rates and fire emissions. Based on the

study, the current CO2 emissions from decomposition of drained peatland amounts to

632 Mt CO2-eq/year or in average between 355 and 874 Mt/year. In addition, over

the periods of 1997-2006 an estimated average of 1400 Mt/year in CO2 emissions was

caused by peatland fires that are also associated with drainage and degradation. The

current total peatland CO2 emissions are about 2000 Mt CO2-eq/year or equal to 8%

of global fossil fuel burning.

d) Although the study was focussed on emissions from peat decomposition on drained

peatlands, fire emissions are also included since fires are often as the result of direct

deforestation and drainage. The study concludes that although the current emission

of peat combustion is greater than that of peat decomposition, this does not mean that

the problem will be solve by extinguishing the fires: fire in peatland is triggered by

deforestation and through peat degradation and drying that is related to peat drainage

and can be stop in a long term only if the root problems are taken care of. Beside

that, stopping the fire without stopping the drainage ill only extend the time of carbon

release into the atmosphere.

e) The study also intensively discuss the uncertainty in the assessments methods used

including uncertainties related to input data (data on peat and carbon storage), that are

related to emissions and trends and projections. These concluded that due to the

uncertainties, most of the results are conservative. 

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91

Melling et al., (2005) found that soil emission from a primary peat forest is greater than

CO2 emission from oil palm plantation. This finding seems to be the opposite from the rest of

research results on the conversion of peat forest into oil palm plantation, where the resulting CO2

is higher (Hoojier et al., 2006). This is then facilitated by Alterra (2008) who conduct intensive

reviews and concluded that:

 The measurement of CO2 flux on forest soil such as conducted by Melling et al., (2005)

was done on disturb isolated part of the forest and influence by drainage. The high soil

emission was thought to be influenced by drainage.

 Hoojier et al., (2006) who conducts a series of measurement of portray big clouds from

efflux CO2 soil shown an uncertainty in the relationship. The increase to obtain regional

carbon is hampered through uncertain considerations as cited on their report. 

Henson (2008) concluded that there is a big uncertainty on the magnitude of carbon emissions

from peat and the relationship with drainage intensity and peat subsidence. Henson used the

figure of 7.2 ton carbon/ha/year (based on Wosten et al., 1997) and 9.17 ton carbon/ha/year

(Melling et al., 2007). This is equal to 25-30 ton CO2-eq/ha/year. 

The conversion of peatland to oil palm plantation required drainage of 60-80 cm below ground

supported by peat decomposition and greenhouse gases emission (Brinkmann, 2009). There are

many uncertainties of results from various researchers with regard to the real greenhouse gases

emission on peatland. Nevertheless, literature studies suggest the realistic figure from a drained

peatland is 25-55 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha/year. 

d. Greenhouse Gas Emission from Changes in Carbon Stocks 

Based on the data and information given above, the net GHG emissions that originated from a

change of carbon storage when forest and grassland were converted to oil palm plantation for a

period of 25 years, can be calculated (Brinkmann, 2009). Details are shown on the following

Table.

Table 6.11. Greenhouse gas emissions (tonnes CO2-eq) from oil palm replacing grasslands and 

forestlands for 25 years (Brinkmann, 2009)

Source of Emission Oil palm

replacing

grassland

Oil palm

replacing forest

on mineral oil

Oil palm

replacing forest

on peatland

GHG emissions from 

original biomass wastes

43 ± 28 635 ± 330 635 ± 330

GHG sequestered by oil 

palm on mineral soil 

-130 -130 -130

GHG sequestered by oil 

palm on peat soil

0 0 0

Total -59 to -158 175 - 835 1.175 - 1835

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
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Table 6.12. Impacts of land use change on net emission of CO2 per year and within a period of 

25 years (Brinkmann, 2009)

Previous land

use

Germer and

Sauerborn (2007)

(Ton CO2-eq/ha/

year)

Germer and

Sauerborn (2007)

(Ton

CO2-eq/ha/year) for

25 year

Henson (2009)

(Ton

CO2-eq/ha/

year)

Henson (2009)

(Ton

CO2-eq/ha/

year)

for 25 year

Grassland - 5,4 -135 -4,3 -37,6

Forest on 

mineral soil

26,3 657,5 14,5 262,1

Forest on 

peatland

53 1324,5 44,5 377

e. Resume Greenhouse Gas Emissions produced from oil palm plantation development and 

palm oil processing mill processes

Based on data and information from a research conducted by the researchers, the results is

tabulated in more detail in Table 6.13 

Table 6.13. Greenhouse gases emissions produced from oil palm plantation development and 

processing in mills (kg CO2-eq/ha/year)

Source of Greenhouse Gas Emission Range Notes

1.Operational

a. Fossil fuels use for transport and 

machineries

180 – 225

b. Use of fertilizer 1,500 – 2,000

c. Mill’s fuels and utilisation based on 

yield

0

d. Wastes 2,500 – 4,000

Total 4,180 – 6,225

2. Changes in carbon stocks 

a. Conversion of grassland/forest 1,700 – 45,000 Based on range of 

43-635 tonnes CO2-eq 

b. Carbon sequestration by oil palm -5,200 Based on 130 tonnes 

CO2-eq for the period 

of 25 year

c. Emission from oil palm on peatland 40,000 Average of 25 – 55 

tonnes CO2-eq/ha/year

Total changes in carbon stocks 3,500 – 90,000

Total 680 – 96,000

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91

The above data suggest that conversion of carbon stocks in a high biomass to oil palm such as

forest or peat will produce the highest GHG as concluded by most researchers. 

VII. CONTROVERISES OF MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (MoA) REGULATION

NO.14 OF 2009

A. The MoA Regulation No.14/PL.110/2/2009

Figure 7.1. Oil palm Plantation on Peatland (dok. SW)

1. Considerations

The government, in this case Ministry of Agriculture on February 16th of 2009 has enacted

Minister of Agricultural Regulation No.14/Permentan/PL.110/2/2009 on Guidelines for Peatland

Utilisation for Oil Palm Cultivation. This regulation was issued under the considerations that

peatland has significant role in human lives such as through oil palm cultivation. Utilisation of

peatland for oil palm cultivation can be carried out bearing in mind the land characteristics of

peatland to prevent damage on environment. Based on these considerations and so that the

development of oil palm cultivation do not degrade environmental functions, there need to be a

guideline for utilization of peatland for oil palm cultivation. Apart from that, the birth of this

ministerial decree is based on a study by a Research Consortium Team for Ecological Suitability

of Peatland for Sustainable Agricultural development Year 2008; 

Based on this ministerial regulation, oil palm cultivated is basically done on mineral soil. Due to

the limited land available, oil palm cultivation could be done on peat land after fulfilling several

criteria to ensure the sustainable function of peatland. These criteria are: (a) as much as possible

should be done on communal land or cultivated area, (b) depth of peat is less than 3 (three)

meters, (c) the substrate under the peat is not sand quartz nor acid sulphate soil; (d) level of

ripeness of peat (sapric – ripe) or hemic (half ripe); and (e) level of eutrophic peat soil fertility 

2. Aim and Objectives

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The aim of this guideline on oil palm cultivation on peatland is to manage the peatland in a

sustainable way considering the ecological function of peatland, with the following objectives:

1. Developing oil palm plantation.

2. Maintaining the function of the peatland.

3. Increasing the production and the income of the oil palm producers. 

3. Peatland Criteria

Based on the Ministry of Agriculture regulation 14 of 2009, areas of peatland that can be use for

oil palm cultivation should fulfil the following criteria: 

1. Located on a cultivated area 

The stated area could mean forest areas that have been release and/or other land use

areas for oil palm cultivation. 

2. Thickness of peat is less than 3 (three) meters 

Areas of peatlands that can be use for oil palm cultivation: 

2.1 Should have at least peat thickness of 3 (three) meters; 

2.2 Land proposition with peat thickness less than 3 (three) with a minimum of 70%

(seventy percent) of such layer of the total proposed area. 

