United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest Service

Southern 

Research Station

General Technical 

Report SRS–142
The Authors:

Susan Fox, Bill Jackson, Sarah Jackson, Gary Kauffmann, Mary Carol Koester, Robert Mera, 

Terry Seyden, and Charles Van Sickle, USDA Forest Service, Asheville, NC 28804; Sealy Chipley, 

Jim Fox, Jeff Hicks, Matt Hutchins, Karin Lichtenstein, Kelsie Nolan, Todd Pierce, and Beth 

Porter, University of North Carolina, Asheville, Asheville, NC 28804.

In acknowledgment of the countless hours, contagious enthusiasm, and 

dedication to excellence that Mary Carol Koester provided to this project.

Disclaimers

The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for reader information and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or service. 

Maps included are for general reference purposes only and contain no legal representation.

September 2011

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service

Southern Research Station 

200 W.T. Weaver Blvd.

Asheville, NC 28804

Cover Design

Front and back covers were designed and produced by Ian Johnson (ijohnson@unca.edu), student intern 

at the UNC Asheville's National Environmental Modeling and Analysis Center, University of North 

Carolina, Asheville, NC.

Cover Photo Descriptions and Credits

Front and back covers: rainy Blue Ridge Mountains – Ken Thomas, kenthomas.us.

Back cover, top box: Brevard white squirrel – R.K. Young, nativebackyard.com; Wilson Creek – Ken 

Thomas, kenthomas.us; black bear – Ken Thomas, kenthomas.us; great horned owl – Dave Herr, USFS; 

fall trees – SARCS Report Card, USFS.

Back cover, middle box: Appalachian tiger swallowtail – Ken Thomas, kenthomas.us; noonday globe 

snail – John Fridell, USFWS; wounded darter, SARCS Report Card, USFS; misty creek – SARCS 

Report Card, USFS; mountain fence – Susan Weatherford, NEMAC.

Back cover, bottom box: purple flowers – Susan Weatherford, NEMAC; American river otter – Ken 

Thomas, kenthomas.us; Laurel Creek Falls – Ken Thomas, kenthomas.us; northern raccoon – Steve 

Shirley, USFS; five-lined skink – Ken Thomas, kenthomas.us; pileated woodpecker, Ken Thomas, 

kenthomas.us; wild turkeys – Dave Herr, USFS.
Western North Carolina Report Card on Forest Sustainability

www.wncforestreportcard.org
Authors—USDA Forest Service

Susan Fox, Bill Jackson, Sarah Jackson, Gary Kauffman, Mary Carol Koester, Robert 

Mera, Terry Seyden, and Charles Van Sickle

Authors—UNC Asheville

Sealy Chipley, Jim Fox, Jeff Hicks, Matt Hutchins, Karin Lichtenstein, Kelsie Nolan, 

Todd Pierce, and Beth Porter

Maps—UNC Asheville

Greg Dobson, Jeff Hicks, Kelsie Nolan, Todd Pierce, Beth Porter, and Leejah Ross

Graphics—UNC Asheville

Jeff Hicks, Josh Miller, Kelsie Nolan, Bridget O’Hara, and Beth Porter

Charts—UNC Asheville

Jeff Hicks, Kelsie Nolan, Bridget O’Hara, and Beth Porter

Layout—UNC Asheville

Nina Hall, Jeff Hicks, Josh Miller, Bridget O’Hara, and Susan Weatherford

Web Designers—UNC Asheville

Christina Papandrea, Amber Ramirez, and Marinus Tahu
We live at a fragile point in human history. We can choose to live as one of the last generations to witness and enjoy the majesty 

of this fertile and precious bioregion. Or we can become the generation that sets upon the path of true sustainability, the path 

that balances human, social, and economic activities with stewardship of a healthy and thriving ecology. With help from such 

tools as this report, we can study what is happening in the world around us and make the right decisions to ensure that the 

future is one we can be proud of. We can say, “We listened to what this earth was telling us, we learned from what we heard, 

and we became stewards of this land, so that you, our children’s children, could enjoy this beautiful world too.”

Robin Cape

Former Asheville City Council

Since the beginning of the 20th century, our researchers have worked to create the science and technology needed to sustain 

and enhance southern forest ecosystems and the benefits they provide. The Western North Carolina Report Card on Forest 

Sustainability provides a comprehensive description of this unique, diverse, and beautiful area in which we live. Let’s join 

together to help decision makers sustain its many values.

Rob Doudrick

Director, Southern Research Station

USDA Forest Service

This report card on forest sustainability provides us with a quality document to aid consideration of how we, as a region, 

wish to move forward into the future. The 21st century presents challenges and opportunities, both old and new, that should 

be faced with new perspectives. Public and private leaders, organizations, and communities in our region are now steadily 

moving toward decision-making processes that take into account the economy, the environment, and our society as a whole. 

Knowledge-based decisions leading to actions must balance and serve all three of these elements. In order to make the best 

choices possible, complex and integrated information must be made available. It must be accurate and insightful. It must 

present a clear picture of where we are and where we may be headed in the near and long-term future based on current trends, 

growth patterns, policy, and more. This is not a small challenge, but it must be met if we are to optimize our quality of life 

today while preserving opportunities for future generations. This is why I am very pleased with this report card on forest 

sustainability. I sincerely hope everyone takes time to review this report and utilize its information when making decisions for 

both the public good and private gain.

Ron Townley

Director, Local Government Services

Land-of-Sky Regional Council
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Foreword

Executive Summary

Introduction

Biodiversity

Production

Ecosystem Health

Soil, Water, and Air

Carbon Cycle

Socioeconomic Benefits

Policy

Appendix

Glossary

References and Credits

6

8 

14

21

43

59

85

113

123

153

168

174

180

Table of Contents
6

What is sustainability?

Sustainability means different things to different people. 

Whatever your definition of sustainability, we can all agree 

that forests are valuable to Western North Carolina. A 

sustainable forest is valuable and a goal that everyone in 

our region supports.

Forests add value to different groups in different ways, 

so it is important to understand our community’s view 

of value. As a homeowner in Buncombe County, I value 

the trees on our lot for their shade that lowers our cooling 

bills in the summer. My wife, a gardener, asks which trees 

to plant to replace the ones that were blown over by the 

hurricanes in 2004. My son, an avid hiker, enjoys the walks 

from our yard into a neighboring 100-acre wood, where 

a conservation easement protects the forest land. Though 

these are personal examples, the breadth of how our forest 

adds value to my family is indicative of the range of values 

addressed in this report card.

So what makes a good report card? 

• A trusted source of information is critical to a good report 

card. Our region needs a central repository of data that can 

be relied upon to be both accurate and current. 

• Second, the data must be of a scale appropriate for use by 

both individual landowners and regional decision makers, 

such as county commissioners. For this kind of use on 

many scales, data should be presented in a map format.

 • Third, our community needs a report card that can 

be used in a variety of decisions. The report card must 

organize the data in appropriate and scientific categories, 

while also presenting the data in a way that crosses 

technical and scientific “data silos.” This relates to how 

the information can be accessed and applied. Many users 

find Web-enabled products to be useful; others rely on hard 

copy reports and posters.

• Fourth, data and information by itself is usually 

insufficient for our users. The data must be transformed 

into useful visualizations. These graphics must be tied 

together through storytelling to provide meaning and 

context. All of these steps can lead to successful group 

discussion and decision making.

We hope you enjoy using this report card as much 

as we have enjoyed creating it, in collaboration with the 

USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station and other 

community partners. Please let us know when the report 

card is helpful, and where it is lacking. Through access to 

information, we will have a better understanding of the 

value of our forests and make better regional decisions to 

sustain our forested land.

Jim Fox

Director, UNC Asheville 

National Environmental Modeling and Analysis Center 

Foreword

What Is Sustainability?
7

Forests provide clean water and habitat for wildlife. They protect and enrich soil, filter 

the air, and provide settings for recreation and renewal. Following severe exploitation 

of the forests of Western North Carolina a century ago, we now find ourselves in a 

substantially renewed forest ecosystem. Over the next century, it is our collective 

responsibility to ensure that our forests continue to be restored and are managed and 

protected for current and future generations.

Several issues threaten Western North Carolina’s forest ecosystems. These 

include, but are not limited to: loss of native species and natural communities; spread 

of invasive species; fire, insects, and disease; water pollution; erosion; and loss of 

contiguous forest land. As our dependence on and demands for natural ecosystems 

increase, we need to ensure that our forests are healthy and viable.

In Western North Carolina, the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station 

is evaluating the sustainability of the area’s forests. The Western North Carolina Report 

Card on Forest Sustainability is the product of a collaborative partnership between the 

USDA Forest Service and the University of North Carolina at Asheville’s National 

Environmental Modeling and Analysis Center. This report card provides a current 

picture of economic, ecological, biological, and social information relevant to the 

region. By evaluating how forests are impacted by natural and human-caused change, 

the report card can have a positive impact on decision-making processes and policies.

Forests are important all over the globe. The report card is organized around the 

Montreal Process Criteria and Indicators, recognized internationally as the standard for 

measuring forest sustainability. These criteria include indicators describing sustainable 

management of temperate and boreal forests (see http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/mpci 

for more details). For each criterion, a series of maps provides current data on the 

18-county focus area. 

For the purpose of the report card, the definition of sustainability is that put 

forth in Executive Order 13423—Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and 

Transportation Management, January 26, 2007: “Sustainable” means to create and 

maintain conditions, under which humans and nature can exist in productive harmony, 

that permit fulfilling the social, economic, and other requirements of present and future 

generations of Americans. 

Criterion 1—Biodiversity

Conservation of biological diversity—ecosystem, species, and genetic 

diversity; and forest fragmentation.

Criterion 2—Production

Maintenance of productive capacity of forest ecosystems—potential wood 

production, growth and removals, nontimber forest products, and forest 

biomass for energy.

Criterion 4—Soil, Water, and Air

Conservation and maintenance of soil, water, and air resources—soil, water, 

and air resource conditions and preservation.

Criterion 3—Ecosystem Health

Maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality—forest threats such as 

insects, disease, invasive species, fire, and climate change.

Criterion 6—Socioeconomic Benefits

Maintenance and enhancement of long-term multiple socioeconomic benefits 

to meet the needs of societies—value of forest products and forest services; 

employment in forest economy; recreational forest uses and tourism; 

importance of forests to people’s spiritual, cultural, and social needs.

Criterion 5—Carbon Cycle

Maintenance of forest contribution to global carbon cycles—carbon pools 

and fluxes.

Criterion 7—Policy

Legal, policy, and institutional framework—forest planning and monitoring, 

laws, and public participation.
8

Executive Summary

Report Card

Biodiversity

Indicator: Sustaining natural diversity and species diversity

Natural communities at risk

Species at risk

Indicator: Sustaining ecosystem diversity

Lands managed for conservation

 

Land conversion

Forest fragmentation

Worsening

Worsening There are 35 vascular plant and 31 vertebrate species at 

risk in Western North Carolina. Seven plants and two 

vertebrates are critically imperiled; the rest are imperiled 

or vulnerable. While some species are increasing, many 

are in decline. Based on field observation coupled with 

insufficient monitoring over the last 5 years, regional 

experts believe even more species are in decline.

There are currently 47 natural communities in Western 

North Carolina, of which 13 are imperiled and 5 critically 

imperiled. Based on observation over the last 5 years, 

regional experts believe communities are declining at a 

faster rate than seen in previous years—primarily due to 

impacts by invasive plants and pests.

In the last 6 years, 60,000 acres of prime ecological and 

cultural natural areas have been put in some form of 

conservation.

As the region’s population grows (a 22.7-percent increase 

is projected from 2010 to 2030), the amount of forest land 

converted to urban use will increase.

With the exception of public lands, forest fragmentation 

increases with urban encroachment and produces a 

decrease in forest interior, thus limiting the habitat 

for many species and making the forest interior more 

susceptible to nonnative invasive species.

Improving

Worsening

Worsening
9

Productivity

Indicator: Ownership of timberland

Indicator: Timber volume, growth, and removals

Indicator: Composition and age

Indicator: Harvest of nontimber forest products

Indicator: Potential for biomass production

Stable

Average annual removals drained less than 1 percent of 

the total inventory of growing stock trees, while average 

annual net growth contributed 3.9 percent. 

While some land conveyances have occurred in the past 22 

years, timberland ownership has essentially remained the 

same.

Although the supply of harvest residue is abundant, a 

stable market for wood-based energy production does not 

currently exist in Western North Carolina.

Uncertain

Improving

Stable Sawtimber size trees dominate the landscape while the loss 

of early successional stands is of concern.

Uncertain The harvest level of nontimber forest products is largely 

undocumented. Fluctuation in the harvest of nontimber 

forest products is primarily due to fluctuating wholesale 

prices. On public lands, ginseng and Galax are the most 

heavily harvested products.
10

Executive Summary

Report Card

Ecosystem Health

Indicator: Insect and disease occurrence

Indicator: Spread of invasive species

Indicator: Fire, drought, storms

Indicator: Changes in climate Uncertain Climate change is of global concern, and impacts to 

regions such as Western North Carolina will be highly 

variable. By looking at the range of possibilities, we can 

begin to plan for the future of our forests and maximize 

sustainability of our forest land.

Dynamic Ecosystems are dynamic. Although some tree species, 

such as eastern hemlock, Carolina hemlock, and flowering 

dogwood, are currently in decline, the overall health of the 

forest is stable.

Worsening Very few resources are available to curtail the spread of 

invasive species throughout the region.

Uncertain Recent events suggest fire, drought, and severe storms 

could play a greater role in the future condition of the 

region’s forests.
11

Soil, Water, and Air

Indicator: Soil resource

Indicator: Water resource

Indicator: Air resource

Stable/

At Risk

The region’s forest soils are in stable condition, with 

erosion occurring naturally at sustainable levels. However, 

increased erosion from steep slope and stream bank 

disturbance present a need for improved protection of 

the soil resource, thereby ensuring ecosystem health 

and the prevention of injury, damage, and disruption to 

communities. Recovery of nutrient losses from sensitive 

soils will probably take centuries unless mitigation 

measures are implemented.

Water quality has improved in many rivers and streams that 

were historically polluted; however, habitat degradation 

continues to threaten aquatic communities. Increased 

development and urbanization, poorly managed crop 

and animal agriculture, and mining impact aquatic 

systems with point and nonpoint source inputs. Dams and 

impoundments on rivers and tributaries alter the hydrologic 

regime of waterways and result in fish population isolation 

and habitat alteration. 

Improving

Much effort has been put forth over the last four decades to 

improve air quality. Reduction in emissions of sulfates and 

nitrogen oxides, fine particulates, and organic compounds 

has reduced ozone levels and improved ambient air quality. 

High-elevation sites, however, continue to experience 

significant pollution exposure. Visibility conditions are 

expected to continue to improve over the next 50 years. 

Improving
12

Executive Summary

Report Card

Carbon Cycle

Indicator: Carbon storage

Indicator: Carbon market

Socioeconomic Benefits

Indicator: Economic condition

Indicator: Recreation resource

Stable The forests of Western North Carolina currently represent a 

significant carbon pool, but in the future carbon losses will 

almost certainly outpace carbon gains.

Uncertain An “avoided deforestation” carbon offset market in 

Western North Carolina may not be competitive with 

offsets that offer higher carbon sequestration capability; 

however, conservation of its existing carbon pool will have 

significant public benefits.

Western North Carolina’s economy has been growing 

over the past four decades. Economic conditions vary 

considerably between the region and the State and within 

the region. Growth sectors include recreation and tourism, 

retirement and second homes, arts and craft, vehicle parts 

assembly, metalworking, and chemicals and plastics.

Improving

Stable/

At Risk

The recreation resource in the region is recognized 

as outstanding, with activities such as bicycling and 

whitewater boating ranked world-class. With projected 

demand increasing, public agencies, which manage many 

of the highest use areas, are struggling to protect, maintain, 

and restore sites. 
13

Policy

Indicator: Planning and monitoring

Indicator: Legal protection

Indicator: Public participation

Improving With some exceptions, Federal, State, and local planning 

and monitoring programs are enabling the region to assess 

information and prepare for change.

Stable Current statutes help limit environmental degradation and 

provide guidance on best management practices; however, 

erosion on steep slopes, septic system failures, and air and 

water quality remain issues of concern.

Improving Western North Carolinians benefit from a high level of 

local, State, and national commitment to sustaining the 

unique resource values found here.

Annual variation in roundwood production closely mirrors 

national economic trends. The region has seen a variable 

trend in output and value over the last 15 years; however, 

a downward trend has dominated since 2003. Because the 

region’s forests are reaching maturity, an increase in the 

available volume of high-value sawtimber and veneer logs 

is expected for the next several decades.

Stable

Improving The contribution of arts and craft to the regional economy 

is significant and is considered an industry with a 

demonstrated competitive advantage relative to the rest of 

the State and the Nation. With over 100 spiritual retreats, 

the region continues to offer the opportunity to experience 

the mysteries of the natural world. 

Socioeconomic Benefits (continued)

Indicator: Forest output

Indicator: Cultural/spiritual values
14

Since humans entered the mountains over 

12,000 years ago, they have experienced 

periods of cultural isolation and exchange. 

The intensity of human impact on the 

landscape has varied over time.

The Appalachian Mountains have been 

called a “Microcosm of the Earth” 

because they hold evidence of nearly 

every geological event the Earth has gone 

through. As a result, the area contains an 

exceptionally diverse natural system.

mya – million years ago

BCE – before the Common Era

CE – Common Era

Introduction

Cultural and Ecological Timeline of the Southern Appalachians

Ordovician Period

A micro-continent collides with the 

east coast of America, resulting in 

the creation of a mountain range. 

Mesozoic Era 

During tectonic, climatic, 

and evolutionary activity, the 

continents gradually shifted from 

a state of connectedness into their 

present configuration.

Cenozoic Era

The climate cooled and the region again 

uplifted, creating what we now call the 

Appalachian Mountains.

Boreal forests of spruce and pine 

with open parklands dominated 

the landscape. By the end of the 

period, mixed oak-hickory forests 

became predominant, with spruce 

remaining only at the highest 

elevations.

Paleo-Indians arrived in 

the Southern Appalachians. 

Distinguished by their flute-pointed 

tools and cooperative hunting 

methods, they are believed to have 

migrated originally from Asia and 

are known to have been expert biggame hunters.

After the Paleo-Indians, North 

American Indians appeared. They 

may have used the mountains only 

as hunting territory and relied on 

plant gathering as an important 

source of food, largely collecting 

such seeds and nuts as acorns and 

hickory nuts.

Semi-permanent settlements 

began. Native plant crops were 

cultivated, such as gourds, squash, 

and sunflowers. 

American Indian settlements became 

permanent. Hunting, fishing, gathering, 

and farming made up their livelihood. 

Basketry and textiles appeared. There 

was a progression from hunting to crop 

production, such as maize. 

American Indians cleared the land by 

girdling trees and burning the understory 

vegetation, both to clear the ground for 

crops and to provide fertilizing ash. As 

yields declined in old fields, this practice 

allowed for repopulating of trees and 

for clearing of new fields. When enough 

time had passed to restore the fertility of 

the soil, these areas were cleared anew. 

The land was no longer an unpopulated 

wilderness.

Ecological Cultural

Plant collecting added to human 

impact on the land through 

increased seed dispersal. People 

carried plant foods away from 

parent plants, sometimes into 

new habitats, while their camps 

provided small areas of disturbed 

soil that encouraged the growth of 

weedy species. The result was an 

increase in range for plants that 

provided food for humans. 

10,000 BCE

5,000 BCE

CE

490 mya

251 mya

65 mya

700 CE
15

s

 

ng, 

d. 

e 

op 

1540 CE

1700s CE1800s CE1900s CE

Disease epidemics such as typhoid 

were introduced by European settlers to 

the Southeastern United States and are 

estimated to have killed at least 75 percent 

of the original native population. 

In 1685, about 32,000 Cherokees lived 

in the Southern Appalachians. In North 

Carolina, the Cherokee population 

persisted, but in the French Broad 

River Valley disease and displacement 

dramatically diminished their settlements.

Spanish Conquistadors brought not only 

social disruption and change to established 

Indian towns, but also environmental 

disruption. Non-native plants and animals 

entered the landscape.

Trade routes were permanently established 

in the mountains. As wars and disease took 

their toll on Indian settlements, secondary 

forests began to overtake open fields and 

prairies. Places maintained as hunting 

territory were kept open with fire.

Extinction and restriction of wildlife 

ranges, coupled with the introduction 

of exotic plants and livestock, caused 

widespread change in native ecosystems. 

The last bison were killed before 1800; the 

last elk were killed by the 1850s. 

The population of Asheville, NC, grew 

from 2,600 to about 10,000 between 1880 

and 1890.

In 1901, it was estimated that 75 percent of Southern 

Appalachia was still forested and 10 percent was 

still in virgin growth. Over the next 20 years, timber 

cutting reduced the forest cover substantially, leaving 

eroding cropland and pasture and heavily logged 

forests in which little of value was left. 

Mount Mitchell was cut over, and much of it was 

burned—logging did not end until 1922.

1915 Mt. Mitchell designated a State park

1916 Pisgah National Forest established

1921 Appalachian Forest Experiment Station

1934 Coweeta Experimental Forest established

1934 Great Smoky Mountains National Park

1937 Appalachian Trail created

1968 National Wild and Scenic Rivers System

1969 National Environmental Policy Act

1973 Endangered Species Act

1975 Eastern Wilderness Act

During the American Civil 

War, environmental damage 

increased. Forests were 

clear cut for the war effort 

and farms were abandoned. 

Crops were destroyed and 

mountaineers were forced to 

rely more heavily on game 

animals. Erosion ensued.

Settlers of European descent populated 

the Southern Appalachian Mountains. 

The European inhabitants took over trade 

from the now displaced American Indians. 

Mountain inhabitants turned their animals 

out onto open range in forests and old fields.

In 1868, the U.S. Congress recognized the 

Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians as a 

distinct tribe. 

During the American Civil War, 

secession separated Appalachia from 

the rest of the South. The absence and 

loss of men during the war created 

labor shortages on farms. 

The Southern Appalachians were 

viewed as a distinct region, separated 

from the rest of the country by 

rough terrain and strange, backward 

customs.

The industrial development of the Southern Appalachians gravely 

affected the health and well-being of inhabitants of the mountains. 

In 1914, a new mining method—strip mining—began a long 

history of environmental disruption and also severely impacted the 

health of workers. Due to worsening erosion and soil exhaustion, 

the productivity of mountain farms declined. Tenancy and parttime farming combined with wage labor became prevalent. 

In 1964, with per capita income 23 percent lower than the U.S. 

average, President Johnson created the Appalachian Regional 

Commission to help mountaineers through work corps, road 

building, and economic diversification.
16

The 18 counties in this report cover 7,480 square miles 

or 4.8 million acres and are divided into three Councils 

of Government: Region A (Southwestern Commission), 

Region B (Land-of-Sky), and Region D (High Country). 

The area closely corresponds to the Blue Ridge Mountain 

Section ecoregion (as mapped in the Ecoregion Extent 

section on page 19).

Located east of the Tennessee State line and west of 

the Piedmont plateau, Western North Carolina contains 

few major urban centers. It is nestled in the Southern 

Appalachian Mountains between Atlanta, GA; Greenville, 

SC; Charlotte, NC; and Knoxville, TN. The 18 counties 

had a population of 743,885 in 2005. Population 

centers include Asheville (68,889), Boone (13,472), 

Hendersonville (10,420), Waynesville (9,232), and 

Black Mountain (7,511). The area is connected to other 

regions by two interstate highways: I-40, which runs from 

Tennessee southeast toward the Piedmont, and I-26, which 

runs north/south through the most populated counties in the 

region. Largely a rural area, most of the region is connected 

by State highways and county roads.

Western North Carolina has several colleges and 

universities, most notably Appalachian State University 

in Boone, the University of North Carolina at Asheville, 

Western Carolina University in Cullowhee, Warren Wilson 

College in Swannanoa, and Brevard College in Brevard.

Western North Carolina is home to many third- and 

fourth-generation residents, many of European descent. 

The region is currently experiencing an influx of retired 

residents and second-home owners, both groups citing 

the natural beauty and cultural opportunities of the area as 

major reasons for their move. The Eastern Cherokee Indian 

Reservation is located in Western North Carolina, just south 

of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The main part of 

the reservation lies in eastern Swain County and northern 

Jackson County, but there are many smaller noncontiguous 

sections to the southwest in Cherokee County and Graham 

County. The 2000 U.S. Census cites the Eastern Cherokee 

Indian Reservation (the Qualla Boundary) as having a 

resident population of 8,092.

Western North Carolina

Today
17

Asheville

Asheville

County seats

Interstates

Highways

Corporate limits

County boundaries

Lakes

Rivers

Councils of Government

Region A—Southwestern Commission

Region B—Land-of-Sky Regional Council

Region D—N.C. High Country Council of Governments
18

What is an ecoregion? 

Typically, an ecoregion covers large areas of land and 

water and is broadly mapped using specific climate, 

vegetation, and physical characteristics. An ecoregion 

is divided into subregions, or “sections.” These sections 

are defined by similar physical (slope and aspect) and 

biological (vegetative types) components and have a 

unique combination of ecological characteristics (including 

geology, soils, vegetation, weather, climate, and biological 

diversity) that distinguish it from its neighbors. 

The ecoregion of Western North Carolina lies in what 

is called the Blue Ridge Mountain Section (see p. 19). 

The distinctive characteristics of this section follow the 

backbone of the Appalachian Mountains from northern 

Georgia to southern Pennsylvania. 

The formation of the highly weathered mountain range 

began during the Precambrian era to the Cambrian period 

(between 4.5 billion and 542 million years ago). The range 

now consists of gneiss and schist bedrock formed from the 

re-crystallization of sedimentary, volcanic, and igneous 

material. Over time, the geology of the region has become 

a dissected landscape of rounded peaks and wide concave 

valleys defined on the east by a steep escarpment rising 

1,800 feet over the neighboring section. The ranges consist 

of low (<2,300 feet), moderate (2,300–4,000 feet), and high 

peaks (4,000–6,560 feet). The range has 82 peaks greater 

than 5,000 feet, and 43 peaks greater than 6,000 feet. Midelevation soils are deep, well-drained, and acidic and are 

classified as “infertile sandy” or “gravelly loams,” while 

high-elevation soils typically have high organic content. 

The landscape is covered predominantly by forest 

communities consisting of montane oak-hickory and mixed 

oak-pine types. Above 5,500 feet, the forests become 

dominated by spruce-fir forests. 

Rainfall can be highly variable, ranging from over 78 

inches to less than 47 inches per year. More rain falls in 

areas along the escarpment that are influenced by mountain 

elevations (called an orographic effect), particularly near 

the neighboring section in South Carolina. Less rain falls in 

the nearby Asheville basin, located in a rain shadow. 

The climate of the Blue Ridge Mountain Section is 

cooler and wetter than that of adjoining sections, especially 

in the high-elevation forests where several species exist on 

the edge of their natural range. These mountaintop islands 

provide habitat for the Carolina northern flying squirrel, 

Magnolia Warbler, and spruce-fir moss spider. The region 

also contains Southern Appalachian brook trout, which 

are associated with the cold water of high energy streams, 

and is home to more species of salamanders than are found 

anywhere else on earth. 

Unique Blend of Soils, Plants, and Elevation 

Ecoregion Extent
19

Blue Ridge Mountains Section
20

Swamp Pink
21

What is biodiversity?

Biological diversity, or biodiversity, describes the variety 

and abundance of all life forms in a given place—plants, 

animals, and other living organisms such as fungi, lichens, 

and mosses. Biological diversity also describes the 

processes, functions, and structures that sustain that variety 

and allow it to adapt to changing circumstances. Moreover, 

it encompasses the complexity of gene pools, species, 

communities, and ecosystems at spatial scales from local to 

regional to global.

Is biodiversity important in Western North Carolina?

The temperate ecosystems of the Blue Ridge Mountains 

are exceptionally diverse. Ancient geological events 

followed by climatic reversals and weathering formed 

the mountains that today feature the highest peaks in the 

eastern United States. In the moist, deep-soiled, densely 

forested valleys, the daily range of temperature, wind, and 

humidity remains relatively constant. On the thin-soiled 

and exposed ridges, balds, and mountain tops, the daily 

range of climate conditions is much wider. This variability 

in elevation, aspect, climate, geology, and soils accounts 

for the occurrence of hundreds of plants and animals that 

exist at the edge of their natural range.

The geographic isolation of high-altitude species in 

the Blue Ridge Mountains has allowed some to evolve into 

unique species of their own, adding further to the biological 

diversity of these mountains. Examples are the Blue Ridge 

goldenrod and the spreading avens.

Why should we be concerned?

The Southern Appalachian Ecoregion (which encompasses 

the Blue Ridge Mountain Section) contains an estimated 

80 species of amphibians and reptiles, 175 species of 

terrestrial birds, 65 species of mammals, 2,250 species of 

vascular plants, and possibly as many as 25,000 species 

of invertebrates. These organisms live in low- and highelevation forests, caves, bogs, waterfalls, wetlands, grassy 

balds, rock outcrops, cliffs, and seeps. 

The Blue Ridge Mountains contain the highest number 

of federally listed and proposed threatened and endangered 

terrestrial species in the Southern Appalachian chain. Most 

occurrences of federally listed species are associated with 

rare community groups, such as spruce-fir, grassy bald, 

high-elevation rocky summit, southern Appalachian bog, 

montane alluvial, and spray cliff. 

Extinction is a natural process that has been occurring 

since long before the appearance of humans on the planet. 

Normally, new species develop through a process known as 

speciation at about the same rate that other species become 

extinct. However, because of air and water pollution, 

forest clearing, loss of wetlands, and other human-induced 

environmental changes, extinctions are now occurring at a 

rate that far exceeds the speciation rate. Since 1620, more 

than 500 species, subspecies, and varieties of our Nation's 

plants and animals have become extinct. By contrast, 

during the 3,000 years of the Pleistocene Ice Age, all of 

North America lost only about 90 species.

How can we sustain biological diversity?

All species and natural communities are important for the 

region’s biological diversity. The maintenance of large 

scale habitats and micro-niches will require a range of 

activities from prescribed burning (since wildfire is largely 

controlled) and vegetation manipulation to protection from 

human use and development. 

Since habitat is found on mixed ownership, it is critical 

that landscape scale planning is adopted and implemented. 

We must work together to adopt policy and cooperative 

decision frameworks that encourage biodiversity. To reach 

private landowners, we need educational tools that offer 

adaptive management strategies based on the best available 

knowledge about how to provide a sustainable balance 

among biological diversity, economic uses, and cultural 

values. 

Biodiversity Southern Appalachian Treasures
22

Community Types Across the Mountain Landscape 

Classifying Communities

Spruce-Fir

Generally found above 5,500 feet (though locally 

lower in suitable sites) and extending to the tops of 

all but the highest peaks.

Beech Gap

High elevations, within the range of spruce-fir 

forests. Primarily in south-facing gaps, but may 

occur on exposed ridgetops in areas lacking spruce 

and fir or adjacent to grassy balds.

Grassy Bald

Slopes, ridgetops, and domes of high mountains, 

usually on gentle slopes.

Heath Bald 

Extremely exposed high-elevation sites: peaks, 

sharp ridges, and steep slopes.

Northern Hardwood

Medium to fairly high-elevation coves, flats, and 

slopes, particularly on north-facing slopes.

High Elevation Red Oak

Found on dry to moderately moist slopes and 

ridgetops at mid to high elevations (around 3,500– 

5,500 feet).

Pine-Oak/Heath 

Exposed sharp ridges, knobs, low-elevation peaks, 

and steep south slopes.

Oak-Hickory 

Dry to moderately moist slopes and partly sheltered 

ridgetops at moderate to fairly high elevations 

(about 2,500–5,000 feet).

Hemlock

Slightly less moisture than cove forest sites, 

including open valley flats, slopes above cove 

forests, sheltered low ridges, narrow ravines, and 

open north-facing slopes at fairly high elevations.

Acidic Cove 

Sheltered low- and moderate-elevation sites, 

primarily narrow, rocky gorges, steep ravines, and 

low gentle ridges within coves.

Rich Cove 

Sheltered, moderately moist, low- to moderateelevation sites, primarily broad coves and lower 

slopes.

Short Leaf Pine-Oak 

Found at low elevations, generally below 2,300 

feet.

Low Montane Alluvial 

Stream and river floodplains at low elevations, 

generally below 2,300 feet.

Natural communities generally occur in 

continuously varying patterns. Most of the 

environmental factors that determine communities 

vary over continuous gradients. We can best 

decipher the tremendous complexity of natural 

communities by categorizing them according to their 

ecology. 

Natural communities are valuable elements of 

natural diversity for a variety of reasons. They are 

generally regarded as “coarse filters” for diversity 

of organisms. By protecting examples of all the 

natural community types, the majority of species can 

be protected without laborious individual attention. 

