Preliminary Estimates of the Quantities of Rare-Earth 

Elements Contained in Selected Products and in 

Imports of Semimanufactured Products to the 

United States, 2010

By Donald I. Bleiwas and Joseph Gambogi 

Open-File Report 2013–1072

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013 

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Suggested citation:

Bleiwas, D.I., and Gambogi, Joseph, 2013, Preliminary estimates of the quantities of rare-earth elements 

contained in selected products and in imports of semimanufactured products to the United States, 2010: 

U.S. Geological Survey Open–File Report 2013–1072, 14 p., http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1072/. 

Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government. 

Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain

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secured from the copyright owner. 

Cover. Left: Aerial photograph of Molycorp, Inc.’s Mountain Pass rare-earth oxide mining and processing facilities in Mountain Pass, 

California. (Photograph courtesy of Molycorp, Inc., used with permission.) Middle: Oxide compounds manufactured from selected 

rare-earth elements in powdered form. (Photograph courtesy of Peggy Greb, Agricultural Research Center, United States Department 

of Agriculture.) Right: A hard drive from a personal computer; the spindle motor and a voice coil contain rare-earth magnets.
iii

Contents

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 1

Chemical Classification of Rare-Earth Elements........................................................................................ 2

Mineralogical Occurrence of Rare-Earth Elements .................................................................................... 2

How Rare-Earth Elements Are Used ............................................................................................................. 4

Exploration Activity and Vulnerability of Supply ............................................................................................. 5

Current Sources of Production ...................................................................................................................... 6

Preliminary Estimates of Quantities of Rare-Earth Elements in Manufactured and Imported Products .......... 

in the United States ............................................................................................................................... 7 

Additional Research Ongoing and Planned ................................................................................................. 11

Summary and Preliminary Conclusions....................................................................................................... 12

Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................................... 13

References Cited......................................................................................................................................... 13

Figures

1–3. Photographic images showing:

1. The oxides of rare-earth metals gadolinium (Gd), praseodymium (Pr), cerium (Ce), 

samarium (Sm), lanthanum (La), and neodymium (Nd) in powdered form...................................... 2 

2. Molycorp, Inc.’s Mountain Pass rare-earth oxide mining and processing facilities in 

Mountain Pass, California................................................................................................................. 7 

3. A hard drive from a personal computer showing a spindle motor and a voice coil that 

contain 

rare-earth magnets ........................................................................................................................... 8 

Tables 

1. Percentage distribution of rare-earth elements by type of ore at major production sites in 

the United States and China ............................................................................................................. 3

2. Examples of common applications of rare-earth elements ............................................................... 5

3. Estimated weight of rare-earth oxides contained in selected manufactured products that 

entered service in the United States in 2010 and in material containing rare-earth metals 

that was imported into the United States in 2010 ............................................................................. 9
iv

Conversion Factors

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain

Mass

ton, short (2,000 lb) 0.9072 megagram (Mg); metric ton (t)

ton, long (2,240 lb) 1.016 megagram (Mg); metric ton (t)

SI to Inch/Pound

Multiply By To obtain

Mass

megagram (Mg); metric ton (t) 1.102 ton, short (2,000 lb)

megagram (Mg); metric ton (t) 0.9842 ton, long (2,240 lb)
1 

Preliminary Estimates of the Quantities of Rare-Earth

Elements Contained in Selected Products and in 

Imports of Semimanufactured Products to the 

United States, 2010

By Donald I. Bleiwas and Joseph Gambogi

Abstract

Rare-earth elements (REEs) are contained in a wide range of products of economic and 

strategic importance to the Nation. The REEs may or may not represent a significant component of 

that product by mass, value, or volume; however, in many cases, the embedded REEs are critical 

for the device’s function. Domestic sources of primary supply and the manufacturing facilities to 

produce products are inadequate to meet U.S. requirements; therefore, a significant percentage of 

the supply of REEs and the products that contain them are imported to the United States. In 2011, 

mines in China produced roughly 97 percent of the world’s supply of REEs, and the country’s 

production of these elements will likely dominate global supply until at least 2020. Preliminary 

estimates of the types and amount of rare-earth elements, reported as oxides, in semimanufactured 

form and the amounts used for electric vehicle batteries, catalytic converters, computers, and other 

applications were developed to provide a perspective on the Nation’s use of these elements. The 

amount of rare-earth metals recovered from recycling, remanufacturing, and reuse is negligible 

when the tonnage of products that contain REEs deposited in landfills and retained in storage is 

considered. Under favorable market conditions, the recovery of REEs from obsolete products could 

potentially displace a portion of the supply from primary sources. 