3. The mineral soil layer below the peat substratum will determine the ability of 

peatland as media for plant growth. This layer should not comprise of sand quartz 

and acid sulphate soil. 

3.1 The sand quartz layer below the peat is a mineral layer that is not mixed with clay soil

and composes of true sand thus not suitable for cultivation purposes.

3.2 Acid sulphate soil layer is a tidal land where the soil composed of pirite and suphidic

with a content of 2% (two percent) on depth of 50 (fifty) cm below peat soil. Pirite

is a mineral material generated from marine sediments rich in iron and suphides in

an anaerobe conditions and rich in organic materials. 

4. Level of peat ripeness

Level of peat ripeness can be divided into ripe (sapric), half ripe (hemic) and unripe (fibric). 

1. Ripe peat (sapric) is peat that has undergone decaying, with unrecognized parent

materials, dark brown to black in colour, and if squeezed, the fibre content is less than

15%. 

2. Half ripe peat (hemic) that is peat that is halfway decaying, most of the parent

materials are recognized, brown in colour, and if squeezed, comprise of 15 – 75% of

its fibres. 

3. Unripe peat (fibric) is a decomposed peat with recognize parent materials, brown in

colour and if squeezed, more than 75% of its fibre are still intact. Oil palm plantation

should not be done on unripe peat soil. 

5. Soil Fertility 

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Soil fertility based on Ministry of Agriculture Regulation No. 14 of 2009 under eutrophic

category, that is peat fertility with adequate macro and micro compounds for oil palm cultivation

as the effect of stream water overflow /or marine or sea tides. 

6. Land Clearing 

Land clearing according to Minister of Agricultural Regulation No. 14 of 2009 should be done

without burning and applying good hydrological principles. Water management is specifically

done to prevent damage on lands. Intensive and quick drainage of peat cause produce dry

peatland and irreversible shrinkage. On such condition, peat is easily burned and difficult to

absorb water. 

Stages in clearing peatlands are: 

1. Establishment of Periphery Drain

a. Establishment of periphery drain as the area boundary; and 

b. Periphery drain has a function as ground water level regulator and serve as the main

channel. This periphery drain has upper width of + 4 (four) meter, bottom width of + 3

(three) m with depth of 2 (two) to 3 (three) meter. 

2. Land Clearing 

Land clearing on an area with bushes and under brushing comprises of branches less than 2.5 cm

in diameter can be done manually or mechanically. Chainsaw should be used if done

mechanically: 

a. direction of tree felling follows the determine direction and should not be perpendicular to

river or roads; 

b. height of tree stump that will be log should be based on diameter of the branch as follow: 

- Diameter of 10 (ten) cm to 20 (twenty) cm, with height of 40 (forty) cm; 

- Diameter of 21 (twenty one) cm to 30 (thirty) cm, with height of 60 (sixty) cm; 

- Diameter of 31 (thirty one) cm to 75 (seventy five) cm, with height of 100 (one hundred) cm;

or

- Diameter of more than 75 (seventy five) cm, with height of 150 (one hundred and fifty) cm. 

c. relatively small branches or twigs should be cut and chopped, while big branch or twigs

should be cut into 2 – 3 meter. 

d. log, branch and twigs that have been cut should be placed according to trail, that is between

two planting rows parallel to planting row. 

7. Drainage Regulation

Drainage regulation based on the Minister of Agricultural Regulation No. 14 of 2009 comprise

of primary, secondary and tertiary channels with the following size: 

Table 7.1. Type of Channel in the Ministry of Agriculture Regulation No. 14 of 2009

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91

Type of Drain Width (m) Depth (m)

Upper Lower

Primary

Secondary

tertiary

– 6.0

1.8 – 2.5

1.0 – 1.2

– 1.8

0.6 – 0.9

0.5 – 0.6

– 2.5

1.2 – 1.8

0.9 – 1.0

a. Primary Channel 

• Primary channel drains water directly to end stream, river or channels; or 

• Primary channel can also be a natural creek or a new channel; and 

• Build a dike or water gateway on tidal area. 

b. Secondary Channel 

• Secondary channel drains water to the primary channel. 

• Secondary channel catches water from the tertiary channel and also serve as the

boundary of the blocks. 

• The distance between secondary channels is 400 (four hundreds) meter to 500 (five

hundreds) meter with length according to channel condition. 

c. Tertiary channel 

• Tertiary channel drains water to secondary channel. 

• Tertiary channel captures water from the planting area. 

• Intervals of tertiary channel depend on the field drainage condition, with maximum of

one tertiary channel between two planting rows. 

Establishment of water channels are aimed to regulate and maintain ground water level on

planting area. On certain places such as the meeting of primary channel with rivers, primary

channel and secondary channel, there need to be an automatic water gateway that will open up

when the water level on the planting area is higher, and vice versa. Water regulation on drainage

channel should follow the depth of ground water level of 60 (sixty) to 80 (eighty) cm, to

maintain water availability and preventing fire. 

8. Maintenance and conservation 

Maintenance and conservation as stated by the Minister of Agriculture Regulation no. 14 of 2009

are done to maintain a certain level of ground water to support growth of plants and preservation

of peatland function. 

Peat layer should always be maintained below water since peat is easily shrunk. In general,

ground water level should be maintained at 60 – 80 cm above ground. Regulation of water depth

is also important for inhibiting peat decomposition thus reducing the rate of decrease of peat

surface as well as providing anaerobe condition for the development of oil palm roots. To

maintain water level and prevent oxidation of pyrite (depth of groundwater does not reach the

pyrite layer), drainage channel should be filled with water at required depth 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

B. Controversies of the MoA Regulation no. 14 of 2009

1. Carbon storage in oil palm

Several research results suggest that carbon storage in oil palm (above and below ground) as

given by Tjitrosemito and Mawardi (2000) is approximately 40,278 tonnes/ha for oil palm aged

19 and growing on mineral soil or equal to 149,66 tonnes CO2 eq. and based on the research

conducted in Tanah Grogot, East Kalimantan, on oil palm aged 25 planted on mineral soil

particularly on the surface, the carbon storage is approximately 39,94 tonnes/ha or equal to

146,58 ton CO2 eq./ha. 

The amount of carbon stored in the oil palm biomass is a function of growth and ground cover.

Values for be above ground biomass of oil palm ranges between 50-100 Mg/ha through to th end

of economic planting that is 25 years. Biomass of ground cover increases with increase above

ground biomass, and the maximum volume depending on the properties of the soil and water

availability. Germer and Saurborn (2007) calculates the average root biomass per unit time to 20

± 5 tonnes/ha. Biomass of ground cover decreases with increase oil palm plant and reduced

sunlight. Germer and Sauerborn (2007) calculate the average total ground cover biomass per

unit time is 2.5±1 tonnes/ha with an assumption a rapid development of ground cover with

maximum of 10 tonnes/ha and a linier decrease of biomass due to the increased decline sunlight

of 1 tonnes/ha on crown cover 5 years after planting. Based on this illustration, Germer and

Sauerborn (2007) calculate the total above and below ground biomass of oil palm and provide a

figure of 82.5 ± 26 tonnes/ha and carbon fixation of 35.3 ± 11 tonnes/ha within the economical

period in oil palm plantation or equal to 129.3 ± 40.3 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha.

Henson (2008) has also quantified the carbon storage of oil palm in Malaysia. The average

carbon storage of 25 years old oil palm is 2.09 tonnes of carbon/ha/year (or equal to 7.66 tonnes

of CO2-eq), where 80 % originated from the average carbon stored in the system (ground cover,

litters and 20 % from oil palm production). The total accumulated carbon by oil palm at the end

of the cycle is 44 tonnes of C/ha. The average carbon stored in a 30 year planted area is 35.4

tonnes/ha, which is more or less equal to 35.3 tonnes of carbon/ha for the same statement by

Germer dan Sauerborn (2007). Based on literature studies (Brinkman, 2009) it can be concluded

that oil palm plant is able to stored as much as 35 tonnes of carbon for a period of 25-30 year, or

equal to 130 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha.

