United States 

Department of

Agriculture

Forest 

Service

Southwestern

Region

MB-R3-03-21

August 2012

Land and Resource 

Management Plan for 

the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, 

Black Kettle, and 

McClellan Creek 

National Grasslands

Cibola National Forest and 

National Grasslands
Environmental Impact Statement for Rinconada Communication Site 4

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and 

activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, 

marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, 

political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any 

public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with 

disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, 

large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and 

TTY). To file a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 

1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or 

(202) 720-6382 (TTY). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Printed on recycled paper – August 2012
Land and Resource 

Management Plan 

for the 

Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Cibola National Forest and National Grasslands

Mora, Harding, Union, and Colfax Counties in New Mexico; 

Dallam, Hemphill, and Gray Counties in Texas; and Cimarron 

and Roger Mills Counties in Oklahoma
Acknowledgements

The staff of the Cibola National Forest and National Grasslands was instrumental in identifying 

participants and arranging the discussion groups for this project. Their professionalism and 

patience in assisting with this work is noteworthy. Others have provided useful consultation on 

the structure and content of reports, and their contributions are sincerely appreciated. Participants 

in the interviews and discussion groups deserve special thanks and acknowledgement for their 

willingness to contribute their time and thoughts in a true spirit of cooperation and concern to 

improve the future of the Cibola National Forest and National Grasslands.
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and i

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Contents

Part 1: Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1

Background.............................................................................................................................................1

Purpose of this Land Management Plan .................................................................................................2

Roles and Contributions of Grasslands...................................................................................................2

Planning Process.....................................................................................................................................4

Organization of the Plan Document......................................................................................................15

Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction ................................................................ 17

Scenery .................................................................................................................................................17

General Recreation ...............................................................................................................................19

Developed Recreation...........................................................................................................................20

Dispersed Recreation............................................................................................................................23

Motorized Recreation ...........................................................................................................................24

Nature-Based Tourism..........................................................................................................................26

Heritage Resources...............................................................................................................................27

Roads and Access.................................................................................................................................29

Land Adjustments.................................................................................................................................30

Minerals and Energy Development ......................................................................................................31

Special Forest Products ........................................................................................................................34

Special Uses..........................................................................................................................................35

Wind Energy Development ..................................................................................................................36

Livestock Use .......................................................................................................................................37

Wildland-Urban Interface and Wildland Fire .......................................................................................38

General Ecological ...............................................................................................................................39

Climate Change ....................................................................................................................................40

Soil, Water, Air.....................................................................................................................................41

Invasive Plants and Animals (Native and Nonnative) ..........................................................................46

Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction ............................................... 49

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area ....................................................49

Scenery.............................................................................................................................................50

Developed Recreation ......................................................................................................................51

Dispersed Recreation........................................................................................................................52

Motorized Recreation.......................................................................................................................54

Heritage Resources...........................................................................................................................54

Minerals and Energy Development ..................................................................................................55

Wildlife Habitat Improvement .........................................................................................................55

Water, Watershed, Perennial Streams, Reservoirs, Lakes, and Ponds ............................................56

Invasive Plants and Animal Species (Native and Nonnative) .........................................................57

Mixed-grass Prairie Vegetation........................................................................................................58

Shinnery Oak Vegetation Type and Inclusions of Historically Deep Plowed Sites........................60

Inclusions of Historically Deep Plowed Sites ..................................................................................62

Mixed Hardwood Riparian Vegetation Type ...................................................................................63

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area........................................................................66

Scenery.............................................................................................................................................67

Dispersed Recreation........................................................................................................................69

Developed Recreation ......................................................................................................................69

Motorized Recreation.......................................................................................................................69

Heritage Resources...........................................................................................................................69

Lands Adjustment.............................................................................................................................69

Minerals and Energy Development ..................................................................................................69

Livestock Use...................................................................................................................................71

Wildlife Habitat Improvement .........................................................................................................71
Contents

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and ii

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Water, Watershed, and Perennial Streams........................................................................................72

Shortgrass Prairie Vegetation Type and Inclusions..........................................................................72

Pinyon-Juniper Vegetation Type and Juniper Grasslands Inclusion ...............................................84

Cottonwood and Willow Riparian Vegetation Type ........................................................................86

Sand Sagebrush Vegetation Type.....................................................................................................89

Mills Canyon Management Area ........................................................................................93

Integrated Recreation and Scenery...................................................................................................94

Vegetation in Canyon Lowlands, Woodland Pinyon-Juniper on Canyon Steep Slopes, 

Cottonwood-Willow Riparian, and Canadian River.........................................................................96

Part 4: Special Areas and Eligible Scenic River ................................................................ 101

National Trails and Scenic Byways....................................................................................................101

Eligible Scenic River..........................................................................................................................104

Part 5: Suitability of Areas................................................................................................... 107

Suitability ...........................................................................................................................................107

Part 6: Monitoring Elements............................................................................................... 113

Monitoring..........................................................................................................................................113

List of Preparers.................................................................................................................... 127

Forest Service Preparers of this Plan ..................................................................................................127

Glossary.................................................................................................................................. 129

References Cited.................................................................................................................... 151

Appendix A: Maps................................................................................................................. 153

B: Southwestern Region Climate Change Trends and Potential Climate Change 

Strategies for Southwestern Region National Forests........................................................ 169

C: Proposed and Probable Management Practices........................................................... 205

D: Other Sources of Information, Regulations, MOUs, Guidance ................................... 211

E: Disturbance Factors and Ecological Processes............................................................. 221

F: Species Status of Risk Rankings..................................................................................... 225

G: Common and Latin Names Used in Desired Conditions............................................. 227

H: Benchmarks...................................................................................................................... 231

List of Figures

Figure 1. Vicinity map............................................................................................................................. 1

Figure 2. Interpretive building at Black Kettle Ranger District . ...........................................................20

Figure 3. Thompson Grove Picnic Ground and the Lake McClellan Group Site ..................................21

Figure 4. Black Kettle and McClellan Creek interpretive panels...........................................................23

Figure 5. Motorized recreation at McClellan Creek...............................................................................25

Figure 6. Stabilization of Mills Orchard and Ranch Site........................................................................27

Figure 7. Oil and gas pad........................................................................................................................32

Figure 8. Rehabilitation oil and gas pad postproduction.. ......................................................................32

Figure 9. Harmonizing infrastructures with the surrounding landscape.................................................36

Figure 10. Palustrine emergent wetland on the Kiowa National Grassland ...........................................45

Figure 11. Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area .........................................................49

Figure 12. Redbed Plains of the Black Kettle National Grassland.........................................................50
Contents

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and iii

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Figure 13. Water-based recreation facilities...........................................................................................52

Figure 14. Designated dispersed sites.....................................................................................................53

Figure 15. Mixed-grass prairie depicting vertical structure on Unit 93..................................................59

Figure 16. Shinnery oak on historically unplowed areas on Black Kettle Unit 12.................................60

Figure 17. Shinnery oak motts on Black Kettle Unit 12.........................................................................62

Figure 18. Shinnery oak on the Black Kettle previously plowed areas of Unit 12.................................63

Figure 19. Mixed hardwood riparian area with cottonwood gallery. .....................................................64

Figure 20. Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area. ..........................................................................66

Figure 21. Rita Blanca scenery...............................................................................................................68

Figure 22. High Lonesome scenery........................................................................................................68

Figure 23. Mills Canyon scenery............................................................................................................68

Figure 24. Shortgrass prairie component on the Rita Blanca National Grasslands. ...............................75

Figure 25. Mixed grass component of shortgrass...................................................................................78

Figure 26. Old shortgrass field on Rita Blanca in Unit 53. ....................................................................79

Figure 27. Playa lake on the Kiowa National Grassland. .......................................................................80

Figure 28. Dry swales/seasonal depressional wetlands on the Kiowa National Grassland. ...................82

Figure 29. Perico Creek on the Kiowa National Grassland....................................................................83

Figure 30. Cottonwood-willow riparian community on Corrumpa Creek, Kiowa NG. .........................88

Figure 31. Sand sagebrush with mixed grass on the Rita Blanca National Grassland............................89

Figure 32. Sand sagebrush with mixed grass depicting vertical structure on Rita Blanca Unit 54. .......90

Figure 33. Mills Canyon Management Area. .........................................................................................93

Figure 34. Mills Canyon Management Area. .........................................................................................94

Figure 35. Mills Orchard and remnant trees...........................................................................................95

Figure 36. Mills Canyon and the Canadian River. .................................................................................96

Figure 37. Ponderosa pine on steep slopes of Mills Canyon..................................................................98

Figure 38. Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway. ..............................................................................102

Figure 39. Santa Fe National Historic Trail emblem............................................................................103

Figure 40. Canadian River eligible scenic river. ..................................................................................105

List of Tables

Table 1. Regional Forester’s Sensitive Species List ............................................................................... 9

Table 2. Livestock grazing – all Grasslands ........................................................................................108

Table 3. Suitability of recreation activities by ROS classification.......................................................108

Table 4. Black Kettle and McClellan Creek timber suitability classification and area descriptions....110

Table 5. Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands timber 

suitability classification and area descriptions.......................................................................111

Table 6. Monitoring elements..............................................................................................................115

Table 7. Benchmarks for Grasslands plan revision - average annual output........................................233
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 1

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Part 1: Introduction

Background

The Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and McClellan Creek National Grasslands (herein 

collectively referred to as “the Grasslands”) have been under Federal ownership since the late 

1930s and are currently administered by the Cibola National Forest and National Grasslands 

Supervisor’s Office located in Albuquerque, NM. The Kiowa National Grassland covers 137,537

acres and is located within Mora, Harding, Union, and Colfax Counties, NM, with the district 

office located in Clayton, NM. The Rita Blanca National Grassland covers 92,989 acres and is 

located within Dallam County, TX, and Cimarron County, OK, with the district office located in 

Clayton, NM. The Black Kettle National Grassland covers 31,286 acres and is located within 

Roger Mills County, OK, and Hemphill County, TX. The McClellan Creek National Grassland 

covers 1,449 acres and is located in Gray County, TX. The district office for both Black Kettle 

and McClellan Creek National Grasslands is located in Cheyenne, OK. The Kiowa National 

Grassland resides in the Third Congressional District of New Mexico, the Rita Blanca and Black 

Kettle in the 13th Congressional District of Texas and the third Congressional District of 

Oklahoma, and the McClellan Creek National Grassland in the 13th Congressional District of 

Texas.

Figure 1. Vicinity map.

According to the National Forest Management Act of 1976 (NFMA), land and resource

management plans are to be revised on a 10- to 15-year cycle. Management of the Grasslands has 

been directed from 1985 to the date of this document by the 1985 “Cibola National Forest Land 
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 2

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

and Resource Management Plan,” which combined the management direction for the Grasslands

with that for the forested, mountain districts of the Cibola National Forest (the Forest). Upon 

signing of the record of decision by the regional forester for this new land and resource 

management plan (plan) for the Grasslands, this new plan will replace the direction formerly 

provided by the 1985 plan for all of the grasslands named above.

Preparation of the new plan was underway when the 2008 National Forest System Land 

Management Planning Rule was enjoined on June 30, 2009, by the United States District Court 

for the Northern District of California [Citizens for Better Forestry v. United States Department 

of Agriculture, 632 F. Supp. 2d 968 (N.D. Cal. June 30, 2009)]. On December 18, 2009, the 

department reinstated the previous planning rule (commonly known as the 2000 Planning Rule) 

in the Federal Register (Federal Register, Volume 74, No. 242, Friday, December 18, 2009, pages 

67059 thru 67075). The transition provisions, 36 CFR 219.17(b)(3), of the 2012 Planning Rule 

(Vol. 77, No. 68 / April 99, 2012) allow use of the provisions of the planning rule commonly 

called the 1982 Planning Rule, to amend or revise plans. The Cibola National Forest has elected 

to use the provisions of the 1982 Planning Rule, including the requirement to prepare an EIS, to 

complete its plan development for the Grasslands.

Purpose of this Land Management Plan

The planning process that created this plan aims to produce responsible land management for the 

Grasslands based on useful and current information and guidance. Land management planning 

guides the Forest Service in fulfilling its responsibilities for stewardship of the Grasslands to best 

meet the needs of the American people.

This plan provides broad guidance and information for project and activity decisionmaking on the 

Grasslands for approximately the next 15 years. The plan is strategic in nature. It does not include 

project and activity decisions. Those decisions are made later—after specific proposals are made 

and analyzed—and there is additional opportunity for public involvement. Under the National 

Forest Management Act (NFMA) of 1976, projects and activities must be consistent with the 

plan. The plan provides a framework that contributes to sustaining native ecological systems by 

managing toward appropriate conditions that support native plant and animal diversity. The plan 

integrates ecological maintenance and restoration, watershed protection, climate resilience, 

wildlife conservation, and contributions to social and economic values, goods, and services. The 

plan honors the continuing validity of private, statutory, or preexisting rights.

Roles and Contributions of Grasslands

Ecosystems and Wildlife Habitat: The Grasslands contribute to the sustainability of diverse 

southern Great Plains grassland ecosystems and associated wildlife. The Grasslands demonstrate 

successful ecosystem restoration of lands that were degraded during the Dust Bowl era. 

Grasslands management contributes to the sustainability of productive soils, high quality water 

and riparian resources, and native prairie habitat and species. The Grasslands also include the 

shinnery oak vegetation type that is underrepresented on a landscape scale. The public values 

how Grasslands management demonstrates the coexistence of complementary land uses such as 

cattle grazing, hunting, and oil and gas production without compromising the ecological integrity 

of Grasslands habitat.
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 3

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Recreation: Recreation opportunities on the Grasslands greatly contribute to the quality of life 

enjoyed by visitors. The Grasslands provide outstanding opportunities for hunting, fishing, 

camping, hiking, viewing birds and other wildlife, driving to enjoy the scenery and open spaces, 

and visiting historic sites. The developed recreation sites (particularly the lake-based recreation 

complexes on the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands and the developed sites 

in the Mills Canyon area) offer unique and significant features available for visitors to enjoy 

within this region. Outdoor recreational activities on the Grasslands are very important to the 

local tourism economy, in 2002 generating 75 jobs, $1.2 million in direct income, and $3 million 

in indirect income for local businesses (UNM-BBER, 2005).

Livestock Grazing: Livestock grazing on the Grasslands contributes to maintaining the ranching 

culture and lifestyle of these rural areas, improves the fiscal sustainability of local ranching 

operations, and contributes to historical disturbance processes. Over 96 percent of the Grassland 

units are used by permit holders to graze their cattle. This use of the Grasslands contributes to the 

social and economic well-being of this area while sustaining native prairie ecosystems. In 2002, 

livestock grazing on the Grasslands generated 106 jobs, $1.6 million indirect income, and $10 

million on the final value of products from the industry (UNM-BBER, 2005).

Energy Development: The Grasslands provide opportunities for oil and natural gas extraction 

that contribute to meeting the Nation’s energy needs. The Grasslands may also play an important 

future role for alternative energy developments such as wind. In 2002, gas and oil extraction 

generated 79 jobs, $3.5 million in direct income, and $11 million on the final value of products 

from the industry (UNM-BBER, 2005).

Scenic, Heritage, and Paleontological Resources: The Grasslands contain significant scenic, 

heritage (historic and prehistoric) and paleontological (fossil) resources. These offer opportunities 

for the public to learn about the past and appreciate the resources and beauty of the Grasslands. 

These important resources provide opportunities to base tourism businesses on bird watching, 

hunting, wildlife viewing, and visiting historic and cultural sites.

Scientific Investigations: The Grasslands provide opportunities for research and discovery on 

the role of fire and herbivory upon the Grasslands’ vegetation types, as well as on the Grasslands’ 

wildlife interactions.

Areas of Interest: Three features on the Grasslands are formally designated as “special areas” to 

highlight and preserve their unique historic and scenic characteristics. These special areas include 

the Santa Fe National Historic Trail and two scenic byways: The Santa Fe Trail National Scenic 

Byway and La Frontera del Llano Scenic Byway (State). Other areas of interest include the 

Canadian River Inventoried Roadless Area (IRA) and the Canadian River eligible scenic river 

corridor which attracts visitors for its remarkable historic, geologic, scenic, and recreation 

features. 

Wildfire Prevention: The Forest Service plays a cooperating role in working with volunteer rural 

fire departments and others by contributing Federal firefighting resources to help protect valuable 

natural resources along with private properties and communities.
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 4

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Planning Process

In the summer of 2006, the Forest Service announced the initiation of the revision process of the 

Grasslands portion of the 1985 “Cibola National Forest Land and Resources Management Plan.”

An analysis of the management situation (AMS) was initiated for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black 

Kettle, and McClellan Creek National Grasslands that provided the basis for the “needs for 

change” to the 1985 plan direction regarding future management of the Grasslands. Numerous 

public information meetings were held in communities in northeastern New Mexico, the Texas 

panhandle, and western Oklahoma to inform and gather input from the public regarding the need 

to change the current plan to specifically address the Grasslands. Input from the public meetings 

and evaluation by the Forest Service of the social, economic, and ecological sustainability of the 

Grasslands set the stage for developing this new plan.

The AMS suite of documents is composed of the following evaluation and sustainability reports:

• Grasslands Plan Revision Comprehensive Evaluation Report (CER), Kiowa, Rita Blanca, 

Black Kettle, and McClellan Creek National Grasslands. February 2011. USDA Forest 

Service, Cibola National Forest.

• Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and McClellan Creek National Grasslands CER 

Supplementary Document to meet AMS Requirements. January 2010. USDA Forest 

Service, Cibola National Forest.

• Socioeconomic Sustainability Report, Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and McClellan 

Creek National Grasslands. April 2011. USDA Forest Service, Cibola National Forest.

• Ecological Sustainability Report, Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and McClellan Creek 

National Grasslands. April 2011. USDA Forest Service, Cibola National Forest.

Summaries of background information and needs for change from these AMS document are 

presented below by key, integrated themes.

Summary of the Analysis of the Management Situation

Background

Local community residents have expressed that the Forest Service is maintaining good 

relationships and open communications with interested residents. These positive relationships 

strengthen social cohesion and satisfaction with Forest Service actions within local communities. 

In addition, partnerships with other agencies and organizations have increasingly been used to 

meet Grasslands management objectives. Most partnership projects on the Grasslands are aimed 

at improving wildlife habitat and native ecosystem functions or recreation sites and tourism 

opportunities that will enhance social and economic conditions in local communities.

Based on social demographic data, the area surrounding the Grasslands is considered rural, with a 

few “urban clusters” of over 2,500 residents. Populations in all the rural areas around the 

Grasslands have been declining and are projected to continue to decline, while populations in the 

respective states and urban centers farther from the Grasslands will continue to increase. Partly 

due to limited economic opportunities and low income levels, most Grasslands counties have 

more people moving out than in, particularly in the 20- to 35-year-old age group. An aging 

population trend is influencing an increase in age related income disbursements (i.e. social 

security, retirement accounts) that will continue to comprise the largest proportion of income for 

area residents.
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 5

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Based on economic data, the employment rate and per capita income level in Grasslands counties 

are expected to remain stable, with some periods of growth and decline. Job growth and income 

levels are expected to continue to lag behind the U.S. and the three states’ averages. Over the last 

34 years, job growth in the Grasslands counties has been slower than job growth for the States of 

Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico, and slower than national job growth. Most new jobs will 

continue to be low income, nonsalary, farming and ranching jobs, with incomes that fluctuate 

seasonally. Job opportunities are expected to continue the shift from agriculture and oil-gas 

toward service jobs in urban areas farther away from the Grasslands. The primary “industry” or 

economic activity in the area will continue to be livestock related operations run by small 

businesses with less than 10 employees. Some oil and gas industry jobs in the area are expected to 

be lost over the next 50 years but could be replaced by alternative energy jobs such as wind 

energy infrastructure development and maintenance.

Need for Change: Managed Recreation

The 1985 plan did not clearly and specifically address the issues related to recreation and scenic 

resources that play a vital role in supporting social and economic sustainability on the Grasslands. 

The new plan needs to provide direction that is more specific to the Grasslands for providing the 

following important rural economic development opportunities:

• The demand for day hiking, particularly on scenic and interpretive trails, continues to 

increase on the Grasslands.

• The new plan needs to provide more direction on management of dispersed recreation. 

There are components of the 1985 plan which are redundant with existing Forest Service

Handbook and Manual direction. Redundancies will be absent from the new plan and 

current handbook and manual direction will be incorporated by specific reference.

• There is a need for the new plan to provide direction to manage for recreation 

opportunities in a variety of different settings and levels of development, from large, 

developed recreation settings with many facilities to primitive settings.

• There is a need for the new plan to provide direction that management of scenic resources 

be based on objectives for specific areas, particularly those areas identified as having 

high scenic quality.

• Plan direction addressing opportunities for visiting, touring, and enjoying guided and 

interpretive activities related to unique scenery, historic/cultural sites, wildlife, and 

formally designated sites such as eligible wild and scenic rivers, historic trails, and scenic 

byways, needs to be included in the new plan.

• Development of the new plan will assess the need for additional special area 

designations, such as potential wilderness or research natural areas (RNAs); and provide 

direction.

Need for Change: Human Influences 

The 1985 plan did not clearly and specifically address the issues related to social demographics 

and economic conditions and trends, or maintaining consumptive and nonconsumptive land uses 

that play a vital role in supporting social and economic sustainability in the rural Grasslands

areas. The new plan should provide direction that is more specific to the Grasslands for providing 

the following important land uses and economic opportunities:
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 6

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

• The new plan needs to provide management direction to the livestock grazing program 

that incorporates adaptive management toward ecosystem-based desired conditions.

• Because of increasing interest in alternative energy enterprises such as wind farms in the 

proximity of the Grasslands, the new plan needs to provide direction for guiding energy 

development on the Grasslands, while protecting natural resources, heritage sites, and 

scenery.

• There is a need to provide direction in the new plan for rehabilitation of disturbed sites 

(such as oil and gas pads and roads) after operations have ceased, in order to protect soil 

productivity and reestablish vegetative cover.

• The new plan needs to provide direction for the process of obtaining legal road access to 

Grassland units, access that meets public, private landowner, and management needs.

• Because of the projected increase and changes in the type of energy developments in the 

region and the land ownership pattern of the Grasslands, the new plan needs to provide 

direction on the permitting of utility easements and related special uses.

• There are many special uses of the Grasslands that provide economic support to local 

communities. The new plan needs to provide direction for accommodating the removal of 

miscellaneous products for commercial, noncommercial, and tribal use, such as wood 

products, plants, grass seed, or other materials.

• The new plan needs to provide direction on the noncommercial use of common mineral 

materials so that resources can be adequately protected.

• The new plan should provide direction on the management of firewood and firewood

harvesting and gathering on the Grasslands.

• There is a need for the new plan to provide direction on opportunities to conduct research 

on the Grasslands, regardless of whether a research natural area is established.

• The checkerboard pattern of the Grassland units and private land, along with the types of 

fuels found on the Grasslands, create a fire environment which is very different from 

forests of the Intermountain West. The new plan needs to provide direction for applying 

management strategies for responding to wildland fires and using prescribed fire on 

Grassland units to avoid loss of life or significant property damage.

• The new plan needs to provide updated direction on the stabilization and preservation of 

historic structures and traditional cultural properties. The new plan should also provide 

direction on the role of heritage sites in economic development.

Need for Change: Ecosystem Diversity

The 1985 plan did not clearly and specifically address many of the concerns related to ecosystem 

restoration and maintenance specific to the Grasslands. The revised plan should provide direction 

that is more specific to the Grasslands in relation to ecosystem management, as follows:

• The vegetation types found on the Grasslands are altered remnants of what were once 

found across the southern Great Plains. In the new plan, there is a need to provide 

management direction that will move vegetation types toward reference condition, 

recognizing that past events may limit the ability to achieve full restoration.

• There are invasive plants present on the Grasslands that have the potential to affect 

ecosystem structure, composition, and processes. Currently, there are feral hogs that have 

the potential to negatively impact water resources, vegetation, and wildlife habitat. The 
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 7

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

new plan needs to provide management direction addressing the unwelcome introduction, 

spread, and control of invasive plants and animals.

• There is a need to anticipate and strategize response to changes in climate relative to 

Grasslands management.

A brief explanation is given below of the process and logic behind how ecological and species 

diversity risk assessments were conducted and the results of such assessments; how biological 

diversity issues were identified, and how needs for change were determined and developed into 

ecological, futuristic plan component statements.

Ecosystem attributes for the Grasslands were analyzed to determine if sustainability of the 

vegetation types, soil, water, air, and animal and plant species richness and abundance are at risk. 

This assessment was based on current conditions, deviation from historical reference conditions, 

and projected future trends. If the ecosystem attribute is projected to depart from its reference 

condition, then the attribute was determined to be at risk. If the attribute is significantly departed 

from its reference condition and is stable (i.e., neither trending further away from nor toward the 

reference condition), then it was determined to be at risk; this scenario was not found for any of 

the ecosystem characteristics on the Grasslands. If current management activities are resulting in 

the ecosystem characteristic trending toward its reference condition, the characteristic was 

determined not to be at risk.

Four out of the seven vegetation types found on the Grasslands have greater representation on the 

Grasslands in comparison to the surrounding landscape within the Grasslands administrative 

boundary. These include shinnery oak, mixed hardwood riparian, cottonwood-willow, and sand 

sagebrush. Mixed grass and shortgrass prairie have less representation on the Grasslands in 

comparison to the surrounding landscape, and pinyon-juniper is equally represented.

All vegetation types on the Grasslands are in low departure from their reference condition for 

vegetation structure (USDA Forest Service 2011b, appendix F).

Some of the vegetation types, while in low departure from reference condition for vegetation 

structure overall, may not be able to make a full recovery to reference conditions. These include 

the shinnery oak areas that were once deeply plowed, as well as formerly cultivated old field sites 

in shortgrass prairie. The deep plowing practices on shinnery oak eliminated the species from 

some areas during the Dust Bowl era, and recovery does not readily occur. Soil movement that 

occurred during the Dust Bowl era also created conditions that facilitated mixed hardwood 

riparian establishment, a vegetation type not historically found on the Grasslands. Consequently,

determining a departure from reference condition relative to structure for mixed hardwood 

riparian on Black Kettle and McClellan Creek entails comparing riparian woody vegetation 

structure and composition to the mixed hardwood plant communities in other areas with similar 

climate, elevation, rainfall, and growing season attributes. Some areas within the cottonwoodwillow riparian may not have the capacity to fully recover to the reference condition due to 

disruption of natural hydrologic processes on and off of the Grasslands. While the reference 

condition for structure and composition may not be fully achievable on some areas within the 

shinnery oak, shortgrass prairie, mixed hardwood riparian, and cottonwood-willow riparian 

vegetation types, plan direction of the new plan should move these areas toward reference 

condition.
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 8

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Over the past several decades watershed conditions have dramatically improved, especially 

compared to the extremely degraded condition that occurred during the 1940s and 1950s 

following the Dust Bowl era. Conservation practices across the southern Great Plains, and 

notably in the McClellan Creek drainage, have resulted in a substantial increase in infiltration and 

groundwater recharge and a subsequent reduction in surface runoff and associated sedimentation. 

Groundwater depletion is occurring and, although this is outside of the Agency’s control, it has 

the potential to affect Grasslands management.

Species Viability Determination

The determination of species viability on the Grasslands is a culmination of assessing ecosystem 

characteristics (including vegetation type, soil, water, and air) found in the “Ecological 

Sustainability Report” (ESR) (USDA Forest Service 2011b). The reference condition of 

vegetation was used to assess current conditions and determine ecological sustainability. The 

ecological sustainability of vegetation and habitat leads up to determination of species viability.

The “Ecosystem Diversity” section of the ESR focuses on conditions and trends in the vegetation 

communities for shortgrass prairie, pinyon-juniper, cottonwood-willow riparian, sand sagebrush, 

mixed grass prairie, shinnery oak, and mixed hardwood riparian vegetation types. The species 

diversity section focuses on species found in Texas, New Mexico, and Oklahoma, on the 

Grasslands and finally those affected by Grasslands management that have population or habitat 

concerns.

Natural history and population information were gleaned from the references used in the 

screening process and from Grasslands biologists; States of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico 

biologists; and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service biologists. Viability risks were determined by 

individual species habitat and population evaluation.

1 The results of this process provided a 

numerical ranking of the viability of a species. Those species found to have high viability risk 

were further assessed for their likelihood of being affected by four hypothetical scenarios listed 

below:

• Widespread declines in population in the plan area and new isolation of populations 

within the area;

• Widespread population decline but without isolation of populations;

• Localized population declines that may be accompanied by some minor restrictions in 

population interactions; and

• Populations and their distribution are unstable.

Of the wildlife species identified as species at risk in plan development, plains leopard frog, 

Lesser Prairie-chicken, black-tailed prairie dog, Mountain Plover, and swift fox were assessed to 

be at high risk. The risks to these species are based upon threats from habitat fragmentation, 

disease, predation, and invasive species.

 1 “Fish and wildlife habitat shall be managed to maintain viable populations of existing native and desired nonnative 

vertebrate species in the planning area. For planning purposes, a viable population shall be regarded as one which has 

the estimated numbers and distribution of reproductive individuals to insure its continued existence is well distributed 

in the planning area...” Section 219.19 of the 1982 Planning Rule provisions.
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 9

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Regional Forester’s Grasslands Sensitive Species List

The Regional Forester’s sensitive species program is the Forest Service’s dedicated initiative to 

conserve and recover plant and animal species. Forest sensitive species (table 1) are those plant 

and animal species identified by a regional forester for which population viability is a concern, as 

evidenced by:

• Significant current or predicted downward trends in population numbers or density;

• Significant current or predicted downward trends in habitat capability that would reduce a 

species’ existing distribution.

The Grasslands improve habitat and restore ecosystems for sensitive species through vegetation 

treatments and management practices.

Table 1. Regional Forester’s Sensitive Species List

Sensitive Species List for

Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Common Name Taxon

Forest Status

Black KettleMcClellan CreekKiowa-Rita 

Blanca

Amphibians

Plains leopard frog Rana blairi D D

Great Plains narrow-mouthed 

toad

Gastrophryne olivacea D D

Fish

Rio Grande chub Gila pandora D

Suckermouth minnow Phenacobius mirabilis D–but not rare in 

OK or TX

D

Birds

Bald Eagle Haliaetus leucocephalus D D

White-faced Ibis Plegadis chihi D

Zone-tailed Hawk Buteo albonotatus D

Swainson’s Hawk Buteo swainsoni D D

Ferruginous Hawk Buteo regalis D

American Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus (anatum) S

Lesser Prairie-chicken Tympanuchus pallidicinctus S S

Mountain Plover Charadrius montanus D

Burrowing Owl Athene curnicularia (hypugaea) D D

Loggerhead Shrike Lanius ludovicianus D D

Mammals
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 10

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Sensitive Species List for

Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Common Name Taxon

Forest Status

Black KettleMcClellan CreekKiowa-Rita 

Blanca

Pale Townsend’s big-eared bat Corynorhinus townsendii (pallescens) S

Black-tailed prairie dog Cynomys ludovicianus D

Sandhills white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus texana D

Reptiles

Arid land ribbon snake Thamnophis proximus diabolicus D

Plants

Greene milkweed Asclepias uncialis ssp. uncialis D

One-flowered milkvetch Astragalus wittmannii D

Spellingberg’s groundsel Packera spellenbergii (=Senecio s.) D

D = Documented, reliable, recorded observation, in appropriate habitat within the Grassland boundary.

S = Suspected, likely to occur based on habitat availability to support individuals/breeding pairs/groups within the 

Grassland boundary.

Summary of Management Indicator Species (MIS) 

and Ecological Indicators (EI) and Monitoring

The transition provisions, 36 CFR 219.17(b)(3), of the 2012 Planning Rule (Vol.77, No. 68/April 

9, 2012.) allow the use of the provisions of the 1982 Planning Rule to implement the NFMA 

requirement that management indicator species (MIS) be identified as part of the Forest plan. 

MIS serve multiple functions in forest planning: focusing management direction developed in the 

alternatives, providing a means to analyze effects on biological diversity, and serving as a reliable 

feedback mechanism during forest plan implementation. The latter is accomplished by monitoring 

population trends in relationship to habitat changes (1982 Planning Rule Provisions Section 

219.19(a)(6)).

Management indicator species is a concept adopted by the Agency to serve, in part, as a 

barometer for species viability at the Forest level. The role of MIS in meeting viability mandates 

compliments that of several other approaches, particularly management of sensitive species. 

Ecological indicators (EI) are defined in FSM 2620.5-2 as “Plant or animal species, communities 

or special habitats that have a narrow range of ecological tolerance.”

The monitoring protocol is a plan component that includes a discussion of data collection, data 

analysis, data storage, and reporting methods. This protocol covers frequency of measurement, 

expected precision and reliability of the system, and an indication of when the evaluation will be 

reported (1982 Planning Rule provision Section 219.12(k)).

Monitoring Burrowing Owl, Mountain Bluebird, and Rio Grande Turkey populations as 

management indicator species will allow trend information to be used to evaluate management 

direction on early successional stages of shortgrass prairie, all seral stages of pinyon-juniper, and 
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 11

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

all seral stages in mixed hardwood riparian respectively. Monitoring the presence of undesirable 

woody species in cottonwood-willow riparian, shinnery oak, and mixed-grass prairie vegetation, 

and reference condition structure and composition on middle and late structural stages of 

shortgrass prairie will allow trend information to be used as ecological indicators to evaluate 

management direction.

Benchmarks

Benchmark analyses are one of the required components of the 1982 Planning Rule provisions 

pertaining to the AMS. Benchmarks define the high and low sideboards of economic goods and 

services and ecological tolerances within which plan alternatives are to be developed and 

analyzed in an environmental impact statement (EIS). Selection of benchmarks depends primarily

on the topics to be addressed during new plan development. Assumptions, tables, and calculations 

regarding these benchmark sideboards are presented in appendix H.

Projections of Demand

This is a summary of the projections of demand analysis required under the 1982 Planning Rule 

provisions. Projected future demand for Forest resource use was estimated using existing data and 

reports from Federal, state, and Forest-specific sources. This analysis is primarily a qualitative 

description of possible future resource demands.

Demand for grazing was analyzed in the CER Supplementary document to meet AMS 

requirements dated January 2010. The percentage of total demand for grazing within the market 

area (as measured by cattle inventory) that could be supported by the level of permitted livestock 

use on the Cibola National Forest and National Grasslands has ranged from a high of 3.6 percent

in 1999 to a low of 1.8 percent in 2004, 2006, and 2009. However, this does not consider effects 

on actual use due to factors such as drought, financial limitations on operators, and market 

conditions. In addition, the supply of the grazing resource is limited, and other resource 

considerations may limit grazing use in addition to these factors. While the share of total demand 

provided by the Forest and Grasslands is small, it may be more important for smaller areas within 

the market area. However, this trend is uncertain given the wide degree of variation in permitted 

use over the relatively short period examined. The 2011 CER (page 27) concluded that there is no 

indication that there will be a major increase or decrease in grazing on the Grasslands over the 

next 20 years; however, cattle numbers and management strategies are expected to continue to 

fluctuate in response to drought, wildfire, prescribed fire, and other factors that change range 

conditions, such as prairie dog colonies.

An analysis of the projected demand for recreation can be found on pages 21–27 of the 

“Socioeconomic Sustainability Evaluation Report for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 

McClellan Creek National Grasslands” (USDA Forest Service 2011c). This analysis has been 

reviewed and is sufficient to meet the requirements for the AMS.

There are no lands suitable for commercial timber production on the Grasslands. Since no supply 

exists on these units, it was not necessary to project demand for commercial timber.

Plan Components

Plan components (goals/desired conditions (hereinafter referred to as desired conditions), 

objectives, suitability, guidelines, standards, monitoring elements, and special areas) are the 
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 12

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

guidance, direction, and decisions set forth by the plan to guide future projects. Only plan 

components require plan amendments in order to change the plan.

Desired Conditions

Desired conditions are statements of the social, economic, and ecological outcomes to be 

achieved in the future. These outcomes relate to land and resource conditions and ecological and 

social processes. They are aspirations and strategic in nature, rather than project-specific 

commitments. Some desired conditions may be achieved within the 15-year life of the plan, and 

others may extend beyond that timeframe. Desired conditions strive to paint a picture of the 

future Grasslands so that every reader, be they manager or user, understands the same message. 

Desired conditions form the principal basis from which objectives are developed. Desired 

conditions ultimately serve to guide Grassland managers in planning and providing direction for 

future actions and in developing a meaningful monitoring program to determine progress toward 

achievement over the life of the plan.

Objectives and Suitability

Objectives are the proactive steps that the Grasslands expect to accomplish over the next 15 

years to maintain or move toward the desired conditions of the plan. Objectives are measurable 

and time-specific outcomes. Any project or activity undertaken during the life of the plan must be 

consistent with objectives.

Variations in achieving objectives may take place during the next 15 years because of changes in 

environmental conditions, available budgets, catastrophic events, and other unforeseen factors.

For some resources or goods and services that a resource provides, there may not be proactive 

and measurable management activity that is necessary to maintain or move toward a desired 

condition; thus, not every desired condition has a related objective. In such cases where no 

objectives are explicitly stated, no unique or additive objectives exist for that desired condition. 

However, every stated objective does relate to one or more desired conditions within the 

respective resource, good or service, and geographic area.

Grasslands-wide objectives are applicable to the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 

McClellan Creek National Grasslands. Those objectives applicable to a desired condition on one 

or more grassland, but not all, are so specified. The reader should note that when percentages are 

specified characterizing the areal extent of an objective, the percentage is intended to apply across 

the landscape and is not necessarily site specific.

Suitability describes the appropriateness of applying certain resource management practices to a 

particular area of land, as determined by an analysis of the economic and environmental 

consequences and the alternative uses foregone. A unit of land may be suitable for a variety of 

individual or combined management practices.

Guidelines and Standards

These criteria are applicable to project or activity design and execution on the Grasslands. They 

are sideboards for projects and activities to help achieve the desired conditions and objectives. 
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 13

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Guidelines contribute to maintaining or achieving desired conditions and objectives: they are 

specifications that a project or activity would adopt unless there is a compelling and defensible 

reason to vary from the guidelines. Such variances are only allowed without a plan amendment if 

the alternative approach provided by the variance meets the intent of the plan guideline. If such a 

variance is considered appropriate, the responsible official records in the project-level document

the reasons for that variance, and no plan amendment is required. A project or activity should be 

consistent with guidelines.

A standard is an absolute requirement to be met in the design of projects and activities. A project 

or activity is consistent with a standard when its design is in accord with the explicit provisions of 

the standard; variance from a standard in any way is not allowed.

In sum, a project or activity should meet the spirit, if not the letter, of a guideline, but must meet 

the letter of a standard.

Monitoring

Plan direction on monitoring and evaluation will provide a basis for a periodic determination and 

evaluation of the effects of management practices. More specifically, monitoring and evaluation 

elements of the plan will reveal how well objectives have been met and how closely management 

guidelines and standards have been applied. Based on this evaluation, the forest supervisor may 

make changes in management direction or revisions or amendments to the Grasslands plan as are 

deemed necessary.

Special Areas

Special areas are lands within the National Forest System that have been designated by Congress 

or by administrative action by a responsible official within the USDA. These lands have unique 

or special characteristics. Examples relevant to the Grasslands include state and national scenic 

byways and a national historic trail.

Non-plan Components

The reader will note several headings in the document that are not listed as plan components 

above. These are:

• Background and Description

• Management Approaches

• Other Sources of Information

Background and description headings and associated information are not plan components. 

They do not offer plan direction, but give the reader a brief sense of the history and/or description 

of the resource topic area being addressed as of the writing of the plan. The background and 

description information also provides a contrast to the desired condition that follows.

Management approaches headings and associated information are not plan components. They 

do not offer plan direction, but describe to the reader an approach or strategy to manage the unit 

to achieve a desired condition. Management approaches often convey how plan components work 

together to achieve the desired condition. They may also describe context, intent, priorities, 
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 14

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

collaborations, needs for surveys, inventories or assessments, or approaches to risk and 

uncertainty. The reader may note that not every resource topic area has a management approach 

heading. Changes to management approaches do not require plan amendments.

Other sources of information (appendix D), include existing laws, regulations, memorandums 

of understanding (MOUs), and other guidance. These sources are important in designing projects 

and activities to achieve desired conditions. Most of these documents are available from Forest 

Service offices. Many are posted on the Cibola National Forest and Grasslands Internet Web site.

Project Consistency with the Grasslands Plan

During implementation, management activities (projects) affecting the Grasslands need to be 

consistent with the Grasslands plan. This consistency is achieved in the following ways: 

Management activities are developed specifically to achieve the desired conditions, goals, or 

objectives of the Grasslands plan. To the extent practicable, documentation for such projects 

should identify the elements of the desired conditions, goals, or objectives to be achieved by the 

project. It should not be expected that all projects or activities would contribute to all desired 

conditions, goals, or objectives, but rather to a limited subset. It should also be recognized that 

some projects designed to contribute to some desired conditions, goals, or objectives may have 

consequences considered adverse to the achievement of other desired conditions, goals, or 

objectives. In this situation, the responsible official for the project needs to identify and disclose 

these effects in the project documentation and make a decision that balances these considerations.

There are also project activities that are necessary but not specifically related to one of these 

elements of the Grasslands plan (e.g. routine road maintenance, facility maintenance, etc.). Such 

projects should be briefly evaluated to assess if they conflict or impede contribution to the desired 

conditions, goals, or objectives.

In the implementation of the Grasslands plan, projects are expected to comply with suitability and 

standards and guidelines direction contained in the “Management Area Direction” sections of the 

Grasslands plan. Early in the project planning process, the applicable standards and guidelines 

and suitability considerations should be identified. To ensure compliance with the Forest plan, 

each project should document consistency with these standards and guidelines.

Transition in the Implementation of the Grasslands Plan

The Grasslands plan is used as a direction source for future projects, plans, and assessments. It is 

not expected that this new direction be used to reevaluate or change decisions that have been 

made under the previously existing Forest plan. A smooth and gradual transition to the new 

Grasslands plan is anticipated, rather than one that forces an immediate reexamination or 

modification of all contracts, projects, permits, and other activities that are already in progress. As 

new project decisions, contracts, permits, renewals, and other activities are considered, 

conformance to the new plan direction as described in the previous section is expected.

Changes to the Grasslands Plan

A change to the Grasslands plan requires either administrative correction or amendment. The 

following summarizes circumstances that warrant corrections or amendments to the Grasslands

plan:
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 15

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

• Administrative Corrections: are minor changes to the Grasslands plan that do not 

substantively affect the management direction or create additional environmental 

consequences. These minor changes include the following:

○ Elements of the Grasslands plan that are not plan decisions as described in the 

previous section, “Non-Plan Components.”

○ Corrections and updates of data published in the Grasslands plan and minor changes 

to maps of management areas, recreation opportunities, or scenery management.

○ Minor text changes such as typographical errors, clarification of explanatory text, etc.

○ An administrative correction must be initially published as a proposed correction 

either on the Cibola National Forest and Grasslands Internet page or in a local 

newspaper of record. The proposed correction must identify the language or map to 

be corrected, the proposed correction, and the reason for the correction. The public 

will have an opportunity to comment on the proposed correction within a 30-day 

period following publication. After reviewing the comments received, the final 

correction may be similarly published and the Grasslands plan corrected.

• Site-specific Grasslands Plan Amendments: occur to allow specific projects or other 

activities to deviate from certain Grasslands plan direction. These amendments occur 

only for a specific area or a specific project. They do not lead to changes in Grasslands

plan language, and if changes are made to management area map layers, they are made 

only for the area affected. Such amendments are usually proposed with appropriate 

NEPA analysis for the site-specific project proposal. The procedures for processing a 

site-specific plan amendment are outlined in the applicable planning regulation.

• Programmatic Grasslands Plan Amendments: change the text and language of the 

Grasslands plan decisions identified in the earlier section, “Plan Components,” and any 

other changes that cannot be addressed through administrative corrections or site-specific 

plan amendments. The procedures for addressing a regular plan amendment are outlined 

in the applicable planning regulation.

Organization of the Plan Document

The plan document is organized to address the many social, economic, and ecologic resources 

and the goods and services of the Grasslands and their companion desired conditions, objectives,

and guidelines (and in a few cases, standards) within several tiered, geographical scales. Plan 

components that apply to all plan areas are referred to as “Grasslands-wide” and are found in part 

2 of this document. Following these broadly applicable plan components are ones that are unique 

to a specific management area. Part 3 of the document contains management direction specific to 

the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area, the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

Management Area, and the Mills Canyon Management Area, under separate headings. 

Part 4 of the document contains management direction for the two scenic byways, the Santa Fe 

National Historic Trail, and the Canadian Eligible Scenic River.

Part 5 of the document addresses suitability of the land within the management areas for various 

uses, i.e., grazing, recreation, and timber. Part 6 provides programmatic direction for monitoring 

and evaluating plan implementation.
Part 1: Introduction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 16

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Appendices to the plan document provide supporting information relevant to the plan 

components. Appendix A contains maps of management areas, vegetation types, special areas, 

recreation and scenic integrity classes, and the Mills Canyon surface occupancy restrictions.

Appendix B contains a synthesis of Southwestern Region climate change trends and potential 

strategies for responding to climate change. This synthesis and suggested strategies are available 

for managers to reference when attempting to understand how climate change factors might be 

currently influencing or may impact ecological and socioeconomic systems of the Grasslands.

Appendix C contains a list of proposed and probable actions that will likely take place on the 

Grasslands at the project or activity level to maintain or move toward achievement of the desired 

conditions described in this plan.

Appendix D contains references to other sources of information, including applicable laws, 

regulations, MOUs, and other guidance relevant to designing projects and activities to meet 

desired conditions.

Appendix E presents disturbance factors and ecological processes referred to within the desired 

condition statements.

Appendix F presents species’ legal status and at-risk rankings.

Appendix G presents a table of common and Latin names used in the document.

Appendix H summarizes key resource benchmarks. Benchmarks are the minimum and maximum 

range of outputs within which management direction offered by the proposed plan is intended to 

fall. This appendix identifies those benchmarks from the 1985 plan that are relevant to the 

Grasslands. It also identifies the benchmarks from the 1985 plan that are not relevant to the 

Grasslands.
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 17

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Part 2: Grasslands-wide 

Management Direction

This part of the plan identifies the background and description of the various goods, services, and 

ecological resources produced or present on the Grasslands and, more importantly, the desired 

conditions, objectives, guidelines, standards, and management approaches that are common to all 

Grasslands management areas (i.e., Grasslands-wide).

The reader is reminded that:

Where there are no explicitly stated objectives, guidelines or standards, or management 

approaches given, then none exist at the Grasslands-wide scale; however, they may occur 

within part 3 at the management area scale.

Appendix C contains a list of proposed and probable actions that will likely take place on 

the Grasslands at the project or activity level to accomplish objectives and to maintain or 

move toward achievement of the desired conditions described in this plan.

Scenery

Background and Description

The scenery and rural setting of the Grasslands strongly shapes the experience of visitors. The 

Grasslands are generally characterized by pastoral agricultural landscape, from the vast open 

Grasslands of the Kiowa and Rita Blanca to the rolling hills of the Black Kettle. Views from 

Grassland units often include homes, barns, tractors, trucks, windmills, cattle, stock tanks, fences,

and other private ranchland features, in addition to some oil and gas wells. Grasslands residents 

are accustomed to viewing these structures and features and see them as a highly valued part of 

the traditional landscape. Many visitors also have a deep appreciation of the rural character of the 

plains grasslands landscapes. The presence of farms and ranches contributes to the “sense of 

place” or “cultural identity” that these areas provide for residents and visitors alike.

The Grasslands are divided into three levels of scenic integrity: high, moderate, and low.1 These 

levels set objectives for the amount of variation from the desired landscape character2 that is 

expected within the respective scenic integrity levels, according to Agriculture Handbook 

Number 701, “Landscape Aesthetics: A Handbook for Scenery Management” (See appendix A for 

maps of scenic integrity). It is of interest to note that some parcels classified as having high or 

moderate scenic integrity currently have oil or gas wells. These wells are generally non-Federal 

wells where mineral rights were claimed prior to Federal ownership.

The following scenery desired conditions describe the desired landscape character that may be 

very similar to the existing landscape described above.

 1 Scenic integrity is a measure of the degree to which a landscape is visually perceived to be “complete.” Scenic 

integrity levels are determined by three factors: dominance, degree of deviation, and intactness (see glossary for further 

information).

2 The desired landscape character is the appearance of the landscape to be retained or created over time, recognizing 

that the landscape is a dynamic and constantly changing community.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 18

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Desired Conditions

• Grasslands scenery is predominantly characterized by pastoral agricultural landscapes 

that include vast open grasslands and rolling hills. Views from Grassland units often 

include homes, barns, tractors, trucks, agricultural windmills, livestock, stock tanks, 

fences, and other private ranchland features which contribute to rural landscapes. 

Interpretive activities emphasize the value of scenic areas within the context of 

patchwork land uses and a fragmented land ownership pattern in and around the 

Grasslands.

• High scenic quality features enhance the enjoyment and marketability of the 

Grasslands’ scenic resources.

Objective

• Within 15 years of plan approval, all existing structures on Federal mineral leases in 

areas of high scenic integrity closely follow the form, line, color, texture, and pattern 

common to the valued landscape character.

Guidelines

• In areas with high scenic integrity objectives, only minimal3 alterations4 from 

landscape character goals described in the desired conditions should be allowed.

• In areas with moderate scenic integrity objectives, only slight alterations should be 

allowed, which ensure that deviations remain visually subordinate to the landscape 

character.

• In areas with low scenic integrity objectives, only moderate alterations should be 

allowed.

• Constructed features and management activities in high and moderate scenic integrity 

areas should closely follow the form, line, color, texture, and pattern common to the 

valued landscape character so that they are not evident.

• Infrastructure from new energy or special uses developments on the Grasslands should 

have minimal visual impacts on developed recreation sites.

• In high and moderate scenic integrity areas and their foregrounds, structures over 40 

feet in height should not be built, unless they are considered a part of the valued 

landscape character described in the desired conditions.

 3 Descriptions of the terms “minimal,” “slight,” and “moderate” can be found in Agricultural Handbook Number 701, 

“Landscape Aesthetics: A Handbook for Scenery Management.” In general, “minimal” means deviations are not 

evident because they closely follow the form, line, color, texture, and pattern common to the landscape character; 

“slight” means that noticeable deviations are subordinate to the landscape character being viewed; and “moderate” 

means deviations may begin to dominate the landscape but borrow from the characteristics of the valued landscape 

character.

4 Alterations are long-term alterations to the landscape and are not intended to restrict short-term impacts to scenery 

from construction, fire management, drilling rigs, or other short-term activities.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 19

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Management Approach

The districts may take scenic integrity and scenic quality thresholds into consideration during 

project planning and implementation so as not to exceed those thresholds for, and therefore 

disturbance of, scenic quality. In prairie grassland settings, protecting views to emphasize the vast 

horizon is important to the scenic integrity. It is the Grasslands’ intent that the best environmental 

design practices be used in order to harmonize changes in the landscape and to advance 

environmentally sustainable design solutions.

Where non-Federal mineral rights occur under Federal lands, managers may work with 

owners/developers to achieve scenic integrity objectives for the area.

It is also the Grasslands’ intent that where agricultural influences dominate, patterns and 

architectural features valued by nearby communities (such as agricultural windmills and other 

constructed features) be reflected in project design and mitigation. Similarly, where the scenic 

resources are predominantly natural appearing, projects may be designed and mitigated to 

harmonize with the natural setting in areas of high and moderate scenic integrity.

General Recreation

Background and Description

Providing for outdoor recreation activities is one of the primary contributors to social cohesion, 

quality of life, and social and economic sustainability for Grasslands communities. The most 

popular recreation activities on the Grasslands include hunting, fishing, camping, picnicking, bird 

and wildlife watching, boating, hiking, horseback riding, exploring historic sites, and driving to 

enjoy the unique scenery and open spaces (USDA Forest Service 1999, 2000, 2005). The 

recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) provides a framework for defining the types of outdoor 

recreation opportunities the public might desire, and identifies that portion of the spectrum a 

given national forest or grassland might be able to provide.

Desired Conditions

• Recreation settings on the Grasslands provide a range of experiences. In the most 

remote areas, visitors are close to nature and are provided with a high degree of 

challenge and risk along with a sense of isolation. In areas nearer to roads and 

communities, visitors are likely to encounter others, sometimes large social groups 

such as hunting camps or family gatherings. In these areas, there are also opportunities 

for motorized recreation as well as nonmotorized recreation such as hiking or 

horseback riding. Throughout the Grasslands, developments and recreation activities 

are compatible with the recreation opportunity spectrum, as shown in appendix A, 

maps, “Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Classes.”

• To respond to the increased visitor interest in safely experiencing the unique natural 

and cultural qualities of the Grasslands, interpretive and educational services are 

provided. The products to respond to this interest include an integrated program of 

brochures, signs, exhibits, trails, staff or volunteer-led talks, and auto tours. 

Interpretive services include topics such as viewing wildlife and birds, learning about 

scattered prehistoric and historic sites, environmental ethics, or enhancing appreciation 

for the scenery of vast open prairie. In cooperation with partners and adjacent land 
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 20

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

managers, interpretive services and trail systems with opportunities for exploring the 

Grassland environment are provided. Educational media regarding encouraging 

appropriate visitor behavior, stewardship, and practices for leaving natural and cultural 

resources in good condition are also available. Opportunities for enjoying special 

natural and cultural features are available and provide an enhanced recreational 

experience. Access is designed so that visitors do not degrade the features.

Figure 2. The Black Kettle Ranger District office is colocated with the National Park 

Service’s Washita Battlefield National Historic Site office. The building features an 

interpretive museum where visitors can learn more of the history of the region.

Developed Recreation

Background and Description

The Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands manage six developed recreation 

sites and the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands manage five; all sites are open yearround. Most are easily accessible by passenger car; however, roads into Mills Canyon can be 

difficult and may require a high-clearance vehicle. Reconstruction upgrades have begun at all of 

the sites, with toilets and other facilities being brought up to current standards, including 

accessibility. Visitor use does not exceed the design capacity at these sites.5 Under current 

management, the projected trend is for developed recreation sites on the Grasslands to continue to 

contribute to the quality of life for local residents and visitors, stimulate the local rural economy, 

and satisfy the public demand for a variety of developed recreation sites. Outdoor recreational 

activities on the Grasslands are very important to the local tourism economy; in 2002 generating 

75 jobs, $1.2 million in direct income, and $3 million in indirect income for local businesses 

(UNM-BBER, 2005).

 5 They generally do not exceed 70 percent of the capacity except during hunting seasons.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 21

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Desired Conditions

• There is a spectrum of developed recreation opportunities characterized by varying 

levels of development and amenities appropriate to the setting. Recreation sites and 

settings vary in level of development, from small capacity sites with few amenities to 

larger sites with facilities designed to accommodate large group activities. Recreation 

sites include amenities such as picnic sites, camping sites for tents and recreational 

vehicles, and managed parking lots. The variety and locations of recreation sites and 

their associated amenities add to the satisfaction of users in their recreation experiences 

by providing a variety of quality opportunities. Activities at developed sites include 

family and social gatherings, special community events, hunting camps, fishing, and 

interpretive tourism, all of which are harmonious with their settings.

• Developed recreation sites are in harmony with respect to their natural setting and 

integrate natural and cultural elements of the surrounding area and local communities. 

These sites emphasize efficiency of energy and materials consumption in construction 

and operation.

• Resource and facility deterioration or damage is mitigated, and changes in recreational 

use are accommodated as appropriate within the ROS setting. Developed recreation 

sites meet current standards (including accessibility) and accommodate use trends 

where feasible. This includes accommodation for modern trailers and motor homes at 

larger campgrounds and turnarounds to accommodate changes in vehicle sizes where 

necessary. Other sites offer a more primitive experience, such as tent camping. Potable 

water systems that comply with all safety and sanitation requirements are available 

where the Agency determines they are appropriate.

• All developed sites, visitor focused administrative facilities, and interpretive services 

are accessible unless it would substantially detract from the natural or cultural features 

of the site. Facilities are routinely maintained to preserve their accessibility. Visitor 

contact areas within administrative facilities are fully accessible.

Figure 3. The Thompson Grove Picnic Ground (left) and the Lake McClellan Group Site 

(right) show the variation in size and experiences available on the Grasslands. Thompson 

Grove is a smaller developed site that provides a shady respite and solitude for 

individuals and small groups most of the time, with larger groups in the area during 

hunting season. The Lake McClellan group site offers an area and facilities for large 

numbers of visitors at one time.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 22

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Objective

• Complete 20 percent of condition surveys and update inventories of developed sites 

annually.

Guidelines

• Construction of new developed camping and picnic sites should not occur within 1⁄2 

mile of wind energy structures or oil and gas developments.

• Construction of new developed interpretive sites that are not colocated with 

campgrounds or picnic areas should not be built within 300 feet of wind energy or oil 

and gas developments.

• Public safety and stewardship information should be posted at developed recreation 

sites (including rules and regulations on recreational activities).

• In order to minimize soil compaction and erosion, surfaced pads beneath picnic tables 

and on walkways should be included in campground and picnic area construction and 

reconstruction, using durable materials that can withstand heavy traffic.

• Maintenance, construction, and design of facilities should be consistent with the 

development scale appropriate to the ROS class and most recent version of “The Built 

Environment Image Guide for the National Forests and Grasslands” (BEIG). 

• New construction and reconstruction should harmonize with the surrounding 

landscape. Agency guidance such as the BEIG should be used in the design process.

Management Approach

Changes in use trends (including amount of use that sites receive, locations’ surroundings, and 

settings) may be considered when reconstruction occurs or when designing new sites. 