Introduction

Because of the United States’ reliance on nondomestic suppliers of rare-earth elements 

(REEs), identification of the types and amounts of REEs imported both as impure and refined 

metals and oxides and intermediate (semimanufactured) products, as well as those contained

(embedded) in the components of a wide range of products presently in use, is of economic and 

strategic importance to the Nation. These types of information help in determining the 

significance of disruptions in the supply of these materials, as well as the amounts of REEs that 

are potentially available for recycling. 

REEs embedded in products may or may not represent a significant component of that 

product by weight, value, or volume; however, in many cases, the embedded REEs are critical 

for the device’s function. For example, the neodymium-iron-boron magnets used in the spindle 

motors and voice coils of personal computers are considered embedded materials, and although 

the magnets make up only a small portion of the computer, they are essential to its function. 
2 

This report provides the results of initial research undertaken by the U.S. Geological 

Survey (USGS) to assess the amount of REEs that flow through the U.S. economy annually. This

research has thus far focused on assessing the quantity of REEs contained in selected products in 

use in the United States and in selected imports of intermediate products in 2010. Some chemical

and mineralogical information on REEs and on current sources of production is also included. 

Chemical Classification of Rare-Earth Elements

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry defines the REEs as the set of 

15 chemical elements in the periodic table with atomic numbers 57 through 71 (the lanthanides), 

plus scandium and yttrium (Connelly and others, 2005). The lanthanides include, in order of 

atomic number, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, 

europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium. 

Several rare-earth metal oxides in powdered form are shown in figure 1.

Figure 1. The oxides of rare-earth metals gadolinium (Gd), praseodymium (Pr), cerium (Ce), 

samarium (Sm), lanthanum (La), and neodymium (Nd) in powdered form. Photograph courtesy 

of Peggy Greb, Agricultural Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

REEs are often classified as either light rare-earth elements (LREEs) or heavy rare-earth 

elements (HREEs). The classification is based in part on the LREEs having unpaired electrons in 

the 4f electron shell and HREEs having paired electrons in the 4f electron shell. The LREEs 

include the elements from atomic number 57 (lanthanum) through atomic number 

64 (gadolinium); the HREEs include the elements from atomic number 65 (terbium) through 

atomic number 71 (lutetium) and also yttrium (atomic number 39). 

Mineralogical Occurrence of Rare-Earth Elements 

The principal ores from which REEs are extracted are characterized by the minerals 

bastnäsite, loparite, monazite, lateritic ion-adsorption clays, and xenotime. Bastnäsite is the 

leading ore mineral source of REEs in the world; it is enriched with cerium, lanthanum, 
3 

neodymium, praseodymium, and other REE (U.S. Bureau of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey, 

1980). Historically, bastnäsite has been a source primarily of LREEs. Bastnäsite is produced in 

China and the United States. Loparite, which is an oxide that contains niobium, REEs, sodium, 

and titanium, occurs with certain alkaline rocks of magmatic origin. One mine in Russia 

produces loparite containing 30 to 36 percent REEs. Monazite is a phosphate mineral that 

contains REEs and the radioactive element thorium. Although monazite has been and could be 

produced as a byproduct of many heavy-mineral operations, limited demand for thorium, and in 

some cases, environmental concerns associated with the radioactive nature of the mineral, has 

led all domestic and most foreign producers to stop recovering monazite. Monazite continues to 

be produced in Brazil and India. Xenotime, a phosphate mineral that is rich in yttrium and 

HREEs, has been produced from cassiterite deposits in Malaysia and is a potential byproduct 

from the production of certain heavy-mineral placer deposits. Lateritic deposits in Jiangxi 

Province in southern China contain lateritic ion-adsorption clays that have rare-earth ions 

adsorbed into their mineral structure. These deposits make up the world’s principal supply source 

of yttrium and the other HREEs (Gambogi and Cordier, 2012). Table 1 shows the percentage 

distribution of REEs (by type of ore) of major producing sites in China and the United States. 

Table 1. Percentage distribution of rare-earth elements by type of ore at major production sites in the 

United States and China. 

