sum, motivations to engage in boating are many, status
achievement potentially high, the skill level needed is
sufficient to challenge one’s interest, and boat opera-
tion and ownership undoubtedly are related toavailable
time as well as income.

The 22 percent of the population 12 years of age and
over engaging in boating one or more times during the
summer 1960 was spread fairly uniformly across the
Nation, Slightly more were in the North Central re-
gion (27 percent) and slightly less in the South (19
percent), For the summer this represents 1.22 oc-
casions per person during the 3-month period for the
United States.

The summer is the period of most intense boating
activity, In the fall, there are only 0.36 occasions
per person and in the spring, only 0.25 occasions.
Our definition of boating excludes canoeing and sailing,
but does not exclude row-boating. However, it is
thought that most of the boating occasions reported
involved the use of either an outboard or inboard
motor (tables 1.02.05, 2.02.05, 3.02.05, and 4.02.05).

Boating rates by region

The North Central region (1.48 days per person),
and the Northeast (1.38 days per person) have the
heaviest boating participation rate for the summer.
For the fall, the heaviest participation is the North
Central States (0,48) and West (0.42), In the winter
participation is greatest in the South (0.28 days per
person), with practically no boating in other areas.
In the spring, the South also has heavy participation
(0.40 days per person) with the West (0.25) and the
North Central States (0.21) following behind, Thus,
climate affects boating participation (tables 1.02.05,
2.02.05, 3.02.05, and 4.02.05).

Males participate in boating almost twice more
than females. For both male and female participa-
tion in boating declines with age. For example, the
teenage male group participates at a rate of 3.7 days
per person during the summer months, and with some
variation, this rate declines successively to 0.18 for
the 65 and over age group. The rate of participation
is sustained fairly well across the 18 to 44 year age
group. In fact, the male 25 to 44 age group participates
slightly more heavily than the 18 to 24year age group,
and it may logically be supposed that this age dif-
ference is associated with income capability to own
a boat. The same is true among females, This
general pattern of sex-age relationship is repeated
in each region, with a few minor variations (table
1.02.05),

Examining male rates by age for size of place of
residence, it is clear that the depressed rate for
males aged 18 to 24 years arises chiefly from lower
rate in large cities (cities 1 million and above).
Table 1.03.05 suggests that these are most probably
white-collar workers or laborers living in large
cities. It is clear then that males participate con-
siderably more than females, and that the fairly
definite relationship between age and participation
is conditioned by residential and, to some extent,
regional factors,

Income is directly associated with boating participa-
tion, The number of days participation per person
increases fairly uniformly from 0.14 for the income

group earning less than $1,500 annually to 3,16 for
those earning $15,000 or more,

In the Northeast participation rates increase with
income, reaching an exceedingly high participation
rate (for boating) in the top income class (7.58 oc-
casions per person during the summer), In the North
Central States the participation rate increases to the
$6,000 to $7,999 income class, remains approximately
constant to the top income group, when it falls off
about half. Except for sampling variation, it would
appear then, that the middle class and upper middle
class income groups in the North Central States are
the heaviest participants. In the South, the situation
is somewhat similar, except that the peak participa-
tion group (2.45 occasions per person) is reached
with the $8,000 to $9,999 income class, and falls
off thereafter for highe- income groups. On the
other hand, in the West th 2 areagroup of relatively
heavy ‘boaters’ in a lower income class ($3,000 to
$4,499 income class and another in the $10,000 to
$14,999 income class). Who are these two separate
groups in the West? The occupational table suggests
that these are professional and technical workers in
the higher income group, and white-collar and service
workers in the lower income group. This, however,
is merely an inference, since we do not present rates
for occupations by income (table 1.02.05).

Place of residence introduces an additional varia-
tion in the relationship between boating participation
and income. For the rural population (both in and out
of SMA), participation increases to the next highest
income class and then falls off slightly. For the small
urban place (under 50,000) a peak participation rate
of 3.49 days per person for the summer is reached
with the $6,000 to $7,999 income class, after which
the rate is about one-third as high.

Whites go boating about seven times more frequently
than nonwhites: 0.18 occasions per person compared
with 1.34 for white. The highest nonwhite rate is in
the North Central region where the white is about
four times the nonwhite rate, The nonwhite rate in
the West is quite low. Nonwhite rates by size of place
of residence are too small for comparison (tables
1.03.05 and 1.02.05),

Boating participation does not vary greatly by size
of place of residence, as is seen in table 1.03.05, In
each region except the Northeast, participation rates
increase from the big city outward to more rural
environments, and reach a peak with the rural popula-
tion in standard metropolitan areas. For areas
characterized by greater rurality, however, the rates
are less, the lowest rate being the rural farm popula-
tion outside SMA’s. There is less variation in the
Northeast and this pattern is not found there. For
other regions, however, the relationship probably
means that persons with sufficient income living
somewhat closer to water areas for boating, partic-
ularly those living in suburbs, participate more than
their big city counterparts (table 1.02.05).

Participation in rural areas increases withincome,
suggesting that proximity, given sufficient income,
encourages participation (table 1.03.05).

Among those aged 25 years or more, participation
increases fairly consistently from those with least
schooling to those who have had some college, and
declines slightly for those who have completed college


between income, but residence accounts for con-
siderably more of the variance (table 1.03.08).

Among those 25 years of age and over, there is
a tendency for the summer fishing participation to
increase with years of formal schooling. However,
this relationship is not consistent within each region
(table 1.02.08),

For the Nation as a whole, the white and nonwhite
fishing participation rates are quite similar but there
are considerable regional variations between color
groups. In the Northeast, for example, the whites
fish about six times the rate of the nonwhite group.
This ratio is about four for the West, but only 1.5
in the North Central States. In the South, on the
other hand, the nonwhite fishes more often, the
white being only 0.65 of the nonwhite rate (table
1.02.08), However, females, both white or nonwhite,
fish about one-third as frequently as corresponding
males (table 1.03.08).

When residence is considered, color differences
in participation show up prominently. Nonwhite par-
ticipation in rural and small urban places exceeds the
white, but nonwhite rates in large urban places are
low compared with white rates, both for male and
female, Although our nonwhite sample is small,
making the nonwhite rates less reliable, nevertheless,
this pattern is quite clear (table 1.03.08).