Determination of use change when updating developed recreation sites can be made through 

various scientific assessments (such as national visitor use monitoring and the National Survey on 

Recreation and the Environment) and through district observations, in order to be responsive to 

use patterns. For example, if recreational vehicle use increases, larger parking spurs might be 

considered. Recreation sites considered for reconstruction may be prioritized based on site 

conditions and may be updated or reconstructed as funding levels allow.

Recreation site overflow may be allowed during periods of high use in areas where the short-term 

nature of the use is not likely to result in long-term resource damage and the use is not in conflict 

with active Grassland closure orders. The Grasslands may cooperate with local partners and 

maintain cooperative agreements regarding campgrounds, picnic areas, and other developed 

recreation facilities. Assistance from partnerships, grants, agreements, or other methods may be 

utilized to provide quality developed recreation opportunities. The Grasslands may be an active 

participant in all cooperative interpretive initiatives, such as byway corridor plans. As new signs 

and printed materials are developed, the Forest Service may ensure that they follow guidelines for 

visual accessibility. The Grasslands may provide for multilingual interpretation and look for 

opportunities to partner with local schools. Forest Service or other official presence may increase 

at fee sites.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 23

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Review and complete handicapped accessibility assessments on all developed recreation sites and 

upgrade sites accordingly.

Dispersed Recreation

Background and Description

Day hiking, hunting, and primitive camping (which mostly occur in undeveloped sites that can be 

driven to) are the most frequent dispersed recreation activities of local residents near the 

Grasslands. The Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands currently contain a total 

of about 13.7 miles of short, nonmotorized hiking trails around the major recreation sites, each of 

which is less than 2 miles in length. The mixed land ownership pattern constrains the size of 

public land parcels and limits opportunities for long trail hikes through the Grasslands. The 2.4-

mile portion of the Santa Fe National Historic Trail on the Kiowa National Grassland is becoming 

more popular for hikers, even though it is maintained as a historic site rather than a trail. These 

trails provide a mix of day hiking opportunities, and some provide cultural, historical, or 

ecological information (interpretation) as well. Bird and other wildlife viewing and photography 

are developing into very popular activities on the Grasslands.

Figure 4. Black Kettle and McClellan Creek interpretive panels at the Black Kettle and 

McClellan Creek National Grasslands office.

Desired Conditions

• Dispersed recreation is maintained in a way that minimizes conflicts with other uses 

and facilitates compliance with the motor vehicle use map (MVUM) showing 

Grassland-specific restrictions. Camping and other site intensive recreation activities 

occur in areas where limited environmental impact occurs, where user conflict is 

minimized, and where safety concerns are alleviated, including in or near sites 

traditionally used for dispersed camping or related activities.

• Trails vary in length and challenge and connect up with other public or private lands. 

The design, construction, and maintenance of trails minimize damage to Grassland

resources such as soil and water.

• The public has access to up-to-date information on uses and restrictions to help reduce 

potential conflicts. There is little vandalism, theft, illegal activity, or resource damage 

on the Grasslands from dispersed recreation activities.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 24

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Guidelines

• When closing or rehabilitating dispersed recreation sites due to resource conditions, 

native vegetation and natural barriers should be used. In addition, information should 

be posted to encourage public compliance in rehabilitation efforts.

• Property boundary signs should be posted a minimum of every half mile for newly 

constructed fences.

• On sites where dispersed recreation activities have contributed to bare mineral soil and 

accelerated erosion, impacts should be mitigated by redirecting use or rehabilitating the 

site to minimize erosion and offsite movement of soil.

• Dispersed camping should be restricted within 200 feet of historic sites, trailheads

(except those trailheads with designated dispersed sites already in use), interpretive 

sites, or stock water.

Management Approach

Management strategies, such as limiting use in certain areas and emphasizing use in others or 

closing areas altogether, may be implemented when there is a need to respond to resource 

concerns, reduce user conflicts, or alleviate safety issues. Use of sites traditionally used for 

dispersed camping or related activities may minimize the need for disturbing additional areas.

The Grasslands may coordinate with partnering agencies or organizations at least annually and 

identify where new partnerships may exist to enable working with other landowners to expand 

hiking or other dispersed recreation opportunities, including interpretation.

Development of interpretive plans for each of the four grasslands may aid in achieving the 

desired conditions for dispersed recreation.

Motorized Recreation

Background and Description

The projected trend for the Grasslands is that demand for off-highway-vehicle (OHV) driving 

will continue to increase. The Grasslands may only be able to meet a portion of the demand for 

this activity due to the fragmented nature of Grasslands units and multiple-use management 

objectives. Some of the demand may need to be met on other private and public lands in the 

surrounding area.

Desired Conditions

• The designated road and trail system accommodates various classes of motor vehicles. 

The system provides a safe experience that minimizes impacts to soil, water, 

vegetation, wildlife, scenic, and heritage resources.

• Opportunities for OHV use occur where the motor vehicle use map (MVUM) shows 

designated roads, trails, and areas. The designated system reduces the impact of roads 

and trails to resource values by prohibiting unauthorized road and trail development 

and correcting or mitigating poorly located system roads and trails. Motor vehicle use 
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 25

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

is especially limited in areas that provide outstanding nonmotorized recreation 

opportunities, such as in Mills Canyon and the Santa Fe National Historic Trail 

corridor. Where OHV opportunities are provided, routes occur in areas where natural 

resource impacts can be minimized. Conflicts with other uses are minimized. A range 

of experiences and challenge levels appropriate for the level of recreation opportunity 

spectrum exists, particularly in areas designated as roaded natural, rural, and 

semiprimitive motorized.

Objectives

Within 15 years of plan approval:

• Rehabilitate all unauthorized routes and decommissioned roads, where resource 

damage is occurring and as funds are available.

• Close or reconstruct all routes that are identified as having health and safety issues.

Figure 5. McClellan Creek Recreation Area has

opportunities for motorized recreation visitors to ride on a 

designated system of trails.

Guidelines

• Motorized vehicles should be restricted from dry washes, creek draws, and dry swales 

to protect vegetation except at designated crossings.

• Motorized vehicles should be restricted from riparian areas to protect vegetation, water 

quality, and streambanks.

• When found to impact listed species, i.e. State and Federal threatened and endangered 

species, management indicator species (MIS), and Region 3 Grasslands sensitive 

species, existing road routes should be evaluated for closure to protect important 

species habitats; alternative travel routes should be developed where feasible that do 

not impact listed species.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 26

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Nature-Based Tourism

Background and Description

The Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands have worked with partners to add 

unique nature-based tourism areas with interpretive nature trails that are popular with youth 

groups, schoolchildren, and wildlife and bird enthusiasts. The Kiowa and Rita Blanca National 

Grasslands have had two important bird areas (IBAs) identified by the National Audubon Society: 

Sauz Creek and Perico Creek. These sites provide important habitat to many bird species and are 

attractive areas for birders to visit. It is projected that as demand for wildlife viewing and birding 

increases, more interpretive sites may be needed in order to meet that demand.

Desired Conditions

• Opportunities for nature-based tourism are provided that emphasize particular 

Grassland areas or features such as playa lakes, bird watching and other wildlife 

viewing, and photography.

• Interpretive sites, nature trails, and outdoor classrooms for youth groups, 

schoolchildren, wildlife watchers, and bird enthusiasts are developed. Auto tour routes, 

developed recreation sites, and district offices provide interpretive media and programs 

that contribute to enhancing the overall tourism experience.

Objectives

• Offer annually one offsite educational/enrichment product such as classroom programs, 

publications, and field trips.

• Within 15 years of plan approval, create and maintain two to six stand-alone signs and 

interpretive materials outside of district offices or other community places to give offhours tourists access to Grasslands information.

Management Approach

The Grasslands may participate with other agencies and nongovernmental organizations in 

planning for scenic byway corridors, important bird areas and bird trails, and watchable wildlife 

stations, in encouraging youth participation in natural resources, and in other special area and 

unique feature programs.

The Grasslands may respond to and interact with groups requesting interpretive services. 

Opportunities for tribal participation in resource conservation may be developed. The Grasslands

will continue to collaborate with the National Park Service in providing interpretive services and 

facilities for the visitor center at the Washita Battlefield National Historic Site. Efforts to work 

with local museums to develop and supply interpretive information will continue. The Grasslands

may also remain engaged in state planning for auto tour routes to ensure promotion of Grasslands

visitation.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 27

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Heritage Resources

Background and Description

Many heritage resources that represent American Indian, Hispanic, and European Americans’ 

adaptations to the high plains can be found on the Grasslands. Heritage resource sites include a 

2.4-mile section of the historic Santa Fe National Historic Trail and the Mills Orchard and Ranch 

Site, a historic property on the New Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties. Activities 

protecting and mitigating impacts to heritage resources are well covered by existing law, 

regulation, and policy. However, the Grasslands also take proactive approaches to management of 

heritage resources which are strategically important for managing preservation, public education, 

and tribal uses.

Desired Conditions

Interpretation and Public Involvement

• Interpretive sites such as the Mills Canyon Orchard Ranch and Santa Fe Trail provide 

meaningful heritage experiences that help the public develop an appreciation and 

understanding of the human history of the southern Great Plains.

• Opportunities are provided for both visitor and local volunteers to participate in 

heritage resource preservation activities such as site rehabilitation and stabilization, 

and the Grasslands are more thoroughly experienced through these conservation 

projects.

Figure 6. Stabilization of Mills Orchard and Ranch Site. On the left is a historic photograph 

of the Mills Orchard and Ranch Site in Mills Canyon Management Area. Cooperative 

stabilization projects such as those shown in the right photograph use historically 

appropriate native materials and preserve the remaining standing structures.

Tribal Uses and Access

• The tribes have access to areas that provide them an opportunity to practice traditional 

activities (such as plant gathering) and other ceremonial activities that are essential in 

maintaining their cultural identity and continuity of their culture.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 28

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

• Agency and public land use activities on the Grasslands are not causing damage to 

historic properties and places of religious and cultural significance or impacting tribal 

access to and use of those properties.

Stabilization

• All of the priority heritage resource sites6 are stable and their significant values are 

protected.

• Vandalism, theft, and human-caused damage to heritage resources are rare due to 

enhanced public education and stewardship, presence of interpretive signs, and 

management control features that are installed or constructed near the most susceptible 

and significant heritage resource sites. Site significance and integrity are maintained 

through conservation and preservation efforts and receive minimal, if any, impact from 

visitors.

Objectives

• Complete one heritage resource project that involves the public every 5 to 10 years on 

either Grassland.

• Offer annually one offsite educational/enrichment product (such as classroom 

programs, heritage celebrations, publications, and field trips) on either Grassland.

• Stabilize one viable homestead site, other than the Mills Orchard Ranch site, within 5 

years of plan approval on either Grassland.

Guideline

• Preservation and rehabilitation techniques should be implemented to current industry 

standards.

• Ground-disturbing activities should be avoided within 500 feet of sites that are listed or 

eligible for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places.

Management Approach

A cultural resources overview for each Grassland may be created as funding and staffing allows.

Determine eligibilities for unevaluated archaeological sites on each Grassland as funding and 

staffing allows.

 6 Priority heritage assets (PHAs) are listed by the forest and grasslands for purposes of maintenance and reporting.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 29

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Roads and Access

Background and Description

The Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands have approximately 492 miles of inventoried 

roads,7 while the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands contain roughly 119 

miles of inventoried roads (USDA Forest Service 2006 and 2007). The majority of roads in 

Grassland units are unsurfaced roads suitable for high-clearance vehicles; their major contribution 

to the road network is to provide access to Grasslands units. Road density on the Grasslands has 

remained relatively stable on the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands where 

off-road driving is prohibited, but has substantially increased on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands due to the increase in off-highway-vehicle (OHV) use and user-created 

roads.

Many Grassland units on the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands and on the 

Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands are only accessible by crossing private lands. While 

many landowners allow access to Federal lands without impediment, some do not. To date, the 

Forest Service has not pursued legal easements, and this remains an important issue for the 

Grasslands.

Desired Condition

• Grasslands units are accessible for public enjoyment and resource management 

purposes, either through public road access or by privately owned roads with legal 

rights-of-way. Legal easements or land exchanges provide access to Grassland units 

surrounded by private land (also see the “Land Adjustments” section). Conversely, 

access to private land through Grasslands units is available when necessary. The public 

is aware of the considerations for driving on grazing allotments, such as appropriate 

behavior around livestock and correct closing of gates. Routes are maintained 

according to their road management objectives. Decommissioned routes are 

rehabilitated and physical barriers prevent inappropriate access.

Objectives

Within 15 years of plan approval:

• Maintain 10 percent of ownership boundary signing annually and when fences are 

reconstructed.

• Acquire legal access to four to six isolated Grasslands units, as opportunities arise.

• Pursue decommissioning of all roads no longer needed for the administration of 

National Forest System lands.

• Complete road management objectives (RMOs) for all NFS roads on the Grasslands.

 7 Inventoried roads include roads identified in the Cibola National Forest INFRA roads database, which includes roads 

constructed or authorized for construction by the Forest Service, roads that existed before Forest Service management 

of the Grasslands, and unauthorized roads or vehicle tracks that were found on the ground and added as “system” roads 

in this database. Inventoried roads have undergone analysis to create a “designated system” of motorized roads and 

trails, in accordance with the 2005 Travel Management Rule.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 30

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Guidelines

• Road features should be constructed or modified in accordance with the established 

RMOs for the road.

• When decommissioning roads, the methods used should be commensurate with the 

effort required to be effective. 

• Roads should be designed, constructed, and maintained in a manner consistent with 

established best management practices (BMPs).8

Management Approach

The Grasslands may engage in cooperative agreements with local government transportation 

departments or other organizations when and where feasible to provide road maintenance. They 

may also pursue reciprocal easements for acquiring access.

Potential decommissioning methods appropriate for use on the Grasslands may include:

• Reclamation through reestablishment of vegetation;

• Removal of artificial structures such as cattle guards, gates, culverts, and bridges;

• Decompaction of road surface and ditches, to promote water infiltration and root growth 

for vegetation;

• Outsloping or ditching where necessary to ensure adequate surface drainage;

• Reshaping of draws to their original state to reestablish natural drainage patterns;

• Seeding and fertilizing disturbed ground to establish temporary cover to protect soil from 

erosion;

• Recontouring of the hillside to reestablish original slopes, thus restoring natural drainage 

patterns; and

• Individual site conditions may indicate that some combination of these decommissioning 

methods may be appropriate. Site conditions may also warrant the placement of some 

type of barrier, preferably a natural barrier such as boulders or fallen trees, to temporarily 

prevent motorized access on the decommissioned road until adequate vegetation has been 

established.

Land Adjustments

Background and Description

Within each of the four designated grasslands are small, noncontiguous parcels of Forest Service 

managed land that came into Federal ownership as homesteads were abandoned after the Dust 

Bowl. These parcels are surrounded mostly by private farm and ranch lands. The fragmented 

ownership pattern within the administrative boundaries consists of less than 24 percent federally 

managed land and approximately 75 percent in other ownership.

 8 Current BMPs are those found in the Region 3 Supplement to FSH 2509.22 and Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and 

Watersheds BMPs for Roadways (online at http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/roadshwys.html). These are subject to 

change as better BMPs are identified by regional and forest engineering staffs.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 31

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Desired Conditions

• Lands acquired from willing sellers have qualities that improve the Agency’s ability to 

carry out its mission on the Grasslands. The location or condition of the parcel being 

acquired contributes to the consolidation of the ownership pattern of the Grasslands;

provides necessary road or trail access to National Forest System (NFS) lands; has 

unique or high quality natural or cultural resources; improves the management of a 

designated special area; contains important plant or animal habitats; contains or 

influences wetlands, flood plains, or riparian areas; or provides opportunities to 

rehabilitate or stabilize adjacent NFS land.

• Grasslands units available for exchange or purchase are generally isolated parcels and 

lack unique natural and cultural resources.

Minerals and Energy Development

Background and Description

Development of the oil and gas resource is an important economic activity for the region. In 

2008, there were 37 active oil/gas wells on the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National 

Grasslands (none on the Kiowa or Rita Blanca National Grasslands) (UNM-BBER 2005). 

Geologic analyses recently completed indicate that while there may be increases in the number of 

oil/gas wells on the Black Kettle for a few more years, oil/gas development in the area is expected 

to decline over the next 20 to 50 years as the wells lose productivity. However, in 2002, gas and 

oil extraction generated 79 jobs, $3.5 million in direct income, and $11 million on the final value 

of products from the industry (UNM-BBER, 2005). There is increasing potential for 

economically viable oil or gas development on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands as 

energy prices rise.

Since 1997, all new leases have had as a stipulation that closed-loop systems be used for all oil 

and gas drilling.

Desired Conditions

• Development of the oil and gas resource minimizes impacts to other resources, 

whenever possible. Oil and gas drilling sites are in compliance with their surface use 

plan of operation, application for permit to drill, conditions of approval, and best 

management practices. Erosion control measures prevent excessive erosion from 

occurring offsite. Roads are the minimum width necessary for safety and site 

protection.

• Retired oil and gas development sites resemble their predevelopment condition. 

Aboveground facilities that support resource management may remain after site 

rehabilitation. Associated infrastructure (such as fences, cattle guards, or roads) are 

retained or modified for resource management purposes when desirable.

• The Grasslands provide common minerals that are extracted for a public benefit 

without substantial harm to natural and cultural resources.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 32

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Figure 7. This photograph shows a well-designed and well-managed oil and 

gas pad in the production phase. The site has berms and gravel, which 

mitigate for erosion and spills. It is fenced and clearly marked for public 

safety. Site-specific elements used to meet the desired conditions may vary 

depending on site conditions and other factors.

Figure 8. This photo shows a successfully rehabilitated oil and gas pad. Some 

constructed features remain onsite to facilitate natural resource management, 

but most features have been removed and the site has been revegetated.

Objectives

• Of the oil and gas sites, 100 percent are rehabilitated to surface use plan of operations 

specifications within 1 to 3 years of the date the site goes out of production.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 33

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

• Of the common variety mineral extraction sites, 100 percent are rehabilitated to surface 

use plan of operations specifications within 1 to 3 years of final excavations.

Guidelines

• Access roads to energy development sites should be crowned and hard surfaced (as a 

condition of approval at the time of a new application for permit to drill), and rolling 

dips should be used for drainage to mitigate erosion due to high use by heavy 

equipment. 9

• Stockpiling of surface material for rehabilitation of oil and gas and common mineral 

extraction sites should be employed unless safety and/or logistical constraints prohibit.

• Where conditions require recontouring, mineral and energy development permit 

holders should recontour sites to the natural slope and grade of the surrounding 

landscape after production has stopped and permitted structures have been removed. 

Where the conditions do not necessitate recontouring, the permit holder should 

mitigate erosion concerns.

• The reclamation process should be initiated, where necessary, within 60 days of 

notification by the BLM that a well is out of production.

Standards for Oil and Gas Leasing10

Controlled Surface Use

• A closed-loop drilling system will be used for all oil and gas drilling. No open pits will 

be allowed.

• For Federal leases, all drilling fluids and drill cuttings shall be removed from the

Grasslands and disposed of in an approved landfill. 

• Mitigation for non-Federal minerals development on the Grasslands will meet best 

management practices.

No Surface Occupancy

• No surface occupancy is allowed within the boundaries of heritage resource sites that 

have been listed or determined eligible for inclusion on the National Register of 

Historic Places or whose eligibility remains undetermined. The minimum distance for 

surface occupancy will vary depending on the nature and setting of the site, and will be 

determined during site-specific analysis.

• No surface occupancy is allowed within 300 feet of riparian areas or wetlands, as 

determined by Grassland staff, and/or by onsite inspection by the Grassland authorized 

officer, and/or where the Forest’s terrestrial ecosystem survey and vegetation data 

 9 This guideline also applies to alternative energy developments such as wind farms.

10 Except as noted, these standards only apply to leases issued after August 26, 2008. Leases issued prior to that date 

will use the stipulations in their lease.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 34

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

indicate riparian or wetland conditions (hydrology, hydrophytic plants, hydric soil), 

including active flood plains.

• No surface occupancy is allowed in developed campgrounds, picnic grounds, 

recreational loading/unloading ramps, recreational buildings, shelters, and all other 

developed recreational facilities and interpretive sites.

Management Approach

Forest sensitive species rare plant surveys may be completed prior to issuing permits for removal 

of road building materials or for other ground-disturbing activities at Greenhorn limestone 

outcrops, and mining should not take place if rare plants are found.

Minerals and energy development managers should take note of the guidelines in the “Scenery”

section of this plan, in particular, when designing projects.

Special Forest Products

Background and Description

The Grasslands provide firewood for personal and commercial uses from thinning operations in 

pinyon-juniper woodlands and through removal of black locust or other invasive and nonnative 

trees. The thinning and tree removal practices are designed to move the ecosystems closer to 

historical fuel loads, lessen the risk of uncharacteristic wildfire, control invasive tree species, 

and/or to increase the diversity and abundance of understory vegetation. The public demand for 

wood from the Grasslands is generally low. The supply of products made available from 

restoration projects typically exceeds demand.

Desired Conditions

• The Grasslands provide forest products such as posts and poles, firewood, grasses, and 

wildlings (e.g., nuts, cones, mushrooms, herbs, and transplants) within the capability of 

the land to produce these goods or as a means to remove invasive tree material (e.g., 

black locust or eastern red cedar). Silvicultural treatments mimic natural disturbance 

regimes and contribute to ecosystem sustainability.

• Forest products are available through either personal use permits or commercial sales.

Objective

• Forest products are offered to the public from control treatment on 1,000 to 2,000 acres 

of invasive tree species within the first 10 years after plan approval.

Guidelines

• Individual firewood permits for personal use should be limited to the amounts typically 

needed for domestic household use (12 cords) in a year’s time if the firewood resource 

is limited.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 35

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

• Firewood and other personal use forest products harvested to accomplish silvicultural 

improvement on the Grasslands should be offered for free when charge permits are not 

practical. 

Management Approach

Managers recognize the rights of tribes to collect forest products for noncommercial traditional 

and cultural purposes.

Special Uses

Background and Description

Special use permits authorize services that support the Forest Service mission and meet the needs 

of the public. These permits are a partnership between the Forest Service and private businesses 

and individuals to provide services and facilities, such as recreation opportunities and 

infrastructure. In particular, the construction and use of utilities supporting rural residences and 

industry are part of the Grasslands contribution to economic growth and sustainability. Over half 

of the special use permits on the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands are 

related to oil and gas operations, and most permits on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National 

Grasslands are for power lines and road easements. Direction regarding utility corridors and 

electronic sites is carried forward from the 1985 plan. There are also several research projects on 

the Grasslands, conducted by universities and other research institutes, which are authorized by 

special use permit. It is projected that the development of oil and gas and wind energy in the 

region may result in more requests for utility and pipeline special use permits.

Desired Conditions

• Activities authorized by special use permits provide goods and services that increase 

the public’s enjoyment of the Grasslands and support nearby communities. Special use 

permits comply with Agency standards.

• Utility lines and other permitted infrastructure have minimal impacts on the scenic 

resources of the area by harmonizing with the landscape. Large vertical structures do 

not dominate the views from high scenic integrity areas and developed recreation sites.

• Research permitted on the Grasslands is focused on improving the general scientific 

understanding of natural and social systems. Research on the Grasslands does not 

negatively impact long-term vegetation structure and composition and does not 

introduce new invasive plants or animals.

• The location of new, large linear infrastructure such as power lines has minimal effects 

on wildlife and minimizes habitat fragmentation.

• The screening process for special use permits is available and understandable to the 

public.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 36

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Guidelines

• New utility construction and reconstruction of existing utility lines should use existing 

rights-of-way to the extent practical to provide utility access to private land.

• Ground-disturbing activities associated with new utility construction and 

reconstruction of existing utility lines should be avoided within 500 feet of sites 

eligible for the National Register of Historic Places.

• Raptor protection guidelines should be referenced and followed during construction 

and maintenance of power lines, wind energy, and communication sites.

Figure 9. Harmonizing infrastructures with the surrounding landscape. The Santa Fe 

National Historic Trail is a high scenic integrity area. The power line on the horizon is 

beyond the foreground of the trail and blends into the surroundings because of its 

neutral. nonreflective color, location, and distance from the site.

Wind Energy Development

Background and Description

Northeast New Mexico and the Texas and Oklahoma panhandles are all considered areas of high

potential for wind energy generation. Several power transmission and wind energy development 

companies were beginning to work toward developing these areas in 2009.

Desired Condition

• The Grasslands support alternative energy production and facilitate their development 

while mitigating impacts to resources and values. Wind energy developments are 
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 37

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

designed to minimize impacts to other uses and resources, in particular wildlife and 

scenic integrity.

Guidelines

• New utility construction and reconstruction of existing utility lines should use existing 

rights-of-way to the extent practical to provide utility access to private land.

• Ground-disturbing activities associated with wind energy development should be 

avoided within 500 feet of eligible National Historic Register sites.

Wind turbines should not be located within:

• One-half mile of developed recreation sites,

• Active prairie dog colonies, or

• One-half mile of local airport approach and departure flight paths.

Livestock Use

Background and Description

Large ungulate (bison, deer, elk, pronghorn, cattle) herbivory and animal impacts have long been 

factors in affecting the vegetative composition and structure of the southern Great Plains 

ecosystem. Most native plants have adapted to a combination of fire and grazing disturbance. 

Livestock use increases root production and water infiltration and absorption when it is properly 

managed. Prescribed livestock use successfully manipulates vegetation, riparian, and wildlife 

habitats and is used to target and control unwanted nonnative species on the landscape.

Over 96 percent of the Grasslands is used by permit holders to graze their cattle, excluding the 

areas where developed recreation, administrative, research sites, and exclosures designed to 

protect resource values are designated. There is no indication that there will be a major increase 

or decrease in grazing on the Grasslands over the next 20 years; however, cattle numbers and 

strategies are expected to continue to fluctuate in response to drought, wildfire, prescribed fire, 

and other factors that change range conditions. Grazing on the Grasslands contributes to the rural 

ranching lifestyle, culture, and economy while promoting ecosystem sustainability and trends 

toward reference conditions.

In 2002, livestock grazing on the Grasslands generated 106 jobs, $1.6 million indirect income, 

and $10 million on the final value of products from the industry (UNM-BBER 2005).

Desired Conditions

• The Grasslands contribute to local economies by offering livestock grazing permits and 

demonstrating grassland agriculture. By supporting ranches as working landscapes, the 

Grasslands contribute to preserving large areas of open space and preserving the rural 

and cultural heritage of the southern Great Plains.

• Livestock use provides for conditions that support the sustainability of diverse, healthy 

herbaceous and woody plant communities and animal populations (see “Vegetation 

Desired Conditions”).
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 38

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

• Wetlands do not suffer from trampling and compaction or excessive sediment 

deposition.

Guidelines

• Salting or mineral supplementation should not occur on or adjacent to known 

populations of rare plant species, unsatisfactory soils, watercourses, or wetlands.

• Permitted grazing should allow for residual ground cover levels to provide for plant 

physiological needs, soil protection, wildlife habitat, and vegetation desired conditions.

Management Approach

Livestock may be used to reduce fuels where feasible.

Where feasible and where congruent with water law, livestock water sources may be made 

available in upland areas to better manage impacts to soil, water, and vegetation resources.

Wildland-Urban Interface and Wildland Fire 

Background and Description

Increasing development in the wildland-urban interface (WUI) is putting property, natural and 

cultural resources, and possibly lives at risk because of the potential for uncharacteristic wildfire. 

Current national, regional, and Cibola National Forest and National Grasslands strategic direction 

guides the Grasslands to reduce the wildfire hazard to and from communities and to natural 

resources.

The WUI includes those areas of resident populations at imminent risk from wildfire, and human 

developments having special significance. These areas may include critical communications sites, 

municipal watersheds, high voltage transmission lines, observatories, church camps, scout camps, 

research facilities, and other structures that if destroyed by fire, would result in hardship to 

communities. These areas encompass not only the sites themselves, but also the continuous slopes 

and fuels that lead directly to the sites, regardless of the distance involved (FSM 5140 R3 

Supplement).

Wildland fire includes both planned and unplanned ignitions. Amendment 4 to the 1985 Cibola 

National Forest plan provided direction for the use of planned and unplanned ignitions for the 

objectives of protection and/or resource benefits. That direction is carried forward here.

Desired Conditions

• As a result of Grasslands management, most wildland fires in WUI areas are low to 

mixed severity surface fires resulting in limited loss of structures or ecosystem 

functions.

• Visitors and residents within WUI areas are knowledgeable regarding wildfire 

protection of their homes and property, defensible spaces, and appropriate uses of the 

Grasslands.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 39

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

• WUI areas are accessible and provide a safe fire suppression environment.

Objective

• Annually treat by mechanical methods, thinning, with planned ignitions or other means 

2,000 to 3,000 acres in WUI areas to reduce fire hazard to communities and the 

Grasslands.

Standard for WUI and Wildland Fire

Response to unplanned ignitions shall be to meet either protection or resource objectives.

Guidelines for WUI and Wildland Fire

• Response to unplanned ignitions that cross jurisdictional boundaries should be 

coordinated and managed to meet the responsible agency’s objectives.

• Planned ignitions should create conditions that enable future unplanned ignitions to 

mimic their historical role or to serve as a tool to achieve resource objectives.

General Ecological

Terrestrial and Aquatic

Background and Description

All the vegetation types found on the Grasslands are in low departure from reference condition 

for structure and occur on a diverse landscape where species composition and structure are 

determined by climate, elevation, landform, slope, and soil properties.

Aquatic habitat on the Grasslands is in an altered state from historical conditions. The Canadian 

River upstream of the Grasslands has been diverted for agricultural and domestic use purposes 

leaving areas such as Mills Canyon with diminished flows. Post Dust Bowl era watershed erosion 

reduction programs created areas of impounded water that produced lake and pond aquatic 

resources not available historically.

Desired Conditions

• Native ecosystems are present and sustainable across the Grasslands and are able to 

support a full complement of native species. There is a natural and nearly complete 

assemblage of native plants and animals, including important game species, distributed 

across the Grasslands.

• Natural corridors link habitats within Grassland units. Terrestrial ecosystems are 

resilient to disturbance and tolerate the effects of, and therefore benefit from, wildland 

fire in a near natural fire regime. Natural processes occur within the vegetative 

communities that enhance species richness and diversity.

• All natural aquatic habitats benefit and encourage populations of native species. Native 

species persist or become reestablished. Aquatic habitat for Conchas crayfish, Arkansas 
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 40

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

River shiner, sucker-mouth minnow, arid land ribbon snake, and plains leopard frog is 

sustained.

• Forage use by grazing ungulates contributes to a diversity of healthy herbaceous and 

woody plant communities and supports continued viability of wildlife populations.

Guidelines

• Native seed mixes and plant species should be used for rehabilitation of sites, except in 

developed recreation sites, where nonreproducing, nonnative trees may be used to 

enhance shade and other aspects of the recreation experience.

• All successional stages of vegetation necessary to meet habitat requirements of 

management indicator species should be provided.

• Activities occurring within federally listed species habitat should apply habitat 

management objectives and species protection measures from approved recovery 

plans. 

Management Approach

Because new scientific knowledge is continually considered in Grasslands management, 

managers are up-to-date in their understanding of resource management and effectively apply 

science-based strategies and techniques as staffing and budgets allow. Planned fire activities may 

be coordinated with state agencies, Federal agencies, and private landowners to achieve landscape 

scale objectives.

Climate Change

Background and Description

The climate of the Grasslands is very complex. Climate variability is the norm within this region, 

as temperature and precipitation fluctuate on time scales ranging from seasons to decades. 

Historically, the southern Great Plains experienced periods of short and long-term drought and 

other extreme weather events.

Climate scientists agree that average air temperatures across the globe are rising (IPCC 2007), 

and it is anticipated that continued warming will accentuate or exacerbate interactions among 

ecosystem components. For example, observed temperature increases across the western U.S. 

have been linked to increases in fire season length and severity, increases in total area burned, 

decreases in air quality, and the creation of new fire regimes (Forest Service 2009).

There is general agreement among climate modelers that by the end of the 21st century, the 

southern Great Plains are likely to experience (Forest Service 2010):

• Temperature increases of 5 to 8 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 0.5 °F per decade on 

average).

• An increase in the number of hot days, with summer heat waves lasting 2 weeks or 

longer.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 41

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

• A 5 percent drop in precipitation in most of New Mexico, but wetter in other areas of the 

southern Great Plains.

• An increase in extreme flood events following an overall increase in tropical storms.

Climate may influence the distribution and abundance of plant and animal species through 

changes in resource availability, species productivity, and survivorship. Potential and likely 

ecological implications of climate change trends in the southern Great Plains are:

• More extreme disturbance events, including wildfires, flash floods, and damaging wind 

events (Swetnam, et al. 1999).

• Greater vulnerability of ecosystems to invasive species, including insects, plants, fungi, 

and vertebrates (Joyce et al. 2007).

• Long-term shifts in vegetation patterns (Westerling et al. 2006; Millar et al. 2007).

• Effects on biodiversity and wildlife populations and their distribution, viability, and 

migration patterns.

The following condition is desired to assist with building ecosystem resilience and capacity for 

plant and animal communities to withstand expected changes imposed by future climate trends 

for the Grasslands.

Desired Condition for Ecosystem Resilience to Climate Change

• Grasslands ecosystems are resilient to changing natural disturbance regimes as a result 

of climate change (e.g., drought, wind, fire, insects, and pathogens), allowing for 

shifting of terrestrial and aquatic plant communities, and associated habitats across the 

landscape.

Management Approach

Habitat management practices on the Grasslands are adaptive, adjusting to resource conditions 

and climate change11, and such practices contribute to species sustainability based on the land’s 

suitability and capability.

Soil, Water, Air

Soil

Background and Description

The loss of topsoil and productivity during the Dust Bowl era was extreme on what are now the 

Grasslands. Restoration management practices on the Grasslands over the past several decades 

have resulted in tremendous improvement in soil stability and vegetative recovery. A few units on 

the Black Kettle National Grassland were heavily plowed in the past, and some units on the 

Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands were extensively cultivated. These units do not 

appear capable of recovering to their productivity potential, although the soils are grass covered 

 11 The state of knowledge needed to deal with climate change at the Grassland scale is evolving. Most global climate 

models are not yet precise enough to apply to land management at the ecoregional or Grassland scale. This limits 

regional and Grassland specific analysis of potential effects of climate change (see appendix B). 
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 42

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

and stabilized. These soils are not likely to be restored to full productivity with native species 

composition and structure.

Authorized activities on the Grasslands units that contribute to a long-term loss of soil 

productivity include recreation developments, oil-gas operations, roads, caliche extraction pits, 

and water developments. These constitute small, localized areas scattered across large landscapes. 

After authorized activities are completed, the Forest Service requires the disturbed acreage to be 

rehabilitated to restore soil productivity.

When conducted as planned, prescribed burns do not typically pose a risk to sustaining soil 

conditions. Prescribed burns are ignited under very specific weather and fuel moisture conditions 

so that grass will reemerge more quickly than it does after a typical wildfire event. The faster 

green up results in less wind-driven soil erosion. In addition, prescribed burns reduce the fuel 

loads so that subsequent wildfires that burn through those areas do not burn as hot or cause as 

much soil damage.

The only public land use activity causing unacceptable impacts to soil conditions is the 

unmanaged motorized vehicle use and the resulting unauthorized roads and trails this off-road 

driving creates. This use has resulted in degraded soil conditions and a loss of soil productivity, 

particularly in Mills Canyon.

Desired Condition

• Soil conditions are satisfactory on the Grasslands. Areas with above natural levels of 

soil loss12 rarely occur or are stabilized in the long term, with the exception of prairie 

dog towns.

Guidelines

• Soil-disturbing activities should be designed to prevent sediment discharge into 

streams, lakes, and/or wetlands, and to prevent soil loss.

• Restoration and rehabilitation of soil stability on construction sites should begin after 

authorized activities are completed.

• Site specific mitigations should be developed according to FSH 2509.22.

• Management activities that occur on unsatisfactory or impaired soils should 

incorporate practical opportunities for restoration to recover soil functions.

• Where gully erosion is occurring more than what naturally would occur, appropriate 

methods such as spreader dams should be used.

 12 A soil loss rate exceeding the predicted natural soil loss potential is a natural state for some soils (shortgrass and mixed-grass 

prairie). Small, localized areas may exceed the tolerable soil loss rate (the rate of soil loss that can occur while sustaining inherent 

soil productivity); these areas are associated with roads, off-road vehicles, areas where livestock congregate, recreation, oil and gas 

developments, and caliche extraction pits.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 43

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Water, Watershed, Perennial Streams, 

Reservoirs, Lakes, Wetlands, Ponds, and Playa Lakes

Background and Description

Creeks and rivers do not represent a large area on the Grasslands because of their linear shape and 

because ownership of Grasslands units is fragmented. The following surface water and riparian 

vegetation occurs on the Grasslands units, and additional water and riparian resources occur on 

adjacent private and state lands (based on TEUI data):

• 33 miles of perennial, mostly year-round streams, with 60 percent on the Kiowa and Rita 

Blanca National Grasslands and 40 percent on the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek 

National Grasslands.

• 5,003 acres of riparian area adjacent to creeks, rivers, reservoirs, and lakes.

• 1,300 acres of water in reservoirs, lakes, ponds, and rivers at normal pool levels.

Water quality conditions were extremely degraded during and immediately following the Dust 

Bowl era. These conditions have been dramatically improved by constructing erosion and flood 

control structures within watercourses and intentionally minimizing or avoiding any adverse 

effects from Grassland management activities. Recreation activities occurring adjacent to 

reservoirs, lakes, and ponds do cause some minor erosion and contribute some sediment into 

those impoundments. Roads contribute some sediment into streams. Typically, grazing activities 

are managed to limit erosion and trampling along perennial streams, but watering of livestock 

does contribute some sediment into waterways.

Most water developments, particularly on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands, rely 

on groundwater. Many of the wells on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca are drying or diminishing in 

their capacity due to aquifer depletion.

Wetlands13 form and are supported by hydrological process in areas where the water table 

intersects the ground surface. The Grasslands water table fluctuates seasonally and annually, and 

is also subject to long-term fluctuations that vary with local climatic conditions. Wetland 

vegetation is obligate14 to wetlands compared to the surrounding upland vegetation and is 

dominated by persistent plants that remain standing from one year to the next. Vegetation 

includes emergent, soft-stemmed aquatic plants such as arrowheads, cattails, and reeds. Grass and 

sedge species are present. The prediction of a warmer and drier climate in the Kiowa and Rita 

Blanca Management Area may further reduce the quality of wetlands that provide habitat for 

resident and migratory waterfowl and associated mammals, reptiles, and amphibians.

The wildlife associated with rivers, perennial streams, reservoirs, lakes, wetlands, ponds, and 

playa lakes includes the following: suckermouth minnow; Conchas crayfish; Rio Grande chub; 

Arkansas River shiner; interior least tern; White-faced Ibis; Bald Eagle; largemouth bass; Plains 

leopard frog; and ambersnail.

 13 Wetlands on the Grasslands are defined by the Cowardin classification of wetlands as palustrine (P) with emergent 

vegetation (EM), unconsolidated shore (US), or open water (OW) with variable presence of water and variable 

flooding.

14 Obligate riparian plants are defined as those plant species found almost exclusively in wetlands or riparian areas.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 44

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Desired Conditions

• Watersheds are in Class I condition15. These watersheds meet water quality standards 

and support designated uses. Watersheds are characterized by high infiltration rates, 

low soil compaction, and minimal overland flow. Within the capability of the 

Grasslands, streams, springs, playa lakes, wetlands, and aquifers sustain water quantity 

and quality. Springs, wetlands, streams, and lakes are at proper functioning condition16, 

and streams and lakes exhibiting unacceptable bank erosion are healed or healing. The 

miles of roads or trails contributing to increased sediment load are minimized.

• In perennial riverine habitats, native woody and herbaceous vegetation provide 

streambank stabilization and channel stability (such as bank cover and stream shading). 

Fluvial processes and flooding regimes sustain riparian and aquatic wildlife and plant 

species across the Grasslands. Sediment input to streams due to human activities (e.g., 

road building, recreation, mineral/gas exploration, firewood harvest, and riparian 

grazing) is minimized.

• The wetlands are well vegetated with soft stemmed aquatic plants such as cattails, 

arrowheads, reeds, grasses, sedges, and vascular emergent wetland species that can 

survive in saturated soil conditions. The surface water area and associated water table 

are within normal seasonal and annual variability. These areas provide important 

habitat for native aquatic species and provide a water source that supports species rich 

bird, wildlife, and invertebrate populations.

For both herbaceous and woody riparian areas, stream characteristics (including vegetation, 

woody debris, geomorphology, and hydrology) are sufficient to:

• Dissipate stream energy associated with high water flows, thereby reducing erosion 

and improving water quality.

• Capture and store sediment and aid in vertical channel stability and flood plain 

development.

• Improve floodwater retention and groundwater recharge.

• Develop root masses that stabilize streambanks against cutting action.

• Support biodiversity.

 15Class 1 watersheds exhibit high geomorphic, hydrologic, and biotic integrity relative to their natural potential 

condition. The drainage network is generally stable. Physical, chemical, and biologic conditions suggest that soil, 

aquatic, and riparian systems are predominately functional in terms of supporting beneficial uses.

16Proper functioning condition – A condition when adequate vegetation, landform, or large woody debris is present to: 

dissipate stream energy associated with high waterflow, thereby reducing erosion and improving water quality; filter 

sediment, capture bedload, and aid flood plain development; improve floodwater retention and groundwater recharge; 

develop root masses that stabilize streambanks against cutting action; develop diverse ponding and channel 

characteristics to provide the habitat and the water depth, duration, and temperature necessary for fish production, 

waterfowl breeding, and other uses, and support greater diversity. 
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 45

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Guidelines

• Fish stocking should be conducted with desirable native and nonnative species.

• Public information, user education, and appropriate management tools should be used 

to limit the spread of nonnative exotics in aquatic systems.

• Manmade impoundments over 30 acres should be managed to support a viable fishery 

habitat.

• Springs and natural water sources should be managed for the maintenance of riparian 

habitat and water quality.

• OHV use should be restricted or damage mitigated in aquatic systems in order to 

protect vegetation, water quality, and streambanks.

• Designated motorized vehicle stream crossings should maintain or provide for aquatic 

passage.

• When planning and implementing watershed improvement activities, the cause of 

impairment should be addressed when feasible, in addition to the symptoms.

Figure 10. Palustrine emergent wetland on the Kiowa National Grassland depicts 

desired conditions for vegetative structure and composition surrounding pools.

Management Approach

Riparian Area Management TR 1737-15, 1998, “A User Guide to Assessing Proper Functioning 

Condition and the Supporting Science for Lotic Areas” may be used by managers to assess the 

proper functioning condition of watercourses.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 46

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

Riparian Area Management TR 1737-16, 1999, Revised 2003, “A User Guide to Assessing Proper 

Functioning Condition and the Supporting Science for Lentic Areas” may be used by managers to 

assess the proper functioning condition of playas and wetlands.

Where adequate groundwater or surface hydrology exists, and if natural recruitment is not 

sufficient, managers may supplement natural recruitment with planting to reestablish native 

riparian vegetation to provide shading, bank cover, and streambank stability.

Catchment methods and groundwater wells may be utilized to provide water for livestock.

As a matter of policy, manage riparian areas under the principles of multiple use and sustained 

yield, while emphasizing protection and improvement of soil, water, and vegetation, particularly 

because of their effects upon aquatic and wildlife resources. Give preferential consideration to 

riparian-dependent resources when conflicts among land use activities occur.

Air

Background and Description

There are no state sanctioned air quality monitoring stations in the area of the Grasslands. 

Nonetheless, the air quality data that has been collected in these areas (usually by national 

monitoring networks or at regional airports) indicates that air quality conditions over the 

Grasslands are within attainment standards for the six major air pollutants (ground-level ozone, 

particle pollution (particulate matter–PM10 and PM2.5), carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen 

dioxide, and lead) regulated by the Clean Air Act, except when dust storms or wildland fires 

occur. Fugitive dust emanating from off the Grasslands as a result of agricultural practices and 

travel on county roads occasionally occurs and may worsen in droughts or changes in climate 

conditions. However, fugitive dust generally does not emanate from the Grasslands except for 

dust that occasionally emanates from vehicular use of unpaved National Forest System (NFS) 

roads during dry conditions. The Grasslands are meeting the air quality standards in each state in 

which they reside. Since the reference and current conditions are the same, the Grasslands are 

within the reference conditions for air quality.

Desired Condition

• Air quality conditions are at acceptable attainment levels on the Grasslands.

Invasive Plants and Animals (Native and Nonnative)

Background and Description

Currently, invasive plant and animal species, both native and nonnative, have high potential to 

produce negative ecological and/or economic impacts. Invasive plants and animals include 

noxious weeds, shrubs, trees, mammals, fish, insects, birds, amphibians, and reptiles.

Desired Conditions

• Tamarisk, noxious weeds, and undesirable invasive plant species—both native and 

nonnative—are low to nonexistent in abundance and distribution.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 47

McClellan Creek National Grasslands 

• Through information and awareness efforts, introduction of undesirable, predatory, 

invasive, nonnative fish and amphibians is minimized (except where they are already 

present in the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek lakes and in the Canadian River).

• The feral hog population is diminishing or nonexistent.

Objective

• Over the next 15 years after plan approval, use chemical or mechanical treatments, 

prescribed fire, or other tools to treat 90 to 100 percent of known populations of 

identified noxious weeds and invasive plant species, both native and nonnative.

Guidelines

• Only native species or sterile hybrids should be used in reclamation or stabilization 

activities on all vegetation types.

• Best management practices (based on best available science) that prevent 

establishment of noxious weeds on the Grasslands should be incorporated in permit 

modifications, contracts, scopes of work, annual operating instructions, and Agency 

activities.

Management Approach

Certain individuals or populations may be infeasible to treat due to other resource considerations.
Part 2: Grasslands-wide Management Direction

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 49

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Part 3: Management Area-Specific 

Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek

Management Area

The following plan components (desired conditions, objectives, guidelines, standards) and 

management approaches apply only to the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National 

Grasslands, hereinafter referred to collectively as the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek 

Management Area. The plan components given below that address the ecological resources and 

social and economic goods and services unique to these two grasslands are in addition to the 

Grasslands-wide direction presented in part 2 of this document.

Figure 11. Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

The reader is reminded that:

Where there is no desired condition given for a social or economic good or service or 

ecological resource related to this management area, refer to the Grasslands-wide desired 

condition for the same topic in part 2; and

Where there are no explicitly stated, unique, or additive objectives, guidelines, or 

standards, or management approaches given, then none exist for this management area 

beyond those at the Grasslands-wide scale presented in part 2.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 50

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Appendix C contains a list of proposed and probable actions that will likely take place on 

the Grasslands at the project or activity level to accomplish objectives and to maintain or 

move toward achievement of the desired conditions described in this plan.

Scenery

Background and Description

Within the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area, the many lakes, ponds, 

wetlands, and riparian vegetation are wonderful surprises to prairie visitors and add to the rich 

scenic diversity of the rolling red hills, patches of oaks and shrubs, and other vegetation 

interspersed with the cultivated fields on surrounding private lands.

This management area provides views that are distinctive in the surrounding area or are unique to 

the southern plains grasslands, including the lakes and riparian areas, which primarily occur on 

Grasslands units rather than adjacent private lands. Areas of high scenic integrity are shown in 

appendix A, maps, “Proposed Scenic Integrity Objectives.”

Figure 12. The Redbed Plains of the Black Kettle National Grassland 

are valued for their distinctive dark reddish-orange mounds and hills 

covered by contrasting light green grass during spring and summer 

that turns to gold in the fall and winter.

Desired Conditions

• Scenic viewsheds of the redbed plains, their unique shinnery oak motts, the patchy 

forested lowlands, and the occasional watercourse are available for the enjoyment of 

visitors and local residents alike. 

• The area lakes are highly valued by the public and support recreation opportunities. 

While the landscape is natural in appearance, recreation developments are common 
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 51

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

and are valued by Grasslands visitors. Recreation developments are in harmony with 

the scenic quality of the lakes.

• Scenic integrity is maintained on the units managed by the Black Kettle and McClellan 

Creek National Grasslands. Local interpretive and tourism marketing efforts (such as 

the Great Plains Trail of Oklahoma and the Oklahoma High Plains Bird Trail) attract 

visitors to area roads for the scenic quality of areas that surround them. Corridors along 

marketed tour routes that pass through Grassland units emphasize the scenic quality of 

the landscape through interpretive and recreation sites.

Developed Recreation

Background and Description

The Grasslands feature two major recreation complexes in Texas—McClellan Creek and Lake 

Marvin Recreation Areas—designed around highly scenic reservoirs. There is a high level of 

community interest in Pampa and Canadian, TX, in improving tourism to these areas. The Black 

Kettle National Grassland features three other popular and significant lake-based recreation areas 

that add to the diversity of the terrain and provide public recreational opportunities not usually 

found in the Grasslands region. The lakes attract high numbers of visitors year-round, with the 

highest use during spring and fall hunting seasons as well as during the hot summer months.

Desired Conditions

• The Black Kettle district’s recreation sites are predominantly used for family outings, 

large social or group events, and camping for hunting trips. The more highly developed 

and larger group sites, McClellan Creek and Lake Marvin Recreation Areas, attract 

substantial numbers of local residents and out-of-area visitors that contribute to the 

local economy. Large gatherings allow for social interaction around a wide range of 

water-based activities. Activities include fishing, boating, and swimming, which often 

occur in conjunction with other site activities such as camping, hiking, and/or 

picnicking.

• The recreation sites in this management area have facilities and amenities that serve to 

create a user experience that includes an equal probability of interaction with or 

isolation from other users and a high degree of interaction with the natural 

environment. Water-based recreation facilities meet standards for visitor safety. New or 

renovated facilities incorporate changes in technology and vehicle types while being 

responsive to their natural setting. This includes accommodation for modern trailers 

and motor homes at larger campgrounds, such as electric hookups and dump stations at 

a few spurs and some individual sites and turnarounds to accommodate changes in 

vehicle sizes where necessary. Facilities such as boat ramps, fishing docks, fish 

cleaning stations, and swimming sites accommodate lake-based recreation where 

appropriate. Trails in these recreation sites are mostly short walking trails around water 

bodies and provide for fishing access and/or interpretive purposes.

• Visitors are informed about proper treatment of the natural surroundings and rules and 

restrictions of each site, and they are expected to act accordingly. High use that

exceeds design capacities is accepted during hunting season and holidays, but does not 

lead to substantial resource impacts. Hunting camps serve as temporary staging sites 
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 52

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

that are acceptable during times of high use and occur within or near developed 

recreation sites for offsite activities. Higher intensity use is mitigated. With larger 

numbers of visitors, official presence increases safety, civility, and security, particularly 

at fee sites.

• Fishing opportunities occur on the lakes of the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek 

Management Area.

Figure 13. Water-based recreation facilities on the Black Kettle National Grassland allows 

for fishing and boating opportunities.

Objective

• Maintain one-third of trail miles annually and according to development level and 

managed use.

Guideline

• Boating speeds should be limited to no-wake boating only (with the exception of 

McClellan Creek Recreation Area).

Management Approach

Coordination and meetings with the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and Oklahoma 

Department of Wildlife Conservation may be ongoing to discuss fisheries management and 

occurs at least annually.

Dispersed Recreation

Background and Description

On the Black Kettle National Grassland, there are 32 designated dispersed sites accessible from 

public roads. These sites require hunters and other recreationists to camp and park in a confined 

area, which reduces the impacts of dispersed camping and recreation to the rest of the unit.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 53

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

The Black Kettle National Grassland units in Oklahoma are nationally recognized public hunting 

areas in the Nation for Rio Grande Turkey and Northern Bobwhite quail. These areas attract 

hunters from across the Nation during the spring turkey season (UNM-BBER 2005).

Figure 14. Designated dispersed sites on the Black Kettle National 

Grasslands provide an area where hunters can safely pull off the road 

while protecting wildlife habitat for Rio Grande Turkey and other game 

species.

Desired Conditions

• Designated dispersed recreation sites (dispersed parking areas) provide safe off-road 

access for meeting public camping needs near popular hunting units. These designated 

dispersed sites occur near public and Grassland managed roads and concentrate use 

while minimizing resource damage outside of these areas and providing parking for 

access to nonmotorized Grassland units for hunters. These sites are available as 

hunting camps during hunting season. These sites provide a safe place to park and 

access the Grasslands for other activities such as viewing scenic features, wildlife, and 

birds. Trespass upon or other conflict with private landowners is minimal and 

mitigated.

• Hunting opportunities are available throughout the Grasslands, and particularly for the 

Black Kettle National Grassland. Habitat and recreation improvements enhance 

experiences for hunting small and large game species by providing for camping in 

developed and dispersed sites, providing information specific to hunting, and 

improving wildlife habitat. Dispersed campsites and transportation systems occur in 

areas where limited environmental impact occurs in order to protect the resources, 

provide a quality hunting experience, and improve wildlife habitat. These areas include 

sites traditionally used for dispersed camping or related activities.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 54

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Some of the Black Kettle district’s ponds are enjoyed by visitors as a recreational 

fishing alternative to the larger developed lake sites. Coordination occurs with partner 

agencies to occasionally stock these ponds with fish.

Management Approach

The district may continue working with partners, other jurisdictions, and surrounding 

communities. The district may coordinate and communicate with state wildlife agencies to 

manage habitat and impacts associated with hunting. The district will actively engage in 

partnerships with wildlife and hunting organizations to meet agency wildlife habitat and hunting 

management goals.

Motorized Recreation

Desired Conditions

See “Grasslands-wide Desired Condition” on page 24.

Objective

• Replace all gates in areas of high public use with cattle guards over the next 15 years. 

Guideline

• Gates used by the public should have appropriate signage instruction on closing the 

gate when entering or exiting.

Heritage Resources

Desired Conditions

See “Grasslands-wide Desired Condition” on page 27.

Objective

• Establish a historic homestead interpretive site on the Black Kettle National Grasslands 

in the next 5 years1. 

Management Approach

The ranger district staff may continue to collaborate with the National Park Service in providing 

interpretive services and facilities for the Washita Battlefield National Historic Site Visitor 

Center.

 1

This objective relates to the Grasslands-wide desired condition for heritage resources but is specific to this 

management area only.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 55

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Minerals and Energy Development

Desired Conditions

See “Grassland-wide Desired Condition” on page 32.

Stipulations for Oil and Gas Leasing2

Standards

• No surface occupancy of Lake McClellan is allowed within 500 feet of the high water 

level, and for Lake Marvin, within 500 feet of the high water mark.

• No surface occupancy within 0.25 mile of known Bald Eagle roosting sites is in effect 

from November 1 through March 31.

• No surface occupancy is allowed within a minimum of 500 feet from the segment of 

the historic military trail between Fort Supply and Fort Elliot that traverses the Lake 

Marvin Unit. The distance will be determined during site-specific analysis.

• No surface occupancy is allowed on slopes over 30 percent. An exception, 

modification, or waiver may be granted if onsite inspection shows that unstable or 

steep slopes do not exist on a specific site, or if the operator can demonstrate in a 

surface use plan of operations that adverse effects can be minimized and activities 

safely conducted without loss of long-term site productivity.

Wildlife Habitat Improvement

Desired Conditions

• Constructed pond and lake habitats support recreational fisheries. Stocking of game 

fish, such as the largemouth bass, and desirable nonnative fish species occurs where 

appropriate for habitat enhancement and to support recreational fishing.

• Existing and new wildlife habitat structural improvements (such as rainfall catchments, 

fenced grazing exclosures, constructed fishing lakes, windmill overflow pits, and 

constructed ponds/dirt tanks) are functional. Water developments—such as drink 

tanks—provide access and escape avenues for wildlife and are accessible all year long.

Objectives

• Two to four existing fenced exclosures or wildlife habitat improvement plots are 

inventoried annually, evaluated for effectiveness and ecological functionality, and 

those determined viable are maintained.

• At least one structural improvement for fish habitat is put in each lake every 5 years.

 2 These standards only apply to leases issued after August 26, 2008. Leases issued prior to that date will use the 

stipulations in their lease. These standards set the sideboards for reaching the desired condition for Grasslands-wide 

minerals and energy development but should only be applied within this management area.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 56

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Guidelines

• Developed water sources should be equipped with wildlife escape structures.

• Windmills at water wells should be kept running all year long when water availability 

and mechanical function permit, for wildlife benefit.

• New fences should minimize adverse effects upon the free movement of wildlife.

Management Approach

The Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area places strong emphasis on managing 

habitat and assessing opportunities to create wildlife habitat improvement plots to meet the high 

public use demand for important game species that occur on the Grasslands.

While Lesser Prairie-chickens, a candidate species under the Endangered Species Act, historically 

occurred on the Grasslands and is likely to occasionally use suitable habitat areas, currently there 

is no breeding population: however, there is potential habitat in all shinnery oak and mixed grass 

vegetation types on the Black Kettle National Grassland.

However, research suggests that Lesser Prairie-chickens are sensitive to and tend to avoid tall 

vegetation and manmade structures that can provide roosting areas for predators such as hawks 

and eagles. Forest Service biologists will continue to collaborate with other Federal and state 

biologists and researchers in determining if the species could be expected to return to the 

Grasslands and successfully fledge young and what management activities would benefit their 

recovery if they returned.

Trees and tall human-made structures will be evaluated for removal in areas important for 

recovery of Lesser Prairie-chicken habitat and where windbreaks and erosion control shelterbelts 

are no longer needed for soil stability.

Water, Watershed, Perennial 

Streams, Reservoirs, Lakes, and Ponds

Desired Conditions

See “Grasslands-wide Desired Conditions” on page 43.

Objective

• All woody vegetation is removed from dams on lakes or impoundments 30 acres or 

larger over the next 15 years after plan approval.

Guidelines

• Submerged aquatic vegetation comprising up to 20 percent of the total lake area should 

be maintained to provide for largemouth bass habitat.