[Data are percentage of total rare-earth elements in ore and are rounded to no more than three significant digits; may 

not add to totals shown. Rare-earth elements are listed in ascending order of atomic number]

Rare-earth element

Bastnäsite Monazite

Mountain Pass,

Calif., United States1

Bayan Obo, Inner

Mongolia, China2

Nangang,

Guangdong, China3

Yttrium 0.10 trace 2.40

Lanthanum 33.20 23.00 23.00

Cerium 49.10 50.00 42.70

Praseodymium 4.34 6.20 4.10

Neodymium 12.00 18.50 17.00

Samarium 0.80 0.80 3.00

Europium 0.10 0.20 0.10

Gadolinium 0.20 0.70 2.00

Terbium trace 0.10 0.70

Dysprosium trace 0.10 0.80

Holmium trace trace 0.12

Erbium trace trace 0.30

Thulium trace trace trace

Ytterbium trace trace 2.40

Lutetium trace trace 0.14

Total 100 100 100

Xenotime Rare-earth laterite

Southeast

Guangdong, China4

Xunwu, Jiangxi

Province, China5

Longnan, Jiangxi

Province, China5

Yttrium 59.30 8.00 65.00

Lanthanum 1.20 43.40 1.82

Cerium 3.00 2.40 0.40

Praseodymium 0.60 9.00 0.70

Neodymium 3.50 31.70 3.00

Samarium 2.20 3.90 2.80

Europium 0.20 0.50 0.10
4 

Table 1. Percentage distribution of rare-earth elements by type of ore at major production sites in the 

United States and China.—Continued

[Data are percentage of total rare-earth elements in ore and are rounded to no more than three significant digits; may 

not add to totals shown. Rare-earth elements are listed in ascending order of atomic number]

Xenotime Rare-earth laterite

Southeast

Guangdong, China4

Xunwu, Jiangxi

Province, China5

Longnan, Jiangxi

Province, China5

Gadolinium 5.00 3.00 6.90

Terbium 1.20 trace 1.30

Dysprosium 9.10 trace 6.70

Holmium 2.60 trace 1.60

Erbium 5.60 trace 4.90

Thulium 1.30 trace 0.70

Ytterbium 6.00 0.30 2.50

Lutetium 1.80 0.10 0.40

Total 100 100 100

1

Johnson and Sisneros, 1981.

2

Zang and others, 1982.

3

Xi, Zhang, 1986.

4

Nakamura, 1988.

5

Government of Jiangxi Province, 1985.

How Rare-Earth Elements Are Used

REEs were first isolated by researchers in the late 1700s. It was not until the 1930s that 

the unique characteristics of REEs found commercial application when cerium oxide was 

employed as a component of compounds used to polish glass. The chemical reaction of the 

compound with glass forms cerium silicate, which fills microscopic scratches in the glass; this 

chemical change, along with cerium’s physical hardness, makes it an excellent polishing agent. 

The next significant commercial application was introduced in the 1960s when europium and 

yttrium were incorporated as components of phosphors to produce red in color television images 

(Gschneidner and Capellen, 1987; Gupta and Krishnamurthy, 2005). By the beginning of the 

21st century, REEs (individually and in combination with other REEs) were components in more 

than 200 products across a wide range of applications, including batteries, catalysts, ceramics, 

electronics, glass, lasers, medicine, phosphors, polishes, and metallic alloys (including 

permanent magnets) (Gupta and Krishnamurthy, 2005). The elements are used in such common 

high-tech consumer products as cellular telephones, computer hard drives, electric and hybrid 

vehicles, and flat-screen monitors and televisions. They are also used in a significant array of 

defense applications, including in actuators on the fins of guided missiles and other munitions, 

such as smart bombs; electronic displays; fiber optics; guidance systems for drone aircraft; lasers 

for various applications; optics, such as lenses and night vision systems; and radar and sonar 

systems (Rare Earth Industry and Technology Association, 2009; Robinson, 2011). Table 2 lists 

some common applications of REEs. 
5 

Table 2. Examples of common applications of rare-earth elements.