Like species, communities have an intrinsic value 

as natural systems, as well as an aesthetic value to 

human beings. These thirteen communities represent 

some of the most common communities as well as 

those considered of high visual interest across the 

landscape.
23

Grassy Bald

Heath 

Bald

Rich 

Cove

Pine-Oak/

Heath

High 

Elevation 

Red Oak

Montane Oak-Hickory 

Spruce-Fir

Shortleaf Pine-Oak

Montane Alluvial Forest

Acidic 

 Cove

Beech Gap

Northern 

Hardwood

Hemlock 

High Elevation

Red Oak

Montane Oak-Hickory 

Northern 

Hardwood

Pine-Oak/

 Heath
24

Natural Communities and Threatened Species

Community and Species Inventory Acidic Cove Forest Basic Oak-Hickory Forest Boulderfield Forest Canada Hemlock Forest Carolina Hemlock Bluff Chestnut Oak Forest Dry Oak-Hickory Forest Dry Rocky Slope Dry-Mesic Oak-Hickory Forest Floodplain Pool Fraser Fir Forest Grassy Bald Heath Bald High Elevation Granitic Dome High Elevation Mafic Glade High Elevation Red Oak Forest High Elevation Rocky Summit High Elevation Seep Low Elevation Granitic Dome Low Elevation Rocky Summit Low Elevation Seep Mesic Mixed Hardwood Forest (Piedmont Subtype) Montane Acidic Cliff Montane Alluvial Forest Montane Calcareous Cliff Montane Mafic Cliff Montane Oak-Hickory Forest Montane Red Cedar-Hardwood Woodland Montane White Oak Forest Northern Hardwood Forest (Beech Gap Subtype) Northern Hardwood Forest (Typic Subtype) Piedmont/Low Mountain Alluvial Forest Piedmont/Mountain Semipermanent Impoundment Piedmont/Mountain Swamp Forest Pine-Oak/Heath Red Spruce-Fraser Fir Forest Rich Cove Forest Rocky Bar and Shore Southern Appalachian Bog (Northern Subtype) Southern Appalachian Bog (Southern Subtype) Southern Appalachian Fen Spray Cliff

Swamp Forest-Bog Complex (Spruce Subtype)

Swamp Forest-Bog Complex (Typic Subtype)

Ultramafic Outcrop Barren

White Pine Forest

County occurrences by natural community

Presence verified

Presence not verified

Possible presence
25

Allegheny Woodrat

Appalachian Bewick’s Wren

Blotchside Logperch

Bog Turtle

Carolina Northern Flying Squirrel

Crevice Salamander

Eastern Hellbender

Eastern Small-Footed Myotis

Gray Myotis

Green Salamander

Hellbender

Indiana Myotis

Junaluska Salamander

Kanawha Minnow

Ohio Lamprey

Olive Darter

Pygmy Salamander

Rafinesque’s Big-Eared Bat

Santeetlah Dusky Salamander

Seepage Salamander

Sharphead Darter

Sicklefin Redhorse

Smoky Dace

Southeastern Myotis

Southern Rock Vole

Southern Water Shrew

Spotfin Chub

Tellico Salamander

Virginia Big-Eared Bat

Weller’s Salamander

Wounded Darter

County occurrences by federally listed vertebrate animal Appalachian Checkered-Skipper Appalachian Elktoe Clingman Covert Cumberland Bean Fragile Glyph French Broad River Crayfish Gammon’s Stenelmis Riffle Beetle Green Floater Hiwassee Headwaters Crayfish Littlewing Pearly Mussel Lost Nantahala Cave Spider Mountain River Cruiser Noonday Globe Pygmy Snaketail Regal Fritillary

Roan Supercoil

Sculpted Supercoil

Spruce-fir Moss Spider

Tawny Crescent

Tennessee Clubshell

Tennessee Heelsplitter

Yancey Sideswimmer

County occurrences by federally listed invertebrate animal

Federally listed vertebrate

Federally listed invertebrate
26

Natural Communities and Threatened Species

Community and Species Inventory

County occurrences by vascular plants Alabama Least Trillium Alexander’s Rock Aster Appalachian Oak Fern Bent Avens Blue Ridge Goldenrod Bog Bluegrass Bog Oatgrass Bunched Arrowhead Cain’s Reed Grass Carolina Saxifrage Cuthbert’s Turtlehead Divided-Leaf Ragwort Fen Sedge Fort Mountain Sedge

Fraser’s Loosestrife

French Broad Heartleaf

Glade Spurge

Gorge Filmy Fern

Granite Dome Goldenrod

Gray’s Lily

Green Pitcher Plant

Heller’s Blazing-Star

Large-Flowered Barbara’s Buttons

Large-Leaved Grass-of-Parnassus

Lobed Barren Strawberry

Mountain Bittercress

Mountain Catchfly

Mountain Heartleaf

Mountain Sweet Pitcher Plant

Mountain Thaspium

New Jersey Rush

Piratebush

Radford’s Sedge

Rhiannon’s Aster

Roan Mountain Bluet

Rugel’s Ragwort

Small Whorled Pogonia

Small-Leaved Meadowrue

Smoky Mountain Mannagrass

Southern Shortia

Spreading Avens

Swamp Pink

Sweet Pinesap

Tall Larkspur

Torrey’s Mountain Mint

Virginia Spiraea

West Indian Dwarf Polypody

White Fringeless Orchid

White Irisette

County occurrences by nonvascular plants Anderson’s Melon-Moss Bluff Mountain Reindeer Lichen Gorge Moss Hornwort Liverwort (Plagiochila sharpii) Liverwort (Plagiochila sullivanti) Liverwort (Plagiochila virginica) Liverwort (Porella wataugensis) Liverwort (Sphenolobopsis pearsonii) Rock Gnome Lichen Worthy Shield Lichen

Federally listed vascular plant

Federally listed nonvascular plant
27

Alleghany

Ashe

Avery

Buncombe

Cherokee

Clay

Graham

Haywood

Henderson

Jackson

Macon

Madison

Mitchell

Swain

Transylvania

Watauga

Wilkes

Yancey

Federally listed vertebrate and invertebrate animal occurrences by county Alleghany Ashe Avery Buncombe Cherokee Clay Graham Haywood Henderson Jackson Macon Madison Mitchell

Swain

Transylvania

Watauga

Wilkes

Yancey

Federally listed vascular and nonvascular plant occurrences by county Alleghany Ashe Avery Buncombe Cherokee Clay Graham Haywood Henderson Jackson Macon Madison

Mitchell

Swain

Transylvania

Watauga

Wilkes

Yancey

Natural community occurrences by county

Presence verified

Presence not verified

Possible presence

Federally listed vertebrate animal

Federally listed invertebrate animal

Federally listed vascular plant

Federally listed nonvascular plant
28

Acidic Cove Forest

G5

Red maples, tulip poplars, rhododendron, 

sweet birch, and eastern hemlock are the 

dominant species in this 

forest. The presence of thick 

rhododendron and hemlock 

indicates that the soil is 

acidic. Fewer types of plants 

and trees can tolerate this acidic soil.

Example: White Water River Gorge

Shortia

G2

Small Whorled Pogonia

G2

Montane Oak–Hickory Forest

This forest receives less rainfall even 

though it is at a moderate elevation. The 

dryer soil supports white 

oak, red oak, chestnut 

oak, pignut hickory, and 

mockernut hickory, plus a 

variety of small trees such 

as dogwood and sourwood. A diverse 

understory of shrubs and herbs is present, 

but not as diverse as in a Rich Cove forest.

Example: The Black Mountains

G5

Indiana Bat

G2

GX = Believed to be extinct

GH = Of historical occurrence 

throughout its range, may be 

rediscovered

G1 = Critically imperiled 

globally because of 

extreme rarity (five or fewer 

occurrences or less than 

1,000 individuals) or because 

of extreme vulnerability to 

extinction due to some natural 

or man-made factor.

G2 = Imperiled globally 

because of rarity (6 to 20 

occurrences or less than 

3,000 individuals) or because 

of vulnerability to extinction 

due to some natural or manmade factor

G3 = Either very rare and 

local throughout its range (21 

to 100 occurrences or less 

than 10,000 individuals) or 

found locally in a restricted 

range or vulnerable to 

extinction from other factors

G4 = Apparently secure 

globally (may be rare in parts 

of range)

G5 = Demonstrably secure 

globally

Abundant

Gone

Rich Cove Forest

The rich, moist soils of the Rich Cove 

Forest support a wide range of trees and 

plants. Sugar maple, sweet 

buckeye, basswood, and 

Carolina silverbell are only 

a few of the types of trees 

growing in this forest. Spring wildflowers 

are well known in the lush, diverse herb 

layer present in the type. Mosses and 

rotting logs make the damp forest floor 

suitable for salamanders. 

Example: Joyce Kilmer Memorial Forest

Pale Yellow Trillium

G4 G3

Santeetlah Dusky 

Salamander

Fraser’s Loosestrife

G1

G4

Secure Habitats, Threatened Species

Many natural communities are secure but often provide habitat for rare or imperiled species.

Natural Communities and Species That Depend on Them

Community Examples
29

G5T1

The subspecies is 

imperiled due to 

extreme rarity

Carolina Northern 

Flying Squirrel

Presence Verified

This forest type has been recorded in this 

county.

Presence Not Verified

This forest type has been reported in this 

county.

Possible Presence

This forest type could exist in this 

county.

No Information

This forest type does not likely exist in 

this county.

Carolina Northern 

Flying Squirrel

Spruce-Fir Moss Spider Carolina Northern 

G1 G2

Virginia Spiraea

G3

Appalachian 

Bewick’s Wren

G3

Gray’s Lily

Red Spruce–Fraser Fir Forest

This rare and extremely endangered 

community type only exists above 5,500 

feet. More than a mile above 

sea level, the high rainfall, 

fog, and low temperatures 

make the climate similar to 

Maine and Canada. 

Logging and fires in the 1910s and 1920s 

radically changed these communities, 

with some sites no longer supporting 

spruce-fir forests.

Threats: Balsam woolly adelgid, air 

pollution

Example: Mt. Mitchell

G2

Threatened Habitats, Threatened Species

There are threatened communities that are rare or imperiled in their own right and that also provide habitat for threatened species.

Grassy Bald

The origin of these treeless mountain 

tops is unknown. Grassy Balds are gentle 

slopes, ridgetops, and domes 

of high mountains where 

grasses, sedges, and herbs 

dominate with patches of 

shrubs and some small trees.

Threats: Woody plant invasion

Example: Roan Mountain

G2

Montane Alluvial Forest

Sycamore, tulip poplar, sweet birch, 

and hemlock are found at low to mid 

elevation. Subject to 

occasional flooding, 

water scrubs away 

perennials and leaves 

behind many seeds from annuals. For this 

reason, fewer large trees survive and more 

dense shrubs and small plants are found 

here.

Threats: Development 

Example: French Broad River

G2*

*

The Montane Alluvial Forest 

designation is technically “G2?” 

The “?” denotes uncertainty or 

inexactness.
30

In 1901, it was estimated that 75 percent of Southern 

Appalachia was still forested and 10 percent was still in 

virgin growth. By 1920, heavy cutting had reduced this 

forest substantially, resulting in rapidly eroding cropland 

and pasture and heavily logged forests where little of value 

was left. 

A fledgling conservation community worked to create 

national forests to protect the headwaters of major rivers, 

the Blue Ridge Parkway stretching almost 500 miles along 

the crest of the Blue Ridge Mountains, the Great Smoky 

Mountains National Park, and the Appalachian Trail, 

among other significant areas.

Most of the conservation issues raised in the early 

1900s remain today. Although many large blocks of public 

land are now guided by sustainable management plans, 

the vast amount of forest land in the region is privately 

owned. The long-term goal of Western North Carolina’s 

conservation community is to protect and conserve places 

of important wildlife habitat, water quality, cultural 

and economic significance, and scenic value. This is 

accomplished on public lands as well as through

the careful combination of private land acquisitions from 

willing sellers and conservation easements by individual 

property owners.

Since 2005, the acres of land managed for 

conservation in the 18-county area has increased by 5 

percent, or about 60,000 acres. The majority of these new 

acres are found on private lands and are acquired through 

purchase or gift or are guided by a conservation agreement 

with the property owner.

Many people feel that the Southern Blue Ridge 

Mountains are at a pivotal point for species, habitat, natural 

beauty, and even mountain culture. The conservation 

community, the legislature, and the public are making 

strides in reducing the risk of irreparable losses. The 

addition of lands managed for conservation during the past 

decade, along with a stated goal to continue putting land 

into a protected status, is one of many strategies in place to 

sustain biodiversity in Western North Carolina.

Protecting our Natural and Cultural Heritage

Lands Managed for Conservation

Federal State and Local Other Conservation Lands Other Forest Land
31

In the last six years, 60,000 acres 

of prime ecological and cultural 

natural areas have been put in 

some form of conservation.

Managing Group

Federal

State/Local

Other Lands Managed For Conservation

Other Forest Land

Note: Other Forest Land assumed to be highly 

correlated with privately owned forest that may or may 

not be managed for conservation.
32

The natural heritage of Western North Carolina includes all 

the region’s native plants and animals, as well as the places 

they live and grow. North Carolina is home to thousands 

of native plants and animals, and Western North Carolina 

supports a large part of the State’s biodiversity. Significant 

Natural Heritage Areas, identified by biologists in the 

North Carolina Natural Heritage Program, contain the land 

and water needed to support and help preserve biodiversity 

in North Carolina. These areas often are the best examples 

of natural communities and usually include rare and 

endangered species.

Over 2,400 such areas have been identified on both 

public and private land in North Carolina. Focusing on 

these areas helps planners prioritize conservation efforts 

and send financial resources where they have maximum 

ecological benefits. The North Carolina Natural Heritage 

Program is not a State regulatory program, so Significant 

Natural Heritage Areas have no protected status. Once an 

area has been named a Significant Natural Heritage Area, 

however, the owner can register the property with the North 

Carolina Natural Heritage Program to show their

commitment to keep the land in its natural state. The land 

can also be permanently protected through purchase and 

dedication as a State Nature Preserve.

Each area is assigned a significance rating indicating 

how important it is. The four levels are:

National

The site contains one of the best occurrences of a rare or 

high-quality plant, animal, or natural community known to 

exist anywhere in its range.

State

The site contains one of the best occurrences within North 

Carolina of a rare or high-quality plant, animal, or natural 

community that is not already considered of national 

significance.

Regional

The site contains one of the best occurrences within a 

priority region of a rare or high-quality plant, animal, 

or natural community that is not already considered of 

national or State significance.

County

The site is a biological resource within the county but not 

of regional significance.

Western North Carolina has about 500 of the statewide 

Significant Natural Heritage Areas. Of the acreage of these 

areas (622,530 acres):

• 68.5 percent is of national significance

 • 17.9 percent is of State significance

 • 9.8 percent is of regional significance

 • 3.8 percent is of local significance

Protected Treasures

Significant Natural Heritage Areas
33

Western North Carolina has 

about 500 Significant Natural 

Heritage Areas, which help 

preserve biodiversity in North 

Carolina.

Roan Mountain Massif

Significance: National

Topography: Sheer cliffs and a 6,267 foot mountain

Key Community: Grassy Bald

Biodiversity: Seventy-six rare plant and animal species, 

including the Roan Mountain bluet, the Northern flying 

squirrel, and the Southern Appalachian Northern Saw-Whet 

Owl.

Ownership: USDA Forest Service, Pisgah National Forest

Shining Rock Wilderness Area

Significance: State

Topography: High rugged mountains

Key Communities: Spruce–Fir, Northern Hardwoods

Forest, and Boulderfield Forest

Biodiversity: Several Federal Species of Concern, 

including the Appalachian Cottontail, Southern Rock 

Vole, eastern woodrat, Northern Saw-Whet Owl, and 

Appalachian Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker.

Ownership: USDA Forest Service National Wilderness 

System

Long Hope Valley/Elk Knob/The Peak

Significance: National

Topography: A high-elevation “hanging” valley, surrounded 

by peaks up to 5,500 feet high

Key Communities: Northern Hardwood, Spruce Swamp

Biodiversity: Major concentration of rare plant and animal 

species, including spreading avens, Northern flying squirrel, 

stalked holly, holy grass, and Canada yew.

Ownership: In part by the North Carolina Department of 

Parks and Recreation and The Nature Conservancy; the 

remainder is privately owned.

Stone Mountain State Park

Grandfather Mountain

Nolichucky River Gorge

Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park

Joyce Kilmer–Slickrock 

Wilderness Area

Fires Creek Watershed Panthertown Valley Horsepasture River Gorge

Toxaway River Gorge

Green River Headwaters

North Fork Watershed

Cane River Upper Watershed Hierarchy of Significance

National

State

Regional

County
34

Since humans arrived in this region, they have disturbed 

the land—sometimes lightly, other times severely. 

Human impacts have included the utilization of natural 

resources, the introduction of exotic plants and disease, 

extirpation/extinction of species, and urban development. 

These impacts raise concern because their long-term 

consequences are often unknown. Also, the human process 

of disturbance is often much greater in magnitude than 

typical natural disturbances. 

Land conversion is a significant threat to biodiversity 

in Western North Carolina. As the landscape becomes 

more developed, areas that were once forest or other 

natural systems are cleared for houses and infrastructure. 

With habitats removed and natural systems fundamentally 

altered, many native plants and animals cannot survive. 

These plant and animal species must move to other suitable 

areas—which may or may not exist nearby. 

Land use patterns have changed dramatically over the 

past few decades. The map on the facing page, constructed 

from satellite imagery collected in 1976, shows four 

primary land use categories: developed, undeveloped, 

water, and protected. Developed land is defined as land that 

has large amounts of paved (impervious) surfaces. This 

includes major roads, subdivisions, towns, and shopping 

areas. Undeveloped land includes forests and farms with 

minor roads and farm buildings. Protected land is owned or 

managed by entities that strive to limit the amount of land 

use conversion, such as national and State forests and parks 

and land conservancies. 

By comparing past and present land use, assumptions 

can be made about future land use trends. If these trends 

are inconsistent with our desired future condition, we can 

attempt to identify and implement alternate outcomes that 

sustain natural systems while still providing services for a 

growing population.

The land use in 1976 did not vary greatly from land 

use for the preceding 50 years. There are a few urban 

centers, connected by interstates, and large regions of 

connected green space. The map shows initial pressure 

from development along secondary roads, but only 0.7 

percent of the land is truly developed. Per capita land 

consumption, which can be thought of as a “human 

footprint,” stood at only 0.06 acres per person. Following 

1976, land use patterns show a very different picture.

Land conversion is a threat to 

native ecosystems in Western 

North Carolina. In 1976, only 1 

percent of the land in Buncombe, 

Henderson, Madison, and 

Transylvania Counties was 

developed.

Historical Perspective

Land Use Change
35

Land Use 1976

Protected

Undeveloped

Developed

Water

Buncombe County
36

In the late 1970s, Western North Carolina experienced 

change in land use patterns. The completion of Interstate 

40 through the region, a strong domestic economy, and a 

desire to travel reopened Western North Carolina to tourism 

and to seasonal home markets. In addition, low energy 

costs allowed residents to commute long distances to work, 

making it easy to live in rural areas and work in urban 

centers. Land values in most of Western North Carolina 

were inexpensive compared to the rest of the country. 

These factors, coupled with an ideal mountain climate 

compared to the surrounding Southeastern United States, 

gained the attention of a national audience.

The 2006 land use map for the 18 counties of Western 

North Carolina shows some astonishing changes over the 

previous 30 years. Not only was there a rapid conversion 

of land from rural to developed, but now each individual 

occupied more land. Per capita land consumption, the 

“human footprint,” increased from 0.06 acres per person 

in 1976 to 0.30 acres per person in 2006. While only 0.7 

percent of the land was developed in 1976, 4.8 percent 

of the land was developed by 2006. This is a land use 

conversion rate of almost 17.4 acres per day.

Few natural systems can withstand this rapid rate of 

change, and Western North Carolina is no different. While 

many new residents to the region settled on old farms and 

in valleys, there has also been a move “up the mountain.” 

In the pursuit of better views and perceived quality of life, 

many new homes are built on land that had been forested 

for generations. This trend displaces wildlife and exposes 

the forest to a wide range of threats. Fortunately, many 

forward-looking individuals and groups recognize the need 

to protect important natural systems. In the period 1976–

2006, the 4.1 percent increase in the amount of developed 

land in these 18 counties was matched by a 4.7 percent 

increase in the amount of protected lands.

By 2006, 7.1 percent of the 

land in Buncombe, Henderson, 

Madison, and Transylvania 

Counties was developed, the 

result of a land conversion rate 

of over 6 acres per day over the 

previous 30 years.

Current Picture

Land Use Change
37

Land Use 2006

Protected

Undeveloped

Developed

Water

Buncombe County
38

As the region’s population grows (a 22.7-percent increase 

is projected from 2010–2030), the rate at which rural 

land is converted to urban use will increase. The map 

on p. 41 projects land use change by 2030 for eighteen 

counties. The projection is based on a statistical model that 

incorporates factors such as distance to roads, attraction of 

employment centers, percent slope, and “pressure” exerted 

by previously developed areas. A separate factor is the 

millions of acres of national and State forest and park lands 

that annually attract well over 10 million visitors to the 

region. It is likely some small percentage of these visitors 

will relocate to the area. It is hard to know whether the high 

rate of development that occurred during the previous 30 

years will continue; however, this map shows one possible 

future scenario. Based on this model, by 2030 an additional 

144,818 acres will be developed in the eighteen counties 

at a conversion rate of almost 16.5 acres per day. This 

increase is equivalent to about 4.9 percent of the region’s 

private, undeveloped land in 2006. The human footprint 

will increase from 0.30 acres per person in 2006 to 0.39 

acres per person in 2030.

Continued development leads to several challenges, 

including the amount municipal governments must spend 

to provide services to residents, increasing erosion of steep 

slopes, more frequent flooding, and more fires (studies 

show that 96 percent of all fires are caused by human 

activity). In addition, as demand for recreation grows, 

use patterns will creep toward the center of the mountain 

ranges, disturbing vulnerable habitat. 

Although land conversion is one of the biggest threats 

to Western North Carolina’s forests, it is also one over 

which humans have direct control. 

There are effective ways to mitigate the negative impacts of 

land conversion, including:

• the preservation and restoration of critical habitat so 

that species may adapt and survive,

• the control of invasive species through chemical and 

mechanical treatment,

• the management of lands around water bodies (which 

are among the most sensitive areas likely to experience 

environmental stress with increased human activity), 

and

• reduction of the risk of wildfire by creating residential 

landscapes that, by design, reduce the spread of fire. 

As land is converted from “undeveloped” to 

developed, the economics, politics, infrastructure, and 

quality of life of the region also change. New partnerships 

and constituencies are needed to help communities, 

developers, and property owners make informed decisions. 

Mechanisms that enable and encourage cooperative and 

cross-boundary management are also necessary.

In one possible future scenario, 

another 6 percent of land 

in Buncombe, Henderson, 

Madison, and Transylvania 

Counties will be developed by 

2030.

One Possible Future

Land Use Change
39

Land Use 2030

Protected

Undeveloped

Developed

Water

Buncombe County
40

Forest fragmentation occurs when agriculture, urbanization, 

roads, or other human development breaks up large, 

contiguous blocks of forest into smaller isolated patches. 

Fragmentation can create negative impacts on contiguous 

forest ecosystems in Western North Carolina. 

Forest fragmentation produces a decrease in the 

forest interior, thus limiting the habitat for many species, 

including songbirds. The decrease in interior habitat leaves 

these animals more susceptible to predators and nest 

robbers. As land becomes more fragmented and habitat is 

lost or degraded, wildlife is forced to adapt to survive. They 

may suffer high levels of mortality or displacement from 

increased traffic on existing and new road systems. Noise 

and light from development may also drive them from their 

habitats.

In addition to a loss of wildlife habitat, there is a 

loss of plant habitat. Much like animals, plants have a 

unique habitat that is often threatened by fragmentation. 

When certain sections of the forest are cut and not 

reforested, the species that make up that forest often do 

not survive. Fragmentation also leaves the forest interior 

more susceptible to nonnative invasive species. Invasive 

plants compete with and replace native plants, reduce 

plant diversity, and cause other disruptions of ecosystem 

function. Disease and insects can also be introduced into 

wildland by nursery plants used in nearby landscaping.

Forest fragmentation also can impair water and air 

quality. Impervious surfaces of roads, parking lots, homes, 

and businesses replace woodland plants, trees, and soils 

that previously stored carbon dioxide, produced oxygen, 

absorbed pollutants, and protected against erosion. 

Increased runoff and the introduction of nonpoint source 

pollutants diminish the function and change the character 

of forest wetlands. 

Finally, forest fragmentation has an economic impact. 

When forests are broken into small parcels, the economy of 

scale for forest management is lost. Increased costs coupled 

with fewer opportunities for long-term management and 

protection lead to mismanagement and underutilization of 

forests. Some of the more populated counties in the region 

are projected to have no privately owned parcels larger than 

10 acres by 2070.

The population of Western North Carolina is expected 

to increase by 22.7 percent from 2010 to 2030. To mitigate 

potential problems associated with increased forest 

fragmentation, adaptive forest management activities are 

needed in the wildland-urban interface. New strategies for 

managing forests across multiple ownerships and on much 

smaller scales are required. 

Growing Human Population and Shrinking Wild Spaces

Forest Fragmentation
41

Percent forest surrounding forested area

Not forested

Less than 10 percent

100 percent

Forest fragmentation increases 

with urban encroachment. As a 

result, the habitat for many species 

becomes limited, and the forest 

interior is more susceptible to 

nonnative invasive species.
42
43

Knowledge of the availability and capability of forest 

land to provide goods and services is important to end 

users. Many factors influence the availability of timber. 

These include the type of ownership, product supply and 

demand, access, and other environmental constraints. An 

analysis of growing stock of the various species that make 

up the forest and how growing stock changes over time is 

central to determining whether or not a sustainable wood 

supply and the sustained health of the forest ecosystems 

providing that timber is achieved. While indicators of 

the timber resource are an important part of evaluating 

this region, it is also important to recognize the forests of 

Western North Carolina as unique for their rich biological 

diversity, scenic quality, cultural heritage, and relatively 

high proportion of public ownership, especially in the 

Eastern United States.

43

Production

Ownership, Volume, and Products
44

Forests have strongly shaped the landscape of Western 

North Carolina. Wood has been vital for subsistence and 

commerce for many generations. Practically all of the 

region’s forests have been harvested at least once since the 

mid-1800s, and a timber industry exists here today.

Western North Carolina has 3.2 million acres of 

timberland, which is defined as forest land capable of 

producing 20 cubic feet of industrial wood per acre 

per year and not withdrawn from timber utilization. 

Approximately 2.4 million acres (74 percent of timberland) 

is owned by industrial and nonindustrial private 

landowners. The remaining 862,628 acres (26 percent of 

timberland) is in public ownership. The public ownership 

is primarily national forest land with small parcels of other 

Federal, State, county, and municipal lands.1

While some land conveyances have occurred in the 

past 22 years, notably acquisitions of 6,400 acres in the 

Pisgah National Forest and 9,300 acres in the Nantahala 

National Forest, as well as over 3,000 acres in the 

Rendezvous State Forest and 10,400 acres in the Dupont 

State Forest, the percentages of private and publicly owned 

timberland has essentially remained the same. The Pisgah 

and Nantahala National Forests represent the region’s 

majority of publicly owned timberland. In fact, national 

forest timberland is found in all but two of the counties 

in Western North Carolina. Moreover, approximately 

60 percent of Clay, Graham, and Macon Counties are 

designated national forest timberlands. 

Forest productivity depends on many factors, 

including natural conditions (such as climate, soils, 

elevation, aspect, and latitude) and timber management, 

which influence timber stocking levels, forest health, and 

species mix. While the effects of natural conditions are 

seen across all ownerships, land management strategies 

tend to be applied differently on public and private lands.

1

Excluded from timberland data are Blue Ridge Parkway and Great 

Smoky Mountains National Park lands.

The majority of timberland in 

Western North Carolina is in 

private ownership. No apparent 

region-wide loss of timberland 

acreage is occurring. While 

some lands are being converted 

from forest to nonforest use, 

abandoned farmland is reverting 

to forest, resulting in a relatively 

stable timberland base. This 

criterion, however, does not reflect 

increases or decreases in forest 

fragmentation.

Forestland Available for Timber Production

Timberland Ownership
45

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

1984 1990 2002 2006 

Area of Timberland 

(million acres) 

Year 

Timberland Ownership in Western North Carolina 

(1984Ð 2006) 

Public 

Private 

0 

1 

2 

Land of Sky 

High Country 

Southwestern Commission 

Area of Timberland 

(million acres) 

Councils of Government 

Timberland Ownership in Western North Carolina 

Councils of Government, 2006 

Public 

Private 
46

How does ownership influence land management?

National forest management differs significantly from 

private land management, resulting in different forests 

and patterns of timber production. In national forests, 

the terrain is usually more rugged and there are fewer 

roads, making these lands more expensive to harvest. 

A mandate to manage for nontimber values, such as 

protection of biodiversity, restoration of degraded systems 

(e.g., reintroducing fire to fire-dependent communities or 

restoring viable native plant communities by controlling 

invasive species), and public access also represents a 

significant difference. 

While all forests are environmental and economic 

assets for the region, clearly privately owned forests 

contribute a significant proportion of these assets in 

terms of providing clean and abundant water, clean air, 

employment and economic opportunities, habitat for plants 

and animals, and carbon sequestration. Although access 

to privately owned timberland is often restricted, these 

lands provide all citizens with environmental benefits and 

services; for example, private timberlands still sustain 

wildlife and provide scenic vistas even though the public 

may not be permitted to hunt on the land or use it for 

recreational purposes. 

Nonindustrial private landowners across the State 

retain their timberland for a number of reasons. In addition 

to investment and income generation potential, the value of 

family inheritance, pride of ownership, wildlife-watching, 

hunting, and recreation are also important. There seems to 

be a strong relationship among all of these factors rather 

than an ordered priority. 

Forests take a long time to grow, and today’s decisions 

have long-term impacts and benefits. A management plan 

allows a forest landowner to identify goals for timber 

production as well as protection of other forest attributes 

and to determine what the best course of action would be to 

achieve their goals.

Timber and nontimber goals can be planned at the 

same time. Owners can protect soil and water, wildlife 

habitat, natural beauty, or other important resources with 

little expense if planned before harvest. Timber stand 

improvements can address sites that are seriously damaged 

and in need of a salvage operation, over-mature stands, 

or stands deficient in stocking. Timber harvests create 

open areas and road access that can also improve wildlife 

habitat, provide recreation, and enhance natural beauty. 

Careful planning of management activities can also help 

assure a periodic cash flow.

When asked about future intentions regarding 

ownership, the majority of nonindustrial timberland owners 

plan only minimal or no activity. When an activity is cited, 

it is typically harvesting timber and firewood, deeding land 

to heirs, or investing in more timberland.

Ownership Influences Land Management

Timberland Ownership
47
48

Volume of Timber

Growing stock is a common term used to describe timber 

volume. The volume of growing stock trees is a subset of 

all live trees in a forest or stand. Growing stock includes 

sawtimber, pole timber, saplings, and seedlings; but 

excludes rough, rotten, and cull trees. It is a fundamental 

element in determining the productive capacity of an 

area identified as forest available for timber production. 

Knowledge of growing stock of the various species that 

make up the forest and how growing stock changes over 

time is central to considerations of a sustainable supply of 

wood for products and the sustainability of the ecosystems 

that provide them. 

Between 1984 and 2006, the total volume of growing 

stock on timberland increased from 6.1 billion cubic 

feet to 8.4 billion cubic feet, an increase of 38 percent. 

The volume of growing stock increased by 39 percent 

on private lands and 35 percent on public lands. Positive 

trends in growth on timberland are attributable to 

maturation of forests cut in the early 1900s, investments in 

fire protection, land owner education, and silviculture. 

Volume of Growth and Removals

Net growth on timberlands is defined as gross growth 

minus mortality. Removals include trees removed from the 

inventory by harvesting, cultural operations such as timberstand improvement, land clearing, or changes in land use. 

While comparing net growth to removals conveys no 

information about quality, biodiversity, other attributes of 

ecology, or management objectives, it does allow us to look 

at implications of forestry operations over time. 

From 1984 to 2006, average annual net growth almost 

doubled, increasing from 174.3 million cubic feet to 

324.3 million cubic feet. In this same period, total average 

annual removals doubled from 38.8 million cubic feet 

to 76.7 million cubic feet. To put this in perspective, just 

24 percent of growth was removed annually on average. 

Moreover, average annual removals drained less than 

1 percent of the total inventory of growing stock trees, 

while average annual net growth contributed 3.9 percent 

to the total growing stock inventory. From a timber supply 

standpoint, therefore, the region’s forests are managed 

sustainably.

There has been a net increase in growth and removals 

for hardwoods and softwoods over the study period. The 

decrease in hardwood average annual net growth from 

1984 to 1990 is almost certainly due to the effects of the 

longest and most severe drought in the last century (see 

Precipitation Patterns, p. 76). Many large trees, particularly 

oaks, died from a scarcity of water, while other droughtstressed trees succumbed to various diseases and wind 

damage. The sharp decline in softwood growth from 

1990–2002 reflects the devastating effects of the southern 

pine beetle on yellow pines, especially in the southwestern 

counties.

In Western North Carolina, timber 

volume continues to expand 

steadily. The volume of growing 

stock increased 38 percent from 

1984 to 2006.

For uses of this data, the statistics are generated from 80 

percent of inventory samples, the percent of measured 

points available at time of publication. This should provide 

reliable statistics for key totals at the 18-county level. 

However, users should note that sampling error increases as 

the area or volume decreases.

Amount of Standing Timber

Volume of Timber
49

Softwoods

Hardwoods

0 

50 

100 

150 

200 

250 

300 

350 

1984 1990 2002 2006 

Total Growing Stock 

(million cu. ft.) 

Year 

Total Average Annual Net Growth and Average Annual Removals of 

Growing Stock on Timberland (1984Ð 2006) 

Net Growth 

Removals 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1984 1990 2002 2006 

Softwood and Hardwood Volume 

 (billion cu. ft.) 

Year 

Total Volume of Growing Stock on Timberland (1984Ð 2006) 

Softwoods 

Hardwoods 

0 

50 

100 

150 

200 

250 

300 

1984 1990 2002 2006 

Net Growth and Removals of Hardwoods 

(million cu. ft.) 

Year 

Average Annual Net Growth and Average Annual Removals of 

Hardwood Growing Stock on Timberland 

Net Growth 

Removals 

0 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

1984 1990 2002 2006 

Net Growth and Removals of Softwoods 

(million cu. ft.) 

Year 

Average Annual Net Growth and Average Annual Removals of 

Softwood Growing Stock on Timberland 

Net Growth 

Removals 
50

Forest structure is the distribution of trees by species and 

size (diameter class). Structure is the result of several 

factors: the growth habit of tree species, especially the 

degree of shade tolerance; ecological conditions; and the 

history of disturbance and management. The forests of 

Western North Carolina have over 100 tree species. Species 

such as oak, ash, poplar, hickory, and some pines do not 

tolerate shade well and are normally found in the overstory. 

Other species, such as beech, maple, dogwood, red bud, 

and black gum, survive well in shade and make up the 

understory of the forest canopy. Ecological conditions are 

highly correlated with elevation and forest types change 

dramatically with increases in elevation. Harvesting 

practices in Western North Carolina, particularly in the 

early 1900s, have led to a predominately even-aged forest 

that is reaching maturity. 

Various size classes within a forest are important 

because they provide different goods, services, and values. 