• Boat wakes should be restricted in shallow water (<4 feet deep) where largemouth bass 

spawning areas are likely to occur.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 57

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Invasive Plants and 

Animal Species (Native and Nonnative)

Background and Description

The Dust Bowl era resulted in a landscape with erosion and deposition conditions that required 

conservation measures to be implemented in order to stabilize the soil. One conservation measure 

was to divert the wind to reduce erosion. Windbreaks and soil erosion control shelterbelts were 

created by planting trees and shrubs in highly erodible areas. Windbreaks and erosion control 

shelterbelt areas tree species include black locust, Osage orange, eastern redcedar, green ash, 

cottonwood, pine species, Siberian elm, and honey locust.

Several of the species chosen for the windbreaks and shelterbelt areas are prolific and have 

dispersed over the landscape. In some areas, species composition and site potential have been 

altered significantly by black locust, eastern redcedar, and Siberian elm encroachment. On many 

sites, these tree species have transformed productive mixed grass or shinnery oak into woodland 

sites. These closed canopy woodland sites are generally a barrier to the spread of wildland and 

prescribed fire due to the annual cheat grass that dominates the understory and is green in winter 

and early spring.

There are some areas where introduced or planted tree species are desirable and provide 

beneficial wildlife habitat. Conversely, there are areas where the encroachment is detrimental for 

certain wildlife species and further conflicts with structure and composition objectives for mixedgrass prairie and shinnery oak areas.

Desired Conditions

• Invasive and/or undesirable trees3 such as black locust, Siberian elm, and eastern 

redcedar, among others, are not present where they could negatively impact desired 

vegetation composition and structure.

• Historical burning regimes occur during the growing season that thin canopy cover and 

increase understory plant diversity.

 3

Undesirable trees are those trees that either did not occur historically within a Grasslands’ vegetation type or had a 

much reduced presence, and their presence conflicts with other resource objectives on the Grasslands. 
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 58

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Guideline

• Suitable habitat determination (based on best available science for the life history of 

the Lesser Prairie-chicken) should be made on shinnery oak and mixed grass 

vegetation types on the Black Kettle National Grasslands, prior to removal of black 

locust tree encroachment.

Mixed-grass Prairie Vegetation

Mixed-grass Prairie

Background and Description

Mixed-grass prairie covers approximately 11,300 acres or 35 percent of the Black Kettle and 

McClellan Creek National Grasslands. The mixed-grass prairie on the red-shale soils is 

dominated by perennial grasses including blue grama, hairy grama, little bluestem, and purple 

threeawn. Forbs make up about 10 percent and woody species another 10 percent of the species 

composition of mixed-grass prairie. Prescribed fire and managed livestock grazing provide 

disturbance to this vegetation type, which evolved under disturbance regimes. This vegetation 

type is in low departure from reference condition for structure, and the desired condition is 

similar to the existing condition.

The wildlife associated with all vegetative stages of mixed-grass prairie habitat includes the 

following: Swainson’s Hawk, Lesser Prairie-chicken (currently rarely seen or heard), Northern 

Bobwhite, Rio Grande Turkey, Grasshopper Sparrow, and Long-billed Curlew.

Desired Conditions

• Mixed-grass prairie is characterized by grasses and forbs without the presence of trees. 

The structure and composition of the mixed-grass prairie across the landscape 

maintains the treeless reference condition of the mixed-grass prairie ecological 

indicator.

• Mixed-grass prairie on the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands is a 

warm season, grass-dominated ecosystem. The codominant grasses include little 

bluestem, sideoats grama, smaller proportions of big bluestem, and blue grama. Forbs 

are present but are less abundant than grasses and include western ragweed, annual 

broom weed, tarragon, and baby aster, all providing food for wildlife species.

• The mixed-grass species composition provides vegetation structure and height 

relationships necessary for ground nesting bird cover and brood rearing habitat. Small 

areas of short structured herbaceous vegetation or patches of bare ground are available 

for Lesser Prairie-chicken leks and courtship areas. Small areas or patches of bare 

ground are present that provide wildlife travel corridors, escape routes, and annual 

plant germination sites for wildlife foraging habitat.

• Shrub species component is typically no less than 5 percent or more than 25 percent of 

the total mixed-grass ground cover. Species composition includes fragrant mimosa,

skunkbush sumac, smooth sumac, and inland New Jersey tea, all contributing to 

retaining or improving foraging and escape habitat for Lesser Prairie-chicken and 

Northern Bobwhite.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 59

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Disturbance processes (including drought, fire, and grazing) occur on the landscape at 

varying intervals and intensities, determined by climatic conditions and vegetative 

density respectively. Prescribed fire intervals occur on a 3- to 10-year regime.

Figure 15. The mixed-grass prairie depicting vertical structure on Unit 93 shown in these 

photographs is a fair representation of the structure and composition a mixed-grass 

prairie desired condition would resemble.

Objectives

• Using prescribed fire, reintroduce fire to 50 to 75 percent of the mixed-grass prairie 

over the next 15 years after plan approval.

• Mechanically or with prescribed fire, remove all undesirable trees on the mixed-grass 

prairie over the next 15 years after plan approval.

• Over the next 15 years after plan approval, retain shrubby cover across the landscape in 

patches that are no less than 5 percent or more than 25 percent of the total mixed-grass 

area.

• Within 10 years of plan approval, mark 25 to 50 percent of fences in suitable Lesser 

Prairie-chicken habitat to minimize collisions of the bird with fences.

Guidelines

• Trees in upland settings within landscapes suitable for Lesser Prairie-chicken habitat 

should be targeted for eradication.

• Prescribed fire should have a recurrence interval of 5 to 15 years, to encourage forb 

production; timing should consider adverse consequences to ground nesting birds.

• Shrubby cover should be retained across the landscape in patches that are 

approximately 100 to 400 square feet in size and 3 to 6 feet tall so that distribution is 

no less than 5 percent or more than 25 percent of the total mixed-grass area to provide 

loafing sites for quail.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 60

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Shinnery Oak Vegetation Type 

and Inclusions of Historically Deep Plowed Sites

Shinnery Oak

Background and Description

This vegetation type covers approximately 18,900 acres (59 percent) of the Black Kettle and 

McClellan Creek National Grasslands. About 45 percent of the shinnery oak vegetation is in the 

early to mid-open, postfire to 3 years postfire regime and dominated by tall grasses in shallower 

and more stable sandsheet areas. Grass cover is dominant with rapid recovery of shinnery oak 

resprouts. The late-closed successional stage structure and composition stage occur in the 3- to 

10-year postfire timeframe. Shinnery cover is mostly dominant, although grasses remain 

codominant on about 55 percent of the vegetation type (see appendix A). Uncharacteristically tall 

hybrid tree/shrubs of shinnery and post oak occur in some motts. Most shinnery oak stands are

burned on a 2- to 9-year cycle to maintain a codominant canopy cover of grasses intermixed with 

shinnery oak for wildlife habitat diversity and to resemble historical conditions. Current livestock 

grazing within the shinnery oak system is relatively light, with utilization levels retaining at least 

50 percent of the current year’s growth of vegetation, by weight, of forage species.

The wildlife associated with all vegetative stages of shinnery oak includes the following: 

Swainson’s Hawk, Lesser Prairie-chicken (currently rarely seen or heard), Grasshopper Sparrow,

Northern Bobwhite, and Rio Grande Turkey.

Figure 16. The shinnery oak on historically unplowed areas on 

Black Kettle Unit 12 shown above is a fair representation of the 

structure and composition a shinnery oak desired condition 

would resemble.

Desired Conditions

• Shinnery oak is characterized by shrubs, grasses, and forb species without the presence 

of trees. The structure and composition of shinnery oak across the landscape maintains 

the treeless reference condition of the shinnery oak ecological indicator.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 61

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• The shinnery oak vegetation is a grass-dominated ecosystem with a shinnery oak shrub 

understory. The overstory is made up of warm season herbaceous species, including 

big bluestem, little bluestem, sideoats grama, sand lovegrass, Indiangrass, and 

switchgrass. Most of the warm season grass species have a dominant position in regard 

to canopy vertical structure. In a less dominant vertical structure position are shrubs 

and woody plants, including shinnery oak, sand sagebrush, Oklahoma plum, and 

yucca. Forbs such as western ragweed, Hartweg’s sundrops, blacksampson echinacea 

(or narrowleaf purple coneflower), wax goldenweed, and Texas croton are located 

within this vegetation type and are found in lower quantities than herbaceous grasses or 

woody shrubs. There are few trees found within this vegetation type, although small 

clusters or motts of shinnery oak hybrids ranging in height from tall shrub to 20 feet or 

more may be found scattered throughout.

• The shinnery oak species composition provides vegetation structure and height 

relationships necessary for ground nesting bird cover and brood rearing habitat for the 

Lesser Prairie-chicken and other ground nesting birds such as the Rio Grande Turkey

and Northern Bobwhite. Small areas of short structured herbaceous vegetation or 

patches of bare ground are available for Lesser Prairie-chicken leks and courtship 

areas; these areas also provide wildlife travel corridors, escape routes, and annual plant 

germination sites for wildlife foraging habitat. Trees are nonexistent and collision risks 

from fences, etc., are minimal in areas important for recovery of Lesser Prairiechicken.

• Small thickets of hybridized tall oak shrubs (oak motts) provide overhead cover and 

production of secure forage crops for Rio Grande Turkey and Northern Bobwhite.

• Fire occurs on a 2- to 9-year cycle on the landscape at varying intervals and intensities 

determined by vegetative and climatic conditions. Ground cover provides soil 

stabilization and water infiltration and retains fine fuels.

Objectives

• Within 10 years of plan approval, mark 25 to 50 percent of fences in suitable Lesser 

Prairie-chicken habitat to minimize collisions of the bird with fences.

• Use prescribed fire twice on 80 percent of the shinnery oak within 15 years of plan 

approval.

• Mechanically or chemically, remove 80 to 100 percent of undesirable trees in shinnery 

oak areas within 15 years of plan approval.

Guidelines

• Trees in upland settings within landscapes suitable for Lesser Prairie-chicken habitat 

should be targeted for eradication.

• Timing of prescribed fire should consider adverse consequences to ground nesting 

birds.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 62

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Prescribed fire should be used on 35 to 50 percent of the area so that ground cover is 

open with 25 to 50 percent vegetative cover to provide optimal habitat for quail chicks.

Figure 17. The shinnery oak motts on Black Kettle Unit 12 shown above 

represent the characteristic landscape change that oak motts bring to the 

structural height in a shinnery oak vegetation type.

Inclusions of Historically Deep Plowed Sites

Background and Description

The historically deep plowed sites represent 5,670 acres or 30 percent of the 18,900 acres of 

shinnery oak vegetation. The areas that were subjected to deep plowing practices prior to the Dust 

Bowl do not have the shinnery oak component. Where these conditions occur, species 

composition and site potential have been altered. Windbreaks and erosion control shelterbelt area

tree species include black locust, Osage orange, eastern redcedar, green ash, cottonwood, pine 

species, Siberian elm, and honey locust.

Desired Conditions

• These sites are structurally close to the shinnery oak vegetation type, with the 

composition of plants dominated by warm season herbaceous grasses. In a less 

dominant vertical structure position are shrubs and woody plants such as sand 

sagebrush and Oklahoma plum that comprise 15 to 20 percent of the vegetation.

• Fire occurs on a 5- to 9-year cycle on the landscape at varying intervals and intensities 

determined by vegetative and climatic conditions.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 63

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Objective

• Within the deep plowed areas previously occupied by shinnery oak, develop—through 

artificial planting or natural recruitment—a shrub component to occupy 15 to 20

percent of the canopy within 10 years of plan approval.

Figure 18. The shinnery oak on the Black Kettle previously plowed 

areas of Unit 12 shown above is representative of the change 

brought to the structure and composition of shinnery oak by deep 

plowing in the past.

Mixed Hardwood Riparian Vegetation Type

Background and Description

This vegetation type covers approximately 1,946 acres or 6 percent of the Black Kettle and 

McClellan Creek Management Area. The early successional stage represents approximately 13

percent of this vegetation, with pioneer tree and shrub species of cottonwoods and willows with 

an herbaceous understory of sedges in wet areas. In this early stage, most of the area is bare sand 

dominated by a young canopy of tree saplings and shrubs. Species include false indigo bush and 

various grass, sedges, and rushes. The middle and late successional stage covers the remaining 87

percent. In the middle stage, developing stands start to mature. This community tends to be 

partially open with scattered cottonwoods and willows. The shrub layer is poorly developed and 

often consists of widely scattered patches of dogwood. The understory vegetation is highly 

variable with wildrye and muhly grass. In wetter, more shaded areas, Virginia creeper, nettles, and 

poison ivy are present. The late seral stage is a mature, closed canopy cottonwood flood plain 

forest. The canopy layer is dominated by cottonwood with box elder, hackberry, walnut, and elm 

occurring as well. Understory species include Virginia creeper and poison ivy, both found along 

the upper terrace that is protected from most flood events.

The wildlife associated with all vegetative stages of mixed hardwood riparian includes the 

following: Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Rio Grande Turkey, Red-headed Woodpecker, and Bell’s Vireo.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 64

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Desired Conditions

• Hardwood tree species (such as plains cottonwood, netleaf hackberry, little walnut, 

American elm, and wooly buckthorn or chittimwood) are found in scattered groupings, 

forming an open canopy mosaic of various age classes and structure. Black willow, 

common persimmon, and Western soapberry are present within the groupings. Eastern 

redcedar is a very minor species component.

• Shrubs and woody vines are prevalent and include buckbrush, riverbank grape, 

Chickasaw plum, Virginia creeper, and poison ivy. Also found on the perimeters of this 

vegetation type are skunkbush sumac and sand sagebrush. Switchgrass, little bluestem, 

inland saltgrass, and sand dropseed are herbaceous warm season grass species 

interspersed in the understory. A variety of forbs are found in the understory and 

include western ragweed, white sage, horehound, and stickseed. Wetland species 

include cattails, rushes, sedges, and smartweed.

• Mature hardwoods, shrubby understory or early successional growth, and woody 

debris as well as diverse riparian herbaceous vegetation on the margins of lakes or 

along streamsides are present to provide winter roosts for Bald Eagle and raptors.

Figure 19. The mixed hardwood riparian area with cottonwood gallery 

shown above depicts the linear growth patterns along a watercourse 

and is a fair representation of the structure and composition a mixed 

hardwood riparian desired condition would resemble.

Objectives

• Introduce prescribed fire into mixed hardwood areas once every 5 to 15 years after 

plan approval.

• Mechanically or chemically remove 100 percent of eastern redcedar around 

cottonwood galleries, generally within the mixed hardwood type, around roost trees 

within 10 years of plan approval.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 65

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Guidelines

• Grazing should be managed to promote or maintain riparian obligate vegetation.

• Timing of prescribed fire or other vegetation treatments should consider adverse 

consequences to ground nesting birds.

• Bald Eagle roosts should be protected by retaining, developing, or preserving mature 

trees and old growth cottonwood stands, particularly within 1⁄2 mile from lakes.

• Habitat should be managed for openings greater than 4 acres in size and for large snags 

that are available for cavity nesters and as foraging sites.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 66

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

The following plan components (desired conditions, objectives, guidelines, standards) and 

management approaches apply only to the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands, 

hereinafter referred to collectively as the Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area. The plan 

components and other strategic direction given below that address the ecological resources and 

social and economic goods and services unique to these two grasslands are in addition to the 

Grasslands-wide direction presented in part 2 of this document.

Figure 20. Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area.

The reader is reminded that:

Where there is no desired condition given for a social or economic good or service or 

ecological resource related to this management area, refer to the Grasslands-wide desired 

condition for the same topic in part 2; and

Where there are no explicitly stated, unique, or additive objectives, management 

approaches, guidelines, or standards given, then none exist for this management area 

beyond those at the Grasslands-wide scale presented in part 2.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 67

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Appendix C contains a list of proposed and probable actions that will likely take place on 

the Grasslands at the project or activity level to accomplish objectives and to maintain or 

move toward achievement of the desired conditions described in this plan.

Scenery

Background and Description

The Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area greets the traveler with the vast expanse of an 

undulating plain of grass punctuated by windmills and farmsteads. The High Lonesome area on 

the Rita Blanca National Grassland typifies the prairie of lore. Scattered around the area are playa 

lakes which are important habitats on the Grasslands. These depressions collect water after rains, 

forming shallow pools. Between rains, these areas dry in the sun and wind. Culturally, the area 

has a long history of ranching, as well as a period of homesteading until the Dust Bowl years, and 

agricultural features influence the views. See appendix A for maps showing scenic integrity 

objectives.

Desired Conditions

• The vast horizon of the Grasslands offers unique and highly valued scenic 

opportunities. Consideration of scenery is evident where wind energy infrastructure, 

transmission lines, and other constructed features occur. There are a number of 

landscape types that are especially highly valued for their scenic quality in this 

management area. The High Lonesome area reminds visitors of the high plains as they 

were when the early European settlers arrived, and the vistas American Indians had 

experienced for generations prior. Vast unbroken plains of grasses extend to the 

horizon. Roads and occasional fences are minor interruptions in the sweeping plain. 

The expansive sky dominates the views.

• Playa lakes attract a diversity of wildlife and are valued for wildlife viewing and bird 

watching. These are generally natural appearing landscapes, and their ever-changing 

views as the lakes appear and disappear are an integral part of their scenic quality.

• The vista around areas assigned a high scenic integrity objective, including the High 

Lonesome, Mills Canyon, and Canadian River corridor, the Santa Fe Trail corridor, and 

scenic byways are preserved. Management activities surrounding these areas are 

cognizant of scenic integrity and preserve scenic attributes.

• Riparian vegetation accents the Perico Creek channel, including cottonwoods and 

willows, with sumac and a variety of midsize grasses and forbs present on adjacent 

upland sites. This cliff-studded setting provides a view of a rich riparian and Grassland 

habitat that supports an abundance of diverse wildlife.

• The meandering Sauz Creek provides a scenic vista of wetlands with an abundance of 

sedges, reeds, and cattails, especially around the larger pools.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 68

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• The vast horizon of the Grasslands offers unique and highly valued scenic 

opportunities. In these scenic areas, planning for and design of wind energy, 

transmission lines, and other constructed features consider the scenic value of the 

horizon.

Figure 21. The Rita Blanca National Grasslands

Figure 22. The High Lonesome Area

Figure 23. Mills Canyon
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 69

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Dispersed Recreation

Desired Conditions

See “Grasslands-wide Desired Conditions” on page 23.

Guideline

• Dispersed camping should be restricted within 200 feet of developed campgrounds

Developed Recreation

Desired Conditions

See “Grasslands-wide Desired Conditions” on page 21.

Motorized Recreation

Desired Conditions

See “Grasslands-wide Desired Conditions” on page 24.

Heritage Resources

Desired Conditions

See “Grasslands-wide Desired Conditions” on page 27.

Objective

• Establish a site steward program on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area 

within 5 years to protect sensitive cultural sites.

Lands Adjustment

Desired Conditions

See “Grasslands-wide Desired Conditions” on page 30.

Management Approach

The Grasslands will set priorities and work with other agencies when necessary for acquiring 

access to previously inaccessible units.

Minerals and Energy Development

Desired Conditions

See “Grasslands-wide Desired Conditions” on page 31.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 70

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Standards for Oil and Gas Leasing1

• No surface occupancy of slopes over 40 percent is allowed. An exception, 

modification, or waiver may be granted if onsite inspection shows that unstable or 

steep slopes do not exist on a specific site, or if the operator can demonstrate in a 

surface use plan of operations (SUPO) that adverse effects can be minimized and 

activities safely conducted without loss of long-term site productivity.

• No surface occupancy is allowed in Mills Canyon of the Canadian River.

• No surface occupancy is allowed within 500 feet of the canyon rims along a 17-mile 

segment of the Canadian River and its major side canyons2. See map in appendix A.

• No surface occupancy is allowed within 500 feet from the centerline of the Santa Fe 

Trail where it traverses East Kiowa. The distance will be determined during sitespecific analysis.

• No surface occupancy is allowed on Mills Orchard and Ranch Site, a historic property 

on the New Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties, and Trujillo Homestead, a 

historic property eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places.

• No surface occupancy is allowed on playa lakes as determined by a Grassland staff line 

officer or designated representative.

• No surface occupancy is allowed within prairie dog towns as already delineated by 

Grassland staff and/or by onsite inspection by the Grassland authorized officer during 

site-specific analysis.

• Timing limitation on drilling operations and construction activities for Ferruginous and 

Swainson’s Hawks and Burrowing Owl include the following: from March 1 to June 

30 within 0.5 mile of any suitable nesting sites and/or April 1 to August 31 within 0.5 

mile of any active nest.

• No surface occupancy is allowed within 0.25 mile of the Wanette Cemetery in 

Management Unit K-54.

• No surface occupancy is allowed on the Clayton Livestock Research Center in 

Management Unit K-41, within the administrative area, or in the cultivated area under 

irrigation.

• No surface occupancy is allowed within the Rocky Mountain Research Station Kiowa 

Long-term Experimental Fire Research Site in Management Unit K-46 within Section 

2 of T. 26 N., R. 36 E.

 1 These standards only apply to leases issued after August 26, 2008. Leases issued prior to that date will use the 

stipulations in their lease. These standards set the sideboards for reaching the desired condition for Grasslands-wide 

minerals and energy development but should only be applied within this management area.

2 The 17-mile segment of the Canadian River is the length of the river within the Forest Service administrative 

boundary where the river flows through Forest Service lands. Private and other agency ownership would be excluded 

from this calculation. The major side canyons are: Can᷉on Emplazado, Can᷉on de la Cueva, Can᷉on Mesten᷉o, Can᷉on 

Vercere, Can᷉on Mesten᷉ito, Can᷉on Colorado, Can᷉on Piedra Lumbre, Can᷉on Biscante, an unnamed canyon (spur) just 

south of Canon Mesten᷉ito, which contains Rim Campground and the 600 Road (T21N, R24E, Section 11) to the 

intersection with Mills Canyon in the bottom; and another unnamed spur (T21N, R25E, Section 30) that cannot be 

logically “detached” from the larger Can᷉on Mesten᷉o.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 71

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Livestock Use

Desired Conditions

See “Grasslands-wide Desired Conditions” on page 37.

Guidelines

• On recently burned areas where there is potential breeding habitat for Mountain Plover, 

livestock grazing pressure should be increased to improve habitat suitability. In 

adjacent unburned portions of the allotment, livestock grazing pressure should be 

reduced for other native bird species.

• Playa lakes should be deferred from livestock use between April 10 and July 31 when 

water is present.

Management Approach

On playas where water is present from April 10 to July 31, district biologists may determine the 

areal extent of the playa habitat and the timing for when livestock use is deferred.

Wildlife Habitat Improvement

Desired Condition

• Existing and new wildlife habitat structural improvements (such as rainfall catchments, 

fenced grazing exclosures, constructed fishing lakes, windmill overflow pits, and 

constructed ponds/dirt tanks) are functional. Water developments—such as drinking 

troughs—provide access for wildlife and have features that minimize occurrence of 

drowning and are accessible all year long where possible.

Objectives

• Within the first 5 years of plan implementation, designate two to three existing fenced 

exclosures that are effective and ecologically functional. Maintain the structure of 

those designated exclosures and remove those not designated during the life of the 

plan. Maintain all wildlife habitat improvement plots over the life of the plan.

• Provide two to four arrays (groups of six structures spaced no more than 550 yards 

apart) of artificial escape structures per 640 acres to improve escape cover for swift 

fox. Structures will be placed in suitable shortgrass prairie habitat with loamy soils on 

slopes less than 3 percent and along ridgetops, knolls, or the tops of rolling hills within 

15 years after plan approval.

• Move all marginally used Ferruginous Hawk nesting platforms to more suitable 

Ferruginous Hawk habitat locations within 5 years of plan approval.

• Create 3 to 12 nesting platforms or natural structures in suitable Ferruginous Hawk

habitat locations within 15 years after plan approval.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 72

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• On Grassland units with grazing allotments in Ferruginous Hawk habitat, annually 

protect three to six existing Ferruginous Hawk nest trees with tree cribs to keep 

livestock from impacting root zones.

Guidelines

• Developed water sources should be equipped with wildlife escape structures.

• Windmills at water wells should be kept running yearlong when water availability and 

mechanical functioning permit, for wildlife benefit.

• New fences should minimize adverse effects upon the free movement of wildlife.

Management Approach

The Grasslands are active in managing habitat and assessing opportunities to create wildlife 

habitat improvement plots to meet the high public use demand for important game species that 

occur on the Grasslands.

While Lesser Prairie-chickens, a candidate species under the Endangered Species Act, historically 

occurred on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands, currently there is no breeding 

population: however, there is potential habitat in the sand sagebrush vegetation type on the Kiowa 

and Rita Blanca National Grasslands.

Research suggests that Lesser Prairie-chickens are sensitive to and tend to avoid tall vegetation 

and manmade structures that can provide roosting areas for predators such as hawks and eagles. 

Forest Service biologists will continue to collaborate with other Federal and state biologists and 

researchers in determining if the species could be expected to return to the Grasslands and 

successfully fledge young and what management activities would benefit their recovery if they 

returned.

Trees and tall human-made structures will be evaluated for removal in areas otherwise suitable as 

Lesser Prairie-chicken habitat.

Water, Watershed, and Perennial Streams

Desired Condition

See “Grasslands-wide Desired Conditions” on page 44.

Objective

• Maintain an average of 40 to 75 percent of open water in existing pools in palustrine 

emergent wetlands at Sauz Creek over the life of the plan.

Shortgrass Prairie Vegetation Type and Inclusions

Background and Description

Shortgrass prairie covers approximately 181,900 acres, or 79 percent, of the Kiowa and Rita 

Blanca National Grasslands. The shortgrass prairie typically occurs on areas of level plains, 
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 73

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

undulating hills and draws, or on gently rolling uplands of the southern Great Plains. The variable 

landscape gives rise to diversity in species composition and structure in different successional 

stages based on multiple factors, including drought, fire, and herbivory by ungulates and rodents 

(see appendix A, maps, “Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands, Vegetation Types”).

Seventy percent of the shortgrass area is made up of shortgrass prairie species. The remaining 30

percent is made up of inclusions that have species composition and structure different from 

shortgrass. There are five inclusions in shortgrass prairie, as follows:

• Mixed grass prairie

• Cultivated sites plowed and reclaimed

• Playas

• Dry washes, dry swales, and seasonal depressional wetlands

• Greenhorn, sandy and chalky limestone hills, knolls, gravelly balds, and mesa rims

The wildlife associated with shortgrass prairie vegetation includes the following: Bald Eagle,

Loggerhead Shrike, black-tailed prairie dog, Burrowing Owl, Ferruginous Hawk, Greene 

milkweed, Mountain Plover, one-flowered milkvetch, Spellenberg’s groundsel, Long-billed 

Curlew, swift fox, dotted checkerspot, alpine fever-few, Rhena-crossline skipper, Andean Prairieclover, Scaled Quail, Swainson’s Hawk, and Grasshopper Sparrow.

Of the species listed above, black-tailed prairie dog, Mountain Plover, and swift fox were 

determined to have viability concerns and lack the necessary population size and distribution of 

reproductive individuals to be considered well distributed and have assured continued existence 

in the planning area. An ongoing program of dusting prairie dog burrows with insecticide for 

controlling sylvatic plague contributes to maintaining and increasing black-tailed prairie dog 

colonies. There is no ongoing program of poisoning prairie dogs on the Grasslands.

New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas have comprehensive wildlife conservation strategies

(CWCS) that identified species of greatest conservation need (SGCN). All three states rank 

Mountain Plover as high priority SGCN, both New Mexico and Oklahoma list black-tailed prairie 

dog and swift fox as high priority SGCN, and Texas lists black-tailed prairie dog and swift fox as 

medium priority SGCN. Priority landscape shortgrass vegetation goals were developed in the 

CWCS as a means to benefit the habitat for the SGCN.

Shortgrass Prairie General Vegetation Type

Desired Conditions

• The middle and late successional stages of shortgrass prairie vegetation are 

characterized by grasses, forb, and shrub species that have composition and structure 

within low departure from reference condition.

• Grass generally less than 18 inches tall dominates the shortgrass ecosystem, with a mix 

of mid and shortgrass steppe grasses and a scarcity of shrubs and trees. Vegetation 

within this association is comprised of 20 to 70 percent grasses, up to 25 percent forbs 

(both annual and perennial), up to 15 percent shrubs, and a variable percentage of bare 

ground.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 74

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• The postfire and herbivory influenced early successional stage is dominated by grass 

seedlings and resprouts combined with post disturbance colonizers such as smooth 

brome, clover, ground cherry, ragweed, and sunflowers. As succession progresses, 

grasses such as buffalograss, blue grama, and vine mesquite become prevalent over the 

forb component.

• Once a successional stage reaches mid-open, herbaceous cover comprises up to 35

percent. Vegetation is low to medium in height. The abundance of annual forbs and 

grasses within the composition is dependent on the timing of precipitation events.

• In the mid-closed stage, the herbaceous cover comprises more than 35 percent and 

grass species dominance shifts to a diverse mosaic of cool and warm season grass 

species, including grama grasses, muhly, panicum, fescue, brome, dropseed, and 

bluestem.

• Fire occurs on the landscape at varying intervals and intensities determined by 

vegetative density and climatic conditions on a 3- to 10-year regime.

• Low structured vegetation representative of the early successional stage of shortgrass 

prairie is available for a keystone species3 black-tailed prairie dog to colonize. The 

colonies provide habitat for swift fox, Mountain Plover, Golden Eagle, Ferruginous 

Hawk, and badger. 

• Habitat for at least one complex4 of black-tailed prairie dog colonies is available for 

potential future reintroduction to recover the endangered black-footed ferret, a predator 

dependent on the black-tailed prairie dog; impacts from plague outbreaks to blacktailed prairie dogs and potential reintroduced black-footed ferrets are minimal.

Objectives

• Reintroduce prescribed fire in 1 to 10 percent of the vegetation type over the next 15 

years after plan approval.

• Mechanically, chemically, or with prescribed fire remove from 5 to 10 percent of 

native invasive plants such as cholla, juniper, pricklypear, mesquite, and yucca 

annually.

 3 A keystone species has a large overall effect on community or ecosystem structure or function, and this effect is 

disproportionately large relative to its abundance species (Power et al. 1996)

4 Definition of a black-tailed prairie dog complex is “a group or cluster of prairie dog colonies.”
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 75

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Figure 24. An example of the composition and structure of the shortgrass prairie 

component on the Rita Blanca National Grasslands.

Guidelines

• Prescribed fire and targeted grazing of suitable black-tailed prairie dog habitat should 

occur only on loamy uplands, loamy plains, limey uplands, alkaline plains, loamy 

bottomlands, basalt loam, and clayey soils on 0 to 5 percent slopes.

• Timing of prescribed fire or other vegetation treatments should consider adverse 

consequences to nesting birds.

• Special use activities should be limited in Ferruginous Hawk nesting areas during the 

nesting period from March 1 to June 30 within 0.5 mile of any suitable nesting sites 

and/or April 1 to August 31 within 0.5 mile of any active nest. Research under Agency 

control should occur outside early nesting and incubation periods.

• Improving habitat and maintaining corridors for swift fox should be accomplished 

through timely burning, mowing, livestock grazing, and seeding.

• Grazing management practices should maximize ground cover and promote cool 

season grasses and forbs.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 76

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Management Approach

The Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands will strive to contribute to implementation of the 

recommendations of the multistate conservation plan for the black-tailed prairie dog.

The Grasslands are cooperating with the New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas offices of Wildlife 

Services, USDA APHIS in a memorandum of understanding (MOU) that addresses sylvatic 

plague disease in mammals occurring on the shortgrass vegetation type for the purposes of

protection of human health, other wildlife resources, and boundary control.

The Grasslands are cooperating, through a MOU involving Federal agencies, to achieve the 

conservation and management of black-tailed prairie dogs and their habitat. The U.S. Forest 

Service, Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, Natural Resources Conservation Service, 

Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, National 

Park Service, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Civil Works), and U.S. 

Geological Survey agree that cooperative efforts will enhance conservation and management of 

the Nation’s short and mid-grass prairie and desert grassland ecosystems for the benefit of the 

black-tailed prairie dog and other obligate and associated species of these ecosystems.

The Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands may undertake development of a black-tailed 

prairie dog management plan that addresses prairie dog colony expansion on the Grasslands, 

plague control measures such as burrow dusting, vaccine-laden bait delivery, and control tools to 

protect adjacent landowner property such as visual barriers, poisoning, and shooting.

Shortgrass Prairie Specific

Background and Description

Shortgrass vegetation is codominated by blue grama, needle-and-thread, buffalograss, and little 

bluestem, with intermingled forbs and scattered half-shrubs. The abundance of annual forbs and 

grasses within the composition is dependent on the timing of precipitation events. Blue grama and 

buffalograss are the main grasses present in all successional stages postfire. Postfire early 

successional stages are dominated by resprouts and seedlings of grasses, and postfire associated 

forbs cover approximately 2 percent of this vegetation type. In addition, 1 to 4 percent of the 

vegetation type is an early successional stage due to current and historical prairie dog activity. 

The mid-open stage covers 86–89 percent of the shortgrass vegetation with less than 35 percent

herbaceous cover that is low to medium height. The mid-closed stage covers about 8 percent of 

this vegetation type with greater than 35 percent herbaceous cover.

Planned fire occurs, but on a small scale and generally not within the historical fire regime of 5 to 

10 years. 

Desired Conditions

Across approximately 70 percent of the shortgrass prairie type, herbaceous species 

(including blue grama, buffalograss, and galleta) codominate the vegetation. A variety of 

forbs are intermingled including species such as asters, milkweeds, groundsels, and 

primrose. The relationship between desired structure and species height is as follows:
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 77

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Short structure species such as buffalograss and purslane, generally 0 to 4 inches tall, 

comprise 40 to 60 percent of the total vegetation.

• Medium structure species such as blue grama and scarlet globemallow, generally 5 to 

11 inches tall comprise 35 to 50 percent of the total vegetation.

• Tall structure species such as sand dropseed and green thread, generally 12 inches tall 

or greater comprise 8 to 15 percent of the total vegetation.

Other desired conditions are as follows:

• Some patches of taller structure shortgrass communities (8 to 20 inches) occur in the 

vicinity of localities with sparse, low structure vegetation (4 to 12 inches) within 1⁄4 

mile of a water source in order to provide breeding habitat for the Long-billed Curlew.

• Grasses such as western wheatgrass and vine mesquite are abundant in mesic areas.

• Various cacti species such as cholla, pricklypear, and barrel cacti are scattered and 

minimally present with less than 1 percent of the total basal area.

• Scattered clusters of low shrubs such as multistemmed or knotted rhatany and 

snakeweed provide foraging and escape habitat for upland game birds.

• Deciduous trees are present in isolated pockets along draws, shelterbelts, and around 

old homesteads to provide nesting habitat for raptors.

• The other 30 percent of the vegetation type is made up of five inclusions which support 

different species composition and/or structure, based on soils, topography, or human 

influence.

Mixed Grass Inclusion

Background and Description

Mixed grass is an ecotone between shortgrass and tallgrass prairie. These sites occur on areas of 

sandy loam soils. Midgrass and tallgrass species codominate, ranging in height from 2 to 4 feet. 

Midgrass prairie species such as New Mexico feathergrass, needle and thread, big bluestem, little 

bluestem, and hairy grama occur individually or in variable groupings with shortgrass species. 

Some sites support both sand sagebrush and soapweed.

Desired Condition

• Midgrass and tallgrass species codominate the mixed grass inclusion. Species present 

include: New Mexico feathergrass, needle and thread, big bluestem, little bluestem, 

and hairy grama, occurring individually or in variable groupings with shortgrass 

species. Some sites support sand sagebrush and soapweed.

Objective

• On 10 to 40 percent of the mixed grass area inclusion, implement grazing management 

practices that maximize ground cover and favor cool season grasses and forbs during 

the 15 years following plan approval.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 78

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Figure 25. This photograph provides an example of vegetative shift where 

mixed grass species and associated forbs achieve codominance.

Guidelines

• Pastures should be grazed only once during the growing season.

• Dormant season grazing should be emphasized to maximize ground cover.

• Growing season rest should be provided following a burn event.

• Timing of prescribed fire or other vegetation treatments should consider adverse 

consequences to nesting birds.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 79

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Cultivated Sites, Plowed and Reclaimed Inclusion

Background and Description

These areas are old fields that were in cultivation prior to the 1930’s Dust Bowl. They were 

severely eroded, with most or all of the topsoil removed through wind erosion. Where these 

conditions occur, species composition and site potential have been altered. This historical species 

change is not reversible for the foreseeable future. In some areas, vegetation is limited to sideoats 

grama and lovegrass that were planted during reclamation. Soil fertility in these areas is very low, 

and both microorganisms and organic material are present in the soil in very limited quantities.

Figure 26. The elevation drop on the right side of this old shortgrass field on 

Rita Blanca in Unit 53 shows soil loss and reduction in soil productivity from 

the Dust Bowl era.

Desired Condition

• Plant diversity is consistent with soil and site potential, typified by communities of 

sideoats grama, lovegrass, and other species established during reclamation efforts. 

Vegetative cover is sufficient to protect the soil from wind erosion, with the exception 

of prairie dog towns.

Objective

• Implement grazing management practices to increase organic matter and improve site 

productivity on 10 to 40 percent of old fields during the 15 years following plan 

approval.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 80

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Guidelines

• Dormant season supplemental feeding of livestock should be limited to areas needing 

additional organic matter incorporated into the soil.

• Timing of prescribed fire or other vegetation treatments should consider adverse 

consequences to nesting birds.

Playa Lakes Inclusion

Background and Description

Playa lakes are bowl-shaped depressions that are dependent on rainfall and surface runoff for the 

water they impound. They are closed basins and usually do not overflow. They are mostly 

intermittent, with surface evaporation occurring at about 60 inches per year. Soils are mostly 

stable, although some wind erosion occurs. Vegetation, when present, consists of species adapted 

to mesic conditions, such as various annuals, milkweeds, western wheatgrass, and inland 

saltgrass. Upland shortgrass species are incidental. The adjacent watershed keeps the playas 

functioning properly during the periodic and natural inundation of the bottoms. When playas hold 

water, there is an increase in the shoreline vegetative diversity and density, and an increase in the 

extent of mudflat habitat for migratory waterfowl and shorebirds.

Wildlife associated with playa lakes includes the following: White-faced Ibis, plains leopard frog,

Long-billed Curlew, and American Avocet.

Figure 27. In this playa lake on the Kiowa National Grassland, the open 

water and mudflats provide important habitat for a variety of wildlife, birds, 

and other organisms.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 81

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Desired Conditions

• The desired condition for this playa lake inclusion is essentially the same as 

maintenance of the existing condition.

• Soils are mostly stable, although some wind erosion occurs. Vegetation, when 

sufficient moisture is present, consists of mesic-adapted species such as various 

annuals, milkweeds, western wheatgrass, and inland saltgrass, with incidental 

occurrence of upland shortgrass species.

• Playa lakes are connected to overland waterflows from the adjacent watershed during 

the periodic and natural inundation of the bottoms to support their inherent ecological 

qualities and hydrologic functions, and to provide for wildlife habitat. When playas 

hold water, there is an increase in the shoreline vegetative diversity and density and an 

increase in the extent of mudflat habitat for migratory waterfowl and shorebirds. Also 

during this time, they support aquatic life harboring a variety of vertebrate and 

invertebrate life forms.

• The integrity of the clay seals of playas is maintained and free from human influence. 

Playas altered through the construction of dugout pits are restored to their natural 

hydrologic function.

Objective

• Hydrologic functions are restored on 100 percent of altered and pitted playa lakes to 

better support their inherent ecological qualities and provide for wildlife habitat within 

15 years of plan approval.

Guideline

• Activities should be restricted from playa lakes that would adversely impact the waterholding ability or capacity, and natural hydrologic function should be restored to those 

that have been altered. Any activities should contribute to the restoration of hydrologic 

function of those that have been altered.

Dry Washes, Dry Swales, and 

Seasonal Depressional Wetlands Inclusion

Background and Description

These areas include habitat associated with intermittent or ephemeral streams, draws and swales,

or depressions between slopes of the gently sloping plain of grasslands. Soils are nonhydric (not 

formed in the presence of water) and are dry most of the year. The soil moisture is generally 

higher than the surrounding uplands as a result of storage and accumulation during rainfall 

events. However, there is no support by the water table during the long periods between 

precipitation events. Consistently high soil moisture levels are not present to support obligate 

riparian vegetation. Vegetation in and along intermittent or ephemeral drainages or seasonal 

depressions may be more dense or larger than their upland counterparts. However, the species are 
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 82

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

generally upland species and are typically facultative1 riparian or nonriparian plants, including

western wheatgrass, alkali sacaton, blue grama, buffalograss, switchgrass, inland saltgrass, and a

variety of forbs. The overall condition within these communities is stable.

Figure 28. Dry swales and seasonal depressional wetlands like this 

one on the Kiowa National Grassland are covered by shallow water 

for variable periods of time but may be completely dry for most of the 

year. Although generally isolated, these pools are connected to each 

other by a small drainage feature known as a swale.

Desired Conditions

• The grass component is a mix of cool and warm season grasses, including western 

wheatgrass, buffalograss, blue grama, vine mesquite, Indian grass, big bluestem, and 

switchgrass. There are some occurrences of woody species such as cottonwood, 

hackberry, willow, and sumac. Plant density and soil cover are adequate to slow water 

velocity during heavy rain events in dry swales, and water is ephemerally available in 

low lying, flooded depressions. The soil is highly permeable and does not show 

evidence of gully creation, expansion, or headcutting.

• Ephemeral wetland habitat is available for Great Plains narrow-mouthed toad to 

reproduce. Dry washes and draws support lichen, moss, and liverworts that provide 

habitat for ambersnail.

 1 Facultative riparian plants are defined as those plant species commonly found in both terrestrial upland and riparian 

areas.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 83

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Figure 29. Perico Creek on the Kiowa National Grassland is 

an example of a dry wash which supports a variety of 

vegetation adapted to moister conditions, though the wash 

does not usually contain standing water.

Objective

• Restore a minimum of 50 percent of the seasonal depressional wetlands that exhibit 

soil compaction and erosion within 10 years of plan approval.

Guidelines

• Activities that contribute to soil compaction and erosion should be excluded from 

seasonal depressional wetlands and associated swales during saturated soil conditions.

• Spreader dams and other erosion control methods should be constructed to disperse 

overland flow where gully erosion and headcuts are developing.

Greenhorn, Sandy and Chalky Limestone 

Hills, Knolls, Gravelly Balds, and Mesa Rims

Background and Description

Endemic to northeastern New Mexico, greenhorn, sandy and chalky limestone hills, and knolls 

occur in shortgrass prairie in elevations ranging from 5,900 to 6,600 feet. The gravelly balds and 

mesa rims occur in the shortgrass steppe elevations ranging from 5,400 to 5,800 feet. The 

outcrops are occasionally quarried for road base materials.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 84

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Desired Condition

• Limestone knolls, gravelly balds, and mesa rims support rare plant species such as

Spellenberg’s groundsel, one-flowered milkvetch, and Greene milkweed. 

Management Approach

Forest sensitive species rare plant surveys may be completed prior to issuing permits for removal 

of road building materials or for other ground-disturbing activities at Greenhorn limestone 

outcrops, and mining should not take place if rare plants are found.

Pinyon-Juniper Vegetation 

Type and Juniper Grasslands Inclusion

Background and Description

The pinyon-juniper vegetation type is in low departure from reference condition for vegetation 

structure. This vegetation type covers approximately 21,700 acres or 10 percent of the Kiowa 

National Grassland. Pinyon-juniper generally occurs on shallow soil types, on rocky summits of 

high plains, and in drainages on slopes less than 20 percent.

The early successional stage occurs postfire and covers about 12 percent of the vegetation type 

with open areas of grasses, forbs, seedlings less than 4.5 feet in height, and saplings.

The middle to late successional stage covers about 88 percent of the vegetation type and includes 

a mix of pinyon and juniper trees in a variety of stages with varying canopy cover as follows:

• Mid-development stages average 10 percent of the vegetation type in relative abundance 

and have a dense canopy cover (31 to 70 percent) of pole size trees 5 to 9 inches in 

diameter and very little understory.

• Approximately 30 percent of the vegetation type has pole size trees with a mixed shrubherbaceous understory, and canopy cover ranges from 0 to 30 percent.

• Approximately 40 percent in late development has medium size trees 9 to 21 inches in 

diameter and canopy cover of 0 to 40 percent.

• Approximately 10 percent has dense, old-growth characteristics with medium size trees 

and canopy cover of 41 to 70 percent.

Stands of pinyon-juniper that are overstocked or encroaching onto the shortgrass prairie are being 

treated with thinning and prescribed burning. Currently, the level of treatment is approximately 

500 to 900 acres of thinning per year, followed by 1,000 to 1,800 acres of burning.

Juniper grassland trees occur as individuals or in smaller groups and range from young to old 

with snags scattered across the landscape. The understory includes scattered shrubs, native 

grasses, forbs, and annuals. Smaller groups of trees are found on slopes greater than 15 percent, 

on rocky outcrops, and adjacent to drainages.

The wildlife associated with pinyon-juniper and juniper grasslands inclusion includes the 

following: Greene or wheel milkweed, panhandle spurge, one-flowered milkvetch, Spellenberg’s 

groundsel, and Mountain Bluebird.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 85

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Pinyon-Juniper Vegetation Type

Desired Conditions

The pinyon-juniper vegetation type is a mosaic of stand shape, size, spacing, and structural 

stages across the landscape reflecting the natural range of pinyon-juniper woodland. The 

tree component is largely composed of one-seed juniper and pinyon pine. Rocky Mountain 

juniper is well represented on mesic sites and pinyon pine is well represented over the 

whole vegetation type. The understory includes scattered shrubs, native grasses, forbs, and 

annuals. Shrub species present within a discontinuous layer include wavyleaf oak and 

mountain mahogany. Bare ground ranges from 5 to 55 percent depending on site potential. 

Snags are scattered across the landscape. Fires are of low severity, with a return interval 

ranging from 1 year to 35 years.

The early successional stage occurs postfire and covers about 10 percent of the vegetation 

type with open areas of grasses, forbs, shrubs, seedlings less than 4.5 feet in height, and 

saplings.

The middle to late successional stage covers about 90 percent of the vegetation type and 

includes a mix of pinyon and juniper trees in a variety of age classes with varying canopy 

cover as follows:

• Mid-development stages average 10 percent of the vegetation type in relative 

abundance and have a dense canopy cover (31 to 70 percent) of pole size trees 5 to 9

inches in diameter and very little understory.

• Approximately 30 percent of the vegetation type has pole size trees with a mixed 

shrub-herbaceous understory, and canopy cover ranges from 20 to 35 percent.

• Approximately 40 percent in late development has medium to large diameter size trees 

9 to 21 inches in diameter and canopy cover of 40 to 70 percent.

• Approximately 10 percent has dense, old-growth characteristics containing larger 

diameter trees, some snags, partially dead and diseased trees, and canopy cover of 40

to 70 percent.

Objectives

• Over the life of the plan, burn and/or thin 5 to 10 percent of the pinyon-juniper to 

maintain successional stage conditions and increase understory components in the 

pinyon-juniper woodland.

• Mechanically, chemically, or with prescribed fire, control 5 to 10 percent of native 

invasive plants (such as cholla and mesquite) annually.

• Apply mechanical, chemical, and/or prescribed fire treatments to produce all middle to 

late structural stages that are proportionally present in the pinyon-juniper vegetation 

type with old growth representing 10 percent within 15 years of plan approval.

• Over the life of the plan, retain large stands of pinyon-juniper as contiguous patches of 

no less than 40 acres on 10 percent of this vegetation type on a landscape scale.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 86

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Over the life of the plan, create openings in early and middle successional stage stands 

that lack a good shrub or grass component on up to 20 percent of the pinyon-juniper 

vegetation type at a landscape scale. 

Guidelines

• When determining size of openings in early and middle successional stage pinyonjuniper stands, habitat requirements of big game species and fuels reduction needs 

should be considered. Three to five of the largest diameter trees should be retained per 

acre in the openings.

• All snags greater than 9 inches in diameter at the root crown should be retained.

• At least two pieces of large 9 to 12 inches in diameter down woody material 8 to 10

feet long should be retained per acre.

• Treatments or forest product removal should occur outside the nesting season (April 

15th to July 31st) or be preceded by surveys for nesting birds to avoid adverse 

consequences to nest sites.

Juniper Grasslands Inclusion

Desired Condition

• Juniper grassland trees occur as individuals or in smaller groups and range from young 

to old. The smaller groups are maintained on slopes greater than 15 percent, on rocky 

outcrops, and adjacent to drainages. The understory is well represented and dominated 

by grasses and forbs, with a continuous understory that can include little bluestem, 

sideoats grama, blue grama, big bluestem, and/or galleta. The density of understory 

vegetation is sufficient to support frequent fire occurrence. The composition, structure, 

and function of vegetative conditions promote resilience to the frequency, extent, and 

severity of disturbances (e.g., erosion, insects, diseases, and fire) and climate 

variability. Fires that occur are of low severity with a frequency ranging from 1 to 35 

years.

Objective

• Over the life of the plan, burn and/or thin 5 to 10 percent of the juniper grasslands to 

maintain open savanna-type conditions and increase understory components in the 

juniper grasslands inclusion.

Cottonwood and Willow Riparian Vegetation Type

Background and Description

This vegetation type covers approximately 1,370 acres or 1 percent of the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands. The cottonwood and willow riparian vegetation associated with the 

Canadian River is described in the “Mills Canyon Management Area” section. The cottonwood 

and willow riparian communities are located within stream channels and on their associated flood

plains and terraces. Riparian vegetation is common with sandy alluvial soil conditions. The early 
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 87

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

successional stage is represented on about 16 percent of this vegetation type and is typically 

shrub-seedling dominated but grasses may codominate. The middle and late successional stage 

covers about 84 percent with a species composition of tall shrubs and small trees such as willows 

and cottonwoods. Late successional stage represents the mature, large cottonwood and willow 

riparian woodlands. Current management activities are targeting nonnative, invasive species in 

riparian areas, specifically, saltcedar. These activities are encouraging establishment of needed 

mid-successional conditions.

Fremont cottonwood dominates the tree layer, with peachleaf willow present in the subcanopy. 

Riparian dependent species include: narrowleaf cattail, common button bush, thinleaf or marsh 

alder, Rocky Mountain elderberry, and a variety of sedge and rush species. The primary shrub and 

vine species are sandbar willow, Virginia creeper, and riverbank grape. Native warm season 

grasses including blue grama, sideoats grama, sand dropseed, Virginia wildrye, and switchgrass 

are prominent in the ecosystem. Western wheatgrass is an important cool season species. Drier 

sites along or within ephemeral systems and upper terraces have New Mexico locust, choke 

cherry, hackberry, skunkbush sumac, and Apache plume.

The wildlife associated with all aspects of cottonwood-willow riparian include the following: 

Bald Eagle, Great Plains narrow-mouthed toad, plains leopard frog, Yellow-billed Cuckoo, whitetailed deer, arid land ribbon snake, Hobomok skipper, and Red-headed Woodpecker.

Desired Conditions

• Varied early, middle, and late successional stage structure (grasses, forbs, shrubs, trees) 

and varied species composition are present after major disturbance events or as a result 

of climate.

• Early successional stages within the riparian communities are present after disturbance. 

Cottonwood and willow seedlings are present on alluvial depositions. Sedges and 

rushes are the primary herbaceous species present in wet areas. Bare sand islands and 

point bars and gravel deposition areas are common. Grasses and young shrubs such as 

false indigo bush are present on less recent alluvial depositions. Remnant mature 

cottonwood and willow are infrequently present.

• Some mid-stage structure is present on depositional areas not recently disturbed. The 

mid-stage communities are partially open, with scattered cottonwoods and willows. 

The shrub layer is well developed, and herbaceous vegetation is highly variable, with 

Virginia wildrye and muhly grasses usually present. In wetter, more shaded areas, 

Virginia creeper is present.

• Late stage, mature, closed canopy cottonwood trees are present along the upper 

terraces that are protected from most flood events, except for rare, high-intensity 

flooding. Large mature trees, some with cavities, and dead but standing snags, dead 

and decadent branches, fallen limbs, and down trees, characterize the understory.

• Fire is infrequent and occurs at 5- to 50-year intervals, with intensities determined by 

vegetative and climatic conditions.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 88

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Populations of native woody species (particularly the long-term presence of mature 

cottonwood stands and areas with regenerating cottonwood and willow saplings) 

provide habitat for wildlife species such as Bald Eagle, Rio Grande Turkey, and 

raptors. A diverse mix of native grasses and forbs adapted to abrupt fluctuations in 

moisture regimes occurs in the herbaceous portion of riparian areas. The meander scars 

and depressions in the riparian areas that retain water part or all year provide habitat 

for amphibians, reptiles, insects, snails, and invertebrates.

Figure 30. This reach of Corrumpa Creek, Kiowa National Grassland,

has all the components of a cottonwood-willow riparian community.

Objective

• Restore 100 percent of the riparian areas to cottonwood-willow vegetation type species 

through plantings, seeding, and/or mechanical or chemical methods within 15 years of 

plan approval.

Guidelines

• All large native woody debris should be retained in the stream system to catch and 

store sediment.

• Grazing should be managed to promote or maintain riparian woody vegetation.

• Bald eagle roosts and nest sites should be protected by retaining, developing, or 

preserving mature trees and old-growth cottonwood stands, particularly within 1⁄2 mile 

of water.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 89

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Sand Sagebrush Vegetation Type

Background and Description

The sand sagebrush vegetation type covers approximately 22,651 acres (8 percent) of the 

Grasslands. Sand sagebrush typically occurs on areas of level plains, undulating hills and draws, 

or on gently rolling uplands of the southern Great Plains. The variable landscape gives rise to 

diversity in species composition and structure across the landscape.

The sand sagebrush prairie is dominated by mid-grasses and shrubs. The landscape includes a 

diversity of areas in different successional stages and with varying vegetative heights, as well as 

cool season grasses and a variety of forbs. The primary shrub species is sand sagebrush. Native, 

warm season perennial grasses (including big bluestem, little bluestem, sand dropseed, blue 

grama, and sideoats grama) are prominent in this ecosystem.

Figure 31. The sand sagebrush community produces a structural and 

compositional mosaic of vegetation as shown here with mixed grass 

on the Rita Blanca National Grassland.

One percent is in a postfire successional stage dominated by resprouts and seedlings of grasses 

and forbs with low to medium height having a variable canopy cover. This stage typically occurs 

where fires burn relatively hot.

The mid-open successional stage represents about 65 percent and has less than 35 percent 

herbaceous cover, medium to tall in height.

Mid-closed stage represents about 35 percent of the area with greater than 35 percent herbaceous 

cover, medium to tall in height.

Prescribed burning is currently being accomplished at a rate of approximately 500 acres every 3

to 5 years.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 90

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

The wildlife associated with sand sagebrush includes the following: Lesser Prairie-chicken,

dotted checkerspot, Scaled Quail, Grasshopper Sparrow, panhandle spurge, and Andean prairieclover.

Figure 32. Sand sagebrush with mixed grass depicting vertical structure 

on Rita Blanca Unit 54 shows the structure and composition desirable 

for suitable Lesser Prairie-chicken habitat.

Desired Conditions

• Sand sagebrush vegetation is characterized by shrubs, grasses, and forb species with 

structure and composition across the landscape that maintains the reference condition 

and areal extent.

• Fire and grazing disturbance processes occur on the sand sagebrush landscape at 

varying intervals and intensities that are determined by climatic conditions and 

vegetative density, respectively. The disturbance processes contribute toward achieving 

desired vegetative structure and density, improve vigor of native grass, and provide 

diversity of native forb species that are represented by plant communities with 

intermingled patch sizes at scales on the order of 10 to 1,000 acres. The diverse, welldistributed plant communities provide conditions that contribute to the sustainability of 

insects and rare plant species, as well as to nonuniform vegetative structure across the 

landscape that provides habitat for a diversity of prey and predator species. Fire return 

occurs at 5- to 50-year intervals.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 91

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• The sand sagebrush prairie is dominated by mid-grasses and sand sagebrush, with cool 

season grasses and a variety of forbs present. Native, warm season perennial grasses 

(including big bluestem, little bluestem, sand dropseed, blue grama, and sideoats 

grama) are prominent in this ecosystem. Early successional sand dune habitat is present 

at acceptable rates.

• Varied representation of any successional stage structure and composition results after 

major disturbance events.

• Vegetation cover is generally comprised of 20 to 60 percent grasses, 2 to 15 percent 

forbs, greater than 15 percent shrubs, and a variable percentage of bare ground, 

dependent upon the site potentials of these areas.

• Less than 5 percent of the area is represented in an early successional stage dominated 

by resprouts and seedlings of grasses and forbs. Canopy cover within this stage is 

highly variable, forb dependent, and has a low to medium height structure of up to 11

inches.

• The mid-open successional stage is represented by less than 35 percent herbaceous 

cover and makes up on average less than 65 percent of the area. Total canopy cover 

within this stage is variable (25 to 75 percent) with medium to tall height structure (5

to 12 inches or greater).

• The mid-closed successional stage makes up on average more than 30 percent of the 

area and has greater than 35 percent herbaceous cover. Total canopy cover within this 

stage is generally greater than 50 percent, with height structure greater than 12 inches.

The relationship between desired structure and species height is as follows:

• Short structure species such as blue grama, generally 0 to 4 inches tall, comprise 40 to

60 percent of the total vegetation cover.

• Medium structure species such as squirreltail and lacy tansyaster, generally 5 to 11

inches tall, comprise 35 to 50 percent of the total vegetation cover.

• Tall structure species such as sand bluestem and bush morning glory, generally 12

inches tall or greater, comprise 8 to 15 percent of the total vegetation cover.