Application

Chemical element1

Sc Y La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

Alloys and metallurgical uses X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Batteries X X X X X X

Catalysts X X X X X X X X

Ceramics X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Electronics X X X X X X X X

Fertilizers X X X

Glass X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Lamps X X X X X X X X X X X X

Lasers X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Magnets X X X X X X X X X

Medical and pharmaceutical uses X X X X X X X X X

Neutron absorption X X X X X X X X

Phosphors X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

1

The symbols used for chemical elements in this table include the following (in order of atomic number): 

Sc, scandium; Y, yttrium, La, lanthanum; Ce, cerium; Pr, praseodymium; Nd, neodymium; Pm, promethium; 

Sm, samarium; Eu, europium; Gd, gadolinium; Tb, terbium; Dy, dysprosium; Ho, holmium; Er, erbium; 

Tm, thulium; Yb, ytterbium; and Lu, lutetium.

Heavy rare-earth elements (HREEs) are less abundant relative to the light rare-earth 

elements (LREEs). Among the most important HREEs used in advanced technologies are 

dysprosium, europium, neodymium, terbium, and yttrium. HREEs (especially dysprosium, 

europium, neodymium, terbium, and yttrium) are typically less common in rare-earth mineral 

deposits than are LREEs (table 1). The market price per unit of rare-earth-oxide equivalent for 

HREEs is considerably higher than for LREEs given the relatively strong demand for them 

coupled with their relative scarcity. Because of their importance for advanced technologies, an 

increase in the demand for HREEs is likely unless substitutions are discovered or advances are 

made to existing technologies so the products do not require—or at least require less—of the 

rare-earth metals.

Exploration Activity and Vulnerability of Supply

Exploration activity at present emphasizes the search for deposits that are relatively high 

in HREEs (rather than LREEs) because of the anticipated proportionately greater increase in 

demand and higher value of HREEs than LREEs. It is likely, however, that China will remain the 

only significant primary source of most HREEs, such as dysprosium, for the next several years 

(Gimurtu, 2012). The development of REE deposits is based on factors that include the elemental 

distribution of the REEs and the grade and tonnage, the mineral processing requirements, the 

geographic location, and the environmental remediation requirements. Numerous exploration 

and development projects are underway that may not only increase world production of REEs 

but also introduce new sources of supply. By 2018, significant new or expanded mine production 

may be underway in Australia, Canada, Greenland, South Africa, Sweden, and the United States. 
6 

To address questions of supply and demand for REEs, in 2011, the 111th U.S. Congress 

mandated that the U.S. Secretary of Defense conduct an assessment of REE supply-chain issues 

and develop a plan to address the country’s vulnerability to supply shortages. The 

U.S. Department of Defense was required to assess which REEs meet the following criteria: 

(a) the rare-earth material is critical to the production, sustainment, or operation of significant 

U.S. military equipment; and (b) the rare-earth material is subject to interruption of supply based 

on actions or events outside the control of the Government of the United States. In March 2012, 

the DOD identified seven REEs (dysprosium, erbium, europium, gadolinium, neodymium, 

praseodymium, and yttrium) that were critical to the production, sustainment, or operation of 

significant U.S. military equipment and were subject to the interruption of supply. New

U.S. production of the seven REEs was expected to satisfy consumption for defense needs, with 

the exception of yttrium. Additional assessments of the REE supply chain were ongoing. 

In 2012, the United States joined with Japan and the European Union to bring a World 

Trade Organization (WTO) joint-dispute-resolution case against China. The case was brought 

because of China’s restrictive policies on trade of certain rare-earth and other minerals (Bailey 

Grasso, 2012). The WTO’s review of the case is ongoing.

Current Sources of Production 

The United States relies primarily on nondomestic sources of production for its supply of 

REEs. In 2011, mines in China produced roughly 97 percent of the world’s supply of REEs. 

Much of the output from China, especially the more valuable HREEs, was used within China to

produce value-added products, many of which were exported. Although modest changes to 

global supply patterns could take place in the next few years, a significant portion of the global 

supply chain of rare-earth ores and concentrates and of refined, intermediate, and final products 

that contain rare-earth metals is likely to be firmly anchored to China through at least 2020. The 

world supply of intermediate materials, components, and finished products that contain 

rare-earth metals also originates in Asia, especially Japan. These include refined metals and such 

products as consumer goods, electronic components, and permanent magnets that are made from 

materials supplied mainly by China. Some of these intermediate products are then exported back 

to China, assembled into finished products, and exported to global consumers. 

