Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

COUNTRY PROFILE: SUDAN 

December 2004 

COUNTRY 

Formal Name: Republic of the Sudan (Jumhuriyat as-Sudan). 

Short Form: Sudan. 

Term for Citizen(s): Sudanese. 

Capital: Khartoum. 

Other Major Cities: Omdurman, Khartoum North, Port 

Sudan, Kassala, Al Ubayyid, and Nyala (according to decreasing Click to Enlarge Image

size, 1993 census). 

Independence: Sudan gained independence from the United Kingdom and Egypt on January 1, 

1956. 

Public Holidays: Sudan observes the following public holidays: Independence Day (January 1, 

2004), Feast of the Sacrifice/Id al-Adha (February 1, 2004*), Islamic New Year (February 22, 

2004*), Uprising Day, anniversary of 1985 coup (April 6, 2004), Coptic Easter Monday/Sham

an-Nassim (April 12, 2004*), Birth of the Prophet/Mouloud (May 2, 2004*), Revolution Day 

(June 30, 2004), end of Ramadan/Id al-Fitr (November 14, 2004*), and Christmas (December 25, 

2004). The asterisk indicates holidays with variable dates according to the Islamic or Coptic 

calendar. 

Flag: 

 Click to Enlarge Image

Sudan’s flag has three horizontal bands of red (top), white, and 

black with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist side. 

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 

Prehistory and Early History: Northern Sudan was inhabited by hunting and gathering peoples 

by at least 60,000 years ago. These peoples had given way to pastoralists and probably 

agriculturalists at least by the fourth millennium B.C. Sudan’s subsequent culture and history 

have largely revolved around relations to the north with Egypt and to the south with tropical 

Africa, the Nile River forming a “bridge” through the Sahara Desert between the two. The 

Ancient Egyptians sent military expeditions into Nubia, the region between the first and second 

Nile cataracts, and at times occupied Nubia as well as Cush, the land between the second and 

sixth cataracts, the population becoming partially Egyptianized. From the early eighth century to 

the mid-seventh century B. C., the Cushites conquered and ruled Egypt. By the early sixth 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

century B.C., a Cushitic state, Meroe, had emerged that eventually extended southward almost to 

present-day Khartoum. Meroe maintained commercial relations with the Roman world, 

developed a distinctive culture and written language, and became the locale of an iron-working 

industry. It succumbed to invasion in the mid-fourth century A. D. 

By the sixth century, three states had emerged as the political and cultural heirs of the Meroitic 

kingdom. All were ruled by warrior aristocracies who converted to Christianity, accepting the 

Monophysite rite of Egypt. The church encouraged literacy, the use of Greek in liturgy 

eventually giving way to the Nubian language. Arabic, however, gained importance after the 

seventh century, especially as a medium for commerce. With the disintegration of the Christian 

Nubian kingdoms by the fifteenth century, Islamic civilization and religion spread throughout 

northern and eastern Sudan. Pastoralists from Egypt filtered into the land, gradually giving rise to 

a new population composed of local Nubians and Muslim Arabs. 

Islam and the Mahdi: The coming of Islam gradually changed the nature of Sudanese society 

and facilitated the division of Sudan into northern and southern halves, one Arab, the other, 

African. In the sixteenth century, the Ottoman Turks, governors of Egypt, claimed Nubia as a 

dependency but exerted little authority beyond the Nile. Meanwhile, in central Sudan, a new 

state called Funj arose with its capital at Sannar on the Blue Nile. The Funj checked the 

expansion of the Arabs, in the process becoming devout Muslims themselves. In the west, the 

Fur people formed the state of Darfur and similarly adopted Islam. Both states engaged in the 

slave trade with Egypt. 

Early in the nineteenth century, the Egyptians sent another military expedition into Sudan, 

establishing a new administration known as the Turkiyah, or Turkish regime. The Egyptians 

divided Sudan into provinces, and in 1835 Khartoum became the seat of a governor general. 

They fostered the growth of Islamic law and institutions and organized and garrisoned the new 

provinces of Bahr al Ghazal, Equatoria, and Upper Nile, home to the Nilotic Dinka, Nuer, and 

Shilluk as well as the non–Nilotic Azande. In 1874 Egypt conquered and annexed Darfur. 

Slavery and the slave trade, age-old practices in Sudan, intensified during the nineteenth century. 

Annual raids for slaves resulted in the capture of thousands of black Sudanese, the destruction of 

the region’s stability and economy, and a deep hatred of Arabs among the Southerners. 

In the early 1880s, an Islamic cleric, seeking to create a “purified” form of Islam and to throw off 

Ottoman rule from Egypt, took the title of “Mahdi” (“the rightly guided one”), and launched a 

revolt against the Ottomans as well as against the British, who in 1882 had assumed control of 

affairs in Egypt. By late 1885, the Mahdi’s forces, the Ansar, had driven the Egyptians out of 

Sudan. Mahdist control of central and northern Sudan lasted until an Anglo-Egyptian army

defeated the Ansar in 1898. The next year, the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium in Sudan was 

proclaimed, which provided for joint overlordship but which in effect placed control in British 

hands. 

Colonial Era: British authorities created a new administration in Sudan under a governor 

general and provincial governors. Some economic development occurred, but it was confined to 

the Nile Valley’s settled areas. In 1916 the British terminated Darfur’s independence by 

annexing that sultanate. The three southern provinces, Bahr al Ghazal, Equatoria, and Upper 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

Nile, were separated from the North economically and politically to allow the South to develop 

in its own way, but in reality the region remained isolated and economically undeveloped. 