• The sand sagebrush species composition provides vegetation structure and height 

relationships necessary for ground nesting bird cover and brood-rearing habitat. Small 

areas of short structured herbaceous vegetation or patches of bare ground are present 

for Lesser Prairie-chicken leks and courtship areas. These patches also provide wildlife 

travel corridors, escape routes, and annual plant germination sites for wildlife foraging 

habitat.

Guidelines

• Management activities should be implemented that encourage forbs and cool season 

grasses.

• Pastures should be grazed only once during the growing season.

• Dormant season grazing should be emphasized to maximize ground cover.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 92

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Timing of prescribed fire or other vegetation treatments should consider adverse 

consequences to nesting birds.

• Growing season recovery should be provided following a burn event.

Management Approach

In general, improving habitat and maintaining corridors for potential Lesser Prairie-chicken 

reoccupation and use may be accomplished through a blend of timely burning, mowing, livestock 

grazing, and seeding practices.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Mills Canyon Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 93

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Mills Canyon Management Area

The Mills Canyon Management Area is located in Mora and Harding Counties, NM, is part of the 

Kiowa National Grassland, and is a unique subunit of the Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management 

Area. The following plan components (desired conditions, objectives, guidelines, standards) and 

management approaches apply only to the social and economic goods and services and ecological 

resources of the Mills Canyon Management Area. Because this management area is an overlay to 

the Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area, the direction given for the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

Management Area in part 3 and the Grasslands-wide direction of part 2 apply as well.

Figure 33. Mills Canyon Management Area.

The reader is reminded that:

Appendix C contains a list of proposed and probable actions that will likely take place on 

the Grasslands at the project or activity level to accomplish objectives and to maintain or 

move toward achievement of the desired conditions described in this plan.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Mills Canyon Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 94

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Integrated Recreation and Scenery

Background and Description

The Mills Canyon Management Area is located in the western portion of the Kiowa National 

Grassland. The rim of the canyon defines its eastern and western boundaries, and the northern and 

southern extents are defined by NFS property boundaries. The main road in the canyon is within a 

motorized corridor and provides vehicle access to trailheads. Nonmotorized trail access from the 

top of the canyon to the bottom is provided. Nonmotorized trails accommodate hiking and 

horseback riding.

The Forest Service intends to maintain a semiprimitive nonmotorized character for most of the 

management area to preserve its outstanding recreational and natural features. There are small 

areas of semiprimitive motorized character that provide access to two popular dispersed camp and 

picnic sites (See appendix A, maps, “Proposed Scenic Integrity Objectives and Recreation 

Opportunity Spectrum Classes”). Sand sagebrush with mixed grass depicting vertical structure on 

Rita Blanca Unit 54 shows the structure and composition desirable for suitable Lesser Prairiechicken habitat.

Figure 34. The Mills Canyon Management Area is remarkable for 

its dramatic topography and has been a center of prehistoric and 

historic activities.

Desired Conditions

• The unique characteristics of Mills Canyon are apparent through views that are 

provided of the 800-foot-deep canyon. The Canadian River and the ribbons of willows 

and pockets of cottonwoods growing along the banks are central elements of the valued 

landscape. The presence of the invasive saltcedar tree is minimal or nonexistent. Along 

the rim there are coniferous trees and deciduous shrubs. The contribution of these 

scenic features allows the canyon to be predominantly a natural appearing landscape. 

• The ruins of the Mills Orchard and Ranch near the campground and the remnant Osage 

orange trees provide a glimpse of the history of the canyon.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Mills Canyon Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 95

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• A variety of nonmotorized recreation opportunities exist in a natural setting that offer 

opportunities for solitude. Concentration of users outside of developed recreation 

facilities is low. Dispersed camping occurs in areas appropriate for that use. Dispersed 

recreation areas offer unique hunting opportunities.

• Improvements such as trailheads, trails, signs, bridges, fences, primitive shelters, or 

water developments are present. The number of structures and facilities to support 

management activities is limited.

• A natural landscape with unobtrusive structural developments is maintained. Livestock 

grazing and recreation activities have minimal conflict. Vegetation management 

activity conforms to valued landscape characteristics of the eligible scenic river.

• Retain the undeveloped character of the inventoried roadless area (IRA), and retain the 

roadless character for that part of the management area within the IRA boundary. 

Figure 35. The line of remnant Osage orange trees along the upper 

grassy area, draw a canyon viewer’s attention to the ruins of 

buildings at the Mills Orchard and Ranch site, as well as to the 

contrast among meandering riparian vegetation, rolling terrain, 

trees, and shrubs.

Objectives

• Post signs and construct barriers to prevent dispersed camping immediately outside the 

perimeter of all developed sites within 10 years of plan approval.

• Successfully rehabilitate areas of past disturbance within 200 feet of all developed 

recreation sites within 10 years of plan approval.

• Construct two nonmotorized trails in the Mills Canyon Management Area within 15 

years of plan approval.

• Perform maintenance on the Mills Canyon Orchard and Ranch site every 3 to 5 years 

to the conditions established by the 2005 rehabilitation. 
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Mills Canyon Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 96

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Rehabilitate all user-created routes and closed roads that are causing resource concerns 

within 15 years after a travel management decision is signed for the management area.

Vegetation in Canyon Lowlands, Woodland 

Pinyon-Juniper on Canyon Steep Slopes, 

Cottonwood-Willow Riparian, and Canadian River

Background and Description

The Mills Canyon Management Area is located on the Kiowa National Grassland in northeast 

New Mexico along the Canadian River about 55 river miles above Conchas Reservoir. It is 

defined geographically by the Canadian River gorge, with elevations ranging from 6,100 feet at 

the river to 6,800 feet at the canyon rim. The variable landscape gives rise to diversity in species 

composition and structure across the landscape.

Figure 36. The valley, river, and canyon walls in this photo of Mills Canyon 

and the Canadian River create a backdrop for the diverse vegetation 

growing in the riparian areas, flood plain terraces, and gently rolling valley 

floor areas.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Mills Canyon Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 97

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

The following pages describe vegetation composition and structure variations associated with the 

following topographical positions within the canyon:

• Canyon lowlands

• Woodland pinyon-juniper on canyon steep slopes

• Cottonwood-willow riparian and Canadian River

Canyon Lowlands

Background and Description

The canyon lowlands of the Canadian River valley include the gently sloping flood plains found 

between the riparian area of the Canadian River and side drainages. These flood plains are 

characterized by sloping terraces of less than 15 percent that transition into the nearly vertical 

side slopes that form the walls of the river canyon and the canyon stringer drainages that flow 

into the main channel of the river system. Much of the river bottom was formed by alluvial 

deposits and sloughing upper terraces. There are three distinct flood plains dependent upon and 

formed by the frequency of flooding events. They range from areas of historical (long-term) 

floods where vegetation can exhibit successional patterns (areas of 100- to 500-year flooding) and 

areas of 2- to 5-year flooding where the vegetation is comprised mostly of annuals and other 

riparian disturbance-dependent species. In the active flood plain, flooding frequency determines 

vegetation composition and successional patterns. The upper flood plain is a secondary 

successional pattern exhibited by a woodland community of one-seed juniper, pinyon pine, wavy 

leaf oak, cholla, and sumac with an herbaceous understory of silver bluestem, sand dropseed, vine 

mesquite, and blue grama. The woodland community advances onto the secondary flood plain 

near the water’s edge, indicating a historical change in frequency of floods and/or fluvial 

processes.

Desired Condition

• The composition, structure, and function of vegetation promote resilience of the system 

to the frequency, extent, and severity of flood events. Vegetation is represented in a 

diverse composition and age class distribution. Species present within the 2- to 5-year 

flood plain indicate maintenance of riparian soil moisture characteristics. Vegetation 

within the secondary and tertiary flood plains is adequate to protect soils and dissipate 

energy during high flows. Early successional stage occurs postflood and covers 10 to 

20 percent of the flood plain. Mid- to late-development stages cover 50 to 80 percent 

of the flood plain in relative abundance, with a mixture of upland and riparian 

dependent species present.

Objective

• Use prescribed fire at least once within 15 years of plan approval to rejuvenate the 

browse component on the canyon lowlands.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Mills Canyon Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 98

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Pinyon-Juniper Woodland on Canyon 

Steep Slopes, Cliffs, and Rock Outcrops

Background and Description

Canyon side slopes are directly associated with drainages and range from steep to very steep with 

gradients greater than 20 percent. The dominant vegetation on canyon slopes varies depending on 

aspect, with pinyon pine, juniper, and Gambel oak as the principal tree species. The area is wetter 

than upland areas, and northerly slopes support dense stands of juniper, ponderosa pine, mountain 

mahogany, and oak. Slopes with more southerly aspects support relatively dense stands of pinyon 

pine and juniper with mixed oak (primarily comprised of wavyleaf oak). The vegetation on 

cooler, moister side drainages and on the edge of the canyon rim is generally comprised of 

ponderosa pine stringers. Fire-influenced areas are often characterized by dense stands of Gambel 

and wavyleaf oak thickets.

Figure 37. The slopes of Mills Canyon support ponderosa pine and 

relatively dense stands of pinyon pine and juniper with a wavyleaf 

oak and Gambel oak understory.

The wildlife and plants associated with pinyon-juniper on canyon steep slopes, cliffs, and rock 

outcrops includes the following: Zone-tailed Hawk, American Peregrine Falcon, Pale Townsend’s 

Big-eared Bat, Rocky Mountain dagger, and horrid herrickia.

Desired Conditions

• The side slopes support dense, mixed, and occasionally pure stands of juniper, 

ponderosa pine, mountain mahogany, and oak. Slopes with more southerly aspects 

support relatively dense stands of pinyon pine and juniper with mixed oak (primarily 

comprised of wavyleaf oak). Vegetative cover is present to maintain erosion at natural 

rates. Fire regimes are within 1 to 35 years with a range of variation and intensity. Fireinfluenced areas are characterized by dense stands of Gambel and wavyleaf oak 

thickets and vegetative cover is present to maintain erosion at natural rates. The risk of 
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Mills Canyon Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 99

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

losing key ecosystem components (species composition, structure, and pattern) due to 

severe wildfire is low.

• Woodland canyon side slopes provide key ecosystem components such as older age 

class ponderosa pine to provide nesting habitat for raptors and roost or nursery habitat 

for bats. Cliffs support nesting raptors.

• Browse on side slopes provides habitat for mule deer.

Objective

• Use prescribed fire at least once over the life of the plan to rejuvenate the browse 

component on the canyon side slopes.

Cottonwood-Willow Riparian and Canadian River

Background and Description

The Canadian River flows from its headwaters in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in far southern 

Colorado and meanders through the semiarid landscape in the central part of northeastern New 

Mexico. Snowmelt and seasonal rains are the major flow sources: both of which are diverted for 

irrigation and other uses before the waters reach the Mills Canyon area. The upstream water 

diversion has altered seasonal base flows in the Mills Canyon portion of the Canadian River, 

thereby reducing water availability for adjacent riparian area vegetation.

Along the canyon bottom, within the river flood plain, vegetation is dominated by riparian 

species, including willow and cottonwood. The cottonwood-willow riparian communities are 

located within stream channels and include the associated flood plains and terraces. Riparian 

vegetation is common with sandy alluvial soil conditions. The early successional stage is 

represented on about 16 percent of this vegetation type and is typically shrub-seedling dominated, 

but grasses may codominate. The middle and late successional stage covers about 84 percent of 

the species composition that includes tall shrubs and small trees such as willows and 

cottonwoods. The late successional stage represents the mature, large cottonwood and willow 

riparian woodlands. Much of the native riparian vegetation has been replaced by saltcedar. 

Current management activities are targeting nonnative, invasive species in riparian areas. These 

activities are encouraging establishment of needed mid-successional conditions. In the Mills 

Canyon Management Area of the Canadian River, upstream diversions and invasion of saltcedar 

have altered hydrological processes and geomorphology.

Cottonwood-willow riparian trees support nesting and foraging for birds such as the Red-headed 

Woodpecker in early/mid- and late-successional stages and Bald Eagle in the late-successional 

stage during winter migration. Wildlife that utilize the adjacent riparian habitat and other riparian 

wet mesic areas include invertebrates, such as Conchas crayfish and ambersnail, and reptiles such 

as the arid land ribbon snake.
Part 3: Management Area-Specific Management Direction

Mills Canyon Management Area

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and 100

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Desired Conditions

• Cottonwood-willow riparian vegetation is characterized by trees, shrubs, grasses, and 

forb species without the presence of invasive species such as saltcedar. The structure 

and composition closely resembles the reference condition of the cottonwood-willow 

riparian vegetation type.

• Fremont cottonwood dominates the tree layer with peachleaf willow present in the 

subcanopy. Riparian dependent species includes: narrowleaf cattail, common button 

bush, thinleaf or marsh alder, Rocky Mountain elderberry, and a variety of sedge and 

rush species. The primary shrub and woody vine species are sandbar willow and 

riverbank grape. Native warm season grasses including blue grama, sideoats grama,

sand dropseed, vine mesquite, Virginia wildrye, and switchgrass are prominent in the 

riparian ecosystem. Western wheatgrass is an important cool season species. Drier sites 

along or within ephemeral systems and upper terraces have New Mexico locust, choke 

cherry, hackberry, skunkbush sumac, and Apache plume.

• Populations of native woody species, particularly the long-term presence of mature 

cottonwood stands and areas with regenerating cottonwood and willow saplings, 

provide habitat for wildlife species such as the Bald Eagle and Red-headed 

Woodpecker. A diverse mix of native grasses and forbs adapted to abrupt fluctuations 

in moisture regimes occurs in the herbaceous portion of riparian areas and provides

habitat for the arid land ribbon snake and ambersnail. The meander scars and 

depressions in the riparian areas that retain water part or all of the year provide habitat 

for amphibian species such as the plains leopard frog.

For both herbaceous and woody riparian areas, stream characteristics including vegetation,

geomorphology, and hydrology are sufficient to:

• Dissipate stream energy associated with high waterflows, thereby reducing erosion and 

improving water quality;

• Filter sediment, capture bedload, and aid flood plain development;

• Allow floodwater retention and groundwater recharge; and

• Develop root masses that stabilize streambanks against cutting action.

Guidelines

• Restore 100 percent of the riparian areas to cottonwood-willow vegetation type species 

through plantings, seeding, and/or mechanical or chemical methods within 15 years of 

plan approval.

• Conchas crayfish habitat of sandy substrate and shallow shoreline should be 

maintained.

• Habitat should be managed for open forest fragments and large snags should be 

available for cavity-nesting birds.
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 101

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Part 4: Special Areas 

and Eligible Scenic River

The Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area has four special features that attract many visitors. 

There are two scenic byways, the Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway and La Frontera del 

Llano Scenic Byway; one historic trail, the Santa Fe National Historic Trail; and a segment of 

eligible scenic river on the Canadian River. The location and boundaries of these areas are shown

on the special areas map in appendix A, maps, “Special Areas and Eligible Scenic River.”

All of these special areas have high scenic integrity that helps preserve their context; therefore, 

some of the applicable management direction associated with these areas can also be found in the 

“Scenery” plan components.

The reader is reminded that:

Where there is no desired condition given for a social or economic good or service or 

ecological resource related to this management area, refer to the Grasslands-wide desired 

condition for the same topic in part 2; and

Where there are no explicitly stated, unique, or additive objectives, management approaches, 

guidelines, or standards given, then none exist for this management area beyond those at the 

Grasslands-wide scale presented in part 2.

Appendix C contains a list of proposed and probable actions that will likely take place on the 

Grasslands at the project or activity level to maintain or move toward achievement of the 

desired conditions described in this plan.

National Trails and Scenic Byways

Background and Description

Santa Fe National Historic Trail

The Santa Fe National Historic Trail is a national historic landmark with a 2.4-mile trail segment 

located on the Kiowa National Grassland. In 2001, the Forest Service developed an interpretive 

kiosk and day-use/picnic site near the historic trail route in accordance with the National Park 

Service’s “Santa Fe National Historic Trail Comprehensive Management and Use Plan.”

Management objectives for the Santa Fe National Historic Trail center on four general subject 

areas: protect resources from overuse, vandalism or inappropriate use; visitor use with an 

emphasis on interpretive activities; development including standardized signage and restoration; 

and management and cooperation between the National Park Service and other managing entities.

This section of the Santa Fe National Historic Trail is valued because the landscape remains

similar to the landscape viewed by American Indians prior to arrival of European settlers, as well 

as when the trail was in use in the 1800s as an international commercial wagon route. The only 

conflict to maintaining the historic and scenic qualities of the trail area is unregulated motorized 

use that occurs there and evidence of that use.

Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway

The Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway is a roadway that was designated to highlight areas of 

the Santa Fe National Historic Trail that are accessible by vehicle. Since most of the trail is on 
Part 4: Special Areas and Eligible Scenic River

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 102

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

private land, the byway is an essential link for tourism and economic development associated 

with the trail and its history. It follows U.S. 56 and NM 406 in the vicinity of the Kiowa National 

Grassland.

Figure 38. The Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway offers 

high-quality views of landmarks that are part of the trail’s 

history, including Rabbit Ears and historic homesteads.

La Frontera del Llano Scenic Byway

La Frontera del Llano Scenic Byway passes through Quay, Harding, and Colfax Counties. It 

follows NM 39 through the Mills units of the Kiowa National Grassland. Mills Canyon is a major 

feature that is expected to be promoted along this route.

Desired Conditions

Santa Fe National Historic Trail

• The segments of the Santa Fe National Historic Trail identified on the Kiowa National 

Grassland demonstrate the inherent physical integrity, and cultural, natural, and scenic 

resources of the trail. This is consistent with the “Santa Fe National Historic Trail 

Comprehensive Management and Use Plan” (USDI National Park Service 1990) and 

the Memorandum of Understanding between the National Park Service and the PikeSan Isabel National Forests and Cimarron-Comanche National Grasslands signed 

March 6, 1991 (USDA Forest Service and USDI National Park Service 1991).

• Developments are limited to a few fences, roads, and ranching-related tanks and 

windmills; the broad grasslands extend to the distant hills. The ruts are still prominent, 

and visitors can follow the trail and experience a landscape similar to the travelers of 

the 1800s.
Part 4: Special Areas and Eligible Scenic River

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 103

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• The Santa Fe National Historic Trail is a nonmotorized corridor that promotes 

conservation of the historic features and setting of the trail. Ruts and other remnant

evidence are interpreted and protected from modern human impacts. The landscape is 

reminiscent of the time when the trail was used actively as a wagon route, and of the 

time when American Indians were the predominant human inhabitants. Trail signs and 

interpretive materials are consistent with the symbols and appearance of other 

developed sites along the trail. Visitors experience outdoor recreation, public 

enjoyment, appreciation, and learning about the Santa Fe National Historic Trail.

Figure 39. The marker for the Santa Fe National Historic Trail on 

the Kiowa National Grassland displays a standardized emblem 

as part of the comprehensive management and use plan 

prepared by the National Park Service.

Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway

• The byway provides access to remnant portions of the Santa Fe National Historic Trail 

and is the major corridor by which visitors find the Santa Fe National Historic Trail 

interpretive site. Outdoor recreation and public appreciation for the history of the Santa 

Fe National Historic Trail are experienced along the routes. The scenery is reminiscent 

of the open grassland and sweeping plains seen when the trail was active. Quality 

views of landmarks on the horizon are enjoyed along the byway, particularly Rabbit 

Ears Mountain, Round Mound, Turkey Creek, and McNees Crossing.

La Frontera del Llano Scenic Byway

• Mills Canyon and other historic and scenic attractions along the route are connected to 

the byway through signs and other directional material. The scenic quality of the vast 

open spaces includes plains and mesas, grasslands, and rivers, with abundant wildlife 

that are visible from the byway. The grasslands bordering Mills Canyon are gently

rolling hills blanketed with grasses and punctuated with pockets of pinyon and juniper. 
Part 4: Special Areas and Eligible Scenic River

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 104

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Low mesas, tablelands, and occasional ridges of lava beds define the landscape of the 

Grasslands. Nearing the canyon rim, the pinyon and juniper form more continuous 

bands. The social history of the frontier life in New Mexico is preserved and 

interpreted for visitor enjoyment and appreciation.

Objectives

Santa Fe National Historic Trail

• Within 5 years of plan approval, close and rehabilitate or obliterate all Forest Service 

roads which cross the Santa Fe National Historic Trail and which are not necessary for 

administrative uses.

La Frontera del Llano Scenic Byway

• Construct at least one sign that links Mills Canyon and the Kiowa National Grassland 

to La Frontera de Llano Scenic Byway within 10 years of approval of the byway’s 

management plan.

• Develop at least one interpretive site related to La Frontera de Llano Scenic Byway 

within 10 years of plan approval.

Management Approach 

National Trails and Scenic Byways

Scenic byways and national trails are linear special areas which cross multiple jurisdictions. 

Supporting activities and enhancement of these trails and byways is an important part of the 

Grassland’s economic contribution to local communities. Because of the multijurisdictional 

nature of this type of special area, trail or byway associations may be a close partner in activities 

and projects related to the respective trail or byway. The Grasslands may work with these 

associations to support their economic goals and to protect the resources for which the trail or 

byway was designated. The Grasslands may coordinate to maintain consistency in signage and 

appearance of the trail and associated features.

Eligible Scenic River

Background and Description

The segment of the Canadian River within the Mills Canyon Management Area was classified as 

an eligible scenic river under the Wild and Scenic River Act in 2002. The corridor is 

approximately 20 miles long, with 17 miles on Forest Service land, and 3 miles on other 

jurisdiction with a half mile buffer —1/4 mile wide on either side of the river. Even though the 

river is properly classified as free flowing, it is periodically intermittent due to climatic events 

such as large-scale drought and upstream diversions. In addition, the canyon walls display 

geological formations and dramatically rise several hundred feet above the canyon floor. These 

features are unique across the adjacent Grassland units. The area was considered eligible for four 

outstanding and remarkable values: scenery, geology, recreation, and history. Management of the 

eligible scenic river corridor is intended to enhance and protect these values; however, there is 
Part 4: Special Areas and Eligible Scenic River

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 105

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

some intrusion into the area by user-created roads. The standard for managing the eligible scenic 

river has been carried over from the 1985 plan.

Figure 40. The Canadian River is an eligible scenic river under the 

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968. The outstanding remarkable 

values of the corridor are scenery, recreation, geology, and history.

Desired Conditions

• The Canadian River within Agency ownership is a free-flowing river, free of impeding 

structures. The stream exists in a state of balance where the stream geomorphology 

(slope, width, depth, and sinuosity) adjusts to changes in sediment and waterflow. The 

riparian vegetation at the river’s edge is dominated by cottonwood and willow 

communities, and the stream is allowed to meander. The four outstanding and 

remarkable values of the river: scenery, recreation, geology, and history are protected 

and preserved for future generations.

• Visitors consider scenery in the river corridor as beautiful, primitive, and natural. The 

major features of the canyon’s scenery are the cottonwood-willow riparian vegetation

running down the center of the canyon, the pinyon-juniper woodlands on upper slopes 

of the canyon, and the occasional ponderosa pine in wet drainages. The geology and 

history of the canyon are interpreted for visitors. Interpretive connections between La 

Frontera del Llano Scenic Byway and the river corridor emphasize the canyon’s 

uniqueness compared to the surrounding landscape and its importance to local 

communities. Public access in the corridor does not conflict with the outstanding and 

remarkable scenic values for which the area was determined to be an eligible scenic 

river.

Objective

• Close or rehabilitate all unauthorized motorized vehicle stream crossings in the 

corridor within 10 years of plan approval.
Part 4: Special Areas and Eligible Scenic River

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 106

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Standard

• Manage the Canadian River to preserve its wild, scenic, or recreation river potential. 

Management Approach

As opportunities become available, private lands may be acquired within the river corridor to 

preserve the unique qualities.
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 107

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Part 5: Suitability of Areas

Suitability

Introduction to Suitability of Areas

The Grasslands are generally suitable for a variety of uses. The three broad use categories 

(grazing, recreation, and timber) on the following pages are not intended to be all inclusive. Some 

uses, such as energy development or mineral extraction, are guided by desired conditions, 

guidelines, and standards found in parts 2 and 3 of this document, but in general, the Grasslands

are suitable for those uses.

The identification of an area as suitable for various uses is guidance for project and activity 

decisionmaking and is not a commitment or a final decision approving projects and activities. 

Uses that are not specifically identified as suitable would be evaluated in terms of the desired 

conditions. Uses that are neutral to or help move the Grasslands toward the desired conditions 

may be allowed. Particular uses that are suitable in an area must also be consistent with other plan 

components and laws and regulations.

Areas that are not suitable for a particular use are those where the use is not compatible with 

desired conditions for the area. This does not mean the use is prohibited in that area, but the 

activity or project would require a NEPA decision.

Grazing Suitability

The 1982 Planning Rule provisions require that the suitability and capability of National Forest 

System lands for producing forage for grazing and browsing animals be determined in forest 

planning. Suitability is determined based on compatibility with desired conditions and objectives 

in the plan area, including wildlife habitat needs. The identification of an area as suitable for 

various uses guides project and activity decisionmaking and is not a commitment or a final 

decision approving projects and activities. For example, the identification of lands suitable for 

livestock grazing within the revised plan is not a decision to authorize livestock grazing; the final 

decision to authorize livestock grazing would be made at the project (allotment) level.

The 1985 “Cibola National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan” (LRMP), as amended,

is the starting point for identifying suitability of land use on the Grasslands. The analysis and 

subsequent identification of lands as suitable for livestock grazing is carried forward from that 

plan as the existing suitability determination. No need for change was identified.

Capability of Cibola National Forest and National Grasslands lands to produce forage was 

determined in the 1980s as part of forest planning. Capability is the potential of an area of land to 

produce resources and supply goods and services. It depends upon site conditions such as climate, 

slope, landform, soils, and geology. Most of these landscape-scale conditions have not changed 

significantly since then; therefore, capability determined in the 1985 LRMP is likely still at the 

strategic planning level, but it should be considered when making project-level decisions.

Current Condition

Over 96 percent of the Grasslands is used by permit holders to graze their cattle. Livestock are 

excluded from developed recreation areas, administrative sites, research sites, and exclosures 

designed to protect various resource values. There is no indication that there will be a major 

increase or decrease in grazing on the Grasslands over the next 20 years; however, cattle numbers 
Part 5: Suitability of Areas

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 108

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

and management strategies are expected to fluctuate in response to drought, wildfire, prescribed 

fire, and other factors that change range conditions.

Annual range monitoring has shown that annual fluctuations in weather patterns continue to be 

the most frequent reasons for adjusting grazing management strategies through adaptive 

management processes. Monitoring is done on an annual basis and reports can be found at 

http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/cibola/projects/index.shtml.

Table 2. Livestock grazing – all Grasslands

Suitability Determination

Area Suitable Not Suitable

General Grasslands X

Slopes over 40 percent X

Developed recreation areas X

Administrative sites, research sites, exclosures designed to protect resource 

values

X

Areas with “No Grazing” decisions X

Areas with soil condition of unsuited or inherently unstable soil function X

Recreation Suitability

The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) is a planning tool used to identify the supply of 

outdoor recreation settings on national forests in support of recreation activities. ROS includes 

seven possible setting classifications. Four settings are assigned on the Grasslands: roaded 

natural (RN), semiprimitive motorized (SPM), semiprimitive nonmotorized (SPNM), and rural 

(R). (See the “Recreation Opportunity Spectrum” maps in appendix A.)

The ROS makes broad assumptions about what recreation activities are compatible within a given 

recreation setting. Based upon the ROS settings, the plan revision team determined suitability 

within the four ROS classes described above. Only dispersed uses would be suitable in areas 

classified as semiprimitive nonmotorized. All recreation uses would be suitable in areas classified 

as semiprimitive motorized and roaded natural. Areas (1,409 total acres) on the Kiowa and Rita 

Blanca National Grasslands inventoried as rural are unsuitable for recreation uses. The 36 acres 

of NFS land classified as rural surrounding the district office on the Black Kettle National 

Grassland contains short trails and interpretive exhibits associated with the Battle of the Washita. 

Those acres are suitable for dispersed recreation.

Table 3. Suitability of recreation activities by ROS classification

Recreation 

Activities

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum

SPNM SPM RN R

Developed X X

Dispersed X X X X

Motorized X X
Part 5: Suitability of Areas

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 109

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

The Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands contain 230,526 acres of NFS lands. Of those, 

8,121 acres assigned a ROS setting of semiprimitive nonmotorized would be unsuitable for 

developed and motorized recreation for resource protection. These areas are within the Mills 

Canyon Management Area and in the vicinity of the Santa Fe National Historic Trail on the 

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area.

On the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands, 1,409 acres of land have been assigned a 

ROS setting of rural, and determined to be unsuitable for recreation uses due to nearby industrial 

and commercial developments.

The Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands contain 32,735 acres of NFS lands. 

Of those, 36 acres are assigned a ROS setting of rural. Those 36 acres would be unsuitable for 

developed and motorized uses due to proximity of the district administrative site; however, 

dispersed uses are acceptable. 

Timber Suitability

The National Forest Management Act (NFMA) of 1976 requires that National Forest System 

lands be classified as to their suitability for various uses, including timber harvest and timber 

production. National Forest System lands were reserved with the intent of providing goods and 

services to satisfy public needs over the long term; among those needs is a sustainable supply of 

forest products.

The 1982 Planning Rule provisions require the responsible official to identify lands not suitable 

for timber production within the plan area (1982 Rule provision Section 219.14). Based upon the 

definition of “forest land” and other criteria for determining suitability of forest land (FSH 

2409.13, Chapter 20), all land on the Grasslands is considered unsuitable for commercial timber 

production.

The Forest Service Manual (FSM 1900) defines timber production as, “The purposeful growing, 

tending, harvesting, and regeneration of regulated crops of trees for cutting into logs, bolts, or 

other round sections for industrial or consumer use.” For purposes of forest planning, timber 

production does not include firewood or harvests from unsuitable lands. FSM 1900 defines forest 

land as land at least 10 percent occupied by forest trees or formerly having had such tree cover 

and not currently developed for non-forest use. Lands developed for non-forest use include areas 

for crops, improved pasture, residential or administrative areas, improved roads of any width, and 

adjoining road clearing and powerline clearing of any width.

Unsuitable forest land is forest land not managed for timber production because (a) Congress, the 

Secretary, or the Chief has withdrawn it; (b) it is not producing or capable of producing crops of 

industrial wood; (c) technology is not available to prevent irreversible damage to soil productivity 

or watershed conditions; (d) there is no reasonable assurance based on existing technology and 

knowledge that it is possible to restock lands within 5 years after final harvest, as reflected in 

current research and experience; (e) there is, at present, a lack of adequate information about 

responses to timber management activities; or (f) timber management is inconsistent with or not 

cost efficient in meeting the management requirements and multiple-use objectives specified in 

the Forest plan.
Part 5: Suitability of Areas

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 110

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Tables 4 and 5 summarize the timber suitability classification and area descriptions for the Black 

Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands and the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National 

Grasslands, respectively.

Table 4. Black Kettle and McClellan Creek timber suitability classification and area 

descriptions

Category Description Acres

Total NFS Lands (Forest or Grassland) 32,735

Non-forested land (not suitable for timber production) <10% occupied by 

trees

31,105

Forested land—not suitable for timber production because:

Withdrawn from timber production 0

Irreversible resource damage likely Soils may be 

damaged by erosion 

or nutrient removal

779

Adequate restocking not assured 0

Forested land tentatively suitable for timber production

(all forested land minus sum of 3 rows above)

851

Forested land tentatively suitable for timber production—not 

appropriate for timber production because:

Forested lands where resource management prescriptions 

preclude timber production

0

Forested lands where management objectives limit timber 

harvest

0

Forested lands that are not economically cost efficient Shelterbelt and 

riparian woodland, 

not capable of 

producing crops of 

commercial wood

851

Forested—lands not appropriate for timber production

(sum of 3 rows above)

851

Forested—lands suitable for timber production 0

Lands not suitable for timber production

(not suitable or appropriate for timber production)

32,735

Adapted from Tidwell 1998 and updated to reflect current acreages; FSH 2409.13, Sec. 26 and Sec.28.
Part 5: Suitability of Areas

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 111

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Table 5. Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands timber suitability classification and 

area descriptions

Category Description Acres

Total NFS Lands (Forest or Grassland) 230,526

Non-forested land (not suitable for timber production) <10% occupied by 

trees

221,458

Forested land—not suitable for timber production because:

Withdrawn from timber production 0

Irreversible resource damage likely 0

Adequate restocking not assured 0

Forested land tentatively suitable for timber production

(all forested land minus sum of 3 rows above)

9,068

Forested land tentatively suitable for timber production—not 

appropriate for timber production because:

Forested lands where resource management prescriptions 

preclude timber production

0

Forested lands where management objectives limit timber 

harvest

0

Forested lands that are not economically cost efficient Pinyon-juniper and 

riparian woodland, 

not capable of 

producing crops of 

commercial wood

9,068

Forested—lands not appropriate for timber production

(sum of 3 rows above)

9,068

Forested—lands suitable for timber production 0

Lands not suitable for timber production

(not suitable or appropriate for timber production)

230,526

Adapted from Tidwell 1998 and updated to reflect current acreages; FSH 2409.13, Sec. 26 and Sec.28.
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 113

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Part 6: Monitoring Elements

Monitoring

This section provides programmatic direction for monitoring and evaluating plan implementation. 

Monitoring is the process of taking measurements or observations periodically in order to detect 

changes and/or trends in ecological, social, and economic conditions. However, not all desired 

conditions or objectives require monitoring. Evaluation entails the analysis of the data collected. 

Resource monitoring and evaluation help keep the land and resource management plan (LRMP) 

up-to-date and responsive to changing issues.

General Purpose

Monitoring and evaluation are components of adaptive management; they are sequential activities 

designed to determine how well plan objectives are being met, as well as how closely 

management standards and guidelines have been applied on the ground. As resource conditions 

change, ongoing monitoring and evaluation help identify the need to adjust desired conditions, 

objectives, standards, and guidelines. This process will help the Grasslands and public decide 

how the plan is being implemented, and if implementation is achieving the desired outcomes.

Evaluation of data collected during monitoring forms a basis for adaptively managing public 

lands within the planning area. Consistent monitoring and evaluation will allow the Grasslands to 

incorporate new technology, changes in law or policy, and changes in ecological conditions or 

social values into land management planning. This process accomplishes these goals by verifying 

the effectiveness of plan objectives and guidelines and provides reference information for LRMP 

amendments.

Table 6 identifies the social, economic, and ecological elements to be monitored and ties 

monitoring questions and measures back to the desired conditions and objectives established 

within the plan. The questions have been developed to ensure that monitoring efforts produce 

relevant data that can be successfully used to assess the accomplishments and effectiveness of 

various land management activities. The monitoring table identifies areas of concern or interest, 

and the evaluative process helps determine whether observed changes are consistent with desired 

conditions and objectives. The table dictates the frequency of reporting, which includes the 

timing of monitoring and evaluation efforts. For example, most data will be collected annually, 

with reporting or evaluation of the data conducted at different intervals, such as annually or every 

5 years depending on the resource. The indicator, statistic, or metric used to gauge program 

performance and answer monitoring questions is defined within the table. Where possible, these 

measures are based upon standardized data stored in Forest Service corporate data systems 

(Natural Resource Manager) or official sources from other public agencies. The precision and 

reliability with which monitoring data is collected depend upon the activity and associated issues 

(Sauer et al. 2008).

This chapter describes how monitoring and evaluation requirements will be met. Monitoring and 

evaluation ensure that Forest plan direction is being carried out and assesses the quality of forest 

plan implementation (table 6). In the process of evaluating the plan, we also become aware of 

some modifications and changes needed. Monitoring results may be the catalysts for plan 

revisions or amendments.

The chapter also briefly discusses future research needs on the Forest.
Part 6: Monitoring Elements 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 114

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Monitoring

Monitoring is carried out to observe or record the results of management actions. This consists of 

collecting information from selected sources, usually on a sample basis. There are three levels of 

monitoring:

1. Monitoring Implementation – This determines if prescriptions, projects, and activities are 

implemented as designed and in compliance with Forest plan goals and guidance;

2. Monitoring Effectiveness – This determines if prescriptions, projects, and activities are 

effective in meeting management goals and direction; and 

3. Validation Monitoring – This determines if the initial data and assumptions used in 

developing the plan were correct, or if there is a better way to meet forest planning 

regulations, policies, and goals.

The monitoring requirements in the Forest plan are designed to meet the legal requirements of the 

1982 Planning Rule. As the Forest plan is implemented, more specific monitoring direction will 

be included in the annual program of work and project plans. This program will be responsive, 

dynamic, and updated annually as projects are proposed and added to the program of work for a 

particular fiscal year.

The monitoring program will be conducted to include a consideration of the effects of national 

forest management on land, resources, and communities adjacent to or near the Forest, and the 

effect upon national forest management from activities on nearby lands managed by other 

government agencies or under the jurisdiction of local governments. Reports will be written 

annually and the program will be reevaluated at least every 5 years (1982 Rule Provisions Section 

219.7(f)). Monitoring and evaluation requirements will provide a basis for a periodic 

determination of the effects of management practices (1982 Rule Provisions Section 219.11(d)).

Evaluation

An evaluation and summary of monitoring results will be written annually and published in an 

annual evaluation report. The report includes:

• A concise display of the results of monitoring and a statement of recommended actions, 

including changes in management direction, revisions, or amendments to the Forest plan.

• A summary of available information on management indicator species (MIS) or 

comparable species.

• A summary of other agency monitoring activities which have a bearing on Forest 

management.

• A summary of accomplishments and expectations for future activities. 

• An update of research needs and accomplishments.

• A summary of large-scale or significant projects or programs such as storm recovery.

The annual report will be made available to the public. Public participation is encouraged in 

monitoring programs including involvement of volunteers and partners in the actual monitoring 

procedures. 
Part 6: Monitoring Elements 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 115

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Five years after the Forest plan is approved, the forest supervisor will review the land conditions 

to determine whether conditions or demands of the public have changed significantly (1982 Rule 

Provisions, section 219.10 (g)). Significant changes would trigger a plan amendment or revision.

In 10 to 15 years, during the next revision of the Grasslands plan, an overall review of the annual 

evaluation reports will be used as one measure to analyze the management situation and identify 

possible needs for change in management direction. This analysis will be submitted to the 

regional forester for review prior to plan revision.

Management reviews are also an important part of the monitoring and evaluation process.

Interdisciplinary teams, the forest supervisor, and the regional forester perform management 

reviews periodically. These reviews may focus on information which surfaces through the 

monitoring and evaluation process.

Table 6. Monitoring elements

Scenery

Grasslands-wide Desired Condition: Grasslands scenery is predominantly characterized by pastoral agricultural 

landscapes that include vast open grasslands and rolling hills. Views from Grassland units often include homes, 

barns, tractors, trucks, agricultural windmills, cattle, stock tanks, fences, and other private ranchland features which 

contribute to rural landscapes. Interpretive activities emphasize the value of scenic areas within the context of 

patchwork land uses and a fragmented land ownership pattern in and around the Grasslands.

High scenic quality features enhance enjoyment and the marketability of the Grasslands’ scenic resources.

Black Kettle Desired Condition: There are landscape types that are highly valued for their scenic quality. The 

redbed plains are valued for their distinctive dark reddish-orange mounds and hills covered by contrasting light 

green grass during spring and summer that turns to gold in the fall and winter. Streams and rivers flow through the 

landscape, bounded by cottonwoods and other hardwoods. These areas are predominantly rural and agricultural, 

and the patches of mown fields and agricultural home sites on private lands contribute to the scenic quality. Also 

unique to this landscape are the shinnery oak motts and patchy forested lowlands.

The area lakes are highly valued by the public and support recreation opportunities. While the landscape is natural 

in appearance, recreation developments are common and are valued by Grasslands visitors. Recreation 

developments are in harmony with the scenic quality of the lakes.

Scenic integrity is maintained on the units managed by the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands. 

Local interpretive and tourism marketing efforts (such as the Great Plains Trail of Oklahoma and the Oklahoma 

High Plains Bird Trail) attract visitors to area roads for the scenic quality of areas that surround them. Corridors 

along marketed tour routes that pass through Grassland units emphasize the scenic quality of the landscape through 

interpretive and recreation sites.

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Desired Condition: Scenery desired conditions describe valued landscape features that 

may be very similar to the existing features described here. The vast horizon of the Grasslands offers unique and 

highly valued scenic opportunities. Consideration of scenery is evident where wind energy infrastructure, 

transmission lines, and other constructed features occur. There are a number of landscape types that are especially 

highly valued for their scenic quality in this management area. The High Lonesome area reminds visitors of the 

high plains as they were when early European settlers arrived and the vistas American Indians had experienced for 

generations prior. Vast unbroken plains of grasses extend to the horizon. Roads and occasional fences are minor 

interruptions in the sweeping plain. The expansive sky dominates the views.

Playa lakes attract a diversity of wildlife and are valued for wildlife viewing and bird watching. These are 

generally natural appearing landscapes, and their ever-changing views as the lakes appear and disappear are an 

integral part of their scenic quality.

The vista around areas designated as high scenic integrity, including the High Lonesome area, Mills Canyon and 

the Canadian River corridor, the Santa Fe Historic Trail corridor, and scenic byways are preserved (see appendix

A, maps, “Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands Proposed Scenic Integrity Objectives”). Management 

activities surrounding these areas are cognizant of scenic integrity and preserve scenic attributes. In addition, some 

of the most attractive features are within designated special areas (see descriptions of desired conditions in the 
Part 6: Monitoring Elements 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 116

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

“Special Areas” section).

Perico Creek and all the other canyons incised upon the canvas of the Grasslands give no prior notice of their 

presence, but reveal themselves suddenly. Perico is a wide but shallow canyon, carved out of colorful Dakota 

Sandstone laid down more than a hundred million years ago. Water flows down the creek intermittently, but 

usually there are several pools of residual water at the base of several cliffs and there is riparian vegetation along 

this channel, including cottonwoods and willows. Sumac is present on adjacent upland sites. That, together with a 

variety of midsize grasses and forbs in a cliff-studded setting, has produced a rich grassland habitat that supports an 

abundance of diverse wildlife.

Sauz Creek meanders through a rolling shortgrass prairie. Within the intermittent watercourse are wetlands 

characterized by an abundance of sedges, reeds, and cattails, especially around the larger pools.

The vast horizon of the Grasslands offers unique and highly valued scenic opportunities. In these scenic areas, 

planning for and design of wind energy, transmission lines, and other constructed features consider the scenic value 

of the horizon.

Scale Objective Monitoring Question

Monitoring 

Frequency 

and Measure

GrasslandswideWithin 15 years of plan approval, 

all existing structures on Federal 

mineral leases in areas of high 

scenic integrity closely follow 

the form, line, color, texture, and 

pattern common to the valued 

landscape character.

Is scenic integrity being 

maintained in high scenic 

integrity areas?

Every 5 years 

Photo points

Developed Recreation

Grasslands-wide Desired Conditions: There is a spectrum of developed recreation opportunities characterized 

by varying levels of development and amenities appropriate to the setting. Recreation sites and settings vary in 

level of development, from small capacity sites with few amenities to larger sites with facilities designed to 

accommodate large group activities. Recreation sites include amenities such as picnic sites, camping sites for tents 

and recreational vehicles, and managed parking lots. The variety and location of recreation sites and their 

associated amenities adds to the satisfaction of users in their recreation experiences by providing a variety of 

quality opportunities. Activities at developed sites include family and social gatherings, special community events, 

hunting camps, fishing, and interpretive tourism, all of which are harmonious with their settings.

Developed recreation sites are in harmony with respect to their natural setting and integrate natural and cultural 

elements of the surrounding area and local communities. These sites emphasize efficiency of energy and materials 

consumption in construction and operation.

Resource and facility deterioration or damage is mitigated and changes in recreational use are accommodated as 

appropriate within the ROS setting. Developed recreation sites meet current standards (including accessibility) and 

accommodate use trends where feasible. This includes accommodation for modern trailers and motor homes at 

larger campgrounds, and turnarounds to accommodate changes in vehicle sizes where necessary. Other sites offer a 

more primitive experience, such as tent camping. Potable water systems that comply with all safety and sanitation 

requirements are available where the Agency determines they are appropriate.

All developed sites, visitor focused administrative facilities, and interpretive services are accessible unless it would 

substantially detract from the natural or cultural features of the site. Facilities are routinely maintained to preserve 

their accessibility. Visitor contact areas within administrative facilities are fully accessible.

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Desired Condition: The Black Kettle district’s recreation sites are 

predominantly used for family outings, large social or group events, and camping for hunting trips. The more 

highly developed and larger group sites, McClellan Creek and Lake Marvin Recreation Areas, attract substantial 

numbers of local residents and out-of-area visitors that contribute to the local economy. Large gatherings allow for 

social interaction around a wide range of water-based activities. Activities include fishing, boating, and swimming, 

which often occur in conjunction with other site activities such as camping, hiking, and/or picnicking.

The recreation sites in this management area have facilities and amenities that serve to create a user experience that 

includes an equal probability of interaction with or isolation from other users and a high degree of interaction with
Part 6: Monitoring Elements 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 117

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

the natural environment. Water-based recreation facilities meet standards for visitor safety. New or renovated 

facilities incorporate changes in technology and vehicle types while being responsive to their natural setting. This 

includes accommodation for modern trailers and motor homes at larger campgrounds, such as electric hookups and 

dump stations at a few spurs and some individual sites and turnarounds to accommodate changes in vehicle sizes 

where necessary. Facilities such as boat ramps, fishing docks, fish cleaning stations, and swimming sites 

accommodate lake-based recreation where appropriate. Trails in these recreation sites are mostly short walking 

trails around water bodies and provide for fishing access and/or interpretive purposes.

Visitors are informed about proper treatment of the natural surroundings and rules and restrictions of each site and 

act accordingly. High use that exceeds design capacities is accepted during hunting season and holidays, but does 

not lead to substantial resource impacts. Hunting camps serve as temporary staging sites that are acceptable during 

times of high use and occur within or near developed recreation sites for offsite activities. Higher intensity use is 

mitigated. With larger numbers of visitors, official presence increases safety, civility, and security, particularly at 

fee sites.

Fishing opportunities occur on the lakes of the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area.

Scale Objective Monitoring Question

Monitoring 

Frequency 

and Measure

GrasslandswideComplete 20 percent of condition 

surveys and update inventories of 

developed sites annually.

Are recreation facilities in 

adequate condition to provide 

for the level of use 

appropriate under the ROS?

Annual

Percentage of sites 

surveyed that meet 

national standards 

Black Kettle 

and 

McClellan 

Creek

Maintain one-third of trail miles 

annually and according to 

development level and managed 

use.

Are objectives for recreation 

opportunity settings being 

achieved?

Every 5 years

Miles and type of trails 

provided (INFRA)

Heritage 

Grasslands-wide Desired Condition:

Interpretation and Public Involvement

Interpretive sites such as the Mills Canyon Orchard Ranch and the Santa Fe Trail provide meaningful heritage 

experiences that help the public develop an appreciation and understanding of the human history of the southern 

Great Plains. 

Opportunities are provided for both visitor and local volunteers to participate in heritage resource preservation 

activities such as site rehabilitation and stabilization, and the Grasslands are more thoroughly experienced through 

these conservation projects. 

Tribal Uses and Access

The tribes have access to areas that provide them an opportunity to practice traditional activities (such as plant 

gathering) and other ceremonial activities that are essential in maintaining their cultural identity and the continuity 

of their culture.

Agency and public land use activities on the Grasslands are not causing damage to historic properties and places of 

religious and cultural significance or impacting tribal access to and use of those properties.

Stabilization

All of the priority heritage resource sites are stable and their significant values are protected.

Vandalism, theft, and human-caused damage to heritage resources are rare due to enhanced public education and 

stewardship, presence of interpretive signs, and management control features that are installed or constructed near 

the most susceptible and significant heritage resource sites. Site significance and integrity are maintained through 

conservation and preservation efforts and receive minimal, if any, impact from visitors.
Part 6: Monitoring Elements 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 118

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Scale Objective Monitoring Question

Monitoring 

Frequency 

and Measure

GrasslandswideStabilize one viable homestead 

site, other than the Mills Orchard 

Ranch site, within 5 years of plan 

approval on either Grassland.

Which eligible 

heritage/cultural resources 

are in critical need of being 

protected/preserved/

stabilized?

Every 3 years

The number of sites 

protected/preserved/

stabilized.

Kiowa and 

Rita Blanca

Establish a site steward program 

on the Grasslands within 5 years 

to protect sensitive prehistoric 

sites.

Is the site stewardship 

program adequately 

supported in order to monitor 

sensitive heritage/cultural 

resources?

Every 3 years

Level of vandalism 

observed at monitored 

sites.

Roads and Access

Grasslands-wide Desired Condition: Grasslands units are accessible for public enjoyment and resource 

management purposes, either through public road access or by privately owned roads with legal rights-of-way. 

Legal easements or land exchanges provide access to Grassland units surrounded by private land (also see the 

“Land Adjustments” section). Conversely, access to private land through Grasslands units is available when 

necessary. The public is aware of the considerations for driving on grazing allotments, such as appropriate behavior 

around livestock and correct closing of gates. Routes are maintained according to their road management 

objectives. Decommissioned routes are rehabilitated and physical barriers prevent inappropriate access.

Scale Objective Monitoring Question

Monitoring 

Frequency 

and Measure

GrasslandswidePursue decommissioning of all roads 

no longer needed for the 

administration of National Forest 

System lands within 15 years of plan 

approval.

Are user-created and NFS 

roads being 

decommissioned to prevent 

resource damage?

Every 3 years

Miles of road 

decommissioned; roads 

rehabilitated and miles 

of road obliterated 

(INFRA).

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area Vegetation Types 

Represented by Ecological Indicators

Mixed-grass Prairie Ecological Indicator (presence of undesirable trees)

Desired Condition: Mixed grass prairie is characterized by grasses and forbs without the presence of trees. The 

structure and composition of the mixed-grass prairie across the landscape maintains the treeless reference condition 

of the mixed-grass prairie ecological indicator.

Mixed grass prairie on the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands is a warm season, grassdominated ecosystem. The codominant grasses include little bluestem, sideoats grama, smaller proportions of big 

bluestem, and blue grama. Forbs are present but are less abundant than grasses and include western ragweed, 

annual broom weed, tarragon, and baby aster, all providing food for wildlife species.

The mixed grass species composition provides vegetation structure and height relationships necessary for ground 

nesting bird cover and brood rearing habitat. Small areas of short structured herbaceous vegetation or patches of 

bare ground are available for Lesser Prairie-chicken leks and courtship areas. Small areas or patches of bare ground 

are present that provide wildlife travel corridors, escape routes, and annual plant germination sites for wildlife 

foraging habitat.

Shrub species component is typically no less than 5 percent or more than 25 percent of the total mixed grass 

ground cover. Species composition includes fragrant mimosa, skunkbush sumac, smooth sumac, and inland New 

Jersey tea, all contributing to retaining or improving foraging and escape habitat for Lesser Prairie-chicken and 
Part 6: Monitoring Elements 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 119

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Northern Bobwhite.

Disturbance processes (including drought, fire, and grazing) occur on the landscape at varying intervals and 

intensities, determined by climatic conditions and vegetative density respectively. Prescribed fire intervals occur on 

a 3- to 10-year regime.

Scale Objective Monitoring Question Monitoring Frequency 

and Measure

Black Kettle 

and 

McClellan 

Creek

Mechanically or with 

prescribed fire, remove 

undesirable trees on the 

mixed-grass prairie over the 

next 15 years after plan 

approval.

Are undesirable trees 

present?

Is fire occurring on 50 to 

75 percent of the 

vegetation type over the 

life of the plan?

Annual

Document undesirable tree

treatment and postfire mortality.

Change in species composition 

within burned areas.

Document planned or unplanned 

fire occurrences.

Shinnery Oak and Deep Plowed Inclusion Ecological Indicator

(presence of undesirable trees)

Desired Condition: Shinnery oak is characterized by shrubs, grasses, and forb species without the presence of 

trees. The structure and composition of shinnery oak across the landscape maintains the treeless reference 

condition of the shinnery oak ecological indicator.

The shinnery oak vegetation is a grass-dominated ecosystem with a shinnery oak shrub understory. The overstory 

is made up of warm season herbaceous species, including big bluestem, little bluestem, sideoats grama, sand 

lovegrass, Indiangrass, and switchgrass. Most of the warm season grass species have a dominant position in regard 

to canopy vertical structure. In a less dominant vertical structure position are shrubs and woody plants, including 

shinnery oak, sand sagebrush, Oklahoma plum, and yucca. Forbs such as western ragweed, Hartweg’s sundrops, 

blacksampson echinacea (or narrowleaf purple coneflower), wax goldenweed, and Texas croton are located within 

this vegetation type and are found in lower quantities than herbaceous grasses or woody shrubs. There are few trees 

found within this vegetation type, although small clusters or motts of shinnery oak hybrids ranging in height from 

tall shrub to 20 feet or more may be found scattered throughout.

The shinnery oak species composition provides vegetation structure and height relationships necessary for ground 

nesting bird cover and brood rearing habitat for the Lesser Prairie-chicken and other ground nesting birds such as 

the Rio Grande Turkey and Northern Bobwhite. Small areas of short structured herbaceous vegetation or patches of 

bare ground are available for Lesser Prairie-chicken leks and courtship areas; these areas also provide wildlife 

travel corridors, escape routes, and annual plant germination sites for wildlife foraging habitat. Trees are 

nonexistent and collision risks from fences, etc., are minimal in areas important for recovery of Lesser Prairiechicken.

Small thickets of hybridized tall oak shrubs (oak motts) may occur in areas not suitable for Lesser Prairie-chicken, 

to provide overhead cover and production of secure forage crops for Rio Grande Turkey and Northern Bobwhite.

Fire occurs on a 2- to 9-year cycle on the landscape, at varying intervals and intensities determined by vegetative 

and climatic conditions. Ground cover provides soil stabilization and water infiltration and retains fine fuels.

Desired Condition on Inclusion of Historically Deep Plowed Sites: These sites are structurally close to the 

shinnery oak vegetation type, with the composition of plants dominated by warm season herbaceous grasses. In a 

less dominant vertical structure position are shrubs and woody plants such as sand sagebrush and Oklahoma plum 

that comprise 15 to 20 percent of the vegetation.

Fire occurs on a 5- to 9-year cycle on the landscape, at varying intervals and intensities determined by vegetative 

and climatic conditions.
Part 6: Monitoring Elements

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 120

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Scale Objective Monitoring Question Monitoring Frequency 

and Measure

Black Kettle Use prescribed fire twice 

on 80 percent of the 

shinnery oak within 15 

years of plan approval.

Mechanically or 

chemically remove 

undesirable trees in 

shinnery oak areas within 

15 years of plan approval.

Are undesirable trees present in 

shinnery oak?

Is prescribed fire occurring at 

the objective level?

Does fire occurrence promote a 

grass-dominated overstory with 

a shinnery oak shrub 

understory?

Annual

Document undesirable tree 

treatment and postfire mortality.

Change in species composition 

within burned areas.

Document planned or unplanned 

fire occurrences. 

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area Vegetation Types

Represented by Ecological Indicators

Shortgrass Prairie Mid- and Late-Successional Stages on Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

Landscape Ecological Indicator (Range Vegetation Trend Monitoring)

Desired Condition: The mid- and late-successional stages of shortgrass prairie vegetation are characterized by grasses, 

forb, and shrub species that have composition and structure in low departure from reference condition for vegetation 

structure. 

Grass generally less than 18 inches tall dominates the shortgrass ecosystem, with a mix of mid- and shortgrass steppe 

grasses and a scarcity of shrubs and trees. Vegetation within this association is comprised of 20 to 70 percent grasses, up 

to 25 percent forbs (both annual and perennial), up to 15 percent shrubs, and a variable percentage of bare ground.

The postfire and herbivory-influenced early successional stage is dominated by grass seedlings and resprouts combined 

with postdisturbance colonizers such as smooth brome, clover, ground cherry, ragweed, and sunflowers. As succession 

progresses, grasses such as buffalograss, blue grama, and vine mesquite become prevalent over the forb component.

Once a successional stage reaches mid-open, herbaceous cover comprises up to 35 percent. Vegetation is low to medium 

in height. The abundance of annual forbs and grasses within the composition is dependent on the timing of precipitation 

events.

In the mid-closed stage, the herbaceous cover comprises more than 35 percent and grass species dominance shifts to a 

diverse mosaic of cool and warm season grass species including grama grasses, muhly, panicum, fescue, brome,

dropseed, and bluestem.

Fire occurs on the landscape at varying intervals and intensities determined by vegetative density and climatic conditions 

on a 3- to 10-year regime.

Low structured vegetation representative of the early successional stage of shortgrass prairie is available for a keystone 

species black-tailed prairie dog to colonize. The colonies provide habitat for swift fox, Mountain Plover, Golden Eagle, 

Ferruginous Hawk, and badger. The early successional stage of shortgrass prairie specific vegetation provides requisite 

habitat for the management indicator species, Burrowing Owl.

Habitat for at least one complex of black-tailed prairie dog colonies is available for potential future reintroduction to 

recover the endangered black-footed ferret, a predator dependent on the black-tailed prairie dog; impacts from plague 

outbreaks to black-tailed prairie dogs and potential reintroduced black-footed ferrets are minimal.
Part 6: Monitoring Elements

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 121

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Scale Objective Monitoring 

Question Monitoring Frequency and Measure

Kiowa 

and Rita 

Blanca

Reintroduce 

prescribed fire in 1 

to 10 percent of the 

vegetation type 

over the next 15 

years after plan 

approval.

Mechanically, 

chemically, or with

prescribed fire 

remove from 5 to 

10 percent of native 

invasive plants 

such as cholla, 

juniper, 

pricklypear, 

mesquite, and 

yucca annually.

Effectiveness 

Monitoring: Are plan 

objectives and desired 

conditions being 

achieved?

Did fire occur over 1 to 

10 percent of the 

vegetation type?