2. Greenhouse gas emission 

a. Peatland

Under undisturbed condition, the primary peat forest is able to absorb carbon through the

accumulation of peat and biomass (Brinkmann, 2009). Drainage and degradation of peat

primary forest release carbon primarily through increase peat decomposition. Conversion of peat

into oil palm plantation required drainage on depth of 60-80 cm below ground that will trigger

peat decomposition.

The conversion of peatland to oil palm plantation required drainage of 60-80 cm below ground

supported by peat decomposition and greenhouse gases emission (Brinkmann, 2009). There are

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

many uncertainties of results from various researchers with regard to the real greenhouse gases

emission on peatland. Nevertheless, literature studies suggest the realistic figure from a drained

peatland is 25-55 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha/year. 

Henson (2008) concluded that there is a big uncertainty on the magnitude of carbon emissions

from peat and the relationship with drainage intensity and peat subsidence. Henson used the

figure of 7.2 tonnes of carbon/ha/year (based on Wosten et al., 1997) and 9.17 tonnes of

carbon/ha/year (Melling et al., 2007). This is equal to 25-30 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha/year. 

Based on a research conducted by Siregar et al., (2004) on peat forest in Central Kalimantan, it

was known that the average above ground carbon storage is 521.703 tonnes/ha atau setara

dengan 1,914.65 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha; if added together with below ground stock on depth of

0-30 cm, the total carbon storage is 526.541 tonnes/ha atau setara dengan 1,932.40 tonnes of

CO2 eq./ha; on depth 0-100 cm is 588.564 tonnes/ha atau setara dengan 2,160.03 tonnes of CO2

eq./ha on depth 0-300 the carbon storage is 796.401 tonnes/ha atau setara dengan 2,922.79

tonnes of CO2 eq./ha.

On other types of land use such as ex-logging, ex-burned and Imperata cylindrica areas, it was

known that the carbon storage varied (Siregar et al., 2004). For ex-logging area, the above

ground carbon storage is 216.04 tonnes/ha or equal to 792.87 tonnes of CO2 eq/ha, for ex-burned

area is 187.725 tonnes/ha or equal to 688.95 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha and for Imperata cylindrica

area 9.661 tonnes/ha or equal to 35.46 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha. The total above and below ground

carbon storage for each land use are also vary. The total above ground carbon storage on depth

of 0-30 cm on ex-logging areas are 413.972 tonnes/ha or equal to 1,519.28 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha,

on depth 0-100 is 970.359 tonnes/ha or equal to 3,561.22 ton CO2 eq./ha, while on depth of

0-610 cm is 4,263.339 tonnes/ha or equal to 15,646.45 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha. 

For ex-burned areas, the total above ground carbon storage on depth 0-30 cm amounts to

411.349 tonnes/ha or equal to 1,509.65 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha, on depth of 0-100 amounts to

1065.056 tonnes/ha or equal to 3,908.75 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha and on depth of 0-610 cm

amounts to 4,036.986 tonnes/ha or equal to 14,815.74 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha. The total above

ground carbon storage on depth 0-30 cm for Imperata cylindrica area is a little bit lower

compare to the previous two areas, that is 252.855 tonnes/ha or equal to 927.98 tonnes of CO2

eq./ha, on depth of 0-100 cm totalled to 746.399 tonnes/ha or equal to 2,739.28 tonnes of CO2

eq./ha on depth of 0-580 cm totalled to 3,613.507 tonnes/ha or equal to 13,261.57 tonnes of CO2

eq./ha.

Based on literature studies on carbon storage on peatland with water table more than 25 cm

(Verwer et al., 2008) it was known that the above ground carbon storage of wet tropical forest

(Lasco, 2002) in average was 323 t C/ha, or equal to 1,185.41 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha, while in

Sumatra it is 250 t C/ha (Murdiyarso and Wasrin, 1995) or equal to 917.5 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha.

The Net Primary Productivity (NPP) in peat swamp forest is 25 t C/ha/year (Murdiyarso dan

Wasrin, 1995) or equal to 91.75 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha/year while the Net Ecosystem Productivity

(NEP) in primary peat swamp forest is 5.32 t C/ha/year (Suzuki, 1999) or equal to 19.19 tonnes

of CO2 eq./ha/year. 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

On peatland (Table 5.7) with table more than 25 cm it was known that the above ground carbon

storage of disturbed tropical forest is 181 tonnes/ha (Lasco, 2002) or equal to 664,27 tonnes of

CO2 eq./ha, GPP (Gross Primary Productivity) for Central Kalimantan is 34.34 tonnes/ha/year

(Hirano et al., 2007) or equal to 126,028 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha dan NEP (Net Ecosystem

Productivity) is -4.33 tonnes/ha/year (Hirano et al., 2007) or equal to -15,89 tonnes of CO2

eq./ha/year.

b. Non peat areas 

Based on a research on primary dry land in Jambi, it was known that the above ground carbon

storage was 252.34 tonnes/ha or equal to 926.09 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha, on secondary dry land

was 58.07 tonnes/ha (Prasetyo et al., 2000) or equal to 213.12 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha. The above

ground carbon storage from primary dry forest land in Nunukan was 230.1 tonnes/ha or equal to

844.47 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha and secondary dry forest land was 58.0 tonnes/ha (Lusiana et al.,

2005) or equal to 212.86 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha.

The carbon storage for shrubs in Nunukan was 19.4 tonnes/ha (Lusiana et al., 2005) or equal to

71.2 or 213.12 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha, while the above ground carbon storage for shrubs in Jambi

was 15.0 tonnes/ha or equal to 55.05 or equal 213.12 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha and for grasslands

was 6.0 tonnes/ha (Prasetyo et al., 2000) or equal to 22.02 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha.

3. Controversies of the MoA Regulation No.14 of 2009

Based on data and facts discussed above, it is known that oil palm plantation planted on mineral

soil for 25 years able to absorb 130 tonnes of CO2 eq/ha or if vary, the value will not be more

than 180 tonnes of CO2 eq keeping in mind that the above ground carbon storage on oil palm

plantation in Tanah Grogot is 39.94 tonnes / ha or equal to 146.58 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha. 

The realistic GHG emissions and drained peatland is 25-55 tonnes of CO2-eq/ha/year or equal to

625-1375 tonnes of CO2-eq for 25 years. While for Imperata cylindrica area on depth of 0-30

cm the total carbon storage is a little bit lower than the ex-logging and ex-burned areas, that is

252.855 tonnes/ha or equal to 927.98 tonnes of CO2 eq./ha. 

All of the above data make clear the position of where oil palm should be planted with regard to

environmental protection. With the intention to save planet Earth, through preventing the

increase of greenhouse gases, it can be concluded that peatlands are not suitable to be converted

to oil palm plantation. Such conversion would result in increase the present Greenhouse Gases

followed by the establishment of periphery channels as stated in the Minister of Agricultural

Regulation No 14 of 2009, “The water channels are aimed to manage ground water level of 60

cm to 80 cm depth, to maintain water availability and preventing fire”. Furthermore the

guidelines also states that “Maintenance and conservation should be conducted to maintain

ground water level on certain depth in order to support the growth of plants and sustainability

functions of peatlands”. Another important statement of the guidelines is “The peat layer should

always be submerged due to shrinkage nature of peat. Therefore, generally, the water level

should be maintain at depth of 60 (sixty) cm to 80 (eighty) cm. Regulation of water depth is also

important to slow the decomposition of peat hence reducing the decreasing rate of peat surface as

well as proving anaerobe zone for the development of oil palm roots. In order to maintain the

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

water level and prevent the oxidation of pyrite layer (water depth does not reach the pyrite layer),

therefore the drainage channel should always be filled with water on the required depth”. This

cause controversies, where planted oil palm on peatland require drainage that will result in

increased Greenhouse Gases which is greater that those able to be absorb by the planted oil palm,

whereas according to the Minister of Agriculture Regulation No. 14 of 2009, the considerations

for issuing such regulation was the utilization of peatlands for oil palm cultivation can be done

subject to considering the characteristics of peatlands so as not to produce environmental

degradation and also intended for the sustainable function of peatlands. 