Western missionaries introduced Christianity, established mission schools, and provided some

social services to the black population. Sudanese nationalism developed after World War I as an 

Arab and Muslim phenomenon with its support base in the northern provinces. The nationalists 

were divided between those who favored unification with Egypt and a pro-independence 

movement. The latter prevailed, and on January 1, 1956, Britain granted independence to Sudan. 

Independence: Independent Sudan continued to be bedeviled by Southerners’ fears of 

domination by the North and of the imposition of an Islamic and Arabic-speaking administration. 

Discontent flared as early as 1955. Rebellion began in earnest in 1963 and lasted through the 

1990s except for a decade of peace from 1972 to 1983. Peace negotiations repeatedly foundered 

over the issues of self-determination for the South and the application of sharia (Islamic law). 

Beginning in 1983, Colonel John Garang assumed leadership of the Sudan People’s Liberation 

Army (SPLA), the main opposition force. The Northerners were headed after mid-1989 by 

Lieutenant General Umar Hassan Ahmad al Bashir and his ally, Hasan Abd Allah al Turabi, of 

the National Islamic Front party. The regime became increasingly Islamist, in keeping with al 

Turabi’s views, and remained so even after al Bashir ousted al Turabi from the government and 

imprisoned him in 2002. Sudan’s financial prospects improved dramatically in the late 1990s 

with the export of petroleum from oilfields in the South. 

Negotiations between the regime and the SPLA produced results only after international 

mediation. In June 2002, both sides agreed that a referendum on self-determination for the South 

would be held within six years of a peace agreement and that in the interim the sharia would not 

apply to non-Muslim Southerners. Subsequent negotiations produced a cease-fire in much of the 

South, provisions governing national institutions, security arrangements, a formula for sharing 

oil revenues, and a federal governing structure. These negotiations, however, were 

overshadowed by a separate rebellion in Darfur that began in 2003 over alleged economic and 

political marginalization. The al Bashir regime sent Arab militias into Darfur, whose atrocities 

drew international condemnation, threats of sanctions from the United Nations, and, in late 2004, 

emplacement of cease-fire monitoring troops from the African Union. 

 Click to Enlarge Image

GEOGRAPHY 

Location: Sudan is located in northeastern Africa. It 

borders the Red Sea between Egypt on the north and 

Eritrea and Ethiopia on the southeast; it borders Chad 

and the Central African Republic on the west. 

Size: The total area of the country is 2,505,813 square 

kilometers. 

Land Boundaries: The length of Sudan’s borders is 

7,687 kilometers. Border countries are: Central African 

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Republic (1,165 kilometers), Chad (1,360 kilometers), Democratic Republic of the Congo (628 

kilometers), Egypt (1,273 kilometers), Eritrea (605 kilometers), Ethiopia (1,606 kilometers), 

Kenya (232 kilometers), Libya (383 kilometers), and Uganda (435 kilometers). 

Disputed Territory: Two regions along the border with Egypt between the Nile River and the 

Red Sea are in dispute, but Egypt administers the larger of the two contested parcels. 

Length of Coastline: The length of Sudan’s Red Sea coastline is 716 kilometers. 

Maritime Claims: Sudan claims a 12-nautical-mile territorial sea zone, an 18-nautical-mile 

contiguous zone, and jurisdiction over the continental shelf to a 200-meter depth or to the depth 

of resource exploitation. 

Topography: The country is generally a broad, flat plain, with low mountains in the northeast 

near the Red Sea coast, in the west, and on the southeast. An outcropping of low mountains in 

the south-central region is known as the Nuba Mountains. The Nile River system divides the 

eastern third from the western two-thirds of the country. In the North, the Nubian Desert lies to 

the east of the Nile, the Libyan Desert to the west. Both are stony, virtually rainless, and dunecovered. South of Khartoum, the vegetation gradually changes from dry grassland and woodland 

to verdant savannah. 

Principal Rivers: The Nile is the dominant geographic feature of Sudan, flowing 3,000 

kilometers from Uganda in the south to Egypt in the north. Most of the country lies within its 

catchment basin. The Blue Nile and the White Nile, originating in the Ethiopian highlands and 

the Central African lakes, respectively, join at Khartoum to form the Nile River proper that flows 

to Egypt. Other major tributaries of the Nile are the Bahr al Ghazal, Sobat, and Atbarah rivers. 

Climate: The climate varies from tropical wet and dry seasons in the South to arid desert in the 

North. Annual temperatures vary little at any single location. The rainy season (April to 

November) and the length of the dry season constitute the most significant climatic variables. 

Natural Resources: Petroleum is Sudan’s major natural resource. The country also has small 

deposits of chromium ore, copper, gold, iron ore, mica, silver, tungsten, and zinc. 

Land Use: Sudan’s total land area amounts to some 251 million hectares. About half of this land 

is suitable for agriculture, of which about 17 million hectares are actually cultivated. 

Environmental Factors: Sudan suffers from inadequate supplies of potable water, declining 

wildlife populations because of warfare and excessive hunting, soil erosion, desertification, and 

periodic droughts. 

Time Zone: Local time in Sudan is Greenwich Mean Time plus three hours. 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

SOCIETY 

Population: Sudan has not had a comprehensive census since 1983. The most recent survey 

occurred in 1993, which produced a population figure of 24.9 million, but it omitted the South 

because of insecurity. As a result, most if not all demographic and social statistics are based on 

dated and incomplete information. In 2003 the United Nations Population Division estimated 

Sudan’s population at 33.6 million, a figure compatible with other estimates, although one or two 

estimates were higher by several million. According to the United Nations, the annual growth 

rate was 2.8 percent. The United Nations estimated the population density at 13.4 persons per 

square kilometer, a misleading measurement because half of the population lives on 

approximately 15 percent of the land, and the northern third of the country is quite thinly 

populated. Estimates of urbanization ranged from 31 percent to 37 percent, with the greatest 

concentration in the greater Khartoum area. 