Do blue grama, 

buffalograss, and galleta 

dominate the shortgrass 

prairie?

Do mid and tall grass 

species codominate on 

the mixed grass 

inclusion?

Every 5 years

The ecological indicator of middle and late 

successional shortgrass prairie will be 

determined by spatial analysis of the areal 

extent of plant communities. Middle and late 

successional shortgrass prairie will be 

monitored for range vegetation trends based on 

the area within the proclaimed boundary of the

Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands. 

Document planned or unplanned fire 

occurrences.

Document vegetation composition and structure 

for different successional stages, including 

mesic or xeric areas.

Sand Sagebrush on Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

Landscape Ecological Indicator (Range Vegetation Trend Monitoring)

Desired Condition: Sand sagebrush vegetation is characterized by shrubs, grasses, and forb species with structure 

and composition across the landscape that maintains the reference condition and areal extent.

Fire and grazing disturbance processes occur on the sand sagebrush landscape at varying intervals and intensities 

that are determined by climatic conditions and vegetative density, respectively. The disturbance processes 

contribute toward achieving desired vegetative structure and density, improve vigor of native grass, and provide 

diversity of native forb species that are represented by plant communities with intermingled patch sizes at scales on 

the order of 10 to 1,000 acres. The diverse, well-distributed plant communities provide conditions that contribute to 

the sustainability of insects and rare plant species, as well as to nonuniform vegetative structure across the 

landscape that provides habitat for a diversity of prey and predator species. Fire return occurs at 5- to 50-year 

intervals.

The sand sagebrush prairie is dominated by mid-grasses and sand sagebrush, with cool season grasses and a variety

of forbs present. Native, warm season perennial grasses (including big bluestem, little bluestem, sand dropseed, 

blue grama, and sideoats grama) are prominent in this ecosystem. Early successional sand dune habitat is present at 

acceptable rates.

Varied representation of any successional stage structure and composition results after major disturbance events.

Vegetation cover is generally comprised of 20 to 60 percent grasses, 2 to 15 percent forbs, > 15 percent shrubs, and 

a variable percentage of bare ground, dependent upon the site potentials of these areas.

Less than 5 percent of the area is represented in an early successional stage dominated by resprouts and seedlings 

of grasses and forbs. Canopy cover within this stage is highly variable, forb dependent, and has a low to medium 

height structure up to 11 inches.

The mid-open successional stage is represented by less than 35 percent herbaceous cover and makes up on average 

less than 65 percent of the area. Total canopy cover within this stage is variable (25 to 75 percent) with medium to 

tall height structure (5 to 12 inches or greater).

The mid-closed successional stage makes up on average more than 30 percent of the area and has greater than 35

percent herbaceous cover. Total canopy cover within this stage is generally greater than 50 percent, with height 

structure greater than 12 inches.

The relationship between desired structure and species height is as follows:

Short structure species such as blue grama, generally 0 to 4 inches tall, comprise 40 to 60 percent of the total 

vegetation.

Medium structure species such as squirreltail and lacy tansyaster, generally 5 to 11 inches tall comprise 35 to 50

percent of the total vegetation.
Part 6: Monitoring Elements

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 122

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Tall structure species such as sand bluestem and bush morning glory, generally 12 inches tall or greater comprise 8

to 15 percent of the total vegetation.

The sand sagebrush species composition provides vegetation structure and height relationships necessary for 

ground nesting bird cover and brood rearing habitat. Small areas of short-structured herbaceous vegetation or 

patches of bare ground are present for Lesser Prairie-chicken leks and courtship areas. These patches also provide 

wildlife travel corridors, escape routes, and annual plant germination sites for wildlife foraging habitat.

Scale Objective Monitoring 

Question Monitoring Frequency and Measure

Kiowa 

and Rita 

Blanca

There are no 

specific objectives 

for this vegetation 

type outside the 

“Desired 

Conditions” stated 

above.

Effectiveness 

Monitoring: Are plan 

objectives and desired 

conditions being 

achieved?

Are different plant 

communities 

represented in 

intermingled patches at 

variable scales from 10-

10,000 acres?

Is the shrub component 

> 15 percent?

Is the areal extent of the 

sand sagebrush 

vegetation stable or 

increasing?

Every 5 years

The ecological indicator of sand sagebrush will 

be determined by spatial analysis of the areal 

extent of plant communities. Sand sagebrush 

will be monitored for range vegetation trends

based on the area within the proclaimed 

boundary of the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands. 

Document planned or unplanned fire 

occurrences.

Cottonwood-Willow (Canadian River) Ecological Indicator 

(presence of undesirable trees)

Desired Condition: Cottonwood-willow riparian vegetation is characterized by trees, shrubs, grasses, and forb 

species without the presence of invasive species such as saltcedar. The structure and composition maintains the 

reference condition of the cottonwood-willow riparian without the presence of undesirable species such as 

saltcedar as the ecological indicator.

Fremont cottonwood dominates the tree layer with peachleaf willow present in the subcanopy. Riparian dependent 

species include narrowleaf cattail, common button bush, thinleaf or marsh alder, Rocky Mountain elderberry, and a 

variety of sedge and rush species. The primary shrub and woody vine species are sandbar willow and riverbank 

grape. Native warm season grasses including blue grama, sideoats grama, sand dropseed, vine mesquite, Virginia 

wildrye, and switchgrass are prominent in the riparian ecosystem. Western wheatgrass is an important cool season 

species. Drier sites along or within ephemeral systems and upper terraces have New Mexico locust, choke cherry, 

hackberry, skunkbush sumac, and Apache plume.

Populations of native woody species, particularly the long-term presence of mature cottonwood stands and areas 

with regenerating cottonwood and willow saplings, provide habitat for wildlife species such as the Bald Eagle and 

Red-headed Woodpecker. A diverse mix of native grasses and forbs adapted to abrupt fluctuations in moisture 

regimes occurs in the herbaceous portion of riparian areas and provides habitat for the arid land ribbon snake and 

ambersnail. The meander scars and depressions in the riparian areas that retain water part or all of the year provide 

habitat for amphibian species such as the plains leopard frog.

For both herbaceous and woody riparian areas, stream characteristics including vegetation, geomorphology, and 

hydrology are sufficient to:

• Dissipate stream energy associated with high waterflows, thereby reducing erosion and improving water 

quality;

• Filter sediment, capture bedload, and aid flood plain development;
Part 6: Monitoring Elements

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 123

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Allow floodwater retention and groundwater recharge; and

• Develop root masses that stabilize streambanks against cutting action.

Scale Objective Monitoring 

Question

Monitoring 

Frequency and 

Measure

Kiowa and Mills Canyon 

Area

Restore 100 percent of 

the riparian areas to 

cottonwood-willow 

vegetation type species 

through plantings, 

seeding and/or 

mechanical or chemical 

methods within 15 years 

of plan approval.

Habitat should be 

managed for open forest 

fragments and large 

snags should be available 

for cavity-nesting birds.

Effectiveness 

Monitoring: Are 

undesirable trees 

present?

Monitor 3 to 5 years.

Document undesirable 

tree treatment.

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area Vegetation Types 

Represented by Management Indicator Species

Pinyon-Juniper and Juniper Grasslands

Desired Condition: The pinyon-juniper vegetation type is a mosaic of stand shape, size, spacing, and structural 

stages across the landscape reflecting the natural range of pinyon-juniper woodland. The tree component is largely 

composed of one-seed juniper and pinyon pine. Rocky Mountain juniper is well represented on mesic sites and 

pinyon pine is well represented over the whole vegetation type. The understory includes scattered shrubs, native 

grasses, forbs, and annuals. Shrub species present within a discontinuous layer include wavyleaf oak and mountain 

mahogany. Bare ground ranges from 5 to 55 percent depending on site potential. Snags are scattered across the 

landscape. Fires are low severity, with a return interval ranging from 1 to 35 years.

The early successional stage occurs postfire and covers about 10 percent of the vegetation type with open areas of 

grasses, forbs, shrubs, seedlings less than 4.5 feet in height, and saplings.

The mid-late successional stage covers about 90 percent of the vegetation type and includes a mix of pinyon and 

juniper trees in a variety of age classes with varying canopy cover as follows:

• Mid-development stages average 10 percent of the vegetation type in relative abundance and have a dense 

canopy cover (31 to 70 percent) of pole size trees 5 to 9 inches in diameter and very little understory.

• Approximately 30 percent of the vegetation type has pole size trees with a mixed shrub-herbaceous 

understory, and canopy cover ranges from 20 to 35 percent.

• Approximately 40 percent in late development has medium to large diameter size trees 9 to 21 inches in 

diameter and canopy cover of 40 to 70 percent.

• Approximately 10 percent has dense, old-growth characteristics containing larger diameter trees, some 

snags, partially dead and diseased trees, and canopy cover of 40 to 70 percent.

Complete representation of all successional stages of pinyon-juniper vegetation within reference condition provides 

requisite habitat for the management indicator species, Mountain Bluebird.

Juniper Grasslands Inclusion Desired Condition: Juniper grassland trees occur as individuals or in smaller 

groups and range from young to old. The smaller groups are maintained on slopes greater than 15 percent, on rocky 

outcrops, and adjacent to drainages. The understory is well represented and dominated by grasses and forbs, with a 
Part 6: Monitoring Elements

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 124

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

continuous understory that can include little bluestem, sideoats grama, blue grama, big bluestem, and/or galleta. 

The density of understory vegetation is sufficient to support frequent fire occurrence. The composition, structure, 

and function of vegetative conditions promote resilience to the frequency, extent, and severity of disturbances (e.g., 

erosion, insects, diseases, and fire) and climate variability. Fires that occur are of low severity with a frequency 

ranging from 1 to 35 years.

Scale Objective Monitoring 

Question

Monitoring 

Frequency and 

Measure

Kiowa Over the life of the plan, burn and/or thin 5

to 10 percent of the pinyon-juniper to 

maintain successional stage conditions and 

increase understory components in the 

pinyon-juniper woodland.

Mechanically, chemically, or with 

prescribed fire control 5 to 10 percent of 

native invasive plants (such as cholla and 

mesquite) annually.

Apply mechanical, chemical, and prescribed 

fire treatments to produce replacement 

structural stages that are proportionally 

present in the pinyon-juniper vegetation 

type with old growth representing 10

percent within 15 years of plan approval.

Over the life of the plan, retain large stands 

of pinyon-juniper as contiguous patches of 

no less than 40 acres on 10 percent of this 

vegetation type on a landscape scale.

Over the life of the plan, create openings in 

early and mid-successional stage stands that 

lack a good shrub or grass component on up 

to 20 percent of the pinyon-juniper 

vegetation type at a landscape scale.

Effectiveness 

Monitoring: Are plan 

objectives and desired 

conditions being 

achieved?

Are species composition 

and percent bare ground 

consistent with desired 

conditions?

Is the understory well 

represented and 

dominated by grasses 

and forbs such as little 

blue stem, sideoats 

grama, and blue grama?

Are shrub species 

present within a 

discontinuous layer?

Is pinyon-juniper 

density being 

maintained or reduced 

by management 

activities?

Annual

Use breeding bird 

survey to monitor 

Sialia currucoides, 

Mountain Bluebird as 

a management 

indicator species.

Shortgrass Prairie Early Successional on 

Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grassland

Desired Condition: Across approximately 70 percent of the shortgrass prairie type, herbaceous species (including 

blue grama, buffalograss, and galleta) codominate the vegetation. A variety of forbs are intermingled including 

species such as asters, milkweeds, groundsels, and primrose. The relationship between desired structure and 

species height is as follows:

• Short structure species such as buffalograss and purslane, generally 0 to 4 inches tall, comprise 40 to 60 

percent of the total vegetation.

• Medium structure species such as blue grama and scarlet globemallow, generally 5 to 11 inches tall 

comprise 35 to 50 percent of the total vegetation.

• Tall structure species such as sand dropseed and green thread, generally 12 inches tall or greater comprise 

8 to 15 percent of the total vegetation.

Low structured vegetation is available for black-tailed prairie dog colonies. The colonies provide habitat for swift 

fox, Mountain Plover, Golden Eagle, Ferruginous Hawk, badger, and Burrowing Owl.

Habitat for at least one complex of black-tailed prairie dog colonies is available for potential future reintroduction 

of the black-footed ferret, a predator of black-tailed prairie dogs. Impacts from plague outbreaks to black-tailed 

prairie dogs and potential reintroduced black-footed ferrets are minimal.

Some patches of taller structure shortgrass communities (8 to 20 inches) occur in the vicinity of localities with 

sparse, low structure vegetation (4 to 12 inches) within 1⁄4 mile of a water source in order to provide breeding 

habitat for the Long-billed Curlew.
Part 6: Monitoring Elements

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 125

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Grasses such as western wheatgrass and vine mesquite are abundant in mesic areas.

Various cacti species such as cholla, pricklypear, and barrel cacti are scattered and minimally present with less than 

1 percent of the total basal area.

Scattered clusters of low shrubs such as multi-stemmed or knotted rhatany and snakeweed provide foraging and 

escape habitat for upland game birds.

Deciduous trees are present in isolated pockets along draws, shelterbelts, and around old homesteads to provide 

nesting habitat for raptors.

Scale Objective Monitoring 

Question

Monitoring Frequency 

and Measure

Kiowa and Rita 

Blanca Area

Reintroduce prescribed fire in 

1 to 10 percent of the 

vegetation type over the next 

15 years after plan approval.

Mechanically, chemically, or 

with prescribed fire remove 

from 5 to 10 percent of native 

invasive plants such as cholla, 

juniper, pricklypear, mesquite, 

and yucca annually.

Effectiveness 

Monitoring: Are plan 

objectives and desired 

conditions being 

achieved?

Is expanision of blacktailed prairie dog 

colonies on the Kiowa 

and Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands 

happening?

Annual

Early successional shortgrass 

prairie on the Kiowa and 

Rita Blanca associated with 

black-tailed prairie dogs will 

be monitored through the use 

of breeding bird surveys to 

track, Athene cunicularia 

hypugaea or Burrowing Owl

as a management indicator 

species.

Black Kettle Management Area Vegetation Types 

Represented by Management Indicator Species

Mixed Hardwood Riparian

Desired Condition: Hardwood tree species (such as plains cottonwood, netleaf hackberry, little walnut, American 

elm, and wooly buckthorn or chittimwood) characterize the area and are found in scattered groupings, allowing for 

an open canopy mosaic of various age classes and structure. There are lesser quantities of black willow, common 

persimmon, and Western soapberry. Eastern redcedar is a very minor species component.

Shrubs and woody vines are prevalent and include buckbrush, riverbank grape, Chickasaw plum, Virginia creeper,

and poison ivy. Also found to a lesser degree on the perimeters are skunkbush sumac and sand sagebrush. 

Switchgrass, little bluestem, inland saltgrass, and sand dropseed are herbaceous warm season grass species 

interspersed among the understory. A variety of forbs is found in the understory and includes western ragweed, 

white sage, horehound, stickseed, and a variety of others found in lesser quantities. Wetland species include 

cattails, rushes, sedges, and smartweed.

Mature hardwoods, shrubby understory or early successional growth, and woody debris as well as diverse riparian 

herbaceous vegetation on the margins of lakes or along streamsides are present to provide winter roosts for Bald 

Eagle and raptors, and roost, feeding, and nesting habitat for the management indicator species, Rio Grande 

Turkey.

Scale Objective Monitoring Question

Monitoring 

Frequency and 

Measure

Black Kettle Reintroduce prescribed fire into mixed 

hardwood areas once every 5 to 15 

years after plan approval.

Mechanically or chemically remove 

100 percent of Eastern redcedar around 

cottonwood galleries, generally within 

the mixed hardwood type, around roost 

trees within 10 years of plan approval. 

Effectiveness Monitoring: 

Are plan objectives and 

desired conditions being 

achieved?

Are species composition 

and percent bare ground 

consistent with desired 

conditions? 

Annual

Use breeding bird 

survey to monitor

Meleagris gallopavo 

intermedia, Rio 

Grande Turkey as a 

management 

indicator species.

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 127

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

List of Preparers

Forest Service Preparers of this Plan

Name Title

Rob Arlowe Resource Information Specialist

Keith Baker NEPA Coordinator

John Baumchen Special Uses Recreation

Cynthia Benedict Forest Archaeologist/Tribal Liaison

Bryce Bohn Former Hydrologist

Susan Bruin Former Forest Planner

Nancy Brunswick Forest Landscape Architect

Rod Byers Land Ownership Adjustment Program Manager

Sara Campney/Dechter Socioeconomic Planner

Michael Carpinelli Land Management Planner/Forester

Cindy Correll Natural Resource and Planning Staff Officer

Livia Crowley Forest Hydrologist

Beverly DeGruyter Wildlife Biologist

Jessica Dunn Landscape Architect

Henry Eichman Economist

Lance Elmore Forest Fuels Management Specialist

Ian Fox

Stacy Galassini

Timber Management Officer

Archaeologist

Dan Garcia Former Wildlife Biologist

Cynthia Geuss Land Management Planner/Socioeconomics

Richard Graves Transportation Engineer

Champe Green Forest Planner

Deena Gutowski Budget Officer

Brian Hajny Wildlife Biologist/Fire Management Officer

Don Hall Lands Specialist

Rick Hanson Wildlife Biologist

Natalie Heberling GIS Technician

Geoff Holden GIS Program Manager

Tedd Huffman Air Resources Specialist

Don Jorgensen Land Management Planner/Wildlife

Mary Lane Special Uses Recreation

Daniel LeVrier Cartographic Technician

George Long Interim District Ranger

Susan Millsap Natural Resources and Planning Staff Officer

Chuck Milner Rangeland Management Specialist

Rick Newmon Range Program Manager
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 128

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Name Title

Richard Periman Social Science Coordinator

Randy L. Reichert Interim District Ranger

Nancy Rose Forest Supervisor

Angela Safranek Rangeland Management Specialist

Cedric Selby Supervisory Rangeland Management Specialist

Tom Smeltzer District Ranger

Amy Stone Forestry Tech (Recreation)

Justin Thompson District/Zone Fire Management Officer

Roxanne Turley/Weiss Former Recreation Planner

Amy Veirs Former Vegetation Specialist

Nancy Walls Former District Ranger

Melissa Zaczek Interim Forest Planner
 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 129

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Glossary

Access – Road or trail route over which a public agency claims a right-of-way for public use; a 

way of approach.

Accessibility – According to Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, all Federal programs 

and facilities are required to be “to the highest degree feasible, readily accessible to and useable 

by all persons who have a disability, including mobility, visual, hearing, or mental impairments.”

Active flood plain – The area of alluvial soils adjacent to rivers or streams that is flooded on a 

periodic basis. There is evidence of recently rafted debris or fluvial sediments deposited on the 

soil surface or on trees or other vegetation, or recent scarring of trees or shrubs by material moved 

by flood waters.

Adaptive management – A system of management practices based on clearly identified 

outcomes and monitoring to determine if management actions are meeting desired outcomes and,

if not, to facilitate management changes that will best ensure that outcomes are met or 

reevaluated. Adaptive management stems from the recognition that knowledge about natural 

resource systems is sometimes uncertain (1982 Rule Provisions, Section 219.27; FSM 1905).

Administrative boundary – Administrative boundaries describe the spatial location of the lands 

managed by a forest supervisor’s office; an area encompassing all NFS lands administered by an 

administrative unit. The area encompasses private lands, other governmental lands, and may 

contain NFS lands within the proclaimed boundaries of another administrative unit. An example 

of this is the Valle Vidal section of the Carson National Forest. It was donated to the government 

after the proclaimed boundary was established. The Valle Vidal Unit is within the administrative 

boundary of the Carson, but not within the proclaimed boundary.

Administrative site – A site which primarily exists for general administrative purposes. It 

normally will include office, warehouse, outside storage, and parking areas. It may include 

housing and pasture for livestock. A work center may be part of an administrative headquarters 

site.

Age class – Interval of years, commonly 20, into which trees are grouped for management.

Example: 1 to 20 years, 21 to 40 years.

Allotment – A designated area available for livestock grazing upon which a specified number, 

kind of livestock, and season of use may be grazed under a term grazing permit. The basic land 

unit used to facilitate management of the range resource on National Forest System and 

associated lands administered by the Forest Service.

Alluvial deposits – Clay, silt, sand, gravel, or other rock materials transported by flowing water 

and deposited in comparatively recent geologic time as sorted or semisorted sediment in 

riverbeds, estuaries, flood plains, lakes, shores, and in fans at the base of mountain slopes.

Alternative energy – Methods of energy production that do not rely on traditional sources such 

as fossil fuels.

Amenity – The pleasurable, educational, or aesthetic features of the land or resources.

Application for Permit to Drill (APD) – An application to drill a well submitted by a lessee or 

operator to the BLM. The APD consists of a drilling plan that discusses downhole specifications 
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 130

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

and procedures (reviewed by the BLM) and a surface use plan of operations (SUPO) that 

examines surface uses, including roads, well site layout, cut/fill diagrams, reclamation 

procedures, production facility locations, etc. (reviewed by the Forest Service). The approved 

APD is a contract between the operator and the Federal government and cannot be changed or 

modified unless authorized by the BLM and FS.

Aquatic ecosystem – The stream channel or lakebed, water, or biotic communities and the habitat 

features that occur there.

Aquatic passage – A road crossing whose design, construction, and maintenance do not disrupt 

the migration or other movement of those species of aquatic life inhabiting the water body.

Aquifer – A geologic formation, group of formations, or part of a formation that contains 

sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to wells and 

springs.

At-risk community – An area that is comprised of (1) an interface community as defined in the 

notice entitled “Wildland Urban Interface Communities Within the Vicinity of Federal Lands That 

Are at High Risk from Wildfire” issued by the Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary of the 

Interior in accordance with title IV of the Department of the Interior and Related Agencies 

Appropriations Act, 2001 (114 Stat. 1009) (66 Fed. Reg. 753, January 4, 2001); or a group of 

homes and other structures with basic infrastructure and services (such as utilities and collectively 

maintained transportation routes) within or adjacent to Federal land; an area in which conditions 

are conducive to a large-scale wildland fire disturbance event; an area for which a significant 

threat to human life or property exists as a result of a wildland fire disturbance event.

Authorized officer – Any Forest Service officer to whom authority for disposal of mineral 

materials has been delegated (36 CFR 228.42).

Auto tour routes – An audio-guided tour by vehicle, which follow the route of a national historic 

trail or scenic byway. These types of tours are generally provided by other agencies such as the 

state or the National Park Service and are provided in an electronic file format or on CD.

Bald – Sparsely vegetated knoll.

Bank cover – Anything, usually vegetation, that provides protection from erosive effects on the 

land rising from and bordering a water body such as a stream or lake.

Bank erosion – The removal of soil and rocks by running water, wind, or waves from the land 

rising from and bordering a water body such as a stream or lake.

Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act – Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to develop a 

program of land conservation and utilization in order to correct maladjustments in land use and to 

assist in controlling soil erosion, promoting reforestation, preserving natural resources, protecting 

fish and wildlife, developing and protecting recreational facilities, mitigating floods, preventing 

impairment of dams and reservoirs, conserving surface and subsurface moisture, protecting the 

watersheds of navigable streams, and protecting the public’s health, safety, and welfare.

Bedload – Sand, silt, gravel, soil, or detritus carried by a stream on or immediately above the 

bottom.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 131

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Best management practice (BMP) – The method, measure, or practice selected by an agency to 

meet its nonpoint-source pollution control needs. BMPs include, but are not limited to, structural 

controls, operations, and maintenance procedures. BMPs can be applied before, during, or after 

pollution-producing activities to reduce or eliminate the introduction of pollutants into the water.

Biodiversity – The range of organisms present in a particular ecological community or system. It 

can be measured by the numbers and types of different species, or by the genetic variations within 

and between species.

Caliche – A sedimentary rock; a hardened deposit of calcium carbonate. This calcium carbonate 

cements together other materials including gravel, sand, clay, and silt. It is found in aridisol and 

mollisol soil orders. Caliche occurs worldwide, generally in arid or semiarid regions.

Canopy – (1) The vertical projection downward of the aerial portion of vegetation, usually 

expressed as a percent of the ground so occupied. (2) A generic term referring to the aerial portion 

of vegetation (USDA NRCS 2003).

Canopy cover – The percentage of ground covered by a vertical projection of the outermost 

perimeter of the natural spread of foliage of plants. Small openings within the canopy are 

included (USDA NRCS 2003).

Cavity tree – A tree with a hollow space that provides potential nesting habitat for birds or small 

mammals.

Channel – A passage, either naturally or artificially created, that periodically or continuously 

contains moving water, or that forms a connecting link between two bodies of water. River, creek, 

stream, run, branch, and tributary are some of the terms used to describe natural channels. Natural 

channels may be single or braided. Canal and floodway are some of the terms used to describe 

artificial channels.

Climate change – Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean 

state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically 30 years or 

longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forces, or to 

persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Note that 

the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, 

defines “climate change” as, “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to 

human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to 

natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.” The UNFCCC thus makes a 

distinction between “climate change” attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric 

composition, and “climate variability” attributable to natural causes. See also “climate 

variability.”

Closed basin – An enclosed region having no drainage outlet and from which water escapes only 

by evaporation or infiltration.

Closed-loop drilling system – A drilling system that collects lubricants, fluids, drilling mud, and 

other additives in a tank, as opposed to an open pit.

Codominant – One of two or more species that are equally dominant in a biotic community.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 132

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Common mineral – Also known as mineral materials. A collective term used to describe 

petrified wood and common varieties of sand, gravel, stone, pumice, pumicite, cinders, clay, and 

other similar materials. Common varieties do not include deposits of those materials which are 

valuable because of some property giving them distinct and special value (36 CFR 228.42). The 

determination of which minerals are considered common variety is made by the Bureau of Land 

Management.

Condition survey – A tool used to document the condition of a given facility. The facilities are 

measured against maintenance objectives and standards for health and safety.

Conditions of Approval (COA) – Site-specific mitigation which is applied at the time of the 

approval of the surface use plan of operations (SUPO). Mitigation under COA cannot move an 

operation more than 200 meters, or site operations off of a leasehold, or prohibit new surfacedisturbing operations for a period of more than 60 days in any 1 year (43 CFR 3101.1-2.). If COA 

mitigation is within this parameter, it is considered consistent with lease rights. Mitigation more 

restrictive than this cannot be applied using a COA and requires a lease stipulation.

Constructed feature – Anything constructed by the Forest Service or by a permittee for use in 

administering the Grasslands. When used in the context of scenery, the term refers to anything 

that is built on the landscape.

Controlled surface use (CSU) – Allowed use and occupancy, unless restricted by another 

stipulation, with identified resource values requiring special operational constraints that may 

modify the lease rights. CSU is used as an operating guideline, not as a substitute for no surface 

occupancy (NSO) or timing stipulations.

Corridor – A band of forest, shrub, or native grassland connecting discontinuous patches of same 

which enhance connectivity and facilitate the movement of animals and plants that have a limited 

cruising range. See “wildlife corridors,” “forest fragmentation.”

Creek draw – Usually a dry creekbed or gulch that temporarily fills with water after a heavy 

rain, or fills seasonally. The term usually applies to a mountainous desert environment.

Crowned – Shaped to provide for proper drainage away from the center toward the outside of the 

road.

Depressional wetland (seasonal and perennial) – Depressional wetlands are places where 

runoff accumulates in a topographic depression. Water either does not flow through the wetland 

or the flow is essentially imperceptible. Ponds on fault traces, valley bottoms, and on broad 

saddles along ridges are examples of natural depressional wetlands. Depressional wetlands can be 

perennial or seasonal. Perennial depressional wetlands have some amount of standing water for at 

least 9 months during most years. Seasonal depressional wetlands have no standing water, or it 

lasts for less than 9 months during most years.

Design capacity – The maximum number of visitors that can be accommodated by the facilities 

at a particular site.

Designated road, trail, or area – Routes and areas designated on the motor vehicle use map and 

established by a decision that is compliant with the 2005 Travel Management Rule.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 133

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Designated dispersed sites – Sites where vehicles may pull off local roads but may not access 

the entire unit for motorized dispersed activities because of the use of fences and/or barriers.

Desired landscape character – “The most complete, attractive and sustainable expression of the 

valued landscape character which is compatible with that landscape’s fully integrated set of 

desired conditions” (SMS Handbook (USFS 1995) definition page 5-5 expanded). Desired 

landscape character represents the most “ideal” and attractive scenic identity that is possible, 

given the limitations of the ecosystem and achievement of other resource objectives as defined in 

the desired conditions.

Developed recreation – Recreation that occurs at manmade developments such as campgrounds, 

picnic grounds, resorts, ski areas, or trailheads. Facilities might include roads, parking lots, picnic 

tables, toilets, drinking water, ski lifts, and buildings. Campgrounds and picnic areas are 

examples of developed recreation sites.

Developed recreation site – A distinctly defined area where facilities are provided for 

concentrated public use, e.g. campgrounds, picnic areas, or swimming areas.

Dispersed camping – Camping outside of a developed camping facility.

Dispersed recreation – That type of outdoor recreation that tends to be spread out over the land 

and in conjunction with roads, trails, and undeveloped waterways. Activities are often day-use 

oriented and include hunting, fishing, boating, hiking, off-road-vehicle use, cross-country skiing, 

motorbiking, and mountain climbing.

Ditching – Constructing a roadside ditch to carry surface runoff from the road surface away from 

the road.

Dormant season grazing – Removal of plant material by ungulates when no physiological plant 

activity is occurring.

Dry swale – A low lying depression between slopes that provides for drainage during storm 

events.

Dry wash – The dry bed of an intermittent stream, such as those found at the bottom of a canyon.

Dust Bowl – A historic drought which affected the southern Great Plains, primarily from 1931 to 

1939. The drought was characterized by large clouds of moving dust and coincided with the Great 

Depression. 

Easement – The right-of-use over the property of another. The land having the right-of-use is 

known as the dominant estate, and the land that is subject to the easement is known as the 

servient estate.

Ecosystem – The system formed by the interaction of a group of organisms and their 

environment.

Ecotone – A transition zone between two distinct ecological communities. 

Ecotourism – Environmentally responsible travel to natural areas in order to enjoy and 

appreciate nature (and accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promote 
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 134

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

conservation, have a low visitor impact, and provide for beneficially active socioeconomic 

involvement of local peoples (World Conservation Union).

Eligible scenic river – A river that meets the eligibility criteria for a scenic river but has not been 

evaluated for its suitability. Such rivers are managed to maintain the outstandingly remarkable 

values for which they were determined to be eligible until a suitability evaluation is completed.

Emergent – Aquatic plants with some or most of the leaf area extending out of the water.

Employment rate – The proportion of the civilian noninstitutional population aged 16 years and 

over that is employed; also known as the employment-population ratio (USDL 2010).

Endemic – Native or confined to a certain region; having a comparatively restricted distribution.

Erosion – The wearing away of the land’s surface by running water, wind, ice, or other 

geological agents. It includes detachment and movement of soil or rock fragments by water, wind, 

ice, or gravity.

Escape structure – A structure built out of small buried culverts open at both ends, primarily 

sized for swift fox, which provides shelter to escape from predators.

Exclosure – a fence used to keep certain animals from grazing and browsing in a given area, 

usually to exclude cattle or big game species.

Facility – Structures needed to support the management, protection, and use of the national 

forests, including roads, trails, buildings, utility systems, dams, and other construction features. 

There are three types of facilities: recreation, administrative, and permittee.

Federally listed species – A species listed under the provisions of the Endangered Species Act.

Flight path –In this plan, flight path refers to the low-flying areas around an airport where the 

effects of an aircraft taking off or landing can be expected.

Flooding regime – The timing, spatial extent, depth, and response to runoff associated with the 

overflowing of water from the normal confines of a stream or other body of water.

Flood plain – That portion of a river or stream valley, adjacent to the channel, which is covered 

with water when the river or stream overflows its banks at flood stages.

Fluvial processes – The mechanisms which occur when running water causes erosion, transport, 

and deposition.

Food plot – An area sown or planted annually with grains, legumes, berries, or other plants to 

provide food for wildlife; or openings that are mowed or otherwise cultivated to maintain natural 

herbaceous vegetation.

Forage – (1) browse and herbage which is available and can provide food for animals or be 

harvested for feeding; or (2) to search for or consume forage (Coulloudon et al. 1999).

Forb – Any herbaceous broad-leaved plant species.

Foreground – The area within half a mile of a site or boundary.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 135

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Forest (wood) products – Any resource derived from trees except lumber. This includes seeds, 

nuts, firewood, biomass, and other related products.

Forest Service Handbook – Forest Service Handbooks (FSH) are the principal source of 

specialized guidance and instruction for carrying out the direction issued in the Forest Service

Manual. Specialists and technicians are the primary audience of handbook direction. Handbooks 

may also incorporate external directives with related USDA and Forest Service directive 

supplements.

Forest Service Manual – The Forest Service Manual (FSM) contains legal authorities, 

objectives, policies, responsibilities, instructions, and guidance needed on a continuing basis by 

Forest Service line officers and primary staff in more than one unit to plan and execute assigned 

programs and activities.

Fragmentation – Habitat fragmentation is a process that occurs wherever a large, contiguous 

habitat is transformed into smaller patches that are isolated from each other by a landscape matrix 

unlike the original. This matrix can differ from the original habitat in either composition or 

structure. The crucial point is that it functions as either a partial or total barrier to dispersal for 

species associated with the original habitat. A clear threat to population viability exists when the 

process of fragmentation occurs that isolates pairs and populations versus fragmentation within 

the home range of the individual pairs.

Free flowing – Defined by the Wild and Scenic River Act as, “existing or flowing in natural 

condition without impoundment, diversion, straightening, rip-rapping, or other modification of 

the waterway. The existence, however, of low dams, diversion works, and other minor structures 

at the time any river is proposed for inclusion in the national wild and scenic rivers system shall 

not automatically bar its consideration for such inclusion.”

Geomorphology – The classification, description, nature, origin, and development of present 

landforms and their relationships to underlying structures; and of the history of geologic changes 

as recorded by these surface features.

Grazing – Consumption of range or pasture herbaceous forage by animals.

Grazing permit – Any document authorizing livestock to use National Forest System or other 

lands under Forest Service control for the purpose of livestock production. CFR 222.1(a)(5)

Grazing permittee – An individual who has been granted written permission to graze livestock 

for a specific period on a range allotment; the recipient of a grazing permit.

Great Plains – The large grassland in the rain shadow of the Rocky Mountains, approximately 

2,500 miles from north to south and 600 miles wide from east to west. In the United States, it 

covers the eastern portions of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico, the western 

portions of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma, and the panhandle of 

Texas. It extends north into the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba.

Greenhorn – Mineral consisting predominantly of dark colored, chalky limestone and calcareous 

shale.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 136

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Groundwater – Water within the earth that supplies wells and springs. Specifically, water in the 

zone of saturation where all openings in soils and rocks are filled. The upper surface level forms 

the water table.

Ground cover – Anything which covers the ground surface or topsoil and has the effect of 

reducing erosion. Preferably, this would be a vegetative layer of grasses and/or other low-growing 

plants but may also include plant residues such as leaf litter and tree debris as well as various 

forms of rock. 

Ground-disturbing activities – Any activity which moves soil to the extent that an 

archaeological site may be impacted.

Groundwater depletion – Groundwater depletion occurs when aquifer discharge exceeds 

recharge.

Groundwater discharge – Discharge areas are the opposite of recharge areas. They are the 

locations at which groundwater leaves the aquifer and flows to the surface. Groundwater

discharge occurs where the water table intersects the land surface. Where this happens, springs or 

seeps are found.

Groundwater recharge – Recharge is the process by which groundwater is replenished. A 

recharge area is where water from precipitation percolates downward to an aquifer. Recharge is 

promoted by vegetation cover, flat topography, permeable soils, a deep water table, and the 

absence of impermeable substrate.

Group site – A recreation site designed to accommodate group events such as family gatherings.

Growing season – The period when plants actively photosynthesize and put on vegetative growth 

in preparation for seed production.

Gully erosion – Gully erosion is the process by which gullies are formed. Hillsides are more 

prone to gullying when they are cleared of vegetation through deforestation, overgrazing, or other 

means. The eroded soil is easily carried by flowing water after being dislodged from the ground, 

normally when rainfall falls during short, intense storms such as during thunderstorms.

Habitat – The natural conditions and environment in which a plant or animal lives, e.g. forest, 

desert, or wetlands.

Habitat niche – The locality where the organism may generally be found and where all essentials 

for its development and existence are present. Habitat niches are described by their geographical 

boundaries or with such terms as “shady woodlands,” “banks of streams,” “dry hillsides,” etc.

Headcut – A headcut is the sudden change in elevation or knickpoint at the leading edge of a 

gully. Headcuts can range from less than an inch to several feet in height, depending on several 

factors. The formation and movement of a gully headcut are often the dominant forms of damage 

observed in an earth spillway.

Herbaceous plant – Plants that have nonwoody stems and die back at the end of the growing 

season.

Herbivory – The consumption of herbaceous vegetation by animals.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 137

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Heritage resources – Buildings, sites, areas, architecture, memorials, and objects having 

scientific, prehistoric, historic, or social values.

High-clearance vehicle – A vehicle greater than 60 inches in width designed or modified for use 

“off road” with appropriate clearance, tires, suspension, and undercarriage protection.

High Plains – The High Plains are a subregion of the Great Plains in the central United States, 

generally encompassing the western part of the Great Plains before the region reaches the Rocky 

Mountains. The High Plains are located in eastern Colorado, western Kansas, western Nebraska, 

central and eastern Montana, eastern New Mexico, western Oklahoma, northwestern Texas, and 

southeastern Wyoming. From east to west, the High Plains rise in elevation from around 750 m 

(2,500 feet) to over 1,800 m (6,000 feet).

Historical extent – The geographic area that a vegetation type covered in the past.

Homestead – Land claimed by a settler, particularly under the Homestead Act of 1862.

Hydric soil – A soil that formed under conditions of saturation, flooding, or ponding long enough 

during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper horizon. Hydric soils 

along with hydrophytic vegetation and wetland hydrology are used to define wetlands.

Hydrologic function – Hydrologic functions are those related to the quantity of water that enters, 

is stored in, or leaves a wetland. These functions include such factors as the reduction of flow 

velocity, the role of wetlands as groundwater recharge or discharge areas, and the influence of 

wetlands on atmospheric processes. Water quality functions include the trapping of sediment, 

pollution control, and the biochemical processes that take place as water enters, is stored in, or 

leaves a wetland.

Hydrology – The study of the behavior of water in the atmosphere, on the earth’s surface, and 

underground.

Hydrophytic plant – A plant characterized by its adaptations to a water saturated environment.

Important birding area (IBA) – Sites that provide essential habitat for one or more species of 

birds. IBAs include sites for breeding, wintering, and/or migrating birds. IBAs may be a few

acres or thousands of acres, but usually they are discrete sites that stand out from the surrounding 

landscape. IBAs may include public or private lands, or both, and they may be protected or 

unprotected. The criteria for and selection of IBAs is administered by the Audubon Society.

Improvement – Manmade developments, such as roads, trails, fences, stock tanks, pipelines, 

power and telephone lines, survey monuments, and ditches.

Inclusion – A variance in vegetation within a vegetation type due to landform, moisture regime, 

soil type, erosion, or past disturbance.

Income – When “income” is used in this document, it is equivalent to the USDC Bureau of 

Economic Analysis’ definition of personal income (USDC 2010), which states, “Personal income 

is the income received by persons from participation in production, plus transfer receipts from 

government and business, plus government interest (which is treated like a transfer receipt). It is 

defined as the sum of wage and salary disbursements, supplements to wages and salaries, 

proprietors’ income with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments, rental income 
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 138

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

of persons with capital consumption adjustment, personal dividend income, personal interest 

income, and personal current transfer receipts, less contributions for government social 

insurance.”

Indicator species – A species whose presence, absence, or relative well-being in a given 

environment is indicative of the health of its ecosystem as a whole.

Infiltration – Infiltration is the process of water entering the soil. The rate of infiltration is the 

maximum velocity at which water enters the soil surface.

Infrastructure – The facilities, utilities, and transportation system needed to meet public and 

administrative needs.

Intermittent/ephemeral stream – An ephemeral stream or stretch of a stream is one that flows 

only in direct response to precipitation or intermittent springs. It receives no water from perennial 

springs and no long-continued supply from melting snow or other source. Its stream channel is at 

all times above the water table. The term may be arbitrarily restricted to streams or stretches of 

streams that do not flow continuously during periods of as much as 1 month.

Interpretive services – Information services designed to present inspirational, educational, and 

recreational values to forest visitors to provide the utmost in understanding, appreciation, and 

enjoyment from their forest experience.

Invasive species – A species, including its seed, spores, or other biological material, whose 

introduction does cause or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human 

health (Executive Order 13112).

Inventoried roadless area – Areas, typically of 5,000 acres or greater, which were identified in 

the Roadless Area Review and Evaluation in 1979.

Isolated parcel – A parcel of land that is typically the size of a section or less and which is 

discontinuous to the rest of the National Forest System lands that are within the administrative 

boundary of the unit.

Job growth – The number of jobs gained by an area over a period of time. Jobs are counted in the 

same way the Bureau of Economic Analysis (USDC 2010) counts employment: “a count of jobs, 

full-time plus part-time, by place of work. Full-time and part-time jobs are given equal weight. 

Employees, sole proprietors, and general partners are included, but unpaid family workers and 

volunteers are not.”

Lake-based recreation complexes – A recreation facility that is located near or adjacent to a lake 

or reservoir and supports access to and protection of the recreational opportunities of the lake.

Land adjustment – Lands acquired through purchase, donation, exchange, transfer, sale, grant, 

or selection.

Land exchange – The conveyance of non-Federal land or interest in the land to the United States 

in exchange for National Forest System land or interest in the land.

Land purchase – The conveyance of non-Federal land or interest in the land to the United States 

by fee-simple purchase.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 139

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Large woody debris – Dead wood left on the ground, including logs, stumps, and limbs 

contribute to the structural diversity of the Forest and biotic diversity of the ecosystem by hosting 

fungi, insects, invertebrates, small mammals, and birds. They also have a critical role in the larger 

Forest because of their importance to nutrient cycling.

Leasing (oil and gas) – A contract right granted by the United States allowing a lessee the right 

of holding a record title and operating right to the leased oil and/or gas in exchange for rent and 

royalty payments. Oil and gas leases will expire in 10 years if they are not put into production; 

otherwise, leases do not expire as long as they are “held by production.”

Litter – The uppermost layer of organic debris on the ground, composed mainly of fresh or 

slightly decomposed leaves, bark, twigs, flowers, fruits, and other vegetative matter.

Management indicator species – Plant or animal species or habitat components selected during 

the alternatives analyses stage of an environmental impact statement that are used to monitor the 

effects of planned management activities on populations of wildlife and fish, including those that 

are socially or economically important.

Mast – The flowers, fruits, or seeds of plants, especially of trees and shrubs that are eaten by 

animals. Hard mast includes hard-shelled seeds such as acorns and hickory nuts. Soft mast 

includes flowers and seeds with a fleshy cover (for example berries, wild cherries, and maple 

seeds).

Memorandum of understanding (MOU) – A legal agreement between the Forest Service and 

other agencies resulting from consultation between agencies that states specific measures the 

agencies will follow to accomplish a large or complex project. A MOU is not a fund-obligating 

document.

Mesic (adapted) species – Plant species adapted to mesic environmental conditions are ones with 

medium moisture requirements. Mesic soil is a medium type of soil that drains well, yet retains 

some water.

Minerals, common variety – see “Common mineral” (above).

Monitoring – Collecting information to track system conditions and their response to 

management.

Motor vehicle use map – A map displaying designated roads, trails, and areas for motor vehicle 

use on an administrative unit or a ranger district of the National Forest System.

Mott – A small group of trees usually in grassland or shrubland setting.

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) – An act declaring a national policy to encourage 

productive and enjoyable harmony between man and his environment, to promote efforts which 

will prevent or eliminate damage to the environment and the biosphere and stimulate the health 

and welfare of man, to enrich the understanding of the ecological systems and natural resources 

important to the Nation and to establish a Council on Environmental Quality.

National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan – A plan developed to meet the 

requirements of the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974, as 
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 140

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

amended, that guides all resource management activities and establishes management standards 

and guidelines for the National Forest System lands of a given national forest.

National Forest System (NFS) land – Federal lands that have been designated by Executive 

Order or statute as national forest, national grassland, or purchase units, or other lands under the 

administration of the Forest Service.

National historic trail – National historic trails were authorized under the National Trails System 

Act of 1968 (Public Law 90-543), along with national scenic trails and national recreation trails. 

National scenic trails and national historic trails may only be designated by an act of Congress.

National Register of Historic Places – A list of heritage resources that have local, state, or 

national significance maintained by the Secretary of the Interior.

National Wild and Scenic River System – Rivers with outstanding scenic, recreational, 

geological, fish and wildlife, historic, cultural, or other similar values; designated by Congress 

under the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act for preservation of their free-flowing condition.

National Wilderness Preservation System – Pristine Federal lands designated by the Wilderness 

Act of 1964 and subsequent wilderness legislation. Generally, these lands are untouched by 

“works of man.”

Natural recruitment – The unaided settlement and proliferation of a species in a suitable habitat.

Nesting platform – An artificial nest structure employed as a habitat improvement practice when 

quality nest sites are a limiting factor to raptor density. 

Nongovernmental organization (NGO) – is a term that has become widely accepted as referring 

to a legally constituted entity created by natural or legal persons with no participation or 

representation of any government. NGOs exist for a variety of reasons, usually to further the 

political or social goals of their members or funders. Examples include improving the state of the 

natural environment, encouraging the observance of human rights, improving the welfare of the 

disadvantaged, or representing a corporate agenda.

No surface occupancy – A fluid mineral leasing stipulation that prohibits occupancy or 

disturbance on all or part of the land surface to protect special values or uses. The NSO 

stipulation includes stipulations that may have been worded as “No Surface Use/Occupancy,”

“No Surface Disturbance,” “Conditional NSO,” and “Surface Disturbance or Surface Occupancy 

Restriction by Location.” Lessee may exploit the oil and gas or geothermal resources under leases 

restricted by this stipulation through use of directional drilling from sites outside the NSO area.

Non-salary income – Income from employment that does not pay a wage or salary, such as a 

small business or farm.

No-wake boating – The slowest speed at which it is still possible to maintain steering and which 

does not produce a wake.

Noxious weed – A legal term applied to plants regulated by Federal and state laws, such as plants 

designated as noxious weeds by the Secretary of Agriculture or by the responsible state official. 

Noxious weeds generally possess one or more of the following characteristics: aggressive and 

difficult to manage, poisonous, toxic, parasitic, a carrier or host of serious insect or disease, and 
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 141

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

being not native or new or not common to the United States or parts thereof. (Forest Service 

Manual 2080.5, Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974, PL 93-629, as amended.)

Off-highway vehicle – Any motorized vehicle capable of or designed for travel on or 

immediately over land, water, or other natural terrain with a vehicle width of less than 50 inches.

Off-road motorized vehicle – Any motorized vehicle capable of or designed for travel on or 

immediately over land, water, or other natural terrain. This includes all mechanical means of 

transportation: passenger cars, 4-wheel drive pickups or sport utility vehicles, trail bikes, 

snowmobiles, or other ground transportation vehicles that are capable of traveling overland where 

no roads exist.

Open pit – A shallow manmade open pond or pit used on a drill site or production pad to hold 

produced water or fluids from drilling. “Closed” pits refer to the use of tanks to store these types 

of fluids.

Outdoor classrooms – Areas that are designed and managed for use by local schools and other 

educational institutions.

Outsloping – Shaping the road surface with a continuous cross slope to carry surface water off 

the fill side of the road.

Outstandingly remarkable values – Scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife, historic, 

cultural, or other similar values which make a river eligible for designation as a wild or scenic 

river.

Overland flow – A condition in which precipitation rate is faster than infiltration rate, and excess 

water runs over the surface of the land.

Overlay – A management area or special area that provides more specific direction for a small 

geographic location within a larger management area. The management direction given for the 

larger management area continues to apply. For example, if proposing a project next to the 

Canadian River, a specialist would have to look at the direction for the eligible scenic river and 

the Mills Canyon Management Area, which are both overlays, as well as the direction for the 

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area.

Overstory – That portion of a plant community consisting of the taller plants on the site; the 

forest or woodland canopy.

Paleontological resources – Fossils and other resources related to the natural history of an area.

Palustrine wetland – Relating to a system of inland, nontidal wetlands characterized by the 

presence of trees, shrubs, and emergent vegetation (vegetation that is rooted below water but 

grows above the surface). Palustrine wetlands range from permanently saturated or flooded land 

(as in marshes, swamps, and lake shores) to land that is wet only seasonally (as in vernal pools). 

See “Emergent” above.

Pasture – A grazing area enclosed and separated from other areas by fencing or other barriers.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 142

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Patch (size) – A relatively homogeneous nonlinear area that differs from its surroundings. It can 

specifically describe forested patches, non-forest vegetation patches, rock/barren patches, or 

water patches.

Per capita income – This measure of income is calculated as the total personal income of the 

residents of an area divided by the population of the area. Per capita personal income is often 

used as an indicator of consumers’ purchasing power and of the economic well-being of the 

residents of an area.

Perennial stream – Permanently inundated surface stream course. Surface water flows 

throughout the year except in years of prolonged drought.

Playa lakes – Bowl-shaped depressions that are dependent on rainfall and surface runoff for the 

water they impound. They are closed basins and usually do not overflow. They are mostly 

intermittent, with lake evaporation occurring at about 60 inches per year.

Potential natural vegetation type – The plant community that would become established if all 

successional sequences were completed without human interference under present environmental 

and floristic conditions, including those created by man.

Potential wilderness area – An area that meets the criteria for the inventory phase of wilderness 

evaluation as described in FSH 1909.12, Chapter 71.

Prescribed burn – Fire burning under conditions specified in an approved plan to dispose of 

fuels, control unwanted vegetation, stimulate growth of desired vegetation, change successional 

stages, etc., to meet range, wildlife, recreation, wilderness, watershed, or timber management 

objectives. Prescribed burns occur under specified environmental conditions that allow the fire to 

safely be confined to a predetermined area and produce the fireline intensity and rate of spread 

required to meet management objectives.

Proclamation boundary – The proclaimed boundary depicts the boundaries encompassing NFS 

lands within the original proclaimed national forests along with Executive Orders, proclamations, 

public laws, public land orders, Secretary of Agriculture Orders, and Secretary of Interior Orders.

A proclaimed boundary is created by an act of Congress. The proclaimed boundary and 

administrative boundaries can be different, depending on how the land came to the government.

An example of this is the Valle Vidal Unit of the Carson National Forest. It was donated to the 

government after the proclaimed boundary was established. The Valle Vidal Unit is within the 

administrative boundary of the Carson, but not within the proclaimed boundary.

Proper functioning condition – A condition when adequate vegetation, landform, or large 

woody debris is present to: dissipate stream energy associated with high waterflow, thereby 

reducing erosion and improving water quality; filter sediment, capture bedload, and aid flood

plain development; improve floodwater retention and groundwater recharge; develop root masses 

that stabilize streambanks against cutting action; and develop diverse ponding and channel 

characteristics to provide the habitat and the water depth, duration, and temperature necessary for 

fish production, waterfowl breeding, and other uses, and support greater diversity.

Quality of life – A term used to refer to the social, economic, and health related values that 

compose the overall satisfaction and general well-being of an individual or community.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 143

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) – A framework for stratifying and defining classes of 

outdoor recreation environments, activities, and experience opportunities. The settings, activities, 

and opportunities for obtaining experiences have been arranged along a continuum or spectrum 

divided into six classes: primitive, semiprimitive nonmotorized, semiprimitive motorized, roaded 

natural, rural, and urban.

Recreation settings – The combination of physical, biological, social, and managerial conditions 

that give value to a place for recreation opportunities.

Recreational fisheries – A water body that supports fish which are managed for sport fishing.

Reference condition – The environmental conditions that imply ecological sustainability, 

represented by the characteristic range of variation (when available), not the total range of 

variation, prior to European settlement and under the current climatic period. At landscape scales, 

presettlement human-caused effects are inherent to the reference condition, particularly where 

there are fire-adapted systems. It may be necessary to refine reference conditions according to 

climate change projections and permanent environmental changes (e.g., invasive species). 

Reference conditions are best suited for analysis when quantified by amount, condition, spatial 

distribution, and temporal variation.

Research – Activities undertaken for the purpose of formal scientific inquiry by the Forest 

Service, other Federal agencies, universities, or an individual researcher.

Research natural area (RNA) – An area set aside by the Forest Service to preserve a 

representative sample of an ecological community, primarily for scientific and educational 

purposes. Commercial exploitation is not allowed and general public use is discouraged.

Research site – A site that is limited in its ability to be used for other management purposes and 

is part of an active research project.

Residual ground cover – Plant material remaining onsite after grazing activity has ended.

Right-of-way – A linear strip of land defined for the present or future location of transportation or 

utility right-of-way within its boundaries.

Riparian – An area of vegetation adjacent to an aquatic ecosystem distinguished by a high water 

table, certain soil characteristics, and some vegetation that requires free water or moist soil 

conditions.

Riparian area – Geographically delineable areas with distinctive resource values and 

characteristics that are comprised of the aquatic and riparian ecosystems.

Riparian dependent resources – Resources that owe their existence to the riparian area.

Riparian ecosystem – A terrestrial ecosystem characterized by hydric soils and plant species that 

are dependent on the water table or its capillary fringe zone.

Riverine – Relating to a system of inland wetlands and deep water habitats, characterized by the 

absence of trees, shrubs, or emergent vegetation associated within a channel which periodically or 

continuously contains nontidal flowing water.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 144

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Road – A motor vehicle route over 50 inches wide, unless identified and managed as a trail (36 

CFR 212.1, FSM 7705).

Road abandonment – A method of road decommissioning whereby the road receives no physical 

treatment.

Road decommissioning – Activities that result in the stabilization and restoration of unneeded 

roads to a more natural state (36 CFR 212.1).

Road management objectives (RMOs) – RMOs document the intended purpose of an individual 

road in providing access to implement a land and resource management plan as well as decisions 

about applicable standards for the road. RMOs should be based on management area direction 

and access management objectives. RMOs contain design criteria, operation criteria, and 

maintenance criteria (FSM 7709.59.11).

Roaded natural ROS – Characterized by a predominantly natural appearing environment with 

moderate evidence of human activity. Resource modification and utilization practices are evident 

but harmonize with the natural environment. May have a mosaic of highly modified areas to 

pockets of unmodified lands. Developed sites provide for some user comfort as well as site 

protection, but harmonize with the natural environment.

Roadway – Portion of the road that includes everything from the top of the cut slope to the 

bottom of the fill slope.

Rolling dips – Shallow depressions built diagonally across a road to divert surface water runoff 

from the road.

Roost – A support such as tree limbs, thick tree bark, or brush piles which birds or bats use to rest 

upon or use for cover.

Rural ROS – A substantially modified natural environment. There is evidence of resource 

modification and utilization practices, and facilities are often designed for larger numbers of 

people. Campgrounds often include paved roads, electricity, and other conveniences.

RV – Abbreviation for recreational vehicle, which is a vehicle that contains living quarters for 

recreational purposes.

Salting/mineral supplementation/supplemental feeding – Providing necessary nutrients that 

are not naturally provided to grazing animals.

Savanna – A grassy plain typified by the presence of a low density of open grown trees and 

which is usually maintained by periodic fire.

Scenery – General appearance of a place, landscape, and/or its visible features (definition per 

SMS Handbook Glossary (USFS 1995), slightly revised and shortened for clarity).

Scenery management system – A process for the inventory and analysis of the aesthetic values 

of national forest lands providing for integration of these values with other biological, physical, 

and social/cultural resources in the planning process.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 145

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Scenery objectives – Also known as “scenic integrity objectives,” which set guidelines to 

manage the degree that management or other projects may negatively impact the desired 

landscape character (USDA Forest Service 1995).

Scenic – Of or relating to landscape scenery; pertaining to natural, natural appearing or other 

valued scenery; constituting or affording pleasant views of natural landscape attributes or positive 

cultural elements (definition per SMS Handbook Glossary (USFS 1995), slightly revised for 

clarity).

Scenic integrity (high, medium, and low) – A measure of the degree to which a landscape is 

visually perceived to be “complete,” and is determined by three factors: dominance, degree of 

deviation, and intactness of the desired landscape character established based on the existing 

condition. Scenic integrity disturbances most typically result from human activities, but can also 

result from natural events which exceed the landscape’s historical range of variability in terms of 

magnitude, duration, or intensity. An exception to this is direct human alterations that have 

become accepted over time as positive landscape character attributes (e.g., historic cabins, farms, 

and ranches).

• High scenic integrity – The valued scenery “appears natural or unaltered,” yet visual 

disturbances are present; however, they remain unnoticed because they repeat the form, 

line, color, texture, pattern, and scale of the valued scenery. When used as a standard or 

guideline, this level should be achieved as soon after project completion as possible or 

within 3 years, maximum.

• Moderate scenic integrity – The valued scenery “appears slightly altered.” Noticeable 

disturbances are minor and visually subordinate to the valued scenery because they repeat 

its form, line, color, texture, pattern, and scale. When used as a standard or guideline, this 

level should be achieved as soon after project completion as possible or within 3 years, 

maximum.

• Low scenic integrity – The valued scenery “appears moderately altered.” Visual 

disturbances are codominant with the valued scenery and may create a focal point of 

moderate contrast. Disturbances may reflect, introduce, or “borrow” valued scenery 

attributes from outside the landscape being viewed (such as the size, shape, edge effect, 

and pattern of natural openings; vegetative type changes or socially valued architectural 

styles). Scenery attributes borrowed from outside the viewed landscape appear 

compatible with or complimentary to those within. When used as a standard or guideline, 

this level should be achieved as soon after project completion as possible or within 3 

years, maximum.