In Western North Carolina, volume of growing stock is 

accumulating in all diameter classes 10 inches and larger. 

In 16-inch and larger classes, volume rises exponentially 

and more than doubles beyond 20 inches. The volume of 

6–8 inch classes has declined; however, the decline is by 

less than 10 percent.

50

Western North Carolina Forests Are Maturing

Timber Composition and Age
51

Sawtimber-size trees dominate the 

mountain landscape. The supply of 

high-quality saw logs is increasing; 

however, the wood products sector 

is currently experiencing a decline 

in production. 

51

2006

1984

0 

0.2 

0.4 

0.6 

0.8 

1 

1.2 

1.4 

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 21-28.9 29+ 

Volume of Growing Stock 

on Timberland (billion cu. ft.) 

Diameter at Breast Height (inches) 

Volume of Growing Stock Trees by Diameter Class (1984Ð 2006) 

1984 

2006 
52

What are the implications of size class distribution?

Presently, volume is accumulating in trees of a size suitable 

for high-value products such as veneer, barrel staves, and 

the better grades of factory lumber. Much of the behavior 

of lumber production can be related to changes in lumber 

prices. With a currently depressed housing market, 

consumption has dropped and numerous mills have cut 

production.

Regionally, indigenous wildlife populations depend 

on early-, mid-, and late-successional forests. Succession 

is the natural replacement of plant or plant communities in 

an area over time. The larger size classes (mid- to latesuccessional vegetation) provide habitat for turkey, bear, 

squirrel, fox, and bobcat, to name a few. Small den trees 

might house chickadees, woodpeckers, screech owls, or 

flying squirrels. Large den trees are used by squirrels, 

raccoons, wood ducks, and, occasionally, even a bear. 

Older, mast-producing trees produce fruits and nuts used 

by wildlife for food. Hickory, oak, beech, persimmon, 

serviceberry, black gum, holly, hawthorn, dogwood, 

grapevine, and many other species found in mid- to latesuccessional forests are valuable to wildlife. 

Early successional forests, characterized by dense 

growth of shrubs and saplings, are very different from 

that of mid- to late-successional forests, and provide 

distinctly different habitats. Some wildlife (breeding birds 

such as certain warblers, ruffed grouse, cottontails, wild 

turkey, American woodcock, and white-tailed deer) are 

either closely associated with younger forests or tend to 

have higher populations in them. Without an increase in 

management activities that create openings in a mature 

forest, it is likely there will be decline from current levels 

and potential loss of species associated with young stands. 

As private timberlands account for most of the 

region’s patchwork landscape of abandoned fields, young 

forest, and small, older forest fragments, private lands may 

become the locus of most early successional habitat. The 

maintenance and restoration of older, late-successional 

habitat are provided on public land, where there is potential 

for maintaining and creating large tracts of unfragmented 

forest.

52

Different Aged Forests Provide Different Habitats

Timber Composition and Age
53

A paucity of early stage 

successional stands could lead 

to a decline from current levels, 

or loss of, wildlife species 

associated with young forests. 
54

The forests of Western North Carolina provide many 

nontimber products. They include plants, parts of plants, 

and other biological material as well as fungi, mosses, 

lichens, herbs, vines, shrubs, and trees. Many different 

parts of plants are harvested, including roots, tubers, 

leaves, bark, twigs and branches, fruit, sap and resin, as 

well as wood. The most important edible forest product 

in Western North Carolina is ramps, a mainstay of many 

festivals. The collection of ramps in early spring generates 

significant revenue for local civic groups. Other culinary 

products include mushrooms, fiddlehead ferns, black 

walnuts, blueberries, raspberries, persimmons, and acorns. 

Floral and horticultural products include grapevines, 

Galax, azaleas, log mosses, other annual and perennial 

plants, cones, shrubs, and trees. Medicinal products include 

American ginseng, false unicorn, black cohosh, bloodroot, 

and many others.

People harvest nontimber forest products for both 

market and non-market reasons. Before the European 

settlers entered the mountains, Native Americans traded 

these products among themselves. Early European settlers 

gathered the products for subsistence as well as income. 

Over time, ecological knowledge, built through generations 

of gathering, tending, using, and trading, has been 

preserved and shared.

As demand for these products increases, it is important 

to monitor their removal and the impact that harvest has on 

their long-term viability. Recognizing the need to monitor 

the consumption of nontimber forest products, the USDA 

Forest Service has developed a permitting process that sets 

a unit price for each product and provides guidelines for 

gatherers, ensuring a sustainable harvest. 

The USDA Forest Service has tracked the total 

value of nontimber forest products sold in the Pisgah 

and Nantahala National Forests since 2005. The total 

annual value varies, averaging about $73,000 per year, 

with the highest income producers being Galax, ginseng, 

rhododendron and laurel, and firewood. Using “value 

sold” to express nontimber forest products may indicate 

trends, but the actual dollar amount can be a misleading 

measure of real value and could trivialize the social benefits 

of these products. The quantity and value of nontimber 

forest products collected on private lands is not currently 

monitored.

54

Annual or periodic harvest 

of nontimber forest products 

is largely undocumented, 

particularly on private forest land. 

From 2005 to 2009, the most 

commonly harvested products 

from national forest land were 

Galax, ginseng, rhododendron, 

and firewood.

Other Forest Resources

Nontimber Forest Products
55

Nontimber Forest Products Sold in Pisgah and Nantahala National Forests, 2009

Galax 45%

Ginseng 35%

Firewood

11%

Rhododendron / Laurel

5%

Locust post

2%

All others 2%

All others

Annuals / Perennials

Flame Azalea

Florist Products

Log Moss

Medicinal Products

Ramps (free use)

Pine Cones

Shrubs / Trees

Black Cohosh
56

Wood, used for heat, was the main source of U.S. energy 

until the early part of the 20th century. In recent decades, 

concerns with energy security, energy costs, rural 

economies, and environmental matters have increased 

interest in the use of forest biomass for energy. Forest 

biomass can be obtained directly from the forest in the 

form of trees or portions of trees. It can also be obtained 

from forest product manufacturing facilities in the form 

of by-products, such as bark, sawdust, shavings, and other 

residues. 

Probably the greatest barrier to bioenergy lies in the 

logistics and costs of cutting, handling, and transporting 

small-diameter wood. Early studies indicate that damage 

to the ecosystem may not be an issue; however, the 

economics of harvesting biomass are not encouraging. The 

cost of labor, equipment, and transport is more than the 

price paid for the wood chips sold for energy. Renewable 

energy sources such as wood provide an advantage over 

finite fossil fuels only when the benefits of reducing 

pollution and emissions of greenhouse gases, improving 

forest health, and decreasing the risk of wildfire are added 

in.

Although there was almost 1.2 million tons of residue 

left in the woods following traditional logging operations 

in Western North Carolina in 2007, there is, to date, little 

evidence of a viable infrastructure to facilitate the use of 

this wood for bioenergy.

56

Renewable Energy

Biomass Production Potential
57

Renewable energy sources such as 

wood provide an advantage over 

finite fossil fuels only when the 

benefits of reducing pollution and 

emissions of greenhouse gases, 

improving forest health, and 

decreasing the risk of wildfire are 

added in.

57

Forest Biomass (dry tons/acre)

<25

25–60

60–80

80–100

100–250+
58
59

The forests of Western North Carolina are threatened by a 

wide variety of environmental stressors and disturbances 

such as insects, disease, invasive species, drought, fire, 

hurricanes, tornadoes, and ice storms. A stressor is any 

kind of event or action which, at certain levels, causes 

stress to organisms; for example, a period of drought. 

A disturbance is a relatively discrete event in time that 

disrupts ecosystem, community, or population structure and 

changes resources, substrate availability, or the physical 

environment; for example, a wildfire. Organisms may 

adapt to a level of disturbance, but when another threshold 

is exceeded, degradation occurs. Degradation is the 

destruction of complex natural environments. 

When one ecosystem is under attack as a result of 

natural or man-made events, it is extremely difficult to 

calculate the ripple effects throughout the natural system. 

Sometimes stress, disturbance, and degradation occur 

individually, but more often they come in combination. The 

resulting effects can be severe and cause significant, lasting 

impact on ecological and socioeconomic values.

To effectively sustain the forests of North Carolina, 

there is a need to integrate how we deal with interacting, 

multiple threats so that land managers may anticipate 

disturbances and act to prevent or lessen the effects, or 

restore either the structure or the function of affected 

ecosystems.

Ecosystem Health

Mitigating Environmental Threats
60

Southern Pine Beetle

In the period 1984 to 2006, the volume of southern yellow pine trees decreased 57 percent 

in Western North Carolina. Eastern white pine was also attacked and killed. Southern pine 

beetle, an insect native to southern forests, attacks loblolly, shortleaf, Virginia, pitch, and 

table mountain pine. The insect periodically increases to epidemic proportions, causing 

severe mortality. Devastating outbreaks have been reported across the South since the early 

1800s. The most recent outbreak peaked in 2002. In the aftermath of large infestations, 

dead and downed trees provide abundant fuel for wildfires and pose additional threats to 

transportation corridors and public safety. The number of years of outbreak of southern pine 

beetle in Western North Carolina is shown from 1960 to 2005. Due to the preponderance 

of mixed pine forests in the southwestern part of the region, Graham, Cherokee, Swain, 

Macon, Jackson, and Buncombe Counties had the highest occurrence.

Insects and pathogens are a natural part of ecosystems 

and are essential to ecological balance in natural forests. 

Population dynamics of insects and pathogens are 

influenced by climate, management activities, natural tree 

defenses, and natural enemies. Trees can be weakened by 

a disease or an insect, and that weakened tree is then more 

vulnerable to insects, disease, and changes in temperature 

and precipitation. The effect on forested landscapes can be 

tree mortality and/or reduced tree vigor. Examining trends 

of individual insect and pathogen populations is useful in 

understanding their dynamic nature.

Over the last century, several forest types in the region 

have experienced significant declines due to infestations of 

insects and diseases.

In the last century the American 

chestnut, once one of the most 

abundant species in the region, 

was all but lost to disease. More 

recently, the southern pine beetle 

has led to significant mortality of 

yellow pines. Presently, eastern 

and Carolina hemlocks and sprucefir forests are threatened by an 

infestation of adelgids.

Southern pine beetle 

number of outbreak 

years 1960–2005

 2

3–5

6–8

9–12

13–14

Ecosystem Threat

Insects and Diseases
61

Balsam Woolly Adelgid

Fraser fir stands, which grow in association with red spruce on scattered mountain tops such 

as Mount Mitchell in Yancey County, have declined significantly due to an infestation of 

the insect balsam woolly adelgid and air pollution. The adelgid, which appeared in North 

Carolina in the 1950s, is a tiny, sucking insect that robs the tree of nutrients, leading to its 

decline and eventual death. The foliage in a dying tree turns yellow, then deep red, then falls 

to the ground. In our region, significant mortality of Fraser fir has occurred, followed by 

scattered regeneration. Although the species is still present in the ecosystem, red spruce is 

the dominant species in the spruce-fir forest type.

Hemlock Woolly Adelgid

Although decreases in the volume are not yet reflected in the data, eastern and Carolina 

hemlocks are dying rapidly due to an infestation of hemlock woolly adelgid. The hemlock 

woolly adelgid is similar in biology to its relative, the balsam woolly adelgid. The insect 

feeds in fall, winter, and spring, depleting the tree of nutrients, leading to mortality in less 

than five years. The tiny adelgid is dispersed by wind, birds, and mammals.

The loss of eastern hemlock in coves and Carolina hemlock on steep south- or westfacing slopes across Western North Carolina will affect other biological values. Hemlock 

forests are used by many species of wildlife as a food source, a nesting site, a roosting 

site, and seasonal shelter. Hemlocks provide shade near creeks and streams and their 

disappearance is likely to increase water temperature, negatively impacting aquatic species. 

Eradication of the hemlock woolly adelgid is not feasible; therefore, many regional 

groups, both public and private, are working together to protect highly valued stands of 

hemlock. Treatments include insecticides and the introduction of several beetle species that 

feed only on the hemlock woolly adelgid. These controls are the best long-term hope to save 

the hemlocks.

Gypsy Moth

The gypsy moth was introduced into the United States in the mid-1800s. The insect, 

now permanently established in 17 States, defoliates trees, making them vulnerable to 

other killing agents. Gypsy moths feed on a wide variety of trees, shrubs, and vines but 

prefer all oak species, apple, beech, birch, basswood, and willow. Although gypsy moth 

is not yet permanently established in our counties, there have been numerous instances 

of human-mediated introductions of this pest over the past 10–15 years. A few of these 

introductions developed into small, isolated pockets of infestation that were subsequently 

eradicated. Additionally, the USDA Forest Service is implementing a program to slow 

the spread, which will delay the establishment of gypsy moth in Western North Carolina. 

The most effective strategy is continued efforts to delay permanent infestation combined 

with active forest management before the gypsy moth arrives. Pre-outbreak treatments 

focus on reducing the vulnerability of stands by removing the trees most likely to die and 

regenerating stands that are close to maturity or understocked.

Year hemlock woolly 

adelgid infestation 

confirmed in county

1999

2001

2002

2004

2008

Year of expected gypsy 

moth infestation without 

program to slow spread

2012–2014

2015–2017

2018–2020

2021–2024

2025–2027
62

Oak Decline

A high incidence of oak decline has been observed in Western North Carolina. When mature 

and over-mature oaks experience adverse climatic and site conditions, combined with stress 

from disease or insects, they are susceptible to decline and death. Losses are heaviest during 

extended periods of drought, on dry, south-facing slopes, and on shallow soils and rocky 

outcrops. Oak decline will probably increase as oak forests continue to age.

Dogwood Anthracnose

In the period 1984 to 2006, the volume of flowering dogwood declined by 48 percent. 

The increase in mortality is due, in large part, to anthracnose, a fungus introduced into 

Western North Carolina in the 1980s. Dogwood anthracnose is expected to intensify in the 

future, and losses will be heaviest at higher elevations and on shaded, north-facing slopes. 

Eventually, trees in the forest setting will be largely eliminated above 3,000 feet. Trees in 

full sun exposure below 3,000 feet are expected to sustain little damage. Besides being 

admired for their beautiful spring flowers, dogwood trees are an important source of soft 

mast for many species of wildlife. Rabbits, deer, squirrels, and a remarkable variety of game 

birds and song birds rely on dogwood to build up energy reserves to survive the winter. 

There is not a ready substitute with fruit of equal value to make up this loss.

Ecosystem Threat

Insects and Diseases
63

Beech Bark Disease

Beech bark disease occurs when the bark of the beech tree is attacked and altered by an 

insect, the beech scale, and then invaded and killed by fungi. The first sign of the disease is 

isolated dots of white “wool” on the bole of the tree. As the insect population increases, the 

entire bole of the tree may be covered by the waxy secretion. The disease in forest stands 

cannot be controlled at a reasonable cost, and maintenance of apparently resistant trees is 

the best way to reduce disease losses. Virtually all high-elevation beech stands and beech 

gaps in Western North Carolina are already seriously impacted by beech bark disease.

Chestnut Blight

A century ago, the dominant tree in the canopy of Western North Carolina forests was the 

American chestnut. In some areas, the species grew in almost pure stands. During the early 

1900s, the species was decimated by a fungal disease that destroys the bark tissue and kills 

the tree. 

Early in the century and continuing to this day, groups of private and public cooperators 

have worked to find a way to save the chestnut. Following years of research, a diseaseresistant American chestnut has now been reintroduced into eastern woodlands. New efforts 

to hybridize surviving American chestnuts with blight-resistant Chinese chestnuts resulted 

in a species that is about 94 percent American chestnut with the protection found in the 

Chinese species. In the next decade, the success or failure of the hybridized trees should be 

apparent.

Year beech bark disease 

infestation confirmed in 

county

1993

2003

2004

2005

2009
64

Invasive plants are introduced accidently into a natural 

system or brought into an area for ornamental use, food 

or medicinal use, living fences, or livestock forage. 

They multiply rapidly because they are not kept in check 

by insects and diseases that evolved with them in their 

native setting. Extensive landscape disturbances over the 

past century have allowed invasive plants to impede the 

functions of native systems. 

The first invasive species undoubtedly arrived with 

European settlement 400 years ago. Many species have 

become so familiar that the public no longer recognizes 

their exotic and invasive behavior; for example, Japanese 

honeysuckle and starlings. More recently, the tempo of 

new introductions has increased with global trade, often 

accidentally through shipments of other cargo. Western 

North Carolina, with its variety of climates and growing 

conditions, provides fertile ground for these plants. 

With their rapid early growth and dense infestations, 

invasive plants alter the ecology of forests, affecting water 

and soil quality and causing declines in both the numbers 

and diversity of native species. Non-native imported 

species literally overrun native plants, creating unique 

new habitats amenable to yet more invasive plants. Shrubs 

can actually retard or stop hardwood regeneration and 

prevent forests from forming. Vines climbing over native 

vegetation block sunlight and break small trees. Grasses 

form dense impenetrable mats. Herbs can release chemicals 

to exclude other species. 

Due to the harmful impacts of invasive species to 

existing ecosystems, Federal agencies have identified 

them as the second most important threat to the natural 

environment in the United States, behind only habitat 

destruction. Invasive plants are a major threat to parks and 

forests, greenways, and gardens, as well as endangered 

species. It is important to note that not all nonnative plants 

are considered harmful or invasive. Over 15 percent of the 

flora found in the Southern Appalachian Mountains is not 

native to the region. However, only a few of these plants 

are considered invasive. The majority of the nonnative 

plants have naturalized and are not considered harmful 

to natural ecosystems. Criteria suggested for classifying 

a plant as an invasive species include plants that alter 

ecosystem functions (e.g., increase fire likelihood or alter 

hydrologic flows), become established in undisturbed 

natural communities, outcompete native species after a 

natural disturbance, and prevent or depress the regeneration 

of native species.

Invasive species are opportunists. They cross all 

ownerships and therefore require a cooperative approach 

to treatment, control, and eradication. Preventing 

introductions, choosing which species to battle, mitigating 

impacts, restoring native ecosystems, and managing new 

ecosystems are all issues that need to be addressed. 

The National Forests in North Carolina have adopted 

a strategy to annually treat up to 1,100 acres of nonnative 

invasive plants using manual and chemical treatments. 

Sites prioritized for treatment include legally designated 

rare species, rare plant communities, and/or areas including 

unique habitats.

Ecosystem Threat

Invasive Species

Invasive species multiply rapidly 

and, once established, can be 

difficult to remove.
65

Many invasive shrubs were introduced in the late 1800s as 

ornamentals, living fence rows, or to control erosion. They 

continue to invade a variety of habitats including fields, 

forests, stream banks, and many disturbed areas. Once 

established, they form dense stands that displace native 

vegetation and close open areas. These plants include 

multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), Japanese spiraea (Spiraea 

japonica), autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), Chinese 

(Ligustrum vulgare) and European privet (Ligustrum 

vulgare), and Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica var.

japonica). Other less widespread shrubs, although still 

damaging in select locations, include Japanese barberry 

(Berberis thunbergii), butterfly bush (Buddleja davidii), and 

winged burning bush (Euonymus alatus).

Invasive vines severely damage and can ultimately kill 

vegetation by climbing over native shrubs and trees and 

shading them out, constricting and girdling stems, forming 

dense thickets, and consuming their habitat. Invasive vines 

in Western North Carolina include Chinese yam (Dioscorea 

polystachya), Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus), 

kudzu (Pueraria montana), Japanese honeysuckle 

(Lonicera japonica), and porcelain-berry (Ampelopsis 

brevipedunculata). Less damaging but still of concern are 

periwinkle (Vinca minor) and English ivy (Hedera helix).

Invasive grasses include Japanese stiltgrass (Microstegium 

vimineum) and Chinese silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis). 

These tufted grasses multiply to form extensive patches, 

displacing native species that are not able to compete with 

them. Japanese stiltgrass is found in damp areas such as 

Southern Appalachian bogs. Chinese silvergrass is more 

typical of drier sites and can present a fire hazard as it is 

highly flammable. Invasive herbs originally cultivated for 

food, medicinal, or horticultural use include garlic mustard 

(Alliaria petiolata), coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara), and 

spotted knapweed (Centaurea stoebe spp. micrauthos).

There are several invasive trees, shrubs, and herbs 

impacting the forests of Western North Carolina. Invasive 

trees include princess tree (Paulownia tomentosa), tree 

of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), and mimosa (Albizia 

julibrissin). Common around old homes, on roadsides, 

riparian areas, and forest margins, these trees seed 

prolifically and spread rapidly by wind and water. They 

invade after disturbances and form colonies in a wide 

range of soil conditions. Mimosa is seldom found in forests 

with full canopy cover or at elevations above 3,000 feet. 

It can, however, become a serious problem along riparian 

areas. Princess tree, in contrast, can occur from low to mid 

elevations and are found along open riparian areas and 

particularly in dry sites with recent intense fires.

 Multiflora rose Oriental bittersweet

 Mimosa

 Crimson fountaingrass
66

Historically, fire was caused by lightning, but now most 

forest fires are caused by humans. Careless or accidental 

use of fire or a heat source and the deliberate setting of 

a fire represent a constant threat to forest ecosystems. 

Fire patterns from 1970–2007 tended to follow major 

population clusters and corridors.

Forest fire and its exclusion in the last century have 

been key elements in the development of Western North 

Carolina’s forests. Following heavy cutting beginning in 

the 1890s and lasting through the 1920s, laws were enacted 

to suppress forest fires. It was not until the 1930s that 

scientists began to challenge the practice of eliminating fire 

from natural ecosystems. After much debate, the practice 

of intentionally igniting wildland fires and permitting 

naturally occurring fires to burn was adopted.

As a natural component of the forest environment, 

periodic fire contributes to the diversity of plant 

communities, the natural succession of pine-hardwood 

communities to hardwood stands, and reduction of fuel 

loads. Many native forest communities are fire-dependent 

or fire-influenced, including chestnut-oak, dry oak-hickory, 

dry-mesic oak-hickory, high elevation red oak, montane 

oak-hickory, and pine-oak heath.

Wildland fires burn in a mosaic pattern due to 

variability in wind direction, temperature, moisture, and 

type of vegetation. Fire can be managed to increase benefits 

and decrease damage to forest ecosystems. By controlling 

the intensity of a fire, soils become richer in nutrients rather 

than more erosive. Wildlife populations benefit from new 

nutrient-rich plant growth, the creation of open areas, and 

lowered risk of catastrophic fire. In this region, prescribed 

fire is necessary to enhance habitat for some threatened 

and endangered species and to initiate recovery in areas 

impacted by insect infestations. While a few invasive plants 

are controlled by fire; conversely, fire can dramatically 

increase some invasive plants, including princess tree, treeof-heaven, Chinese silvergrass, and spotted knapweed.

Ecosystem Threat

Forest Fire

Recent events suggest fire could 

play a greater role in the future 

condition of the region’s forests. 

Historically, fire was caused by 

lightning, but now most forest 

fires are caused by humans.
67

Fires, 1997–2002

Fire

Only 1.8 percent of fires in this period 

were caused naturally—by lightning. 

All other causes were human-related.

Campfires 

1.3% Children 

3.9% 

Debris Burning 

42.1% 

Equipment Use 

3.7% 

Arson 

22.4% 

Lightning 

1.8% 

Miscellaneous 

15.8% 

Railroads 

3.5% 

Smoking 

5.4% 

Fire Causes (1997Ð 2002) 
68

Drought and flooding, both naturally occurring stressors to 

forest communities, are a function of the amount of rain, 

snow, ice, and fog present in addition to soil characteristics. 

Growing periods with little water can lead to decreased 

growth, poor resistance to other stresses, and impaired 

physiological functions in trees. For example, extreme 

drought predisposes oaks to the oak decline disease 

complex involving root disease (Armillaria) and insect 

infestation. Resulting reductions in hard mast (acorns 

and beech nuts) production negatively affect wildlife 

populations, such as mice, voles, chipmunks, deer, bears, 

turkeys, and even wood ducks and blue jays. The two 

longest dry periods over the last century in Western 

North Carolina have occurred since the early 1980s (see 

Precipitation Patterns p. 76).

The major impacts of flooding on tree and site 

resources are poor aeration, alteration of soil structure, 

anaerobic soils which are much more inefficient at 

decomposition, and reduced chemical activity. 

Hurricanes, although uncommon in the region, have 

recently left wide-ranging devastation. In 2004, rainfall 

from the remnants of Hurricanes Frances and Ivan caused 

flooding and triggered numerous landslides in Western 

North Carolina. Sixteen Western North Carolina counties 

were designated a Federal disaster area. The National 

Weather Service reported that Mount Mitchell received 

46.6 inches of rain. The previous record, set in 1916 at 

Linville Gorge, was 37.4 inches. 

The impacts of severe weather events may play a 

greater role in the widespread shaping of forests of the 

Southern United States than has been previously accepted. 

This threat is more thoroughly addressed in the next 

indicator, climate change.

Ecosystem Threat

Severe Weather

Recent events suggest severe 

storms could play a greater role 

in the future condition of the 

region’s forests. At least six 

tropical systems have passed over 

Western North Carolina since 

1985, causing wind and water 

damage.
69

Paths of major hurricanes from 1970-2004 

passing through Western North Carolina

Frances September 2004

All storms were tropical depressions at time of passing.

Beryl August 1994

Danny August 1985

Ivan September 2004

Bill July 2003

Hugo September 1989
70

What is climate change?

Climate is the average weather in a location over a long 

period of time. As some climate scientists like to say, 

“Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get.” 

Climate is not only the measure of average conditions 

but also the characteristic range of variability from those 

conditions. Therefore, climate change refers to shifts 

in the average state of the climate and in its variability. 

For example, climate change may be evident in changes 

to expected temperature or precipitation, but also to the 

occurrence of variable weather events such as heat waves, 

floods, or drought. Changes in the frequency and severity 

of climate variability (weather events) often cause more 

damage and are more difficult to adapt to than gradual 

change. 

Globally, changes in climate are already impacting 

forests through higher average temperatures, altered 

precipitation patterns, and more extreme weather events. 

Changes in temperature and precipitation can influence 

the occurrence and intensity of forest disturbances such 

as wildfire, introduced species, and pathogen (disease) 

outbreaks. Forests will play a crucial role in adapting to 

a changing climate because they will continue to serve as 

natural reservoirs for high-quality water and as refuges for 

biodiversity. Therefore, it is important to have healthy and 

resilient forests that rebound after disturbance. 

By looking at historical climate data and prevalent 

climate trends, we can assess what changes Western North 

Carolina might expect, and begin to understand how to 

prepare for possible changes.

What is the climate in Western North Carolina?

The climate in Western North Carolina is largely defined by 

the region’s topographical features. The elevation gradients 

of the Southern Appalachian Mountains range from around 

1,500 feet along the eastern boundary to 6,684 feet at the 

summit of Mount Mitchell (the highest point east of the 

Mississippi River). Some of the valleys in the Southern 

Appalachians drop to 1,000 feet above sea level, while 

some 82 peaks exceed 5,000 feet and 43 tower above 6,000 

feet. These elevation gradients result in varying average 

temperature and precipitation, creating a unique range of 

microclimates, each of which supports unique forest types 

and globally rare species. Due to the different climates 

in the region, the effects of climate change will vary and 

impact the forests in different ways. 

Ecosystem Threat

Climate Change
71

Climate change is of global 

concern, and impacts to regions 

such as Western North Carolina 

will be highly variable. By looking 

at the range of possibilities, we 

can begin to plan for the future 

of our forests and maximize 

sustainability of our forest land.

Elevation

6,684 ft

900 ft
72

Why is temperature important?

Temperature and forest types are closely related. This 

relationship shows the great extent of acclimation of 

forests to the temperature zones in which they are found. 

Temperature directly affects biotic processes and water 

requirements, thus organisms, species, and forest types 

respond to changes in temperature. Temperature, along 

with sunlight, is a driving force behind photosynthesis, and 

temperatures regulate the demand plants have for water. 

Forests depend on certain soil moisture levels for growth 

and respiration, and air temperature affects soil moisture 

through evaporation as well.

Temperature in Western North Carolina

The terrain of the Southern Appalachians creates a range 

of average temperatures in Western North Carolina. 

Average temperatures generally decrease with an increase 

in elevation. On any day, from mountain top to valley floor, 

the difference in temperature across the region may be as 

much as 20 oF. 

The cold average temperatures in the highest 

elevations of the Southern Appalachians serve as refuges 

for several forest types, ecological communities, and 

many species. Changes to these temperatures will have 

devastating impacts to high-elevation forests types. Forest 

types, such as the spruce-fir and northern hardwoods, are 

currently at the limit of their suitable habitat range. The 

unique temperatures and acclimated forest types at high 

elevations (>5,500 feet) in Western North Carolina are 

isolated in the southeast—where the climate resembles 

that of southern Canada and the most northeastern United 

States. 

Maximum temperature

Maximum temperatures decrease with increasing elevation. 

Average maximum temperatures also tend to be higher on 

south-facing slopes, due to sun exposure. Trees and forest 

types have specific maximum temperature tolerances, and 

the relatively low maximum temperatures in high-elevation 

areas account for the unique forest types and species. 

Maximum temperatures regulate important factors, such as 

soil moisture through evaporation. Forests depend on soil 

moisture levels for uptake and to establish fire regimes—

drier soil moisture results in higher fire risk.

Minimum temperature

Minimum temperatures generally decrease with increasing 

elevation. But unlike average maximum temperatures, 

average minimum temperatures are not as closely related 

to aspect or cardinal direction. Minimum temperatures are 

important to forests because they limit biological activity of 

pests, such as invasive insects. Like maximum temperature, 

minimum temperature is important to natural disturbance 

regimes and overall health of the forest.

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

1907 1921 1935 1949 1963 1977 1991 2005

Yearly average temperature

in Western North Carolina (oF)

Year

Historical Temperature

Climate Change
73

The mountainous terrain creates 

a range of temperatures to which 

forests are accustomed and also 

accounts for the great biodiversity 

of the region.

Average Minimum Temperature 1970–2000

High: 47°F

Low: 34°F

Average Maximum Temperature 1970–2000

High: 72°F

Low: 52°F
74

Why is precipitation important?

Precipitation is essential to ecosystem processes and to 

water supplies for municipalities. Precipitation is any 

form of water—rain, snow, or hail—that falls from the 

atmosphere and reaches the ground. Upon reaching the 

ground, precipitation enters the hydrologic cycle. This 

cycle involves water traveling from the land to the ocean, 

during which water molecules evaporate back into the 

atmosphere. A portion of precipitation soaks into the 

ground and moves downward through small openings in 

the soil and rock. This water that soaks into the ground 

becomes groundwater or is available to be taken up by 

vegetation; thus, the amount of precipitation is essential to 

forest growth. The water that does not soak into the ground 

runs off into the streams and rivers. 

Precipitation in Western North Carolina

Western North Carolina has some of the most variable 

average precipitation in the Southeastern United States. In 

fact, the wettest and driest points in Western North Carolina 

are separated by only 45 miles. Elevation gradients of the 

mountains contribute to the differences in precipitation. 

Consider average rainfall in two towns, Highlands and 

Marshall. Highlands sits at the southern edge of the Blue 

Ridge Escarpment, so moist air lifted over the mountains 

drops heavy amounts of rain on this high-elevation town. 

Nearby areas are wet enough to be considered rain forests, 

and waterfalls abound. The town of Marshall, however, sits 

at the north end of the French Broad River basin. Shielded 

from the prevailing moist winds from the south and west 

by the Balsam and Smoky Mountains (where most of the 

rainfall is squeezed out), this area is the driest in the entire 

State of North Carolina. 

Elevation gradients also contribute to the variable 

forms of precipitation the region receives. Lower elevations 

receive most precipitation as rainfall. On the other hand, 

the tallest mountain peaks receive up to 50 inches of 

snowfall each year. The range of precipitation zones create 

suitable conditions for the diversity of forest types and 

species found in the region. 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

1907 1921 1935 1949 1963 1977 1991 2005

Yearly average total precipitation

in Western North Carolina (inches)

Year

Historical Precipitation

Climate Change
75

Precipitation in Western North 

Carolina is highly variable due 

to the mountainous terrain—

the wettest and driest points 

in Western North Carolina are 

separated by only 45 miles. Due 

to the different climate conditions, 

climate change will impact the 

region in different ways.

Average precipitation has remained constant over the past century.

Highlands

Marshall

Average Annual Precipitation 1970–2000

High: 104′′

Low: 37′′
76

Palmer Hydrological Index for the Southern Mountains of N.C.

Seasonal precipitation

The seasonal distribution or timing of precipitation is an 

important characteristic of climate. While average annual 

precipitation tells how much rainfall an area receives in a 

normal year, the seasonal distribution tells when it arrives. 

The timing of precipitation also indicates how often an 

area experiences drought and flooding. Both drought 

and flooding are natural occurrences in Western North 

Carolina, but changes in the frequency of these events have 

the potential to greatly impact water resources for forest 

ecosystems.

Western North Carolina receives most of its rainfall 

during the spring and summer months, while the fall and 

winter months are comparatively dry. This pattern in the 

distribution of rain throughout the year is essential to 

biological processes. Forests need more water in the 

warmer growing season. Deciduous trees, especially, take 

up much more water in spring and summer when leaves are 

on the trees due to evapotranspiration (the process of water 

coming through the leaves of trees and then evaporating 

into the air). The timing of precipitation in Western North 

Carolina allows trees to leaf out in the spring and sustains 

the flow of water in streams.

Wet and dry periods

The Palmer Hydrological Drought Index (PHDI) is 

influenced by precipitation and shows long-term dry and 

wet conditions. The PHDI reflects how precipitation affects 

groundwater, water tables, and reservoirs. On the graphs 

above, the red indicates dry conditions while the green 

indicates wet conditions. Any green value above 2 

indicates severe wet (flooding), while any red value below 

-2 indicates severe dry (drought). Uncharacteristically 

frequent or extended dry or wet periods indicate an 

interruption in the seasonal pattern of precipitation.

With climate change, there may not be any change 

in total precipitation, but there may be extended wet and 

dry periods that might result in more flooding or drought. 

The PHDI for Western North Carolina shows that the 

longest dry periods over the past century have occurred 

in the past three decades. While flooding and drought are 

natural disturbances in Western North Carolina, increased 

frequency or severity of these disturbances will negatively 

impact the forests.