Demography: In 2004, 44 percent of the population (male 8,730,609; female 8,358,569) was 

less than 15 years of age; 54 percent (male 10,588,634; female 10,571,199) was between the 

ages of 15 and 64 years, and those aged 65 years and older accounted for slightly more than 2 

percent (male 490,869; female 408,282). In the overall population, there were 1.02 males for 

every female. The number of births per 1,000 population was 38; the number of deaths, 10. The 

infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births was estimated at 69. The average number of lifetime 

births per female was 5.4. Life expectancy at birth was an estimated average of 57 years (56 

years for men, 58 years for women). 

Ethnic Groups: Ethnic identity is highly fluid in Sudan and depends upon the criteria by which 

individual groups of Sudanese distinguish themselves from other groups. The largest commonly 

recognized ethnic groups are Arabs, Nubians, Beja, and Fur (all Northerners and Muslims), and 

the Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, and Nuba, all Nilotic peoples of the South. The Arabs and Dinka are 

the largest groups within their respective regions. All of these ethnic groups are subdivided into 

tribal or other units. In rough percentages, Sudan’s population is composed of 50 percent black 

Africans, 40 percent Arabs, 6 percent Beja, and 3–4 percent other. 

Languages: Sudan is home to a large number of languages. One authoritative source lists 134 

spoken languages, with other estimates running up to 400, including numerous dialects. Arabic is 

the official language and is the primary language in northern and central Sudan. English is 

widely spoken as a second language in the North and to a lesser extent in the South. Other major 

languages in the North are Nubian and Ta Bedawie (Beja). A diverse collection of languages 

spoken in the South belong to the Niger-Kurdufanian and Nilo-Saharan language families. 

Religion: On the basis of rough estimates, more than half of Sudan’s population is Muslim. Most 

Muslims live in the North; however, significant non-Muslim groups are found in the Red Sea 

Hills, the Nuba Mountains, and in the western part of the country. Estimates of the Christian 

population range between 4 and 10 percent; Christians live mostly in the South and in Khartoum. 

At least one-third of Sudanese, many of them Southerners, adhere to traditional religion. 

Education and Literacy: Education is free and compulsory for children aged 6 to 13 years. 

Primary education consists of six years, followed by three years of middle school and three years

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

of secondary or technical instruction. The primary language at all levels is Arabic. Schools are 

concentrated in urban areas; many in the South and West have been damaged or destroyed by 

conflict. In 2001 the World Bank estimated that primary enrollment was 46 percent of eligible 

pupils and 21 percent of secondary students. Enrollment varies widely, falling below 20 percent 

in some provinces. Sudan has 19 universities; instruction is primarily in Arabic. Education at the 

secondary and university levels has been seriously hampered by the requirement that most males 

perform military service before completing their education. 

According to World Bank estimates for 2002, the literacy rate in adults aged 15 years and older 

was 60 percent. In 2000 the comparable figure was almost 58 percent (69 percent for males, 46 

percent for females); youth illiteracy (ages 15–24) was estimated at 23 percent. 

Health and Welfare: Sudan is one of the poorest nations in the world, and what wealth the 

country possesses is not widely distributed. Poverty is widespread, particularly in rural areas. 

Outside urban areas, little health care is available, helping account for a relatively low average 

life expectancy of 57 years and an infant mortality rate of 69 deaths per 1,000 live births, low by 

standards in Middle Eastern but not African countries. For most of the period since independence 

in 1956, Sudan has experienced civil war, which has diverted resources to military use that 

otherwise might have gone into health care and training of professionals, many of whom have 

migrated in search of more gainful employment. In 1996 the World Health Organization 

estimated that there were only 9 doctors per 100,000 people, most of them in regions other than 

the South. Substantial percentages of the population lack access to safe water and sanitary 

facilities. Malnutrition is widespread outside the central Nile corridor because of population 

displacement from war and from recurrent droughts; these same factors together with a scarcity 

of medicines make diseases difficult to control. Child immunization against most major 

childhood diseases, however, had risen to approximately 60 percent by the late 1990s from very 

low rates in earlier decades. Spending on health care is quite low—only 1 percent of gross 

domestic product (GDP) in 1998 (latest data). The United Nations placed the rate of human 

immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) infection in late 

2003 at 2.3 percent for adults, quite low by regional standards. The United Nations suggested, 

however, that the rate could be as high as 7.2 percent. Between 400,000 and 1.3 million adults 

and children were living with HIV, and AIDS deaths numbered 23,000. As of late 2004, some 4 

million persons in the South had been internally displaced and more than 2 million had died or 

been killed as a result of two decades of war. Comparable figures for Darfur were 1.6 million 

displaced and 70,000 dead since fighting began there in early 2003. 