Another controversial thing is also the consideration of “Results of the 2008 Study of

Consortium Team for Ecological Suitability of peatland for the sustainable development of

agriculture”. Under such guidelines, there are no statements on the results of the study that is use

for considerations for conversion of peatland by building channels. If such results were actually

use for consideration, then the study should show similar findings with other studies that the

conversion of peatland for oil palm plantation would increase Greenhouse gases. 

4. Recommendations

In relation to the development of oil palm plantation, Sawit Watch recommends the following

bottom lines: 

a. Do not expand new plantation in natural forest.

b. Do not expand new plantation in HCVF.

c. Do not use fire during land preparation.

d. Finding alternatives for fossil fuel (diesel).

e. Finding alternatives for urea fertilizers as used by many in Indonesia.

f. Reducing GHG that come from POME using biogas capture or other alternative method.

g. Do not expand new oil palm plantation in peatland.

h. Next oil palm expansion should only be conducted on grassland (Imperata cylindrica) on

dryland.

i. Providing compensation for the existing plantation on peatland

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

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ATTACHMENT I

Report on the Biomass Calculation of the 25-year Oil Palm Plant

Paser District, East Kalimantan, 31 July - 2 August 2009 

I. First day dated 31st of July 2009 

The oil palm plantation is owned by Mr.H.S.Nugroho (mobile phone number: 081348580668)

which belong to PIR Kuaro, of Kuaro Village (Lingkungan I), Sub-District of Kuaro, Pasir

district, East Kalimantan Province, with a total area of 2 ha and planting year of 1983/1984 with

a total of 130 trees per ha (planting space of 9 m x 7 m) and seeds are of species Dampi from

PPKS Marihat. This location is about 30-40 minutes from the downtown city of Tanah Grogot. 

On this location, the cutting activity of oil palm has been conducted since morning time with the

use of chainsaw involving many labours. The logged trees are then weight to obtain weight for

trunk and tree fronds using weighing scale with capacity of 5-10 kg. 

Three (3) oil palm trunks have been scheduled to be logged and all parts will be weight. To ease

the calculation and weighing process, the plant was cut into smaller segments. Generally, within

a oil palm plant (1) each logged trunk will be divide into several segments or groups to calculate

biomass and carbon storage, i.e trunk, frond (including the leaves), upper bunch, fruit bunch

(including fruit to be) and male fruit. 

On the first day, there observed one oil palm plant that has been logged, cut into smaller parts

and weight according to parts. 

To calculate the water content of each part of the plant that has been log as well as to calculate

the total biomass and carbon storage on each part, samples of 100-200 grams were taken, put in a

big envelope and labelled for ease for the next process. 

Data on the logging process of the first oil palm tree is presented in Table 1 

Second day 1st of August 

Similar to the first day, the activity for second day is done earlier in the morning on the second

trunk that has been logged. After the cutting into segments and weighing of each part, samples

of 100-200 grams were taken from each part and put into big envelope and labelled to

differentiate.

Data on the logging process of the second oil palm tree is presented in Table 2

After samples are taken, plots are established to calculate the biomass of ground cover from

various vegetation types found within the plantation including the intensively and not intensively

care. After such plots have been established, the next activity was to cut the ground cover at

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

ground level, separating litters and ground cover, weighing and taking samples for water content,

biomass and carbon storage. These samples were placed in big envelope and labelled. 

Data on the results of ground cover biomass and litters are provided in Table 3. 

After measuring activity on the location of second tree was done, the next activity was the

location of third three (last activity). Similar to the prior activities, the third oil palm tree was

logged, cut into several segments, and weight for water content, biomass and carbon storage

measurement. Samples of 100-200 grams were placed in an envelope and labelled. 

Data on the logging process of the third oil palm tree is presented in Table 4. 

Several additional information from the owner and local people are given below: 

+ During the initial plantation of oil palm in year 1983/1984 the number of stands per ha was

130. However, during the course of time, at 25 years there are three dead stands thus the total

became 127. 

+ Currently, the soil under the 25 year old plants seemed to harden which according to them was

due to the intensive use of inorganic fertilizer (urea). NPK fertilizers were required about 1.5

per stand. 

+ One of the means in increasing productivity of Fresh Fruit Bunch (FFB) was through the

intensive use of pesticides, which was given once every year or could be more. The pesticides

used was a round-up with dosage of 5 litres for 2 ha of plantation. 

+ There was an increase in the production up to 18 years hen become stable and started to

decline at 25 years. 

+ The FFB production was high that is over 3 tonnes (30-40 tonnes/2ha) on January - April, and

1.5-2 tonnes on September - December and low of about 1 tonne on May - August. 

+ Currently, the cost of harvesting FFB is Rp.150.00/ka; cost for transportation to mill is about

Rp.100.00/ka and cost of loading and weighing about Rp.12.00/kg, while price of FFB per kg

was Rp.800.00 (July 2009), price in February/March 2009 was about Rp.1,360.00/kg. 

3. Third day dated 2nd of August 2009 

Recapitulation of logging data of the three trees to ensure there are enough data. On the next

day, all samples were taken to the Laboratory of Forest and Land Fires to calculate the water

contents. 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

DATA ON OIL PALM BIOMASS OF PASIR DISTRICT 

LOCATION: PIR KUARO, BLOK IX NO.174 

A/N H.S.NUGROHO 

KUARO VILLAGE (LINGKUNGAN I), SUB-DISTRICT OF KUARO 

PASER REGENCY, PROVINCE OF EAST KALIMANTAN 

PLANTING YEAR : 1983/1984 

PLANTING SPACE : 9 X 7 (PER HA 125-130 BATANG) 

ORIGIN OF SEED : PPKS/MARIHAT 

Table 1. Data of First Logged Oil palm

No. Distance

between cuts

(cm) 

Diameter

(cm) 

Wet Weight

(kg) 

Dry Weight

(kg) 

% 

Carbon

Carbon

storage

(kg) 

Trunk 

1 40 95 163 92.39 39.51 36.50 

2 100 80 298 123.10 36.49 44.92 

3 110 52 222 128.76 38.82 78.77 

4 100 49 157 71.12 37.62 26.76 

5 103 42 120 69.43 38.24 26.55 

6 106 42 115 66.11 40.33 26.66 

7 98 41 105 54.95 36.82 20.23 

8 102 35 79 28.45 39.15 11.14 

9 99 35 78 39.99 39.50 15.79 

10 107 33 85 47.72 39.48 18.84 

11 100 29 80 54.49 35.85 19.53 

12 50 27 48 19.2 41.58 7.98 

Total 794.71 333.67 

13 Fronds and foliage 247 98.8 36.16 35.73 

14 Young shoots 5 1.45 31.15 0.45 

15 Fruit 20 10.8 41.85 4.52 

16 Male flower 2 1.69 47.79 0.81 

17 Weed on trunk 110 44 36.30 15.97 

Total 156.74 57.48 

Total 1.934 951.45 391.15 

Table 2. Data of second logged oil palm

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

No. Distance between cuts (cm) Diameter

(cm) 

Wet

Weight

(kg) 

Dry

Weight

(kg) 

% 

Carbon

Carbon

Content

(kg) 