The two longest dry periods have 

occurred in the past three decades

Palmer Hydrological Index for the Northern Mountains of N.C.

Precipitation Patterns

Climate Change
77

Climate change alters the seasonal 

distribution of precipitation, 

changing the likelihood of 

droughts and floods.

Average March Precipitation

>7.5"

5.5"–7.5"

<5.5"

Average October Precipitation

>7.5"

5.5"–7.5"

<5.5"
78

Climate models

Climate models are extremely important tools for 

simulating and understanding climate, and they can provide 

credible projections of future climate change. Climate 

model projections are not predictions, but rather scenarios 

of how the climate might change based on observed 

patterns. Multiple models are often used to illustrate a 

range of possibilities. 

Every model has an inherent degree of uncertainty, 

because its projections provide only a general picture 

of what to expect. For a region such as Western North 

Carolina, changes in climate will be highly variable due 

to the range of microclimates; climate models do not 

necessarily account for the variability. This uncertainty 

shows the importance of a regional approach to 

understanding the effects of changing conditions. With 

climate projections, uncertainty does not necessarily imply 

that change is unknown, but rather that future conditions 

involve variability.

The computer model developed by the Met Office 

Hadley Centre for Climate Change represents a “warm 

and wet” future scenario. In Western North Carolina, the 

Hadley model shows moderately warmer air temperature 

and increased average precipitation by 2020.

Hadley Model (Had2CMSul) and water stress

Water stress is defined by the availability of water. 

Water stress impacts forests primarily by its affect on 

soil moisture. Soil moisture is important for biological 

processes and forest health, and soil moisture levels are 

determined both by temperature and precipitation. For 

Western North Carolina, soil moisture levels change due to 

the range of microclimates. The increases in precipitation 

for Western North Carolina with the Hadley model would 

generally increase soil moisture and, as a result, decrease 

water stress. However, while increasing precipitation alone 

would increase soil moisture, higher temperatures in some 

areas, resulting in greater evaporation, would offset the 

additional moisture. Some areas in Western North Carolina 

might experience more water stress conditions than others 

despite increased precipitation. 

Continued...

Climate Scenarios and Water Stress

Climate Change

Change in Average Annual Air Temperature

Had2CMSul Climate Scenario 

1990–2020

Percent Change in Annual Precipitation 

Had2CMSul Climate Scenario 

1990–2020

State Capitals

-0.16–0

0–0.25

0.25–0.50

0.50–0.75

0.75–1.00

1.00–1.21

State Capitals

-25% to -20%

-20% to -10%

-10% to 0

0 to 5%

5% to10%

10% to 20%
79

Higher precipitation would 

decrease current water stress 

conditions, and fewer areas would 

be considered to have High stress. Temperature Precipitation

Hadley Model, 2020

Water Stress (percent change)

High (-7% to -14%)

Moderate (-14% to -19%)

Low (-20% to -24%)
80

The climate change model developed by the Canadian 

Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis represents a 

“hot and dry” future scenario. For Western North Carolina, 

the Canadian model shows much higher average air 

temperature and decreased average precipitation. 

Canadian Model (CGC1) and water stress

Water stress and soil moisture levels are determined by 

temperature and precipitation. Much of Western North 

Carolina would experience great declines in soil moisture. 

The Canadian model depicts increases in water stress and 

other effects, such as increased drought.

Climate Scenarios and Water Stress

Climate Change

State Capitals

0–0.50

0.50–1.00

1.00–1.50

1.50–2.00

2.00–2.17

State Capitals

-25% to -20%

-20% to -10%

-10% to 0

0 to 5%

5% to10%

10% to 19%

Change in Average Annual Air Temperature

CGC1 Climate Scenario 

1990–2020

Percent Change in Annual Precipitation 

CGC1 Climate Scenario 

1990–2020
81

TemperaturePrecipitation

Increased temperature and 

decreased precipitation would 

increase water stress for the 

region. Most of Western North 

Carolina would experience High 

to Moderate water stress.

Canadian Model, 2020

Water Stress (percent change)

High (41%–50%)

Moderate (25%–41%)

Low (11%–25%)
82

Because the forests of Western North Carolina may 

experience great change, how we use forest resources 

may also change. The ability to manage for disturbances 

affected by climate change varies greatly; therefore, 

strategies for coping with impacts from climate change in 

forests will vary regionally and by management area.

Integrating information about climate change and its 

potential impacts at a regional scale can help us answer the 

following questions about forest sustainability:

• How do forest disturbances interact with climate 

change?

• How should the forests be monitored to inform 

decisions?

• What information is needed to understand the 

response of a forest to changing conditions?

• What changes could forest managers make to reduce 

negative impacts of climate change?

Forests are acclimated to the climate zones in which 

they are found. Warming temperatures due to climate 

change will shift suitable conditions. With changing 

temperatures and precipitation, dominating forest types are 

likely to change. Warmer temperatures will shift suitable 

habitat for forests higher in elevation.

Drought

Decreased precipitation or increased temperature will lead 

to increased drought. Drought occurs in all forest types, 

and the general response of forests to drought is to reduce 

vegetation growth. Under severe drought, forests reduce 

vegetation growth and plants die. When drought occurs 

over multiple growing seasons, increased susceptibility to 

insects or pathogens is possible. 

Fire

The frequency, size, and intensity of fires depend on 

climate as well as forest structure and composition. While 

fire is a natural occurrence in many forest types, increased 

frequency and severity of natural fires would greatly 

impact the forest. Decreased precipitation from climate 

change would increase fire risk in areas that become drier, 

and these changes could compound existing fire risks. 

While fire may be detrimental to some forest types, the 

vulnerability of the forest will depend on its resiliency and 

ability to adapt.

Insect infestations

Changes in temperature and precipitation also affect insect 

and pathogen survival, reproduction, and distribution. 

These changes can have a range of effects on forests and 

lead to increased tree mortality rates. The loss of certain 

tree species to disease or infestation can significantly 

reduce biodiversity and wildlife habitat.

Impacts on Forest Sustainability

Climate Change
83

Climatic Changes Ecosystem Effects Consequences for Forests

Warmer air temperatures Water uptake from trees Drought

 Soil moisture Invasive species

 Forest species shifts

Lower average precipitation Water stress Wildland fire

 Stream flow Tree mortality

 Susceptibility to pests and

pathogens Wildlife habitat

 Forest species shifts

Higher average precipitation Water stress Water quality

 Flooding Forest species shifts

 Soil erosion

Change in precipitation patterns Water stress Water availability

 Wet and dry periods Forest species shifts

~

~

~

~

~

~

~

Climatic changes, their effects on ecosystems, and consequences for forests.

 = likely increase = likely decrease = likely change ~
84
85

Soil

The mountains of Western North Carolina today are 

only remnants of those formed long ago. Beginning 

about 500 million years ago, rifting and continental 

collision along what is now the East Coast of the United 

States created mountain ranges as high as the Rockies. 

Beginning 250 million years ago, these mountains eroded 

to almost nothing, and exceptionally warm temperatures 

led to the evolution and diversification of many new 

species. From 65 million years ago to present, the older 

mountain remnants re-formed and eroded to half of their 

original height, forming what we know as the Southern 

Appalachian Mountains.

Millions of years of geologic processes, weathering, 

and climate variability have resulted in a wide variety of 

soil types. Over the last two centuries, human-caused soil 

disturbance has increased considerably. During the early 

settlement period, subsistence farming on steep slopes, 

burning, and logging practices led to severe erosion and 

hydrologic changes across the landscape. Today, another 

more complex mix of practices threatens the soil resource.

Water

Nine river basins drain about 7,500 square miles in Western 

North Carolina. The New River, in the northeast corner of 

the region, is thought to be one of the oldest in the world. 

The largest basins in the region are the French Broad and 

the Little Tennessee, both of which flow north/northwest 

into Tennessee.

The region’s river basins have some of the most 

outstanding and diverse aquatic systems within the State. 

However, the health of these systems is threatened by 

human actions such as pollution, impoundments, and 

poorly mitigated land management activities. Mussels, 

crayfish, snails, salamanders, and many species of 

freshwater fish, such as native brook trout, are at risk due 

to poor water quality and altered hydrology. The region 

has always had a bountiful supply of fresh water for 

residential, commercial, and industrial use; however, recent 

droughts have increased awareness of the need for water 

conservation.

Air

Beginning about 1860, fossil fuels became the primary 

energy source for the industrialization of the nation. 

Energy from coal and petroleum products greatly improved 

the quality of life for U.S. citizens, but combustion of 

these fuels led to large releases of air pollutants into the 

atmosphere. Consequently, there have been multiple 

impacts to the region, including a considerable reduction 

in how far and how well a person can observe scenic views 

(visibility impairment), as well as significant atmospheric 

and ground level deposition of acidic compounds in the 

region. Although improving, air pollution is still impacting 

the health of humans, wildlife, and vegetation, as well as 

water quality.

Soil, Water, and Air

Conserving Our Natural Resources
86

Soil formation

Soil is a critical support system for trees and other plants, 

and its variable properties play an integral role in all other 

biological systems. Soil is formed through processes that 

take thousands of years to complete. 

 Several factors have influenced the formation of the 

region’s soil: topography, geology, climate, vegetation, 

elevation, and time. The parent material is predominantly 

crystalline rocks with varying degrees of mica content, 

and metasedimentary rocks. Precipitation levels across 

the region range widely from 40–80 inches annually. The 

interaction of these factors has led to unique and highly 

variable soil patterns and properties across the mountain 

region.

 Soil types are further categorized by permeability, 

porosity, and texture. Permeability is how quickly water 

moves through soil and the ability of water to be held for 

plant use. Permeability is partially affected by porosity, 

which is the amount of empty space between soil particles. 

Soil texture (the proportion of sand, silt, and clay) is an 

important determinant of drainage, water-holding capacity, 

aeration, susceptibility to erosion, organic matter content, 

and buffering capacity. 

 Three major soil systems are found in Western 

North Carolina; their differing properties relate primarily 

to elevation change. A fourth type, the felsic crystalline 

system, is found here but to a much lesser extent. This 

latter system is similar to soils found in the Piedmont 

region.

Broad basins, river terraces, and floodplain system 

This system is characterized by wide valleys and rounded, 

low hills with few steep slopes. Easy access, a temperate 

climate, and pleasant landscapes make these areas desirable 

for development and have historically been the region’s 

urban, industrial, and agricultural centers. This is the 

youngest of the three systems.

Although prone to flooding in the river basins, these 

soils are ideal for agriculture, as higher elevation soils have 

shifted downward over time, increasing soil productivity. 

These soil profiles have relatively higher temperatures that 

enable microbes to break down organic material, thereby 

increasing nutrient supply and water-holding capacity 

while improving soil structure and preventing erosion.

Low and intermediate mountain system 

Found between 1,400–4,600 feet above sea level, these 

soils are influenced by elevation, aspect, exposure, and 

forest cover. Typically taking hundreds of thousands of 

years to form, the predominant features include steep 

slopes and ridges, as well as steep, narrow, wet valleys. 

These are the most common soils below 3,000 feet and 

have well-developed profiles. They are acidic and highly 

weathered, and often colored red, orange, and yellow.

High mountain system 

High mountain systems are generally found above 4,600 

feet and have unique characteristics. Their formation 

is limited by frigid soil temperatures, resulting in less 

developed soil profiles with minimal microbial activity. 

Vegetative cover includes spruce-fir stands as well as heath 

and grassy balds.

Unique soil types

High-elevation frigid soils

High-elevation frigid soils are unique to the region. They 

are characterized by organic rich soils and cool, moist 

microclimates. Low temperatures significantly reduce the 

rate of decomposition and increase the amount of leaves 

and decaying vegetation. The difficult terrain and rocky 

soils limit their use for agriculture. Found at the highest 

peaks, these soils are forested and provide timber, wildlife 

habitat, and watershed protection. The forests on these sites 

contain northern hardwoods and conifers, resembling cool, 

moist, temperate forests of the Northeastern United States.

Southern Appalachian fens and bogs

Fens are high mountain wetlands that differ significantly 

from most soils found in the region. Fens are the result of 

groundwater seepage to the surface. High levels of calcium 

as well as other minerals are found in these soils, making it 

possible for only select vegetation to thrive.

 Mountain bogs are generally wet and soggy. 

Groundwater seepage, rain, and snow are the sources 

of water that feed the bogs. Their primary location 

is valleys and gentle slopes. Predominant vegetation 

includes rhododendron thickets as well as mixed stands 

of red maple, eastern hemlock, and eastern white pine. 

Overgrazing has occurred in nearly all of the bogs. In 

addition, nonnative invasive species and flooding by 

beavers threaten their existence.

Soil Systems

Soil Resources
87

Western North Carolina Soil Systems

Broad basins, river terraces, floodplain system

Felsic crystalline system

High mountain system

Low and intermediate mountain system

Mountain bogs in Western North 

Carolina are threatened by 

nonnative invasive species and 

flooding by beavers.
88

Causes and effects of soil loss

Soil loss is caused by a variety of factors, including 

erosion from wind and water, mechanical tilling, logging, 

agricultural practices, and poor water management. Erosion 

and sedimentation, the major effects of soil loss, are 

widespread and can be devastating. 

Erosion

Erosion is a natural process on hill slopes. The rate of 

erosion is determined by several factors, including soil 

type, rainfall, and length and percent of slope. Generally, 

human-induced changes in the landscape lead to higher 

levels of erosion than would occur naturally. While there 

are many ways to minimize erosion, vegetative cover is 

the most effective over the long term. When vegetation 

is removed, the rate of soil erosion is greatly accelerated, 

often beyond sustainable levels.

Sedimentation

Eroded soil deposited downslope is referred to as 

sedimentation. When severe rain or wind events occur or 

soils are disturbed by human activities, soils are moved 

off site and deposited on land and in lakes, wetlands, and 

streams. Sediment, the single largest nonpoint source 

pollutant, contributes to the decline of surface water 

quality, imperils aquatic wildlife, and leads to increased 

stream bank erosion and flooding. Levels of sedimentation 

increase due to roads, residential and commercial 

development, agricultural practices, timber harvesting, and 

any other land-disturbing activity.

The Sedimentation Control Act of 1973 requires 

operators to implement short- and long-term mitigation 

measures to reduce erosion on- and off-site. Forest 

landowners who wish to harvest trees are exempt from 

these regulations if they comply with forestry practice 

guidelines, which include erosion control measures and 

mitigation. Best management practices (BMP’s) are 

voluntary practices that reduce sources of sedimentation 

and runoff, confine sediment on site, and trap the 

movement of sediment so that it settles. Although these 

practices are not required by law, it is estimated that about 

85–90 percent of landowners and loggers voluntarily 

comply with BMP’s and regulations. If loggers/landowners 

are found to be out of compliance, the North Carolina 

Division of Forest Resources (NCDFR) works with 

operators to correct problems. If not resolved, the operator 

may forfeit their exemption under the Sedimentation 

Control Act and must seek a permit to continue the activity. 

Forest road erosion 

Forest road erosion and eventual sediment delivery to 

nearby streams largely depends on soils, climate, traffic 

intensity, and topography. Erosion rates from forested 

roads range from about 0.5 to 100 tons per acre per year, 

while the geologic or natural erosion rate is estimated at 

0.1 tons per acre per year. A sustainable range of erosion 

from disturbance is estimated at 0.4 to 2.0 tons per acre 

per year. Sediment control can be significantly improved 

through appropriate road location, drainage systems, and 

reestablishment of vegetation. These practices effectively 

trap eroded road sediments and isolate or essentially 

disconnect roads from stream systems. 

In the Southern Appalachians, cut slopes (as opposed 

to fill slopes) and road beds have been found to account 

for as much as 75–80 percent of soil loss from the road 

area, the majority of which occurs during the establishment 

period for vegetation. These rates decrease significantly, 

however, following complete reestablishment of vegetative 

cover. 

Steep slopes and development

Because building construction was easier and less costly 

and crop cultivation better in the fertile valleys, human 

development historically was limited to broad basins, 

terraces, and floodplains. However, as land became scarcer 

in the valleys and the demand for uninterrupted mountain 

views increased, residents slowly began building uphill 

toward the intermediate and even high mountains. This 

preference has led to development on steep slopes with 

few regulations in place to protect those located downslope 

from soil erosion and landslides. 

Erosion and Sedimentation

Soil Loss and Degradation

In the Southern Appalachians, cut 

slopes and road beds have been found 

to account for as much as 75–80 

percent of soil loss from the road area. 

These rates decrease significantly, 

however, following complete 

reestablishment of vegetative cover.
89

 Case Camp Ridge Forest Road

On February 5, 2010, a retaining wall in Haywood County failed, sending 27,500 

cubic yards of soil, rocks, and large woody debris along a 3,000-foot path to the 

stream valley below. Three homes were damaged. Stabilization of remaining 

unstable retaining walls will cost $1.4 million to reinforce.

Home destroyed when an upslope embankment failed, contributing to a debris 

flow, January 7, 2009, in Maggie Valley, NC.

Case Camp Ridge forest road, a stable road site.

Maggie Valley, NC

Haywood County, NC
90

Soil subsidence and landslides

Causes and triggers of soil and debris slides are 

omnipresent in the region. Causes are those conditions 

leading to instability of slope, while triggers are those 

events that initiate slope movement. Slides are influenced 

by geology, geomorphology, weather, climate, and slope. 

Mountainside disturbances can result in embankments or 

slope angles that are too steep or too high and, therefore, 

inherently unstable. The most common trigger of slides 

in the region is frequent or high-intensity storms. Other 

triggers include repeated freezing and thawing of the soil, 

blasting, and earthquakes. Landslides present an ever 

present danger in the region. Their likelihood is increased 

by weather events, vegetation removal, and poorly 

designed access. 

Regional soils prone to landslides are those high in 

mica (>30 percent), especially when used in embankments, 

as mica is difficult to compact. Most debris flows, however, 

initiate in soil types made up predominantly of silt and 

sand, often with gravel to cobble-sized stones. An increase 

in water content increases the pore-water pressure, which 

causes a decrease in shear strength. Hence, these soils are 

more prone to move downhill, especially after large rain 

events. When a landslide occurs, debris is moved downhill 

quickly, and includes anything generally larger than coarse 

sand, often destroying whatever is in its way and moving 

those materials downhill with it. 

Sulfidic rock is common in the region, particularly in 

certain formations, generally owing to high pyrite content. 

Unless properly mitigated, excavation of this rock can lead 

to acidic runoff leading to stream degradation. Furthermore, 

untreated acidic bedrock used in embankments can become 

unstable and result in landslides.

A damaging landslide occurs nearly every year in the 

region. Since 1916, eight major storm events have triggered 

numerous landslides across Western North Carolina. In 

1985, a major rockfall crushed a tunnel portal. In 2009, 

a bedrock landslide, the most destructive in more than a 

decade, closed Interstate 40 in Haywood County for over 6 

months, with a repair cost of $12.9 million. Soil movement, 

a downhill slide of soil only, can be equally destructive. In 

2004, intense rain events from hurricanes Frances and Ivan 

led to at least 400 slides, causing five deaths, wiping out 27 

houses, and disrupting transportation throughout the region. 

As of April 2010, over 6,000 landslides and landslide 

deposits have occurred in Western North Carolina. In 

Buncombe County alone, geologists found evidence of 

over 1,253 landslide features, 314 landslides, and 938 

landslide deposits. Over half of these occurred where 

slopes had been modified by people.

Currently, a seller is not required to tell a potential 

purchaser if the property under consideration may be 

in the path of a potential landslide. Legislation is being 

considered in the North Carolina State legislature that 

would limit steep slope development. The proposed 

legislation requires a licensed general contractor to 

supervise construction on any activity occurring on slopes 

greater than 22 degrees. It would also require retaining 

walls over 8 feet in height be prepared by an engineer.

Conservation and mitigation of soil resources

Techniques that prevent or reduce soil loss include surface 

water runoff control, vegetative cover, sedimentation 

catch basins, and buffer zones. Practices that reduce the 

speed of runoff will reduce erosion significantly and 

can be used in forestry, agriculture, and construction 

operations. Plant cover significantly reduces erosion 

because root systems securely hold soil in place. Buffer 

zones—designated areas of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous 

vegetation—act as filters to keep sediment from water 

bodies.

To minimize landslides and soil movement, it is 

imperative that slope modifications stay within stable 

limits. Controlling drainage and reducing the slope angle 

reduces landslide potential. Drains can be constructed to 

contain runoff and prevent infiltration. Steep slopes can 

be graded into gentler slopes, and a series of “stair-steps” 

can be created on very steep slopes. Many engineering 

techniques are available to prevent water entry and inhibit 

slope failure. Wire cables and wire fences minimize the 

danger of rockfall. Correction of some landslides can 

be accomplished by installing a drainage system, which 

reduces water pressure in the slope, thereby preventing 

further movement.

Soil Subsidence and Landslides

Soil Loss and Degradation

A damaging landslide occurs 

nearly every year in the region. 

As of April 2010, over 6,000 

landslides and landslide deposits 

have occurred in Western North 

Carolina.
91

Deposits from September 16, 2004, Peeks Creek debris flow, Macon 

County, NC

Macon County, NC

Western North Carolina Landslides as of 2005

Previous landslide locations

Undeveloped land

Developed land

Water
92

Acidic deposition 

Human-caused acidic deposition of sulfates from the 

atmosphere have had a negative impact on sensitive soils 

in the region. Several factors interact to increase this effect. 

Forests soils associated with pines, spruce, and fir are 

naturally more acidic than areas dominated by hardwoods 

such as oak, hickory, maple, or poplar. Elevation is also an 

important factor when assessing the risk of acidification, 

as some soils, especially high mountain systems, are more 

sensitive to acidic deposition due to increased deposition 

levels, decreased soil depth, and decreased microbial 

activity. 

Bedrock geology, however, has the greatest influence 

on soil sensitivity to acidic deposition. In Western North 

Carolina, soils that develop from bedrock classified as 

siliceous are more sensitive to acidification than soils that 

have developed from carbonate rocks. 

 Under natural conditions, soil acidity remains 

relatively stable, with the ability to balance normal 

increases in acidity by weathering rocks or deposition 

of dust from the atmosphere. This balance is essential to 

maintaining healthy terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. 

However, with increased deposition of sulfur, sensitive 

soils become too acidic, releasing biologically toxic levels 

of aluminum. Aluminum penetrates the fine roots of 

vegetation and exacerbates nutrient (especially calcium) 

deficiencies. At high enough concentrations, aluminum 

can kill roots, reducing the amount of area from which 

nutrients and water can be absorbed into the vegetation. 

Consequently, tree and plant mortality may increase during 

periods of drought.

High soil acidity and toxic levels of aluminum have 

been recorded at Shining Rock Wilderness Area, where 

the soil is at near maximum capacity to retain future 

deposition of sulfates. Therefore, any reduction in sulfur 

dioxide emissions will have a delayed benefit in improving 

ecosystem health because it will take a long time for 

the accumulated sulfur to be removed from the soils. In 

addition, aluminum can be transported from the soil to 

streams, where high acidity and high concentrations of 

aluminum can be lethal to sensitive aquatic organisms.

The addition of nitrogen from air pollution is believed 

to be utilized biologically by forest organisms (with the 

exception of high elevation old growth spruce-fir forests), 

since nitrogen is typically a nutrient in short supply and 

is not currently believed to be negatively impacting the 

region’s forests. 

Acidic Deposition

Soil Degradation

Human-caused acidic deposition 

of sulfates from the atmosphere 

have had a negative impact on 

sensitive soils in the region.
93

Lithology

Siliceous (most sensitive)

Felsic

Argillaceous

Mafic

Carbonate (least sensitive)

Elevation ≥ 3,500 feet
94

River basins in Western North Carolina

A river basin catches all the water flowing downhill into 

streams and creeks and, eventually, sends it out to sea. In 

Western North Carolina, there are nine basins split by the 

Eastern Continental Divide, five draining to the Gulf of 

Mexico (New, Watauga, French Broad, Little Tennessee, 

and Hiwassee) and four draining to the Atlantic Ocean 

(Yadkin, Catawba, Broad, and Savannah). These basins 

contain the headwaters of streams and rivers that provide 

a critical supply of fresh water to towns and cities in and 

outside of the region.

Hiwassee River Basin

The Hiwassee River basin drains 641 square miles in 

Clay and Cherokee Counties. The Hiwassee is located in 

the homeland of the Cherokee, flowing generally to the 

northeast into the Tennessee River. The basin is about 70 

percent forested, 23 percent agriculture, 3 percent urban, 

and is predominantly in private ownership. Its two major 

tributaries, the Nottely and Valley Rivers, feed scenic, manmade lakes including the Apalachia, the Hiwassee, and the 

Chatuge. 

Little Tennessee River Basin

The Little Tennessee River basin encompasses about 

1,800 square miles in Swain, Macon, Clay, Graham, 

Jackson, and Cherokee Counties. More than half of the 

land within the basin is federally owned; much of it 

located in the Nantahala National Forest (including the 

Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wilderness) and the Great Smoky 

Mountains National Park. The basin also drains portions 

of the Cherokee reservation. The Little Tennessee River 

basin has one of the most outstanding and diverse aquatic 

communities within the entire State. 

Savannah River Basin

Only two percent of the Savannah River basin is located in 

Western North Carolina, draining 172 square 

miles in Macon, Jackson, Transylvania, and Clay Counties. 

Much of the basin is in public ownership, including 

portions of the Nantahala National Forest and the North 

Carolina Gorges State Park. With no impaired waters in the 

basin, the Savannah exhibits excellent water quality, with 

the exception of a few small headwater streams impacted 

by developmental runoff. 

French Broad River Basin

The French Broad River basin drains 2,830 square miles 

in North Carolina, going from the high mountains through 

the broad, flat Asheville basin. The basin includes land in 

Haywood, Madison, Buncombe, Transylvania, Henderson, 

Yancey, Mitchell, and Avery Counties. The basin is 

subdivided into three sub-basins—the French Broad River, 

the Nolichucky River, and the Pigeon River —none of 

which merge in North Carolina. Approximately 50 percent 

of the basin is forested, with extensive portions found in 

the Pisgah and Cherokee National Forests. Agriculture 

covers 17 percent of the basin, and 10 percent is considered 

urban. 

The French Broad River headwaters start in the 

mountains of Transylvania County and flow north to 

Tennessee. The Pigeon River parallels Interstate 40 

north of Canton, NC, and also flows into Tennessee. The 

Nolichucky River is formed by the convergence of the 

North Toe River and the Cane River north of Burnsville, 

NC. This sub-basin drains the western slope of the Blue 

Ridge Mountains north from Mount Mitchell to the 

Tennessee State line. The Nolichucky and Pigeon Rivers 

merge with the French Broad in Douglas Lake, east of 

Knoxville, TN. 

Broad River Basin 

The Broad River Basin is located mostly in South Carolina. 

The 150 square miles of the Broad River basin located 

in North Carolina contain the headwaters of the basin. 

Many small forest streams in Henderson, Buncombe, and 

McDowell Counties combine to form the Green and Broad 

Rivers. 

Catawba River Basin

The Catawba River basin begins on the eastern ridge of 

the Blue Ridge Mountains and quickly moves off the 

escarpment into the Piedmont. The basin drains 3,343 

square miles of land, but 93 square miles of it is in 

Western North Carolina. The Catawba River originates 

in the forested streams found between Blowing Rock and 

Old Fort. Flow from the Linville River merges with the 

Catawba in Lake James, in McDowell County.

Watauga River Basin

The headwaters of the Watauga River basin are located 

in the mountains of Watauga and Avery Counties. 

Predominantly forest land, the Elk and Watauga Rivers 

drain 205 square miles in North Carolina and flows 

northwest into Watauga Lake in Carter County, TN. 

New River Basin

Stretching through Ashe, Alleghany, and Watauga 

Counties, the New River Basin drains 753 square miles 

in Western North Carolina. With a rural mountainous 

landscape, half of the basin’s land usage is forested, 33 

percent pasture, and 6 percent urban. In 1976, the New was 

dedicated as a National Scenic River. Most development 

occurs in the valleys, though in recent years rates of steep 

slope development are rising. With an estimated age of 

300 million years, the New River is thought to be one of 

the oldest rivers in the world, and hosts rare mountain bog 

habitats that require ample soil moisture to exist. 

Yadkin River Basin

Only the forested headwaters of the Yadkin River are 

located in Western North Carolina, with 838 square miles 

predominantly in Wilkes County. The vast majority of the 

basin is located in the Piedmont. Three of North Carolina’s 

major cities depend on this basin for water supply. 

Western North Carolina River Basins

Water Resources
95

Western North Carolina river basins

Eastern Continental Divide

Area of river basins, portion in 

Western North Carolina

River basins Square miles

French Broad 2,830

Little Tennessee 1,797

Yadkin 838

New 753

Hiwassee 641

Watauga 205

Savannah 172

Broad 150

Catawba 93

In Western North Carolina, 

there are nine basins split by the 

Eastern Continental Divide, five 

draining to the Gulf of Mexico 

and four draining to the Atlantic 

Ocean.
96

The health of aquatic ecosystems in the region can 

be adversely impacted by habitat destruction due to 

development, point and nonpoint source pollution, 

hydrologic alteration, and poorly managed agriculture and 

forest lands. Though water quality has improved in the 

past few decades, habitat degradation continues to threaten 

the overall health of these unique aquatic ecosystems. 

Other threats include impoundments on major rivers and 

tributaries that block fish migration patterns and cause 

habitat fragmentation. 

 Fortunately, increasing attention is being focused 

on analyzing aquatic systems, identifying the causes of 

endangerment, and applying conservation strategies. 

From national groups such as the World Wildlife Fund 

and the Nature Conservancy to more locally based 

organizations like the North Carolina Wildlife Resources 

Commission, there is research being conducted with the 

goal of preserving these valuable aquatic ecosystems. The 

following evaluations of the river basins in Western North 

Carolina are a brief summary of the threats identified in 

the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission Action 

Plan for Aquatic Habitat Conservation.

Hiwassee River Basin

The Hiwassee River basin is relatively stable with good 

water quality. It is impacted from nonpoint sources, 

primarily erosion, which increase as streams flow into the 

more developed valleys and merge into larger water areas. 

Erosion and sedimentation are primarily from ground 

disturbance from development activities (residential, 

commercial, transportation, and utility) and agriculture 

(erosion from poorly managed pastures and row crops). 

Timber harvest with insufficient erosion controls may be 

another contributor of sediment to the basin, along with 

other nonpoint source pollutants, such as runoff from builtup areas and roadways. Pointsource discharges are not a 

current major pollutant of the Hiwassee River basin.

Hydropower development has altered and degraded 

many habitats for most indigenous aquatic species. 

Un-impounded areas are affected by decreasing water 

temperature, altered hydrologic processes, and low levels 

of oxygen due to releases from the Chatuge and Nottely 

Dams. 

Invasive species are also potential threats to the native 

aquatic species living in the basin. The blueback herring 

appears to have an impact on game species in the area, as 

well as the Asian clam and striped bass.

Little Tennessee River Basin

Major problems affecting species and habitats within 

the Little Tennessee River basin include impoundment 

and excessive erosion and stream sedimentation from 

development and agriculture. Of the entire 144-mile Little 

Tennessee River, there are only 47 miles in Georgia and 

North Carolina that remain un-impounded. Portions of 

the basin are currently at good quality levels, but it does 

have some impaired waterways, including the Cullasaja 

River, Mill Creek, upper Little Tennessee River, Beech 

Flats Prong, and West Buffalo Creek arm of Santeetlah 

Reservoir. 

Invasive, nonnative species like the yellowfin 

shiner, which is expanding downstream from Franklin, 

are a potential problem to the basin. The Asian clam is 

established in both the Little Tennessee and Tuckasegee 

Rivers, Chinese snails have been found in Cowee Creek, 

and the rusty crayfish is established in at least one area 

downstream from Fontana Reservoir. The native spotfin 

chub was recently found to be infested with a tapeworm 

from Asia. Exotic pathogens and parasites pose serious 

threats to the rare species inhabiting the Little Tennessee 

River basin. 

Savannah River Basin

National forest and State park lands occupy the majority of 

the Savannah River basin, but development is increasing 

on private lands. Land clearing, removal of riparian 

vegetation, and rural roads are all potential nonpoint source 

problems. Numerous small impoundments fragment 

headwater regions. The basin’s major tributaries in North 

Carolina are also upstream from larger impoundments in 

Georgia and South Carolina. More monitoring is needed 

to address to what extent invasive species have become 

established in the Savannah River basin. 

French Broad River Basin

The most widespread problem facing the French Broad 

River basin is habitat degradation from nonpoint source 

pollution. Large development, urbanization, and agriculture 

are also evident nonpoint sources of pollution and 

sedimentation. Highway development and construction 

pose significant threats to many areas of the French 

Broad River basin, along with poorly managed steep 

slope development contributing runoff and sedimentation. 

Nutrient enrichment is a more serious issue in this basin 

than in any other basin in the region. Increasing in severity 

are threats from hydrologic modifications, from activities 

such as impervious surfaces, floodplain filling, and stream 

channel alterations. 

Not as widespread as nonpoint sources of pollution, 

point sources are still a significant problem causing habitat 

degradation in the basin. Impoundments pose a smaller 

threat to this basin than to other basins in Western North 

Carolina, but are still cause for concern in some portions 

of the basin. Specifically within the French Broad River 

sub-basin, point source pollution, including both current 

and lingering effects from past pollution, contributes 

significantly towards habitat degradation and the 

extirpation of priority species.

Health of River Basins

Aquatic Ecosystems
97

The Pigeon River sub-basin has a long history of point 

source pollution. Toxic wastes were discharged directly to 

the Pigeon River for much of the 20th century, eliminating 

many priority aquatic species. Treatment began in the 

early 1990s to improve water quality and the recovery of 

many native species has been favorable, though the River 

continues to be heavily monitored. 

More research is needed to fully assess effects of 

invasive species in the French Broad River basin. The 

native longear sunfish has been displaced entirely by the 

nonnative redbreast sunfish, and a few other invasive 

species have been established in segments of the basin, but 

exact influences on game versus non-game communities 

are not known. 