ECONOMY 

Overview: Sudan has significant natural resources, but since independence its economy has been 

constrained by civil war, debt, and mismanagement. Although it has recently turned its economy 

around with sound economic policies and infrastructure investments, it still faces formidable 

economic problems, one of them the low level of per capita output. Since 1997 Sudan has been 

implementing International Monetary Fund (IMF) macroeconomic reforms. In 1999 Sudan 

began exporting crude oil and in the last quarter of 1999 recorded its first trade surplus, which, 

along with improvements in monetary policy, has stabilized the exchange rate. Increased oil 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

production, revived light industry, and expanded export processing zones yielded gross domestic 

product (GDP) growth of an estimated 5.9 percent in 2003. Agriculture remains Sudan's most 

important sector; however, most farming is rain-fed and susceptible to drought. Oil production 

continues to rise annually and in 2003 constituted more than 80 percent of export earnings. 

Chronic instability, including the long-standing civil war between the Muslim North and the 

Christian/traditionalist South, the current rebellion in Darfur, adverse weather, and weak world 

agricultural prices ensure that much of the population remains at or below the poverty line. 

Sudan also suffers from endemic corruption, an undeveloped and neglected physical 

infrastructure, and a financial system still in need of major reform. Wealth is concentrated in the 

central Nile corridor region, the northern, eastern, southern, and western regions being markedly 

less prosperous. 

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): GDP was US$12 billion in 2001 and was estimated at 

US$13.4 billion in 2002 and US$15.4 billion in 2003. Per capita GDP was about US$415 in 

2002. Since 1999, economic growth has averaged about 6 percent annually, helping account for 

an estimated doubling in the size of the economy between 1996 and 2003. In 2003 estimates, 

GDP by sector was: agriculture, 39 percent; industry, 19 percent; and services, 4 percent. 

Government Budget: The budget has been in chronic deficit from the early 1980s, largely as a 

result of outlays for military campaigns against the Sudan People’s Liberation Army. With the 

advent of the structural adjustment program in 1997, new fiscal controls combined with new 

revenues from the oil sector reduced the deficit from nearly 13 percent of gross domestic product 

(GDP) in 1990 to less than 1 percent in and after the late 1990s. In 2002 total revenue amounted 

to Sudanese dinars (SD) 470.6 billion (US$1.8 billion), and expenditures to SD503.4 (US$1.9 

billion), including capital expenditures of SD118.6 billion (US$450 million). The deficit 

amounted to SD32.8 billion (US$125 million). 

Inflation: Sudan experienced high rates of inflation during the early 1990s, reaching 133 percent 

in 1996. Since then, rates have declined through double digits to 8.4 percent in 2002 and 7.8 

percent in 2003. 

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing: Agriculture is the most important sector in Sudan’s 

economy, employing some two-thirds of the population and contributing about 40 percent of 

gross domestic product (GDP) in recent years. Grains (primarily sorghum) and livestock (camels, 

cattle, goats, and sheep) form the backbone of the traditional economy. Sudan also produces 

significant quantities of gum arabic, millet, peanuts, sesame, and sugarcane. Under the British, 

the al Gezira irrigation project was developed and became a cotton-producing and exporting 

region. More recently, dam and irrigation projects have been established at Kusti, Al Qadarif, 

and Kassala. In the early 2000s, sesame and livestock are Sudan’s most important agricultural 

exports. Forest products include gum arabic and charcoal. The Nile and its tributaries contain 

abundant fish, Nile perch being commercially exploitable. 

Mining and Minerals: Sudan’s mineral endowment consists of oil as well as asbestos, chromite, 

copper, diamonds, gold, iron ore, mica, silver, talc, tungsten, uranium, and zinc. Aside from oil, 

gold is the most valuable mineral export. Oil was discovered in the early 1980s in the South but 

not exploited until the late 1990s because of insecurity. Although some petroleum is refined for 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

the local market, most is exported as crude. Production in 2003 was about 300,000 barrels per 

day, of which 200,000 barrels were exported and some 70,000 barrels per day consumed locally. 

Production is expected to reach 500,000 barrels per day by late 2005. Reserves total 800 million 

barrels, with estimates of up to three billion barrels. 

Industry and Manufacturing: Despite recent investment and improved production, Sudan’s 

manufacturing sector is quite small. Several refineries produce enough petroleum products to 

meet local demand, with some available for export. Refined sugar and textiles are the chief 

manufactures, sugar being a major export. Sudan also manufactures cement, cigarettes, edible 

oils, soap, and shoes. The industrial sector grew more than 11 percent in 2000 after sluggish 

growth during the 1990s. 

Energy: In 2000 Sudan’s total installed electrical generating capacity was rated at more than 

2,500 megawatts, but actual production was lower than rated capacity. About 46 percent was 

produced by hydropower. New dams presently in the planning stage will increase hydropower 

significantly. Much of the country lies outside the national power grid and uses diesel fuel to 

generate power. 

Services: Aside from banking and finance, communications, and transportation, Sudan’s 

services sector is quite small. Despite considerable potential, tourism is restricted because of a 

lack of reliable transport, hotel facilities, and general insecurity. In 2001, 50,000 tourists entered 

the country, producing receipts of US$56 million.

Banking and Finance: The banking and financial sector has been troubled since at least 1970, 

when all banks were nationalized and placed under control of the Bank of Sudan. Following the 

coup of 1989 that brought the al Bashir regime to power, banking and finance were conducted 

according to Islamic principles, which among other restrictions forbid payment of interest on 

deposits. These restrictions, problems with capitalization, and non-performing loans greatly 

reduced the profitability of banks and resulted in low levels of private investment during the 

1990s. The sector was one of the targets of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) economic 

restructuring program in 1997, which has led to some improvements. There are 25 banks, and in 

the early 2000s half of them were wholly or partially privately owned. Since 2000, private-sector 

credit has grown markedly, but a planned merger of banks into six banking groups to improve 

financial strength and international competitiveness has not yet been implemented. 