Trunk

1 55 72 80 23.2 49.80 11.55 

2 95 63 228 27.36 40.13 10.98 

3 93 53 181 49.18 39.59 19.47 

4 100 46 145 68.15 39.06 26.62 

5 101 43 130 75.71 37.15 28.13 

6 102 41 125 48.84 40.33 19.69 

7 100 40 115 50.51 37.17 18.77 

8 100 40 110 48.4 40.32 19.51 

9 100 38 91 48.12 35.59 17.13 

10 105 35 80 26.6 36.85 9.80 

11 90 34 70 40.31 51.43 20.73 

12 90 20 21 8.40 38.48 3.23 

Total 514.78 205.61 

13 Fronds and foliage 194 50.44 35.92 18.12 

14 Young shoot 4 1.64 31.15 0.51 

15 Fruit 7 4.2 41.85 1.76 

16 Male flower 1 0.83 47.79 0.39 

17 Weed on trunk -

Total 57.11 20.78 

Total 571.89 226.39 

Table 3. Data of third logged oil palm

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

No. Distance

between cuts

(cm) 

Diameter (cm) Wet

Weight

(kg) 

Dry

Weight

(kg) 

% 

Carbon

Carbon

Content

(kg) 

Stem

1 45 65 90 45.13 50.48 22.78 

2 105 60 215 112.83 37.54 42.36 

3 102 47 175 101.5 37.55 38.11 

4 105 45 135 75.72 36.54 27.67 

5 110 40 125 71.25 38.7 27.57 

6 100 39 120 58.45 35.85 20.95 

7 100 39 110 61.03 41.15 25.11 

8 100 39 105 59.53 39.56 23.55 

9 100 39 103 48.41 37.4 18.17 

10 100 36 90 37.8 40.31 15.24 

11 105 34 88 34.42 38.65 13.30 

12 90 30 20 8.0 40.32 3.23 

Total 714.07 278.04 

13 Fronds and 

foliage 

263 108.62 35.92 39.02 

14 Young shoot 5 2.06 31.15 0.64 

15 Fruit 7 3.71 52.44 1.94 

16 Male flower 2 1.68 47.79 0.80 

17 Weed on trunk 20 12 36.30 4.36 

Total 128.07 46.76 

Total 842.14 324.8 

Table 4. Potentials of litters and upper parts of ground cover within a 25 years intensive care oil 

palm 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

No. Source of 

biomass 

Potential

(kg/m2) 

Dry 

weight 

(kg/m2) 

% 

Carbon 

Carbon

storage

(kg/m2) 

Notes

1 Dry litters 0.243 0.214 34.05 0.073 Intensive care

2 Ground cover 1.204 0.747 33.17 0.248 Including 

foliage and 

trunk 

(Average 

height 0.5-1.5

m) 

3 Specific grass 0.605 0.557 40.32 0.225 Intensive care

Total 2.052 1.518 0.546 

Average 0.684 0.506 0.182 

Table 5. Surface carbon storage, litters and ground cover of an intensive care 25 year old oil 

palm

No. Source of 

biomass 

Average total of dry weight 

(tonnes/ha) 

% 

Carbon 

Carbon storage

(tonnes/ha) 

1. Oil palm trunk 84.32 34.55 29.13 

2. Fronds and 

foliage of oil 

palm

10.74 36.00 3.87 

3. Oil palm young 

shoot 

0.22 31.15 0.07 

4. fruit 0.78 45.38 0.35 

5. Male flower 0.18 47.79 0.09 

6. Weed on trunk 2.67 36.30 0.97 

7. Dry litter 2.14 34.05 0.73 

8 Ground cover 7.47 33.17 2.48 

9. Specific grass 5.57 40.32 2.25 

Total 39.94 

ATTACHMENT II

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

Table 1. Estimation of above ground biomass per ha of peat forest in Central Kalimantan(Siregar

et al., 2004). 

No. Component Plot 1

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 2

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 3

(tonnes/ha)

Average

(tonnes/ha)

1 Stand 

biomass

904.416 358.517 485.528 582.820 

2 Root 

biomass

122.848 163.381 163.381 179.922 

3 Ground 

cover 

biomass

34.575 33.548 33.548 45.340 

Total 1.061.839 679.949 682.457 808.082 

Table 2. Estimation of below ground biomass per ha of peat forest in Central Kalimantan

(Siregar et al., 2004). 

No. Depth (cm) Plot 1

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 2

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 3

(tonnes/ha)

Average

(tonnes/ha)

1 0-30 6.756 11.712 6.672 8.380 

2 0-100 108.48 135.12 105.74 116.447 

3 0-300 534.36 534.36 534.36 534.360 

Table 3. Total biomass of peat forests in Central Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004)

No. Component Plot 1

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 2

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 3

(tonnes/ha)

Average

(tonnes/ha)

1 Above ground biomass 1,061.839 679.949 682.457 808.082 

2 Soil 6.756 11.712 6.672 8.380 

Total (0-30 cm) 1,068.415 691.661 689.129 816.462 

3 Soil 108.48 135.12 105.74 116.447 

Total (0-100 cm) 1,170.319 815.069 788.197 924.529 

4 Soil 534.36 534.36 534.36 534.36 

Total (0-300 cm) 1,596.199 1,214.309 1,216.817 1,342.442 

Table 4. Total carbon storage of peat forest in Central Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004). 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

No. Component Plot 1

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 2

(tonnes/ha)

Plot 3

(tonnes/ha)

Average

(tonnes/ha)

1

Above ground

biomass 681,791 413,191 470,128 521,703

2 Soil 3,901 6,764 3,85 4,838

Total (0-30 cm) 685,692 419,955 473,978 526,541

3 Soil 62,133 77,866 60,585 66,861

Total (0-100 cm) 743,924 491,057 530,713 588,564

4 Soil 274,698 274,698 274,698 274,698

Total (0-300 cm) 956,489 687,889 744,826 796,401

Table 5. Depth of peat in the study area in Central Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004). 

Plot Sub-plot Depth (cm) 

I 1 334

2 327

3 338

4 320

5 330

Total 1,649

Average 329.8

II 1 308

2 337

3 316

4 330

5 313

Total 1,604

Average 320.8

III 1 370

2 380

3 370

4 374

5 384

Total 1,878

Average 375.6

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”

No. Type of 

Land Use

Above ground

carbon 

storage 

(tonnes/ha) 

Below ground carbon 

storage

Total carbon storage 

(tonnes/ha) 

Peat depth

(cm) 

Carbon 

storage 

(tonnes/ha) 

1 Ex-logging 

areas 

216.04 0-30 197.392 413.972

0-100 754.393 970.359

0-350 2747.515 2963.565

0-420 2979.354 3195.393

0-500 3743.422 3959.462

0-610 4407.299 4263.339

2 Ex-burn 

areas

187.725 0-30 223.6237 411.349

0-100 877.331 1065.056

0-350 2663.98 2851.785

0-420 3082.75 3270.475

0-500 3240.627 3428.352

0-610 3849.261 4036.986

3 Imperata 

cylindrica 

9.661 0-30 241.1935 252.855

0-100 736.7379 746.399

0-350 2607.478 2617.139

0-420 3270.751 3280.412

0-580 3603.846 3613.507
91

Table 6. Carbon storage on ex-logging, ex-burning and Imperata cylindrica areas in Central 

Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004). 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

Table 7. Carbon budgets (without insertion of below ground biomass) from undisturbed and 

disturbed peat forests and oil palm plantations on several locations in Southeast Asia based on 

literature studies (Verwer et al, 2008). 