Broad River Basin

The predominant impact on water quality in the Broad 

River basin is habitat degradation from sedimentation 

originating from construction, row crop agriculture, timber 

harvest, mining, stream bank erosion, and runoff from 

unpaved rural roads. Stream bank vegetation is either 

significantly or entirely lacking throughout the basin, 

leaving the waters more susceptible to runoff. Water quality 

is declining due to channel alterations in both rural and 

urban areas of the basin, combined with the escalating 

amount of impervious surfaces which lead to drainage 

problems. 

Waste water treatment plants and industrial 

discharges are the primary point source polluters. Aquatic 

communities are impacted from impoundments at Lake 

Lure, Kings Mountain, and Lake Adger. With a steadily 

increasing human population, demand is growing for 

water supply from surface waters. Water withdrawals, 

impoundments, and interbasin water transfers will have a 

serious effect on species in these aquatic areas. 

Catawba River Basin

The most severe threat facing the Catawba River basin is 

impoundment. Almost the entire basin is either impounded 

or regulated by hydropower projects. The release of 

colder water causes wildlife degradation, as many native 

species are unable to adapt to the abrupt changes in water 

temperature. Migration routes are limited, if not completely 

impassable, due to dams. Other causes of degradation in the 

basin include sedimentation from ground disturbance from 

development and agriculture, loss of streamside vegetation, 

water withdrawals, point source pollutants (waste water 

treatment plants and permitted industrial dischargers), and 

nutrient loading.

The numerous nonnative species inhabiting the 

basin includes Asian clams; grass carp; blue, channel, and 

flathead catfishes; smallmouth bass; muskellunge; white 

bass; yellow bass; and rainbow and brown trout. Blueback 

herring, alewife, and white perch are also known from 

several impoundments. There are nonnative flora species 

present in the Catawba River basin as well, particularly 

in the reservoirs, but the specific effects on the native 

communities require further research. 

Watauga River Basin

At present, water quality conditions of the Watauga River 

basin are very favorable, but there are lingering effects 

from past pollution occurrences. Sedimentation and erosion 

from nonpoint sources is a primary threat affecting the 

basin. The drastic lack of streamside vegetation and overly 

narrow riparian corridors have caused excessive erosion 

and habitat loss due to sediment deposition and the overwidening of water channels. Residential and agricultural 

development is on the rise, which also raises the threat 

of habitat loss through increasing erosion. Christmas tree 

farming in the basin may also add pesticide and herbicide 

pollution to streams.

New River Basin

Although it exhibits overall good water quality, the New 

River basin is affected by localized problems and habitat 

degradation in many of the streams inhabited by priority 

aquatic species. Development and land clearing, poorly 

managed livestock grazing, unpaved rural roads, and 

loss of streamside vegetation all contribute to ecosystem 

degradation. New home construction, primarily on steep 

slopes, is increasing steadily. Sedimentation impacts are 

very serious, particularly in larger tributaries and in the 

main stem of the New River. There are also increases in 

water withdrawals as a result of larger populations moving 

into the area, a problem primarily in the upper South Fork 

New sub-basin.

Degradation in water quality is a result of acid 

mine drainage, urban runoff, and discharges from waste 

water treatment plants. Like the Watauga River basin, 

herbicides and pesticides used in Christmas tree production 

also impact the New River basin, but to what degree is 

still uncertain. Threats also emerge from the numerous 

nonnative aquatic species established throughout the basin.

Yadkin River Basin

There is limited information and inadequate surveys 

on aquatic species distribution in the upper region of 

the Yadkin. Invasive species have undoubtedly become 

established in the basin and are likely having a negative 

impact on native populations, though the exact effects 

are unknown. Dams and impoundments to the east of the 

region pose a serious threat to the Yadkin River basin.
98

Atmospheric deposition impacts to streams

The atmospheric deposition of acidic compounds (sulfates 

and nitrates) and ammonia, originating predominantly from 

the combustion of fossil fuels and livestock production, 

can impact water quality. The acidifying compounds are 

deposited on soils and can be transported into the soil water 

in the watershed before traveling downslope into the stream 

or groundwater. All watersheds in the region have been 

impacted by acidic deposition; however, some streams 

have a significantly higher ability to buffer or neutralize 

acidic compounds than others. Stream buffering capacity 

is determined by surrounding soil types and underlying 

bedrock. For example, stream beds which develop from 

carbonate rocks (those high in calcium, magnesium, 

potassium, and sodium) have a high capacity to mitigate 

acid inputs, and are not currently vulnerable to the effects 

of increased acidity. 

Some aquatic organisms, such as aquatic insects, are 

highly sensitive to changes in stream water chemistry, 

while native brook trout, in particular, are somewhat 

tolerant of acidic conditions. The relationship between 

brook trout health and survival has been studied in streams 

with differing buffering capacities. Streams with adequate 

buffering capacity will have healthy trout populations 

if other habitat factors are favorable for their survival. 

However, negative impacts on native trout populations 

increase as stream water becomes more acidic and toxic 

metals such as aluminum appear.

Between 2000 and 2005, the USDA Forest Service 

found that, of streams sampled, 47 percent had adequate 

buffering capacity to mitigate future acidic deposition. 

However, about 53 percent of sampled streams were 

classified as potentially, episodically, or chronically 

sensitive to acidification. These vulnerable headwater 

streams were found predominantly at elevations greater 

than 3,500 feet on soils with low buffering capacity.

By the year 2100, while sulfate deposition from the 

atmosphere is predicted to decrease significantly, stream 

sulfate concentrations are predicted to decrease only in 

streams currently classified episodically or chronically 

acidic. Sulfate concentration in potentially sensitive 

streams is predicted to remain constant or increase slightly 

during the same time period. The lack of responsiveness of 

stream sulfate concentrations is attributed to soil retention 

of a portion of sulfate depositions. It may take centuries 

for stream sulfate concentrations to decrease significantly, 

even though the total sulfate deposition has decreased and 

is predicted to decrease in the future. A significant decrease 

in stream water sulfate concentration will not occur until 

historical sulfates bound to the soils are removed through 

natural processes.

Atmospheric Deposition

Aquatic Ecosystems

About 53 percent of Western 

North Carolina streams sampled 

between 2000 and 2005 

were classified as potentially, 

episodically, or chronically 

sensitive to acidification.
99

Acid neutralizing capacity

Chronically acidic

Episodically acidic

Potentially sensitive

Adequate buffering

Elevation ≥ 3,500 feet

Brook trout health in differing buffer regimes

Brook trout category Buffering capacity Brook trout response

Suitable Adequate buffering Reproducing populations expected in suitable habitat

Indeterminate Potentially sensitive Extremely sensitive to acidification, response variable

Marginal Episodically sensitive Sublethal or lethal effects possible

Unsuitable Chronically acidic Lethal effects probable
100

The dense network of rivers and mountain streams in 

Western North Carolina supports highly diverse aquatic 

ecosystems, including many species of fish, mussel, snail, 

crayfish, amphibian, and reptile. 

The increasing threat to aquatic communities in 

the region is primarily due to habitat degradation and 

destruction, point and nonpoint source pollution, dams and 

impoundments, and the introduction of nonnative species. 

Fish commonly found in the region include native 

brook and nonnative brown and rainbow trout, bass, 

crappie, many species of perch, catfish, minnow, darter, 

and sucker.

Native brook trout, which once thrived in cold 

mountain streams across the region, have been severely 

impacted and are now found in less than 80 percent of their 

historic range. The majority of populations are currently 

found in the Nantahala and Pisgah National Forests and 

the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Sensitive 

to changes in stream chemistry, stream temperature, 

competition from other trout species, and land use 

change, native brook trout continue to need protection and 

restoration.

Freshwater mussels, found in the shallows of streams 

and rivers, require cool, clean, well-oxygenated water 

with riffles, runs, and shallow flowing pools with stable, 

silt-free, rocky stream beds. Stream bed stability is critical 

to mussel survival, and they are seldom found in areas 

with accumulations of silt or shifting sand. Freshwater 

mussels, especially in their early life stages, are extremely 

sensitive to chemicals found in wastewater, such as 

chlorine, ammonia, heavy metals, or high concentrations 

of nutrients. The destruction of river habitats by dams, 

channelization, erosion, and pollution has left several 

species of mussel on the brink of extinction.

Crayfish are freshwater crustaceans found in streams, 

rivers, swamps, ponds, and other aquatic habitats with 

flowing water and cover. The small range of many crayfish 

species is a primary factor in their vulnerability to habitat 

loss and competition. Threats to crayfish include pollution, 

impoundment, and competition with nonnative species.

The Southern Appalachian region is the world’s 

center for salamander diversity. According to the Southern 

Appalachian Biodiversity Institute, nearly 10 percent of 

global salamander diversity and 10 percent of freshwater 

mussel diversity occur here. Salamanders are inhabitants 

of springs, seepages, and streams. They live in bottomland 

as well as high elevation forests throughout the region. 

Species diversity is high because many species are at 

the southern limit of their distribution and gradients in 

elevation, aspect, slope, and rainfall contribute to a range of 

available niches and habitats. 

Snails play a dominant role in the ecology of the 

region’s freshwaters by providing food for many other 

animals and by grazing on vast amounts of algae and 

debris. They are critical to normal ecological processes in 

rivers and as indicators of water quality. Freshwater snails 

are in decline, especially those that inhabit streams and 

rivers. Dam construction and other channel modifications, 

siltation, and industrial and agricultural pollution have 

degraded the river habitats on which most species depend. 

The continued loss and decline of freshwater 

snails, mussels, fish, crayfish, amphibians, and reptiles 

demonstrates that, despite significant water quality 

improvements made in the last 28 years since the passage 

of the Clean Water Act, species loss is still a critical 

concern in the region.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service currently lists 11 

fish, 7 mussels, 2 crayfish, 4 salamanders, and 5 snails as 

federally threatened, endangered, or species of concern in 

river basins across the region. Many of these are found in 

the Hiwassee, Little Tennessee, and French Broad basins. 

Additionally, the State of North Carolina has identified at 

least 50 additional aquatic species of priority concern in the 

nine river basins in Western North Carolina.

Species at Risk

Aquatic Ecosystems

Despite significant water-quality 

improvements made in the last 

28 years since the passage of the 

Clean Water Act, species loss 

is still a critical concern in the 

region.
101

Salamanders

Pygmy

Seepage

Hellbender

Junaluska

Fish 

Blotchside logperch

Kanawha minnow

Olive darter

Sharphead darter

Sickle darter

Wounded darter

Smoky dace

Paddlefish

Sicklefin redhorse

Blotched chub

Spotfin chub

Mussels

Carolina heelsplitter

Tennessee clubshell

Tawny crescent

Green floater

Appalachian elktoe

Cumberland bean 

Little-wing pearly

Snails

Fragile glyph

Clingman covert

Noonday globe

Roan supercoil (land)

Sculpted supercoil (land)

Federally Listed Threatened Species, Endangered Species, and Species of Concern 

in Western North Carolina, 2010

Blotched chub Appalachian elktoe Noonday globe Pygmy salamander

Smoky dace Little-wing pearly Wounded darter
102

Shortly after passage of the Clean Water Act, the Safe 

Drinking Water Act of 1974 was passed to protect public 

health by regulating the Nation's drinking water supply. The 

Federal law, augmented by amendments as well as State 

laws and regulations, requires many actions to protect water 

and its sources, including rivers, lakes, reservoirs, springs, 

and groundwater wells. Originally focusing on water 

treatment, it now also focuses on source water quality and 

conservation.

 Overall, Western North Carolina has abundant 

rainfall, surface water, and groundwater. The headwaters 

of the river basins in the region provide water to local 

residents and to distant southeastern cities. While supply 

has historically been more than adequate, recent droughts 

have raised public awareness of the issues of water use and 

conservation. 

In 1990, data was collected for commercial, domestic, 

industrial, and agricultural water withdrawals. The average 

water withdrawal per day was 172 million gallons (this data 

does not account for water returned to the source after use). 

Buncombe, Henderson, and Wilkes counties had 

relatively high commercial, domestic, and industrial use, 

while Haywood and Transylvania Counties had the highest 

industrial use. 

In 2005, data collection methods changed, resulting in 

the collection of several more water withdrawal categories 

in addition to changes in the definitions of categories. In 

the most recent data, the public water supply category 

includes all uses supplied by residential, commercial, 

industrial, and institutional uses in the public water 

systems. Domestic self-supplied captures residential well 

usage. The average water withdrawal per day in 2005 was 

136 million gallons. Due to collection method changes, 

the charts presented here should not be compared on a 

one-to-one basis; however, water use trends have been 

showing decreases in many areas due to changes in the 

manufacturing base of the economy, conservation practices, 

treatment efficiencies, leak detection, incentive programs, 

and public education. Also collected but not shown here are 

withdrawals for aquaculture (961 million gallons per day) 

and thermoelectricity (262 million gallons per day). In these 

operations also, much of the water withdrawn is returned to 

the source after treatment a short distance downstream.

Many municipal water supplies in the region depend, 

at least partially, on watersheds in the Pisgah, Nantahala, 

and Cherokee National Forests—lands that were set aside 

a century ago for the purpose of protecting water supply. 

The national forests are high-quality sources of clean water 

because these forests mainly grow under conditions that 

produce relatively reliable water runoff and yield water 

relatively low in contaminants when compared with many 

urban and agricultural land uses. 

In much of the rural parts of the region, groundwater 

is the sole resource for drinking water. The depths 

of wells normally range from 20 to 1,200 feet. With 

increasing population, many more wells are being drilled, 

and information on this important resource is not well 

documented. Small towns dependent on wells from local 

fractured-bedrock aquifers are concerned about sufficient 

water supply to support economic development and 

population growth.

Water Supply and Use

Water Quantity

In much of the rural parts of the 

region, groundwater is the sole

resource for drinking water.
103

Average Water Withdrawals in WNC, 1990

Agriculture

Commercial

Domestic

Industrial

Haywood Buncombe Transylvania Wilkes Henderson All other counties 

combined

15

30

45

60

Average Water Withdrawals in WNC (million gallons per day), 2005

Average Water Withdrawals in WNC, 2005

Haywood Buncombe Transylvania Wilkes Henderson All other counties 

combined

15

30

45

60

Livestock

Irrigation, crop

Irrigation, golf

Domestic self-supplied

Public water supply

Industrial self-supplied

0

0

Average water withdrawals 

(million gallons per day)

Average water withdrawals 

(million gallons per day)
104

Clean Air Act of 1970

Air pollution in Western North Carolina, specifically total 

sulfate and nitrate deposition, has been intensely studied 

on 44 sites for over a century. Study sites demonstrate 

a significant increase in total sulfate deposition from 

1860–1970 followed by a significant decline after the Clean 

Air Act of 1970 (CAA). The CAA mandates pollution 

control devices and other techniques be adopted to meet 

targeted reduction levels. In 1977, an amendment to the 

CAA set a national goal to prevent any future, and remedy 

any existing, impairment of visibility in mandatory Class I 

areas, which are a result of human-caused air pollution. 

Visibility conditions

There are four federally mandated Class I areas in Western 

North Carolina: Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wilderness, 

Linville Gorge Wilderness, Shining Rock Wilderness, and 

the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. To achieve the 

visibility goal set by the CAA, a Regional Haze Rule has 

been implemented to achieve natural background visibility 

(following reasonable progress) by the year 2064. 

The first year to determine if reasonable progress is 

being achieved is 2018. The initial emissions reductions 

will focus on reducing sulfur dioxide emissions in order to 

improve visibility by 2018 in comparison to the 2000–2004 

baseline conditions. Information collected from study sites 

predict a decrease in total sulfate deposition between 2010 

and 2018, and it is reasonable to assume that further sulfur 

dioxide emission reductions will be required to achieve 

natural background visibility at the four Class I areas by 

2064. 

Man-made emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen 

oxides, and ammonia are converted in the atmosphere 

and deposited on the ground. The deposition of sulfates, 

nitrates, and ammonia can occur in three forms: wet, dry, 

and cloud water. Before dry deposition can occur, sulfates 

and nitrates, along with other pollutants, contribute to a 

uniform haze that obscures scenic views in Western North 

Carolina. 

At most low elevation locations in the Eastern United 

States, the annual amount of wet and dry deposition is 

similar. Fog may be an additional source of deposition 

below 3,500 feet elevation, but is considered a minor 

component, contributing less than 10 percent of the annual 

total. Cloud water, however, is a significant contributor at 

elevations above 3,500 feet, and the region’s forests may be 

immersed in clouds 30–50 percent of the year. Moreover, 

elevations above 3,500 feet may have twice as much 

deposition as lower elevation sites as a result of the larger 

amount of acid compounds deposited from the cloud water.

Visibility and the Clean Air Act

Air Quality

A Regional Haze Rule has 

been implemented to achieve 

natural background visibility 

(following reasonable progress) 

by the year 2064.
105

Visibility Simulations

Natural Background (1860)

Worst (estimated progress for 2018)

Worst Baseline (2000–2004)

Natural Background (2064)
106

Airborne particulates 

Tiny particles of matter originating from land and sea 

are continually emitted directly into the atmosphere and 

suspended in either gas or liquid form. Particulates are 

also formed in the atmosphere, for example, when sulfur 

dioxide is converted to ammonium sulfates. 

Fine particles are responsible for visibility impairment, 

but they can also negatively impact people’s health. High 

concentrations of fine particulates on a daily or annual basis 

can increase the likelihood of respiratory or cardiovascular 

disease, especially for children and the elderly.

On most days in rural areas of Western North Carolina, 

especially when visibility is poor, ammonium sulfates 

make up the majority of fine particles suspended in the 

atmosphere. In urban areas, the addition of organic particles 

(sodium chloride, magnesium, sulfates, nitrates, calcium, 

ammonia) makes adverse health effects greater in these 

areas.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has 

established two National Ambient Air Quality Standards 

(NAAQS) to protect people’s health. In Western North 

Carolina, there are six locations measuring fine particulates. 

In all six locations, neither the daily average nor the annual 

average has exceeded EPA’s standards. Furthermore, 

the 3-year average trend in fine particulates has been 

decreasing at most of the monitoring sites. 

Airborne Particulates

Air Quality

In Western North Carolina, there 

are six locations measuring fine

particulates. In all six locations, 

neither the daily average nor the

annual average has exceeded 

EPA’s standards.
107

Fine particulates, Shining Rock Wilderness Area, August 2007

Clear day: little uniform haze, 

no cloud deposition Cloud deposition

Uniform haze: visibility impairment 

before dry deposition pollutants

Total fine particulates (22.22 μg/m3) measured near Shining Rock Wilderness and the 

corresponding digital photograph at 3 p.m. on Aug. 1, 2007, when visibility was poor.

Ammonium sulfate 81%

Organic carbon 14%

Soil 2%

Elemental carbon 2%

Ammonium nitrate 1%
Ground-Level Ozone

Air Quality

Recent monitoring indicates that 

ground-level ozone is currently 

not exceeding EPA standards at 

low and medium elevation sites, 

but standards are exceeded at 

most high elevation sites.

108

Sensitive Tolerant

Black cherry Sugar maple Northern red oak

Tulip-poplar White pine Virginia pine

Winged sumac Loblolly pine Eastern hemlock

American sycamore Red maple Red spruce

Ground-level ozone

Ozone is an oxygen molecule with three oxygen atoms 

(O3

). A gas found high in the atmosphere, ozone protects 

the planet against the harmful effects of ultraviolet 

radiation. Ozone also naturally occurs at ground level. 

However, ground levels of ozone can increase substantially 

when nitrogen oxides, emitted mostly from vehicles and 

coal-fired power plants, combine with volatile organic 

compounds released primarily from trees. 

The greatest amount of ground-level ozone formation 

occurs on hot, sunny days when wind speeds are low and 

the air becomes stagnant. Both chronic and acute ozone 

exposures at ground level can be harmful to sensitive 

humans and vegetation.

Ground-level ozone is continuously monitored 

at 11 sites in Western North Carolina. The sites are 

distributed across low-, medium-, and high-elevation 

sites. At low- and medium-elevation sites, ground-level 

ozone varies throughout the day. Typically, ozone levels 

begin to increase at about 8:00 a.m., reaching the highest 

concentrations at 11:00 a.m. and remaining elevated until 

about 5:00 p.m. Ozone begins to decrease in the evening 

hours and continues to decrease until the early morning 

hours of the next day. 

Ozone patterns mirror daily weather patterns of 

temperature and solar radiation, increasing during the 

day and decreasing during the night. The daily pattern 

also mirrors fossil fuel use. Nitrogen oxide emissions 

increase in the morning when people use electricity to get 

ready for work and gasoline to travel to work. Fossil fuel 

combustion, and thus nitrogen oxide generation, is also 

greatest at the end of the day; however, with decreasing 

solar radiation, the nitrogen oxides react with the ozone

(instead of volatile organic compounds) and decrease the 

ozone concentrations in the atmosphere. Typically, the total 

amount of ozone exposure is less at lower elevation sites 

(except for the monitoring site adjacent to Asheville) when 

compared to the medium elevation site at Linville Falls. 

Recent monitoring indicates that ground-level ozone 

is currently not exceeding EPA standards at low- and 

medium-elevation sites, but standards are exceeded at 

most high-elevation sites. Therefore, people outdoors and 

sensitive plant communities above 4,000 feet elevation are 

likely to be negatively impacted by ground-level ozone.

The EPA continually reviews the scientific literature 

and is considering a revision in ground-level ozone 

standards. If EPA decides to lower the standard to 0.06 

parts per million, all 11 sites in Western North Carolina 

will exceed the National Ambient Air Quality standard. 

EPA may also reduce secondary ozone standards, such as 

hourly averages over time and peak concentrations. If this 

change occurs, most of the study sites will exceed the new 

standards.

Ground-level ozone and growth rate of trees

Controlled studies indicate that reductions in vegetation 

biomass (the dry weight of stems, leaves, and roots) occur 

with chronic exposures of peak concentrations at highelevation sites. Although scientists disagree on the effects 

of ozone exposure to vegetation during the night, it has 

been argued that vegetative defense mechanisms to ozone 

exposure may decrease during the night and, therefore, 

peak ozone concentrations could cause physiological 

damage to vegetation. 

Other factors have to be considered as well. The 

Southern Appalachian Mountains have the highest number 

of plant species of any temperate forest in the United 

States. While only a few species have been studied, 

scientists have demonstrated that there is a continuum of 

plant tolerance to ozone exposure both between and within 

species. Recent studies have shown that northern red oak 

was unresponsive to increases in ozone exposure; however, 

tulip-poplar experienced reduced biomass formation. 

Overall, the total amount of area occupied by trees in a 

forest stand is likely to remain unchanged with variable 

ozone levels, but species composition may change. 

Additional factors, such as the amount of sunlight 

hitting the leaves or the amount of available soil nitrogen, 

can influence the level of gaseous uptake from the 

atmosphere in sensitive species. Soil moisture, however, 

has the greatest influence on whether ozone will penetrate 

the leaves, because plant cells used for gas exchange close 

during periods of drought.
109

Ozone monitor elevations

High (>3,500 feet)

Medium (3,000 – 3,500 feet)

Low (<3,000 feet)

Elevation ≥ 3,500 feet

Frying Pan

Coweeta

Linville Falls

Average ozone (ppm)

0.025

0.050

0.075

0.000

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

Hour of the day

Daily Ozone Concentration

Coweeta (low elevation)

Linville Falls (medium elevation)

Frying Pan (high elevation)
NO and SO2

 Emissions

Air Quality

110

Nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide reduction

Nitrogen oxide emissions have been decreasing in States 

near Western North Carolina, and it is anticipated that they 

will continue to decrease in the future. This reduction will 

lower ozone exposures, especially peak concentrations 

from ground-level sources (primarily vehicles) and 

elevated sources (primarily coal-fired power plants).

In a recent six-State analysis by the Southern 

Appalachian Mountains Initiative, nitrogen oxide 

reductions from ground-level and atmospheric sources 

were studied, one State at a time. Resulting ozone 

concentrations were then predicted for Joyce KilmerSlickrock, Linville Gorge, and Shining Rock Wilderness 

Areas (these three Wilderness Areas represent the range of 

responses to ozone reduction that could occur throughout 

Western North Carolina). Findings indicate that ozone 

exposures will be lowered if nitrogen oxides are reduced 

from both sources. However, the greatest benefit would 

occur if ground-level emissions of nitrogen oxides were 

reduced. Also, Western North Carolina would receive the 

most benefit if nitrogen oxide emission reductions occurred 

in eastern Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, and 

Georgia.

The major source of sulfur dioxide emission is coalfired power plants. In 1990, the utility industry contributed 

about one-half of all nitrogen oxide emissions. From 1980–

2008, in States adjacent to the region, the implementation 

of various emission reduction strategies led to decreased 

emissions of both sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. 

Additionally, from 1993–2008, the reduction in 

sulfur dioxide led to an overall reduction in wet sulfate 

deposition. In the same period, the annual wet nitrate 

deposition decreased, but the ammonia deposition from 

rainfall remained level or perhaps increased slightly.

The Southern Appalachian Mountains Initiative 

conducted a study in 2002 to find out where air pollution 

affecting the region originates. Estimates were provided for 

three locations in Western North Carolina: Joyce KilmerSlickrock, Linville Gorge, and Shining Rock Wilderness 

Areas. Fossil fuel emissions from the States of Tennessee, 

North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama are major 

contributors to visibility impairment and unsustainable 

acidic deposition in these areas of Western North Carolina.

Nitrogen oxide emissions from coal-fired power plants Sulfur dioxide emissions from coal-fired power plants

Nitrogen Oxide 

Emissions (tons)

Sulfur Dioxide 

Emissions (tons)

180,000

500,000

1995 2000 2005 2008 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2008
111

Wet sulfate deposition 1993

Wet sulfate deposition 2008

Wet sulfate (kg/ha)

Emissions of nitrogen oxide 

and sulfur dioxide have been 

decreasing in States near 

Western North Carolina, and it is 

anticipated that they will continue 

to decrease in the future.

≤ 3

> 3–6

> 6–12

> 12–18

> 18–24

> 24–30

> 30

Elevation ≥ 3,500 feet
112
113

Carbon Cycle Carbon Cycle, Carbon Pool, Carbon Market

Carbon is the key element in all living things. It 

continuously cycles through the earth’s plants, animals, 

atmosphere, land, and oceans. The vast majority of carbon 

is stored in sedimentary bedrock and seawater. At current 

levels, atmospheric carbon threatens to alter climate 

conditions on Earth.

Carbon dioxide (CO2

), often called a “greenhouse 

gas,” traps heat within the atmosphere in much the 

same way as glass traps heat in a greenhouse. The 

accumulation of greenhouse gases has led to rising global 

average temperature which, in turn, has led to changes in 

precipitation patterns, storm severity, and sea level. A high 

level of uncertainty exists as to the magnitude of projected 

changes. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as 

“climate change.”

Technological advances and conservation measures 

are needed to reduce the human-caused contribution of 

atmospheric carbon. Technological innovations that may 

one day transform our energy sources are already in place 

and will likely become more widespread in the future. 

Alternative methods include wind, solar, and nuclear 

power. The use of these sources could eventually reduce or 

replace the combustion of fossil fuel, although significant 

challenges must be overcome for them to become 

established in the United States at large. 

Carbon is stored in forests and “carbon markets” are 

financial instruments used to counteract emissions through 

the conservation of forest land. Specifically, landowners 

may be paid to keep their forests intact. 

In the short term, a 25-percent decrease in atmospheric 

carbon could be achieved by voluntary conservation 

measures, such as turning off home computers when not in 

use, replacing light bulbs with compact fluorescents, and 

driving less in more fuel-efficient vehicles. 
114

Carbon cycling in the atmosphere

The earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen (78 

percent), oxygen (21 percent), and trace gases (1 percent). 

CO2, a trace gas, and other greenhouse gases, including 

methane, water vapor, and nitrous oxide, are important 

because they form a layer in the atmosphere that prevents 

infrared energy (heat) from circulating back into space. 

Historically, natural fluctuations in atmospheric 

CO2

 occurred due to temperature fluctuation or volcanic 

eruptions. Since the mid-1800s, however, atmospheric 

concentrations of CO2 have risen at a much faster rate 

than at any time within the previous 650,000 years. The 

20th century, especially, has seen massive increases in 

emissions, due predominantly to increased combustion of 

fossil fuels. To release their stored energy, fossil fuels are 

burned to serve growing energy needs, such as electricity, 

transportation, and manufacturing. During the combustion 

process, a variety of gases and particulates are released into 

the atmosphere. Primary releases include carbon, sulfur, 

and nitrogen. Carbon molecules combine with water vapor 

to form atmospheric CO2

. 

Carbon cycling on land

Carbon is cycled on land through various processes. Trees 

and all other plants absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) through 

photosynthesis and store the carbon-based sugars in their 

trunks, leaves, and roots. On the forest floor, carbon is 

pooled in leaf litter. Soils store carbon in organic matter 

made up of plant and animal materials in various stages 

of decay. Coal, oil, and natural gas, formed hundreds of 

millions of years ago from the decomposition and remains 

of organisms, store carbon beneath the earth’s surface. 

Lastly, sedimentary rock stores large amounts of carbon 

in deposits of limestone, dolomite, and chalk. All living 

organisms (plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria) release 

CO2 through the process of respiration and decomposition. 

While changes in land use have resulted in the release 

of carbon to the atmosphere, the most significant release 

has been through the extraction and combustion of coal, 

oil, and natural gas. 

Carbon cycling in the oceans

Ocean organisms also use CO2 in the process of 

photosynthesis. Sea creatures feed on carbon-rich plants 

and release CO2 into the water through respiration and 

decomposition. Carbon from the remains of aquatic plants, 

animals, and plankton dissolve or is buried in sediment 

on the ocean floor. Deep ocean water and its underlying 

bedrock also comprise a rich carbon sink.

Additionally, surface waters chemically react with 

atmospheric CO2

. The rate at which oceans uptake 

atmospheric CO2 varies with water temperature and winddriven currents. The warmer the surface water becomes, 

the harder it is for winds to mix surface layers with deeper 

layers. Stagnant waters support fewer plankton and CO2

uptake from photosynthesis slows. In short, stratification 

decreases the amount of carbon the ocean can sequester.

Global Carbon Exchange

Carbon Cycles

While changes in land use have 

resulted in the release of carbon 

to the atmosphere, the most 

significant release has been 

through the extraction and 

combustion of coal, oil, and 

natural gas.
115

Global Average Temperature and Carbon Dioxide Concentrations, 1880–2004

CO2 Concentration (ppmv)

Global Average Temperature (°F)

Year

Global Temperatures

CO2 (ice cores)

CO2 (Mauna Loa)
116

Carbon storage 

In addition to existing benefits such as scenic beauty, 

biodiversity, water quality, and recreation opportunities, 

our region’s heavily forested landscape stores a significant 

amount of carbon. The USDA Forest Service Forest 

Inventory Data Online (FIDO) EVALIDator 4.01 tool 

estimates the total amount of carbon currently stored in 

Western North Carolina to be 240 million tons. Carbon is 

primarily stored in live trees (58 percent) followed by soil 

(31 percent). 

 

Storage capacity

Under normal growing season conditions, the process of 

photosynthesis leads to an increase in the amount of carbon 

stored in forests, while metabolic changes (respiration, 

decomposition) and physical changes (wildfire, harvest, 

insects, and disease) decrease this amount. Moreover, the 

rate of carbon accumulation varies significantly with forest 

age, type, location, soil type and depth, as well as leafy and 

wood biomass. 

Because the rate of growth in young forests is 

relatively high, carbon accumulates quickly in the first 

several decades. However, as a forest matures—such as the 

forests here in Western North Carolina—the rate of growth 

slows and the ability to sequester new carbon declines and 

eventually falls off precipitously. The predominant forest 

type in Western North Carolina is upland hardwoods. After 

these forests surpass 80 years of age, the trees are more 

likely to lose vigor and the ability to uptake carbon from the 

atmosphere. 

This loss in vigor also drives the incentive to harvest 

trees while they are at peak market value. The forests of 

Western North Carolina currently represent a significant 

carbon pool, but in the future carbon losses will almost 

certainly outpace carbon gains.

Carbon storage in Western North Carolina

Live Trees

Soil

Litter

Down Dead Trees

Standing Dead Trees

58%

31%

5%

4% 2%

Carbon storage in Western North Carolina

Live Trees

Soil

Litter

Down Dead Trees

Standing Dead Trees

Carbon Storage in Western North Carolina

Carbon Storage

The forests of Western North 

Carolina currently represent a

significant carbon pool, but in the 

future carbon losses will almost

certainly outpace carbon gains.
117
118

What is a carbon market?

Historically, regulations to lower air pollution were 

designed to control specific emissions from designated 

sources. However, early regulatory programs were found to 

be inefficient and did not serve their purpose of improving 

air quality. Recently, the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency has listed carbon dioxide as a pollutant. Regulatory 

programs and market-based options are under consideration 

in response to calls for emission reduction.

Market-based options create a public venue where 

buyers and sellers come together to exchange goods and 

services at prevailing prices. Two market-based initiatives 

exist to reduce pollutants in the atmosphere: a carbon 

emission tax and a “cap and trade” program.

Carbon tax

A carbon tax levies a tax per unit of emissions. The tax 

can be added as a surtax to existing tax structures, which 

is relatively easy; however, the use and dispersion of 

the generated funds is often complicated. A tax may 

significantly increase revenue, which can be used to 

decrease other inefficient taxes, or to provide subsidies for 

more sustainable investments. Applied effectively, a tax 

would encourage firms to reduce emissions and provide 

revenue for the government. Several European countries 

—including Finland, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, 

and Norway—have successfully implemented a carbon 

emission tax.

“Cap and Trade” System

A “cap and trade” system sets an aggregate limit, or cap, 

on emissions and creates permits for this amount. Permits 

are issued for free or auctioned off by regulatory agencies 

to be traded among firms as a part of their strategy to 

meet emission requirements. Often, companies with high 

pollution abatement costs purchase permits from those with 

low costs. A “cap and trade” system doesn’t put a specific 

price on emissions; it allows the market to set the price, 

thus eliminating the difficulties associated with policy 

makers attempting to do this. Significant cost savings have 

been observed under existing “cap and trade” systems, but 

long-term results are not yet known.

“Avoided Deforestation” Carbon Offset Market 

Offsets are the result of an action taken to avoid, sequester, 

or displace emissions of carbon. A successful carbon offset 

program begins with the creation of a market for entities 

producing atmospheric carbon and those sequestering it. 