Persons with no impairments participate in fishing
at higher levels than those with impairments, and
those whose impairments are limiting participate
much less in fishing. This pattern is fairly uniform
for each age group. Those with limiting impairments
participate at a rate only about half that of the total
(table 1.04.08). 5/

Fishing preferences

Fishing is a preferred outdoor activity among
33 percent of the population. It ranks second, with
picnicking, to swimming in order of preference.
As a preferred activity on vacation it ranks third,
giving place to sightseeing and swimming as the
preferred outdoor activity. These three activities
by far exceed all others as preferences for the
vacation, Thirteen percent of the population prefer
fishing for a weekend trip, again placing fishing in
third position to swimming and sightseeing. For a
day’s outing, fishing ranks third (11 percent), with
swimming and picnicking exceeding it. With only 2
or 3 hours available, 5 percent of the population would
prefer to fish, placing fishing in fifth position in order
of preference for this time period. Thus, for any

2/Additional details on the current characteristics of sport
fishermen is available in ‘1960 National Survey of Fishing
and Hunting,"” Washington: U.S. Department of the Interior,
1961, (Circular 120). A discussion of supply factors ond
the future role of recreation fishing is contained in Willis
King, Jack E. Hemphill, Albert H. Swartz, ond Karl F.
Stutzman, “Sport Fishing Today and Tomorrow."” Washington:
Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, 1962,
Study Report 7. Other ORRRC reports of interest are Study
Report 10, “Water for Recreation—Values and Opportunities,”
Study Report 4, ‘Shoreline Recreation Resources of the
United States," and Study Report 1, "Public Outdoor
Recreation Areas—Acreage, Use, Potential.””

29

type of recreation occasion, fishing stands fairly
high in the order of popularity (table 1.21).

The percentage preferring fishing as a general
outdoor activity varies inversely with size of place
of residence, from 20 percent expressing a preference
in large urban areas to 45 percent expressing a
preference in rural areas. More people express a
preference for fishing in the South than for any
other activity (44 percent), However in the North
Central region swimming (39 percent) is preferred
over fishing (36 percent), and in the West fishing
is equalled by picnicking, and excelled in preference
by swimming, and in the Northeast it is excelled by
picnicking, driving for pleasure, and swimming as
preferred activities (table 1.17).

Preference for fishing (54 percent) is highest in
the 25 to 44 age group. This is true for males,
but females in each age group (to 65 and over)
prefer swimming and picnicking to fishing (table 1.17).

As a general preference, males prefer fishing
(47 percent) even over swimming (40 percent).
Females prefer swimming (43 percent), driving for
pleasure (31 percent), and sightseeing (24 percent),
as well as picnicking (47 percent), in preference to
fishing (20 percent) (table 1.17).

Participating in fishing is negatively associated with
a preference for such activities as picnicking, walking
for pleasure, driving for pleasure, sightseeing,
attending outdoor sports, and attending outdoor
concerts, etc. On the other hand it is positively
associated with preference for camping, hunting,
boating, and water skiing. Thus, the person who
enjoys fishing also has a preference for these active
land and water activities (table 1.12).

One fourth of those who prefer fishing participate
as freely as they would like. Forty-eight percent
of those who prefer fishing mention time restrictions
as a reason for not engaging more often. This by
far overshadows other reasons. Financial restrictions
were mentioned by only 9 percent; facilities were
mentioned by only 7 percent, One may conclude that
lack of income is not the major factor restricting
participation in fishing (table 1.14B), Increases in
available leisure time will most probably result
in increased fishing participation.

Factors associated with fishing depend upon the
type of fishing engaged in. Fishing in salt water, from
a bank or a pier, from a rowboat or a motorboat,
fishing still or in motion—each implies slightly
different time periods, different physical activity
requirements, skill demands, and equipment, As one
might expect, then, the time required varies from all
day to an hour or so, and may include as much as
a weekend or week trip. A great many fishing
occasions undoubtedly require little or no expenditure,
even for bait. On the other hand, some fishing
requires extensive paraphernalia, expensive boats,
and other kinds of capital outlay. Consequently, some
types of fishing are readily accessible to all income
groups, while other types of fishing are restricted
to those who have sufficient available income. Income
and geographic area of residence, then, bear sig-
nificantly upon type of fishing,



or more, Similarly, the percentage mentioning time
or money as a restriction is relatively constant
across income classes, ranging from 56 to 62 percent,
the lowest percentage being for the top income
class. This serves to confirm the relationship
between boating preferences and income (table 1.13).

WATER SKIING

Six percent of the population 12 years of age and
over went water skiing during the summer 1960,
They went an average of five times during the
summer, but this amounted to only 0.3 occasions
per person for the population as a whole, Water
skiing, consequently, is engaged in less than any of
the other water activities included in this study,
except for canoeing and sailing.

During summer, participation is about equal
throughout the Nation, although there is somewhat
less water skiing in the North Central States (0.21)
than in the West (0.43), However, on a year-round
basis, because of climatic differences among the
regions, water skiing is engaged in more in the
South (0.54) and the West (0,62) than in the other
two regions, The longer summer in the South and
West makes more water skiing possible in the
spring and fall in these regions (tables 1.01, 2.01,
3.01, and 4.01).

Considering now only the summer, we find that
participation in water skiing decreases with age.
The highest male rate is 1.20 for the 12 to 17 year
group, and with each age class the rate declines
successively to practically zero for those 45 years
and over, The same relationship obtains for females,
except that the overall female rate of 0,19 is about
half the male (0.42). In the South and West the
youngest age group (12 to 17 years) in the study
participate slightly less than the next higher age
group but, except for this variation, the pattern for
the Nation of decreasing rate with advancing age is
followed in each region (table 1.02.18).

Rates by sex and age show that approximately
two-thirds of water skiing occasions are engaged
in by persons under 24 years. It is this group
that we wish to examine by size of place of residence
(table 1.02.18).

Among males, generally, there is little variation
in the rate of participation by size of place of
residence, However, males 12 to 17 years of age
participate at considerably higher frequencies if they
live in the large cities rather than in smaller cities
or rural territory. This is not exactly the situation
among females within this age group, however.
Boat ownership or having friends who own a boat
conditions the frequency with which one participates
in water skiing, as we shall see later (table 1.03.18).
One would suspect, then, that immediate proximity
to a water area, insofar as this is reflected by size
of place of residence, does not affect participation
as much as boat ownership.