With respect to domestic production, about 3,000 metric tons (t) of rare-earth-oxide 

equivalents was produced from stockpiled concentrate at Molycorp Inc.’s Mountain Pass Mine in 

California in 2011 (fig. 2; Elmquist, 2011; Sullivan, 2012). The mine originally opened as a 

relatively small operation in 1952, but it dominated world REE production from the 1960s 

through the 1990s (Olson and others, 1954). Mining of ore was halted in 2002 for economic and 

environmental reasons, although processing of previously mined ore continued (Molycorp, Inc., 

2012b). In 2012, the Mountain Pass operation began once again to mine ore, and Molycorp 

expected to produce 19,050 t of rare-earth oxide equivalents by the end of the third quarter of 

2012 (Molycorp, Inc., 2012a). As of the end of 2012, the Mountain Pass Mine was the only 

domestic source of primary REEs. Except for a small amount of material that is recycled, the 

balance of REEs and intermediate compounds containing REEs in the United States and much of 

the components and products in which REEs are incorporated have been imported. In 2012, 

Molycorp reported that it had entered into several agreements to supply cerium, lanthanum, 

neodymium, and other rare-earth-based products to domestic and foreign companies from the 

Mountain Pass operation and from recently acquired subsidiaries in Arizona and Estonia 

(Mining.com, 2011). 
7 

A 

Figure 2. Aerial photograph of Molycorp, Inc.’s Mountain Pass rare-earth oxide mining 

and processing facilities in Mountain Pass, California. Photograph courtesy of Molycorp, Inc., 

used with permission. 

Preliminary Estimates of Quantities of Rare-Earth Elements in 

Manufactured and Imported Products in the United States

Determination of the amount (tonnage) of REEs entering the U.S. economy or in service 

at a particular time period can be approximated by collecting data on (a) how the metal is used 

(its applications), (b) the amount of the metal that is used in specific products, and (c) the 

number of units produced and (or) sold. Such data are necessarily rough estimates because the 

amounts of material used in similar products can differ; also, companies often consider this type 

of information to be confidential and the data are therefore unavailable. For example, data 

pertaining to the composition and amounts of domestically produced cerium-based 

glass-polishing compounds, which is a major use for cerium, were not able to be estimated for 

this report because of the confidential nature of the data. Once the types, proportions, and weight 

of rare-earth metals and other elements contained in components of “typical” products are 

known, the data can then be multiplied by the estimated number of units that entered the 

economy to come up with the rough estimate of the tonnage entering the economy. 

Table 3 lists the estimated tonnage of REEs, expressed in terms of oxides (the industry 

standard), contained in selected products that entered the U.S. economy in 2010. It was compiled 

using the approach discussed above. Most of the estimates for contained rare-earth metals in 

table 3 were developed from published information that is publicly available and from data 

provided by sources in Government agencies, industry, and universities. The estimates were 

developed for 2010 primarily from import-export data from UBM Global Trade’s Port 

Import/Export Reporting Service (PIERS) and from data collected, maintained, and analyzed by 

the USGS, other Federal agencies, and private companies. In addition, numerous disc drives and 

mobile phones were dismantled and their magnets removed and weighed to obtain data on 

embedded REEs. In some cases, a manufacturer’s labeling of a component was used to 

determine its rare-earth content. Consumption data were derived from an assortment of statistics 
8

that included the number of units imported, domestic sales, and unit production. The estimates in 

table 3 will likely be revised as new information is received and (or) becomes available.

Approximately 12,000 t of rare-earth oxides was contained in the selected products 

shown in table 3, of which nearly 65 percent was lanthanum oxide used in electric and hybrid 

vehicles and fluid catalytic cracking catalysts for petroleum. Neodymium oxide and cerium 

oxide each composed 14 percent of the total. Neodymium is an important component of magnets 

in electronic devices and in catalysts used in petroleum refining. About 80 percent of the cerium 

oxide was used in automotive catalytic converters. 