Emission rates are determined for carbon producers, such 

as regional energy utilities, as well as their willingness 

to buy carbon offsets. Likewise, carbon sequestration 

rates are calculated for forest land whose owners agree to 

keep their forests intact. Through third-party auditors, the 

amount of carbon that can be sequestered through “avoided 

deforestation” is certified and becomes available for an 

offset purchase. 

Two market-based initiatives 

exist to reduce pollutants in the 

atmosphere: a carbon emission tax 

and a “cap and trade” program.

Carbon Market in Western North Carolina

Carbon Markets
119

Carbon offset market in Western North Carolina

At some point in the future, voluntary guidelines and/or 

mandatory regulations are expected to be put in place to 

limit CO2 emissions. The decision to regulate greenhouse 

gas emissions will undoubtedly have large political and 

economic ramifications, and the time frame for passage 

of such legislation is unknown. If guidelines are adopted 

or regulations are issued and a “cap and trade” system is 

established, “avoided deforestation” is an offset option that 

should be analyzed further. The value of such an offset 

may rise due to increased demand, which may attract forest 

landowners to participate. 

 The establishment of such a market would entail 

the identification of buyers and sellers as well as the 

appointment of regulatory oversight responsibilities. A 

number of monitoring issues must be addressed for any 

carbon-based project. These include natural or man-made 

events that reduce or increase carbon storage, as well as 

changes in land use patterns in and outside the region. 

Sellers of carbon offsets 

Landowners must certify their forest to participate in 

the market; but after initial inventory requirements are 

met, the offset allowance should be straightforward to 

maintain. Sustainable harvesting should be allowed, even 

encouraged, as it would increase multiple values and help 

maintain the health and vitality of a maturing forest. In 

addition, management practices, such as group selection 

harvests under an uneven aged management system, would 

result in increased carbon storage capability and provide 

early successional habitat for wildlife.

Presently, few financial incentives are available 

to private forest landowners who want to maintain and 

manage their forest land. Often, the most profitable action 

a landowner can take is to harvest their timber resource and 

develop the land. Market prices do not take into account 

consequences that may be associated with land use change 

and/or unsustainable harvesting regimes, such as impaired 

water quality, increased levels of erosion, and reduced 

biodiversity, for which no compensation is paid. The single 

largest threat to forest land in the region continues to be 

fragmented residential and commercial development. The 

economic returns from development are significant and 

will be hard to match. Any and all monetary incentives 

available to forest landowners may help deter them from 

converting their forest land to nonforest land uses. 

Buyers of carbon offsets

Several large entities in Western North Carolina, such as 

the City of Asheville and the University of North Carolina 

at Asheville, have calculated the amount of carbon they 

are currently emitting. Many others are already in the 

process of creating emission reduction programs and have 

expressed interest in a local carbon offset market. There 

may also be buyers located outside of the region. 

Avoided Deforestation: Carbon is 

sequestered in forests and “sold” 

to offset carbon emissions.

Continued...
120

Challenges and implications

Western North Carolina forests are no longer experiencing 

high growth rates, and their ability to sequester carbon will 

continue to diminish as they age. Areas outside the region 

that have the capability to sequester large amounts of 

carbon in short rotation forests in more nutrient-rich soils 

may provide a more profitable offset market. In addition, 

our existing regional timber markets will likely experience 

growth as demand strengthens for mature high-quality 

hardwood and softwood products. If a viable infrastructure 

for small diameter wood emerges, a market for wood 

biomass may also develop. 

However, if an “avoided deforestation” offset market 

were found to be economically feasible, it would position 

the region to adopt regional or national regulations in a 

more cost-effective manner and help landowners conserve 

their forests while providing abundant collateral benefits. 

In any case, in order to avoid the detrimental effects 

of global climate change, it is necessary to begin the hard 

process of reducing and mitigating the effects of burning 

fossil fuels. Although the extent of change is yet to be 

determined, overall welfare is expected to be permanently 

reduced. A variety of mitigation strategies will be needed, 

and Western North Carolina policy makers should take a 

closer look at regional forest and wood product accounting 

as they relate to carbon flows, as well as working to 

conserve and manage our existing forests as a valuable 

carbon pool. 

Carbon Market in Western North Carolina

Carbon Markets
121

Avoided Deforestation Carbon Offset Market
122

 Historic Cabin, Nantahala National Forest
123

Socioeconomic Benefits

Recreation, Tourism, and the Forest Economy

Social, cultural, and economic factors in Western North 

Carolina have changed dramatically in the years since 

1960. The large metropolitan areas have grown faster than 

the rural counties and have been better able to withstand 

economic downturns as their economies became more 

diversified. Arts, entertainment, and recreation represent 

a significant growth sector in the region, with Buncombe, 

Watauga, Henderson, and Jackson Counties being the 

major centers for these endeavors. Western North Carolina 

is also recognized for its wilderness and roadless areas, 

resources limited in both the Southern Appalachians and 

the Eastern United States. 

Forest products are an important contributor to the 

regional economy. The value of wood and wood products 

closely reflects variability in national economic conditions 

and, as expected, the demand for forest products has 

decreased during two recessions in the past decade. The 

forests of Western North Carolina are now maturing, 

leading to an increase in the available volume of high-value 

sawtimber and veneer logs in the future. 

Finally, population has increased steadily since 

1960, with the highest populations residing in Buncombe, 

Henderson, Wilkes, and Haywood Counties. Newcomers 

appear to have different values and lifestyles than their 

predecessors, especially regarding the use and preservation 

of natural resources. Long-time residents depended on 

natural resources to make a living and to provide a setting 

for traditional events and activities, and hence generally 

favor use and conservation of natural resources. New 

residents, often relocating from large cities outside the 

region, are more inclined to see natural resources set aside 

and preserved for the ecological and aesthetic services they 

provide. This dichotomy of views continues to challenge 

the region to plan for and achieve sustainable outcomes.
124

Economic trends in Western North Carolina

Although experiencing the effects of a contracting national 

economy from 2008 to 2010, regional economic activity 

in Western North Carolina has been steadily growing since 

1970. Economic conditions vary considerably between 

the region and the State, but also within the region. The 

2001 recession was especially difficult for Western North 

Carolina, but the subsequent recovery has been even more 

challenging. The regional economy continues to lag behind 

the rest of the State, and trends suggest the divide between 

the region and the State will continue to grow. 

Jobs

There was a general increase in the number of jobs in all 

counties until the start of the 2000s. A slowdown occurred 

in the majority of counties, with some, like Buncombe, 

experiencing negative growth for two years (2001–2002) 

but recovering thereafter. In terms of distribution, the 

majority of jobs were located in Buncombe County, with 

Henderson and Wilkes a distant second and third. More 

jobs are now related to recreation and tourism than in 

previous decades. In the AdvantageWest region, which 

encompasses all 18 counties plus Burke, Caldwell, and 

McDowell, the industries that have a demonstrated 

competitive advantage relative to North Carolina and 

the Nation are recreation and tourism, retirement and 

second homes, arts and crafts, vehicle parts assembly, 

metalworking, and chemicals and plastics.

Average wage and income

There was also a general increase in wages for nearly all 

counties until the start of the current decade. A slowdown 

occurred in some of the more affluent counties (Wilkes, 

Transylvania) at the start of the 2000s, but reversed itself 

thereafter. In terms of distribution, Buncombe County 

currently has the highest average wage, but Transylvania 

County had the highest wages for most of the period. It is 

also interesting to note that Haywood County had equal or 

higher wages than Buncombe during the 1970s and 1980s. 

Wage rates quadrupled from 1975 to 2005; but when 

inflation is factored in, the real wage rate increased by only 

9.1 percent. Real wages expressed in 1975 dollars actually

declined slightly from the 1970s to 1980s, then increased 

6.2 percent from the 1980s to the 1990s, and increased 

again 2.8 percent from 2000 to 2005. In the 1970s, the 

counties with the highest wages were Transylvania, 

Haywood, and Buncombe Counties. Most recently 

Buncombe, Wilkes, and Henderson Counties have the 

highest wages. 

In spite of this, in 2007 the region’s average income 

($31,556) still lags behind national ($44,470) and State 

($39,184) average income. All counties in the region fell 

behind North Carolina’s $39,184 median household income 

level. Transylvania, Henderson, and Buncombe are closest 

to the State average, ranging from $36,000 to $38,000. 

Ashe, Swain, Cherokee, and Graham Counties have the 

lowest median household income, ranging from $26,645 to 

$28,800, respectively.

Economic Overview

Social, Cultural, and Economic Factors

More jobs are now related to 

recreation and tourism than in 

previous decades.
125

Average Number of Total Jobs Per Decade by Regional Council of Government

50

100

150

200

0

Average Number of Total Jobs

(thousands)

Land-of-Sky

High Country

Southwestern

Average Wage Per Decade by Regional Council of Government

1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s

10

20

30

0

Average Wage

(thousand dollars)

Land-of-Sky

High Country

Southwestern

1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
126

Poverty

The regional poverty rate (13.2 percent) is higher than the 

national (12.6 percent) and State (12.3 percent) average 

rates, and the number of students going to college also lags 

behind: 16.1 percent in Western North Carolina compared 

to 22.5 percent across the State and 39.0 percent nationally. 

Twelve of the 18 counties have higher county-level poverty 

rates than the State and national average. Graham and 

Swain counties have the highest poverty rates, at 19.5 

percent and 18.3 percent, respectively. 

Unemployment

In July 2009, the average unemployment rate for the 

region was 10.6 percent, up 3.8 percent from 6.8 percent 

unemployment rate in July 2008. Moreover, 10 of the 18 

counties had unemployment rates exceeding 10 percent. 

The city of Asheville, the largest metropolitan area in the 

region, had an unemployment rate of 8.7 percent in July 

2009, compared to 5.0 percent the previous year. North 

Carolina overall had an unemployment rate of 11.0 percent 

in 2009, and 6.3 percent in 2008, an increase of 4.7 percent. 

Arts, entertainment, and recreation jobs

From 2001 to 2007, there was a general increase in the 

number of arts, entertainment, and recreation jobs, mainly 

in Buncombe, Jackson, and Wilkes Counties. All other 

counties were stable in terms of job numbers for the 

duration of the period, with exceptions such as Haywood 

and Henderson, which lost jobs. In terms of distribution, 

Buncombe County, with the highest population, has the 

highest number of arts, entertainment, and recreation 

jobs, while Watauga, Henderson, and Jackson Counties 

represent the other major art centers. Buncombe County’s 

considerable prominence in this field is highly attributable 

to the greater Asheville area’s expanding arts and craft 

scene, as well as tourism hubs like the Biltmore Estate and 

the Grove Park Inn.

Forestry-related jobs 

Reporting employment statistics for forestry-related sectors 

is difficult at this scale. In several counties in which mills 

are located, they are so few in number that publication of 

employment statistics violates their right of privacy.

Therefore, contribution of forest-related jobs cannot 

accurately be reported for the 18-county region. However, 

revenue to the region from total roundwood products 

indicates the number of forest-related jobs is significant. 

From 1995 to 2007, the average annual value of total 

roundwood output delivered to mills in the region ranged 

from $110 million to $155.4 million.

Population

Population in the region has steadily increased since the 

1970s. This increase is projected to continue into year 

2020 for all counties. In 1970, the region’s population was 

480,640 people. In 2010, the population grew to 744,630, 

an increase of 55 percent. The counties with the highest 

populations include Buncombe, Henderson, Wilkes, and 

Haywood. The total population is expected to grow at a 

rate of 9.8 percent over the next 10 years; however, this 

projection may not materialize due to current economic 

conditions. 

Economic Overview

Social, Cultural, and Economic Factors

Population in the region has 

steadily increased since the 

1970s. This increase is projected 

to continue into year 2020 for all 

counties. 
127

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation Employment by Regional Council of Government

2001 2003 2005 2007

2

4

6

8

0

Number employed

(thousands)

Land-of-Sky

High Country

Southwestern

Population by Regional Council of Government

1970 1980 1990 2020

10

20

30

0

Population

(thousands)

Land-of-Sky

High Country

Southwestern

2002 2004 2006

2000 2010
128

Western North Carolina, a place of natural beauty marked 

by areas of ruggedness and isolation, is recognized as a 

revitalizing health destination, a highly ranked destination 

for outdoor enthusiasts, and a zone of ecological 

importance. As a result, forest recreation and tourism have 

long been important contributors to the regional economy.

At the beginning of the 20th century, little was known 

of the hydrology of mountain watersheds—specifically 

how water moves through soil to sustain mountain streams 

and prevent flooding. The recognition of the importance of 

forests in watershed protection and wildfire control were 

the primary justifications for acquisition of the region’s 

national forests almost a century ago. The additional 

designations of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park 

(1940), the Blue Ridge Parkway (begun in 1935), and other 

significant sites secured the region’s place as one of the 

most significant natural areas in Eastern North America.

Recreation areas

The region includes the North Carolina section of the Blue 

Ridge Parkway, the most visited national park unit; the 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park (located in Western 

North Carolina and Tennessee), the most visited national 

park; and the Pisgah and Nantahala National Forests, two 

of the most visited national forests in the United States. 

The Parkway winds through popular destination points 

such as Mount Mitchell, the highest mountain east of 

the Mississippi River, and Mount Pisgah, known for its 

panoramic mountain views. Many visitors enjoy abundant 

rivers and waterfalls, including the highest waterfall in the 

eastern United States—Whitewater Falls, in Transylvania 

County. The Nantahala National Forest includes the Joyce 

Kilmer Wilderness, which contains one of the largest 

stands of old-growth trees in the Eastern United States The 

Pisgah National Forest is the site of the Biltmore Forest 

School, the first forestry school in America, now open to 

the public as an educational and interpretive center. The 

North Carolina Arboretum near Asheville, NC, is one of 

the finest public gardens in the Southern Appalachians. 

Grandfather Mountain, elevation 5,946 feet above sea 

level, is a globally recognized nature preserve featuring 

beautiful mountain scenery, a mile-high swinging bridge, 

and a nature museum, as well as trails, picnic areas, and 

naturalist programs. 

The Biltmore Estate, also located in Asheville, is 

known worldwide as “America’s Largest Home.” This 

private attraction includes a mansion with 250 rooms, 65 

fireplaces, one indoor pool, a bowling alley, vineyards, an 

historic farm, crafts, and music performances. The estate 

annually draws approximately one million visitors to the 

Asheville area. 

Outdoor recreation activities include innumerable 

hiking trails, including a 200-mile section of the famed 

Appalachian Trail. Top-ranked mountain biking, hunting, 

fishing, rafting, kayaking, canoeing, birding, rock climbing, 

camping, skiing, and even ziplining bring outdoor 

enthusiasts to the area. The ski slopes of Cataloochee, 

Sugar, and Beech Mountains and others summon winter 

sports travelers. Rivers such as the Nantahala, French 

Broad, Green, and Cheoah are among the region’s 

waterways with world-class whitewater rafting, kayaking, 

canoeing, tubing, swimming, and other water fun. 

Asheville is repeatedly cited as one of the best travel 

destinations in the world, offering arts and crafts, outdoor 

adventures, eclectic cuisine, spas and resorts, public 

gardens, and more.

Recreation Areas

Forest Recreation and Tourism
129

Recreation areas

Great Smoky Mountains National Park

 Developed Campsites

Campsites Along The Blue Ridge Parkway

Campsites in National Forest

Ski Resorts

Boat Access

Experimental Forests

Wilderness Areas

Mountains to Sea Trail

Appalachian Trail

National Parks

National Forests

The Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park is the most visited 

national park.
130

Blue Ridge National Heritage Area

In 2003, again recognizing the region’s natural beauty, 

unique character, and cultural history, the U.S. Congress 

designated the mountains of Western North Carolina as 

the Blue Ridge National Heritage Area (BRNHA). The 

BRNHA includes the 18 counties in this Report Card, plus 

the Qualla Boundary and Burke, Caldwell, McDowell, 

Polk, Rutherford, Surry, and Yadkin Counties. The Federal 

Government cited “a distinctive landscape arising from 

patterns of human activity shaped by geography.” The 

mission of BRNHA is to protect, preserve, interpret, and 

develop the region for the benefit of present and future 

generations and strive to stimulate improved economic 

opportunity in the area. 

Who recreates here and why?

A 2008 study completed in the BRNHA counties found 

preferences of visitors differ with demographic and 

socioeconomic factors. It was discovered that a large 

portion of the visitors to the region come from those living 

nearby in North Carolina or from surrounding Southeastern 

States. Of the 4,125 respondents, 23 percent identified 

themselves as day trippers, and 77 percent as overnight 

visitors. The average age of day trippers is 50 years old, 

and for overnight, 53 years old. Most respondents, day or 

overnight, fell between the ages of 46 to 65. This is slightly 

higher than that of travelers to the State as a whole, which 

had a mean age, in 2006, of 45. 

Almost half of all visitors to the region have a 

college degree or a graduate degree, making the BRNHA 

group more highly educated when compared to the U.S. 

population, of which 27 percent has a college degree. Well 

over half of the visitors have higher household incomes 

than the national median household income. A majority of 

visitors travel in parties of two, as the median party size for 

both overnight guests and day trippers was 2.7.

The results indicate the highest preference is for 

outdoor recreation, followed by festivals and events, 

gardens or trails, crafts, Cherokee sites, music activities, 

and farms and orchards. Preferences also appear to differ 

among men and women. For example, the top activities 

for women were craft activities, while men rated outdoor 

recreation or ecotourism at the top of their lists. This data 

has proved useful in targeting tourism marketing efforts. 

The study also gives hints for development of tourism 

attractions that will appeal to particular visitor sectors. 

Number of visitors

From 1985 to 2009, the total number of recreation visits in 

the region’s national forests increased from 2.9 million to 

6.8 million, an increase of 136 percent. From 1993–2002, 

the number of average annual visitors to the North Carolina 

section of the Blue Ridge Parkway was 11.6 million. The 

number of visitors to the Great Smoky Mountains National 

Park in North Carolina and Tennessee has varied slightly, 

but has remained around 9 million per year. The national 

forests in Western North Carolina, which offer a much 

broader range of recreational activities, are some of the 

most visited in the national forest system.

Recreation Use

Forest Recreation and Tourism

The total number of recreation 

visits in the region’s national 

forests increased from 2.9 million 

in 1985 to 6.8 million in 2009.
131

Tourist Activity Preferences in the Blue Ridge Natural Heritage Area

Outdoor 

Recreation

Gardens 

or Trails

Cherokee

Sites

Farms and

Orchards

1

2

3

0

Number of respondents

(thousands)

Total Visitation to Federal Parks and Forests

1985 1990 1995 2009

5

10

20

0

Visitors

(millions)

Blue Ridge Parkway (NC and VA)

Great Smoky Mountains (NC and TN)

National Forests

Festivals 

and Events

Crafts Music 

Activities

2000 2005

15
132

The region’s public and private resources and attractions 

are a significant driver of the economy and have a strong 

influence on local employment and wages. In 2008, the 

annual budget for the entire Blue Ridge Parkway was 

$16.1 million. Between 1980 and 2006, the Parkway 

budget increased 0.5 percent after adjusted for inflation; 

thus, Federal allocations have not kept pace with operating 

and maintenance costs. Due to flat budget levels, staffing 

has decreased, many facilities close earlier in the fall and 

open later in spring, law enforcement officers are stretched 

beyond capacity, and vistas have become overgrown or 

non-existent. Preserving and protecting the Parkway and 

its millions of visitors each year is important. The Parkway 

is a sound economic engine for tourism, as it generates 

an estimated $2.3 billion annually in North Carolina and 

Virginia. 

In the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, located 

in North Carolina and Tennessee, there are similar signs 

of budget shortfalls. With no entrance fee, the park suffers 

from overuse. Each year, 9 million people visit only 

520,000 acres. In comparison, Yellowstone National Park, 

which encompasses 2.2 million acres, averages only 3 

million visitors annually. The Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park is estimated to have a maintenance backlog 

approaching $170 million, and is operating under a 

shortfall of around $11 million annually.

From 2000 to 2010, total national forest recreation 

budgets have been steadily increasing. In the Pisgah and 

Nantahala National Forests, recreation operations and 

management funds have increased from $1.0 million 

to $1.8 million, an 80 percent nominal increase (42 

percent increase when adjusted for inflation), while trail 

construction and maintenance has increased from $332,084 

to $387,309 (16 percent nominal increase, but an 8 percent 

decline when adjusted for inflation). From 2000 to 2010, 

recreation fee receipts to the national forests in Western 

North Carolina increased from $1,028,477 to $1,338,532 

(30 percent nominal increase, but only a 3 percent increase 

when adjusted for inflation). With passage of the 2005 

Recreation Enhancement Act, special recreation uses, such 

as those that require extra measures to protect natural or 

cultural resources, saw almost a fourfold increase from 

$120,928 to $429,036 (but still more than a threefold 

increase when adjusted for inflation.) 

The national forests in Western North Carolina are 

also dealing with a substantial recreation management and 

maintenance backlog. The forests have a large number of 

developed and dispersed recreation sites that are aging and 

showing signs of overuse.

In addition to the natural attractions, the region 

includes the city of Asheville, which receives over 2.9 

million visitors per year. From 2000 to 2007, the economic 

contribution of tourism from the greater Asheville area, 

including direct and indirect revenue, almost doubled from 

$1.0 billion to $1.9 billion. 

Paying for Recreation

Forest Recreation and Tourism
133

Couple fishing from picnic site, 

Nantahala River 

Foggy View at Wayah Bald

Mountain Biking

Canoeing on Balsam Lake,

Nantahala National Forest

The national forests in Western 

North Carolina have a large 

number of developed and 

dispersed recreation sites that 

are aging and showing signs 

of overuse.
134

With operating costs continually increasing and owners/

operators rarely able to keep pace, many organizations, 

both public and private, have had to implement or increase 

a fee program to meet operating and maintenance costs.

Some national parks collect no entrance or users 

fees (Great Smoky Mountains and Blue Ridge Parkway), 

while others (Yellowstone, Yosemite, and Grand Canyon) 

individually generate more than $4 million a year in 

entrance fees. The reason the Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park does not charge an entrance fee dates back 

to the 1930s, when the land was privately owned. In 1936, 

the State of Tennessee transferred ownership of Newfound 

Gap Road to the Federal Government with a stipulation 

that to travel on the road, “no toll or license fee shall ever 

be imposed.” At the time, the road was a major route 

crossing the Southern Appalachians, and the State wanted 

to continue free interstate transportation for its citizens. In 

order to charge a fee, the Tennessee legislature would be 

required to lift this deed restriction. Whether or not activity 

fees will be introduced or increased is still under debate. 

With a more encompassing mission of multiple 

use, the national forests have had somewhat more 

flexibility in fees and revenue generation. In 2010, the 

Forest Service proposed modest fee increases for some 

recreation activities. The fee programs seek to defray the 

cost of providing services and facilities; however, most 

recreation is dispersed and the fee program does little to 

provide management funds for trails and management of 

backcountry recreation. The great majority of the recreation 

budget goes to support developed facilities. 

User fees are continuing to raise awareness in all 

national forests and parks. Fee programs commonly 

referred to as “pay to play” may be the future of hiking 

and other recreation. Fees are beginning to show up at 

popular trailheads in some parts of the country where they 

can be used for trail management and restoration, as well 

as facility maintenance. Fees may also be implemented 

to encourage use of less popular areas and curtail use in 

overused areas. This could in turn lead recreationists to 

flock to more pristine, lightly used areas of land, which 

could cause environmental damage in its own regard. 

Recreation Fees

Forest Recreation and Tourism

Neither the Blue Ridge Parkway 

nor the Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park charge entrance 

or user fees.
135

Camping Area National Forest 1996 2009

Cheoah Point Nantahala $ 5 $ 15-35

Tsali Nantahala $ 15 $ 16

Jack Rabbit Nantahala $ 8 $ 15

Cable Cove Nantahala $ 5 $ 10

Hanging Dog Nantahala $ 4 $ 8

Lake Powhatan Pisgah $ 10 $ 20

Davidson River Pisgah $ 11 $ 20

Black Mountain Pisgah $ 8 $ 17

Carolina Hemlocks Pisgah $ 8 $ 17

Sunburst Pisgah $ 4 $ 13

North Mills River Pisgah $ 5 $ 13

Rocky Bluff Pisgah $ 5 $ 13

Mortimer Pisgah $ 4 $ 10

Group Camping Area National Forest 1996 2009

Rattler Ford Nantahala 1-50: $15 1-25: $50

Briar Bottom Pisgah 1-50: $25 1-50: $50-$100

Cove Creek Pisgah 1-50: $25, 51-100: $45 1-100: $95

Kuykendall Pisgah 1-50: $50 1-100: $95

White Pines Pisgah 1-25: $15 1-25: $50

Silvermine Pisgah 1-25: $25, 26-50: $40 1-25: $25, 26-50: $40

Sample of Camping Fees in Pisgah and Nantahala National Forests
136

Roadless areas are a limited resource in the Southern 

Appalachians and in the Eastern United States These areas, 

almost exclusively in public lands, have regained or are 

regaining a natural appearance, meaning that any signs of 

prior human activity are vanishing due to natural forces. 

For an area to be identified as a roadless area, it must 

include no more than one-half mile of improved road for 

each 1,000 acres. Roadless areas contain the last remaining 

large tracts of the least disturbed land in the region, other 

than wilderness. Public land agencies are the primary owners 

of these areas.

 Although the region as a whole is well roaded, there is 

an exceptionally high number of roadless areas. The largest 

roadless area in the region and the Southern Appalachian 

Mountains is in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 

an area containing some 464,544 acres. In addition to areas 

in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the Pisgah and 

Nantahala National Forests contain around 151,000 roadless 

acres, or 14.6 percent of total national forest acres. 

Forest fragmentation refers to the breaking up of 

uninterrupted forested areas into smaller zones, and is 

viewed as harmful to the habitat of many birds, mammals, 

and plants, as well as entire ecosystems. Animals with 

large range and breeding requirements are most affected. 

Open roads can also diminish use for primitive recreation 

experiences as well as birdwatching, fishing, hiking, and 

hunting. 

Roads also lead to increased erosion and air and water 

pollution. When new road construction occurs in roadless 

areas, the area is eliminated from the possibility of future 

wilderness designation. After construction, roads rarely 

return to their original state and, therefore, permanently 

transform the landscape. 

New home builders commonly look for natural 

appearing viewsheds and the desire to share in the immediate 

benefits of living next to protected land. In Western North 

Carolina, 43 percent of land is publicly owned or located 

within 0.5 miles of public lands. An additional 9 percent 

is within 0.5 to 1 mile of public land. Private land in 

the vicinity of public land carries a higher demand for 

development and may stimulate road construction. 

The “Road to Nowhere”

In the 1960s, the National Park Service built only 7 miles of 

a replacement road for Swain County along the north shore 

of Fontana Lake near Bryson City, NC. They abandoned the 

project due in part to severe erosion and acidic runoff that 

harmed fisheries in several streams. The road became known 

as the “Road to Nowhere.” 

In a settlement concluded in February of 2009, the U.S. 

National Park Service agreed to pay Swain County $52 

million, which covers the present-day cost of rebuilding the 

country road that was flooded in the 1940s to create Fontana 

Lake. The settlement will bring resources to Swain County 

to create jobs, invest in schools, and improve the county’s 

infrastructure, and the area will stay in a natural state for 

future generations.

Roadless Areas

Forest Recreation and Tourism

Private land in the vicinity of 

public land carries a higher 

demand for development and 

may stimulate road construction.
137

WNC Roads and Roadless Areas

Interstates

U.S. Roads

State Roads

National Forest Roadless Areas

National Forests

Distance to nearest road

4 miles

0 miles

Main roads
138

Western North Carolinians are currently negotiating a 

balance between the development and conservation of 

our unique natural resources. If development increases, 

there will be less open space and more fragmented natural 

environments. The region needs more and better paying 

jobs and faces significant challenges in meeting the costs of 

growth. An important expanding growth sector is tourism 

and outdoor recreation.

Scenarios which portray conservation versus 

development are not always the best option. The challenge 

to our mountain communities is to manage growth and 

foster mixed-use development while balancing green 

(natural) and gray (concrete or man-made) infrastructure. 

Communities around the country are using resourceful 

policies to develop in ways that conserve natural lands 

and critical environmental areas, protect natural resources, 

restore previously developed land, and create jobs in 

the process. In Western North Carolina, the Linking 

Lands Project of the Land-of-Sky Regional Council 

is an example of a project that is using a sustainable 

development planning approach to identify a possible green 

infrastructure in Buncombe, Henderson, Transylvania, and 

Madison Counties. The plan identifies a physical network 

of the region’s most valuable elements, including recreation 

lands, wildlife habitat, forest lands, water resources, 

farmlands, and cultural resources. This plan can serve as 

a planning resource for local governments, land trusts, 

landowners, and developers. 

Smart growth is a related component of sustainable 

development that helps to reduce urban sprawl. The 

features that distinguish smart growth in a community 

vary, but, in general, smart growth development is towncentered, public-transit and pedestrian oriented, and has a 

greater mix of housing, commercial, and retail uses than 

traditional sprawl development. It also preserves open 

space and critical environmental areas and takes advantage 

of compact building designs that will minimize impervious 

surfaces. 

Development and Conservation

Forest Recreation and Tourism
139

Areas Changing from Natural to Developed

Protected / Open Space

Change Area, Natural 2006 to Developed 2030

Natural Areas in 2006 and 2030

Developed Areas in 2006 and 2030

Water

The Linking Lands Project of the 

Land-of-Sky Regional Council 

is an example of a project that is 

using a sustainable development 

planning approach.
140

Western North Carolina has 3.2 million acres of timberland. 

The mountain region, an area of rugged terrain and limited 

access, has relatively few large cities compared to the rest 

of the State. Upland hardwoods cover the majority of the 

forested landscape, and white pine is the most common 

softwood type. Ownership of the region’s timber is 

dominated by the private sector. 

Sawlogs and veneer

Roundwood refers to logs, bolts, or other round sections cut 

from trees for industrial manufacture or consumer use. Saw 

logs are at least 8 feet in length and can be processed into 

a variety of sawn products, such as lumber, cants, pallets, 

railroad ties, and timbers. Veneer logs are roundwood 

products that are either rotary cut, sliced, stamped, or sawn 

into a variety of veneer products, such as plywood, finished 

panels, veneer sheets, or sheathing. 

Pulpwood

Pulpwood is wood that is reduced to individual fibers by 

chemical or mechanical means. The fibers are used to 

make a broad generic group of pulp products that includes 

paper products as well as fiberboard, insulating board, and 

paperboard. 

Fuelwood 

Fuelwood is roundwood harvested for residential use. 

Fuelwood consumption is falling because it is labor 

intensive and considered less safe than alternative energy 

sources. Domestic fuelwood does, however, account for a 

fairly significant portion of hardwood product output (22 

percent) in the region.

Other products

Other industrial wood products include composite panels 

manufactured into chips, wafers, strands, flakes, shavings, 

or sawdust and then reconstituted into a variety of panel 

and engineered lumber products. 

 Posts, poles, and pilings are milled or cut and peeled 

into standard sizes (lengths and circumferences) to be 

put in the ground to provide vertical and lateral support 

in buildings, foundations, utility lines, and fences. This 

category may also include nonindustrial unmilled products. 

Product distribution 

Saw logs dominate the market in both softwood and 

hardwood product distribution in the region. From 1995 

to 2007, of the total average distribution of softwood 

products, 13.2 million cubic feet (71 percent) was saw 

logs. From 1995 to 2007, of the total average distribution 

of hardwood products, 26.1 million cubic feet (50 percent) 

was saw logs. Saw logs, the most valuable roundwood 

product, are cut from the largest and most mature trees. 

The volume of sawtimber is increasing in the region as the 

forest reaches maturity. 

 From 1995 to 2007, of the total average distribution 

of softwood products, 4.2 million cubic feet (22 percent) 

was pulpwood. From 1995 to 2007, of the total average 

distribution of hardwood products, 11.4 million cubic feet 

(22 percent) was pulpwood.

Roundwood Product Output and Distribution

Forest Products and Manufacturing
141

Average Wood Product Output 1995–2007

Softwood Product Types Hardwood Product Types

Ownership of the Western North 

Carolina region’s timber is 

dominated by the private sector.

74%

Hardwood

26%

Softwood

Pulpwood 22%

Saw Logs 71%

Veneer Logs 2%

Fuelwood 2%

Other Industrial 3%

Saw Logs 50%

Fuelwood 22%

Pulpwood 22%

Veneer Logs 5%

Other Industrial 1%
142

Roundwood product output

Roundwood is cut from softwood and hardwood trees. 

Softwoods, such as pine, spruce, and fir, are evergreen trees 

with needle or scale-like leaves. Hardwoods, such as oak, 

maple, poplar, and hickory, have broad leaves with a large 

surface area that are shed annually. Hardwood product 

removal represents 74 percent of annual roundwood 

output in the region, while softwood output comprises the 

remaining 26 percent. In Western North Carolina during the 

period 1995–2007, the total average roundwood output was 

70.6 million cubic feet per year. 

Annual variation in roundwood production closely 

mirrors national economic trends. From 1995 to 1999, 

roundwood output declined by 8 percent. The following 3 

years (2000–2003), however, roundwood output increased 

by 8 percent. From 2005 to 2007, outputs declined by 19.3 

percent due to changing economic conditions, a trend that 

continues into the present. In addition, from 2005 to 2007, 

four sawtimber mills closed—one each in Yancey and 

Watauga Counties, and two in Alleghany County. In 2007, 

37 manufacturing mills were operating in the region. 

20

60

80

0

40

Total Roundwood Output

Production

(million cubic feet)

Hardwood

Softwood

1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007

Contribution of Timberland to Economy

Forest Products and Manufacturing
143

Wood Manufacturing Mills

 0

 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

 6

Annual variation in roundwood 

production closely mirrors 

national economic trends.
144

Stumpage value is the monetary value of standing timber, 

or the price a landowner typically receives for harvested 

trees. Delivered value is the price of stumpage plus 

logging, transportation, and site stabilization costs, also 

known as the price to the logger. 

From 1995 to 2003, stumpage values of total 

roundwood output increased from $50.2 million to $71.3 

million (42 percent). In 2005, stumpage values decreased 

to $57.7 million, and by 2007 had reached a low of $38.9 

million, a 22 percent drop since 1995. Stumpage price is an 

important factor in determining when timberland owners 

will offer their trees for sale. 