Peat with water table > 

25 cm

Total Unit Source Location

Above ground carbon 

storage

323 t C/ha Lasco (2002) Average wet 

tropical rain 

forest

250 t C/ha Murdiyarso and 

Wasrin (1995)

Sumatra

CO2 emissions from soil 

and root respiration

9,55 t C/ha/year Jauhiainen et al 

(2005)

Central 

Kalimantan 

10,64 t C/ha/year Muruyama and 

Bakar (1996)

Western part of 

Johor

9.28 t C/ha/year Jauhiainen et al 

(2005) 

Recovering forest

NPP (Net Primary 

Productivity)

25 t C/ha/year Murdiyarso and 

Wasrin (1995)

Peat swamp 

forest

NEP (Net Ecosystem 

Productivity)

5,32 t C/ha/year Suzuki (1999) Peat swamp 

primary forest

5,22 t C/ha/year Suzuki (1999) Peat swamp 

secondary forest

1,62 t C/ha/year Henson (2005) Undisturbed peat 

swamp forest

Peat with water table <

20 cm

Total Unit Source Location

Above ground carbon 

storage

181 t C/ha Lasco (2002) Average for 

disturbed tropical

forest

CO2 emissions from soil 

and root respiration

21 t C/ha/year Melling et al 

(2005)

Sarawak

GPP (Gross Primary 

Productivity)

34,34 t C/ha/year. Hirano et al (2007) Central 

Kalimantan 

NEP (Net Ecosystem 

Productivity)

-4,33 t C/ha/year. Hirano et al (2007) Central 

Kalimantan 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

Table 8. Carbon storage above ground on forest and non-forest areas

No. Land cover Carbon 

(T C/ha)

Source

Forest

1 Primary dryland forest in 

Jambi

252.34 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

2 Secondary dryland forest in 

Jambi

58.07 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

3 Primary dryland forest in 

Nunukan Regency

230.1 Lusiana et al., (2005)

4 Secondary dryland forest in 

Nunukan Regency

58.0 Lusiana et al., (2005)

5 Primary forest in Sumatera 300 Lasco (2002) in Lusiana et al., 

(2005)

6 Primary mangrove forest in 

Nunukan Regency

176.8 Lusiana et al., (2005)

7 Plantation forest 124.4 Handayani (2003)

Non forest

1 Shrubs in Nunukan Regency 19.4 Lusiana et al., (2005)

2 Shrubs in Jambi 15.0 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

3 Grassland in Jambi 6.0 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

4 Grassland in Indonesia 10.0 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

5 Plantation in Indonesia 172 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

6 Young oil palm plantation in 

Nunukan Regency

91 Toemich et al., (1998) in Lusiana et 

al., (2005)

7 Rubber in Jambi 35.5 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

8 Plantation of resources in 

Jambi

28.0 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

9 Settlements 0.5 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

10 Rice field in Nunukan Regency 4.8 Lusiana et al., (2005)

11 Rice field in Jambi 7.5 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

12 Rice field in Indonesia 3.5 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

13 Fish pond in Indonesia 1 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

14 Open space in Jambi 0 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

15 Marginal land in Indonesia 37 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

16 Imperata cylindrica in 

Nunukan Regency

4 Lusiana et al., (2005)

17 Upland field in Jambi 7.6 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

18 Cultivated land and settlement 

in Jambi

3.7 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

19 Mosaic of mixed unproductive 

lands

35 KLH (2003) in PEACE (2007)

20 Cultivated land and secondary 

vegetation in Jambi

35.5 Prasetyo et al., (2000)

Table 9. Dry weight of various components of oil palm plant (Tjitrosemito dan Mawardi, 2000). 

Parts of oil palm 

plant 

Mineral soil Peat soil 

14 year 19 year 10 year 

Average 

Dry 

Weight 

per plant 

(kg) 

Average 

Dry Weight

(tonnes/ha) 

Average 

Dry 

Weight 

per plant 

(kg) 

Average 

Dry Weight 

(tonnes/ha) 

Average 

Dry 

Weight 

per plant 

(kg) 

Average 

Dry Weight

(tonnes/ha) 

Trunk 310.132 44.349 355.720 50.868 70.960 10.147 

Leaflet 54.801 7.837 46.719 6.681 14.911 2.132 

Rachis 52.189 7.463 51.918 7.424 14.940 2.136 

Petiole 57.037 8.156 66.785 9.550 19.610 2.804 

Inflorescent 1.973 0.282 1.536 0.220 1.538 0.220 

Fruit bunch 34.927 4.995 21.653 3.096 17.145 2.452 

Left over petiole 93.867 13.423 26.989 3.859 18.010 2.575 

Coarse root 87.371 12.494 89.356 12.778 40.531 5.796 

Fine root 14.669 2.098 11.696 1.673 15.832 2.264 

% root 14.430 15.10 26.40 

Total Dry Weight 706.964 101.096 672.372 96.149 213.477 30.527 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

Table 10. Carbon storage in Oil palm Plant (Tjitrosemito and Mawardi, 2000).

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”

Part of oil palm plant Average Dry Weight

(tonnes/ha)

% C Carbon Content

(tonnes/ha)

Trunk 50.868 36.32 18.475 

Leaflet 6.681 37.42 2.500 

Rachis 7.424 35.47 2.633 

Petiole 9.550 39.81 3.802 

Inflorescent 0.220 36.59 0.080 

Fruit bunch 3.096 41.55 1.286 

Left over petiole 3.859 36.19 1.397 

Coarse root 12.778 39.71 5.074 

Fine root 1.673 37.79 0.632 

Dead root 0.378 40.62 0.154 

Necromass 4.771 38.12 1.819 

Undergrowth 1.563 35.74 0.559 

Coarse litter 3.149 31.26 0.984 

Fine litter 2.567 34.36 0.882 

Total 40.278 
91

Table 11. Soil carbon content under 19 years old oil palm plants (Tjitrosemito and Mawardi, 

2000).

Soil depth (cm) % C-organic Bulk density 

(gr/cm3) 

Carbon content 

(kg/ha) 

0-5 1,28 1,851 11.846,4 

5-10 1,02 1,851 9.490,1 

10-20 0,83 2,106 17.479,8 

20-30 0,46 2,055 9.453,0 

Total 48.210,3 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

Table 12. Above ground biomasses of various land use types on peat swamp forest in Central 

Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004)

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

No. Components Ex-logging areas 

(tonnes/ha) 

Ex-fire areas

(tonnes/ha) 

Imperata

cylindrica

(tonnes/ha) 

1 Stand biomass 288,023 227,115 - 

2 Root biomass 46,818 38,372 - 

3 Ground cover biomass 41,428 63,534 20,104 

Total Biomass 376,269 329,020 20,104 

Table 13. Estimation of below ground biomass on various land uses on peat swamp forest in

Central Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004) 

No. Land use type Depth(cm) Biomass

(tonnes/ha)

1 Ex-logging areas 0-30 343.308 

0-100 1451.563 

0-350 4765.109 

0-420 5181.660 

0-500 6488.466 

0-610 7649.141 

2 Ex-fire areas 0-30 388.953 

0-100 1394.928 

0-350 4673.989 

0-420 5388.188 

0-500 6059.906 

0-610 6688.905 

3 Imperata cylindrica 0-30 427.321 

0-100 1359.470 

0-350 4370.505 

0-420 5707.725 

0-500 6323.578 

Table 14. Biomass potentials of Imperata cylindrica in Central Kalimantan (Siregar et al., 2004)

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
91

Depth (cm) Biomass (tonnes/ha) Bulk density

(g/cm3) 

Sub-2 Sub-4 Sub-5 

0-10 90.253 101.05 155.11 0.1044-0.174

2 

10-20 96.33 86.03 158.07 0.0982-0.185

3 

20-30 113.12 106.39 165.63 0.1442-0.167

8 

30-40 92.74 95.95 139.07 0.1005-0.143

2 

40-50 95.49 98.86 145.25 0.1053-0.130

6 

50-60 112.17 59.54 135.13 0.0732-0.150

5 

60-70 100.02 116.82 168.42 0.0973-0.133

4 

70-80 116.13 127.95 162.39 0.1371-0.194

3 

80-90 133.28 154.80 154.12 0.1042-0.146

6 

90-100 129.67 127.44 117.07 0.1186-0.142

2 

Table 15. Carbon storage below ground of Imperate cylindrica in Central Kalimantan 

Depth (cm) % Carbon 

Sub-2 Sub-4 Sub-5 

0-10 57.42 57.37 57.47 

10-20 57.71 57.87 57.71 

20-30 57.50 57.67 57.68 

30-40 57.72 57.66 57.71 

40-50 57.65 57.70 57.79 

50-60 57.65 57.76 57.63 

60-70 57.71 57.69 57.77 

70-80 57.84 57.71 57.71 

80-90 57.76 57.79 57.80 

90-100 57.76 57.89 57.86 

”Development of Greenhouse Gas-Based Oil Palm Plantation: Critical Perspectives”
1

The prefix ‘bio’, which comes from the Greek word for ‘life’, is not appropriate for production of a crop that has 

possible negative impacts on people and nature. Agrofuels is therefore a better term as it expresses what is happening: 

agribusiness producing fuel from plants as a commodity.