Skiing and income

The percentage participating in water skiing in-
creases from 1 percent for the group earning less
than $1,500 to 14 percent for the group earning

26

$10,000 to $14,999. The step increases to the $10,000
to $14,999 class are fairly uniform. Similarly, the
number of days participation increases from 0.04
days per person for the lowest income class to 1.32
for the highest income class for the United States
as a whole. Thus, water skiing is directly and
positively related to family income. This relation-
ship varies by region. It may be partly a function
of the number of young persons, say 24 years of age
and under, in each income class by region. It may
also mean that there are regional variations in boat
ownership by income, which is the case. Table 5.47
shows that ownership of boat and motor increases
successively with each income class from 1.8percent
among family income group earning less than $1,500
annually to 17.6 percent for those who earn $20,000
or more annually. Estimates of the percentage
having both boat and motor present in the household
are presented for broad income classes in table 4,
below. It is significant in the present context that
13 percent of the population earning $4,500 to $9,999
in the South is the largest percentage ownership
for this class. Boat and motor ownership dips
down somewhat deeper into the income hierarchy
in the South than in other regions. This is reflected in
the water skiing participation by a peak rate of
0.95 for the South among those earning $8,000 to
$9,999. The peak for the West and the Northeast
falls in a higher income group. Within the North
Central region the variation by income is less, even
though the peak participation of 0.53 falls in the
$6,000 to $7,999 income class (table 1.02.18).

Table 4. Percentage of persons reporting boat and
motor in household, for broad income classes, by
region, September 1960 survey

National Recreation Survey

‘Annual family income
All bess $4,500 to} $10,000
s00 | $3999 | oF more
$4,so0 | *%

United States ...... 8 3 8 a
Northeast. ..... 5 2 4 ya
North Central .. 8 3 9 9
South . 9 4 3 m1
West 8 4 5 25

Turning now to income by size of place of residence,
it is not surprising to find that those earning $15,000
or moreannually report the highest rate of participation
in water skiing among those who live in large cities
(over 1 million). For those living in cities 50,00¢
to one million, the peak participation rate is reached
with the $6,000 to $7,999 income class and the rate
is fairly constant among higher income groups. In
small cities, the relationship to income is somewhat
similar, but the rates of participation are much lower.
Among rural residents, on the other hand, the rate
of participation is practically zero in the lower
income group, but it increases to reach a peak
(1.15 days per person) with the $10,000 to $14,999
income group, and falls off for the highest income
class (table 1.03.18),



or more, One would expect this association because
of theassociation with income. Education is associated
in each of the regions, although in the West, the peak
participation for boating is attained by the group com-
pleting high school (table 1.02.05).

Occupationally, the rates do not vary significantly.
Farmworkers have the lowest rate (0.53) and skilled
workers and foremen have the highest rate (1.67) with
professional people next (1.46). By region, variation
in rates is greater than between occupations, but it
is not significant. In the West, for example, the
highest rate is among professional workers (2.59),
while the lowest rate is among the managers (0.50)
and farmworkers (0.45). In other regions, peak rates
are reached by the service workers in the Northeast
(3.26), by skilled workers in the North Central States
(2.32) and by the white-collar workers in the South
(1.80), The rates are relatively uniform with only
moderate variation (table 1.02.05).

Size of place of residence rates by occupation do
not vary greatly. The greatest variation is among
service workers who reach a peak rate in the small
metropolitan place (50,000 to 1 million) but none
of the other occupations vary greatly by size of place
of residence (table 1.03.05).

The presence of impairments has no effect upon
boating participation for group aged 18 through 44.
However, for those 12 to 17 years, the presence of
impairments limits participation considerably, State
of health has a stronger effect than impairments. As
health is judged less satisfactory, participation rates
decline, from 2.25 for males reporting excellent
health to 0.09 for males reporting poor health. A
similar situation exists amongfemales. The relation-
ship, also, is fairly consistent for each age class
(table 1.04.05),

Preference for boating

Boating, other than sailing or canoeing, ranks
eighth—midway in the preference order—11 percent
of the population 12 years of age and over choosing
boating (table 1.21). Slightly more people prefer
boating for a day’s outing ora weekendtrip (3 percent)
than for a vacation activity (2 percent) or fora
brief period of 2 to 3 hours (1 percent).

The general preference for boating is relatively
evenly distributed by region (table 1.17).

For the United States as a whole there is little
variation in the percentage choosing boating by size
of place of residence. The smallest percentage
choosing boating (9 percent) is among the population
in standard metropolitan areas over 1 million, and
the largest (14 percent) is found in small urban places
(not in standard metropolitan areas). In the North-
east, on the other hand, the preference for boating
is much greater in the rural areas outside SMA’s
(21 percent). This is consistent with our findings
on boating participation in the Northeast, where the
days per person was higher in the rural non-SMA’s
areas, Other regions do not duplicate this picture,
however, In the West, for example, preferences for
boating are expressed more frequently among residents
of small cities, and there are other within-region
variations which probably reflect accessibility to
boating waters,

25

By age, the preference pattern is not as concentrated
among younger people as are some other activities.
For example, 17 percent among males 25 to 44 years
of age is the highest percentage. Variations in
boating preferences for vacation, weekend, day’s
outing, and for 2 to 3 hour periods, are not large
(tables 1.22, 1.25, 1.28, and 1.31).

A preference for boating increases with days
boating participation, from 6 percent preferring
boating who have nor participated at all during
June-August 1960 to 22 percent preferring boating
among those going 1 to 4 times, and 46 percent
preferring boating who participate 5 or more times.
A similar relation of increasing preference with
increasing boating participation characterizes a pref-
erence for swimming, for fishing, and for water-
skiing—all water-related activities. The percentage
expressing a preference for camping also increases
as days of boating increases. However, for most
all other activities the percentage preference for the
activity decreases as boating activity increases.
This particularly true for passive activities,
such as picnicking and walking for pleasure (table
1,12), Those who go boating, then, develop into
specialized water-oriented outdoorsmen, excluding
many other forms of outdoor recreation.

This association of boating participation with other
activities is reinforced by correlation coefficients
(appendix A, table 3C). Highly associated are water
skiing (0.47), swimming (0.39), fishing (0.37), pic-
nicking (0.24), camping (0.23), and playing outdoor
games and sports (0.22). Picnicking is the only
contradiction. Table 1.12 shows that a preference
for boating increases with days participation in
picnicking, but (from table 1.12.05) an increase in
days participation in boating is negatively related to
percentage preference for picnicking. Thus those who
already have aboat don’t care too muchfor picnicking,
but those who are picnicking would like to go for a
ride in a boat. One may conjecture that currently
active picnickners provide an apt market for boats.

Twenty-seven percent of those who prefer boating
participate as freely as they wouldlike. The remainder
list both financial restrictions and lack of time as
principal reasons, 32 percent mentioning finance and
26 percent mentioning time. Only 9 percent mention
that they do not participate as often as they would
like because of restricted facilities (too crowded,
inadequate, or distant).