Labor: In 1999 the labor force numbered an estimated 9.7 million, of which two-thirds were 

employed in agriculture. 

Foreign Economic Relations: Until the late 1990s, Sudan’s external trade was largely confined 

to Middle Eastern countries, Saudi Arabia and Libya in particular. The development of the oil 

industry, however, reoriented Sudan’s trading patterns. China and Japan have emerged as the 

chief destinations for oil, and China now supplies the majority of imports, with Saudi Arabia in 

second place. Refined petroleum imports from Libya have virtually ceased, and although Saudi 

Arabia continues as a major market for livestock and agricultural produce, the value of this trade 

is well below that of oil. France, Germany, and the United Kingdom supply essential 

manufactures. South Africa, South Korea, and Malaysia are other trading partners. Beginning in 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

1993, Sudan was denied access to loans and financial support from the World Bank and the 

International Monetary Fund (IMF) because of unpaid debt arrearages. Although the IMF helped 

design the structural adjustment program in 1997, IMF financing remains in suspension. In 1997 

the United States charged Sudan with violations of human rights and support for international 

terrorism and imposed economic sanctions, measures that were still in effect in 2004. 

Imports, Exports, and Trade Balance: Development of the oil export industry drastically 

altered the structure of Sudan’s foreign trade account, which has passed from average yearly 

deficits of more than US$600 million during the 1990s to surpluses of US$300 million annually 

from 2000 to 2002. In 2002 imports amounted to about US$1.7 billion on a free on board basis, 

and exports totaled about US$1.9 billion on a free on board basis, leaving a trade balance of 

more than US$200 million. Sudan’s major imports were machinery and equipment, 

manufactured goods, refinery and transport equipment, wheat, and wheat flour. Oil and oil 

products were the overwhelming export commodities at US$1.1 billion, followed by livestock 

and meat at US$103 million. 

Balance of Payments: Sudan had a record of large balance of payment deficits averaging 

US$621 million annually during the 1990s. In 2002 the deficit was US$747 million, as positive 

balances in trade and current transfers (largely remittances from Sudanese working abroad) were 

more than offset by outflows for services and return of capital and profits to foreign firms in the 

oil sector. For 2003 the deficit was estimated at US$1.4 billion. During the next few years, as 

repayment of foreign capital for development of the oil industry declines, analysts estimate that 

the balance of payments should approach equilibrium. 

External Debt: Sudan accumulated a sizable foreign debt in the 1970s and 1980s, partly to 

finance a development program but also because of rising interest rates and prices for imported 

oil. Repayment has so far proven to be beyond the country’s means. Between 1999 and 2002, 

total foreign debt averaged US$15.9 billion. In 2003 the World Bank estimated the debt at 

US$17.1 billion. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), however, placed the figure at more 

than US$24 billion. Most of the debt represents government borrowings from bilateral and 

multilateral lenders, an estimated 90 percent of it in arrears. 

Foreign Investment: In 2003 foreign direct investment rose to US$1.4 billion, double the 

previous year’s total and much higher than investments of the 1990s. Most of these funds were 

invested in the oil and electric power sectors. 

Foreign Aid: Sudan receives a significant amount of relief aid from international organizations 

to alleviate the effects of civil wars in the South and in Darfur. Amounts vary according to the 

intensity of the conflicts and rainfall patterns, both of which affect food production. Much aid is 

channeled through the United Nations, which sought to raise US$225 million for its programs in 

2003–04. 

Currency and Exchange Rate: Sudan’s currency is the Sudanese dinar (SD). On March 1, 

1999, the Sudanese pound was replaced by the Sudanese dinar, equivalent to 10 Sudanese 

pounds. The pound was withdrawn from circulation on July 31,1999. In late 2004, the exchange 

rate per US$1 was SD255.7. 

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Fiscal Year: Sudan’s fiscal year is the calendar year. 

TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Transportation Overview: Sudan’s transportation system consists of waterways, railroads, 

roads, and air service. Facilities in general are in various stages of disrepair and neglect, and, 

aside from the waterways, all are inadequate for a country the size of Sudan. The Nile River and 

its tributaries—the Blue Nile and White Nile, the Atbarah, Sobat, and Bahar al Ghazal—form a 

natural transportation system that has long served as a funnel for commerce between tropical 

Africa and the eastern Mediterranean. The rail and road systems both date to the colonial era. Of 

the two, the rail system has been the more extensive and serves the more important population 

centers except for the southern provinces. Since the early 1980s, the road network has carried an 

increasing amount of traffic. It continues to undergo expansion, particularly in the North between 

Khartoum and the Red Sea, but most rural areas of the country remain inaccessible by wheeled 

transport. Sudan Airways, the national airline, which serves internal as well as international 

destinations, supplements the limited rail and road networks. The most recent addition to the 

transportation grid is an oil pipeline that connects the southern oil fields with Khartoum and Port 

Sudan. Beginning in the 1980s, Sudanese governments have sought to improve the transportation 

infrastructure, but both attention and funding have been limited, and progress has been slow. 

Roads: Sudan has between 20,000 and 25,000 kilometers of roads. Of these, only about 3,500 

kilometers are paved, and 4,000 kilometers are all-weather gravel roads; the remainder are tracks 

passable according to weather conditions. The main road, accounting for half of the paved 

surface, connects Port Sudan with Khartoum via Kassala. 