Scenic quality – Degree to which the appearance of a place, landscape, or feature can elicit 

psychological and physiological benefits to individuals and, therefore, to society in general 

(definition per SMS Handbook Glossary (USFS 1995), revised). Scenic quality is described and 

measured through the landscape character inventory information and the cumulative conditions of 

the two primary SMS indicators described in this appendix, “scenic integrity” and “scenic 

stability.”

Scenic river – Those rivers or sections of rivers that are free of impoundments, with shorelines or 

watersheds still largely primitive and shorelines largely undeveloped, but accessible in places by 

roads.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 146

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Seasonal depressional wetland – See “Depressional wetland.”

Sediment – Solid material, both mineral and organic, that is in suspension, is being transported, 

or has been moved from its site of origin by air, water, gravity, or ice and has come to rest on the 

earth’s surface either above or below sea level.

Sediment load – Solid material, both mineral and organic, that is in suspension, being 

transported, or has been moved from site of origin by air, water, gravity, or ice.

Sedimentation – The deposition or settling of soil particles suspended in water.

Semiprimitive motorized ROS – Similar setting to the SPNM below, except this area provides a 

motorized backcountry experience where trails and primitive roads are designed for highclearance, four-wheel-drive vehicles. There is a moderate probability of experiencing solitude. 

High degree of self-reliance and challenge in using motorized equipment. These areas are 

predominantly natural, lacking some human modification, except when necessary for site 

protection.

Semiprimitive nonmotorized (SPNM) ROS – A nonmotorized backcountry area with a 

predominantly natural appearing environment, without evidence of resource modification and 

utilization practices. This type of area provides opportunities for self-reliance and challenge, with 

a low concentration of users and high degree of interaction with the natural environment. 

Recreation developments are rustic and rudimentary and primarily provided for the protection of 

the resources rather than the convenience of users.

Shelterbelt – A shelterbelt is a windbreak plantation made up of one or more rows of trees or 

shrubs planted in such a manner as to provide shelter from the wind and to protect soil from 

erosion. The Great Plains Shelterbelt was a project used to create windbreaks in the Great Plains 

states that was launched in 1934. President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated the project in response 

to the severe dust storms of the Dust Bowl which resulted in significant soil erosion and drought. 

The Great Plains Shelterbelt was authorized under the 1924 Clarke-McNary Act and was carried 

out by the Works Projects Administration (WPA). By 1942, 30,233 shelterbelts had been planted, 

which contained 220 million trees and stretched for 18,600 miles (29,900 km).

Snag – A standing, dead tree from which the leaves and most of the branches have fallen.

Soil compaction – Soil compaction occurs when soil particles are pressed together, reducing the 

pore space between them. This increases the weight of solids per unit volume of soil (bulk 

density). Soil compaction occurs in response to pressure (weight per unit area) exerted by field 

machinery or animals. The risk for compaction is greatest when soils are wet.

Soil condition – An evaluation of soil quality based on an interpretation of factors which affect 

three primary soil functions: soil hydrology, soil stability, and nutrient cycling.

Soil condition category – An indication of the status of soil functions. (Ecological land units are 

assigned a soil condition category.) Soil condition categories reflect soil disturbances resulting 

from both planned and unplanned events. Current management activities provide opportunities to 

maintain or improve soil functions that are critical in sustaining soil productivity.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 147

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Satisfactory – Indicators signify that soil function is being sustained and soil is 

functioning properly and normally. The ability of soil to maintain resource values and 

sustain outputs is high.

• Impaired – Indicators signify a reduction of soil function. The ability of soil to function 

properly has been reduced and/or there exists an increased vulnerability to degradation.

An impaired category should signal land managers that there is a need to further 

investigate the ecosystem to determine causes and degrees of decline in soil functions.

Changes in management practices or other preventative actions may be appropriate.

• Unsatisfactory – Indicators signify that loss of soil function has occurred. Degradation 

of vital soil functions result in the inability of soil to maintain resource values, sustain 

outputs, and recover from impacts. Soils rated in the unsatisfactory category are 

candidates for improved management practices or restoration designed to recover soil 

functions.

Soil fertility – Soil fertility deals with the nutrient status, or ability of soil to supply nutrients for 

plant growth under favorable environmental conditions such as light and temperature, and the 

physical conditions of the soil.

Soil productivity – The capacity of a soil to support the growth of specified plants, plant 

communities, or a sequence of plant communities. Soil productivity may be expressed in terms of 

volume or weight per unit, area per year, percent plant cover, or other measures of biomass 

accumulation.

Special areas – Certain limited areas of National Forest System lands not designated as 

wilderness and containing outstanding examples of plant and animal communities, geological 

features, scenic grandeur, or other special attributes that merit special management. These areas 

are designated by law, or may be designated administratively, as special areas. Areas so 

designated are managed to emphasize recreational and other specific related values. Other uses 

are permitted in the areas to the extent that these uses are in harmony with the purpose for which 

the area was designated. The law or order designating each area provides specific objectives and 

guidelines for management of each area.

Special use – Those uses and occupancy occurring on more than a transient basis except those 

covered by mining laws, or those associated with harvesting timber or grazing livestock. These 

uses include roads, all types of utilities, ski areas, cemeteries, electronic sites, and recreation 

residences. Uses are ordinarily covered by either an annual or term permit. Annual permits are for 

relatively short-term use and are revocable by the Forest Service. They are renewable each year 

by the payment of a fee. Term permits are used to cover uses of a longer time period (up to 30 

years) and having a large economic investment. Examples of this permit include large electric 

transmission lines and large recreation resorts and ski areas.

Species abundance – Relative species abundance and species richness describe key elements of 

biodiversity. Relative species abundance refers to how common or rare a species is relative to 

other species in a given location or community.

Species composition – The proportions of various individual plant species in relation to the total 

in a given area.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 148

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Species diversity – The number of different species in a particular area (species richness) 

weighted by some measure of abundance such as number of individuals or biomass.

Species richness – Species richness is the number of species present in a sample, community, or 

taxonomic group. Species richness is one component of the concept of species diversity.

Species structure – The physical height of a plant species in a vegetation community.

Species viability – Capability to possess the necessary population size and distribution of 

reproductive individuals for the well-distributed, continued existence in the planning area.

Spreader dam – A structure designed to dissipate surface flow.

Stand – A group of trees sufficiently uniform in species composition, size, age, structure, spatial 

arrangement, and condition to be distinguished from surrounding stands and managed as a single 

unit.

Streambank – The sides of a channel that hold or carry water.

Structure – The presence, size, and physical arrangement of vegetation in a stand. Vertical 

structure refers to the variety of plant heights, from the canopy to the forest floor. Horizontal 

structure refers to the types, sizes, and distribution of trees and other plants across the land 

surface. Forest lands with substantial structural diversity provide a variety of niches for different 

wildlife species.

Successional stage – A stage of development of a plant community as it moves from bare ground 

to climax.

Surface runoff – Refers to the loss of water from an area by flow over the land surface.

Surface use plan of operation (SUPO) – A plan of operations covering proposed surfacedisturbing activities that must be approved by the Forest Service prior to any surface-disturbing 

activities occurring.

Sustainability – Sustainability is a goal for economic development and natural resource 

management. Ecosystem sustainability is the capacity of an ecosystem for long-term maintenance 

of ecological processes and functions, biological diversity, and productivity. Social and economic 

sustainability generally refers to land management practices that provide goods and services from 

a resource without degradation of the site quality, and without a decline in the yield of goods and 

services over time.

Sustained yield – The achievement and maintenance in perpetuity of an annual or periodic output 

of the various renewable resources of the National Forest System without impairment of the 

productivity of the land.

Terrace – A leveled section of a hill cultivated area, designed as a method of soil conservation to 

slow or prevent rapid surface runoff.

Terrestrial ecosystem survey (TES) and terrestrial ecological unit inventory (TEUI) – A 

classification of ecological types and mapped terrestrial ecological units using a consistent 

standard throughout National Forest System lands (NFS). Ecological units are categorized to 
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 149

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

identify land and water areas at different levels of resolution based upon similar capabilities and 

potentials for response to management and natural disturbances. Capabilities and potentials derive 

from multiple elements, such as climate, geomorphology, geology, soils, water, and potential 

vegetation.

Topsoil – The upper, outermost layer of soil, usually the top 2 inches (5.1 cm) to 8 inches (20 

cm). It has the highest concentration of organic matter and microorganisms and is where most of 

the Earth’s biological soil activity occurs.

Trail – A route 50 inches or less in width or a route over 50 inches wide that is identified and 

managed as a trail (36 CFR 212.1).

Travel Management Rule – Located in 36 CFR 212, Subpart B, “Designation of Roads, Trails, 

and Areas for Motor Vehicle Use.” The rule requires each national forest or ranger district to 

designate those roads, trails, and areas open to motor vehicles. Designation will include class of 

vehicle and, if appropriate, time of year for motor vehicle use. A given route, for example, could 

be designated for use by motorcycles, ATVs, or street legal vehicles. Once designation is 

complete, the rule will prohibit motor vehicle use off the designated system or inconsistent with 

the designations. Designations will be shown on a motor vehicle use map. Use inconsistent with 

the designations will be prohibited.

Tree guard (crib) – A structure placed around trees for protection against cattle rubbing and root 

trampling.

Understory – Plants growing beneath the canopy of other plants. Usually refers to grasses, forbs, 

and low shrubs under a tree or shrub canopy.

Ungulate – A hoofed mammal, such as deer, elk, mountain goats, bighorn sheep, moose, 

antelope, caribou, and bison. Grazing animal that has hooves (e.g. cattle, antelope).

Urban cluster – The Census Bureau delineates urban cluster boundaries to encompass densely 

settled territory, which consists of core census block groups or blocks that have a population 

density of at least 1,000 people per square mile and surrounding census blocks that have an 

overall density of at least 500 people per square mile. In addition, under certain conditions, less 

densely settled territory may be part of the urban cluster.

Utility corridors – The linear space needed to bury or suspend a produced water line, gas 

pipeline, oil pipeline, electric, or other line(s). It is often, but not always, located along a road.

Valued landscape – Those attributes that make the landscape valuable to people. These attributes 

may include parts of the built environment.

Watershed condition – The state of a watershed based upon physical and biological 

characteristics and processes affecting hydrologic and soil functions.

• Class 1 watersheds exhibit high geomorphic, hydrologic, and biotic integrity relative to 

their natural potential condition. The drainage network is generally stable. Physical, 

chemical, and biologic conditions suggest that soil, aquatic, and riparian systems are 

predominately functional in terms of supporting beneficial uses.
Glossary 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 150

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Class 2 watersheds exhibit moderate geomorphic, hydrologic, and biotic integrity relative 

to their natural potential condition. Portions of the watershed may exhibit an unstable 

drainage network. Physical, chemical, and biologic conditions suggest that soil, aquatic, 

and riparian systems are at risk in being able to support beneficial uses.

• Class 3 watersheds exhibit low geomorphic, hydrologic, and biotic integrity relative to 

their natural potential condition. A majority of the drainage network may be unstable. 

Physical, chemical, and biologic conditions suggest that soil, aquatic, and riparian 

systems do not support beneficial uses.

Wetland – Habitat that is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic where the water table is 

usually at or near the land surface, or the land is covered by shallow water. Wetlands have one or 

more of the following characteristics: (1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly 

hydrophytic plants; (2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil; and (3) the substrate 

is nonsoil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time during the 

growing season of each year (FSM 2600).

Wilderness area – An area of undeveloped Federal land that Congress designated as wilderness 

and that retains its primeval character and influence, is without permanent improvements or 

human habitation, and is protected and managed to preserve its natural conditions. An area that 

(1) generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of 

man’s work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a 

primitive and unconfined type of recreation; (3) comprises at least 5,000 acres of land or is of 

sufficient size to make practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired condition; and (4) 

may also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic, or 

historical value (Wilderness Act, 1964).

Wildlife corridors – Strips of trees, shrubs, and/or understory vegetation that provide cover and 

habitat for wildlife and serve as travel lanes for movement between isolated patches of habitat.

Wildlife habitat improvement – Establishment of trees, shrubs, grasses, legumes, and/or forbs 

to increase or improve wildlife habitat. Wildlife water development habitat improvements might 

include ponds, windmills, solar pumps, and guzzlers designed to benefit wildlife.

Wind farm – A large group of wind turbines.

Wind turbine – A turbine which transforms the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical or 

electrical energy that can be harnessed for practical use.

Woody plant community – A group of tree or shrub plant populations.

Woodland – A plant community in which trees are often small, characteristically with a greater 

proportion of their total height being crown more so than clear bole, and having trees spaced far 

enough apart that the canopies of adjacent trees usually do not touch and with the ground 

vegetation being mostly herbaceous, commonly grass (USDA Forest Service, 2004).
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 151

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

References Cited

Clark, R. N., Stankey, G. 1979. The recreation opportunity spectrum: a framework for planning, 

management and research. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-PNW-98. Portland, OR. U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest Experiment Station. 

32 pp.

Coulloudon, B., Eshelman, K., Gianola, J., Habich, N., Hughes, L., Johnson, C., Pellant, M., 

Podborny, P., Rasmussen, A., Robles, B., Shaver, P., Spehar, J., Willoughby, J. W. 1999. 

Sampling vegetation attributes. Denver, CO, USA. U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Land Management, National Science and Technology Center, Interagency 

Technical Reference 1734–4. 163 pp.

Power, M. E., Tilman, D., Estes, J. A., Menge, B. A., Bond, W. J., Mills, L. S., Daily, G., Castilla, 

J. C., Lubchenco, J., Paine, R. T. 1996. Challenges in the quest for keystones. BioScience 

466:9–20.

Sauer, J. R., Hines, J. E., Fallon, J. 2008. The North American Breeding Bird Survey, Results and 

Analysis 1966–2007. Version 5.15.2008. USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, 

Laurel, MD.

Tidwell, P. 1998. Determination of Tentatively Suitable Timber Lands on the Cibola National 

Forest. USDA Cibola National Forest.

UNM-BBER. 2005. University of New Mexico, Bureau of Business and Economic Research 

(UNM-BBER). Socioeconomic Assessment of the Region 3 National Grasslands.

USDA Forest Service. 1979. The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum: A Framework for Planning, 

Management and Research. (USDA GTR PNW-98). Pacific Northwest Forest and Range 

Experiment Station.

USDA Forest Service. 1995. Landscape Aesthetics: A Handbook for Scenery Management, 

Agriculture Handbook No. 701. USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC.

USDA Forest Service. 1999. Geographic Area Assessment Kiowa and Rita Blanca National 

Grasslands, Cibola National Forest. Version 1, September 30, 1999. Paginated by chapter.

USDA Forest Service. 2000. Geographic Area Assessment Black Kettle and McClellan Creek 

National Grasslands, Cibola National Forest. Version 1, August 14, 2001. Paginated by 

chapter.

USDA Forest Service. 2001. The Built Environment Image Guide for the National Forests and 

Grasslands.

USDA Forest Service. 2004. Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Land and Resource 

Management Plan, Land Between The Lakes National Recreation Area. Management 

Bulletin R8-MB-119B. Vol. 1. 329 pp.

USDA Forest Service. 2005. National Visitor Use Monitoring (NVUM) Database.1

USDA Forest Service. 2006. Terrestrial Ecosystem Survey of the Cibola National Forest and 

National Grasslands. (TEUI, formerly TES). Southwestern Region.

 1 Contains information about visitor satisfaction and use of the national forests and grasslands.
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 152

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

USDA Forest Service. 2006 and 2007. INFRA Database.2

USDA Forest Service. 2011a. Grasslands Plan Revision, Comprehensive Evaluation Report, 

Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and McClellan Creek National Grasslands. Cibola 

National Forest.

USDA Forest Service. 2011b. Grasslands Plan Revision, Ecological Sustainability Report, Kiowa, 

Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and McClellan Creek National Grasslands. Cibola National 

Forest.

USDA Forest Service. 2011c. Grasslands Plan Revision, Socioeconomic Sustainability Report, 

Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle, and McClellan Creek National Grasslands. Cibola 

National Forest.

USDA Forest Service and USDI National Park Service. 1991. Memorandum of Understanding 

between the National Park Service and the Pike-San Isabel National Forests and 

Cimarron-Comanche National Grasslands. March 6, 1991.

USDA NRCS. 2003. National range and pasture handbook, Revision 1. Washington, DC: United 

States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resource Conservation Service, Grazing Lands 

Technology Institute. 190-vi-NRPH.

USDC. 2010. Bureau of Economic Analysis. 

http://www.bea.gov/regional/pdf/lapi2008/lapi2008.pdf Accessed December 22, 2010.

USDI National Park Service. 1990. Santa Fe National Historic Trail Comprehensive Management 

and Use Plan.

USDL. 2010. Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://www.bls.gov/bls/glossary.htm/. Accessed 

December 22, 2010.

 2 Contains current information and associated financial data on the inventory of constructed features such as buildings, 

dams, bridges, water systems, roads, trails, developed recreation sites, range improvements, administrative sites, 

heritage sites, general forest areas, and wilderness.
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 153

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Appendix

A: Maps

The maps appear in the following order:

National Grasslands Administered by Cibola National Forest Vicinity Map

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Proposed Scenic Integrity Levels

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Classes

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Vegetation Types

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Proposed Scenic Integrity Levels

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Classes

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Vegetation Types 

Mills Canyon Management Area

Mills Canyon Proposed Scenic Integrity Levels

Mills Canyon Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Classes 

Mills Canyon Vegetation Types 

Special Areas and Eligible Scenic River

Mills Canyon Gas and Oil Surface Occupancy Restrictions
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 154

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 155

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 156

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 157

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 158

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 159

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 160

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 161

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 162

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 163

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 164

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 165

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 166

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 167

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 168

McClellan Creek National Grasslands
Appendix A: Maps

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 169

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

B: Southwestern Region 

Climate Change Trends and 

Potential Climate Change Strategies for 

Southwestern Region National Forests

Overview and Background

This section contains a description of the climate patterns and trends in the southwestern United 

States followed by descriptions of how current climate models and predictions may generally 

affect those climate patterns in the near future. Then, a short forest plan revision oriented

synthesis of climate change literature is provided. This review of current climate change-related 

scientific literature for the southwestern United States focuses on how climate change might be 

currently influencing, and may in the future impact ecological and socioeconomic systems. The 

intent of the review is to examine those areas of climate change research that may have an impact 

on how Southwestern Region forests and grasslands are managed. Specifically, this section 

summarizes current and future climate trends at the regional and, if possible, the forest level; 

possible effects of climate change on ecosystems, water abundance and quality, biodiversity and 

wildlife species, economic conditions, and social conditions in the Southwest; and a 

characterization of limitations and uncertainties inherent in projected future climate scenarios. 

Finally, this document discusses possible management issues that should be considered during 

forest plan revision.

A broad variety of sources was reviewed in this summary. Numerous national and regional 

synthesis documents, including those compiled by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program, 

were utilized. Review included, for example, the Synthesis and Assessment Products (SAP) 4.3—

“The Effects of Climate on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water Resources, and Biodiversity” 

(CCSP 2008a), and SAP 4.4—“Preliminary Review of Adaptive Options for Climate-Sensitive 

Ecosystems and Resources” (CCSP 2008b). Other large syntheses reviewed included the U.S. 

Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) report, “Global Climate Change Impacts in the 

United States” 2009 (Karl et al. 2009), “Climate Change 2007: The Physical Basis” (IPCC 2007), 

and USGCRP report, “Preparing for a Changing Climate: The Potential Consequences of Climate 

Variability and Change-Southwest 2000” (Sprigg et al. 2000). In addition, a number of regional 

Internet resources were utilized, including: Climate Assessment for the Southwest (CLIMAS), 

The Southwest Climate Change Network, The Western Regional Climate Center, the Consortium 

for Integrated Climate Research in Western Mountains (CIRMOUNT), The Nature Conservancy 

Climate Wizard tool, and the U.S. Forest Service Climate Change Resource Center (Web pages 

provided in the “References Cited” section). State and local government climate change resources 

were also reviewed. Finally, peer reviewed climate change literature, at more regional and 

localized scales were reviewed to include up-to-date climate modeling and a better understanding 

of possible impacts on specific resources. All of the sources used are based on peer reviewed 

documents, or on synthesis documents which were themselves based on an extensive peer 

reviewed literature.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 170

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Climate in the American Southwest

What is Climate?

Climate may be defined as the “average weather,” or more rigorously, as the statistical description 

in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period ranging from months to 

thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World 

Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are often surface variables such as 

temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the statistical description of the 

state or condition of the climate system. In contrast, weather describes the daily conditions 

(individual storms) or conditions over several days (a week of record-breaking temperatures), to 

those lasting less than 2 weeks1

. Natural climate variability refers to variations due to natural 

internal processes in the climate system or natural 

external forcing, in the mean state and other 

statistics of the climate on all spatial and temporal 

scales beyond that of individual weather events 

(IPCC 2007). Climate and climate variability are 

determined by the amount of incoming solar 

radiation, the chemical composition and dynamics 

of the atmosphere, and the surface characteristics 

of the Earth. The circulation of the atmosphere and 

oceans influences the transfer of heat and moisture 

around the planet and, thus, strongly influences 

climate patterns and their variability in space and 

time. Much of the current climate change literature 

states that human activities such as fossil fuel 

burning, industrial activities, land use change, 

animal husbandry, and fertilized and irrigated 

agriculture lead to increases in greenhouse gases 

(GHGs), including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane 

(CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). These increased 

GHGs contribute to the greenhouse effect and 

cause the surface temperature of the Earth to 

increase. Global atmospheric concentrations of 

CO2, CH4, and N2O have increased markedly as a 

result of human activities since 1750, and now far 

exceed preindustrial values (IPCC 2007).

The climate of the southwestern United States is 

often referred to as dry and hot; however, it is very 

complex. While low deserts of the Southwest 

experience heat and drying winds in the early 

summer, forested mountain areas and plateaus may experience cold and drifting snow during 

winter. Climate variability is the norm within this region, as temperature and precipitation 

fluctuate on time scales ranging from seasons to centuries. Monsoon thunderstorms in July and 

August are often accompanied by flash flooding, while from fall to spring, the weather can be 

 1 The glossary of climate terms used in this report is drawn from “A Glossary of Terms” used in the “Intergovernmental 

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report” (IPCC 2007).

Southwest Climate Influences

While many factors influence climate 

in the Southwest during a particular 

year or season, predictable patterns 

hold across the years and decades to 

define the region’s climate. 

• The overall aridity relates to a 

global circulation pattern 

known as Hadley circulation, 

which creates a 

semipermanent high pressure 

zone over the Southwest.

• Relatively high temperatures 

with dynamic daily swings 

define this geographic region.

• Mountains and other 

differences in elevation affect 

local climate patterns.

• The North American 

Monsoon works to bring 

moisture from the tropics into 

the region during the summer 

months.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 171

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

warm with clear skies. The Southwest also experiences periods of short- and long-term drought. 

Indeed, severe regional floods or droughts have affected both indigenous and modern 

civilizations on time scales ranging from single growing seasons to multiple years, even decades 

(Sheppard et al. 2002).

To a large degree, a quasi-permanent subtropical high pressure ridge over the region leads to the 

characteristically low annual precipitation, clear skies, and year-round warm weather over much 

of the region. This high pressure ridge is created through Hadley circulation2

. Where the 

descending branch of Hadley circulation comes down, it tends to create a zone of atmospheric 

high pressure that makes it difficult for clouds to form. Much of the southwestern U.S. lies in the 

subtropical zone, where warm, dry air is flowing back down to Earth following its rain-inducing 

rise in the tropics. Descending air in the subtropics relates to an ongoing global pattern known as 

Hadley circulation. 

In addition, the Southwest is located between the mid-latitude and subtropical atmospheric 

circulation regimes. This positioning, relative to shifts in these atmospheric patterns, is the main 

reason for the region’s climatic variability. El Niño (also known as the El Niño Southern 

Oscillation or ENSO), which is an increase in sea surface temperature of the eastern equatorial 

Pacific Ocean with an associated shift of the active center of atmospheric convection from the 

western to the central equatorial Pacific, has a well-developed teleconnection3 with the 

Southwest, usually resulting in wet winters. La Niña, the opposite oceanic case of El Niño, 

usually results in dry winters for the Southwest. Another important oceanic influence on winter 

climate of the Southwest is a feature called the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), which has 

been defined as temporal variation in sea surface temperatures for most of the Northern Pacific 

Ocean. The major feature that sets climate of the Southwest apart from the rest of the United 

States is the North American Monsoon, which, in the U.S., is most noticeable in Arizona and New 

Mexico. Up to 50 percent of the annual rainfall of Arizona and New Mexico occurs as monsoonal 

storms from July through September (Sheppard et al. 2002).

Future Climate of the Southwest 

Currently, there appears to be broad agreement among climate modelers that the southwestern 

U.S. is experiencing a drying tend that will continue well into the latter part of the 21st century 

(IPCC 2007; Seager et al. 2007). While the ensemble4 scenario used by Seager et al. included two 

models with predictions of increased precipitation, the researchers concluded that the overall 

balance between precipitation and evaporation would still likely result in an overall decrease in 

available moisture. Regional drying and warming trends have occurred twice during the 20th

 2 Hadley circulation is a circulation pattern that dominates the tropical atmosphere, with rising motion near the equator, 

poleward flow 10-15 kilometers above the surface, descending motion in the subtropics, and equator-ward flow near 

the surface. This circulation is intimately related to the trade winds, tropical rainbelts, subtropical deserts, and jet 

streams.

3 Teleconnections: Atmospheric interactions between widely separated regions that have been identified through 

statistical correlations (in space and time). For example, the El Niño teleconnection with the southwest United States 

involves large-scale changes in climatic conditions that are linked to increased winter rainfall.

4 Multimodel ensembles: Researchers have found that the average of numerous available climate models—sometimes 

called the ensemble mean—almost always weigh in with more accuracy than any one model. This technique often uses 

18 to 20 different coupled global circulation models, and combines the output from each to produce and ensemble 

output (CCSP 2008c).
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 172

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

century (1930s Dust Bowl and the 1950s Southwest Drought), and were severe during what is 

known as the Medieval Climate Anomaly, an interval of warm, dry conditions with regional 

variability from A.D. 900 to 1350 (Hughes and Diaz 2008; Herweijer et al. 2007). The current 

drought conditions may very well become the new climatology of the American Southwest within 

a timeframe of years to decades. According to recent multimodel ensemble scenarios, the slight 

warming trend observed in the last 100 years in the Southwest may continue into the next century, 

with the greatest warming to occur during winter. These climate models depict temperatures 

rising approximately 5 to 8 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the century (IPCC 2007). This trend 

would increase pressures on the region’s already limited water supplies, as well as increase 

energy demand, alter fire regimes and ecosystems, create risks for human health, and affect 

agriculture (Sprigg 2000). Southern areas of the Great Plains (i.e., Kiowa, Rita Blanca and Black 

Kettle National Grasslands) are projected to 

experience increased temperatures, similar to the 

Southwest (Karl et al. 2009).

The number of extremely hot days is also projected 

to rise during the first 100 years of the 21st century. 

By the end of the century, parts of the Southwest are 

projected to face summer heat waves lasting 2 weeks 

longer than those occurring in recent decades. Some 

climate model downscaling results also suggest a 

fivefold increase in unusually hot days by the end of 

the century, compared to 1961–1985. In effect, the 

high temperatures that formerly occurred on only the 

hottest 5 percent of days could become the norm for 

a quarter of the year—100 days or more—in much of 

the Southwest (IPCC 2007).

Observations based on measurements from weather 

stations indicate that the temperature rise projected 

for the future is on par with the rate of increase much 

of the Southwest has already registered in recent 

decades, particularly since the mid-1970s. Since 

1976, the average annual temperature increased by 

2.5 degrees Fahrenheit in Arizona and 1.8 degrees 

Fahrenheit in New Mexico. The recent temperature 

increase is unusual, even in the context of records 

dating back more than 1,200 years that were 

compiled from tree rings and other natural archives 

of temperature for the northern hemisphere (Trouet et 

al. 2009; Hughes and Diaz 2008; Herweijer et al. 

2007; Meko et al. 2007).

Warmer winter temperatures in the Southwest have serious implications for snow cover, an 

important natural reservoir of water in the West. Shorter winters and less snowpack also affect the 

timing of natural cycles such as plant blooming and peak riverflows. Throughout the West, the 

number of days in the frost-free season, which varies by location, has been increasing more 

rapidly than in the East (Lenart 2007). Summer temperatures have also climbed, especially since 

the mid-1970s. Maximum temperatures regularly reach above 100 degrees Fahrenheit daily for 

Climate Change

Based on multimodel ensemble 

climate models, by the end of the 

century, the Southwest is likely to 

experience:

• Temperatures increases of 

5 to 8 degrees Fahrenheit.

• An increase in the number 

of extremely hot days, with 

summer heat waves lasting 

2 weeks or longer.

• Warmer winters and 

reduced snowpack, and a 

later monsoonal season.

• A 5 percent drop in 

precipitation in most of 

Arizona and New Mexico; 

possible 10 percent drop in 

southern Arizona.

• An increase in extreme 

flood events following an 

overall increase in tropical 

storms.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 173

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

weeks on end in many Southwestern cities (Lenart 2007). The temperature rise alone has some 

predictable effects on aridity in the region. For instance, higher temperatures increase evaporation 

rates. Higher temperatures and a drier landscape increase wildfire hazard and put extra stress on 

ecosystems (Lenart 2007).

Precipitation changes remain much more difficult to predict than temperature, because 

precipitation is more variable and operates on a smaller scale. Predicting future precipitation is 

complex in the Southwest, due to added complexities such as topography and monsoonal timing. 

When comparing climate model simulations of climate to what actually occurred, researchers 

found the results roughly matched 50 to 60 percent of the time for precipitation. This compares to 

about 95 percent of the time for temperature (Lenart 2007).

However, precipitation is projected to drop by 5 percent by 2100 for much of Arizona and New 

Mexico, based on modeling results from an ensemble of 18 general circulation models. A 10 

percent decline could be in store for the southern half of Arizona, while northeastern New Mexico 

is projected to remain roughly stable, based on these estimates. Such a decrease in precipitation 

could have a more serious impact than the numbers suggest. The decrease of water draining from 

the landscape into rivers and reservoirs typically can be double or triple the proportional 

reductions in rainfall amounts, especially when combined with higher temperatures (Christensen 

and Lettenmaier 2006). Southern areas of the Great Plains (i.e., Kiowa, Rita Blanca, and Black 

Kettle National Grasslands) are projected to 

experience decreased precipitation, similar to 

the Southwest (Arizona and New Mexico) (Karl 

et al. 2009).

In another study, researchers using a multimodel 

ensemble of 19 models, projected an increase in 

aridity for the American Southwest. Their study 

defined the Southwest as the land area 

stretching from east to west, from Houston to 

San Francisco and north-south from Denver to 

Monterrey, Mexico. Only 2 of the 19 climate 

models evaluated suggested a potential decrease 

in aridity for the southwestern quadrant of the 

country (Seager et al. 2007).

Snowpack measurements suggest that rising 

temperatures are melting winter snow 

progressively earlier in the year, and causing 

streamflows to deliver water to reservoirs and 

water users in greater quantities earlier in the 

spring season. Historically, snowmelt has 

occurred at the same time communities ramp up 

their water consumption, which has drained 

reservoirs as they fill. When streamflows 

become elevated earlier in the year, however, 

reservoirs fill more quickly. Earlier future 

streamflows will likely increase the chance that 

Climate Modeling 

is a Developing Science

• Newer multimodel ensembles 

are “better than the sum of their 

parts,” and are used increasingly 

for projecting climate change in 

the Southwest. 

• Downscaling techniques, 

including statistical 

downscaling, dynamical 

downscaling, and sensitivity 

analysis, are improving.

• Regional modeling, which 

incorporates jet stream activity, 

tropical storm and monsoon 

tracking, and regional elevation 

effects, has a high potential to 

improve localized climate 

projections.

• As yet, there are no reliable 

climate models at the forest 

scale.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 174

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

spikes in river flows occur when the reservoirs are at full capacity, increasing the probability of 

flash floods (Guido 2008).

Average air temperatures are rising, and it is likely that continued warming will accentuate the 

temperature difference between the Southwest and the tropical Pacific Ocean, enhancing the 

strength of the westerly winds that carry moist air from the tropics into the Southwest during the 

monsoon. This scenario may increase the monsoon’s intensity, or its duration, or both, in which 

case floods will occur with greater frequency (Guido 2008).

While the region is expected to dry out, it is likely to see larger, more destructive flooding. Along 

with storms in general, hurricanes and other tropical cyclones are projected to become more 

intense overall. Arizona and New Mexico typically receive 10 percent or more of their annual 

precipitation from storms that begin as tropical cyclones in the Pacific Ocean. In fact, some of the 

largest floods in the Southwest have occurred when a remnant tropical storm hit a frontal storm 

from the north or northwest, providing energy to empower a remnant tropical storm (Guido 

2008).

Discussion

The state of knowledge needed to address climate change at the national forest scale is still 

evolving. Because none of the current climate models, including multimodel ensembles, 

adequately resolves important topographic variations (mountain ranges) and phenomena such as 

ENSO (El Niño) or the North American Monsoon, their results are imprecise and the subject of 

continuing research. However, these models do reproduce much of the underlying features of the 

Earth’s climate, and their basic structure has been proven under countless experiments and 

forecasts of the weather systems from which climate is usually described. Therefore, these 

models remain a credible means of estimating potential future climate scenarios. Most global 

climate models are not yet precise enough to apply to land management at the ecoregional or 

national forest scale. This limits regional and forest-specific analysis of potential effects from 

climate change. Additionally, industrial society during the past 200 years has likely placed 

unprecedented pressures on ecosystems, increasing the unpredictable quality of future

environmental change (Millar et al. 2007).

Improvement in regional-level models has increased with refinement of global climate modeling 

techniques. As climate model resolution increased to about 4,000 square miles per grid square, 

regional models may eventually be considered reliable at resolutions of about 350 square miles, 

which is nearly double the area of Albuquerque (Lenart 2008). These model improvements also 

may provide researchers the information they need to downscale results to the local level of 

national forest. Research efforts in this area have been successful in capturing fine-scale details of 

historical climate, suggesting that regional methods can add value for assessments of the impacts 

of climate change projections (Maurer and Hidalgo 2008). Researchers at The Nature 

Conservancy are currently downscaling multimodel ensemble climate projections to spatial 

resolutions between 1 and 12km (Enquist and Gori 2008). In another effort, scientists used 

statistical downscaling of multimodel ensemble to consider how the Colorado River streamflow 

might alter with climate (Christensen and Lettenmaier 2007).

On a more local scale, paleoenvironmental studies of the changing Southwestern climate may 

provide at least a limited historical ecological context for ecosystem variability and climate 

change. Such studies can provide a limited range of knowledge about past climate change, 
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 175

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

strengthening or weakening El Niño or La Niña events, patterns of precipitation, drought severity, 

and changes in vegetation patterns (Swetnam and Betancourt 1997, Swetnam et al. 1999). A 

recurrent trend in the literature suggests that predicting the future effects of climate change and 

subsequent challenges to land management in the Southwest remains inexact, and will require a 

combination of approaches.

Southwestern Climate Change and Ecosystems

Water and Climate Change

Changes in water distribution, timing of precipitation, availability, storage, watershed 

management, and human water uses may present some of the most important challenges of 

climate change and national forest management in the Southwest. Terrestrial and aquatic 

ecosystems and all human socioeconomic systems in the Southwest depend on water. In this 

section, we set the stage of this review of climate change by briefly discussing water in the 

Southwest, its overall importance to ecological and socioeconomic systems, and the possible 

impacts to this resource by potential changes in climate.

The prospect of future droughts becoming more severe because of global warming is a significant 

concern, especially because the Southwest continues to lead the Nation in population growth. 

Recent warming in some areas of the Southwest is occurring at a rate that is among the most rapid 

in the Nation (Seager et al. 2007), significantly higher than the global average in some areas. This 

is driving declines in spring snowpack and Colorado River flow. Further water cycle changes are 

projected which, when combined with increasing temperatures, signal a serious water supply 

challenge in the decades and centuries ahead. Water supplies are projected to become increasingly 

scarce, demanding tradeoffs among competing uses and potentially leading to conflict. Climate 

change, with both wet periods and droughts, has been a part of Southwestern climate for 

millennia. The droughts of the last 110 years pale in comparison to some of the decades-long 

“megadroughts” that the region has experienced over the last 2000 years (Seager et al. 2008). 

During the closing decades of the 1500s, for example, major droughts gripped areas of the 

Southwest. As of 2009, much of the Southwest remains in a drought that began about 1999. This 

event is the most severe western drought of the last 110 years, and is being exacerbated by record 

warming. Projections for this century point to an increasing probability of drought for the region, 

made more probable by warming temperatures. The most likely future for the Southwest is a 

substantially drier one. Combined with the historical record of severe droughts and the current 

uncertainty regarding the exact causes and drivers of these past events, the Southwest must be 

prepared for droughts that could potentially result from multiple causes. The combined effects of 

natural climate variability and human-induced climate change could result in a challenging 

combination of water shortages for the region (Karl et al. 2009).

Development in the Southwest has been primarily dependent upon technology to deliver the 

water resource. In the Forest Service’s Southwestern Region, 13 municipal watersheds in New 

Mexico and 19 municipal watersheds in Arizona are located on national forest administered lands. 

Additionally, the locations of most snowpack and upland reservoirs are on national forests in the 

Southwest (Smith et al. 2001, State of New Mexico 2005). Some studies predict water shortages 

and lack of storage capabilities to meet seasonally changing riverflow, and transfers of water from 

agriculture to urban uses, as critical climate-related impacts to water availability (Barnett et al. 

2008).
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 176

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

While agriculture remains the greatest user of water in the Southwest, there has been a decreased 

amount of water used by agriculture, as Arizona’s and New Mexico’s booming populations 

demand more water for municipal and other uses, and irrigation technologies improve. This has 

been an ongoing trend and could affect future agricultural uses. Without upland reservoirs and 

watersheds, often managed by the Forest Service, alternative water sources, water delivery 

systems, and infrastructure support for agriculture would need to be developed (Lenart 2007).

Flash flooding, occurring after extended drought, may increase the number and severity of floods

and accelerate rates of soil erosion. The timing and extent of storm-related precipitation will play 

a key role in determining the degree to which people and the environment are affected (Swetnam 

and Betancourt 1997, Swetnam et al. 1999, Lenart 2007). In a drought of the magnitude of the 

worst 1-year drought on record, water demand may exceed supply by 68 percent. In the 5-year 

scenario modeled after the worst drought in the historical record, water demand in Arizona could 

exceed supply by 67 percent, and in the 10-year scenario, demand may exceed supply by 59 

percent (Lenart 2007). In the Southwest, intense debate will likely continue over water allocation. 

Add to this mix a highly variable climate, over time and occurring on a large, landscape scale, 

and the situation becomes even more conflict prone (Lenart 2007). 

In the realm of human health, a sequence of rain-drought-rain can trigger outbreaks of 

Hantavirus, and there is evidence linking unusually wet seasons with an increase in reported cases 

of valley fever. In both instances, the distribution of precipitation over time and space are 

important factors.

The potential for flooding is very likely to increase because of earlier and more rapid melting of 

the snowpack, with more intense precipitation. Even if total precipitation increases substantially, 

snowpack is likely to be reduced because of higher overall temperatures. However, it is possible 

that more precipitation would also create additional water supplies, reduce demand, and ease 

some of the competition among competing uses (Joyce et al. 2001; Smith, et al. 2001).

In contrast, a drier climate is very likely to decrease water supplies and increase demand for such 

uses as agriculture, recreation, aquatic habitat, and power, thus increasing competition for 

decreasing supplies (Joyce et al. 2001). Overall, these trends would increase pressures on the 

already limited water supplies in the Southwest, as well as increase energy demand, alter fire 

regimes and ecosystems, create risks for human health, and affect agriculture in the region 

(Swetnam and Betancourt 1997, Sprigg et al. 2000).

Climate Change and Potential Ecosystem Impacts

Natural ecosystems are regulated by climate, and climate is to some degree determined by natural 

ecosystems. Long-term or short-term climate variability may cause shifts in the structure, 

composition, and functioning of ecosystems, particularly in the fragile boundaries of the semiarid 

regions. These areas already contain plants, insects, and animals highly specialized and adapted to 

the landscape. A changing climate of wetter, warmer winters, and overall temperature increases, 

would alter their range, type, and number throughout the Southwest. Responding differently to 

shifts in climate, the somewhat tenuous balance among ecosystem components will also change. 

As phenology is altered, the overall effects among interacting species are difficult to predict, 

particularly given the rate of climate change and the ability of symbionts to adapt. As the health 

of the ecosystem is a function of water availability, temperature, carbon dioxide, and many other 

factors, it is difficult to determine accurately the extent, type, and magnitude of ecosystem change 
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 177

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

under future climate scenarios. Yet, should vegetation 

cover and moisture exchanging properties of the land 

change, important local and regional climate 

characteristics such as albedo5

, humidity, wind, and 

temperature will also change with potential 

compounding effects to vegetation (Sprigg et al. 

2000).

Current research shows that climate is much more 

variable than is commonly understood, and that this is 

expressed in nested temporal and spatial scales. 

Millar et al. (2007) provide an elegant summation of 

natural climatic variables and its implications for 

forest managers. These are three key points from that 

research, which should be considered in national 

forest management strategies:

• The past record clearly shows that ecological 

conditions change constantly in response to 

climate. Plant and animal species will shift 

even in the absence of human influence 

(Millar et al. 2007). 

• Wet/dry oscillations associated with ocean-atmosphere patterns have driven regional and 

continental scale fire patterns for centuries. These patterns provide a basis for fire 

forecasting tools (Westerling et al. 2006).

• Species ranges and demographics are expected to be highly unstable as the climate shifts 

(Millar et al. 2007:30).

Climate may influence the distribution and abundance of plant and animal species through 

changes in resource availability, fecundity, and survivorship. The potential ecological 

implications of climate change trends in the Southwest indicate:

• More extreme disturbance events, including wildfires and intense rain and flash floods 

and wind events (Swetnam et al. 1999).

• Greater vulnerability to invasive species, including insects, plants, fungi, and vertebrates 

(Joyce et al 2007).

• Long-term shifts in vegetation patterns (Westerling et al. 2006, Millar et al. 2007). 

• Cold tolerant vegetation moving upslope, or disappearing in some areas. Migration of 

some tree species to the more northern portions of their existing range (Clark 1998). 

 5 Albedo is the reflectance of a surface. Absorbed solar radiation warms the Earth’s surface, whereas, reflected 

radiation does not. Albedo is one component of this energy feedback. Different land covers have varied albedo. Thus, 

land use change can influence albedo and whether a land surface has a warming or cooling effect. For example, snow 

has a very high albedo and, thus, has a cooling effect (negative feedback). Melting of snow or coverage of snow with 

vegetation or black carbon (from air pollution) results in a higher surface albedo and has a warming effect (positive 

feedback) (IPCC 2007).

Climate and Southwestern 

Ecosystems

• Projected decreases in 

precipitation, reduced 

snowpack, and overall 

water availability. 

• Increased risk from 

wildfire, insects and 

disease, invasive species.

• Potential decrease in 

ecosystem productivity 

from water limitations 

and increased heat.

• Potential impacts to 

alpine, riparian, wetland, 

sky island, and aquatic 

habitats.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 178

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Potential decreases in overall forest productivity due to reduced precipitation (USDA 

Forest Service 2005). 

• Shifts in the timing of snowmelt (already observed) in the American West which, along 

with increases in summer temperatures, have serious implications for the survival of fish 

species and may challenge efforts to reintroduce species into their historical range (Joyce 

et al. 2007, Millar et al. 2007). 

• Effects on biodiversity, pressure on wildlife populations, distribution, viability, and 

migration patterns, because of increasing temperatures, water shortages, and changing 

ecological conditions.

Vegetation Changes

A warmer climate in the Southwest is expected to affect ecosystems by altering the biotic and 

abiotic stresses that influence and affect the vigor of ecosystems, leading to increased extent and 

severity of disturbances. Decreasing water availability will accelerate the stresses experienced in 

forests, which typically involve some combination of multiyear drought, insects, and fire. As has 

occurred in the past, increases in fire disturbance superimposed on ecosystems, with increased 

stress from drought and insects, may have significant effects on growth, regeneration, long-term 

distribution, and abundance of forest species and carbon sequestration. Many Southwestern 

ecosystems contain water limited vegetation today. Vegetation productivity in the Southwest may 

decrease further with warming temperatures, as increasingly negative water balances constrain 

photosynthesis, although this may be partially offset if CO2 fertilization significantly increases 

water-use efficiency in plants. Pinyon-juniper woodlands, a key Southwestern vegetation type, 

are clearly water limited systems, and pinyon-juniper ecotones are sensitive to feedbacks from 

environmental fluctuations and existing canopy structure that may provide trees a buffer against

drought. However, severe multiyear droughts periodically cause dieback of pinyon pines, which 

may overwhelm local buffering. Interdecadal climate variability strongly affects interior dry 

ecosystems, causing considerable growth during wet periods. This growth increases the 

evaporative demand, setting up the ecosystem for dieback during the ensuing dry period 

(Swetnam and Betancourt 1997). The current dieback is historically unprecedented in its 

combination of fire suppression, low precipitation, and high temperatures. Increased drought 

stress via warmer climate is the predisposing factor, and pinyon pine mortality and fuel 

accumulations are inciting factors. Ecosystem change may arise from large-scale severe fires that 

lead to colonization of invasive species, which further compromises the ability of pinyon pines to 

reestablish. There continues to be no easy way to precisely predict these changes at the forest 

planning scale, although the science community is working on single national forest scale models 

that will assist forest managers in forecasting vegetation trends under different climate scenarios 

(Joyce et al. 2008).

Temperature increases are a predisposing factor causing often lethal stresses on forest ecosystems 

of western North America, acting both directly through increasingly negative water balances, and 

indirectly through increased frequency, severity, and extent of disturbances—chiefly fire and 

insect outbreaks. Human development of the West has resulted in habitat fragmentation, creation 

of migration barriers such as dams, and introduction of invasive species. The combination of 

development, presence of invasive species, complex topography, and climate change is likely to 

lead to a loss of biodiversity in the region. However, some species may migrate to higher altitudes 

in mountainous areas. It is also possible that some ecosystems, such as alpine ecosystems, would 

virtually disappear from the region (Joyce et al. 2008).
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 179

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Natural disturbances having the greatest impact on forests include: insects, diseases, introduced 

species, fires, droughts, inland storms caused by hurricanes, flash flooding, landslides, 

windstorms, and ice storms. Climate variability and changes can alter the frequency, intensity, 

timing, and spatial extent of these disturbances. Many potential consequences of future climate 

change are expected to be buffered by the resilience of forests to natural climatic variation. 

However, an extensive body of literature suggests that new disturbance regimes under climate 

change are likely to result in significant perturbations to U.S. forests, with lasting ecological and 

socioeconomic impacts (Joyce et al. 2001).

Wildfire

Historically, wildfires have been a recurring disturbance in conifer forests, pinyon-juniper 

woodlands, chaparral shrublands, and grassland ecosystems of the Southwest. An analysis of 

trends in wildfire and climate in the western United States from 1974 to 2004 shows that both the 

frequency of large wildfires and fire season length increased substantially after 1985 (Westerling 

et al. 2006). These changes were closely linked with advances in the timing of spring snowmelt, 

and increases in spring and summer air temperatures. Earlier spring snowmelt probably 

contributed to greater wildfire frequency in at least two ways: by extending the period during 

which ignitions could potentially occur and by reducing water availability to ecosystems in midsummer before the arrival of the summer monsoons, thus enhancing drying of vegetation and 

surface fuels (Westerling et al. 2006). These trends of increased fire size correspond with the 

increased cost of fire suppression.

In recent years, areas of western forests have been increasingly impacted by wildfires, burning 

homes and wildlands, with suppression costs of more than $1 billion per year from Federal land 

management agencies. Since about the mid-1970s, the total acreage of areas burned and the 

severity of wildfires in pine and mixed-conifer forests have increased. If temperatures increase, 

precipitation decreases, and overall drought conditions become more common, fire frequency and 

severity may be exacerbated. In addition, continued population growth will likely cause greater 

human-started fires, since humans start nearly half of the fires in the Southwest. In 2002, for 

example, the Rodeo-Chediski Fires in northern Arizona were both started by humans and 

combined to burn nearly half a million acres, becoming the largest fire on record in Arizona 

(Joyce et al. 2008).

Insects and Disease

Insects and pathogens are significant disturbances to forest ecosystems in the United States, 

costing $1.5 billion annually (Dale et al. 2001). Extensive reviews of the effects of climate 

change on insects and pathogens have reported many cases where climate change has affected 

and/or will affect forest insect species range and abundance, as witnessed in the Southwest. 

Climate also affects insect populations indirectly through effects on hosts. Drought stress, 

resulting from decreased precipitation and/or warming, reduces the ability of a tree to mount a 

defense against insect attack, though this stress may also cause some host species to become more 

palatable to some types of insects. Fire suppression and large areas of susceptible trees, a legacy 

from logging in the late 1800s and early 1900s, may also play a role (Ryan et al. 2008).
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 180

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Invasive Species

Disturbance may reset and rejuvenate some ecosystems in some cases, and cause enduring change 

in others. For example, climate may favor the spread of invasive exotic grasses into arid lands 

where the native vegetation is too sparse to carry a fire. When these areas burn, they typically 

convert to nonnative monocultures and the native vegetation is lost (Ryan et al. 2008). The 

Southwest suffers from many types of invasive species outbreaks, including plants (buffelgrass, 

cheatgrass, saltcedar, and red brome) and animals (bullfrogs, cowbirds, quagga mussels, and 

crayfish). Invasive plants can alter landscapes by overtaking native species, facilitating fire 

outbreaks, and altering the food supply for herbivorous animals and insects. Buffelgrass was 

introduced to the region for cattle feed in the mid-1900s, but has since traveled from ranchlands 

into the desert ecosystem. Subsequently, these grasses have increased fuel loads in the Sonoran 

Desert, a region where native plants are not adapted to frequent fires. Buffelgrass-induced fires 

tend to burn faster, for longer periods, at high temperatures, and cause more plant and animal 

deaths than fires involving only native plants. After a fire, buffelgrass seeds sprout quickly, often 

within a few days, while many native desert plants, like saguaro cactus or palo verde trees, take 

months to years to reestablish themselves (Owen 2008).

Specific Habitats

Our knowledge of possible climate change impacts on specific vegetation types remains limited. 

However, projected and observed climate change effects are being studied at the broad-scale 

habitat level throughout the Southwest. The mild nature of climate gradients among lower life 

zones of the Southwest, and protracted ecotonal bands, make woodland plant communities

particularly vulnerable (Allen and Breshears 1998; Adams et al. 2009). Many of the region’s plant 

and animal species are associated with these key habitats and are, therefore, important when 

considering the potential impacts of climate change on ecosystems managed by the national 

forests in the Southwest.

Alpine

Alpine habitat is very susceptible to climate change in the Southwest, given its limited extent and 

marginal existence. Analyses of the results of ecological models when driven by different climate

scenarios indicate changes in the location and area of potential habitats for many tree species and 

plant communities. For example, alpine and subalpine habitats, and the variety of species 

dependent upon them, are likely to be greatly reduced in the conterminous U.S. Alpine 

ecosystems are projected to all but disappear from the western mountains and perhaps overtaken 

by encroaching forests (Joyce et al. 2001). Increasing temperatures and shifting precipitation 

patterns will drive declines in high elevation ecosystems such as alpine forests and tundra because 

alpine and subalpine plants are isolated on high mountains (Horikawa et al. 2009, Karl et al. 

2009).

Upward shifts of plants in the alpine ecotones of mountains have been increasing in North 

America. Some researchers have reported the upward shifts in alpine vegetation due to climate. 

Assessing the vulnerability of species and locations in alpine zones to climate change is an 

important issue for their conservation (Horikawa et al. 2009), and for the wildlife species that 

depend on alpine habitats. Alpine species are at higher risk of extinction as suitable habitats 

rapidly disappear from mountaintops (Christensen et al. 2007). Some wildlife may be reliant upon 
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 181

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

melting of the snowpack to set phenological6 clocks (Inouye 2008), and the warm summer 

temperatures may force a reduction in daytime foraging for large herbivores, whose tolerance for 

heat is lower than for species adapted to warmer weather (Aublet et al. 2009).

Riparian

Riparian habitats are very important for wildlife in the national forests in the Southwestern 

Region; approximately 69 percent (461 species, 15 amphibian, 252 birds, 153 mammals, and 41 

reptiles) of terrestrial vertebrates inhabit riparian areas at some time during the year. Research

predicts that as climate changes, water inputs are expected to decline due to reduced precipitation, 

consequently reducing water in riparian zones. Water losses are also likely to increase due to 

elevated evapotranspiration rates at higher temperatures and greater runoff losses associated with 

increased frequencies of high intensity convectional storms. Urban expansion will also increase 

human demand for water and further reduce water availability for wildland ecosystems. 

Decreased water availability will affect riverine and riparian ecosystem function, due to 

modifications in geomorphological processes and an overall reduction in the availability of 

moisture to plant communities. Although these areas comprise a small fraction of arid lands, they 

provide critical habitat for arid land vertebrates, migratory birds, and riparian dependent species. 

Reduced water inputs will cause riparian ecosystems to contract in size. Furthermore, lowered 

water availability will stress riparian plants and increase the ecosystem susceptibility to invasion 

by nonnative plants, such as saltcedar and Russian olive, which in turn will disrupt the natural 

wildlife community (Archer and Predick 2008).

Wetlands and Playas 

Climate change is likely to affect native plant and animal species by altering key habitats such as 

the wetland ecosystems known as prairie potholes or playa lakes (Karl et al. 2009). Playa lakes 

create unique microclimates that support diverse wildlife and plant communities. A playa can lie 

with little or no water for long periods, or have several wet/dry cycles each year. When it rains, 

what appeared to be only a few clumps of short, dry grasses just a few days earlier suddenly 

teems with frogs, toads, clam shrimp, and aquatic plants. The playas provide a perfect habitat for 

migrating birds to feed, mate, and raise their young (Karl et al. 2009).

Sky Islands

Mountainous “sky islands” of southeastern Arizona are made up of forested ranges separated by 

expanses of desert and grassland plains, and are among the most diverse ecosystems in the world 

because of their great topographic complexity and unique location at the meeting point of several 

major desert and forest biological provinces. “Sky islands” refers to a particular area vs. the other 

habitats that essentially refer to life zones of the Southwest (including those of sky islands). The 

patterns described here for sky islands are applicable to many areas of the Southwest. The sky 

islands are particularly vulnerable to fragmentation, which may exacerbate the effects of climate 

change. These mountain ranges are isolated from each other by intervening valleys of grassland 

or desert. The valleys of these basins act as barriers to the movement of certain woodland and 

forest species. Species, such as mountain lions and black bears, depend on movement corridors 

between mountain islands to maintain genetic diversity and population size. The region is a blend 

 6 Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life cycle events, and how these are influenced by seasonal and 

interannual variations in climate.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 182

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

of tropical and temperate, harboring well over half the bird species of North America, 29 bat 

species, over 3,000 species of plants, and 104 species of mammals, a diversity exceeding 

anywhere else in the U.S. Climate change poses a unique threat to sky islands. Temperature 

increases of as little as a few degrees could push sky island habitats to higher elevations, reducing

their area and potentially causing local extinction of endemic taxa and divergent populations 

harboring unique genetic and phenotypic diversity. Sky islands in the Southwest and Mexico are 

already being affected by climate change, with increases in drought, fire, and outbreaks of 

invasive insects. Although these resilient systems have endured large-scale shifts in climate 

during and since the last ice age, the pace of human-induced climate change may represent an 

insurmountable challenge for sky islands, with potentially devastating consequences to their 

biodiversity and evolutionary potential (Sky Island 2007).

Aquatic Systems

There are already observed shifts in the timing of snowmelt in the American West which, along 

with increases in summer air temperatures, have serious implications for the survival of fish 

species and may render useless some efforts to reintroduce species into their historical range 

(Millar et al. 2007). For cool and cold water species, a nearly 50 percent reduction in thermal 

habitat is projected with scenarios of increased water temperatures (Eaton and Scheller 1996). 

Predicted impacts to aquatic ecosystems include altered seasonal discharge events, increases in 

drought severity during summer flows, and increasing temperatures in small streams and 

tributaries that further limit habitat during seasonal flows (Williams and Meka-Carter 2009).

The fundamental physiological components of growth and metabolism are strongly affected by 

temperature (Schmidt-Nielsen 1997). For fishes, this implies that populations highly adapted to 

local climates that experience increases in temperatures in excess of their optimum values for 

growth will reduce consumption rates and increase metabolic rates; this results in decreased 

growth. Fish increase foraging rates to compensate for poor growing conditions caused by 

increased temperature, which can lead to greater visibility and encounter rates with predators. 

Trout in whole lake experiments had lower survival at temperatures above optimum, and those 

populations with the highest temperatures and lowest food abundance experienced the lowest 

survival. The prediction is for an increasing frequency of poor or failed year-classes where fish 

cannot escape the warmer conditions. We have a basic understanding of the impacts of climate 

warming on individuals, but not on the outcomes at the population levels (Biro et al. 2007). 

Current stresses on native aquatic species, including heat tolerant nonnatives, add to the 

complexity of managing and adapting to climate change.