For both water skiing and boating, financial ability
looms as a major restriction on participation. The
percentage of those who do not participate as often
as they would like is greater for those who prefer
these two activities than for any others, the next
highest being for horseback riding (26 percent) and
bicycling (24 percent). Time was mentioned as a
significant restriction for both boating and water
skiing. It would appear then that increases in income
and leisure will result in increases of boat purchase
and boating participation (table 1.14B).

In relation to income the percentage who participate
freely increases from 17 percent for those earning
less than $3,000 annually, successively with each
income class (only four income classes are used in
table 1.13) to 34 percent who participate as often
as they would like among the income class $10,000



FISHING

The United States population 12 years of ageand over
fishes at a rate of 4,19 occasions per person,
annually, The rate is greater in the summer (1.99)
and spring (1.07) than in the fall (0.75) or winter
(0.38) (tables 1.01, 2.01, 3.01, 4,01).

There is evidence from the National Survey of
Fishing and Hunting that the average days per person
fishing increased about one-third from 1955 to 1960,
as is shown by the following: 3/

1955 ‘times’? per person (NSH&F) ...... 2.58
1960 days per person (NSF&H) tee 3.55
1960-61 days per person (NRS) . 4.19

The difference of 0.64 days per person, 1960, is
explained chiefly by differences between two surveys
in definition of a fisherman. 4/

The rate of fishing is greatest in the South,
5.3 occasions per person for the year. And the
rate in the South is as great or greater than other
regions for each season, being matched in the fall
by the West. Lowest fishing rates are recorded for
the Northeast, where throughout the year the population
engages 3.26 times per person (tables 1.02.08, 2.02.08,
3.02.08, and 4.02.08).

Now, examining in detail survey results for summer
1960, (table 1.02.08), we find that, except for swimming,
fishing is the most popular of the water-oriented
outdoor summer activities. More than 37 million
persons, 12 years of age and above, fished at least
one time during June-August, 1960. This is 29
percent of this population, The percentage varies
from 21 in the Northeast to 33 in the South and
North Central States. However, as mentioned above,
the rate per person is greater in the South than in
other regions, even though regional differences are
small,

Females fish about one-third as frequently as males.
However, this ratio increases to approximately one-
half for older females.

2/These occasions per person were estimated, as follows:

1. Estimated from table 8, p. 59, ‘1955 National Survey of
Hunters and Fishermen."” The open end class was estimated
from NPS data to have a midpoint at 70.5. Population was esti-
mated ot 125,536,000.

2. From table 13, ‘1960 National Survey of Fishing and
population: 131,226,000.

3. From tables 1.01, 2.01, 3.01, and 4.01, “National

n Survey," part Il.

This is explained in appendix D of the ‘1960 Notional Survey
of Fishing ond Hunting.” The ‘National Recreation Survey””
presents data on total participation during 3 month periods
June 1960 to June 1961 while the ‘*1960 National Survey of
Fishing and Hunting" presents dota on “‘substantial’’ portici-
pants during calendar 1960, which excludes ‘primarily un-
licensed persons who fished or hunted once or twice and who
spent little or nothing to do so."” One reason for using #
definition in the ‘National Survey of Fishing and Hunting’
was to make possible a comparison between the 1955 and
1960 fishing and hunting. When the two surveys ore adjusted
to make them comparable, they give substantially the same
estimates of percent engaging one or more times. (See
oppendix 3.)

28

Males fish more in younger ages, than when they
are older, and the rate forthe United States decreases
with each older age group. This is generally true
for each region, although not consistently so. The
pattern for females is almost the reverse, however.
Females fish infrequently in the younger ages but
more frequently as they become older. For the
South the average days participation for females
increases with each age group to those 65 years
and over (table 1.02.08),

As one moves from the large city to rural areas,
the fishing rate increases, reaching a peak of 3
occasions per person among rural nonfarm residents,
a rate three times that for cities over 1 million
population, With some variation this relationship
holds for each region. Within urban areas, the
North Central region has the heaviest participation
rate (table 1.02.08). Thus, participation increases
with proximity to the resource, as the latter is
measured by urbanization,

Fishing and residence

Fishing rates vary more by size of place of residence
than they do by region, as is seen in comparing the
days per person by region with the days per person
by size of place of residence (tables 1.02.08 and
1.03.08),

This is generally true also, for age and sex by
size of place of residence. The rate of participation
for the rural male decreases uniformly from the
youngest to the oldest age groups (9.3 to 1.5 days
per person), This is the most consistent relation-
ship of all size of place of residence classes for
fishing, but generally the rates by age for males
follow this pattern. The rates for females by residence
classes are much less consistent. For small urban
places, the female rates increase with age to 65
years, but the ages of peak rates are different for
other size of place of residence classes (table
1.03.08),

The middle-range income groups participate in
fishing more heavily than the two upper and two
lower income classes for the United States. This
pattern holds generally for each region, although it
is more irregular in the Northeast and West than
other regions (table 1.02.08),

There are significant variations in the rate of
fishing within each income class, depending upon
size of place of residence, For practically all
income groups the rate of participation increases
as one moves from large cities to rural areas.
Thus, those earning less than $3,000 who live in
cities over 1 million participate at a rate of 0,23
occasions per person, Persons in this income class
living in rural territory participate at a rate about
seven times greater. For the $6,000 to $8,000
income range, the rate increases from 0.73 for the
large city population to a rate about five times larger
for the rural population. Thus the peak rural rate
is 3.79 days per person, falling in the $3,000 to
$4,499 income group. For the city of over 1 million
the highest participation level, 2.32, is attained by
the income group earning $15,000 or more, Thus,
proximity to the rural environment favors use by
lower income groups. Differences in rates appear
to be significant between residence classes and



CHAPTER FOUR

WATER SPORTS

Outdoor recreation on water includes swimming,
canoeing and sailing, boating (rowboating and motor-
boating), water skiing, and fishing, A wide variety of
water resources are required for these activities:
swift streams, lakes, ponds, swimming pools, and
large areas of uninterrupted water surface for sail-
ing or boating. Neither are the activities always
compatible with one another, The quiet water in a
shaded cove that brings peace to the heart of the
fishermen is destroyed when boats for water skiing
pass by. Water contaminated by discharge from cities
and industries is conducive to none of these outdoor
activities; even boating is unpleasant under these
conditions,

These activities, when grouped together into a
water-oriented activity score, provide the second
most predictable set of activities for analysis.
Thirteen percent of the variance in this score among
North Central females may be accounted for by
regression on the background factors. This percentage
ranges up to 26 percent for the male in the Northeast
and in the West. Age and urbanization account for
most of the variance, from 7 to 20 percent. Education,
occupation, and income account for 0.5 to 5 percent
of the variance within the region-sex groups. (See
table 10, appendix A.)