2 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR HUMAN RIGHTS AND 

REPORTS OF THE OFFICE OF THE HIGH COMMISSIONER AND THE SECRETARY-GENERAL

Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the 

relationship between climate change and human rights*

3 See Millennium Ecosystems Assessment 2005, Ecosystems and Human Well-being, Synthesis, pp.

67 and 79.

4 A joint seminar on human rights and the environment organized by OHCHR and UNEP in 2002 

also documented a growing recognition of the connection between human rights, environmental 

protection and sustainable development (see E/CN.4/2002/WP.7).

5

ILO Convention No. 169 (1989) concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent 

Countries provides for special protection of the environment of the areas which indigenous 

peoples occupy or otherwise use. At the regional level, the African Charter on Human and Peoples’

Rights and the San Salvador Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights recognize the 

right to live in a healthy or satismill environment. Moreover, many national constitutions refer to a 

right to an environment of a certain quality.

6 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), art. 24, para. 2 (c).

7 Human Rights Committee, general comments No. 6 (1982) on art. 6 (Right to life), para. 1,

and No. 14 (1984) on art. 6 (Right to life), para. 1.

8 Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 6, para. 5. Likewise, the Committee has asked 

States to provide data on pregnancy and childbirth-related deaths and gender-disaggregated data 

on infant mortality rates when reporting on the status of implementation of the right to life 

(general comment No. 28 (2000) on art. 3 (The equality of rights between men and women), para. 

10).

9 CRC, art. 6, para. 2.

10 Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 7 (2006) on implementing rights in 

early childhood, para. 10.

11 IPCC AR4 Working Group II (WGII) Report, p. 393.

12 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report 2007/2008,

Fighting climate change: Human solidarity in a divided world, p. 8.

13 IPCC AR4 Working Group II Report, p. 317.

14 Inter-Agency Standing Committee, Protecting Persons Affected by Natural Disasters – IASC 

Operational Guidelines on Human Rights and Natural Disasters, Brooking-Bern Project on Internal 

Displacement, 2006.

15 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), art. 11; CRC,

art. 24 (c); Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), art. 25 (f) and art. 

28, para. 1; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW),

art. 14, para. 2 (h); International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial 

Discrimination (ICERD), art. 5 (e).

16 CESCR general comment No. 12 (1999) on the right to adequate food (art. 11), para. 6.

17 IPCC AR4 Synthesis Report, p. 48.

18 UNDP Human Development Report 2006, Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global

water crisis.

19 IPCC AR4 WGII Report, p. 275.

20 IPCC AR4 WGII, p. 359. United Nations Millennium Project 2005, Halving Hunger: It Can Be Done,

Task Force on Hunger, p. 66. Furthermore, according to the Human Rights Council Special 

Rapporteur on the right to food, “half of the world’s hungry people ... depend for their survival on 

lands which are inherently poor and which may be becoming less fertile and less productive as a 

result of the impacts of repeated droughts, climate change and unsustainable land use” 

(A/HRC/7/5, para. 51).

21 See e.g. A/HRC/7/5, para. 51; A/HRC/7/5/Add.2, paras. 11 and 15.

22 See e.g. CESCR general comment No. 12 (1999) on the right to adequate food (art. 11), para. 

28.
23 CESCR general comment No. 15 (2002) on the right to water (arts. 11 and 12), para. 2. While 

not explicitly mentioned in ICESCR, the right is seen to be implicit in arts. 11 (adequate standard 

of living) and 12 (heath). General comment No. 15 provides further guidance on the normative 

contents of the right to water and related obligations of States.

24 See CEDAW, art. 14, para. 2 (h); CRPD, art. 28, para. 2 (a); CRC, art. 24, para. 2 (c).

25 IPCC AR4 Synthesis Report, pp. 48-49.

26 Millennium Ecosystems Assessment 2005, Ecosystems and Human Well-being, Synthesis, p. 52.

27 According to the UNDP Human Development Report 2006, the root causes of the current water 

crisis lie in poor water management, poverty and inequality, rather than in an absolute shortage of

physical supply.

28 IPCC AR4 WGII Report, p. 191. UNDP Human Development Report 2006.

29 CEDAW, arts. 12 and 14, para. 2 (b); ICERD, art. 5 (e) (iv); CRC, art. 24; CRPD, arts. 16, para. 4, 

22, para. 2, and 25; International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers

and Members of Their Families (ICRMW), arts. 43, para. 1 (e), 45, para. 1 (c), and 70. See also 

ICESCR arts. 7 (b) and 10.

30 CESCR general comment No. 12, para. 8.

31 See CESCR general comment No. 12, CEDAW general recommendation No. 24 (1999) on art. 12 

of the Convention (women and health); CRC general comment No. 4 (2003) on Adolescent health 

and development in the context of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.

32 IPCC AR4 Synthesis, p. 48.

33 Uncertainty remains about the potential impact of climate change on malaria at local and global 

scales because of a lack of data and the interplay of other contributing non-climatic factors such 

as socio-economic development, immunity and drug resistance (see IPCC WGII Report, p. 404).

34 Modified from “Poverty and Environment,” a background paper to the Environment Strategy 

2000/World Bank.

35 A/62/214, para. 102.

36 IPCC AR4 WGII Report, p. 12.

37 ICESCR, art. 11. See also Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 25, para. 1; ICERD, art. 5 

(e) (iii); CEDAW, art. 14, para. 2; CRC, art. 27, para. 3; ICRMW, art. 43, para. 1 (d); CRPD, arts. 9, 

para. 1 (a), and 28, paras. 1 and 2 (d).

38 CESCR general comment No. 12, para. 6.

39 See CESCR general comment No. 7 (1997) on the right to adequate housing (art. 11 (1) of the 

Covenant): Forced evictions.

40 CESCR general comment No. 12, para. 8.

41 IPCC AR4 WGII Report, p. 333.

42 IPCC AR4 WGII Report, p. 672.

43 A/63/275, paras. 31-38.

44 UNDP Human Development Report 2007/2008, Fighting climate change: Human solidarity in a 

divided world, p. 9.

45 In this regard the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement (E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2, annex) 

provide that “at the minimum, regardless of the circumstances, and without discrimination, 

competent authorities shall provide internally displaced persons with and ensure safe access to: ...

basic shelter and housing” (principle 18).

46 The right to self-determination is enshrined in Articles 1 and 55 of the Charter of the United 

Nations and also contained in the Declaration on the Right to Development, art. 1, para. 2, and the

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, arts. 3 and 4.

47 Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 12 (1984) on art. 1 (Right to 

self-determination), para. 6. See also Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 

(CERD), general recommendation 21 (1996) on the right to self-determination.