Table 3 indicates that, in 2010, roughly 15,000 t of rare-earth oxides was contained in 

imported impure metals and oxides, refined metals and oxides, and intermediate products. Some 

of these materials were reexported in their original form and as intermediate and finished 

products. About 53 percent of the contained REEs was lanthanum oxide and 24 percent was

cerium oxide. Most of the lanthanum oxide was for the domestic manufacture of automotive 

catalytic converters, batteries, and catalysts for petroleum cracking (the largest use, by weight, of 

REEs in the United States), and phosphors for light bulbs. Cerium was imported primarily as 

cerium oxide and was used mostly in the production of automotive catalytic converters, 

phosphors, and for glass polish. Oxides of cerium, lanthanum, europium, terbium, and yttrium 

were contained in imports of fluorescent bulbs (the great majority of fluorescent bulbs are not 

produced in the United States). The intermediate products included magnets, primarily of the 

neodymium-iron-boron type, that have a broad range of applications, including computers with 

hard drives (fig. 3), phosphors for lighting, and compounds used in producing nickel-metal 

hydride batteries. Assembled, or “finished,” products are not included in the data in table 3.

Figure 3. Photograph of a hard drive from a personal computer showing (A) a spindle 

motor and (B) a voice coil that contain rare-earth magnets. 
9

Table 3. Estimated weight (in metric tons) of rare-earth oxides contained in selected manufactured products that entered service in the United States 

in 2010 and in material containing rare-earth metals that was imported into the United States in 2010.

[Estimates are rounded to two significant figures. t, metric tons; dashes (--), no data; Do., ditto.; LED, light-emitting diode; OEM, original equipment manufacturer. 

Rare-earth oxides: CeO2, cerium oxide; Dy2O3, dysprosium oxide; Er2O3, erbium oxide; Eu2O3, europium oxide; Gd2O3, gadolinium oxide; La2O3, lanthanum oxide; 

Lu2O3, lutetium oxide; Nd2O3, neodymium oxide; Pr6O11, praseodymium oxide; Sm2O3, samarium oxide; Tb4O7, terbium oxide; Y2O3, yttrium oxide]

General

application Product CeO2 Dy2O3 Er2O3 Eu2O3 Gd2O3 La2O3 Lu2O3 Nd2O3 Pr6O11 Sm2O3 Tb4O7 Y2O3 Undetermined

rare-earth oxides

Mass of compound in manufactured products that entered service in 2010, in metric tons

Alloys Zinc-based 

coatings for lightgage steel 

supports1

5.6 -- -- -- -- 2.4 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Batteries Electric and 

hybrid vehicles 

-- -- -- -- 4,000 -- -- -- -- -- -- --

Catalysts Automotive 

catalytic 

converters

1,400 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

 Do. Fluid catalytic 

cracking (FCC) 

catalysts for 

petroleum 

refining 

210 -- -- -- -- 3,400 -- 640 -- -- -- -- --

Magnets Automotive 

(general 

applications) 

-- 4.5 -- -- -- -- -- 76 -- -- -- -- --

 Do. Cell phone and 

other mobile 

devices

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- 86 4.2 -- -- -- --

 Do. Electric and 

hybrid vehicle 

motors

-- 40 -- -- -- -- -- 300 -- -- -- -- --

 Do. Electronic power 

steering in 

vehicles

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- 26 1.7 -- -- -- --

 Do. External disc 

drives for servers

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- 61 4.2 -- -- -- --

 Do. Game consoles -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 64 4.5 -- -- -- --

 Do. OEM speakers in 

vehicles

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- 7 5 -- -- -- --

 Do. Personal 

computers and 

laptops

-- -- -- -- -- -- -- 440 30 -- -- -- --
10

Table 3. Estimated weight (in metric tons) of rare-earth oxides contained in selected manufactured products that entered service in the United States 

in 2010 and in material containing rare-earth metals that was imported into the United States in 2010.—Continued

[Estimates are rounded to two significant figures. t, metric tons; dashes (--), no data; Do., ditto.; LED, light-emitting diode; OEM, original equipment manufacturer. 

Rare-earth oxides: CeO2, cerium oxide; Dy2O3, dysprosium oxide; Er2O3, erbium oxide; Eu2O3, europium oxide; Gd2O3, gadolinium oxide; La2O3, lanthanum oxide; 

Lu2O3, lutetium oxide; Nd2O3, neodymium oxide; Pr6O11, praseodymium oxide; Sm2O3, samarium oxide; Tb4O7, terbium oxide; Y2O3, yttrium oxide]

General

application Product CeO2 Dy2O3 Er2O3 Eu2O3 Gd2O3 La2O3 Lu2O3 Nd2O3 Pr6O11 Sm2O3 Tb4O7 Y2O3 Undetermined 

rare-earth oxides

Mass of compound in manufactured products that entered service in 2010, in metric tons—Continued