If we may interpret degree of urbanization as a
measure of proximity to water areas, we may include
proximity with leisure time and age, as factors which
condition most importantly participation in these
water activities. The physical exertion required for
some of them would strongly support the age factor.

Let us briefly examine some of the correlates of
swimming, Rates decline by age for each sex. Partici-
pation, even during the summer, is greater in some
regions than others, and over the year it is asso-
ciated with climatic conditions of the region. Income
is associated with participation by region and by size
of place of residence. However, residents of large
cities participate more and residents of rural areas
participate less than the average. Whites participate
more than nonwhites. The health and impairment
status of the person is related to participation. As
education increases, participation in swimming in-
creases also. In short, the activity is highly responsive
to a number of predictor variables.

Water activities, themselves, are fairly closely
interrelated, and the factor loadings are high én all
of the water activities and on several of the related
activities. These factor loadings, as shown in table 4,
appendix A are: boating 0.78, water skiing 0.71,
fishing 0,60, swimming 0.43, picnicking 0.32, and
camping 0.39. Walking for pleasure and bicycling each
receive a negative factor loading.

Construction of swimming pools close to population
aggregates is one means of meeting the demand for

20

water activities. Pools may be located near the
residences of those needing them, thereby reducing
travel; and they serve all ages. Pools may well be a
most economical means of supplying recreation hours
in volume, Boats are everywhere evident and the many
factors associated with boating participation strongly
support continued increases so long as access points
are available and water areas are suitable. Stream
contamination is a problem which can limit partici-
pation in all water sports considerably. Fishing, on
the other hand, the traditional delight of the outdoors-
man, has been increasing and may be expected to
continue to increase, if adequate resources are pro-
vided.

SWIMMING

Swimming represents a wide variety of activities.
The ‘‘quick dipper’? may take a brief but active swim
between other daily activities. A less active but longer
swim may involve being in and out of the water in
30 minute intervals throughout a morning, an after-
noon, or for the entire day. Theall day sun bather and
the occasional dipper may exert only a small amount
of effort while in the water. The scuba diver may
spend an entire day in and out of the water, or only a
few hours, as the occasion requires. His purpose may
be to bring home fish, marine objects, or archae-
ological artifacts. In addition, swimming may be ac-
companied by water polo, or boating; it may include
periods of surfboard riding or water skiing; it may
involve games or picnics on land near the water,
ranging from baseball to bridge, and for the young it
may include building sand castles.

With this wide variety of activities which one may
classify as ‘‘swimming”’, it is no wonder that the time
required for a swimming occasion ranges from a
quarter or a half hour to a period encompassing a
whole day. And, too, the monetary outlay required
for swimming may vary widely with the locale, the
length of time engaged, and other circumstances.
Certainly, a dip in a nearby creek or river, requires
only leisure time, provided one may gain access
without being harassed. Many farm lads undoubtedly
began their swimming experiences this way. On the
other hand, one may fly to Hawaii or to the Carribean
for a week of basking in the sun and only occasionally
go into the water. The level of income required for
swimming may vary, depending upon the type of
swimming. Unfortunately, our study sheds no light on
the variation in type of swimming, although it shows
participation by income.

In addition, the above indicates that there is wide
variation in the physical exertion or activity required
to engage in swimming. Lying on the beach may be
engaged in and, in fact, be beneficial to persons who


Some insight into these differences is availablefrom
the ‘1960 National Survey of Fishing and Hunting.’’
Expenditures per fisherman was lowest for salt water
fishermen on the Pacific coast ($91.62) and highest
for Atlantic coast salt water fishermen ($102.39).
Fresh water fishermen spent an average of $95.25,
Approximately one-third of the fresh water fishermen
most often use natural lakes and ponds and approx-
imately one-third most often use rivers and streams,
but these percentages vary greatly from region to
region, For example, natural] lakes and ponds are
most often used by about 60 percent of the fresh
water fishermen in New England, but by only 8
percent in the East South Central States. Rivers
and streams are most often used by about 51 percent
of the Mountain States and Pacific States fresh water
fishermen. Such factors, of course, are quite closely
resource oriented. 6/

The level of physical activity expended on a fishing
occasion may vary considerably. Sitting in a boat
or on a bank requires little effort, while standing in
a swiftly moving stream fly-fishing can be quite
exhausting physically, Similarly for skill: the level
of skill depends upon the type of fishing and nature
of the lures used. As is the case in many contacts
with nature, even the most experienced fisherman
has much to learn and may always find possibilities to
improve his skill, The normal or typical fishing
experience is not likely to bring status to the partic-
ipant. If he possesses unusual skill or consistently
returns with a good catch, he is likely to be accorded
appropriate prestige, Similarly, fishing with expen-
sive equipment, such as in certain types of sea
fishing, undoubtedly brings greater status than other
types of fishing.

As is the case with many outdoor activities, the
participant is undoubtedly motivated by any number
of incentives, He seeks food, and the better the
catch the more rewarding the experience. Once the
fishing skill is acquired, for example in casting, the
exercise of the skill becomes a motive for fishing.
But there are other motives. The fisherman may

4/The "1960 Notional Survey of Fishing and Hunting,” op. cit.,
pp. 43-55.

30

seek the peace and tranquility of the shady cove,
or he may join with others and find the sociability
of the occasion the more rewarding experience.
The father or mother may wish to pass on to the
child the pleasures of the sport. The young lad
may wish to bring home as large a catch as his
friend. These and many other motives undoubtedly
go with the fisherman to the lake, stream, or shore.

Fishing leases

Table 5 shows that about 1 percent of the population
12 years of age and over leased fishing rights
“during the last 12 months.”” This is approximately
49 persons with leases for each 1,000 fishermen,
In total there were approximately 1,240,000 persons
reporting fishing leases in effect during this period.
However, this does not mean that the lease was
effective during the entire period of the year, as
may be inferred by examining tables of hunting
leases (table 13). By region there were more persons
with leases per capita in the South than other areas,
There were approximately 20 persons per thousand
population reporting leases in the South compared
with approximately 7 in the North Central region
and about 4 in the Northeast and West. 7/

Table 5. Estimated number of persons with 9
lease, and per capita fishing leases held ‘‘during
the last 12 months,’” by region

National Recreation Survey

Persons .with v, q Region
fishing leose Inited | North- | North
States | east | Central South | West
Number (add 000)... | 1,240/ 138] 269) 761 72
Per 1,000 popula
12 years ond over..| 9.74] 3.95} 7.28] 19.56] 3.51
Per 1,000 fishermen | 49.0 | 36.5 | 32.0 | 84.2] 16.6

Note:

Estimates of fishermen from the ‘1960 National Survey of
ing ond Hunting,”” p. 52.