Railroads: Sudan has 4,725 kilometers of narrow-guage, single-track railroads that serve the 

northern and central portions of the country. The main line runs from Wadi Halfa on the 

Egyptian border to Khartoum and southwest to Al Ubayyid via Sannar and Kusti, with 

extensions to Nyala in Southern Darfur and Waw in Bahr al Ghazal. Other lines connect Atbarah 

and Sannar with Port Sudan, and Sannar with Ad Damazin. A 1,400-kilometer line serves the al 

Gezira cotton-growing region. A modest effort to upgrade rail transport is currently underway to 

reverse decades of neglect and declining efficiency. Service on some lines may be interrupted 

during the rainy season. 

Ports: Sudan has two ports on the Red Sea coast, Port Sudan and Sawakin. Major inland ports, 

all on the White Nile, include Khartoum, Kusti, Malakal, Juba, and Nimule on the border with 

Uganda. 

Inland Waterways: Sudan has more than 4,000 kilometers of navigable waterways centered on 

the Nile and its tributaries, but only about 1,700 kilometers are navigable year-round. Barriers to 

navigation include the six cataracts on the main Nile north of Khartoum, variations in seasonal 

flow, a series of dams, and the Sudd, the vast papyrus-choked swamp on the upper White Nile. 

Since the mid-1980s, security problems associated with the rebellion in the South have hindered 

navigation south of Malakal. 

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Civil Aviation and Airports: The national carrier, Sudan Airways, provides international 

service to Europe, Africa, and the Middle East as well as domestic service, over which it holds a 

monopoly. In the past, it has experienced problems with a lack of trained personnel, scheduling, 

and maintenance. Currently, efforts are underway to privatize the company. Sudan has an 

estimated 63 airports, but only 12 have paved runways. The most important is Khartoum

International Airport, followed by Port Sudan, Al Ubayyid, and Al Fashir. 

Pipelines: In August 1999, a 1,610-kilometer pipeline was completed to carry oil from oil fields 

in the South to an export terminal on the Red Sea near Port Sudan. By 2003 the pipeline had 

been extended by 600-plus kilometers, and an 810-kilometer line carried refined petroleum

products. A 156-kilometer line carries natural gas. 

Telecommunications: As a result of recent investment, telecommunications in urban and 

outlying regions have improved markedly compared with low levels of service before the late 

1990s. In 2002 almost 672,000 telephone lines were in use, producing a ratio of 2.1 lines per 100 

inhabitants. These figures compare favorably with just 75,000 lines in 1995 and a line per 

inhabitant ratio of 0.3. Mobile service has also seen a substantial increase in users, rising from

8,000 subscribers in 1999 to 190,000 in 2002. Internet usage, introduced in 1998, has grown 

along with the upgrades in lines and equipment from a mere 5,000 users in 1999 to 84,000 in 

2002, still well below the number of users in some neighboring countries. Cost and unreliable 

service have constrained Internet growth. As of 2002, 5.8 million radios and 250,000 television 

sets were in use in Sudan. International communications are facilitated by two satellite earth 

stations, one Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and one Arabsat. Telecommunications service is a state 

monopoly exercised through the Sudan Telecommunications Company (SudaTel) and its 

subsidiaries, which have undergone some privatization since the late 1990s. 

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 

Government Overview: The national government is an authoritarian regime with the trappings 

of a parliamentary system. A new constitution, approved in 1998, provides for separate 

executive, legislative, and judicial functions and contains guarantees of freedom of association, 

religion, and thought. Some clauses have been in suspension since late 1999. The executive 

branch is headed by a president, who currently serves also as prime minister and commander in 

chief of the armed forces. Cabinet members are appointed by the president with approval by 

parliament. The legislative branch is composed of the 360-seat National Assembly, of which 270 

members are popularly elected and 90 specially selected by a National Congress composed of 

influential interest groups. Parliamentarians serve four-year terms and have been supportive of 

the government. Sudan’s government is run by an alliance of the military and the National 

Congress Party, formerly the National Islamic Front, and has generally pursued an Islamist 

agenda. The current president is Lieutenant General Umar Hassan Ahmad al Bashir, who came 

to power in a military coup in 1989. He was popularly elected in 1996 and 2000. 

Administrative Divisions: Sudan is divided into 26 states (wilayat): A'ali an Nil, Al Bahr al 

Ahmar, Al Buhayrat, Al Jazirah, Al Khartum, Al Qadarif, Al Wahdah, An Nil al Abyad, An Nil 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

al Azraq, Ash Shamaliyah, Bahr al Jabal, Gharb al Istiwa'iyah, Gharb Bahr al Ghazal, Gharb 

Darfur, Gharb Kurdufan, Janub Darfur, Janub Kurdufan, Junqali, Kassala, Nahr an Nil, Shamal 

Bahr al Ghazal, Shamal Darfur, Shamal Kurdufan, Sharq al Istiwa'iyah, Sinnar, and Warab. 

Provincial and Local Government: Beginning in 1983, Sudan was divided into five regions in 

the North and three in the South, each headed by a military governor. In 1997 the eight regions 

were replaced with 26 states, whose senior officials are appointed by the president. State budgets 

are also allocated from Khartoum. 

Judicial and Legal System: The constitution provides for a High Court, an attorney general, and

civil and special religious courts; it also grants recognition to tribal courts. The legal system is 

based on English common law and Islamic law. As of March 1991, strict Islamic Law was 

imposed on the country except for the three southern provinces. It applies in the northern states 

regardless of religious affiliation. 

Electoral System: A national electoral commission determines guidelines for elections and 

referendums. Voting eligibility is defined as 17 years of age. The last national elections, held in 

December 2000, were boycotted by opposition parties, who viewed them as unfair. 