Phosphors Fluorescent 

bulbs2

130 -- -- 50 -- 200 -- -- -- -- 56 740 --

Phosphors and 

diodes

LED televisions3 0.0057 -- -- 0.0049 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.11 --

Solutions Imaging contrast 

dye

-- -- -- -- 23 to 70 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

 TOTAL 1,700 45 50 23 to 70 7,600 1,700 50 56 740 --

Mass of compound in materials imported in 2010, in metric tons

Catalysts, 

electronics, fuel 

additives, glass, 

imaging 

contrast dyes, 

magnets, 

nuclear fuel 

rods, phosphors, 

polishing 

powders, and 

others

Imported refined 

metal and oxides, 

impure, and 

intermediate 

products4, 5 

3,600 25 33 25 80 7,900 27 590 94 8.8 4.2 670 1,5006

1

Includes only GALFAN®, which contains approximately 0.1 percent rare-earth oxide in a hot-dip coat that makes up about 2 percent of the total weight of the steel. 

2

Includes phosphors used in tube-type and compact fluorescent lights. 

3

Estimates are based on the number of LED televisions sold in the United States in 2010 and assumes a 42-inch screen.

4

Some material may be exported in various forms. Estimate does not include finished products, such as contrast dye.

5

Based on United Business Media Global Trade Port Import/Export Reporting Service (PIERS) data for 2010.

6

Based on limited data. The material was assumed to be bastnäsite and was estimated to contain 740 t CeO2, 510 t La2O3, 170 t Nd2O3; 62 t Pr6O11, and a small 

amount of other rare-earth oxides.
11

The column in table 3 titled “undetermined rare-earth oxides” includes imported tonnages 

of rare-earth shipments that did not include detailed descriptive data. Most of the reported 

tonnage was labeled as “rare earth,” “rare-earth metal and misch metal,” “rare-earth oxide,” or 

“rare-earth carbonate.” The material was presumed to be mostly bastnäsite concentrates, based 

on the limited information available from the PIERS listings and other sources. The country of 

origin was usually listed as China. The amount and type of rare-earth oxides contained in this 

column in table 3 were assumed to have a rare-earth-oxide content similar to the bastnäsite ore 

that occurs at the Mountain Pass deposit in California, which is similar to China’s Bayan Obo 

deposit. The Mountain Pass bastnäsite reportedly has a rare-earth oxide distribution of 

49.59 percent CeO2, 33.79 percent La2O3, 11.16 percent Nd2O3, 4.12 percent Pr6O11,

0.85 percent Sm2O3, 0.21 percent Gd2O3, 0.13 percent Y2O3, 0.11 percent Eu2O3, 0.03 percent 

Dy2O3, 0.02 percent Tb4O7, and 0.01 percent Er2O3 (Castor, 2008).

Based on reported data through August 2011, the estimated 2011 distribution of REEs 

contained in intermediate materials imported and produced from stockpiles of concentrate at 

Mountain Pass by end use was as follows, in decreasing order of amount used: catalysts, 

47 percent; metallurgical applications and alloys, 24 percent; alloys, glass polishing, and 

ceramics, 10 percent; permanent magnets, 9 percent; ceramics, 5 percent; and rare-earth 

phosphors used in computer monitors, lighting, radar, and televisions, and x-ray-intensifying 

film, 5 percent. REEs embedded in finished products are not included (Gambogi, 2013).

The estimates of REEs contained in imported refined metal and oxides, impure metals 

and oxides, and intermediate products produced from U.S. sourced material shown in table 3 are

not necessarily additive with the data reported for selected products. For example, the estimate of 

80 t of gadolinium oxide contained in imported refined metals and oxides, impure metals and 

oxides, and intermediate products does not include finished products, such as contrast dyes [a 

common and heavily used material injected into patients that undergo magnetic resonance 

imaging (MRI) scans]. Most of the estimated gadolinium oxide contained in contrast dyes shown 

in table 3 is imported from several countries in ready-to-use solutions. Only a relatively small 

amount of the gadolinium contained in such solutions is manufactured by companies in the 

United States. The data suggest that a significant amount of the imported gadolinium is used in 

other domestically produced products, such as capacitors and thermal barrier coatings on turbine 

engines and the turbine blades of aircraft engines. The amount of neodymium oxide imported

also appears to be significantly less than the amount of neodymium oxide contained in just the 

few selected products shown in table 3 and indicates the heavy import reliance of the 

United States on embedded materials in consumer products and other items that contain REEs.