See Ch. 5, Hunting Lease section for related information.



Consequently, the joint effect of income and size
of place of residence is quite distinct for water
skiing.

Nonwhites do not engage in water skiing frequently
enough for the sample to register their participation.
The survey only shows that, during the summer,
nonwhites engage at a rate of less than 0.005 days
per person, In contrast, whites engage at a rate
of 0.34 days per person for the United States (tables
1.02.18 and 1.03.18).

A relationship between number of days water
skiing by size of place of residence and region is
observed only for the West. Here, the rate of
participation for large cities, 0.19, increases to
1.0 for the rural population of standard metropolitan
areas and declines thereafter to almost zero for the
rural farm population. Thus, the urban population
and those living near urban influences increase
in water skiing with decreasing size of city. But
evidently the rural farm population of the West is
dispersed in areas sufficiently removed from boating
water that distance intervenes to reduce participation
(table 1.03.18).

The participation rate among persons 25 years of
age and over is only 0.14 days per person. Among
this group there is a tendency for the better educated
to participate somewhat more, but the frequencies
are small and the corresponding variations are
indeterminate (table 1.02.18),

The data are somewhat more adequate for the
employed population 14 years of age and over,
although rates of participation are still quite low.
Lowest rates are observed among the farmworkers
and among the managers, officials, and proprietors
(except farm), Service workers, including private
service workers, have somewhat higher rates than
the remainder of the population. There are small
variations among occupations by region, but con-
sidering the low rates perhaps the differences are
not meaningful (table 1.02.18).

Considering occupation by size of place of residence,
there is a tendency for some occupational groups
living in rural areas to participate more heavily
than those living elsewhere. Occupational groups
living in small urban places generally participate
at lower rates than those living in larger urban
places, Other thanthese, few differences by occupation
among size of place of residence are evident.

Impairments limit water skiing participation of
persons between ages 12 and 17. However, for those
aged 18 to 44, the number of days water skiing per
person is fairly constant whether or not the person
has impairments (table 1.04.18).

State of health bears a positive relationship to
water skiing—the better the health, the higher the
rate for both male and female. This is the case
not only among younger ages, but also among those
18 to 44 years, The rate for those older is too
low to consider (table 1.04.18).

Water Skiing preferences

Five percent of the population indicate ‘‘some”
preference for water skiing (first, second, and third
choices) as a summer sport. Thus, water skiing
ranks low in the preference order, although the

27

percentage who prefer water skiing during the
summer months exceeds the percentage who prefer
to hike, go nature walking, bicycling, and even to
attend outdoor concerts and drama. The preference
for this outdoor activity according to time available
to engage is the same (1 percent) for vacations,
trips and, outings (table 1.21).

Consistent with results reported for boating, partici-
pation in other water activities is associated with a
preference for water skiing. This includes swimming,
boating, camping, and fishing, greater participation
in each indicating an increased percentage who
prefer to water ski. The same is true for picnicking.
Participation in no other activities shows a significant
positive association with preference for water skiing
(table 1.12).

The correlation coefficient (see appendix A, table
3C) for water skiing with the following activities
are: boating (0.47), swimming (0.28), camping (0.21),
fishing (0.16), and picnicking (0.14).

Nineteen percent of those preferring water skiing
engage as freely as they would like. Reasons for
restricted activity in water skiing are principally
financial (33 percent), and a lack of time (29 percent).
These reasons are similar to those obtained for
restricted boating participation (table 1.14B),

Activity characteristics which may condition par-
ticipation in water skiing include not only a minimum
income for the purchase and maintenance of boat,
skiis, etc., but also available time. Not only must
time to actually ski be considered, but also the time
required to go from residence to lake or waterfront.
Because the level of physical exertion is fairly
high for water skiing, it is not surprising that it
is principally an activity of youth, Perhaps it is
not the physical activity alone which appeals to youth,
but also the risk and uncertainty which make water
skiing an exciting sport. Compared with many other
outdoor activities, the level of skill is moderate.
Because of the association with boats, water skiing
becomes a relatively high status activity, although
this may vary considerably with the group. The
level of skill required to participate is undoubtedly
improved with practice, but, except for stunt and
high-hazard activities, continuous learning is not
enabled through participation. Motivations to engage
in water skiing include those motivations associated
with swimming as well as boating. Additional attrac~
tions include speeding over water with risk and the
thrill of successfully meeting situations requiring
quick decisions. Water skiing is always a group
activity, since the skier must be associated with
the boat pilot, Increases in surface water would
undoubtedly lead to increases in water skiing partici-
pation. A reduction in stream contamination would
increase participation, Wide adoption of suits to
wear for cold weather skiing might lead the more
daring to engage more heavily in the fall and in
spring. Other than these factors, an increase in
participation rests more upon an increase in the
use of boats and an increase in available leisure
time than other factors.



The correlation between participation in swimming
and in other activities for summer 1960 is shown
below. Swimming participation is significantly asso-
ciated with all other outdoor activities. The associa~
tion is particularly high with other activities of
youth: playing outdoor games, picnicking, boating,
water skiing, bicycling and attending outdoor sports
events. This suggests that swimming facilities will
enhance any combination of summer recreation facil-
ities. The correlation coefficients from appendix A,
table 3c) follow:

Playing outdoor games or sports. . . 0.42
Boating other than sailing or canoeing . 39
Picnicking. .... ee -38
Bicycling... . : 28
Water skiing . tee 28
Attending 0 outdoor = sports events... 27
sees 123

123

Horseback miding bee 122
Fishing... . : 221
Camping sees . 21
Driving for pleasure... . -20
Sightseeing eee 118
Walking for pleasure... . . 16

Thirty-nine percent who prefer ewiraming partici-
pate as freely as they would like. The reason for
restricted swimming participation most frequently
given is that of time (32 percent) and lack of facilities
(13 percent). Only 7 percent give financial reasons
for not participating as much as they would like
(table 1.14A), As the labor force enjoys more
leisure time, as the retired population increases,
and as the population in the younger ages increases,
one may expect a portion of these additional hours—
at least in summer— to be spent in swimming and
water sports,

SAILING AND CANOEING

The participation rate for canoeing over an entire
year is 0.12 occasions per person 12 years of age
and over. This rate provides insufficient cases for
analysis of demographic characteristics of canoeists.
However, the data (tables 1.01, 2.01, 3.01, and 4.01)

show that canoeing is chiefly a summer activity. -

Seven-hundredths day per person out of 0.12 annually
occur during summer. The rate for canoeing is about
the same for each region (0.13 for the Northeast and
North Central, 0.12 in the West, and 0.1 for the South),
Sailing participation is about the same as canoeing,
sailing being 0.11 occasions per person for the year.
However, sailing is somewhat more evenly distributed
between the summer-fall seasons than canceing.
There is considerably more sailing in the Northeast
(0.17 occasions per person) and in the West (0.13
occasions per person) than in the rest of the Nation.
The preference mentions for these activities are
not great enough to provide data for presentation.