Political Parties: Following the military coup of 1989, all political parties were banned. The 

constitution of 1998 permits political “associations” provided that they register with the 

government, accept the legality of the 1998 constitution, and do not practice violence or advocate 

the overthrow of the present regime. More than 30 parties are registered with the authorities. 

Among the most important parties and their leaders are: the National Congress Party (NCP) 

under President al Bashir and party secretary general Ibrahim Ahmed Umar, successor to the 

former National Islamic Front (NIF); Popular National Congress (PNC) under Hassan al Turabi; 

Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) under Osman al Mirghani; and Umma Party (UP) under Sadiq 

al Mahdi. The National Democratic Alliance (NDA), a grouping of several opposition parties 

under the chairmanship of Osman al Mirghani, is based in Asmara, Eritrea. Among its members 

are the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), under Colonel John Garang, and the Sudan 

People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM), under Mansour Khalid (the SPLM is the political wing 

of the SPLA). 

Mass Media: Sudan has a large number of local and national newspapers. The major national 

dailies are published in Arabic or English. Sudan Television broadcasts 60 hours of 

programming a week. The Sudan National Broadcasting Corporation airs radio programming in 

Arabic, English, French, and Swahili. Radio and television stations are state-controlled entities 

and serve as outlets for the government viewpoint. Journalists and the papers they serve, 

although subject to government censorship, operate with more freedom and independence than in 

most neighboring countries or Arab states. The Voice of Sudan, sponsored by the National 

Democratic Alliance, broadcasts in Arabic and English. The Sudan People’s Liberation Army

issues its own newspapers and journals. 

Foreign Relations: Throughout the 1990s, Sudan’s foreign relations have been governed by the 

desire to spread Islamism throughout eastern Africa and the Middle East, in keeping with the 

program of the National Islamic Front, and by the course of the civil war between Northerners 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

and Southerners. Relations with Arab countries as well as its neighbors have varied from cordial 

and supportive to antagonistic and quarrelsome according to the degree that the regime pursued 

or relaxed its Islamist agenda or pressed or accommodated its Southern opponents. At times, 

Sudan has supported regional insurgencies against several of its fellow Arab states. In 1995 the 

government was accused of complicity in the attempted assassination of Egyptian president 

Hosni Mubarak. Although this action brought down international sanctions upon the country, 

Egypt eventually withdrew its charges and the matter passed. Relations with Libya, Eritrea, 

Ethiopia, and Uganda have experienced wide swings; in the case of the latter three, the degree of

their support or opposition to the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) and other opposition 

groups has been the overriding consideration. By the late 1990s, Sudan’s relations with its 

neighbors were either strained or broken. Since 2000, the al Bashir regime has sought to improve 

its standing through rapprochement and accommodation. Relations with several European 

nations have been relatively good, especially those with France. Relations with the United States 

have been far less so, although there has been some improvement since 2000. 

Membership in International Organizations: Sudan holds membership in a number of 

international organizations. Among them are: the League of Arab States, the Organization of the 

Islamic Conference, and the Nonaligned Movement as well as the United Nations and its 

subsidiary organizations, including United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural 

Organization, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the World Health 

Organization, and the World Trade Organization (observer status). Within Africa, Sudan belongs 

to the African Union and the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development. It is a member of 

such international financial institutions as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund 

(membership temporarily in abeyance), the African Development Bank, and the Islamic 

Development Bank, and is one of the Africa-Caribbean-Pacific group of states that receive 

economic aid from the European Union. 

Major International Treaties: Sudan is a signatory of the Convention on Biological Diversity; 

Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna; 

Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling, and Use of 

Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction; Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the 

Ozone Layer; Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons; United Nations Convention 

on the Law of the Sea; United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries 

Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa; and United Nations 

Framework Convention on Climate Change. 

Sudan is also a party to all twelve international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, 

including the African Union’s Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism; 

Convention of the Organization of the Islamic Conference on Combating Terrorism; and 

International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism. 

NATIONAL SECURITY 

Armed Forces Overview: As of 2004, the Sudanese People's Armed Forces numbered an 

estimated 105,000 members. The army is by far the largest unit, the air force and navy being 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

much smaller. Irregulars, including former rebel militias and tribesmen, supplement the army’s 

strength.The armed forces are charged with defense of Sudan’s external borders and with 

preservation of internal security. Sudan’s military forces have historically been hampered by 

limited and outdated equipment, poor maintenance capabilities, and inadequate training. 

Capabilities were further eroded during the 1990s by dismissals in the professional officer corps. 

These constraints are such that Sudan’s army must rely on Arab militias and even former rebels 

as it campaigns against opposition forces in southern and eastern provinces and in Darfur. At 

least some of the rebels in these regions are former army personnel. Since the late 1990s, the 

government has used oil revenues to purchase modern weapons, most of which come from

Libya, China, and Russia. Other sources of modest military support include Syria, Iran, and, in 

the past, Iraq. There is no evidence that Sudan has access to biological, chemical, or nuclear 

weapons. 

Foreign Military Relations: China, Russia, and Libya are the major suppliers of military 

equipment, with lesser amounts coming from Iran and Syria. The Sudan People’s Liberation 

Army (SPLA) receives assistance from Kenya and Uganda; in the past, Zimbabwe and Namibia 

also supplied the SPLA with equipment. The National Democratic Alliance receives both 

military and political support from Eritrea. The extent of foreign assistance to the Darfur rebels is 

unknown at present. 

External Threat: Although Sudan has had troubled relations with several of its neighbors in the 

past, Eritrea in particular, it faces no significant external threats at present.