Plant and Animal Species

The Southwestern Region includes a high degree of biodiversity and an unusually large number 

of plant and animal species that are endemic (found nowhere else). The Regional Forester’s 

Sensitive Species List identifies over 215 species, including highly endemic or restricted 

salamanders, shrews, and freshwater springsnails. The majority of the sensitive species are 

mammals (70 species) including 2 species of pika, followed by birds (41 species), snails (38 

species), insects (21 species), fish (16 species), reptiles (16 species), amphibians (11 species), and 

clams (3 species). There are 167 plant species on the Regional Forester’s Sensitive Species List, 

the majority of which occur only on the Coronado National Forest.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 183

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

We can expect large changes in the structure and species composition of plant communities due to 

the warming air temperatures and altered hydrological cycles. Many of the region’s plant, animal, 

and insect species depend on precise phonological events based on climatic conditions for 

migration, flowering, and timing for foraging and reproductive activities. Climate thus influences 

their distribution and abundance through changes in resource availability, fecundity, and 

survivorship. It is currently unknown how many species will successfully adapt to changing 

conditions. The ability of plant and animal species to migrate under climate change is strongly 

influenced by their dispersal abilities and by disturbances to the landscape. Land use changes and 

habitat alterations around the national forests will add to the challenge of plant and animal species 

adapting to climate change. Within an ecological context, wildlife and plant responses to climate 

change in the region are highly dependent on feedbacks among weather, land use, land cover, 

hydrology, fire, and stresses from invasive species.

Distribution

Many studies of species support the predictions of systematic shifts in distribution related to 

climate change, often via species-specific physiological thresholds of temperature and 

precipitation tolerance. Temperature is likely to be the main driver for different species, including 

possible shifts in a coordinated and systematic manner throughout broad regions (Rosenzweig et 

al. 2007). Species at the upper elevations, such as the pika (Ochotona princeps), with habitat in

talus slopes of alpine and subalpine areas of the Santa Fe and Carson National Forests, are at 

great risk of being extirpated since they may not be able to adapt to habitat changes. Other species 

such as endemic squirrels that depend on high elevation forest habitat on the Lincoln and 

Coronado National Forests are also at extreme risk with potential loss of habitat.

It already appears that some species are unable to disperse or adapt fast enough to keep up with 

the high rates of climate change. Endemic salamanders, such as the Jemez Mountain salamander 

(Plethoodon neomexicanus) are an example of a species subject to this type of risk. Such 

organisms face increased risk of extinction (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2008). In many instances, the 

impacts of range shifts will go far beyond the mere addition or subtraction of a species to or from 

a system. Some range shifts will have cascading effects on community structure and the 

functioning of ecosystems (Lawler et al. 2009).

Habitat Quality

Climate change may cause a host of physical consequences to the ecosystems, which may in turn 

affect the quality of plant and animal habitat. This may occur through a decrease in available 

water, changes in vegetation type through severe drought or fire, or through changes in 

hydrology. Large areas of forest that were once suitable habitat for some species of wildlife may 

no longer be suitable, potentially leading to significant changes in species due to loss of needed 

habitat components (Karl et al. 2009).

Behavior and Biology

The timing of seasonal activities of plants and animals is perhaps the simplest process in which to 

track changes in the response of species to climate change. Observed phenological events include 

leaf unfolding, flowering, fruit ripening, leaf coloring, leaf fall of plants, bird migration, 

chorusing of amphibians, and appearance/emergence of insects (Rosenzweig et al. 2007).
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 184

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Large herbivores, such as pronghorn, inhabiting highly seasonal temperate environments are 

subject to drastic daily and seasonal changes in environmental quality. During summer, they must 

acquire sufficient resources for growth, reproduction, and to survive the following winter. 

Foraging behavior in summer is thus vitally important. Higher temperatures may reduce the daily 

activities of large herbivores. This may affect foraging, growth, reproduction, and overall health 

of animals. They may experience hardship during the winter and may not reproduce as 

successfully (Aublet et al. 2009). In reptiles and amphibians, increased temperatures and 

changing precipitation could negatively affect reproduction, for many of the same reasons as with 

fish (Hulin et al.2009). Impacts are also possible to the migration and dispersal routes of many 

species, including migratory songbirds, which are already of concern due to declines in 

abundance (Sinett et al. 2000).

Fragmentation and Isolation

The effects of fragmentation likely range across the full spectrum of biological diversity, from 

altering behavior of individuals, their genetics, and the demographic characteristics of 

populations, which can fundamentally change the structure and function of ecological 

communities (Lomolino and Perault 2007). Climate change may contribute to further 

fragmentation of habitat and to creating barriers to migration. Fragmentation and barriers are 

likely to impede northward migration of many species, resulting in decreases in their total range. 

Habitat loss and fragmentation may also influence shifts in a species distribution. Empirical 

evidence shows that the natural reaction of species to climate change is to redistribute to more 

favorable habitats. However, this redistribution may be hampered by fragmentation by simply 

isolating suitable areas for colonization, and preventing species movements, which may 

contribute to their extinction (Rosenzweig et al. 2007).

Southwestern Climate 

Change and Socioeconomic Effects

This review of the literature found few substantive studies of the possible social and economic 

effects that climate change might cause or exacerbate in the Southwest. Most climate related 

socioeconomic studies are either heavily theoretical, or too broad and general to apply 

specifically to the region. Over thousands of years, societies in the Southwest have faced climate 

change repeatedly; some successfully, some not so successfully (Dean 2000). It is often difficult 

to “draw a conceptual line between climate change and other kinds of environmental 

transformations: both affect human societies by changing the availability of resources” (Tainter 

2000:335). How societies adapt to climate change is fundamentally dependent on how they 

approach problem solving (Tainter 2000). However, some of the more general social and 

economic projections can help to inform us about climate change effects on the region.

Population distribution, economic activity, quality of life, and many other human values are 

influenced by changes in natural environments. Populations in Arizona and New Mexico are 

growing at unprecedented rates. As of the latest American Communities Survey (U.S. Census 

2006), Arizona’s population was 6,056,817. The total increase for Arizona between 1980 and 

2006 has been 123 percent. In New Mexico, the change in total population between 1980 and 

2006 shows a 47 percent increase. Some counties in both states have seen population increases of 

between 300 and 500 percent (U.S. Census 2006, Sammis 2001, Farber et al. 2002, Gonzalez 

2005). The combination of population growth and climate change will likely exacerbate climatic 
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 185

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

effects, putting even greater pressure on water, forest, and other resources. Additionally, pressures 

put upon agriculture and other climate-sensitive occupations in neighboring Mexico may increase 

an already large migration of people into the southwestern United States, making disease 

surveillance increasingly difficult (Sprigg et al. 2000, Smith et al. 2001). While this is the current 

demographic trend in the Southwest, if conditions become too hot and dry, there may very well be 

a decrease in the number of people moving to the region.

Recent research in the Southwest shows that up to 60 percent of the climate-related trends of 

riverflow, winter air temperature, and snowpack between 1950 and 1999 are human induced. The 

study predicts water shortages, lack of storage capabilities to meet seasonally changing riverflow, 

transfers of water from agriculture to urban uses, and other critical impacts (Barnett et al. 

2008:1082). The region’s economy will likely continue to grow in the future. Increases in service 

oriented sectors as well as the expanding high-tech 

industry may bring more jobs and employment 

opportunities for the growing population. Significant 

changes due to population pressures include the 

following: decreased forest cover; increased construction; 

additional Federal and state parks, wilderness areas, and 

wildlife refuges; more land utilized for national defense 

and industry; expanded urban areas; and decreased 

pasture and rangelands (Joyce and Birdsey 2000).

Forests significantly enhance the environment in which 

people live, work, and play. Population levels, economic 

growth, and personal preferences influence the value that 

is placed on forests, and consequently the resources 

demanded from forests. Changes caused by human use of 

forests could exceed impacts from climate change. 

However, climate change could have long-term impacts 

on many of the amenities, goods, and services from 

forests, including productivity of locally harvested plants 

such as berries or ferns; local economics through land use 

shifts from forest to other uses; forest real estate values; 

and tree cover and composition in urban areas and 

associated benefits and costs. Agricultural, urban, and 

suburban areas are expanding into forest land. This 

expansion of human influences into the rural landscape 

alters disturbance patterns associated with fire, flooding, landslides, and native and introduced 

species. These land use changes are very likely to interact with and potentially exacerbate stresses 

on forests associated with climate change (Joyce and Birdsey 2000).

Livestock Grazing

Livestock grazing is one of the key economic uses occurring on Southwestern national forests. 

Ranching is a key agricultural, economic, and social activity throughout the rural Southwest. It is 

a dominant land use in both Arizona and New Mexico, and its success depends on the natural 

Socioeconomic Impact

• Climate impacts are 

exacerbated by 

increasing populations 

in the region.

• Limitations in water 

supplies could affect 

most social systems 

and economic sectors. 

• Potential impacts to 

alpine, riparian, 

wetland, sky island, 

and aquatic habitats.

• Ranching, recreation, 

wood products, urban 

expansion, health, and 

energy may be 

affected by changing 

climate.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 186

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

vegetation accessible to grazing animals. Rangelands7 not only support livestock grazing and 

ranching, but also provide crucial habitat for wildlife. As the majority of rangelands in the region 

are not irrigated, any variability in precipitation and temperature can directly affect rangeland 

plant production and wildlife habitat. Changes in climate may affect the vitality and productivity 

of rangeland plants and, thus, the overall conditions of both wildlife habitat and range conditions. 

It is possible that higher temperatures and decreased precipitation depicted for the next century 

will also decrease forage production and lengthen the growing and grazing season for ranching, 

while flash floods and increased risk of animal disease can adversely affect the industry (Joyce et 

al. 2001). Coupled with poor forage conditions, there may be a general scarcity of water for 

cattle. For a pasture to be available for grazing, it not only has to have sufficient nutritious 

vegetation, but also it must have adequate water supplies. Some ranchers rely on well water, but 

often ranchers use dirt tanks to capture summer monsoon rainfall and use this water for their 

cattle over the winter. During recent droughts, these dirt tanks dried prematurely, making many 

pastures useless for cattle even though forage was still available (Conley et al. 1999). Ranching is 

in a vulnerable position, especially when viewed against a backdrop of changing climate, 

economic structure, urban expansion, increasing population, fluctuating market conditions, and 

environmental protection measures (Sprigg et al. 2000).

Recreational Value

Climate change affects forest and range ecosystems and the relationships people have with those 

places. Population distribution, economic activity, quality of life, and many other human values 

are influenced by changes in natural environments. Forests provide many recreational 

opportunities including hiking, camping, hunting, bird watching, skiing, autumn leaf tours, and 

water related activities such as fishing, boating, and swimming. These activities provide income 

and employment in every forested region of the U.S. Outdoor recreation opportunities are likely 

to change, with resulting changes in public expectations and seasonality of use. Higher 

temperatures are very likely to result in a longer season for summer activities such as 

backpacking, but a shorter season for winter activities such as skiing. Ski areas at low elevations 

and in more southern parts of the region are very likely to be at particular risk from a shortening 

of the snow season and rising snowlines (Joyce et al. 2001). In areas of marginal annual 

snowpack, the inability to maintain downhill skiing may result in closure of some ski areas.

Urban and suburban expansion into forests and rangelands are likely to shift in response to 

climate change. Population shifts may cause new resource related human conflicts and create 

unforeseen impacts on already stressed urbanized ecosystems (Langner 2007). As temperatures 

increase in lowland, urban areas, recreation may increase in mountainous areas where cooler 

temperatures will attract people to higher elevations, with national forests possibly becoming 

refugia from increasingly hot summers (Irland et al. 2001).

Wood and Paper Products

Changes in climate and the consequent impacts on forests will very likely change market 

incentives for investment in biomass technology and in wood conservation techniques. The 

market for wood products in the U.S. is highly dependent on the area and species composition of 

forests, supplies of wood, technological change in production and use, availability of wood 

 7 Rangelands are lands that support livestock grazing and ranching, and can be comprised of several different 

ecosystems.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 187

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

substitutes, demand for wood products, and international competition. Rising atmospheric CO2

will increase forest productivity and carbon storage in forests if sufficient water and nutrients are 

available. Any increased carbon storage will be primarily in live trees. However, in the 

Southwest, as discussed above, overall production may be limited by a decrease in available 

water. While increases in wildfire may decrease some available wood supply, treatment of 

wildland-urban interface and restoration of the fire-adapted ecosystems in Southwestern national 

forests may actually increase the overall availability of small diameter timber and related wood 

products (Joyce et al. 2001).

Multiple socioeconomic impacts often follow severe insect outbreaks. Timber production, 

manufacturing, and markets may not be able to take advantage of vast numbers of killed trees, 

and beetle-killed timber has several disadvantages from a manufacturing perspective. Perceived 

enhanced fire risk and views about montane aesthetics following beetle-caused mortality have an 

influence on public views of insect outbreaks, which could drive future public policy (Ryan et al. 

2008). Wood supply will no doubt vary by forest and ecosystem (Sprigg et al. 2000, Joyce et al. 

2001).

Health

Future climate scenarios will undoubtedly amplify current climatically driven human health 

concerns, with potential increased risk of dengue fever, encephalitis, and other diseases associated 

with warmer climes, and the northern movement of disease vectors, such as malaria-carrying 

mosquitoes. Diseases such as valley fever and Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome are endemic in 

the Southwest. The incidence of Hantavirus has been linked to seasonal and interannual patterns 

of rainfall (Eisen et al. 2007). Research strongly suggests that valley fever is connected to the 

sequence and pattern of precipitation and wind. Future climate scenarios will undoubtedly 

amplify current climatically driven human health concerns. Projected temperature increases are 

anticipated to create greater numbers of heat-induced illnesses, reduced air quality, and increased 

cases of respiratory illness due to the presence and persistence of dust and allergens. Conversely, 

in many temperate areas—which includes the American Southwest—there is clear seasonal 

variation in mortality; death rates during the winter season are 10 to 25 percent higher than those 

in the summer. Several studies cited by the IPCC indicate that decreases in winter mortality may 

be greater than increases in summer mortality under climate change (McMichael and Githeko 

2001).The geographical range of disease-bearing vectors such as the mosquito would expand 

under the model scenarios for the 21st century (Liverman and Merideth 2002). Pressures put upon 

agriculture and other climate sensitive occupations in neighboring Mexico may increase an 

already large migration of people into the southwestern United States, making disease 

surveillance increasingly difficult (Sprigg et al. 2000).

Urban Areas

Already setting a nationwide pace for growth, urban expansion in the Southwest is expected to 

continue in the coming century. Growing population centers will be vulnerable to climate 

influenced natural hazards. Overall decreases in precipitation, but increases in severe weather 

events and flash floods depicted in future climate scenarios could lead to property loss, and 

contribute to premature decay of sewage systems, pipelines, roadways, and other urban 

infrastructure. Rising temperatures will add to the energy demand for cooling, intensify the urban 

heat island effect, and reduce air quality within the region’s urban areas (Sprigg 2000). 

Additionally, we need to remember that as temperature increases and large urban areas become 
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 188

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

less hospitable, there may indeed be a slowing or reduction in the number of people moving to 

Southwestern cities. Until such reversals in in-migration into the Southwest become evident, 

population growth, increased forest use, wildland-urban interface, and higher demand for water 

and other resources will likely continue to place increased demand on national forests’ resources.

Energy

Higher air temperatures may increase the overall demand for energy within the region’s urban 

areas; and this increasing energy demand could affect the Southwest’s current socioeconomic 

environment (Sprigg et al. 2000, Smith et al. 2001). Electricity supports human activity and offers 

the possibility of economic growth. For much of the region, water delivery systems rely on 

electricity for pumping groundwater and for directing water throughout the system. Urban and 

agricultural uses of energy driven water resources are essential in the region’s current 

socioeconomic environment. During the warmest summer months, energy demands increase with 

the use of energy intensive air-cooling systems. Given population projections for the region, a 

greater number of electricity generating plants will be needed to handle the demands that follow. 

Climate warming contributes to increased energy demands and evaporative loss from reservoirs. 

All reasonable scenarios of future climate variability must be considered when anticipating the 

costly measures necessary to provide dependable, safe, and reasonable supplies of energy (Sprigg 

et al. 2000). Increasing energy demand and the ensuing demand for alternative energy, will likely 

impact national forests through the growing need for new energy corridors, wind and solar energy 

sites, and other special use-related requirements.

Key Climate Change Factors 

for Southwestern Region National Forests

Based on current projections, the primary regional-level effects of climate change most likely to 

occur in the Southwest include: (1) warmer temperatures, (2) decreasing precipitation, (3) 

decreased water availability with increased demand, (4) increased extreme disturbance events, 

and (5) increased use of national forests for relief from increased temperatures.

Based on current climate model projections and research, the climate change factors that appear 

most likely to affect Southwestern Region national forests and affect desired conditions in the 

revised forest plans are ecological, weather-related disturbances, and socioeconomic demands, as 

described:

• Projected increase in frequency of extreme weather events (intense storms);

• Projected increase in wildfire risks;

• Projected increase in outbreaks of insects, diseases, and nonnative invasive species;

• Projected increase in demand for decreasing upland water supplies; and

• Projected increase in national forest socioeconomic uses and demands.

These disturbance factors and the potential impacts on desired conditions for forests in the 

Southwestern Region are described below.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 189

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Increased Extreme Weather Events

Climate change likely will increase flash floods, making the region’s growing population more 

susceptible to loss of life and property. While the Southwest is expected to become warmer and 

drier, it is likely to experience more flooding. This relates in part to the fact that warm air holds 

more moisture than cooler air. The frequency of floods is also influenced by the rate of snowmelt 

in the winter and spring, the character of the summer monsoon, and the incidence of tropical 

hurricanes and storms in the autumn.

Hurricanes and other tropical cyclones are projected to become more intense in the future. Since 

Arizona and New Mexico typically receive 10 percent or more of their annual precipitation from 

tropical storms, it is likely that this change will also increase flooding. In Arizona and New 

Mexico, floods killed 57 people between 1995 and 2006, while hundreds of others have needed 

swift water rescues. The economic price tag is also high, costing Arizona, New Mexico, 

Colorado, and Utah approximately $5 billion between 1972 and 2006. A potential increase in 

extreme storms, floods, heat waves, and droughts may present challenges for achieving desired 

conditions.

Impacts from extreme weather events could include changes in the composition and diversity of 

desired ecosystems; destruction of habitat; timber loss; increasing damage to infrastructure such 

as trails, facilities, and roads; and loss of recreation opportunities. Disturbances that exceed the 

historical range of natural variation can change the makeup, structure, and function of watersheds 

and some vegetation types, could affect a number of desired conditions. Heavy rains and higher 

flood levels can affect maintenance and structural integrity of built infrastructure and slow 

progress toward improvements. Flooding is a natural and beneficial disturbance in many aquatic 

systems. However, damage to aquatic systems from flash flood caused erosion, downed trees, and 

inundation from flooding can change streamside habitats, affect aquatic life, and impact proper 

functioning of stream channels. These disturbances could create challenges in the ability of a 

forest to achieving plan objectives for aquatic habitat restoration. Overall, increasing weatherrelated disturbances can divert limited forest staff and funding to recovery efforts for extended 

periods and delay progress toward desired conditions, or require reconsideration of desired 

conditions, to allow for a more dynamic resilience.

Wildfire

Wildfire is another climate related impact to ecosystems in the Southwest. Historically, wildfires 

have played an important role in the vitality of fire-adapted ecosystems. Past forest management 

and fire suppression practices have changed the dynamics of fire on the landscape within the 

Southwestern Region’s national forests, resulting in greater fuel loads and risk of wildfire. A 

combination of fire suppression and Federal land management agencies in the West routinely 

exceed expenditures of over $1 billion per year for wildfire suppression. Since about the mid1970s, the total acreage of area burned and the severity of wildfires in pine and mixed-conifer 

forest have increased.

Fire frequency and severity will likely increase as temperatures rise and precipitation decreases. 

Population growth in the Southwest may also lead to greater numbers of human-started wildfires. 

The 2002 Rodeo-Chediski Fires in Arizona were both started by humans and combined to burn 

nearly half a million acres, the largest fire on record in Arizona (Joyce et al 2008).
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 190

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Outbreaks of Insects, 

Diseases, and Nonnative Invasive Species

Disturbances associated with climate change can have secondary impacts indirectly caused by 

wildfire and climate related extremes. Increased variation in temperature and moisture can cause 

stress and increase the susceptibility of forest ecosystems to invasions by insects, diseases, and 

nonnative species. New environmental conditions can lead to a different mix of species and tend 

to be favorable to plants and animals that can adapt their biological functions or are aggressive in 

colonizing new territories (Whitlock 2008). However, changes in adaptability may be too slow 

given the predicted rate of change. Species that are already broadly adapted may become more 

prevalent and species with narrow adaptability may become less prevalent. Disturbance factors 

that create more vulnerability in native ecosystems or require extensive controls to maintain the 

status quo are likely to affect desired conditions for healthy and diverse forests.

Desired conditions for healthy forests include resilience to dramatic changes caused by abiotic 

and biotic stressors and mortality agents (pine beetle), and a balanced supply of essential 

resources (light, moisture, nutrients, growing space). Insects and diseases typically invade in 

cycles followed by periods of relative inactivity. Nonnative invasive species, such as buffelgrass 

and saltcedar, are expected to continue to increase in numbers and extent. Vulnerabilities to forest 

threats from an environment that may be much different from the historical range of natural 

variability is an active area of research, and includes developing new management approaches for 

changing conditions.

Diminishing Water Resources

In the Forest Service’s Southwestern Region, 13 municipal watersheds in New Mexico and 19 

municipal watersheds in Arizona are located on national forest administered lands. Additionally, 

the locations of most snowpack and upland reservoirs are on national forests in the Southwest. In 

many western mountain ranges, less precipitation is falling as snow, and spring melting is 

occurring earlier in the year. The Colorado River, Rio Grande, and several other Southwestern 

rivers have streamflows that appear to be peaking earlier in the year, suggesting that the spring 

temperatures in these regions are warmer than in the past, causing snow to melt earlier. Water 

supplies are projected to become increasingly scarce, calling for tradeoffs among competing uses, 

potentially leading to conflict. Without upland reservoirs and watersheds, many managed by the 

Forest Service, elaborate water delivery systems and other infrastructure support, agriculture, 

urbanization and other development could be severely constrained. In the Southwest, intense 

debate will likely continue over resource allocation and conservation of available supplies.

Climate Related Socioeconomic Demand

Populations in Arizona and New Mexico are growing at an unprecedented rate. As of the latest 

American Communities Survey in 2006, Arizona’s population was 6,056,817. The total increase 

for Arizona between 1980 and 2006 has been 123 percent. In New Mexico, the change in total 

population between 1980 and 2006 shows a 47 percent increase. The combination of population 

growth and climate change will likely exacerbate climatic effects, putting even greater pressure 

on water, forest, and other resources. Climate change could have long-term impacts on many of 

the amenities, goods, and services from forests, including productivity of locally harvested plants 

such as berries or ferns; local economics through land use shifts from forest to other uses; forest 

real estate values; and tree cover and composition in urban areas and associated benefits and 
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 191

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

costs. Climate, combined with increasing regional population also will likely increase demand for 

water-related recreation opportunities on the national forests, as residents of urban areas seek 

relief from rising temperatures.

Potential Climate Change Strategies 

for Southwestern Region National Forests

The potential management approaches described below relate to the five projected, key climate 

change factors that are most likely to be a potential concern for Southwestern Region national 

forests in moving toward the desired conditions in the forest plan (extreme weather events, 

wildfire risks, insects, diseases, and invasive species, water use and demand, and increase in 

socioeconomic demands). These strategies focus on ways to incorporate changes from 

disturbances into managed forests and enhance ecosystem resilience.

In developing strategies for managing future changes, the range of possible approaches could be 

quite broad, but the strategies which follow are focused on recommendations from recent research 

studies, including the U.S. Climate Change Science Program, SAP 4.4 (CCSP 2008b), which are 

appropriate for Southwestern Region national forests and balance effectiveness, feasibility, and 

available resources. Although some strategies contain new ideas, most of these management 

options include practices that are already in effect, can serve multiple needs, and may just need to 

be adjusted or expanded to respond to climate changes during the next 5 to 15 years. Using an 

adaptive management approach will allow national forest managers to adopt and adjust strategies 

as new information is available, conditions change, and staff and resources are available.

The key climate change factors can be addressed through five management strategies:

1. Enhance adaptation by anticipating and planning for disturbances from intense storms;

2. Reduce vulnerability by maintaining and restoring resilient native ecosystems;

3. Increase water conservation and plan for reductions in upland water supplies;

4. Anticipate increase in forest recreation use, utilize markets and demand for small 

diameter wood and biomass for restoration, renewable energy, and carbon sequestration; 

and

5. Monitor climate change influences.

These management strategies should be considered as suggestions and a place to begin addressing 

climate change while revising forest plans. They are broad and general in scope, and are not 

meant to be prescriptive. One size does not fit all. You may wish to use these as a basis from 

which to build forest-specific strategies. Conversely, when developing forest-specific strategies, 

keep in mind that the climate change science is evolving and adding to our body of knowledge, 

which in turn can result in changes in recommended management approaches to climate change. 

With this in mind, try to keep your overall strategies general and not overly specific.

Enhance Adaptation by Anticipating 

and Planning for Disturbances from Intense Storms

Although occurrences of storms and other disturbances cannot be precisely predicted, and are 

often beneficial types of disturbance, anticipatory planning may predict impacts and have 
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 192

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

adaptive guidelines in place to protect sensitive areas. Areas such as riparian zones, endangered 

species habitats, and special areas may require different approaches for reducing disturbances or 

recovering from damaging events. Management responses from previous events can provide 

guidance for similar situations and take advantage of prior learning experiences. Planning prior to 

disruptions can take advantage of disturbances when they eventually occur to convert vegetation 

to more resilient and desirable ecosystems, and reduce assessment and response time while 

ensuring that sensitive resources requiring special responses are protected.

With the projected increase in extreme weather events, management practices for reducing soil 

erosion may be even more critical in the future. For example, standard soil erosion management 

practices such as buffers, filter strips, broad-based dips, and piling slash downslope of skid trails 

and along streams can help mitigate increased erosion conditions. Trails close to streams may 

need to be relocated further away from stream channels as part of improving and maintaining the 

recreation trails system and reducing impacts to aquatic ecosystems and water quality. In another 

example, appropriately sized culverts at stream crossings should consider projections for future 

runoff in a changing climate as well as historical conditions. New recreation sites, such as 

campgrounds, ski areas, and other facilities should be located well away from potential flash

flood areas.

Reduce Vulnerability by Maintaining 

and Restoring Resilient Native Ecosystems

Managing ecosystems under uncertainty necessitates flexible and adaptive approaches that are 

reversible, are implemented in incremental steps, which allow for new information and learning, 

and that can be modified with changing circumstances (Millar et al. 2007). Southwestern 

ecosystems have evolved under a long and complex history of climate variability and change. 

Taking into consideration the number of mega-droughts, and other climate related variation, 

through time, these Southwestern systems have a built-in resilience. Restoring and maintaining 

resilience in forest and grassland ecosystems should be part of the basic elements of forest-wide 

desired conditions. Risks of increased wildfire, outbreaks of insects and disease, and invasive 

species, represent ongoing, broad-scale management challenges. These issues are nothing new. 

However, climate change has the potential to increase or augment the impacts of these ecosystem 

risks.

Restoring and maintaining resilience will likely improve the potential for ecosystems to retain or 

return to desired conditions after being influenced by climate change related impacts and 

variability. Managing for resistance (e.g., maintenance thinning to prevent catastrophic fire, forest 

insect or disease pandemics) or resilience (e.g., noxious weed control), both traditional 

sustainability themes, offer common ground and present opportunities for meaningful response to 

climate change. Of the themes of resistance8 or resilience identified by Millar and others (2007), 

the following may be useful for planning:

 8 Resistance – The capacity of an organism or a system to withstand the effects of an environmental agent.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 193

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Manage for asynchrony9, promoting diversity

• Promote connected landscapes

• Reset significantly disrupted animal and plant communities 

Prescribed fires are a current management tool that can serve multiple purposes, from sustaining 

desired conditions for fire-adapted ecosystems and sustaining habitat for threatened and 

endangered species, to reducing fuel loads. Prescribed burning is also a management strategy that 

will be important for maintaining desired habitats in a changing climate with more natural 

disturbances. With projections of storms that are more frequent, and other more extreme weather 

events, plus the potential for increased stresses from forest pests in a warmer, drier climate, 

continued prescribed burning will continue to be an important management strategy for the 

future.

Although current programs and guidance are already in place to limit introduction of nonnative 

species, treat invasive species, and control insects and diseases, these efforts are likely to become 

more critical to maintaining desired conditions for healthy forests under a changing climate. Due 

to the fragmented land ownership patterns, success in reducing forest pests requires going beyond 

national forest boundaries, and continued collaboration with partners will be needed. In addition, 

management practices (such as thinning for age class diversity) that sustain healthy forests and 

provide adequate nutrients, soil productivity, and hydrologic function promote resilience and 

reduce opportunities for disturbance and damage.

For wildlife and plant species that are dependent on forest ecosystems, planning may want to 

address:

• Fragmentation: Conservation strategies should consider preservation and restoration of 

large, unfragmented areas (Robinson et al. 1995), and avoid creating small patches.

• Promote Connectivity: Landscape connectivity is the degree to which the landscape 

facilitates or impedes movement of a species among habitats required for its persistence 

with few physical or biotic impediments to migration, and through which species can 

readily move (Taylor et al., 1993, Millar et al. 2007). Connectivity has two components, 

structural and biological connectivity and biological components. Structural connectivity, 

the spatial structure of a landscape, can be described from map elements. Biological 

connectivity is the response of individuals to the scale of landscape features (Brooks 

2003). 

Promoting connectivity in landscapes with flexible management goals that can be 

modified as conditions change may assist species to respond naturally to changing 

climates. Desired goals include reducing fragmentation and planning at large landscape 

scales to maximize habitat connectivity (Millar et al. 2007).

• Riparian: Riparian areas, respective uplands, and watersheds need to be protected from 

degradation, be enhanced where possible, and maintained in order to maintain proper 

hydrologic functions.

 9 Asynchrony, in the general meaning, is the state of not being synchronized. In this usage, asynchrony refers to the 

promotion of diversity by managing for a range of conditions, occurring at different times, within a given ecosystem.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 194

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Maintain Biodiversity: If the above recommendations are implemented, biodiversity 

will be maintained as much as possible as climate change occurs.

Increase Water Conservation and Plan 

for Reductions in Upland Water Supplies

In the Southwestern Region, mountain snowpack and the headwaters of river systems are located 

on national forest lands. Aquatic and riparian ecosystems may be negatively impacted by 

increasing temperatures and reduced precipitation. Too much water arriving at once, in the form 

of severe storm events, also has the capacity to affect these water dependent ecosystems. Water 

availability, distribution, and allocation, for a variety of ecological, wildlife and aquatic species, 

as well as for human uses, needs to be considered in planning.

Municipal watersheds in New Mexico and Arizona are dependent on these upland sources. In 

many western mountain ranges, less precipitation is falling as snow, and spring melting is 

occurring earlier in the year. These water sources and associated water rights have always been 

important and contentious areas of concern for public land managers in the Southwest. With 

climate change, planning for water quantity and quality may become even more important. To 

address such concerns, planners may wish to consider some of the following measures:

• Determine the water rights status of water resources, for range, wildlife, public drinking 

systems, water for firefighting, recreational uses, and aquatic habitats;

• Assess and maintain infrastructure that could be affected by flooding (dams, bridges, 

roads, culverts);

• Review current status of state and regional water plans, forest and watershed health plan, 

integrated regional water planning (IRWP) paradigm; and/or

• Plan for extreme events, e.g., flooding and/or drought.

Anticipate Increase Forest Recreation Use, Utilize 

Markets and Demand for Small Diameter Wood and Biomass 

for Restoration, Renewable Energy, and Carbon Sequestration

The use of Southwestern national forests as havens from summer heat and for water related 

recreation continues to grow with population increases throughout the region. Planning for 

recreation should take into account the possible expansion of demand as temperatures increase 

and precipitation decreases because of climate change. This may affect recreation facilities, like 

campgrounds and boating facilities, as well as access to lakes, rivers, and other water features. 

Analysis of both potential snowfall and future winter temperature changes may need to be 

conducted for consideration of additions to, or new construction, of ski areas.

Salvaging and converting biomass into boards and other wood products can help reduce carbon 

loss from fire, as a byproduct of forest restoration. Another consideration may be to use biomass 

that cannot be converted to wood products (such as from clearing roads and trails) for bioenergy 

production. Bioenergy production would be carbon neutral and could not only replace the use of 

fossil fuels in generators, but mobile generation facilities could also provide power to schools, 

hospitals, command centers, and other immediate needs.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 195

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Monitor Climate Change Influences

It is not recommended that planning units create a completely new initiative or program of work 

solely for monitoring climate change. However, consider appropriate adjustments to the 

monitoring program that will improve understanding of the relationships of key plan components 

and climate change. As forests review their existing and potential research natural areas (RNAs), 

monitoring of climate change affects on specific ecosystems may be part of the research goals 

considered when building the RNA establishment record.

References Cited

Adams, H. D., M. Guardiola-Claramontea, et al. (2009). “Temperature Sensitivity of DroughtInduced Tree Mortality Portends Increased Regional Die-Off Under Global Change-Type 

Drought.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106(17): 7063–7066.

Allen, C. D. and D. D. Breshears (1998). “Drought-Induced Shift of a Forest-Woodland Ecotone: 

Rapid Landscape Response To climate Variation” Proceedings of the National Academy 

of Sciences 95(25): 14839–14842.

Archer, S. R. and K. I. Predick (2008). “Climate Change and Ecosystems of the Southwestern 

United States.” Rangelands (June 2008): 23–28.

Aublet, J. F., M. Festa-Bianchet, et al. (2009). “Temperature constraints on foraging behaviour of 

male Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) in summer.” Oecologia 2009 159(1): 237–247.

Barnett, T. P., D. W. Pierce, et al. (2008). “Human-Induced Changes in the Hydrology of the 

Western United States.” Science 319: 1080–1083.

Biro, P. A., J. R. Post, et al. (2007). “Mechanisms of Climate-Induced Mortality of Fish 

Populations in Whole-Lake Experiments.” Proceedings of the National Academy of 

Sciences 104(23): 9715–9719.

Brooks, C. P. (2003). “A scalar analysis of landscape connectivity.” Oikos 102: 466–439.

CCSP (2008a). The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water 

Resources, and Biodiversity. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and 

the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. P. Backlund, A. Janetos, D. Schimel, et 

al. Washington, DC, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: 362.

CCSP (2008b). Preliminary Review of Adaptation Options for Climate-Sensitive Ecosystems and 

Resources. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the 

Subcommittee on Global Change Research. S. H. Julius, J. M. West, J. S. Baron et al. 

Washington, DC, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: 873.

CCSP (2008c). Reanalysis of Historical Climate Data for Key Atmospheric Features: 

Implications for Attribution of Causes of Observed Change. A Report by U.S. Climate 

Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. R. Dole, M. 

Hoerling and S. Siegfried. Asheville, NC, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, National Climatic Data Center: 156.

CCSP (2008d). Weather and Climate Extremes in a Changing Climate. Regions of Focus: North 

America, Hawaii, Caribbean, and U.S. Pacific Islands. A Report by U.S. Climate Change 

Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. T. R. Karl, G. A. 
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 196

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Meehl, C. D. Miller, et al. Washington, D.C., Department of Commerce, NOAA’s 

National Climate Data Center,: 164.

Christensen, N. and D. P. Lettenmaier (2006). “A multimodel ensemble approach to assessment 

of climate change impacts on the hydrology and water resources of the Colorado River 

basin.” Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 3: 3727–3770.

Christensen, J. H., B. Hewitson, A. Busuioc, A. Chen, X. Gao, I. Held, R. Jones, R. K. Kolli, W. 

T. Kwon, R. Laprise, V. Magaña Rueda, L. Mearns, C. G. Menéndez, J. Räisänen, A. 

Rinke, A. Sarr and P. Whetton, (2007). Regional Climate Projections. In: Climate Change 

2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth 

Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. 

Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H. L. Miller 

(eds.)]. Cambridge University. Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, 

USA.

Clark, J. S. (1998). “Why trees migrate so fast: confronting theory with dispersal biology and the 

Paleorecord.” The American Naturalist 152 (2--August): 204–224.

Conley, J., H. Eakin, et al. (1999). CLIMAS Ranching Case Study: Year 1. Tucson, AZ, Institute 

for the Study of the Planet Earth, Arizona State University.

Coulloudon, B., Podborny, P. Eshelman, K., Rasmussen, A., Gianola, J., Robles, B., Habich, N. 

Shaver, P. Hughes, L., Spehar, J., Johnson, C., Willoughby, J. Pellant, M. 1999. 

Sampling Vegetation Attributes. BLM, Technical Reference 1734–4. 164 pp.

Dale, V. H., L. A. Joyce, et al. (2001). “Climate Change and Forest Disturbances.” BioScience 

51(9): 723–734.

Dean, J. S. (2000). Complexity Theory and Sociocultural Change in the American Southwest. 

The Way the Wind Blows: Climate, History, and Human Action. R. J. McIntosh, Joseph 

A. Tainter, Susan Keech McIntosh. New York, Columbia University Press: 89–118.

Eaton, J. G., and R. M. Scheller (1996). “Effects of Climate Warming on Fish Thermal Habitat in 

Streams of the United States.” Limnology and Oceanography 41(5, Freshwater 

Ecosystems and Climate Change in North America): 1109–1115.

Eisen, R. J., and et al. (2007). “A Spatial Model of Shared Risk For Plague and Hantavirus 

Pulmonary Syndrome in the Southwestern United States.” American Journal of Tropical 

Medicine and Hygiene 77: 999–1004.

Enquist, C. and D. Gori (2008). Implications of Recent Climate Change on Conservation 

Priorities in New Mexico. A Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment for Biodiversity 

in New Mexico, Part 1, The Nature Conservancy and Wildlife Conservation Society.

Farber, S. C., R. Costanza, et al. (2002). “Economic and Ecological Concepts for Valuing 

Ecosystem Services.” Ecological Economics 41: 375–392.

Guido, Zack. (2008). Southwest Climate Change Network. 

http://www.southwestclimatechange.org/impacts/land/fire

Gonzalez, G. A. (2005). “Urban sprawl, global warming and the limits of ecological 

modernisation.” Environmental Politics 14(3): 344–362.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 197

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Herweijer, C., R. Searger, et al. (2007). “North American Droughts of the Last Millennium from 

a Gridded Network of Tree-Ring Data.” Journal of Climate 20: 1353–1376.

Hoegh-Guldberg, O., L. Hughes, et al. (2008). “Assisted Colonization and Rapid Climate 

Change.” Science 321 (no. 5887): 345–346.

Horikawa, M., T. Ikutaro, et al. (2009). “Assessing the Potential Impacts of Climate Change on 

the Alpine Habitat Suitability of Japanese Stone Pine (Pinus pumila) Export.” Landscape

Ecology 24: 115–128.

Hughes, M. K. and H. F. Diaz (2008). “Climate variability and change in the drylands of Western 

North America.” Global and Planetary Change 35: 111–118.

Hulin, V., V. Delmas, et al. (2009). “Temperature-depenedent sex determination and global 

change: are some species at greater risk?” Oecologia 160(3): 493–506.

Inouye, D. W. (2008). “Effects of Climate Change on Phenology, Frost Damage, and Floral 

Abundance of Montane Wildflowers.” Ecology 89(2): 353–362.

Institute of the Environment. (2007). “Climate Assessment for the Southwest.” from 

http://www.climas.arizona.edu.

Institute of the Environment and Climate Assessment for the Southwest. (2009). “Southwest 

Climate Change Network.” from 

http://www.southwestclimatechange.org/climate/southwest.

IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working 

Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 

Change. S. Solomon, D. Quin, M. Manninget al. Cambridge, United Kingdom, 

Cambridge University Press: 996.

Irland, L. C., D. Adams, et al. (2001). “Assessing Socioeconomic Impacts of Climate Change on 

U.S. Forests, Wood-Product Markets, and Forest Recreation.” BioScience 51(9): 753–

764.

Joyce, L., J. Aber, et al. (2001). Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change for 

the Forests of the United States. National Assessment Synthesis Team Climate Change 

Impacts on the United States: The potential Consequences of Climate Variability and 

Change, Report for the U.S. Global Change Research Program. Cambridge, UK, 

Cambridge University Press: 489–522.

Joyce, L., R. Haynes, et al., Eds. (2007). Bringing climate change into natural resource 

management: proceedings. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-706. Portland, OR, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

Joyce, L. A. and R. Birdsey (2000). The impact of climate change on America’s forests Gen. 

Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-59. Fort Collins, CO: 133 

Joyce, L. A., G. M. Blate, et al. (2008). National Forests. Preliminary Review of Adaptation 

Options for Climate-Sensitive Ecosystems and Resources. S. H. Julius, J. M. West, J. S. 

Baron, et al. Washington, DC, U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the 

Subcommittee on Global Change Research: 3–1 to 3–127.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 198

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Karl, T. R., J. A. Melillo, et al. (2009). Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. 

United Kingdom and New York, NY, Cambridge University Press.

Lawler, J., S. L. Shafer, et al. (2009). “Projected climate-induced faunal change in the Western 

Hemisphere.” Ecology 90(3): 588–597.

Lenart, M. (2007). Global Warming in the Southwest: Projections, Observations, and Impacts. 

Climate Assessment for the Southwest. Tucson, AZ, University of Arizona, Institute for 

the Study of Planet Earth: 88.

Lenart, M. (2008). Climate of the Southwest. Tucson, AZ, Southwest Climate Change Network, 

University of Arizona.

Lomolino, M. V., and D. R. Perault (2007). “Body size variation of mammals in a fragmented, 

temperate rainforest.” Conservation Biology 21(4): 1059–1069.

Maurer, E. P., and H. G. Hidalgo (2008). “Utility of daily vs. monthly large-scale climate data: 

an intercomparison of two statistical downscaling methods.” Hydrology and Earth 

System Science 12: 551–563.

McMichael, A. and A. Githeko (2001). Chapter 9: Human Health. Climate Change 2001: 

Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability, Working Group II Contribution to the Third 

Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK, 

Cambridge University Press.

Meko, D. M., C. A. Woodhouse, et al. (2007). “Medieval drought in the upper Colorado River 

Basin.” Geophysical Research Letters 34: 1–5.

Millar, C. I., N. L. Stephenson, et al. (2007). “Climate Change and Forests of the Future: 

Managing in the Face of Uncertainty.” Ecological Applications 17(8): 2145–2151.

Owen, G. (2008). Impacts: Invasive Species. Tucson, AZ, Southwest Climate Change Network, 

University of Arizona.

Robinson, S. F., F. R. Thompson III, et al. (1995). “Regional Forest Fragmentation and the 

Nesting Success of Migratory Birds.” Science 267(1): 1987–1990.

Rosenzweig, C., G. Casassa, et al. (2007). Assessment of Observed Changes and Responses in 

Natural and Managed Systems. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and 

Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, 

et al. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.

Ryan, M., S. Archer, et al. (2008). Land Resources. The Effects of Climate Change on 

Agriculture, Land Resources, Water Resources, and Biodiversity. Washington, DC, U.S. 

Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research: 

362.

Sammis, T. (2001). Current, Past, and Future Climate of New Mexico. New Mexico Climate. Las 

Cruces, NM. , New Mexico State University’s Climate Center, Office of the State 

Climatologist, Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, College of Agricultural and 

Home Economics, Agricultural Experiment Station: 1–4.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 199

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1997). Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment. Cambridge, UK, 

Cambridge University Press.

Seager, R., R. Burgman, et al. (2008). “Tropical Pacific Forcing of North American Medieval 

Megadroughts: Testing the Concept with an Atmosphere Model Forced by CoralReconstructed SSTs.” Journal of Climate 21: 6175–6190.

Seager, R., M. Ting, et al. (2007). “Model Projections of an Imminent Transition to a More Arid 

Climate in Southwestern North America.” Science 316(5828): 1181–1184.

Sheppard, P. R., A. C. Comrie, et al. (2002). “The climate of the U.S. Southwest.” Climate 

Research 21(3): 219–238.

Sinett, T. S., R. T. Holmes, et al. (2000). “Impacts of a Global Climate Cycle on Population 

Dynamics of a Migratory Songbird.” Science 288: 2040–2042.

Sky Island Alliance (2007). “Restoring Connections: Climate Change.” Newsletter of the Sky 

Island Alliance 10(2): 1–15.

Smith, J. B., R. Richels, et al. (2001). The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and 

Change: The Western United States. Climate Change Impacts on the United States: The 

Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change. Report for the U.S. Global 

Change Research Program. N. A. S. Team. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press: 

219–245.

Sprigg, W. A., T. Hinkley, et al. (2000). Preparing for a Changing Climate: The Potential 

Consequences of Climate Variability and Change: Southwest. A Report of the Southwest 

Regional Assessment Group. U. of. A. The Institute for the Study of Planet Earth. 

Tucson, AZ, U.S. Global Change Research Program: 66.

State of New Mexico (2005). Potential Effects of Climate Change on New Mexico. Agency 

Technical Work Group.

Swetnam, T. W., C. D. Allen, et al. (1999). “Applied Historical Ecology: Using the Past to 

Manage for the Future.” Ecological Applications 9(4): 1189–1206.

Swetnam, T. W. and J. L. Betancourt (1997). “Mesoscale Disturbance and Ecological Response 

to Decadal Climatic Variability in the American Southwest.” Journal of Climate 11: 

3128–3147.

Tainter, J. A. (2000). Global Change, History, and Sustainability. The Way the Wind Blows: 

Climate, History, and Human Action. R. J. McIntosh, J. A. Tainter and S. K. McIntosh. 

New York, Columbia University Press: 331–356.

Taylor, P. D., L. Fahrig, et al. (1993). “Connectivity is a vital element of landscape structure.” 

Oikos 68: 571–573.

The Nature Conservancy, The University of Washington, et al. (2007). “Climate Wizard.” from 

http://www.climatewizard.org/index.html.

Trouet, V., J. Esper, et al. (2009). “Persistent Positive North Atlantic Oscillation Mode 

Dominated the Medieval Climate Anomaly.” Science 324: 78–80.

United States Census Bureau. (2006). United States Census, 2000. U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 

http://www.census.gov/
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 200

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

United States Census Bureau. (2006). American Communities Survey Data.

http://www.census.gov/

USDA Forest Service (2005). Monitoring for Sustainability. Fort Collins, CO., U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, Inventory and Monitoring Institute, 2005: 2.

USDA Forest Service. (2008). “The Consortium for Integrated Climate Research in Western 

Mountains (CIRMOUNT).” from www.fs.fed.us/psw/cirmount/.

USDA Forest Service. (2010). “Climate Change Resource Center.” from 

http://www.fs.fed.us/ccrc/.

Westerling, A. L., H. G. Hildalgo, et al. (2006). “Warming and Earlier Spring Increase Western 

U.S. Forest Wildfire Activity.” Science 313: 940–943.

Whitlock, C. (2008). Turning Up the Heat... On a Bubbling Cauldron of Forest Threats. Compass, 

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station.

Williams, J. E. and J. M. Carter (2009). “Managing Native Trout Past Peak Water.” Southwest 

Hydrology 8(2): 26–34.

Specific Web Pages

Climate Assessment for the Southwest (CLIMAS)

http://www.climas.arizona.edu/

Climate Wizard Web Page

Climate Wizard

IPCC

IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Past Global Change Web Page

PAGES - Past Global Changes

Pew Center on Global Climate Change

Homepage | Pew Center on Global Climate Change: The Pew Center on Global Climate Change

The Southwest Climate Change Network

http://www.southwestclimatechange.org/climate/southwest

The Western Regional Climate Center

http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/

The Consortium for Integrated Climate Research in Western Mountains (CIRMOUNT)

http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/cirmount/

The Nature Conservancy Climate Wizard

http://www.climatewizard.org/

USGCRP-U.S. Global Change Research Program

U.S. Global Change Research Program

U.S. Forest Service Climate Change Resource Center

http://www.fs.fed.us/ccrc/
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 201

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Climate Change Glossary

The following terms have been gathered by Forest Service researchers from numerous sources 

including NOAA, IPCC, and others. Included are the most commonly referred to terms in climate 

change literature and news media. This is only a partial list of terms associated with climate 

change. See other NOAA or IPCC documents for full glossaries associated with this topic.

Anthropogenic: Resulting from or produced by human beings. 

Anthropogenic emissions: Emissions of greenhouse gases, greenhouse gas precursors, and 

aerosols associated with human activities. These include burning of fossil fuels for energy, 

deforestation, and land use changes that result in net increase in emissions.

Arid regions: Ecosystems with less than 250 mm precipitation per year. 

Atmosphere: The gaseous envelop surrounding the Earth. The dry atmosphere consists almost 

entirely of nitrogen (78.1 percent volume mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9 percent volume mixing 

ratio), together with a number of trace gases, such as argon (0.93 percent volume mixing ratio), 

helium, and radiatively active greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (0.035 percent volume 

mixing ratio) and ozone. In addition, the atmosphere contains water vapor, whose amount is 

highly variable but typically 1 percent volume mixing ratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds 

and aerosols. 

Biodiversity: The numbers and relative abundances of different genes (genetic diversity), 

species, and ecosystems (communities) in a particular area. 

Carbon dioxide (CO2): A naturally occurring gas, and also a byproduct of burning fossil fuels 

and biomass, as well as land use changes and other industrial processes. It is the principal 

anthropogenic greenhouse gas that affects the Earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas 

against which other greenhouse gases are measured and, therefore, has a global warming potential 

of 1. 

Carbon dioxide (CO2) fertilization: The enhancement of the growth of plants as a result of 

increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. Depending on their mechanism of 

photosynthesis, certain types of plants are more sensitive to changes in atmospheric carbon 

dioxide concentration. 

Climate: Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the “average weather” or more 

rigorously as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities 

over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period 

is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These relevant 

quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate 

in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. 

Climate change: Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean 

state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or 

longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or to 

persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Note that 
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 202

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, 

defines “climate change” as: “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to 

human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to 

natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.” The UNFCCC thus makes a 

distinction between “climate change” attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric 

composition, and “climate variability” attributable to natural causes. See also “climate 

variability.”

Climate feedback: An interaction mechanism between processes in the climate system is called a 

climate feedback, when the result of an initial process triggers changes in a second process that in 

turn influences the initial one. A positive feedback intensifies the original process, and a negative 

feedback reduces it. 

Climate model (hierarchy): A numerical representation of the climate system based on the 

physical, chemical, and biological properties of its components, their interactions and feedback 

processes, and accounting for all or some of its known properties. The climate system can be 

represented by models of varying complexity—that is, for any one component or combination of 

components a “hierarchy” of models can be identified, differing in such aspects as the number of 

spatial dimensions, the extent to which physical, chemical, or biological processes are explicitly 

represented, or the level at which empirical parametrizations are involved. Coupled 

atmosphere/ocean/sea ice general circulation models (AOGCMs) provide a comprehensive 

representation of the climate system. There is an evolution toward more complex models with 

active chemistry and biology. Climate models are applied, as a research tool, to study and 

simulate the climate, but also for operational purposes, including monthly, seasonal, and 

interannual climate predictions. 

Drought: There is no definitive definition of drought based on measurable processes; scientists 

evaluate precipitation, temperature, and soil moisture data for the present and recent past to 

determine drought status. Very generally, it refers to a period of time when precipitation levels 

are low, impacting agriculture, water supply, and wildfire hazard.

El Niño: in its original sense, is a warmwater current that periodically flows along the coast of 

Ecuador and Peru, disrupting the local fishery. This oceanic event is associated with a fluctuation 

of the intertropical surface pressure pattern and circulation in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, 

called the Southern Oscillation. This coupled atmosphere ocean phenomenon is collectively 

known as El Niño Southern Oscillation, or ENSO. During an El Niño event, the prevailing trade 

winds weaken and the equatorial counter current strengthens, causing warm surface waters in the 

Indonesian area to flow eastward to overlie the cold waters of the Peru current. This event has 

great impact on the wind, sea surface temperature, and precipitation patterns in the tropical 

Pacific. It has climatic effects throughout the Pacific region and in many other parts of the world. 

The opposite of an El Niño event is called La Niña.

Extreme weather event: An extreme weather event is an event that is rare within its statistical 

reference distribution at a particular place. Definitions of “rare” vary, but an extreme weather 

event would normally be as rare as or rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile. By definition, the 

characteristics of what is called extreme weather may vary from place to place. An extreme 

climate event is an average of a number of weather events over a certain period of time, an 

average, which is itself extreme (e.g., rainfall over a season).
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 203

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Greenhouse effect: Greenhouse gases effectively absorb infrared radiation, emitted by the 

Earth’s surface, by the atmosphere itself due to the same gases, and by clouds. Atmospheric 

radiation is emitted to all sides, including downward to the Earth’s surface. Thus, greenhouse 

gases trap heat within the surface-troposphere system. This is called the “natural greenhouse 

effect.” Atmospheric radiation is strongly coupled to the temperature of the level at which it is 

emitted. In the troposphere, the temperature generally decreases with height. Effectively, infrared 

radiation emitted to space originates from an altitude with a temperature of, on average, -19 °C, in 

balance with the net incoming solar radiation, whereas the Earth’s surface is kept at a much 

higher temperature of, on average, +14 °C. An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases 

leads to an increased infrared opacity of the atmosphere and, therefore, to an effective radiation 

into space from a higher altitude at a lower temperature. This causes a radiative forcing, an 

imbalance that can only be compensated for by an increase of the temperature of the surfacetroposphere system. This is the “enhanced greenhouse effect.” 

Greenhouse gas: Greenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both 

natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the 

spectrum of infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere, and clouds. This 

property causes the greenhouse effect. Water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide 

(N2O), methane (CH4), and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth’s 

atmosphere. Moreover there are a number of entirely human-made greenhouse gases in the 

atmosphere, such as the halocarbons and other chlorine- and bromine-containing substances, dealt 

with under the Montreal Protocol. Besides CO2, N2O, and CH4, the Kyoto Protocol deals with the 

greenhouse gases sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons 

(PFCs).

Radiative forcing: The term radiative forcing refers to changes in the energy balance of the 

Earth atmosphere system in response to a change in factors such as greenhouse gases, land use 

change, or solar radiation. The climate system inherently attempts to balance incoming (e.g., 

light) and outgoing (e.g. heat) radiation. Positive radiative forcings increase the temperature of 

the lower atmosphere, which in turn increases temperatures at the Earth’s surface. Negative 

radiative forcings cool the lower atmosphere. Radiative forcing is most commonly measured in 

units of watts per square meter (W/m2). 

Rangeland: Unimproved grasslands, shrublands, savannahs, and tundra. 

Regeneration: The renewal of a stand of trees through either natural means (seeded onsite or 

adjacent stands or deposited by wind, birds, or animals) or artificial means (by planting seedlings 

or direct seeding).

Rapid climate change: The nonlinearity of the climate system may lead to rapid climate change, 

sometimes called abrupt events or even surprises. Some such abrupt events may be imaginable, 

such as a dramatic reorganization of the thermohaline circulation, rapid deglaciation, or massive 

melting of permafrost leading to fast changes in the carbon cycle. Others may be truly 

unexpected, as a consequence of a strong, rapidly changing, forcing of a nonlinear system.

Teleconnections: Atmospheric interactions between widely separated regions that have been 

identified through statistical correlations (in space and time). For example, the El Niño 

teleconnection with the Southwest United States involves large-scale changes in climatic 

conditions that are linked to increased winter rainfall.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 204

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Weather: Describes the daily conditions (individual storms) or conditions over several days 

(week of record-breaking temperatures) to those lasting less than 2 weeks.
Appendix B: Climate Change Trends and Potential Strategies

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 205

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

C: Proposed and Probable 

Management Practices

Introduction

This appendix describes proposed and probable practices that may subsequently take place on the 

Grasslands at the project or activity level to help maintain existing conditions or achieve the 

desired conditions described in the plan. Included are items such as program strategies; 

inventories, assessments, resource analyses, and other planning needs; and ongoing work with 

partners and cooperating agencies anticipated during the next 15 years.

The listed proposed and probable practices are not intended to be all inclusive, nor are they 

intended to be decisions. They are simply projections of what actions may take place in the 

future. A plan amendment is not required to change or modify any of the proposed and possible 

actions. The list of these actions can be updated at any time through an administrative correction 

of the plan.

Scenery

• Development of mitigation measures for existing and new manmade sites, features, and 

facilities using the information from the scenic class and existing scenic integrity maps 

from the scenery management system prepared for the Grasslands.

• Creation of an inventory of existing structures that do not meet plan desired conditions 

and guidelines from photopoint monitoring.

• Modification of structures resulting in adverse scenery impacts to meet desired conditions 

and guidelines.

Recreation

• Vegetation management in developed recreation sites, including periodic reviews of 

vegetation health and opportunities for vegetation to provide screening or manage 

recreation site concerns. Following the protocol for removing hazard trees where needed. 

Continuation of active tree planting or a regeneration program where old, diseased, or 

damaged trees exist to provide shade and scenic quality.

• Improvement of operating efficiency and sustainability of facilities through new 

construction and repairs. Consideration of energy efficiency through implementation of 

recycled or renewable resources aimed at producing a smaller carbon footprint.

• Accessibility assessments on developed recreation sites.

• Trails maintenance according to development level and managed use.

• Development of interpretive plans for each grassland.

• Outdoor classrooms for school groups and other opportunities to partner with local 

schools.

• Active participation in all cooperative interpretive initiatives.

• Education and outreach programs and/or signs to help reduce user conflicts, such as 

conflicts between motorized and nonmotorized users. 
Appendix C: Proposed and Probable Management Practices

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 206

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Where gates are in use, installation of appropriate signs to remind users to close them.

• Coordination with partnering agencies or organizations at least annually, and 

identification where new partnerships may exist to enable working with other landowners 

to expand hiking or other dispersed recreation opportunities, including interpretation.

• Improvement of field presence of Agency personnel and maintenance or development of 

agreements with local law enforcement. Working toward having the level of presence of 

law enforcement (either Forest Service or partner agency) be sufficient to address public 

and community concerns.

• Coordination with state wildlife agencies to manage habitat and impacts associated with 

hunting and partnerships with wildlife and hunting organizations to meet agency wildlife 

habitat and hunting management goals.