BOATING OTHER THAN SAILING AND CANOEING
Technological development of the lightweight, high

horsepower, gasoline motor coupled with techniques
of boat manufacture, have made possible mass distri-

23

bution at popular prices, These factors have combined
to make boating popular among 22 percent of the
population during the summer. Including all types
of boating except sailing and canoeing, this 22 per-
cent use rate results from preference as well as
technological improvements. Preference cannot be
minimized, for our image of the yachtsman has been
an image of the extremely wealthy.

Consequently, when small motor powered boats
became available to large numbers, the motivation
to possess a boat already was present. This motiva-
tion arose also from the desire to freely explore
lakes and rivers, and a desire for speed, both in the
boat and on water skiis. Outboard motors reduce the
effort of fishing, and make it easier to go farther
and seek out better fishing spots. Undoubtedly, these
are important motivations, In addition, one achieves
status through possessing a boat which not very long
ago only a rich man might own,

Another source of motivation arises with the use
of the boat for group activities. The person with a
family finds boating an unusually satisfying group
activity. ‘Togetherness’ is assured. The group
may explore a lake or river for a day, or for several
days with camping equipment. 2/ Swimming, water
skiing, fishing, even sightseeing, create varied ac-
tivities for a party.

A number of skills are required in boating. Control
of the craft and navigation, perhaps, employ few
skills under normal conditions for small boats, but
inclement weather presents greater problems. For
longer distances across open water, the skill of
navigation is involved. Whether the motor is an in-
board or outboard motor, mechanical skills for
maintenance of the motor come into play—knowledge
many boys accumulate in working on motors and
gadgets of American culture. Other skills are in-
volved, also: painting, knowledge of and sensitivity
to weather conditions, knowledge of legal regulations,
and others, The limits of skill development in boating
depend upon the type and size of the boat, and the
water characteristics of the area. In any case, how-
ever, the variety of skills and the level of perfection
to be achieved are sufficient to continually challenge
most boatowners.

‘The physical activity required to launch and operate
a boat may vary from moderate to quite a great deal.
In particular, when unusual weather conditions occur,
physical activity may tax one to the limit.

Both income and time are required for participa-
tion, Not only is income significantly associated with
boat ownership and operation, but available time also
is essential. Residential location in relation to water
has an important bearing upon time required for a
boating occasion. The boatowner who lives beside the
water may engage for 2 or 3hours at a time with ease,
but the man who lives further from the water must ride
to the launching point, perhaps carting his boat behind
his automobile. This requires time, and he may be
unwilling to go boating for less than a full day’s
outing. Or, he may prefer to make several days of
it, sleeping in the boat or camping on the bank. In

For example, see John and Jone Greverus Perry, ““Boatent-
ing off the Beaten Track," Popular Boating, July 1961, p. 46.



size does not permit adequate exploration of this
(table 1.03.16).

Swimming is associated with size of place of
residence. Persons living in or near urban areas
(for example, the rural population in standard metro-
politan areas) have rates of participation generally
greater than the population living in rural farm and
rural nonfarm areas. Such is the case in each region,
except the Northeast, where the rural nonfarm rate
of participation is unusually high (9.77). In each
region the rural farm participation is lowest of all
place of residence categories. There is a fairly
uniform decrease in rate from the largest city to the
most rural area (table 1.02.16). Undoubtedly the
combined differential resulting from variations in
income and age within each of these subpopulations
(that is, size of place of residence by region) explains
much of the apparent ecological effect upon partici-
pation rates,

Education of persons 25 years or older is directly
related to participation in swimming. The rate rises
from 0.57 for those who have had 4 years or less
schooling to 5.85 for those who have completed
college or more, The general pattern is followed
within each region, although there is some variation.
For example, in the Northeastern region the rate
decreases with the highest educational group and
the same is true in the West (table 1.02.16),

For employed persons 14 years of age and over,
the rate of participation is lowest for farmworkers
and highest for professional, technical and kindred
workers, White-collar workers have the second highest
participation rate, but other occupational groups do
not vary greatly. There are a few variations from
this pattern according to region. For example, in the
South, the lower income occupations, laborers, and
service workers, have low rates which approximate
those of farmworkers; this probably is an effect of
race, In the West and Northeast the participation of
service workers is higher relatively, than the Nation
(table 1.02.16),

When occupations are viewed by size of place
of residence, the same relationships hold. Of course,
farmworkers evidence participation only in rural
territory. Professional and technical workers, and
white-collar workers have higher rates in very large
cities (over 1 million) than in other locations, Except
for these, there are no systematic relations which
help explain participation. It would appear that occu-
pation has a small contribution to make in explaining
swimming behavior, in addition to size of place of
residence, region, and other factors previously men-
tioned. However, the compound effect of age and
income may well be the most significant factor
(table 1.03.16).

Both men and women who swim a great deal judge
their health to be excellent, and, conversely, those
who swim little judge their health to be poor. The
relationship is quite direct between these two factors
for each age group, including the age group 65 years
and over. The most frequent participants, incidentally,
of any classification, are males aged 12 through 17
who judge their health to be excellent, this group
reporting an average of almost 20 occasions during
the summer. This relationship with health also is
observed for impairments. Persons with limiting

22

impairments, nevertheless, participate to some ex-
tent, almost two occasions per person during the
summer (table 1.04),

Swimming preferences

Swimming ranks first in the preference order,
42 percent of the population indicating a preference
for it. The nearest contender to this position is
picnicking and fishing, each receiving 33 percent of
the general preferences (table 1.21).

For the United States as a whole, preferences for
swimming are greater in the city, 52 percent, than
in other place of residence categories, The percentage
declines fairly systematically from the largest place
of residence class to the rural outside SMA, the latter
being 32 percent. The effect of this gradient of
urbanism is pronounced in the Northeast where 57
percent of the population in SMA’s over 1 million
express a preference for swimming (table 1.17).