Defense Budget: The International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated the defense budget 

for 2004 at US$465 million. 

Major Military Units: The Sudanese army numbers 105,000 soldiers, including 20,000 

conscripts, organized into 10 divisions, including 1 armored, 1 mechanized, and 6 infantry 

divisions. The navy, with bases at Port Sudan and Marsa Gwiyai on the Red Sea and at 

Khartoum, has 1,800 personnel, and the air force, 3,000, including air defense forces. All figures 

are 2004 estimates from the International Institute for Strategic Studies. 

Major Military Equipment: The army has 270 tanks, 218 reconnaissance vehicles, 316 

armored vehicles, 470 artillery pieces, 635 multiple rocket launchers, 40 recoilless launchers, 40 

attack guns, 1,000 air defense guns, and 54 surface-to-air missiles. The navy has 2 inshore patrol 

craft and about 16 river patrol boats. The air force has an estimated 27 combat aircraft 

(serviceability questionable), 10 armed helicopters, 25 unarmed helicopters, and 5 batteries of 

surface-to-air missiles. 

Military Service: Eligibility for service begins at age 18 and runs to age 30. Conscripts serve for 

two years. 

Paramilitary Forces: The Popular Defense Force, the military wing of the National Islamic 

Front, consists of 10,000 active members, with 85,000 reserves. It has been deployed alongside 

regular army units against various rebel groups. 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

Foreign Military Forces: Sudan and Uganda have agreed to allow their armed forces to operate 

across their mutual border in pursuit of various groups of insurgents. As of mid-2004, the 

Uganda People’s Defense Forces were in pursuit of Ugandan rebel forces in southern Sudan. In 

mid-November 2004, the African Union had nearly 800 military observers and peacekeeping 

troops in Darfur to monitor a cease-fire between the government militia and local rebels. More 

than 3,000 peacekeepers are foreseen by early 2005. 

Police: Sudan’s police are composed of a number of separate units known collectively as the 

United Police Forces. These include the States’ Police, who function on the federal level as well 

as in each of the 26 states, and the Utilities’ Police, who work in various state utilities, 

institutions, and corporations. All are under the control of the Ministry of Interior. 

Internal Threat: The central government faces armed resistance from a number of opposition 

groups, several of which have joined together in the National Democratic Alliance: the Sudan 

People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), consisting of 20,000–30,000 men divided into four factions 

and located mainly in southern Sudan; Sudan Alliance Forces, with an estimated strength of 500 

fighters, who operate along the Eritrean border; Beja Congress Forces, with an estimated 

strength of 500 men, who operate on the Eritrean border; and New Sudan Brigade, whose forces 

number some 2,000 and who are also located on the Eritrean border. Since February 2003, two 

guerrilla groups, the Sudanese Liberation Army and the Justice and Equality Movement, have 

taken up arms in Darfur. The SPLA’s fortunes have waxed and waned, and at times it has 

controlled wide swaths of territory in the South. Its successes have helped compel the al Bashir 

regime to enter into peace negotiations on several occasions, most notably since 2002. The 

smaller groups along the Eritrean border are far less significant, but the Darfur groups control 

territory in the far West and attack government outposts and towns at will. Aside from these 

major groups, a number of smaller rebel units pursue their own agendas. Government control is 

tenuous outside the central populated region surrounding Khartoum. 

Terrorism: Sudan has a long history of protecting terrorists and of condoning their actions. In 

March 1973, Palestinian terrorists murdered the American ambassador to Sudan. In the early to 

mid-1990s, Khartoum was home to several well-known international terrorists, including Abu 

Nidal and Osama bin Laden, and in 1995 the Sudanese government was accused of complicity in 

the attempted assassination of Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak in Addis Ababa. In 1993 the 

United States designated Sudan as a state sponsor of terrorism because of the National Islamic 

Front’s reported links with international terrorist networks, and in 1998 the United States 

launched missiles at an alleged chemical munitions factory in Khartoum in response to terrorist

attacks in East Africa. Sudan also has been accused of providing training facilities for various 

terrorist organizations. Since 2000, Sudan has reversed its policies and begun to cooperate with 

international counterterrorism efforts. Sudan is a party to all twelve international conventions 

and protocols relating to terrorism. 

Human Rights: The government’s attitude toward human rights has been conditioned by its 

Islamist convictions. The al Bashir regime has regarded Islam as a state religion and sharia as the 

law of the land without regard for other religious beliefs and practices. It has pursued policies of 

Arabization and Islamization, although recently there has been some relaxation of this stance 

with regard to Southerners. It has placed important restrictions on freedoms of assembly, speech, 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004 

religious practice, and political association. The media, although tightly controlled, operate with 

a greater degree of independence than in many neighboring countries. Personal rights are often 

not respected, especially with regard to women. The judicial system is not independent and is 

subject to government interference, including proceedings in the country’s courts. Conditions in 

prisons are harsh and long sentences common. Security forces, including the police, routinely 

disregard basic human rights; similar abuses have been perpetrated by Southern opposition 

forces. Recent accords between Southerners and the government provide for respect of legal and 

religious differences in the South. In Darfur, soldiers and government-sanctioned militias 

continue to destroy villages and crops, engage in murder and rape, and drive the inhabitants into 

refugee camps. The al Bashir regime has restricted or blocked delivery of humanitarian aid in 

Darfur, but access to the South has improved significantly. Northerners continue their age-old 

practice of enslaving black Africans from the South; Southerners practice their own version of 

enslavement. 

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