From 1995 to 1999, delivered average annual values 

decreased from $155.4 million to $134.2 million (down 

14 percent). From 1999 to 2003, delivered average annual 

values increased from $134.2 to $165.2 million (up 23 

percent). With a shrinking regional forest-based economy 

and closing of four mills, both the delivered and stumpage 

values continued to decline after 2003. From 2003 to 2007, 

delivered average annual values dropped from $165.2 

million to $110 million.

According to North Carolina Agricultural Statistics, 

the total forest products income for years 2005 and 

2006 for all 18 counties was $93.9 million and $86.2 

million, respectively (totals vary due to data-collection 

differences). In these 2 years, the counties with the highest 

revenues were Wilkes, Haywood, Yancey, Ashe, and 

Madison.

Payments in lieu of taxes

Payments in lieu of taxes are Federal payments to local 

governments that help offset losses in property taxes 

due to nontaxable Federal lands within their boundaries, 

such as national forests. The funds are reserved for local 

governments (usually counties) that provide services 

related to public safety, environment, housing, social 

assistance, and transportation. From 2001 to 2007, counties 

with land in the Pisgah and Nantahala National Forests 

received on average $1.35 an acre, or $2.2 million annually. 

Recently, the U.S. Congress increased the allocation to 

$2.35 per acre, and in 2009 the counties received twice that 

of the previous yearly average, or $4.4 million.

Value of Forest Products

Forest Products and Manufacturing

Loading Roundwood

Recently, the U.S. Congress 

approximately doubled payments 

to Western North Carolina 

counties in lieu of taxes. 
145

Value of Timber Products

100

150

200

0

Income

(million dollars)

Stumpage Value

Delivered Value

Total Forest Products Income by Regional Council of Government

High Country Land-of-Sky

20

40

60

0

Income

(million dollars)

Southwestern

2006

2005

50

Payment in Lieu of Taxes and Total National Forest Acres

2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

2

3

5

0

Millions

Total National Forest Area (Acres)

Payments to Counties (Dollars)

1

2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

4
146

Paper, plastic, metal, and glass recovery

In fiscal year 2008–2009, Buncombe County ranked 

fourth out of North Carolina’s 100 counties in residential 

recycling. Three counties outside the region—Pitt, Catawba, 

and Dare—were the only counties in North Carolina 

that ranked above Buncombe in per county recycling. 

Buncombe has a per capita recovery rate of around 443 

pounds, which is almost three times the State average. The 

success of Buncombe County’s program can be credited 

to recycling infrastructure (curbside recycling and drop-off 

centers), educational efforts, and community leadership. 

Nearly half of the top 20 per capita recycling counties 

are located in Western North Carolina. Rural counties like 

Swain County ranked sixth, with a per capita recovery of 

270 pounds and a population of around 14,000. Swain has 

stationed recycling trailers, mostly at schools, throughout 

the county, and also works with businesses to facilitate the 

recycling of cardboard and plastics. State grants to Swain 

County have helped improve recycling efforts by allowing 

the county to purchase trucks and other equipment. Macon, 

Haywood, and Watauga Counties also performed well in 

the ranking. The amount of materials recycled statewide in 

fiscal year 2008–2009 increased by 3.2 percent. 

Paper and wood recovery

Buncombe County is also the leader in the region for 

wood product recovery, reporting around 43,000 tons of 

cardboard and paper recovery in 2008–2009. Haywood 

County recycles over 4,000 tons of wood products, 

followed by Watauga (3,500 tons), Macon (2,300 tons), and 

Henderson (2,000 tons) Counties. 

Local recycling programs are important to economic 

development, as companies in the State rely on the flow 

of materials from recycling programs to sustain and create 

new jobs. By 2012, the State hopes to recycle 2 million 

tons annually from local programs and to successfully 

implement upcoming disposal bans on plastic bottles, 

wooden pallets, and motor vehicle oil filters.

Recycling

Forest Manufacturing and Products

In fiscal year 2008–2009, 

Buncombe County ranked fourth 

out of North Carolina’s 100 

counties in residential recycling.
147

Average Recycling Rates by Regional Council of Government, 2009

100

200

300

0

Recovery 

(lbs/person)

Paper and Wood Recovery, July 2008 – June 2009

10

20

50

0

Recovery

(thousand tons)

Land-of-Sky Southwestern High Country

30

40

Buncombe 

County

All Other Counties 

Combined

Wood

Cardboard and Paper

Note: Buncombe County does not track wood 

recovery as separate from cardboard and paper.
148

Arts and craft

The people of Western North Carolina continue to 

maintain long-held traditions of craft making and artistic 

achievement. From indigenous tribes that populated the 

region long ago to the present day, people have taken 

advantage of the natural materials around them to create, 

either out of need or desire. In this way, they have helped 

shape the culture around them. 

Over the last two centuries, wood and other indigenous 

plants harvested from forests and open areas were used to 

produce furniture, tools, utensils, crates, frames, mantles, 

bowls, vessels, sculpture, musical instruments, and looms. 

Woodcarving, which was mostly done with a pocket knife, 

was an important source of income, and successful carving 

centers developed in Cherokee, Asheville, Tryon, and 

Brasstown. 

Basketry, often made with river cane, once an 

abundant plant in the Southeast but now less so, was a 

highly profitable craft in Western North Carolina. Mostly 

attributed to Cherokee origins, this art form has remained 

a popular craft in the region. While white oak (or “basket 

oak”) and hickory are the materials generally used in 

baskets, other usable native materials include ash, broom 

sedge, corn husks, corn stalks, wheat and rye straw, willow 

branches and twigs, rushes, honeysuckle vine, hickory 

bark, and peeled willow bark. Metalwork, pottery, 

glasswork, and textiles are also important crafts in the 

region. 

During the Great Depression (1930s), many Western 

North Carolinians remained financially solvent by meeting 

continued demand for their work from outside the region. 

In Asheville and closely surrounding areas, in particular, 

the Vanderbilt family supported local artisans by either 

purchasing their hand-made products to furnish the 

lavish Biltmore Estate or through Biltmore Industries, an 

innovative venture that provided education, guidance, and 

support to local craftspeople.

Inspired expression 

Many past and present musicians, photographers, painters, 

and other artists have found inspiration in the region’s 

geographic and cultural diversity. Brought to the region 

by early immigrants of mostly Scotch, Irish, and English 

descent, mountain music has always held center stage in 

community life. Ballads of homelands left behind, songs 

of the Civil War, and religious songs were exchanged and 

combined to form a particular sound, pitch, and feeling of 

connectedness. From the 1870s through the 1940s, small 

medicine shows traveled throughout the region selling their 

homemade remedies and drawing a crowd with music. 

Music retains a firm place in the ear of the region’s culture. 

George Masa, a Japanese immigrant, settled 

in Asheville in 1915 and spent the rest of his life 

photographing the mountains in and around the Blue Ridge 

Parkway, the Appalachian Trail, and what would become, 

with his untiring support, the Great Smoky Mountains 

National Park. His work is the largest and most complete 

collection of photographs of the region during the early 20th

century. 

Painter Robert Scott Duncanson (1821–1872), an 

African-American artist, came to Asheville in 1850. 

He frequented the area thereafter and made numerous 

paintings, capturing the face of the region, not only in rural 

areas, but also in the city of Asheville.

Art and crafts have been prominent in Western North 

Carolina for over two centuries, and these trades remain 

an ever growing and flourishing sector today. Several 

schools, such as The Penland School of Craft in Yancey 

County and the John C. Campbell Folk School in Cherokee 

County, as well as numerous guilds, galleries, and festivals, 

support and grow this sector of the region’s economy. In 

2007, a study done by HandMade in America covering the 

18 counties as well as Burke, Caldwell, McDowell, Polk, 

Rutherford, Surry, and Yadkin Counties, found that the 

professional craft industry had an economic impact of $206 

million, an increase from $122 million in 1995. 

Arts and Craft

Cultural and Spiritual Values

From indigenous tribes that 

populated the region long ago to 

the present day, people have taken 

advantage of the natural materials

around them to create, either out 

of need or desire.
149

George Masa, 1933

Musicians Jim Proffitt 

and Grace Newman, circa 1930, 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park

Mack McCarter family working 

on baskets on front porch, 1930–1936, 

Great Smoky Mountains National Park

Total Economic Impact of the Professional Craft Industry, 2007

40

60

100

0

Economic Impact

(Million Dollars)

20

Craft Artists Craft 

Non-Profits

Craft Retail 

Galleries

Craft Suppliers 

and Publishers

Craft 

Schools

80

Craft 

Consumers
150

Experiencing nature 

The beauty of Western North Carolina affects all who 

come here, and its landscapes inspire a deep psychological 

reaction in most individuals. The Cherokee Indians, early 

inhabitants of the region, sought to protect and nurture their 

land, not only through personal and communal activities, 

but also by the way they applied the beliefs they hold about 

the land. Perhaps one of their most pervasive concepts is 

the belief that land is alive. 

Cherokee land is traditionally held in common by 

the tribe, allowing individual family groups to occupy 

it as needed. The tribe’s connection with the land drives 

their responsibility for its conservation and protection. 

They depend on the land for food and herbs, materials 

for shelter, clothing and utensils, visual pleasure, and 

artistic inspiration. Decisions are based on the concept of 

reciprocity—the knowledge that life is cyclical and actions 

have both short- and long-term consequences.

Another examination of human response to the natural 

environment was documented in a 1999 study, which 

confirmed that spending time in natural areas, specifically 

wilderness, provides people with a rich array of visual, 

auditory, olfactory, and other cues that make them feel 

that the place has come “alive,” and hence spiritually 

inspirational.

 The beneficial aspects of wilderness recreation 

include not only the potential for physical and emotional 

growth, but moreover, the opportunity to grow spiritually. 

What’s more, once people are faced with questions about 

one’s own spirituality, and begin to contemplate and define 

their own conceptualization of “that which is spiritual,” 

they may find unique opportunities in their everyday lives 

of ways to enhance their spiritual growth.

Additionally, Western North Carolina is home to 

over 100 spiritual retreats, many located in forested areas. 

The mountains offer a respite from busy lives and an 

opportunity to experience the mysteries of the natural 

world. 

Non-Consumptive Values

Cultural and Spiritual Values

Western North Carolina is home to 

over 100 spiritual retreats, many

located in forested areas.
151

Spiritual Retreats by Theology 

or Denomination, 2010

Theology Total

Catholic 21

Christian-Ecumenical 16

Methodist 14

Non-Denominational 12

Episcopal 9

Presbyterian 7

Yoga 6

Baptist 6

Trappist 3

Meditation 3

Lutheran 3

Inter-Denominational 3

Adrian Dominican Sisters 2

Zen Buddhist 1

Sisters of the Holy Cross 1

Seventh-Day Adventist 1

Redemptorist 1

Jewish 1

Jesuit 1

Greek Orthodox 1

Disciples of Christ 1

Community of St. Mary 1

Church of Brethren 1

Photo by George Masa

A contemplative moment
152
153

Residents of Western North Carolina desire a sustainable 

stream of products and services from the region’s forests, 

including healthy ecosystems, economic opportunities, 

attractive communities, scenic vistas, and wild places for 

recreation, to name only a few. 

Scattered development, eroding hillsides, air pollution, 

nonnative species invasion, altered surface hydrology, 

forest pests and diseases, and changes in climate pose risks 

to the region’s ecosystems. 

Western North Carolina policy makers have the 

opportunity to combine management, conservation, and 

preservation of the region’s natural resources to reach 

desired future conditions. Setting land use and resource 

conservation goals are essential for effective long-term 

environmental protection. Moreover, if we want to 

continue to build capacity to rapidly respond to a changing 

landscape, we need good information from which to base 

actions. 

The sustainability of our forests, therefore, is 

largely dependent on the region’s institutional ability to 

comprehensively evaluate trends and conditions. Western 

North Carolina has a long history of cooperation between 

resource professionals and interested parties to define 

issues of concern and to provide decision makers with 

alternatives.

Policy Planning and Monitoring, Laws, and Public Participation
154

A forest plan identifies short- and long-term management 

objectives such as thinning, harvesting, and regeneration, 

nontimber product management, soil and water protection, 

wildlife habitat creation and protection, natural beauty, and 

other important resource activities.

Resource specialists with the North Carolina Division 

of Forest Resources, as well as professional consulting 

foresters, provide land management planning services to 

nonindustrial forest landowners. The American Tree Farm 

System, a national program begun in North Carolina in 

1944, also provides planning expertise. Tree farmers are 

recognized by the Tree Farm sign, which is received when 

a significant portion of a management plan is implemented 

and certified. The property is monitored every 5 years to 

verify plan implementation. 

The USDA Forest Service has several ongoing 

programs that monitor forest resources in Western North 

Carolina. The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) 

Program has been tracking wildlife habitat, forest health, 

plant diversity, insect outbreaks, wood supply, timber 

resources, and other forest characteristics since the 1930s. 

FIA tracks the movement of logs from forest to mill and 

surveys the location, size, and type of mill in the region. 

Additionally, information is periodically collected on 

forest-land ownership, the reasons for owning forest land, 

and possible futures of these lands. 

The USDA Forest Service Eastern Forest 

Environmental Threat Assessment Center, located in 

Asheville, monitors the effects and consequences of 

complex stresses on forest health and provides land 

managers with credible predictions of potentially severe 

disturbances with sufficient warning to take preventative 

actions.

The USDA Forest Service Forest Health Monitoring 

(FHM) program tracks changes and trends in forest 

condition on an annual basis. FHM uses data from 

ground plots and surveys, aerial surveys, and other biotic 

and abiotic sources to evaluate forest health conditions 

affecting the sustainability of forest ecosystems.

Many communities have developed management 

plans for their urban forests. These include urban forest 

master plans or strategic plans, street tree planting and 

maintenance plans, city parks vegetation management 

plans, and hazard tree reduction and replanting plans.

Local municipalities in Western North Carolina 

monitor trees along city streets, parks, and natural areas by 

periodically collecting data on tree condition, size, damage, 

and defects. The larger municipalities in the region have 

annual budgets to track the vitality of watersheds and urban 

forests, including the removal of damaged or dead trees and 

the maintenance of healthy trees as necessary.

Federal, State, and local planning 

and monitoring programs are 

enabling the region to assess 

information and prepare for 

change. Programs are in place 

for land conservation and 

protection, aquatic and terrestrial 

wildlife, water quality and 

quantity, and air quality.

Private and Public Lands

Planning and Monitoring
155

National forest plans are prepared in accordance 

with detailed planning regulations authorized by the U.S. 

Congress. The major themes of a national forest plan are 

identified with input from resource planners, the public, 

and in collaboration with those interested in the future of 

the forest.

The current Nantahala and Pisgah National Forest 

Plan was published in 1994 and is scheduled for revision in 

2011. It guides activities on 1,041,451 acres in 15 counties 

in Western North Carolina and specifically addresses 

resource development, management, and conservation. The 

plan also established desired future conditions and overall 

objectives for recreation areas, trails, visual resources, 

forest roads, minerals, wildlife and fish, cultural resources, 

timber production, nontimber forest production, vegetative 

management, wild and prescribed fire, forest pests and 

disease, and rehabilitation and stabilization of eroding 

areas.

Several new issues have arisen or have become 

significant since the 1994 plan was written and will be 

addressed in the upcoming revision. These include invasive 

nonnative plants, forest fragmentation, loss of the Carolina 

and eastern hemlock, and maintenance and restoration of 

Southern Appalachian bogs. 

On a periodic basis, specialists monitor a number 

of resource conditions in the Pisgah and Nantahala 

National Forests. They monitor trends in biodiversity 

(rare, threatened, and endangered plant and animal 

communities), timber growth and removals (softwood 

and hardwood products), forest botanical products (Galax, 

vines, ginseng, bloodroot, and black cohosh), and mineral 

extraction (limestone, dimension and aggregate stone), 

road construction, closure, and maintenance, and wildfires 

(number, acreage, and intensity).

They also monitor forest health concerns, such as 

damage from insects and disease (southern pine beetle, 

gypsy moth, hemlock and balsam woolly adelgid, oak 

decline, and dogwood anthracnose) and the spread 

of invasive species such as princess tree, Japanese 

honeysuckle, multiflora rose, kudzu, and oriental 

bittersweet. 

Additional monitoring efforts include air quality 

(sulfate particles and low-level ozone), soil and water 

resources (riparian areas, floodplains, wetlands, water 

quality, soil erosion, and stream sedimentation), and 

maintenance and protection of vistas, recreation sites, and 

cultural resources.

Some monitoring programs are not sufficiently funded 

to accomplish necessary site visits and management 

treatments. Of particular concern are trends in biodiversity 

and the spread of invasive plants.

0 

50 

100 

150 

Alleghany 

Ashe 

Avery 

Buncombe 

Cherokee 

Clay 

Graham 

Haywood 

Henderson 

Jackson 

Macon 

Madison 

Mitchell 

Swain 

Transylvania 

Watauga 

Number of Plans Approved 

Wilkes 

Yancey 

Forest Stewardship Plans (1990Ð 2007) 

0 

5 

10 

15 

20 

Alleghany 

Ashe 

Avery 

Buncombe 

Cherokee 

Clay 

Graham 

Haywood 

Henderson 

Jackson 

Macon 

Madison 

Mitchell 

Swain 

Transylvania 

Watauga 

Wilkes 

Yancey 

Acres Approved (thousands) 

Forest Stewardship Plans (1990Ð 2007) 
156

North Carolina’s Department of Environment and Natural 

Resources (DENR), through the initiative One North 

Carolina Naturally, has created a planning tool to help 

prioritize land and resources of exceptional value. Other 

planning efforts include the Natural Heritage Program, 

which inventories, catalogues, and supports conservation 

of the rarest and the most outstanding elements of natural 

diversity, the Conservation Tax Credit Program, which 

offers a tax credit to promote conservation of ecosystem 

functions, and the Stewardship Program, which provides 

guidance and funding for conservation easements held by 

the State of North Carolina.

Blue Ridge Forever is a long-term campaign led by 13 

land conservation organizations located throughout Western 

North Carolina. The goal is to identify and safeguard land 

and water in the southern Blue Ridge mountains. Their 

landscape level plan guides the protection of nationally or 

State designated ecological areas of significance, including 

wildlife habitat, high water quality, areas of cultural and 

economic significance and scenic value, and working farms 

and forests. 

The Land-of-Sky Regional Council, serving 

Buncombe, Henderson, Madison, and Transylvania 

Counties, is currently designing a regional conservation 

framework called Linking Lands and Communities, which 

will help guide future growth in those counties. 

In 2005, the High Country Council of Governments, 

serving Alleghany, Ashe, Avery, Mitchell, Watauga, Wilkes, 

and Yancey Counties, created a description and synthesis of 

conservation activities and plans in their region. The new 

oversight plan reports on priority sites for future protection 

as identified by various organizations, local governments, 

and public agencies. In 2008, the High Country Regional 

Trail plan was created, identifying general trail locations 

and connections as well as 389 miles of proposed local and 

regional trails.

The Mountain Landscapes Initiative, a partnership 

project between The Community Foundation of Western 

North Carolina and the Southwestern Commission 

Council of Government serving Cherokee, Clay, Graham, 

Haywood, Jackson, Macon, and Swain Counties, identifies 

sound practices for clearing home sites and grading roads 

on a slope as well as guiding farmland preservation, 

affordable housing, and green building techniques. 

Currently, specialists at the University of North 

Carolina at Charlotte are collaborating to forecast the 

impacts of urban growth on natural and rural lands 

in Western North Carolina. The project evaluates the 

expansion of urban development since 1976 and predicts 

the loss of natural and agricultural areas in 2030. Results 

of the study will heighten community awareness of the 

consequences of unmanaged development and provide 

important information to guide planners in management 

decisions.

Land Conservation and Protection

Planning and Monitoring
157

Several initiatives are in place to 

identify and safeguard land and 

water in Western North Carolina.

The Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere 

Program (SAMAB) is a public/private partnership whose 

mission is to promote the environmental health and 

stewardship of natural, economic, and cultural resources 

in the Southern Appalachians. SAMAB partners include 

Federal, State, and regional resource management agencies, 

universities, and the private sector. Established in 1988, 

SAMAB has supported numerous projects and conferences 

that have improved communication and cooperation within 

the region. Among these is an assessment, completed in 

July 1996, that created a framework for future management 

of the region. The Southern Appalachian Assessment was 

completed by resource agencies with input from a large 

segment of the natural resources community and the public. 

The report assessed atmospheric, social/cultural/economic, 

terrestrial, and aquatic resources. The assessment revealed 

no major crises but did identify several issues of concern, 

including outbreaks of forest pests, water pollution and 

water acidification, and forest fragmentation. The report 

also shed light on the types of changes expected across the 

landscape as the region’s forests reach maturity.

The Appalachian Trail is a unique corridor traversing 

the highest ridge tops between Maine and Georgia. It is 

considered a “barometer” for the air, water, and biological 

diversity of the Appalachian Mountains. The National Park 

Service and Appalachian Trail Conservancy, in cooperation 

with other organizations, have created a monitoring 

program on the 2,170-mile trail. The Appalachian Trail 

Environmental Monitoring Program assesses and monitors 

natural resource trends across the trail’s 270,000-acre land 

base.

In 2002, the U.S. Fire Learning Network (FLN) was 

created through a multi-agency cooperative agreement. 

Since 2007, the Southern Blue Ridge division of the FLN 

has taken charge of 2.7 million acres across Georgia, North 

Carolina, and Tennessee. The FLN identifies specific plant 

communities, such as oak-hickory and pine-oak forests, 

in need of fire restoration, chooses and monitors fire 

demonstration sites, and educates the public on the benefits 

of prescribed burning. The FLN approach encourages the 

practitioner community to share experience and 

learning across geographies and to improve integrated fire 

management practices over time.

GeoBook is a monitoring tool designed by the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency primarily for county 

planners, watershed managers, or local land trusts and 

conservation groups needing a wide range of information 

on an area the size of a few counties or a watershed. It is 

intended for people who need geographical data but do 

not have access to the technical expertise or software to 

use such information. GeoBook provides a simple way 

to visualize local land uses and natural resources such as 

urban, agriculture, and forest land use, water resources, and 

demographic trends within a defined geographical area.
158

The North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission 

Wildlife Action Plan (WAP) guides the management of 

the region’s fish and wildlife. The plan was developed 

to improve the understanding of species diversity, make 

informed decisions for all species, conserve and enhance 

habitats and the communities they support, foster 

cooperation with other regional resource managers, support 

educational efforts, and improve existing regulations and 

programs. 

The plan targets imperiled animals and their 

required habitats early, preventing them from becoming 

extinct. Along the Little Tennessee River, biologists are 

stabilizing banks, reintroducing species, and improving 

flow management to restore habitat for threatened fish and 

mussels. 

The continued availability of natural lands and wildlife 

populations will allow those engaged in wildlife-oriented 

recreation, be it consumptive or non-consumptive, to 

continue to enjoy their pursuit. 

The North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission 

(NCWRC) is responsible for monitoring fish and wildlife 

in Western North Carolina. The agency monitors hunter 

harvest of big game animals (deer, bear, turkey, and 

boar) through the Big Game Harvest Reporting System. 

Population estimates are derived for deer and bear using 

collected data including age, gender, and non-harvest 

mortality. Annual hard and soft mast (acorns, hickory nuts, 

berries, and tree fruit) surveys determine food availability 

for many species of wildlife, such as bear, deer, turkey, 

squirrels, and songbirds. Bait-station surveys are conducted 

to monitor black bear abundance. 

Small game animal surveys include the Furbearer 

Trapper Harvest Survey, which annually monitors beaver, 

muskrat, otter, fox, mink, raccoon, and other animals. Fur 

prices and fur sales are tracked by surveying fur dealers 

and buyers. Results of raccoon field trials are used as an 

index to raccoon abundance. Game birds are monitored 

through annual surveys including a summer turkey brood 

count, call counts of breeding populations of mourning 

doves, quail call counts, a grouse drumming survey, as 

well as wood duck banding. Hunter harvest surveys are 

conducted every 3 years to estimate hunter harvest levels of 

selected wildlife species. 

NCWRC also conducts disease surveillance in wild 

animals, such as chronic wasting disease in deer (not yet 

present in North Carolina) and investigates and responds 

to various individual disease incidents. A less rigorous 

monitoring program is the Wildlife Observation Survey. 

In their professional capacity, NCWRC biologists observe 

and report sightings of species seen outside of their normal 

range (e.g., fox squirrels, spotted skunk, and river otter) as 

well as sightings of non-harvest mortality.

NCWRC monitors non-game wildlife including 

mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibians, fish, freshwater 

mussels, snails, and crayfish. Through the Wildlife 

Diversity Program, the Commission strives to prevent 

species from becoming endangered by maintaining viable, 

self-sustaining populations of all native wildlife, with an 

emphasis on priority species and habitats. 

Aquatic and Terrestrial Wildlife

Planning and Monitoring
159

NCWRC aquatic biologists monitor fresh water 

mussels, snails, crayfish, and fish throughout the region. 

Biologists also conduct population assessments of rare 

bog turtles and salamanders and work to conserve yellowbellied sapsuckers, painted buntings, golden-winged 

warblers, and cerulean warblers, among many others.

Since 1966, the North American Breeding Bird Survey 

(BBS) has monitored the status and trends of avifauna in 

the southern Blue Ridge Mountains. BBS data provide 

an index of population abundance that can be used to 

estimate population trends and relative abundances at 

various geographic scales. Declining population trends can 

act as an early warning system to galvanize research and 

management action to determine causes of avian declines 

and reverse them before populations reach critically low 

levels.

Blue Grouse Wood Duck Red Fox Raccoons

River Otter White-tailed Deer

Black Bear
160

The State of North Carolina develops a Water Supply Plan 

for Western North Carolina to assure the availability of 

adequate supplies of good quality water to protect public 

health and support economic growth. The State also 

provides assistance in the development of Local Water 

Supply Plans, which project present and future water 

supplies and water use.

The North Carolina Division of Water Quality (DWQ) 

develops a basin-wide water quality plan that is a nonregulatory, watershed-based approach to restoring and 

protecting the quality of Western North Carolina’s surface 

waters. The goals of basin-wide planning are to identify 

water quality problems and restore full use to impaired 

waters, identify and protect high-value resource waters, and 

protect unimpaired waters while allowing for reasonable 

economic growth. 

Basin-wide water quantity and quality plans are in 

place and updated every 5 years for each of the major river 

basins in the region: the Hiawassee, the Little Tennessee, 

the French Broad, the Watauga, the Broad, and the 

Catawba. 

The most imperative water quality concerns in 

Western North Carolina include unacceptable rates of 

sedimentation (resulting from land clearing activities, loss 

of riparian vegetation, rural roads, and livestock grazing on 

stream banks), straight pipes and failing septic systems, and 

mining activities.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and many other Federal 

and State agencies conduct extensive chemical monitoring 

at fixed locations on large rivers and streams around the 

region. A regional focus is applied to study status and 

trends in water, sediment, and biota. Private entities such 

as universities, watershed associations, environmental 

groups, and permitted dischargers also conduct water 

quality monitoring, as do the Eastern Band of Cherokee 

Indians and local governments, such as city and county 

environmental offices.

The Volunteer Water Information Network was 

initiated at the University of North Carolina at Asheville in 

January 1990 to provide monitoring of the French Broad 

River watershed. Data is collected monthly at most sites 

and includes pH, alkalinity, turbidity, suspended solids, 

conductivity, nutrients, and heavy metals. The program 

has expanded from 27 sites in Buncombe County to over 

250 sites on streams, rivers, and lakes in Western North 

Carolina and beyond. 

Water Quality and Quantity

Planning and Monitoring
161

Straightpiping sewage 

into streams Grazing on 

streambanks

Mining activities

Sedimentation from 

muddy runoff

Failing septic systems
162

Air quality affects the health and well-being of humans, 

wildlife, and vegetation. Forests are negatively impacted 

by gaseous waste products, such as sulfur and nitrogen 

dioxide, as well as ozone. Common sources of these 

pollutants are coal-fired power plants, industrial 

manufacturing sources, and on-road and off-road vehicles. 

Air pollution can lead to foliar injury, decreased 

nutrient availability, reduced carbohydrate production, 

lower vigor, and decreased growth in trees. The main 

ecosystems at risk in the mountains due to air pollution, 

however, are aquatic ecosystems. Reduction of ozone and 

fine particulate matter will help to reduce deposition of 

acids and mercury.

Our region is fortunate in that it has been chosen 

as one of three areas across the United States (North 

Carolina, New York, Illinois-St. Louis, MO) to pilot the 

concept of integrating Federal, State, and tribal air quality 

management requirements into a comprehensive Air 

Quality Management Plan (AQMP).

The North Carolina Department of Air Quality 

(NCDAQ) is developing a process to complete plans that 

address the control of multiple pollutants and air-related 

considerations, such as land use, transportation, energy, 

and climate change. NCDAQ is working with other State, 

Federal, and local agencies, the energy and manufacturing 

community, interest groups, and the general public. 

Fifty-six mitigation measures have been developed for 

controlling and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

The NCDAQ Air Monitoring Program tracks pollutant 

levels and airborne toxics. The ambient Air Quality Index 

compares local pollutant levels including ozone, particulate 

matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, 

and lead. 

The regional office in Asheville compiles and makes 

available data for Western North Carolina. The Air Toxics 

Analytical Support Team evaluates the concentrations of 

pollutants in a community or area in addition to providing 

rapid response to accidental chemical releases and their 

potential impacts on a community.

Air Quality 

Planning and Monitoring
163

Spruce-Fir Forest Response to 

Balsam Woolly Adelgid and Air Pollution

Coal-Fired Power Plants Automobile Exhaust
164

National

In 1900, approximately 75 percent of the Southern 

Appalachian region was forested. By 1920, however, much 

of our forests had been heavily cut, burned, and abandoned. 

A conservation community organized and began to 

influence legislators on the need to assess, actively manage, 

and protect our natural resources. Their efforts resulted in 

the designation of parks and national forests around the 

region.

Fifty years later, in the early 1970s, the concepts 

of “sustained yield,” “resource conservation,” and 

“environmental science” again resonated with American 

citizens. During this period, the U.S. Congress passed 

a suite of legislation underscoring the importance of 

sustainable management of our Nation's natural resources. 

Laws enacted include the National Environmental 

Policy Act (1969), the Clean Water Act (1972), the 

Endangered Species Act (1973), the Resources Planning 

Act (1974), and the National Forest Management Act 

(1976). This series of legislation followed two additional

mandates handed down in the 1960s: the Multiple-Use 

Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 and the Wilderness Act of 

1964.

Together, this legislation laid the groundwork for 

the regulatory standards applied today. Federal and State 

Governments along with myriad citizen groups ensure that 

the Nation's streams, rivers, and lakes retain high water 

quality, plant and animal species remain viable, timber 

harvest is in balance with growth, impacts of activities 

on the environment are identified and mitigated, and 

wilderness, defined as an area where “man himself is a 

visitor who does not remain,” is preserved.

Laws, Regulations, and Guidelines

Legal Framework
165

State and local

The North Carolina Forest Practices Guidelines set forth 

performance standards to assure that forestry activities 

are conducted in a manner that protects water quality. 

These regulations are administered as part of the North 

Carolina Sedimentation Pollution Control Act of 1973. 

The Guidelines require sediment, waste, and debris to be 

kept out of streams, the number of stream crossings to be 

kept to a minimum, limited use of pesticides and fertilizer, 

mitigation of adverse stream temperature fluctuations, and 

rehabilitation of the project site.

The North Carolina Prescribed Burning Act recognizes 

that controlled burning of forest land is a management tool 

that is beneficial to North Carolina’s public safety, forest 

and wildlife resources, environment, and economy. The 

Act requires a certified person to properly assess vegetative 

fuels under safe weather and safe environmental conditions 

and follow precautionary measures that will confine the 

fire to a predetermined area and accomplish the intended 

management objectives.

Various sections of river basins in the region are 

required to maintain riparian buffers, i.e., sections of the 

Catawba River. The buffers filter runoff, protect banks 

from erosion, remove excess nutrients such as phosphorus 

and nitrogen from fertilizers and animal waste, and provide 

shade and improve habitat.

The State also regulates the use of pesticides – how 

they are sold, stored, transported, applied, and disposed 

of. Best management practices are provided for chemical 

application of fertilizer and pesticide. 

North Carolina also classifies surface waters and 

wetlands, identifying their best use and associated 

guidelines for protection of that use. Classifications include 

water supply source, swimming and recreation, trout 

waters, waters of exceptional State or national recreational 

or ecological significance, and waters that are rated as 

excellent based on biological and physical/chemical 

characteristics.

Counties and local municipalities develop a variety of 

regulations to protect citizens and natural resources. These 

statutes often regulate such activities as mountain ridge 

development, farmland preservation, high-impact land 

uses, property rights protections, flood damage prevention, 

zoning, and erosion and sediment control. The success of 

local land use regulations ultimately depends on public 

support for laws and regulations that prevent environmental 

degradation, e.g., steep slope and storm water management 

ordinances.

Current statutes help limit 

environmental degradation 

and provide guidance on best 

management practices; however, 

erosion on steep slopes, septic 

system failures, and air and water 

quality remain issues of concern.
166

Public interest in the conservation of Western North 

Carolina’s natural resources spans more than a century. We 

surveyed approximately 40 interest groups with a relatively 

small response rate. However, we can still present the 

issues those groups identified independently of the survey, 

as well as list the types of groups (forest industry, land 

trusts, Federal and State agencies, institutions of higher 

education, conservation and preservation) that are active in 

Western North Carolina. 

* These entities are not included in the 

graph on the facing page.