Expressions of preference are about the same for
both male (40 percent) and female (43 percent), As
one would expect from the nature of the activity,
the percentage preference is greatest among the
youngest age groups, three-fourths of the 12 and 13
year-olds expressing a preference for swimming
among males and 83 percent expressing a preference
among females. The percentage declines with each
age category to a low of 12 percent among males
65 years and over and 5 percent among females of
the same age group (table 1,17).

As a vacation activity swimming (22 percent) is
preferred over all other activities, sightseeing being
almost as popular (21 percent), The association of
vacation preferences with size of place of residence
and age is evident here, as above (table 1.22).

For the United States as a whole, sightseeing is
slightly preferred over swimming as a weekend
summer activity, although in the Northeast swim-
ming is preferred, Other regions show a preference
for sightseeing or fishing (table 1.25).

For a day’s outing, picnicking (31 percent) is
preferred over swimming (14 percent) as a summer
activity. Such is the case in each region (table 1.28).

For an occasion of only 2 or 3 hours duration,
10 percent express a preference for swimming. This
compares with 10 percent preferring walking for
pleasure, 11 percent playing games, and 15 percent
driving for pleasure (table 1.31).

The choice of swimming as first, second, or third
preference is highly associated with frequency of
participation in swimming. Seventeen percent who
did not participate nevertheless express a preference
for swimming, suggesting an extensive unfilled need
(table 1,12),

Activities preferred by persons who participate
in swimming form a clear pattern. Swimmers also
prefer boating, water skiing, camping, horseback
riding, and bicycling~suggesting physically active
outdoorsmen, Conversely, negatively associated with
participation in swimming is preference for fishing,
hunting, picnicking, and walking for pleasure. Among
passive activities, preference for driving for pleasure,
sightseeing and attending outdoor sports events are
negatively associated with participation in swimming
(table 1.12).



possess impairments or are in ill health, but active
swimming over a relatively long period of time may
require excellent health and demand extreme physical
exertion.

Similarly, the physical coordination required to
float requires only minimum skill. On the other hand
considerable practice and skill are required to enter
into competitive racing or diving, and in the case of
scuba diving, particularly, knowledge of safety pre-
cautions is necessary.

Perhaps because of its general popularity, swimming
probably accords little status to the individual. How-
ever, undoubtedly status accrues through several
associated situations. This includes the locale or
location of swimming, the prestige level of the club
to which the person may belong, and related status
symbols and conditions surrounding the activity. This
is not to say that outstanding performance, as the
winner of diving trophys or swimming meets, as in
all sports, does not bring the participant status and
prestige.

Since swimming requires manipulation of the body,
coordination, and muscular activity, it is possible to
continuously achieve higher and higher skill levels.
Hence, continuous learning is possible through partici-
pation and practice.

In its purest form, swimming undoubtedly satisfies
a motive for simple bodily manipulation. As a com-
petitive sport, the motive for achievement and prestige
attainment is added. Undoubtedly many additional
motives are involved (sociability, exposure to risk,
adventure, etc.), depending upon the age, socioeco-
nomic status, interest, etc., of the participant. Such
motives are meaningful only in the context of the
situation,

The population 12 years of age and over swims
approximately 6,5 times per person a year, These
occasions are chiefly in the summer, 80 percent of
them, in fact. The West exhibits the highest fall and
spring rates (1.12 and 0.89 days per person) of any
region, and the North Central, the lowest. The dis-
cussion which follows considers only the summer
experience (tables 1.01, 2.01, 3.01, and 4.01).

Swimming was engaged in by 45 percent of the
population 12 years of age and over during summer
1960. Participation in swimming amounted to 5.15
occasions per person during the 3-month period. This
places swimming next to walking and driving for
pleasure in popularity (table 1.02.16).

The Northeastern region ranks highest in swimming
days per person, 6.82, while the South ranks lowest,
3.97. The West, 5.36, has a higher rate of partici-
pation than the North Central States, 4.63 (table
1.02.16).

This regional variation is almost inversely re-
lated to the available inland surface water supply
per capita. The relationship is also poor when miles
of beach per 1,000 persons 18 years of age and
over are considered. The region is too large a unit
to examine supply-use relationships, and observation
suggests that much swimming takes place in pools
rather than natural water areas. The percentage
participating one or more times annually in swim-
ming is directly related to rated opportunity within
the area of the 66 sampling areas of the Survey

21

Outdoor Recreation for America.”

Research Center national sample. 1/ This percentage
increases from 35 percent in areas of least oppor-
tunity to swim to 54 percent in areas of best oppor-
tunity. The presence of the physical resource, then,
directly affects participation, as also does climate on
an annual basis,

Swimming and age

Participation in swimming is highly associated with
age, for both male and female, The rate declines
steeply from a high of 17,6 occasions during the
summer for males 12 to 17 years of age, inclusive,,
to 0.6 occasions for the summer among males 65 and
over, A parallel situation exists for females (table
1.02.16), This relationship is exactly the same for
each region, although the relative magnitude of
regional rates varies.

The stability of the association between age and
swimming is seen, also, when age and sex rates are
examined by size of place of residence (table 1.03.16).
The variation is greater between regional means
than between size of place of residence means, The
rates by size of place of residence decrease with
size of place, declining successively from 5.9 in
cities of over 1 million to 4.7 in rural areas,

Within each size of place of residence class the
participation rate declines successively with each
age group, both for male and, in most cases, female
also, The greatest decline is between the youngest
age group (12 through 17) and the next higher age
category.

For each income class, the rate of participation
in swimming increases for the United States as a
whole and for practically all classes within a region.
For example, families earning less than $1,500
annually participate at a rate of 1.2 occasions per
person during the summer, as compared with more
than 10 occasions per person during the summer for
members of families in the $15,000 and above income
class, The correlation coefficient, using income
classes (table 1.02.16), is 0.92. The same general
relationship holds when one considers income by size
of place of residence, although the step increases
are not as uniform as they are by region. However,
income influences participation days per person with-
in each size of place of residence class (table
1.03.16),

Rate of participation by whites is about 21/2
times that of nonwhite (5.52 compared with 1.96).
The difference between rates is greatest in the
Northeast, where the white rate of 7.18 compares
with the nonwhite rate of 1.63, and less in the West
where the nonwhite rate most closely approximates
the white (5.39 compared with 4.74). (See table
1.02.16.) Although the white female rate is about
the same as the male rate, the nonwhite female
rate is less than half that of the nonwhite male
(2,82 compared with 1.19), This difference according
to sex appears to be fairly constant across each
size of place of residence class, although sample

Washington: Outdoor
Recreation Resources Review Commission, 1962. Appen-

dix table 15, p. 217.