Additional Research Ongoing and Planned

REEs contained in imports of unfinished products are used for the domestic production of 

catalysts, electroceramics, diesel fuel additives, glass, and phosphors for various applications, all 

of which remain to be researched. Also, a detailed estimate of the amount of cerium used for 

glass polishing annually in the United States has not yet been developed.

Rare-earth permanent magnets, primarily of neodymium-iron-boron type, are used in 

many of the motors that drive cordless tools, elevators, heating and air conditioning systems, 

home appliances, and wind-driven residential and commercial generators and represent a 

significant amount of the total domestic use of this type of REE. An estimate of the rare-earth 

materials contained in these products, most of which are imported, is ongoing.
12

The use of REEs as alloying agents in steel is another major application. Niobium and 

REEs are added to some types of steel to make it lighter, stronger, and more resistant to heat and 

corrosion. These specialty steels are used in such applications as aerospace, bridges, buildings, 

car bodies, oil and gas pipelines, rail tracks, ship hulls, and wind turbines (Gupta and 

Krishnamurthy, 2005; Quantum Rare Earth Developments Corp., 2012). The rare-earth metal 

content varies depending on the application, but usually ranges from 0.1 to 0.35 percent. Based 

on the limited information collected thus far, the annual U.S. consumption of the steels could 

exceed 10 million metric tons (Tretheway and Jackman, 1981). The total amount of rare-earth 

metals contained in domestic production and imports of this type of steel has not been estimated 

and will be a complex task because of the limited amount of data available that pertains to the 

great number of intermediate and finished products and variations in rare-earth metal content.

Although estimating the amount of REEs contained in products that enter the 

U.S. economy annually is a significant challenge, another challenge is understanding the use and 

ultimate fate of these products as they flow through the economy to the end of their serviceable 

life because they may contain recoverable or potentially recoverable material. Because REEs are 

chemically very similar and used in relatively minute quantities, REEs are difficult to separate 

from finished products. The amount of rare-earth metals recovered from recycling, 

remanufacturing, and reuse (RRR) is negligible when the tonnage of products that contain REEs 

deposited in landfills and retained in storage is considered. Under favorable market conditions, a 

domestic supply of rare-earth metals created by RRR could offset a portion of the supply from 

primary sources among which the HREE would have significant strategic value to the 

United States.

Summary and Preliminary Conclusions

The assemblage and distribution of REEs contained in ore deposits varies. The uses of 

the elements are diverse and have some important strategic applications for which there are few 

substitutes. The heavier elements of the group are more highly valued because they are rarer and 

have very specific industrial applications. Although the development of additional sources of ore 

and intermediate products is emerging in other countries, such as Australia and the United States, 

the production of rare-earth ores in China and the intermediate and finished products 

manufactured from them will likely continue to dominate global supply until at least 2020.

Noting the annual imports of REEs contained as refined metals and oxides, impure metals 

and oxides, and intermediate products and comparing them with preliminary estimates of 

U.S. consumption of rare-earth metals contained in a sampling of products and their country of 

origin demonstrates that the United States is more heavily dependent on imports of REEs than is 

indicated by imports of processed rare-earth materials alone. The export of products from the 

United States that contain REEs is also a factor to be considered in analyzing the United States 

dependence on REEs and the United States’ vulnerability to disruptions in supply. Even with the 

development of domestic sources of raw, intermediate, and refined REEs and the development of 

domestic manufacturing of permanent magnets, the United States is likely to continue to rely on 

significant quantities of the elements embedded in imported goods because, for a number of 

reasons, there is insufficient domestic manufacturing capacity for many fully assembled 

products, such as personal computers, to meet domestic demand. Domestic mining production 

and processing of the ore, however, could serve at least in part as an alternate source for 

domestic manufacturers and as a source of supply to companies in other countries that 

manufacture products that contain REEs that the United States imports, such as personal 
13

computers. A domestic supply or stockpile would also guarantee a source of REEs for strategic 

military applications, such as lasers, guidance systems, night vision apparatus, and actuators.

Acknowledgments

The tabulated data in table 2 were developed in part by Jane A. Block, U.S. Geological 

Survey.

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