48 See e.g. IPCC AR4 WGII Report, p. 374.

49 National communications, submitted according to arts. 4 and 12 of UNFCCC, make frequent 

references to the human impacts of climate change, but generally do so in an aggregate and 

general manner, mentioning for example that people living in poverty are particularly vulnerable.

50 IPCC AR4 WGII, p. 398. See also submission by the United Nations Development Fund for 

Women available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/climatechange/index.htm.
51 E. Neumayer and T. Plümper, The Gendered Nature of Natural Disasters: The Impact of 

Catastrophic Events on the Gender Gap in Life Expectancy, 1981-2002, available at 

http://ssrn.com/abstract=874965. As the authors conclude, based on the study of disasters in 141 

countries, “[a] systematic effect on the gender gap in life expectancy is only plausible if natural 

disasters exacerbate previously existing patterns of discrimination that render females more 

vulnerable to the fatal impact of disasters” (p. 27).

52 Y. Lambrou and R. Laub, “Gender perspectives on the conventions on biodiversity, climate 

change and desertification”, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 

Gender and Population Division, pp. 7-8.

53 See e.g. IPCC AR4 WGII Report, p. 398; International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, Gender 

Perspectives: Integrating Disaster Risk Reduction into Climate Change Adaptation. Good Practices 

and Lessons Learned, UN/ISDR 2008.

54 UNFCCC, Climate Change: Impacts, Vulnerabilities and Adaptation in Developing Countries, 

2007, p. 16.

55 UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Climate Change and Children: A Human Security Challenge, 

New York and Florence, 2008; UNICEF UK, Our Climate, Our Children, Our Responsibility: The 

Implications of Climate Change for the World’s Children, London, 2008.

56 World Bank, Global Monitoring Report 2008 - MDGs and the Environment: Agenda for Inclusive 

and Sustainable Development, p. 211.

57 UNICEF UK (see footnote 69 above), p. 29.

58 For example, UNEP and UNICEF have developed an environmental resource pack for 

child-friendly schools designed to empower children (see footnote 69 above, UNICEF Innocenti 

Research Centre, p. 28).

59 See e.g. CRC, general comment No. 4 (2003) on adolescent health and development in the 

context of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.

60 M. Macchi and others, Indigenous and Traditional Peoples and Climate Change, International 

Union for Conservation of Nature, 2008.

61 See e.g. report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental 

freedoms of indigenous peoples, A/HRC/4/32, para. 49.

62 In April 2008, the Permanent Forum for Indigenous Issues stated that climate change “is an 

urgent and immediate threat to human rights” (E/C.19/2008/13, para. 23).

63 E/C.19/2008/13, para. 4. The Permanent Forum also recommended that a mechanism be put in 

place for the participation of indigenous peoples in climate change negotiations under UNFCCC 

(ibid., para. 30).

64 IPCC AR4 WGII Report, p. 865 (citing Robinson and Herbert, 2001).

65 Key provisions include the right to effective mechanisms for prevention of, and redress for,

actions which have the aim or effect of dispossessing them of their lands, territories or 

resources (art. 8); the principle of free, prior and informed consent (art. 19), the right to the 

conservation and protection of the environment and indigenous lands and territories (art. 29), the 

right to maintain, control, protect and develop their cultural heritage and traditional knowledge 

and cultural expressions (art. 31).

66 See the provisions on cultural rights in ICCPR, art. 27, and ICESCR, art. 15.

67 Available at: http://inuitcircumpolar.com/files/uploads/icc-files/FINALPetitionICC.pdf.

68 More recent studies refer to estimates for the same period of 200 million (Stern Review on the 

Economics of Climate Change, 2006, available at 

http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/sternreview_index.htm) and 250 million (Human tide: the real 

migration crisis, Christian Aid 2007). See also IPCC AR4 WGII Report, p. 365 and the Norwegian 

Refugee Council, Future floods of refugees: A comment on climate change, conflict and forced 

migration, 2008.

69 See e.g. contributions to Forced Migration Review, vol. 1, No. 31, October 2008.

70 Adapted from typology proposed by the Representative of the Secretary-General on human 

rights of internally displaced persons and also used in the working paper submitted by the IASC 

informal group on migration/displacement and climate change, “Climate Change, Migration and 

Displacement: who will be affected”, 31 October 2008.

71 Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement (E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2, annex), principles 1, para. 

1, and 6, para. 1 .
72 Principle 8.2, Principles on Housing and Property Restitution for Refugees and Displaced Persons

(endorsed by the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights in resolution 

2005/2); FAO/IDMC/NRC/OCHA/OHCHR/UN-Habitat/UNHCR: Housing and Property Restitution for 

Refugees and Displaced Persons: Implementing the “Pinheiro Principles”, 2007.

73 See IASC working paper referred to in footnote 84 above.

74 Representative of the Secretary-General on human rights of internally displaced persons,

Displacement Caused by the Effects of Climate Change: Who will be affected and what are 

the gaps in the normative framework for their protection? background paper, 2008, available at: 

http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/climatechange/submissions.htm.

75 In the face of rising sea levels, migration is one adaptation strategy which is already

being implemented in low-lying island States, such as Kiribati, the Maldives, and Tuvalu.

So far this population movement has mainly taken the form of in-country resettlement 

schemes (IPCC AR4 WGII Report, p. 708).

76 The papers (E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/2004/CRP.1; E/CN.4/Sub.2/2005/28) were prepared by Françoise 

Hampson pursuant to a request from the Commission on Human Rights (decision 2004/122) to 

prepare a report on the legal implications of the disappearance of States for environmental 

reasons. A questionnaire was prepared in 2006 (E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/2006/CRP.2) with a view to 

obtaining more accurate data on the nature, scale and imminence of the problem, but as yet no 

follow-up has been given to this initiative.

77 This point was made by Ms. Hampson and other panellists at the consultation meeting organized

by OHCHR on 22 October 2008, summary of discussions available at: 

http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/climatechange/docs/SummaryofDiscussions.doc.

78 See e.g. Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,

The National Security Strategy of the United Kingdom: Security in an interdependent

world, 2008 and German Advisory Council on Global Change, World in Transition - Climate

Change as a Security Risk, 2008.

79 As the Chairman of the Nobel Committee stated: “The chief threats may be direct violence, but 

deaths may also have less direct sources in starvation, disease, or natural disasters” (Presentation

speech 10 December 2007).

80 International Alert and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), A 

Climate of Conflict, 2008, p. 7. In the same vein, the Special Rapporteur on the right to food 

observes that conflicts in Africa, including in the Darfur region, are linked to land degradation and 

related fights over resources (A/HRC/7/5, para. 51).

81 See e.g. H. Buhaug, N.P. Gleditsch and O.M. Theisen, Implications of Climate Change for Armed 

Conflict, 2008. As the IPCC AR4 WGII Report points out (citing Fairhead, 2004) there are many 

other intervening and contributing causes of conflict and many environmentally-influenced 

conflicts in Africa are related to abundance of natural resources (e.g. oil and diamonds) rather 

than scarcity, suggesting “caution in the prediction of such conflicts as a result of climate change” 

(p. 365).

82 UNFCCC, art. 4, para. 8, and Kyoto Protocol, arts. 2, para. 3, and 3, para. 14.

83 For a discussion of the human rights dimensions of mitigation and adaptation policies see

International Council on Human Rights Policy, Climate Change and Human Rights: A Rough

Guide, 2008, chapter II.

84 Statement of the Special Rapporteur on the right to food, 22 May 2008, at the special session of 

the Human Rights Council on the global food crisis.

85 See e.g. M. Macchi and others, Indigenous and Traditional Peoples and Climate Change,

International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2008. CERD expressed concern about plans 

to establish a large-scale biofuel plantation and the threat it constituted to the rights of indigenous

peoples to own their lands and enjoy their culture (CERD/C/IDN/CO/3, para. 17).

86 E/C.19/2008/13, para. 45.