• Management actions to discourage illegal activity and/or creation of unauthorized routes.

• Management strategies to reduce user conflicts and address resource concerns.

• Rehabilitation, closure, or reconstruction of motorized routes that are causing resource 

damage or have issues that may negatively impact health and safety.

• In areas of high public recreation, replacement of gates with cattle guards.

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

• Monitoring areas of designated dispersed recreation (dispersed parking areas) to look for 

opportunities to add new sites when they are desirable on the Black Kettle and McClellan 

Creek National Grasslands.

Natural Tourism

• Development of interpretive sites as opportunities become available and in conjunction 

with partners.

• Development of interpretive services appropriate to the features of the area and the 

surrounding landscape.

• Maintenance of interpretive signs and exhibits. 

• Creation of stand alone signs to provide interpretive material for off-hours tourists. 

Heritage Resources

• Stabilization of historic structures as funds become available.

• Completion of heritage resource projects that involves the public.

• Offsite educational/enrichment products such as classroom programs, heritage 

celebrations, publications, and field trips. 

• Creation of a cultural resources overview for each grassland’s approval.

• Creation of a historic homestead interpretive site on the Black Kettle McClellan Creek 

National Grasslands.
Appendix C: Proposed and Probable Management Practices

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 207

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Establishment of a site steward program for the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National 

Grasslands.

Roads and Access

• Maintenance of ownership boundaries.

• Acquisition of legal access as opportunities arise.

• Decommissioning of roads that are no longer needed for the administration of National 

Forest System lands.

• Enforcement of decisions made under the 2005 Travel Management Rule.

Land Adjustments

• Land adjustments where feasible and advantageous to the Grassland.

Minerals and Energy Development

• Rehabilitation of common variety mineral sites and oil and gas sites no longer in use.

Special Uses

• Rehabilitation of existing special use sites that do not meet the scenery guidelines, as they

are brought up for reauthorization or are no longer required.

Wind Energy Development

• Coordination and participation in research on the effects of wind farms on wildlife.

• Engagement in community discussions on the future of wind energy development in the 

region.

• Coordination with Federal and state wildlife agencies on the development of wind energy 

guidelines and policies.

Vegetation Management

• Use of livestock grazing as a tool to manage vegetative conditions and wildlife habitat.

• Coordination of planned fire activities with state agencies, Federal agencies, and private 

landowners to achieve landscape-scale objectives.

• Use of planned fire and herbivory on the landscape at varying intervals and intensities, as 

determined by vegetative and climatic conditions, to resemble natural processes.

• Treatment of WUI areas to reduce fire hazards to communities and the Grasslands.

• In appropriate ecosystems, retention of patchy shrub cover component across the 

landscape to provide cover for wildlife.
Appendix C: Proposed and Probable Management Practices

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 208

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Soil, Water, and Air

• Where adequate groundwater or surface hydrology exists, and if natural recruitment is 

not sufficient, supplementation of natural recruitment with planting to reestablish riparian 

areas with young cottonwood and willow trees years to provide shading, bank cover, and 

streambank stability.

Wildlife, Fish, and Rare Plants (Natives)

• Management of Grasslands through fire and grazing to create heterogeneity in grassland

structure and species composition.

• Assessment of opportunities to create wildlife habitat improvement plots to meet the high 

public use demand for important game species that occur on the Grasslands.

• Collaboration with other Federal and state biologists and researchers in determining if 

breeding populations of the Lesser Prairie-chicken could be expected to return to the 

Grasslands and successfully fledge young and what management activities would benefit 

their recovery if they returned.

• Evaluation of trees and tall human-made structures for removal in areas important for 

recovery of Lesser Prairie-chicken habitat and where windbreaks and erosion control 

shelterbelts are no longer needed for soil stability.

• Marking fences in potential Lesser Prairie-chicken habitat to minimize collisions.

• Inventory and evaluation of fenced exclosures and wildlife habitat improvement plots for 

effectiveness and ecological functionality.

Rio Grande Turkey

• Maintenance of large cottonwood and other trees along streamsides for roosting and 

escape cover.

• Maintenance and release of mast-producing trees and shrubs such as oaks and plum, as 

needed.

• Reintroduction of prescribed burning as a tool, as needed, to increase available green 

forage in the spring, open the understory in shrub stands, and increase forb production in 

rangeland.

Northern Bobwhite

• Management techniques that are important in developing quail habitat, as needed, 

including prescribed burning, disking, mowing, planting of food plots, legume seeding, 

and shrub planting.

Invasive Plants and Animals (Native and Nonnative)

• Monitoring and management of populations of invasive species that occur within the 

Grasslands boundaries. There is a working interagency plan to manage and eradicate 

these species at a landscape scale.
Appendix C: Proposed and Probable Management Practices

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 209

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

• Control of native invasive plants, such as cholla, eastern redcedar, and mesquite, to the 

extent practical.

• Treatment of areas containing saltcedar to restore native riparian vegetation.

Mills Canyon

• Creation of signs and barriers to prevent camping immediately outside of developed sites 

and areas of past disturbance within 200 feet of developed sites and rehabilitation.

• Construction of nonmotorized trails in Mills Canyon.

• Continued stabilization of the Mills Canyon Orchard and Ranch site.

• Rehabilitation of closed and user-created routes that are causing resource concerns.

• Prescribed fire to rejuvenate the browse component on the canyon lowlands and side 

slopes.

Special Areas

• Maintenance of signage that links the Santa Fe National Historic Trail interpretive site to 

the Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway.

• Construction of a sign and an interpretive site to link Mills Canyon and the La Frontera 

del Llano Scenic Byway.

• Closure or rehabilitation of all unauthorized motorized vehicle stream crossings on the 

eligible scenic river.
Appendix C: Proposed and Probable Management Practices

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 211

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

D: Other Sources of Information, 

Regulations, MOUs, Guidance

Other sources of information include existing laws, regulations, MOUs, Forest Service policy,

and references to best management practices and best available science. These sources are 

important in designing projects and activities to achieve desired conditions. They are organized 

by management area and resource topic area below. Most, if not all of these relevant documents 

are available from Forest Service offices. Many are posted on the Cibola National Forest and 

Grasslands Internet Web site.

Grasslands-Wide

Scenery

FSM 2380.13 Landscape Management, Scenic Trails and Byways; FSM 2380.6- 2380.62 

Technical Publications and References, Current Publications, Superseded Reference; FSM 

2380.14 Landscape Management, Wild and Scenic Rivers; FSM 2380.18 Landscape 

Management, Landownership Adjustments ; FSM 2380.3 Landscape Management, Policy; 

FSM 2380.31 Landscape Management, Resource Planning and Management; FSM 2380.43 

Landscape Management, Responsibility, Forest Supervisor; FSM 2382.1 Landscape 

Management, Scenery Management, Scenery Management System; Landscape Aesthetics 

Handbook (U.S. Forest Service Agriculture Handbook No. 701); 36 CFR 213.3 Part B 

Administration of Lands under Title III of the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act by the 

Forest Service: Protection, occupancy, use, administration, and exercise of reservations.

Developed Recreation

36 CFR 213 Administration of Lands under Title III of Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act by 

the Forest Service; 36 CFR 261Prohibitions; EO 11988 Floodplain Management; R3 

Supplement to FSM 2300 Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management; FSM 

2310 Planning and Data Management; FSM 2311 Resource Opportunities in Recreation 

Planning; FSM 2330.3 Publicly Managed Recreation Opportunities, Policy; FSM 2353.16 

Trail, River and Similar Recreation Opportunities; Cooperative Agreements and Rights-ofWay; FSM 2390 Interpretive Services; FSM 5340.2 Law Enforcement, Objectives; FSM 

5420 Land Purchases and Donations; FSM 7151.02 Land Surveying, Objectives; FSM 7312.1 

and 7312.2 Facility Planning, Plans, and Preliminary Project Analysis; FSH 7309.11 Ch 40 

Buildings and Related Facilities, Management; Forest Service Outdoor Recreation 

Accessibility Guidelines; FSM 7400 Public Health and Pollution Control Facilities; FSH 

7409.11, Sanitary Engineering and Public Health Handbook; Forest Service Outdoor 

Recreation Accessibility Guidelines, 5/22/2006; FSM 2303 Recreation, Wilderness and 

Related Resource Management, Policy; FSM 2334 Recreation, Wilderness, and Related 

Resource Management, Campgrounds and Picnic Grounds; National Trails System Act, 

2009; The Built Environment Image Guide for National Forests and Grasslands, 2001.

Dispersed Recreation

FSM 1802 and 1803 Senior, Youth and Volunteer Programs, Objectives and Policy; FSH 

2309.18.4Trails Management Handbook; FSM 2300, Recreation, Wilderness, and Related 

Resource Management. 1985 Cibola National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan; 

Amendment #10, 2002, Wild, Scenic/Recreation Eligible River Areas.
Appendix D: Other Sources of Information, Regulations, MOUs, Guidance

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 212

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Motorized Recreation

36 CFR 212, Travel Management; 36 CFR 251, Land Uses; 36 CFR 261, Prohibitions;36 

CFR 294, Special Areas; Black Kettle McClellan Creek National Grasslands Motor Vehicle 

Use Map; Kiowa Rita Blanca National Grasslands Motor Vehicle Use Map. Travel 

Management Rule, 2005.

Heritage Resources

National Historic Preservation Act Sections 106 and 110; 36 CFR 800 Protection of historic 

Properties; 36 CFR 60.4 National Register of Historic Places, Criteria for Evaluation; FSM 

2360 Heritage Program Management; The Native American Grave Protection and 

Repatriation Act; EO 13175 Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal Governments; 

EO 13007 Indian Sacred Sites; Santa Fe National Historic Trail Comprehensive Management 

and Use Plan (USDI National Park Service 1990) and the Memorandum of Understanding 

between the National Park Service and the Pike-San Isabel National Forests and CimarronComanche National Grasslands signed March 6, 1991 (USDA Forest Service and USDI 

National Park Service 1991); General Agreement Between the U.S. Department of Interior, 

National Park Service and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service, Region 3, 

Concerning the Santa Fe National Historic Trail, Agreement # 02-MU-11031600-022, dated 

Feb. 25, 2002; Region 3, First Amended Programmatic Agreement Regarding Historic 

Property protection and Responsibilities (and associated appendices), December 2003; EO 

11593 Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment; FSM 2360.7 Heritage 

Program Management, Program Funding Structure; FSM 2364.03 Protection and 

Stewardship, Policy; FSM 2364.02 Objectives, American Indian Religious Freedom Act, 

1978; Archaeological Resources Protection Act, 1979; Food Conservation and Energy Act of 

2008 (The Farm Bill); EO 13287 Preserve America, (Partnering to Promote Heritage Tourism 

in Communities: Guidance for Federal Agencies, 2003); U.S. Forest Service Tribal Relations 

Strategic Plan.

Roads and Access

36 CFR 212 Travel Management; 36 CFR 261 Prohibitions; FSM 5460 Right-of-Way 

Acquisition; FSM 7701.2 Travel Management; FSM 7702 Travel Management, Objectives; 

FSM 7703 Travel Management, Policy; FSM 7710 Travel Management, Travel Planning; 

FSM 7730 Road Operation and Maintenance; FSH 2509.22 Soil and Water Conservation 

Handbook; FSH 7709.55 Travel Planning Handbook; FSH 7709.56 Road Preconstruction 

Handbook; FSH 7709.59 Road System Operations and Maintenance Handbook; Forest 

Service Washington Office correspondence dated November 10, 2010, RE: Travel 

Management, Implementation of 36 CFR, Subpart 212, Subpart A (36 CFR 212.5(b); Forest 

Service Washington Office correspondence RE: Fiscal Year 2010 Final Program Direction.

Land Adjustments

36 CFR 254 Landownership Adjustments; FSM 5400 Landownership; FSH 5409.12 

Appraisal Handbook; FSH 5409.13 Land Acquisition Handbook; FSH 5409.17 Rights-ofWay Acquisition Handbook; FSH 5509.11Title Claims, Sales, and Grants Handbook; FSM 

2354.51(a) Fee Title Acquisition on Designated Rivers; FSM 2354.6 Non-designated Rivers.
Appendix D: Other Sources of Information, Regulations, MOUs, Guidance

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 213

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Minerals and Energy Development

36 CFR 228 Subpart E, Oil and Gas Resources; FSM 2320 Wilderness Management; FSM 

2802 and 2803 Minerals and Geology, Objectives and Policy; FSM 2814 Mining Claims, 

Rights, and Obligations of the United States; FSM 2822.41 Mineral Licenses, Permits, and 

Leases Administer by the Department of the Interior, Forest Service Evaluation and Report; 

36 CFR 228 Minerals; FSM 2850 Mineral Materials; Surface Occupancy Standards and 

Guidelines for Oil and Gas Exploration and Development (the Gold Book) published by 

BLM; FSM 2822.62, Actions by Forest Service; FSM 2814.01, Mining Claims, Rights of 

United States; FSM 2814.23 Prevent Violations of Laws and Regulations; FSM 2822.02 

Mineral Leases, Permits, and Licenses, Objective; FSM 2822.04 Responsibility; FSM 2880.3 

Geologic Resources, Hazards and Services, Policy; NEPA Air Quality Memorandum of 

Understanding (MOU) for Oil and Gas Decisions on Federal Lands, June 23, 2011.

Special Forest Products

FSH 2409.18, Timber Sale Preparation; FSH 2409.18-2009-2, Section 82.5 Trees, Portions of 

Trees, or Forest Products Free of Charge for Indian Tribes for Non-Commercial Traditional 

and Cultural Purposes; FSM 2000, Chapter 2020.12(5), Ecological Restoration and 

Resilience, Executive Orders; Chapter 2020.3(2) Policy; FSM 2400, Timber Management, 

Chapter 2462, Free Use of Timber; Chapter 2463, Administrative Use; 36 CFR 223.5 through 

36 CFR 223.10 Parks, Forests, and Public Property, Scope of Free-Use Granted to 

Individuals, Cutting and Removal of Timber in Free-Use Areas, Permission for Free-Use of 

Timber Outside Free-Use Areas, Delegations of Authority to Approve Free Use by 

Individuals, Free-Use to Owners of Certain Mining Claims, Free-Use to Alaskan Settlers, 

Miners, Residents, and Prospectors; FSM 2400, Chapter 2467 Sales of Special Forest 

Products, 36 CFR 223.1 Authority to Sell Timber; FSM 2400, Chapter 2431 Management of 

Timber Sale Program; 36 CFR 223.2 Disposal of Timber for Administrative Use; 7 CFR 2.60 

Agriculture, Chief, Forest Service; FSH 2409.19 Renewable Resources Handbook; 36 CFR 

223.12 Permission to Cut, Damage, or Destroy Trees without Advertisement; 16 U.S.C.2104 

Note Stewardship End Result Contracting Projects; Forest Service National Resource Guide 

to American Indian and Alaska Native Relations, 12/05/1997; 36 CFR 800, National Historic 

Preservation Act; FSH 2409.19, Timber Sale Administration Handbook; National 

Environmental policy Act of 1969;National Forest Management Act of 1976; Tribal 

Consultation on Section 8105 of the Food, Conservation and Energy Act of 2008 (The Farm 

Bill); 36 CFR 223.261 Sale and Disposal of National Forest System Timber; Special Forest 

Products and Forest Botanical Products. FSH 1909.15, Environmental Policy and Procedures 

Handbook.

Special Uses

Suggested Practices for Raptor Protection on Power Lines: Utility line, transformer, and 

conductor locations recommendations of The State of the Art in 2006, Avian Powerline 

Interaction Committee (APLIC) 2006.

Access recent information on communication towers at: 

http://www.fws.gov/southwest/es/oklahoma/sect7.htm, or call (918) 581-7458. 
Appendix D: Other Sources of Information, Regulations, MOUs, Guidance

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 214

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Wind Energy Development

36 CFR 251 Subpart B Land Uses, Special Uses; FSM 2700 Special Uses Management; FSM 

2700, Chapter 2720 Special Uses Administration; FSH 2709.11, Chapters 40 and 70, Special 

Uses Handbook; FSH 2609.13, Wildlife and Fisheries Program Management Handbook, 

Chapter 80, Wildlife Monitoring at Wind Energy Facilities; Suggested Practices for Raptor 

Protection on Power Lines: The State of the Art in 2006, Avian Power line Interaction 

Committee (APLIC) 2006; Edison Electric Institute, Washington D.C. Standard Guidance for 

Towers with Potential Impacts to Federally-Listed Species and Migratory Birds (document 

prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Oklahoma Ecological Services Field Office, 

9014 East 21st Street, Tulsa, Oklahoma 74129-1428).

Livestock Use

FSM 2202 Range Management, Objectives; FSM 2203.2 Range Management, Policies –

National Grasslands; FSM 2230.2 and 2230.3 Grazing and Livestock Use Permit System, 

Objective and Policy; FSM 2231.02 Grazing and Livestock Use Permit System, 

Requirements for Permits with Term Status; FSM 2240.2 and 2240.3 Range Improvements, 

Objective and Policy; FSM 2242.02 Structural Range Improvements, Objective; FSM 

2242.03 Policy; FSM 2243.02 Nonstructural Range Improvements, Objective; FSM 2243.03 

Policy; FSM 2250.2 and 2250.3 Range Cooperation, Objective and Policy; FSM 2270.3 

Information Management and Reports, Policy; FSH 2209.13, Chapter 12.31 Grazing Permit 

Administration Handbook, Permits with Term Status, Upper Limits; Bankhead Jones Farm 

Tenant Act of 1937; 36 CFR 213 Administration of Lands under Title III of the BankheadJones Farm Tenant Act by the Forest Service; FSM 2237.03 Range Management, Policy; 

FSM 2541.03 Water Uses and Development, Policies; FSM 2253.4 Range Cooperation, 

Cooperation with Others; FSM Information Management and Reports, Policy; Interagency 

Technical Reference (USDA, USDOI), Utilization Studies and Residual Measurements,1996; 

Technical Reference 4400-5 Rangeland Inventory & Monitoring, Supplemental Studies, 

1992; Technical Reference 4400-7 (BLM) Rangeland Monitoring Analysis, Interpretation, 

and Evaluation, 1985; Technical Reference 4400-8 (BLM) Rangeland Monitoring, Statistical 

Considerations, 1992; FSH 2209.13 Chapter 90 Rangeland Management Decision Making; 

Environmental Assessment of Livestock Grazing and Associated Vegetation Management: 

Black Kettle National Grassland-Roger Mills County, Oklahoma, November 1999. Black 

Kettle National Grassland, Cibola National Forest, Cheyenne, Oklahoma; Environmental 

Assessment for Selected Range Units in Dallam Co., Texas: Term Permit Modification and 

Range Unit Management Plans, November 2003. USDA Forest Service, Cibola National 

Forest Rita Blanca National Grassland, Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands Ranger 

District, Clayton, N.M.; Environmental Assessment of Livestock Grazing on the Kiowa 

National Grassland in Union Co., N.M. August 1999. USDA Forest Service Cibola National 

Forest Kiowa National Grassland, Clayton, N.M.; Environmental Assessment of Livestock 

Grazing in the Mills Area of the Kiowa National Grassland: Harding, Colfax, and Mora 

Counties, N.M. September 1998. USDA Forest Service Cibola National Forest Kiowa 

National Grassland, Clayton, N.M.; Environmental Assessment for Selected Range Units in 

Dallam Co., Texas: Term Permit Modification and Range Unit Management Plans. January 

2004. USDA Forest Service, Cibola National Forest Rita Blanca National Grassland, Kiowa 

and Rita Blanca National Grasslands Ranger District, Clayton, N.M.; Environmental 

Assessment of Livestock Grazing and Management on the Rita Blanca National Grassland in 

Cimarron Co., Okla. September 2002, USDA Forest Service Cibola National Forest Rita 

Blanca National Grassland, Clayton, N.M.
Appendix D: Other Sources of Information, Regulations, MOUs, Guidance

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 215

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Wildland-Urban Interface

FSM 5110.2 Fire Management, Wildfire Prevention, Objective; FSM 5120 Fire Management, 

Preparedness; FSM 5130.2 Wildland Fire Suppression, Objective; The 1995/2001 Federal 

Wildland Fire Management Policy and Program Review; FSH 5109.19 Chapter 50 Fire 

Management Analysis and Planning Handbook, Fire Management Planning; The Wildland 

and Prescribed Fire Management Policy and Implementation Procedures Reference Guide; 

Managing Impacts of Wildfires on Communities and the Environment, and Protecting People 

and Sustaining Resources in Fire Adapted Ecosystems – A Cohesive Strategy (FSM 5101, 

5103, and 5108); The Interagency Fire Management Plan template by the Fish and Wildlife 

Service, 2006 www.fws.gov/fire/fmp/development/July08_FWS_template_guidance.doc; 

The Cibola National Forest and National Grasslands Fire Management Plan, 2010; 

Community Wildfire Protection Plans (CWPP) for Harding, Mora, and Union Counties, NM 

(no CWPPs currently exist for the counties occupied by the grasslands in Texas or Oklahoma, 

but future CWPPs for these counties are hereby incorporated by reference); FSM 5171, 

Agreements with Federal Agencies; Interagency Prescribed Fire, Planning and 

Implementation Procedures Guide, Element 19-Smoke Management & Air Quality (USDA, 

USDOI) 2008; FSM 5140.2 Fire Use, Objectives; FSM 5140.3 Fire Use, Policy; Guidance 

for Implementation of Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy, 2009; FSM 3110.2 

Cooperative Forest Fire Prevention, Objective; FSM 3110.3 Policy (Smokey Bear); USDOI, 

National Fire Plan, 2001, National Environmental Policy Act of 1969; National Forest 

Management Act of 1976; FSM 2324.2 Wilderness Management, Management of Fire; FSM 

5100, Fire Management.

Special Areas

Research Natural Areas (RNA)

FSM 4063.02 Research Natural Areas, Objectives & FSM 4063.03 Research Natural Areas, 

Policy; FSM 4000 Research and Development, Chapter 4060, Research Facilities and Areas, 

Policy.

General Ecological

Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937; Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960; 

National Forest Management Act of 1976; 1982 Rule Provisions, Sections 219.13-219.26; 36 

CFR 241.2 Parks, Forests, and Public Property, Fish and Wildlife, Cooperation in Wildlife 

Management; Endangered Species Act of 1973; Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918; EO 

13186 Responsibility of Federal Agencies to Protect Migratory Birds; Sikes Act of 1960; 

FSM 2402 Timber Management, Objectives; FSM 2470.2 - 2470.3 Timber Management, 

Chapter 70 Silvicultural Practices, Objectives and Policy; FSM 2670-2671Wildlife, Fish, and 

Sensitive Plant Habitat Management, Chapter 70, Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive 

Plants and Animals, Cooperation; FSM 2671.45 C & F 2671Wildlife, Fish, and Sensitive 

Plant Habitat Management, Interim Directives; FSM 3110.2 State and Private Forestry, 

Cooperative Forest Fire Prevention, Objectives; 3150.2 State and Private Forestry, Rural 

Community Fire Protection Program, Objectives; Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1975; 

Soil

FSM 2550 Watershed and Air Management, Chapter 50, Soil Management; FSH 2509.18; 

Soil Management Handbook; FSH 2509.22, Soil and Water Conservation Handbook; 
Appendix D: Other Sources of Information, Regulations, MOUs, Guidance

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 216

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960; Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937 as 

Amended.

Water, Watershed, Perennial Streams, 

Reservoirs, Lakes, Wetlands, Ponds, and Playa Lakes

FSH 2509.16 Water Resource Inventory Handbook; FSH 2509.22 Soil and Water 

Conservation Handbook, Region 3, Chapter 10 - 40, FSH 2509.23 Riparian Area Handbook; 

FSM 2510-2520 Watershed and Air Management, Watershed Planning and Watershed 

Protection and Management; FSM 2530 Water Resource Management; FSM 2540 Water 

Uses and Development, Regional Supplement No. 2500-2001-1; Federal Water Pollution 

Control Act of 1956 and Amendments of 1972 (Clean Water Act); FSM 2502-2503 

Watershed and Air Management, Objectives and Policy; FSM 2541.03 Water Uses and 

Developments, Policy; FSM 2541.12 Instream and Standing Water Requirements; FSM 2521 

Watershed Protection and Management, Watershed Condition Assessment; FSM 2502 & 

2503 Watershed and Air Management, Objectives and Policy; FSH 2509.13 Burned-Area 

Emergency Rehabilitation Handbook; FSM 2526, Watershed and Air Management, Riparian 

Area Management; FSM 2521.11(b) Watershed Condition Assessment, Priority Setting;

EO 11990, 1977 Wetlands Management; EO 11998, 1977 Floodplain Management; Organic 

Administration Act, 1897 as Amended; National Forest Management Act, 1976; Safe 

Drinking Water Act, 1977.

Air

Clean Air Act of 1990, Regional Haze Rule to meet PM 2.5 and ozone standards; New 

Mexico Air Quality Bureau Smoke Management Plan; New Mexico Administrative Code 

(NMAC), Environmental Protection, Title 20, Chapter 2, Part 3 (20.2.3) Ambient Air Quality 

Standards, and NMAC 20.2.72 Permitting; Texas Emissions Reduction Plan (SB 5 2001); 

FSM 2580.2 - 2580.3 Watershed and Air Management, Chapter 80 Air Resource 

Management, Objectives and Policy; Oklahoma Department of Environmental Quality, Air 

Quality Division, Open Burning Rules Section; Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resource 

Planning Act of 1974; NEPA Air Quality Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for Oil and 

Gas Decisions on Federal Lands, June 23, 2011.

Invasive Plants and Animals (Native and Nonnative)

Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1975; FSM 2080.2, Noxious Weed Management; FSM 2150, 

Pesticide-Use Management and Coordination; New Mexico Executive Order 00-22, Office of 

the Governor, 2000; Noxious Weed Act of 1963 (New Mexico); Oklahoma Noxious Weed 

Law of 2000; Texas Agriculture Code, Chapter 78.003: Noxious Weed; Federal Insecticide, 

Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) of 1947. 

Management Area-Specific Other Sources of Information

Black Kettle and McClellan Creek Management Area

The following other sources of information apply only to the Black Kettle and McClellan 

Creek National Grasslands, referred to collectively as the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek 

Management Area. These references to law, regulation and policy, MOUs, and other 

guidance are in addition to the Grasslands-wide direction presented above.
Appendix D: Other Sources of Information, Regulations, MOUs, Guidance

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 217

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Developed Recreation

FSM 7509.11 Dams Management Handbook

Wildlife Habitat Improvement

Management guidelines for Lesser Prairie-chicken populations and their habitats, Hagen et al.

2004, Wildlife Society Bulletin 32:69-82; Habitat Evaluation Guide for the Lesser Prairiechicken, Pub. # E-1014, from Oklahoma State University Extension, by OSU , TNC and 

Sutton Avian Research; Ecology and Management of the Lesser Prairie-chicken in 

Oklahoma, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Division of Agricultural Sciences and 

Natural Resources, Oklahoma State University; Revised Regional Forester’s Sensitive 

Species List of Plants and Animals, October 1, 2007, Cibola National Forest and Grasslands 

Sensitive Species Evaluations; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Bald Eagle 

Management Guidelines, May 07; FSM 2610.1 Wildlife, Fish and Sensitive Plant Habitat 

Management, Authority; FSM 2602 & 2603 Objectives and Policy; FSM 2202 & 2203 Range 

Management, Objectives and Policy; FSM 2240.3 Range Improvements, Policy; FSM 2671.1 

Wildlife, Fish and Sensitive Plant Habitat Management, Cooperation with State Agencies; 36 

CFR 241.2 Fish and Wildlife, Cooperation in Wildlife Management; FSM 2242 Range 

Management, Structural Range Improvements; FSM 2243 Nonstructural Range 

Improvements; FSM 2240.5 Definitions; FSM 2630 Wildlife, Fish and Sensitive Plant 

Habitat Management, Management of Wildlife and Fish Habitat; FSM 2670 Threatened, 

Endangered and Sensitive Plants and Animals; USDA Environmental Compliance Fish and 

Wildlife Policy Departmental Regulation (DR) 9500-4, Fish and Wildlife Policy.

Invasive Plants and Animal Species (Native and Nonnative)

Environmental Assessment for Invasive Plant Management, Cibola National Forest, Black 

Kettle Ranger District, Cheyenne, Oklahoma, 2007

To determine suitable habitat, The Oklahoma Lesser Prairie-chicken Spatial Planning Tool 

(OLEPCSPT 2009) is a useful spatially explicit model designed to assist development 

planning by avoiding, minimizing, and mitigating negative effects of development on the 

Lesser Prairie-chicken in Oklahoma. The model and all associated products are specific to the 

Lesser Prairie-chicken and Oklahoma.

Lesser Prairie Chicken Development Planning webpage, December 10, 2009 

http://www.wildlifedepartment.com/lepcdevelopmentplanning.htm

Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management Area

The following other sources of information applies only to the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands, referred to collectively as the Kiowa and Rita Blanca Management 

Area. These references to law, regulation, policy, MOUs, and other guidance are in addition 

to the Grasslands-wide direction presented above.

Wildlife Habitat Improvement

Management guidelines for Lesser Prairie-chicken populations and their habitats. Hagen et al.

2004, Wildlife Society Bulletin 32:69-82; Habitat Evaluation Guide for the Lesser Prairiechicken, Pub. # E-1014, from Oklahoma State University Extension, by OSU, TNC and 

Sutton Avian Research; Ecology and Management of the Lesser Prairie-chicken in 
Appendix D: Other Sources of Information, Regulations, MOUs, Guidance

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 218

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Oklahoma, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Division of Agricultural Sciences and 

Natural Resources, Oklahoma State University; Revised Regional Forester’s Sensitive 

Species List of Plants and Animals, October 1, 2007, Cibola National Forest and Grasslands 

Sensitive Species Evaluations; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Bald Eagle 

Management Guidelines, May 07; FSM 2610.1 Wildlife, Fish and Sensitive Plant Habitat 

Management, Authority; FSM 2602 & 2603 Objectives and Policy; FSM 2202 & 2203 Range 

Management, Objectives and Policy; FSM 2240.3 Range Improvements, Policy; FSM 2671.1 

Wildlife, Fish and Sensitive Plant Habitat Management, Cooperation with State Agencies; 36 

CFR 241.2 Fish and Wildlife, Cooperation in Wildlife Management; FSM 2242 Range 

Management, Structural Range Improvements; FSM 2243 Nonstructural Range 

Improvements; FSM 2240.5 Definitions; FSM 2630 Wildlife, Fish and Sensitive Plant 

Habitat Management, Management of Wildlife and Fish Habitat; FSM 2670 Threatened, 

Endangered and Sensitive Plants and Animals; USDA Environmental Compliance Fish and 

Wildlife Policy Departmental Regulation (DR) 9500-4, Fish and Wildlife Policy.

Invasive Plants and Animal Species (Native and Nonnative)

FEIS for Canadian River Tamarisk Control, Cibola National Forest, Harding and Mora 

County New Mexico, May 2007; Environmental Assessment for Integrated Pest Management 

of Noxious/Invasive Plants, Cibola National Forest, Catron, Cibola, Colfax, Harding, 

Lincoln, McKinley, Mora, Sandoval, Sierra, Socorro, Torrance, Union, and Valencia 

Counties in NM, Cimarron County in Oklahoma, and Dallam County in Texas, June 2010.

Shortgrass Prairie General Vegetation Type

Luce, R. J. 2003. A Multi-State Conservation Plan For The Black-tailed Prairie Dog, 

Cynomys ludovicianus, in the United States – an addendum to the Black-tailed Prairie Dog 

Conservation Assessment and Strategy, November 3, 1999. 

http://wildlife.state.co.us/NR/rdonlyres/EAA036FD-A82A-4E8C-8D87-

9B56BA7CF1E7/0/BTPD_Final.pdf

Memorandum of Understanding among: New Mexico; Oklahoma; and Texas offices of 

Wildlife Services; USDA APHIS to address sylvatic plague disease in mammals occurring on 

the shortgrass vegetation type for the purposes of protection of human health, other wildlife 

resources, and boundary control.

Memorandum of Understanding September 26, 2001, among: The U.S. Forest Service; 

Animal Plant Health Inspection Service; Natural Resources Conservation Service, Bureau of 

Land Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Bureau of Indian Affairs; National Park 

Service; U.S. Air Force; U.S. Army; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Civil Works); and U.S. 

Geological to collaborate on benefits to the black-tailed prairie dog and other obligate and 

associated species of these ecosystems.

Special Areas

National Trails and Scenic Byways

National Historic Preservation Act Sections 106 and 110; 36 CFR 800 Parks, Forests, and 

Public Property, Advisory Council on Historic Preservation; 36 CFR 60.4 National Register 

of Historic Places, Criteria for Evaluation; FSM 2300 Recreation, Wilderness, and Related 

Resource Management; Santa Fe National Historic Trail Comprehensive Management and 
Appendix D: Other Sources of Information, Regulations, MOUs, Guidance

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 219

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Use Plan (USDI National Park Service 1990) and the Memorandum of Understanding 

between the National Park Service and the Pike-San Isabel National Forests and CimarronComanche National Grasslands signed March 6, 1991 (USDA Forest Service and USDI 

National Park Service 1991); National Trails System Act of 1968; FSM 2353.11 Recreation, 

Wilderness, and Related Resource Management, Chapter 50 Trail, River, and Similar 

Recreation Opportunities, Relationship Between National Recreation, National Scenic, and 

National Historic Trails and NFS Trails.

Scenic Byways

Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century of 1998, or most recent reauthorizing 

legislation; FSM 2380.13 Landscape Management, Scenic Trails and Byways.

Eligible Scenic River

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968; FSM 2354.02 Trail, River, and Similar Recreation 

Opportunities, Objective; FSM 2354.03 Trail, River, and Similar Recreation Opportunities, 

Policy; FSM 2354.04 Trail, River, and Similar Recreation Opportunities, Responsibility; 

FSM 2354.21 Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management, Management of 

Study Rivers; FSM 2354.42 (a-p) Wild and Scenic River Resource Protection and 

Management; FSM 1924.03 Land Management Planning, Policy; FSH 1909.12 Chapter 80, 

Section 82, Wild and Scenic River Evaluation, Assessment of Study Rivers; 36 CFR228, 

Parks, Forests, Public Property, Minerals; EA, Cibola national Forest Amendment #10, 

Protection of Eligible Wild, Scenic, or Recreation Rivers, June 2002.
Appendix D: Other Sources of Information, Regulations, MOUs, Guidance

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 221

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

E: Disturbance Factors 

and Ecological Processes

Historical natural disturbances and ecological processes such as fire, climate variability, flooding, 

and native herbivory, in conjunction with human-caused disturbances such as cattle grazing and 

altered hydrology, have notable effects on the Grasslands’ vegetation, including composition and 

structure. These historical natural disturbances influence the composition and structure of the 

Grassland vegetation types. In addition, invasive species and motorized and off-road travel are 

now recognized as having disturbance-like effects on the Grasslands vegetation.

Following is a list of current and historical disturbances that occur on the Grasslands affecting all 

identified soil resource characteristics, including soil condition, soil loss, soil productivity, and 

organic matter.

Fire: Historically, lightning-caused fires, and fires set by humans burned across extensive areas 

of the plains grasslands, and ecosystems adapted to the periodic fires. The plains grasslands had a 

historical fire regime of 3 to 10 years. This was disrupted by Euro-American settlements in the 

late 1800s, primarily by overgrazing and fire suppression. Contemporary residential development 

and growth led to widespread fire suppression, with roads often serving as firebreaks. Fire 

suppression allowed trees and other woody vegetation to increase their dominance over the 

landscape while reducing the abundance of fire-adapted native grasses. With the exclusion of 

wildfire throughout most vegetation types in the last 70 years, fuel loading has increased in 

woodland and forest vegetation types, resulting in a high risk of accelerated erosion, loss of soil 

and vegetative productivity, and sediment transport to connected streams following wildfires in 

areas with moderate and high erosion hazard on the Grasslands. High levels of sediment can 

reduce fishery and aquatic habitat and those species that rely on it for their survival.

Grasslands managers have increasingly used prescribed burns to eliminate excess woody trees 

and shrubs (including invasive trees like black locust and eastern redcedar), improve the diversity 

of structural stages, and restore fire-adapted ecosystems. Over the past 10 to 12 years, 

approximately 80 percent of the Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands have 

been burned, with some units burned two to four times. About 2 percent of the Kiowa and Rita 

Blanca National Grasslands units have been burned, mostly in the pinyon-juniper ecosystem. In 

addition, approximately 7,300 acres burned in wildfires on all four grasslands in the 10 years 

from 1995 to 2005. The 2006 wildfire season was especially unique due to prolonged drought and 

burned over 3,700 acres of the Black Kettle, 1,500 acres of the McClellan Creek, and 850 acres of 

the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands.

Grazing/herbivory: Grazing by herbivores such as bison and black-tailed prairie dog played a 

very important role in development of the current grazing-adapted Grasslands. For millennia, 

unconfined herds of bison moved over extensive grasslands year-round, reducing grass cover and 

changing the dominance of certain plant species. Prairie dogs once inhabited millions of acres of 

the Great Plains and played an important role in modifying grasslands and providing habitat for 

numerous species. Black-tailed prairie dogs removed tall herbaceous and shrubby vegetation to 

provide unobstructed viewing for predator surveillance and, like the bison, changed the dominant 

vegetation type. The burrowing activities of prairie dogs mixed the soil and added nutrients from 

waste products as well.

Herbivory can directly reduce vegetative cover by affecting a change in vegetation composition 

and structure and, as a consequence, may inadvertently select for plants that have roots less 
Appendix E: Disturbance Factors and Ecological Processes

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 222

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

capable of holding soil. In addition, soil trampling by large ungulates creates trails, which can 

also lead to accelerated erosion rates. High levels of livestock, pronghorn, and prairie dog grazing 

have been observed to reduce effective vegetative ground cover and potentially contribute to 

accelerated erosion, soil compaction, and declined soil productivity, which is exacerbated during 

periods of drought.

The Forest Service has adopted an adaptive management approach and completed an 

environmental analyses and allotment management plans on every active grazing allotment on the 

Grasslands. The adaptive management approach now in place allows for adjustments in numbers 

of livestock and seasons of use through the annual operating instructions, in order to respond to 

changing conditions and achieve management objectives. The intensity of livestock grazing is 

substantially lower on the Grassland units than on adjacent private lands, averaging half the 

stocking rate found on private land. Current livestock management trends indicate that grazing on 

the Grasslands is currently sustainable.

Invasive species: Before European settlement, there were no invasive species found on the 

Grasslands; however, that is no longer the case. Invasive species disrupt natural ecosystem 

functions and negatively affect both ecological and socioeconomic conditions. Invasive species 

can displace desirable native species, reduce the quality of wildlife habitat, damage sensitive 

riparian and watershed areas, increase wildfire risk, and increase erosion. Invasive species cause 

major modifications in ecological processes and soil microflora, affecting nutrient cycling and 

decomposition rates. Changes to Grassland habitat by nonnative species introduction can be 

beneficial to some game species (such as whitetail deer and Rio Grande Turkey) and treedependent bird species that can utilize the altered habitat.

Grasslands managers have greatly increased the emphasis on preventing and controlling invasive 

plants by developing cooperative agreements with adjacent landowners to actively control 

invasive plants on “both sides of the fence;” engaging in cooperative interagency programs such 

as the saltcedar control project along the Canadian River; conducting some small-scale control 

treatment for invasive species; and developing environmental analyses needed to implement more 

invasive plant control projects.

Climate variability: The Grasslands evolved with severe droughts and other extreme climatic 

events. Native grasslands are extremely well adapted to tolerate and resist the impacts of drought. 

They regularly experience extreme fluctuations in climate conditions and extreme weather events 

such as prolonged droughts, flooding, hail, blizzards, tornadoes, and dust storms. Precipitation 

has a significant influence on ecological conditions and processes in the Great Plains. 

Evaporation typically exceeds precipitation and water is the primary factor limiting vegetative 

growth and the type of vegetation a site will support.

The Grasslands have experienced multiple years of drought since about 1999, with occasional 

normal levels of seasonal moisture. Reduced precipitation results in reduced vegetative growth, 

reduced surface organic matter and productivity, and ineffective vegetative ground cover, putting 

the soil at risk of accelerated erosion and compaction during storm events and subsequent loss of 

soil productivity. As vegetation dries out, there is increased risk of wildfire spread and subsequent 

accelerated erosion and watershed degradation.

It is projected that the Southwest will be warmer/wetter with climate change and, as a 

consequence, may include the invasion of woody species as a function of increased carbon 
Appendix E: Disturbance Factors and Ecological Processes

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 223

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

dioxide concentration and a change in seasonal precipitation patterns. Both these factors favor the 

establishment of vegetation such as woody shrubs at the expense of warm season perennial 

species of grasses.

Flooding: Frequent flooding is a natural process and disturbance within the Grasslands and 

affects the riparian vegetation types as well as unmapped stream courses throughout all the 

vegetation types. Flooding may cause unacceptable soil loss in the stream channel, streambanks, 

and flood plains if not well protected with deep rooted vegetative ground cover. Flash flooding 

can occur in perennial, intermittent, and ephemeral streams in all vegetation types, especially in 

large watersheds where short duration, high-intensity storms occur. Flooding processes produce 

scouring and sedimentation, and the entire range of flood magnitudes contribute to ecological 

processes such as nutrient cycling, recruitment, and species composition. Two- to 10-year events 

primarily impact herbaceous vegetation and 7- to 50-year events result in patchy removal of 

shrubs and saplings. Fifty-plus-year events will remove stands of larger trees. Cottonwoods return 

to pole size within 10 years of disturbance and are considered mature at around 60 years. 

Maintaining native vegetation described in the potential plant community of the TEUI provides 

channel stability, functional riparian areas, and good water quality for wildlife and aquatic 

species.

Motorized travel and user-created roads: On the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands, 

off-road driving is not prohibited and is particularly prevalent in the popular hunting areas. Most 

of the Kiowa and Rita Blanca National Grasslands are not highly desired by off-road driving 

enthusiasts because of the mixed ownership pattern, abundance of fences, and relatively even and 

homogenous terrain. However, where the off-road driving and user-created roads are prevalent 

(such as in Mills Canyon and the uplands), use has resulted in a loss of vegetative productivity 

and species diversity, long-term soil compaction and erosion, water quality degradation, and 

impacts to scenery, historical resources, and other social values.

The Black Kettle and McClellan Creek National Grasslands prohibit driving off designated roads 

or trails, so effects of off-road motorized travel on ecological sustainability are not an issue on 

that district.
Appendix E: Disturbance Factors and Ecological Processes

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 225

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

F: Species Status of Risk Rankings

Common Name Ranger 

District

Viability 

Overall Risk

Reason for Listing (see note below)

Viability 

Listing 

Source

Forest 

Sensitive 

List

MIS and 

at-Risk 

Species

Mixed-grass Prairie

Lesser Prairie-chicken BKMC High B, J K N

Swainson’s Hawk BKMC Low B, C K

Shinnery Oak

Lesser Prairie-chicken BKMC High B, J K N

Swainson’s Hawk BKMC Low B, C K

Bell’s Vireo BKMC Moderate B, C, E

Mixed Hardwood Riparian

Rio Grande Turkey BKMC Low L M

Bell’s Vireo BKMC Moderate B, C, E

Shortgrass Prairie

Black-footed ferret KRB Extirpated F&WS T&E

Black-tailed prairie dog KRB High I-NM K N

Mountain Plover KRB High A, B, C, J K N

Swift fox KRB High G N

Loggerhead Shrike KRB Low A, C K

Long-billed Curlew KRB Low A, B, C, D K

Swainson’s Hawk KRB Low B, C K

Burrowing Owl KRB Moderate B, C, D K M

Ferruginous Hawk KRB Moderate B, C, D K

Greene milkweed KRB Moderate H, I-NM & OK K

One-flowered milkvetch KRB Moderate H, I-NM K

Spellenberg’s groundsel KRB Moderate H, I-NM K

Playa Inclusion

Plains leopard frog KRB High B K N

White-faced Ibis KRB Low A, B K

Long-billed Curlew KRB Moderate B, C, D K
Appendix E: Disturbance Factors and Ecological Processes

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 226

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Common Name Ranger 

District

Viability 

Overall Risk

Reason for Listing (see note below)

Viability 

Lising 

Source

Forest 

Sensiti

ve List

MIS and 

at-Risk 

Species

Pinyon-Juniper and Juniper Grasslands Inclusion

Mountain Bluebird KRB Low M

Zone-tailed Hawk KRB Moderate K

Cottonwood-Willow Riparian

Plains leopard frog KRB High B K N

Yellow-billed Cuckoo KRB Low A

Sandhill white-tailed deer KRB Low K

Bald Eagle KRB Moderate A, D, E, F K

Arid land ribbon snake KRB Moderate A, D K

Sand Sagebrush

Lesser Prairie-chicken KRB High B, J K N

Black-tailed prairie dog KRB High I-NM K N

Woodland Pinyon-Juniper on Canyon Steep Slopes, Cliffs, and Rock Outcrops

Zone-tailed Hawk KRB Moderate K

American Peregrine Falcon K Low D K

Pale Townsend’s Big-eared 

Bat

K Low B K

Great Plains narrow-mouth 

toad

KRB Moderate D K

Canyon Lowlands and Canadian River Cottonwood-Willow Riparian

Plains leopard frog KRB High B K N

Yellow-billed Cuckoo KRB Low A

Sandhill white-tailed deer KRB Low K

Bald Eagle KRB Moderate A, D, F K

Arid land ribbon snake KRB Moderate A, D K

Rivers

Rio Grande chub KRB Low H, I-TX K

Suckermouth minnow KRB Moderate E K

Aquatic Lakes

Plains leopard frog BKMC Low B K

Bald Eagle BKMC Moderate A, D, E, F K

Alphabetic code for Reason for Listing is as follows: A = NM CWCS, B = TX CWCS, C = OK CWCS, D = NM T&E, 

E = TX T&E, F = OK T&E, G = Nature Serve N, H = Nature Serve G, I = Nature Serve State, J = F&WS NBC 

Candidate, K = Regional Forester’s Grasslands Sensitive Species, L = Important Game Species, M = Management 

Indicator Species, N = Viability High At-Risk Species
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 227

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

G: Common and Latin 

Names Used in Desired Conditions

Common Name Scientific Name

Alkali sacaton Sporobolus airoides

American elm Ulmus americana

Annual broomweed Amphiachyris dracunculoides 

Apache plume Fallugia paradoxa

Arrowhead Sagittaria spp.

Baby aster/rose heath Chaetopappa ericoides 

Barrel cactus Ferocactus spp.

Big bluestem Andropogon gerardii

Black locust Robinia pseudoacacia

Black willow Salix nigra

Blacksampson echinacea/narrowleaf purple coneflower Echinacea angustifolia 

Blue grama Bouteloua gracilis

Squirreltail Elymus elymoides

Box elder Acer negundo

Buffalograss Buchloe dactyloides

Bush morning-glory Ipomoea leptophylla

Pricklypear Opuntia spp.

Chickasaw plum Prunus angustifolia 

Choke cherry Prunus virginiana

Cholla Opuntia imbricata

Clover Dalea spp.

Common button bush Cephalanthus occidentalis

Common hackberry Celtis occidentalis

Common persimmon Diospyros virginiana 

Eastern redcedar Juniperus virginiana 

False indigo bush Amorphous fruticosa

Fragrant mimosa Mimosa borealis 

Fremont cottonwood Populus fremontii

Galleta Pleuraphis jamesii
Appendix G: Common and Latin Names Used in Desired Conditions 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 228

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Common Name Scientific Name

Gambel oak Quercus gambelii

Green ash Fraxinus pennsylvanica

Green thread Thelesperma megapotamicum

Ground cherry Physalis caudella 

Gum bully/wooly buckthorn/chittimwood Sideroxylon lanuginosum var. lanuginosu.

Hairy grama Bouteloua hirsuta

Hartweg’s sundrops Calylophus hartwegii

Honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos

Horehound Marrubium vulgare

Indian grass Sorghastrum nutans 

Inland New Jersey tea Ceanothus americanus 

Inland saltgrass Distichlis spicata

Lacy tansyaster Machaeranthera pinnatifida

Little bluestem Schizachyrium scoparium

Little walnut Juglans microcarpa

Lovegrass Eragrostis spp.

Many stemmed rhatany/knotted rhatany Krameria ramosissima 

Mountain mahogany Cercocarpus intricatus

Narrowleaf cattail Typha angustifolia

Needle-and-thread grass Hesperostipa comata comata

Netleaf hackberry Celtis laevigata var. reticulata

New Mexico feathergrass Hesperostipa neomexicana

New Mexico locust Robinia neomexicana

Peachleaf willow Salix amygdaloides Andersson

Pine Pinus spp.

Plains cottonwood Populus deltoides

Poison ivy Toxicodendron radicans

Ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa

Plains pricklypear Opuntia polycantha

Purple three awn Aristida purpurea
Appendix G: Common and Latin Names Used in Desired Conditions 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 229

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Common Name Scientific Name

Purslane Portulaca spp.

Reed Calamagrostis spp.

Riverbank grape Vitis riparia

Rocky Mountain elderberry Sambucus racemosa 

Saltcedar Tamarix ramosissima

Sand bluestem Andropogon hallii

Sand dropseed Sporobolus cryptandrus

Sand sagebrush Artemisia filifolia

Scarlet globemallow Sphaeralcea coccinea ssp. coccinea

Sandbar willow Salix exigua

Sedge Carex spp.

Siberian elm Ulmus pumila

Sideoats grama Bouteloua curtipendula 

Skunkbush sumac Rhus trilobata

Smartweed Polygonum spp.

Smooth brome Bromus inermis 

Smooth sumac Rhus glabra 

Snakeweed Gutierrezia sarothrae

Soapweed Yucca glauca

Stickseed Lappula spp.

Sunflower Helianthus praecox 

Switch grass Panicum virgatum

Tarragon Artemisia dracunculus 

Texas croton Croton texensis

Thinleaf alder Alnus incana 

Vine mesquite grass Panicum obtusum

Virginia creeper Parthenocissus quinquefolia

Virginia wildrye Elymus virginicus

Wavyleaf oak Quercus pauciloba

Wax goldenweed Grindelia papposa
Appendix G: Common and Latin Names Used in Desired Conditions 

Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 230

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

Common Name Scientific Name

Western ragweed Ambrosia psilostachya

Western soapberry Sapindus saponaria var. drummondii 

Western wheatgrass Pascopyrum smithii

White sage Artemisia ludoviciana 
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 231

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

H: Benchmarks

All national forests and grasslands in the Southwestern Region identified benchmarks during 

development of their original plans. Benchmarks were established for timber resources, livestock 

grazing, recreation, wildlife, wilderness, and other key resources. They were evaluated for their 

physical and biological production potential, and monetary benchmarks were developed for those 

resources having an established market value.

In the 1985 “Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Cibola National Forest Plan” (the 

1985 plan), the Forest established 14 economic benchmarks to set a minimum and maximum 

range for outputs for the development of alternatives. These benchmarks were developed 

cumulatively for the mountain districts and the Grasslands. Of these 14 benchmarks, 5 do not 

apply to the Grasslands, 6 have been adjusted for the smaller geographic extent of the Grasslands

alone, and 3 have been reviewed and deemed adequate to set the range of the alternatives that 

may be developed as part of the Grasslands plan revision. 

Benchmarks from the 1985 plan that have been determined not to apply to the Grasslands include 

the following:

Net merchantable timber volume (thousand cubic feet (MCF)) – There are no areas suitable 

for timber production on the Grasslands.

Net sawtimber value (thousand board feet (MBF)) – There are no areas suitable for timber 

production on the Grasslands.

Long-term sustained yield capacity (MCF) – There are no areas suitable for timber 

production on the Grasslands.

Wilderness recreation (thousand recreation visitor days (MRVD)) – Currently, there are no 

designated wilderness areas on the Grasslands.

Water yield (acre feet (ACFT)) – Water yield is more relevant to the mountain districts of the 

Cibola National Forest than the Grasslands because of the steeper topography of the mountain 

districts. Changes in management approach on the Grasslands are not likely to have a 

measureable effect on water yield and, therefore, it is not a meaningful way to bound 

alternatives.

The following benchmarks have been reviewed, validated, and found appropriate to be carried 

forward from the 1985 plan into this new Grasslands plan, because it is unlikely that an 

alternative would be developed that falls outside of their minimum and maximum values:

Developed recreation (MRVD)

Grazing capacity – Non-priced output (thousand animal unit months (MAUM))

Permitted livestock use (MAUM)

Benchmarks that need to be modified from Forest-wide values to fit the Grasslands alone include 

the following:

Dispersed recreation (MRVD) – The minimum level benchmark for dispersed recreation far 

exceeds the number of recreation visitor days on the Grasslands according to the 2005 

National Visitor Use Monitoring surveys.37 Using the data in the survey, it was determined 

 37 Even though the upper bound is very high, it is not necessary to change it because all the alternatives developed will 

easily fall within it.
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 232

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

that the average duration of visit to the Grasslands was 46.9 hours, and there were 56,600 

visits estimated for 2005. Of those visits, approximately 50.6 percent were dispersed 

recreation. Therefore, there were approximately 111.9 MRVDs of dispersed recreation on the 

Grasslands: 

(56,600 visits) X (46.9 hours/12 hours) = 221,211.7 Recreation Visitor Days38

221,211.7 RVDs X 50.6%39=111,933 RVDs or 111.9 MRVDs

Because there is good evidence that this number is realistic for the number of dispersed 

recreation visits to the Grasslands, it was selected as the minimum benchmark for the 

Grasslands. It is expected that there would be at least 109.3 MRVDs in future years because 

the year the data was collected had several lengthy fire closures and a fire which burned over 

one of the most popular recreation sites on the Grasslands.

Wildlife recreation (MRVD) – Because there is not enough information to adjust this 

benchmark separately from dispersed recreation, it will be folded into the figures for 

dispersed recreation.

Soil loss (thousand tons (MTONS)) – The minimum level benchmark given for soil loss of 

2,102.5 MTONs in the 1985 plan is too high for the Grasslands because it includes all the 

Cibola National Forest System lands (1,875,597 acres), of which the Grasslands are only a 

portion (262,232 acres). Although the rate of soil loss implicit in the minimum benchmark is 

reasonable, the fact that it accounts for approximately seven times as many acres as exist on 

the Grasslands makes it too high to be used. Therefore, the minimum level soil loss 

benchmark was adjusted as a proportion of the total acres of the Cibola National Forest to 

294 MTONS on average per year:

(262,232 acres/1,875,597 acres) X 2102.5 MTONs = 294.0 MTONs

Net products value, firewood sold, and personal use (free) firewood (MBF) – These three 

benchmarks in the 1985 plan are not distinct in terms of outputs on the Grasslands. Therefore, the 

Grasslands combined these into one forest products benchmark using the more contemporary 

measure of hundreds of cubic feet (CCF). The vegetation types that were included in the 

calculation of these benchmarks were the pinyon-juniper stands on the Kiowa and Rita Blanca 

National Grasslands (excluding the inventoried roadless area) and black locust on the Black 

Kettle National Grassland. These vegetation types are the only ones where harvest of forest 

products is expected to be used as a means of achieving plan goals.

The maximum benchmark was calculated assuming that the average stand volume in black locust 

was 9.41 CCF per acre and that at most, 1,000 acres would be treated for each of the first two 10-

year time periods and 500 acres in the third time period. It was further assumed that most of the 

black locust would be removed over the cumulative 2,500 acres, with a few possible exceptions.

This calculation resulted in an average annual output of 941 CCF for the first two periods and 

470.5 CCF for the third period.

 38 A recreation visitor day is a visit of 12 hours. The average visitor to the Grasslands spends 3.9 RVDs but makes only 

one visit.

39 The percentage of visitors who used dispersed recreation sites according to the 2005 NVUM.
Land and Resource Management Plan for the Kiowa, Rita Blanca, Black Kettle and 233

McClellan Creek National Grasslands

(9.41CCF/acre) X (2,000 acres) / 20 years = 941 CCF

(9.41CCF/acre) X (500 acres) / 10 years = 470.5 CCF

For pinyon-juniper, it was assumed that the average stand volume removed by thinning would be 

2.01 CCF per acre and that 2,500 acres would be treated every 10 years. This calculation resulted 

in an average annual output of 502.5 CCF.

(2.01 CCF/acre) X (2500 acres) / 10 years = 502.5 CCF

The range of expected alternatives developed during Grasslands plan and EIS development 

should fall within the maximums and minimums established by the benchmarks shown in the 

table below. If, in the process of alternative development, it is discovered that an alternative falls 

outside the range of the benchmarks, then the affected benchmark will need to be reevaluated and 

reestablished as necessary.

Table 7. Benchmarks for Grasslands plan revision—average annual output

Type of Benchmark

Time Period 1

2006–2015 2016–2025 2026–2035

Forest products (CCF) 2 Max 1,443.5 1,443.5 973

Min 0 0 0

Developed recreation (MRVD) 4 Max 1,702.1 2,042.9 2,249.1

Min 0 0 0

Grazing capacity (MAUM) – nonpriced 

output 4

Max 230.3 236.8 241.0

Min 0 0 0

Permitted livestock use (MAUM) 4 Max 214.7 227.3 236.9

Min 0 0 0

Dispersed recreation (MRVD) 3 Max 939.0 1,127.4 1,281.1

Min 111.9 111.9 111.9

Soil loss (MTONS) Max 5,643.4 5,676.8 5,717.2

Min 294 294 294

1 The time periods shown were established in the 1985 plan and were kept for this analysis.

2 This benchmark combines the original benchmarks of net products value, firewood sold, and personal use (free) 

firewood.

3 This benchmark combines the original benchmarks of dispersed recreation, wildlife recreation, and any potential 

wilderness recreation that may occur in an alternative when analyzed in an environmental impact statement.

4 These benchmarks are unchanged from the existing Forest plan.