Cooperators

Non-Profit Organizations

American Forests 

American Tree Farm System *

Appalachian Voices 

Dogwood Alliance 

Southern Appalachian Forest Coalition

Western North Carolina Alliance

Wild South

Federal/State/Other Agencies

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station

U.S. Department of the Interior 

USDI National Park Service *

USDI Fish and Wildlife Service *

U.S. Geological Survey, Division of Water Quality

USDA National Forest Systems *

Eastern Forest Environmental Threat Assessment 

Center

Southeastern Forest Experiment Station *

Office of U.S. Congressman Heath Shuler

Office of U.S. Senator Richard Burr

Tennessee Valley Authority Economic 

Development Administration *

U.S. Department of Energy *

Appalachian Regional Commission *

N.C. Department of Environment and Natural 

Resources, Division of Forest Resources

N.C. Forestry Association

N.C. Natural Heritage Program 

N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission

National Forests in North Carolina

Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians in North 

Carolina

Councils

Fish & Wildlife Conservation Council

Land of Sky Regional Council

Southwest Commission *

High Country Council of Governments *

Southern Appalachian Multiple-Use Council

Higher Education Institutions

Clemson University

Haywood Community College

Mars Hill College

N.C. State University

University of North Carolina, Asheville

University of Tennessee

Warren Wilson College

Western Carolina University

Land Trusts, Conservancy

BlueRidge Forever *

Conservation Trust for North Carolina

Land Trust Alliance

Land Trust for the Little Tennessee River

Foothills Conservancy

The Nature Conservancy

The Wilderness Society

Public Education Centers

Cradle of Forestry Interpretive Association

Hunting/Recreation Organizations

WNC Sportsman’s Federation

Trout Unlimited

Ruffed Grouse Society

National Wild Turkey Federation

Nantahala Outdoor Center

Forest Products

Appalachian Hardwood Manufacturers

Columbia Forest Products

N.C. Tree Farmers

T & S Hardwoods

Southern Forestry Foundation

WNC Pallet

Offices, Businesses

Equinox Environmental

Southern Environmental Law Center

Cooperators and Concerns

Public Participation
167

Conservation

Old-Growth Forests 

Fire-Dependent Areas 

Development 

Restoration 

Species Loss 

Forest Management 

Sustainable Harvest 

Invasive Species 

Reducing Sedimentation 

Flood Planning 

Air Pollution 

Resource Economies 

Cooperative Decision Making 

Public Education 

Issues

Biodiversity

Production

Ecosystem Health

Soil, Water, and Air

Socioeconomic Benefits

Policy

10 20 30

Count of groups focusing on issue

Public interest in the conservation 

of Western North Carolina’s 

natural resources spans more 

than a century. Currently, over 40 

such interest groups are active in 

Western North Carolina.

One group
168

Appendix

Montreal Process Criteria and Indicators

Criterion 1: Conservation of biological diversity

1.1 Ecosystem Diversity

1.1.a Area and percent of forest by forest ecosystem type, successional stage, age class, and forest ownership or tenure

Community and Species Inventory

Land Use Change

1.1.b Area and percent of forest in protected areas by forest ecosystem type, and by age class or successional stage

Lands Managed for Conservation

Significant Natural Heritage Areas

Land Use Change

1.1.c Fragmentation of forests

Land Use Change

Forest Fragmentation

1.2 Species Diversity

1.2.a Number of native forest-associated species

Community and Species Inventory

1.2.b Number and status of native forest-associated species at risk, as determined by legislation or scientific assessment

Community and Species Inventory

1.2.c Status of on site and off site efforts focused on conservation of species diversity

Lands Managed for Conservation

Significant Natural Heritage Areas

1.3 Genetic Diversity

1.3.a Number and geographic distribution of forest-associated species at risk of losing genetic variation and locally adapted genotypes

1.3.b Population levels of selected representative forest-associated species to describe genetic diversity

1.3.c Status of on site and off-site efforts focused on conservation of genetic diversity
169

Criterion 2: Maintenance of productive capacity of forest ecosystems

2.a Area and percent of forest land and net area of forest land available for wood production

Timberland Ownership

Biomass Production Potential

Timber Composition and Age

2.b Total growing stock and annual increment of both merchantable and non-merchantable tree species in forests available for wood 

production

Volume of Timber

Timber Composition and Age

2.c Area, percent, and growing stock of plantations of native and exotic species

Timberland Ownership

2.d Annual harvest of wood products by volume and as a percentage of net growth or sustained yield

Volume of Timber

2.e Annual harvest of non-wood forest products

Non-Timber Forest Products

Criterion 3: Maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality

3.a Area and percent of forest affected by biotic processes and agents (e.g., disease, insects, invasive alien species) beyond reference 

conditions

Insects and Disease

Invasive Species

3.b Area and percent of forest affected by abiotic agents (e.g., fire, storm, land clearance) beyond reference conditions

Forest Fire

Severe Weather

Climate Change
170

Criterion 4: Conservation and maintenance of soil and water resources

4.1 Protective Function

4.1.a Area and percent of forest whose designation or land management focus is the protection of soil or water resources

Lands Managed for Conservation

4.2 Soil

4.2.a Proportion of forest management activities that meet best management practices or other relevant legislation to protect soil resources

Planning and Monitoring

Legal Framework

4.2.b Area and percent of forest land with significant soil degradation 

Soil Resources 

Soil Loss and Degradation

4.3 Water

4.3.a Proportion of forest management activities that meet best management practices, or other relevant legislation, to protect water related 

resources

Planning and Monitoring

Legal Framework

4.3.b Area and percent of water bodies, or stream length, in forest areas with significant change in physical, chemical or biological 

properties from reference conditions

Water Resources 

Aquatic Ecosystems
171

Criterion 5: Maintenance of forest contribution to global carbon cycles

5.a Total forest ecosystem carbon pools and fluxes

Carbon Cycles

5.b Total forest product carbon pools and fluxes

Carbon Cycles

5.c Avoided fossil fuel carbon emissions by using forest biomass for energy

Biomass Production Potential

Carbon Cycles
172

Criterion 6: Maintenance and enhancement of long-term multiple socio-economic 

benefits to meet the needs of societies

6.1 Production and consumption

6.1.a Value and volume of wood and wood products production, including primary and secondary processing 

Forest Products and Manufacturing

6.1.b Value of non-wood forest products produced or collected 

Forest Products and Manufacturing

6.1.c Revenue from forest based environmental services 

Forest Products and Manufacturing

6.1.d Total and per capita consumption of wood and wood products in round wood equivalents 

6.1.e Total and per capita consumption of non-wood products 

6.1.f Value and volume in round wood equivalents of exports and imports of wood products 

6.1.g Value of exports and imports of non-wood products 

6.1.h Exports as a share of wood and wood products production and imports as a share of wood and wood products consumption 

6.1.i Recovery or recycling of forest products as a percent of total forest products consumption 

Forest Products and Manufacturing

6.2 Investment in the forest sector 

6.3.a Employment in the forest sector 

Social, Cultural, Economic Factors

6.3.b Average wage rates, annual average income and annual injury rates in major forest employment categories 

Social, Cultural, Economic Factors

6.3.c Resilience of forest-dependent communities 

6.3.d Area and percent of forests used for subsistence purposes 

6.3.e Distribution of revenues derived from forest management 

Forest Products and Manufacturing
173

Criterion 7: Legal, institutional and economic framework for forest conservation

and sustainable management

7.1.a Legislation and policies supporting the sustainable management of forests

Planning and Monitoring

Land and Resource Planning

7.1.b Cross sectoral policy and programme coordination

7.2.a Taxation and other economic strategies that affect sustainable management of forests

7.3.a Clarity and security of land and resource tenure and property rights

7.3.b Enforcement of laws related to forests

Legal Framework

7.4.a Programmes, services and other resources supporting the sustainable management of forests

Planning and Monitoring

Land and Resource Planning

7.4.b Development and application of research and technologies for the sustainable management of forests

7.5.a Partnerships to promote the sustainable management of forests

Planning and Monitoring

Land and Resource Planning

7.5.b Public participation and conflict resolution in forest-related decision making

Public Participation

7.5.c Monitoring, assessment and reporting on progress towards sustainable management of forests

Planning and Monitoring

Land and Resource Planning
174

Glossary

Abiotic processes: interactions of non-biological factors (sunlight), 

materials (sulfur dioxide), or process (hydrolysis) that can affect 

living or non-living constituents of an ecosystem. 

Airborne particulates: total suspended particulate matter found in the 

atmosphere as solid particles or liquid droplets, including 

windblown dust, emissions from industrial processes, smoke from 

wood/coal burning, and engine exhaust.

Air Quality Index: compares local pollutant levels, including ozone, 

particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen 

dioxide, and lead. 

American chestnut blight: a fungal disease that destroys bark tissue 

and kills chestnut trees. No longer a viable component of 

Western North Carolina’s forest ecosystem, chestnut was the 

dominant tree in the canopy over a century ago. Presently, 

hybridized chestnut trees resistant to the fungus are being 

reintroduced into the forest.

Anaerobic: without air, where air is generally used to mean oxygen, as 

opposed to aerobic, which means with air.

Appalachian Trail: a 2,170 mile corridor traversing the highest ridge 

tops between Maine and Georgia. Conditions on the Trail are 

considered a barometer for the air, water, and biological diversity of 

the Appalachian Mountains. 

Apparently secure: a species uncommon but not rare (although it might 

be rare in parts of its range, particularly on the periphery) and 

usually widespread. 

Aspect: in physical geography, aspect generally refers to the horizontal 

direction to which a mountain slope faces. 

Atmospheric deposition: the transfer of acidic or acidifying substances 

from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth or to objects on its 

surface.

Balsam woolly adelgid: a tiny sucking insect that first appeared in North 

Carolina in the 1950s. The insect robs a Fraser fir tree of nutrients, 

leading to its decline and eventual death.

Beech bark disease: a disease that occurs when the bark of the beech tree 

is attacked by and altered by an insect, the beech scale, and then 

invaded and killed by fungi.

Bioenergy: renewable energy made available from materials derived from 

biological sources.

Biomass: any organic material that has stored sunlight in the form 

of chemical energy. As a fuel, it may include wood, wood waste, 

straw, manure, sugar cane, and many other by-products from a 

variety of agricultural processes.

Biological diversity (biodiversity): describes the variety and abundance of 

all life forms in a given place – plants, animals, fungi, lichens, and 

mosses. It also describes the processes, functions, and structures 

that sustain that variety and allow it to adapt to changing 

circumstances. Moreover, it encompasses the complexity of gene 

pools, species, communities, and ecosystems at spatial scales from 

local to regional to global. 

Biotic processes: an interaction or series of interactions produced or caused 

by living organisms.

Bog: a wetland with acidic substrate mainly composed of moss and peat 

and having a characteristic flora. 

Bole: the main stem of a tree, usually covered with bark. The bole is usually 

the part that is used commercially for lumber.

Boreal forest: occurring between 50 and 60 degrees north latitudes. 

Seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm 

summers and long, cold, and dry winters. The average length of the 

growing season in boreal forests is 130 days. 

Cardinal directions: the four directions of north, south, east, and west. 

North and south point toward the geographical poles defined by the 

axis of the earth’s rotation.

Clean Air Act of 1970: law which defines the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency’s responsibilities for protecting and improving

the Nation's air quality and stratospheric ozone layer; Title 42,

Chapter 85. 
175

Climate: the average weather in a location over a long period of time. 

Climate is not only the measure of average conditions, but also the 

characteristic range of variability from those conditions. 

Climate change: shifts in the average state of climate and in its variability. 

Climate projection models: mathematical tools for projecting future 

climate. Climate model projections are not predictions, but rather 

scenarios of how the climate might change based on observed 

patterns. 

Composite panels: roundwood products that are manufactured into chips, 

wafers, strands, flakes, shavings, or sawdust and then reconstituted 

into a variety of panel and engineered lumber products. 

Conservation easement: a legally binding restriction placed on a piece of 

property to protect its associated resources. An easement selectively 

targets only those rights necessary to protect specific conservation 

values, such as water quality or migration routes, and is individually 

tailored to meet a landowner’s needs.

Contiguous: connected; abutting; adjacent; neighboring; connecting 

without a break.

Continuous gradient: an uninterrupted change in the value of a quantity 

(e.g., temperature, pressure, or concentration) of a given variable, 

and especially per unit distance in a specified direction.

Critically Imperiled: a species critically at risk globally because of 

extreme rarity or because of some factor(s) making it especially 

vulnerable to extinction.

Dogwood anthracnose: a fungus introduced into Western North Carolina 

in the 1980s. Dogwood anthracnose is expected to intensify in the 

future, with flowering dogwood mortality heaviest at higher 

elevations and on shaded, north-facing slopes. 

Developed land: land that has large amounts of paved (impervious) 

surfaces, such as major roads, subdivisions, towns, and shopping 

areas. 

Decomposition: the process by which tissues of a dead organism break 

down into simpler forms of matter. The process is essential for new 

growth and development of living organisms because it recycles the 

finite matter that occupies physical space in the biome.

Degradation: in geology, the wearing down of the land by the erosive 

action of water, wind, or ice. In chemistry, the breakdown of an 

organic compound. In the environment, the deterioration and 

depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of 

ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife. 

Delivered value: the price of wood, transportation, and site restoration 

necessary to get wood to the mill; the price to the logger. 

Disturbance: a relatively discreet event in time that disrupts ecosystem, 

community, or population structure and changes resources, substrate 

availability, or the physical environment; for example, a wildfire. 

Dry deposition: settling out of fine to coarse particles, gases, and aerosols 

from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth. 

Ecological niche: the role an organism plays within the structure and 

functions of an ecosystem, and the way it interacts with other living 

things and with its physical environment.

Ecoregion: large areas of land and water that are broadly mapped using 

specific climate, vegetation, and physical characteristics, e.g., the 

southern Blue Ridge Mountains.

Ecosystem: a specific unit of organisms occupying a given area that 

interact with the physical environment.

Elevation: the altitude of a place above sea level or ground level.

Evapotranspiration: the process of water passing through the leaves of 

trees and evaporating into air.

Forest fragmentation: the breaking up of uninterrupted forested areas into 

smaller zones; harmful to the habitat of many birds, mammals, and 

plants, as well as entire ecosystems.

Forest productivity: a measurement of timber stocking levels, forest 

health, and species mix. Forest productivity depends on many 

factors, including climate, soils, elevation, aspect, latitude, and 

timber management. 

Forest structure: the distribution of trees by species and size. Forest 

structure is the result of the growth habit of tree species, especially 

the degree of shade tolerance; ecological conditions; and the history 

of disturbance and management. 
176

Fuelwood: roundwood harvested to produce some form of energy, as in 

heat or steam, in residential, industrial, or institutional settings. 

Galax: a tufted evergreen perennial herb having spikes of tiny white 

flowers and glossy green round to heart-shaped leaves that become 

coppery to maroon or purplish in fall; collected for commercial 

floral use.

Geobook: a monitoring tool designed by the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency primarily for county planners, watershed managers, or local 

land trusts and conservation groups needing a wide range of 

information on an area the size of a few counties or a watershed. 

Ginseng: any of several plants of the genus Panax, having forked roots; 

collected for its medicinal properties.

Gneiss: metamorphic rock that forms when sedimentary or igneous rock is 

subjected to high temperatures and pressures. Granite often 

becomes gneiss rock.

Green infrastructure: conserves ecosystem values and functions 

and provides associated benefits to human populations by 

developing strategically planned and managed networks of natural 

lands, working landscapes, and other open spaces. 

Ground-level ozone: ozone emitted at ground level by a chemical reaction 

between oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds in the 

presence of sunlight.

Groundwater: the water beneath the surface of the ground, consisting 

largely of surface water that has seeped down: the source of water 

in springs and wells.

Growing stock: a common term used to describe timber volume. The 

volume of growing stock trees is a subset of all live trees in a forest 

or stand. Growing stock includes sawtimber, pole timber, saplings, 

and seedlings, but excludes rough, rotten, and cull trees. It is a 

fundamental element in determining the productive capacity of an 

area identified as forest available for timber production. 

Gypsy moth: a pest introduced into the United States in the mid-1800s and now 

permanently established in 17 States, but not yet permanently established 

in Western North Carolina counties even though there have been instances 

of human-mediated introductions. The insect defoliates trees, making 

them more vulnerable to other killing agents. Gypsy moths feed on a wide 

variety of trees, shrubs, and vines, but prefer all oak species, apple, beech, 

birch, basswood, and willow. 

Hardwoods: trees that have broad leaves with a large surface area which 

are shed annually, such as oak, maple, poplar, and hickory.

Harvest residue: wood left in the forest after a timber harvest; the residue 

can be broken down to a composite of lignin and cellulose and 

burned to generate energy.

Headwaters: the source and the initial part of a stream.

Hemlock woolly adelgid: a tiny insect that feeds in fall, winter, and spring, 

depleting eastern and Carolina hemlocks of nutrients and leading to 

mortality in less than 5 years. 

Horticulture: the cultivation of plants. 

Hydrologic cycle: a continuous process by which water is transported from 

the oceans to the atmosphere by a process of evaporation, then 

to the land by clouds and precipitation (rain), and back to the sea 

again through rivers and underground waters.

Igneous: rocks formed from melting in the Earth’s crust (e.g., granite).

Imperiled: a species at global risk because of rarity or because of some 

factor(s), making it very vulnerable to extinction.

Inflation: a general upward price movement of goods and services that is 

representative of the economy as a whole. 

Invasive plants: plants introduced accidently into a natural system or 

brought into an area for ornamental use, food, or medicinal use, 

living fences, or livestock forage. They multiply rapidly because 

they are not kept in check by insects and diseases that evolved with 

them in their native setting. 

Invasive vertebrate and invertebrate animals: any species that has been 

introduced to an environment where it is not native, and that has since 

become a nuisance through rapid spread and increase in numbers, often to 

the detriment of native species. 

Land conveyances: a transfer system usually designed to ensure that a 

buyer of land secures title to the land together with all the rights that 

run with the land, and is notified of any restrictions in advance of 

purchase.

Lithology: the physical characteristics of rock, including color, 

composition, and texture.
177

Loam: a rich soil consisting of a mixture of sand, clay, and decaying 

organic materials.

Microclimate: a small, local region having a unique pattern of weather or 

weather effects.

Microcosm: a representation of something on a much smaller scale, e.g., 

artificial, simplified ecosystems that are used to simulate and predict 

the behavior of natural ecosystems under controlled conditions. 

National Ambient Air Quality Standards: as required by the Clean Air 

Act, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has set standards

for wide-spread pollutants from numerous and diverse sources

considered harmful to the public health and the environment. The 

two main types of standards are primary, which set limits to protect

public health, and secondary, which set limits to protect public

welfare (protection against visibility impairment, damage to

animals, crops and buildings).

National Forests: under the authority of the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, the agency manages 191 million acres of forest and 

range land to provide Americans with a wide variety of ecological 

services and commodities.

National Heritage Area: an area specifically designated by the U.S. 

Congress recognizing natural, cultural, and historic resources that 

form a cohesive, nationally distinctive landscape.

National Parks: under the authority of the Department of the Interior, these 

lands are managed to emphasize preservation of pristine areas, 

protection of natural and historic features, plus light-on-the-land 

recreation. The ultimate goal is to preserve resources “unimpaired 

for future generations.”

Native species: a species that was not introduced and historically, or 

currently, occurs in a given ecosystem. 

Net growth: total growth minus mortality. 

Nitrate deposition: deposition of nitrate, a compound containing nitrogen 

that can exist in the atmosphere or as a dissolved gas in water and 

that can have harmful effects on humans and animals. 

Nitrogen oxide emissions: a product of combustion from transportation 

and stationary sources; a major contributor to the formation of 

ozone in the troposphere and to acid deposition.

Nonpoint source pollution: the deposition of natural and human-made 

pollutants, from rainfall or snowmelt, moving over and through the 

ground, and into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters, and 

underground sources of drinking water. 

Non-timber forest products: any commodity obtained from the forest that 

does not necessitate harvesting trees. It includes plants, parts of 

plants, and other biological material, as well as fungi, mosses, 

lichens, herbs, vines, shrubs, and trees. 

Open space: land that is valued for natural processes and wildlife, 

agricultural and forest production, aesthetic beauty, active and 

passive recreation, and other public benefits. Such lands include 

working and natural forests, rangelands and grasslands, farms, 

ranches, parks, stream and river corridors, and other natural lands 

within rural, suburban, and urban areas. 

Orographic effect: rainfall that results from or is enhanced by mechanical 

lifting of an air mass over mountains. 

Overstory: upper portion of a forest made up of tree branches and leaves; 

tree canopy.

Palmer Hydrological Drought Index: a measure of long-term 

(cumulative) meteorological drought and wet conditions. 

Particulates: fine liquid or solid particles such as dust, smoke, mist, fumes, 

or smog found in air or emissions. Also very small solids suspended 

in water that can vary in size, shape, density, and electrical

charge.

Pathogen: any disease-producing agent (especially a virus or bacterium or 

other microorganism).

Pesticide: chemicals designed to kill, control, or repel insects, plant 

diseases, weeds, rodents, and germs. 

Population dynamics: how a given population grows and shrinks over 

time; as controlled by birth, death, and emigration or immigration.

Posts, poles, and pilings: wood products milled or cut and peeled into 

standard sizes that provide vertical and lateral support in 

buildings, foundation, utility lines, and fences. This category may 

also include nonindustrial (unmilled) products.

Precipitation: any form of water; rain, snow, or hail, that falls from the 

atmosphere and reaches the ground. 
178

Protected land: land owned or managed by entities that strive to limit the 

amount of land use conversion, such as national and State forests 

and parks and land conservancies. 

Pulpwood: wood reduced to individual fibers by chemical or mechanical 

means. The fibers are used to make a broad generic group of pulp 

products that includes paper products as well as fiberboard, 

insulating board, and paperboard. 

Rain shadow: a dry area on a mountainside facing away from the direction 

of the wind. The mountains block the passage of rain-producing 

weather systems, casting a “shadow” of dryness behind them. 

Ramps: an early spring vegetable with a strong garlic-like odor and a 

pronounced onion flavor. 

Regional haze rule: a 1999 Federal regulation mandating improved 

visibility in 156 Class I areas across the country by the year 2064. 

Reservoir: an artificial lake used to store water; often created by building 

a reinforced dam, usually out of concrete, earth, rock, or a mixture 

across a river or stream.

Riparian buffer: a transition zone between water and upland environments 

to protect the aquatic environment from pollution and sedimentation. 

It is measured from the top of the bank of the stream or the wetland 

boundary.

River basin: the entire geographical area drained by a river and its 

tributaries.

Roadless areas: designated areas that have regained or are regaining a 

natural appearance because signs of prior human activity are 

diminishing due to natural forces; the area must include no more 

than one-half mile of improved road for each 1,000 acres. 

Roundwood: logs, bolts, or other round sections cut from trees for 

industrial manufacture or consumer use. 

Runoff: surface water flow that occurs when soil is infiltrated to full 

capacity and excess water from rain, meltwater, or other sources 

flows over the land.

Saw logs: logs usually 8 feet in length or longer that can be processed

into a variety of sawn products such as lumber, cants, pallets,

railroad ties, and timbers.

Sawtimber: the diameter of softwood trees 9.0 inches and larger measured 

at 4.5 feet above ground; the diameter of hardwood trees 11.0 

inches measured at 4.5 feet above ground.

Schist: fine-grained rock, altered after formation by heat or pressure or 

both, so that mineral content is in roughly parallel layers. It can 

therefore be split into thin plates. 

Secure: a species which is considered common, widespread, and abundant 

(although it may be rare in parts of its range, particularly on the 

periphery). Not vulnerable in most of its range.

Sedimentary rock: a form of rock made by the deposition and 

compression of small particles. 

Sedimentation: mineral or organic matter deposited by water, air, or ice.

Shade tolerance: in forest ecology, a tree’s ability to tolerate differing light 

levels, e.g., if a tree does not thrive in full sunlight, it will usually be 

found in the understory, receiving filtered light through the upper 

canopy.

Silviculture: the art and science of controlling the establishment, growth, 

composition, health, and quality of forests to meet diverse needs 

and values of landowners, societies, and cultures. 

Size class distribution: variation in the amount of stand density or number 

of trees per size class. 

Smart growth: a development strategy that helps reduce urban sprawl, 

featuring town-centered, pedestrian oriented development, public 

transit, and a greater mix of housing, commercial, and retail uses. 

It also preserves open space and critical environmental areas and 

takes advantage of compact building designs that will minimize 

impervious surfaces. 

Softwoods: evergreen trees with needle or scale-like leaves, such as pine, 

fir, and spruce. 

Soil aeration: the replacement of air in soil with air from the surface of the 

earth.

Soil erosion: the displacement of soil by wind, water, or other moving 

currents; sometimes leading to landscape degradation, ecosystem 

damage, or waterway pollution. 

Soil exhaustion: soil which has lost its natural level of nutrients; infertile. 

Soil moisture: the amount of water in a soil type; important for biological 

processes and forest health. Soil moisture levels are determined 

both by temperature and precipitation. 

Soil structure: the arrangement of soil particles into larger aggregates; 

influences aeration, water movement, erosion resistance, and root 

penetration. 
179

Southern pine beetle: an insect native to U.S. southeastern forests that 

attacks loblolly, shortleaf, Virginia, pitch, and table mountain pine. 

Speciation: the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise.

Species: a taxonomic division that generally refers to a group of plants or 

animals that are similar in structure and descent and are able to 

breed among themselves. 

Stressor: any kind of event or action that, at certain levels, causes stress 

to organisms; for example, a period of drought. 

Strip mining: a mining technique in which the land and vegetation 

covering the mineral being sought are stripped away by large 

machines; without proper mitigation strategies, this technique can 

damage land and water, limiting subsequent uses. 

Stumpage value: the monetary value of standing timber, or the price a 

landowner typically receives for harvested trees. 

Succession: the natural replacement of plant or plant communities in an 

area over time. 

Sustainability: the maintenance and restoration of natural conditions, 

whereby humans and nature coexist into perpetuity fulfilling social, 

economic, and other requirements of present and future generations. 

Temperate forests: forests occurring in Eastern North America, 

Northeastern Asia, and Western and Central Europe and 

characterized by four seasons with a distinct winter, moderate climate, 

and a growing season of 140–200 days during 4–6 frost-free months. 

Temperature zone: an area characterized by a particular set of organisms, 

whose presence is determined by environmental conditions, as an 

altitudinal belt on a mountain.

Terrain: the physical features of a tract of land.

Terrestrial: animals that live predominantly or entirely on land, as 

compared with aquatic animals, which live predominantly in or 

around water. 

Threshold: the point that must be exceeded to begin producing a given 

effect or result or to elicit a response.

Timberland: forest land capable of producing 20 cubic feet of industrial 

wood per acre per year and not withdrawn from timber utilization. 

Topographical feature: the spatial representation of a particular place or 

region indicating their relative positions and elevations. 

Typhoid: a potentially life-threatening disease caused by Salmonella 

typhi bacteria. It is usually carried via water or by food 

contaminated with sewage. 

Understory: the lower layer of plants and shrubs in a forest ecosystem.

Undeveloped land: includes forests and farms with minor roads and farm 

buildings. 

Vascular plants: (also known as tracheophytes or higher plants) have 

lignified tissues for conducting water, minerals, and photosynthetic 

products through the plant; includes ferns, clubmosses, flowering 

plants, conifers, hardwoods, and other gymnosperms. 

Veneer log: roundwood product that is either rotary cut, sliced, stamped, or 

sawn into a variety of products, such as plywood, finished panels, 

sheets, or sheathing. 

Vertebrate: an animal with a backbone, or spinal column, made of 

interlocking units called vertebrae.

Volcanic rock: rock formed from the cooling of lava (hot liquid rock) on or 

near the earth’s surface. 

Vulnerable: a species at risk globally either because it is very rare 

throughout its range, found only in a restricted range (even 

if abundant at some locations), or because of other factors making it 

vulnerable to extinction.

Water stress: stress defined by the availability of water; it impacts forests 

primarily by its affect on soil moisture. 

Wet deposition: precipitation, in the form of rain, snow, or hail; “acid 

rain” is a type of wet deposition referring to the delivery of strong 

acid ions (sulfate and nitrate) and acid-forming ions (ammonia) 

from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface. 

Wetlands: an area of land where soil is saturated with moisture either 

permanently or seasonally. 

Wholesale prices: measures the changes in price paid by retailers for 

finished goods. Inflationary pressures typically show up here earlier 

than the headline retail price.
180

Data Sources

Ecoregion

USDA Forest Service ECOMAP Team, 2005 Northern Region Geospatial Library.

Ecological Subregions: Sections and subsections of the conterminous United States, Cleland et al., 2007.

Text Sources

Time Line

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–18, The Southern Appalachians: A 

history of the landscape, Yarnell, S.L., 1998.

Photo and Illustration Sources

Bundled corn, American Indian settlement, ceramic vessels, European settlers on porch, standing chestnut bole, 

harvested spruce forest in Pisgah National Forest, File Photos, USDA Forest Service, Asheville, NC.

Introduction

Biodiversity Data Sources

Ecological Communities

NatureServe, Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina, 3rd approximation, Schafale and 

Weakley, 1990.

Lands Managed for Conservation 

Southern Forest Land Assessment: A cooperative project of the Southern Group of State Foresters, Jacobs, 

J.R., Srinivasan, R., and Barber, B., Texas Forest Service, College Station, TX, 83 p., 2008.

Significant Natural Heritage Areas

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Natural heritage program, http://www.

ncnhp.org/.

Land Use

RENCI Engagement Site at University of North Carolina – Charlotte, NC, May 2010.

Forest Fragmentation

USDA Forest Service, Research Triangle Park, NC, Kurt Riitters, Ecologist, June 2008.

Text Sources

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station–GTR–64, Human influences on forest ecosystems, 2003.

USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, GTR–728, National forests on the edge, 2007.

The Institute for the Economy and the Future at Western Carolina University, Western North Carolina 

population growth, Figure 1, Population changes 2010–2030, 2008. For uses of this study, population 

projection for Western North Carolina is based on five additional counties: Burke, Caldwell, McDowell, 

Polk, and Rutherford. http://www.wncpulse.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=109:w

estern-north-carolina-population-growth-rates&catid=30:demographics&Itemid=119.

Photo Sources

Biodiversity Intro

Swamp pink: Katie Hicks

References and Credits
181

Production Data Sources

Timberland Ownership

USDA Forest Service, National Forest Inventory Data Online (FIDO), custom retrieval for 18 counties, private 

and public timberland ownership (acres), 1984–2006.

Volume of Timber

USDA Forest Service, National Forest Inventory Data Online (FIDO), custom retrieval for 18 counties, volume 

of growing stock on timberland (billion cubic feet); average annual net growth and removals of hardwood and 

softwood growing stock on timberland (million cubic feet), 1984–2006.

Timber Composition and Age

USDA Forest Service, National Forest Inventory Data Online (FIDO), custom retrieval for 18 counties, volume 

of growing stock by diameter class (million cubic feet), 1984–2006.

Non-Timber Forest Products

USDA, Forest Service, National Forests of North Carolina, Total value of nontimber products sold in the Pisgah 

and Nantahala National Forests, Remington, D., Asheville, NC, 2005–2009.

USDA Forest Service, Science update SRS-006, Special forest products: a southern strategy for research and 

technology transfer, February, 2004.

Biomass Production Potential

USDA Forest Service, National Forest Inventory Data Online (FIDO), custom retrieval for 18 counties, Forest 

biomass (dry tons per acre) and USDA, Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis, Remote Sensing 

Applications Center. 

Photo Sources 

Community Examples

Small whorled pogonia, shortia, Fraser’s loosestrife, pale yellow trillium, Gray’s lily, Virginia spirea, sprucefir forest, montane alluvial forest, acidic cove forest: Gary Kauffman

Santeetlah dusky salamander: Michael Graziano

Indiana bat: Traci Hemberger

Rich cove forest: Bill Lea

Carolina northern flying squirrel: John Mays

Grassy bald: Ed Burress

Land Use

Water: Bridget O’Hara, NEMAC

Agriculture, developed: Larry Korhnak, Interface South

Natural: David Cappaert, Michigan State

Lands Managed for Conservation

Federal: Katie Hicks

State and local: David Brown, North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources

Other conservation lands, other forest land: Larry Korhnak, Interface South

Biodiversity

Continued...
182

Production Text Sources

Timberland Ownership

Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere Program, The southern Appalachian assessment, summary 

report, July 1996. 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Managing your forest, http://www.dfr.state.

nc.us/Managing_your forest/consulting_foresters.htm, November 2009.

USDA Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis, National Woodland Owner Survey, 2004. Preliminary 

results for North Carolina, Butler, B. J. and Leatherberry, E. C., September 2005.

Timber Composition and Age

Forest Watch, Ecological Forestry, Early successional forest: too much or not enough? Lapin, M., September 

2002. 

USDA Forest Service Resource Bulletin, SRS-87, Forest statistics of the mountains of NC, Brown, M., 2002.

Non-Timber Forest Products

USDA Forest Service, National strategy for special forest products, FM-713, Washington, DC, 2001.

USDA Forest Service, Science update SRS-006, Special forest products: a southern strategy for research and 

technology transfer, February 2004.

Biomass Production Potential

Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, Harvesting fuel: cutting costs and reducing forest fire hazard through 

biomass harvest, Arnosti, D. et al., June 2008. 

USDA FS-899, USDA Woody biomass utilization strategy. Marcia Patton-Mallory, editor, 2008.

USDA FS SRS, Compass, What are we going to do with all that wood?, ed. Thinning the forest, boosting local 

economies, R. Rummer, Winter 2006, Vol. 1, Number 1.

USDA-FIA Recommended methodology for assessing forestry biomass for bio-energy utilization, Prepared 

for Services, Utilization, and Marketing Task Force, Southern Group of State Foresters, prepared by: Nathan 

McClure http://www.southernforests.org/documents/Methodology%20for%20Assessing%20Forest%20

Biomass.pdf.

Photo Sources

Tree Farm Sign, Anonymous Tree Farm owner, Grandin Tree Farm: Michael E. Cheek, NC Division of Forest 

Resources 

National forest sign, sawn lumber, green fork lift, man in mill, rolling logs, log pile: File Photo, USDA Forest 

Service, Asheville, NC
183

Data Sources

Insects and Diseases

USDA Forest Service, National Forest Inventory Data Online (FIDO) custom retrieval for 18 counties, total 

volume of live trees by species for 18 counties: southern yellow pines, eastern hemlock, flowering dogwood, 

1984–2006.

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Asheville, NC, custom retrieval for 18 counties, outbreak 

years for southern pine beetle (1960 to 2006), hemlock woolly adelgid (1992 to 2006), beech bark disease 

(1993 to 2006), gypsy moth (1993 to 2007) Yockey, E., October, 2007.

Forest Fire

North Carolina Division of Forest Resources, Michael Creek, custom retrieval for 18 counties, location of fires, 

1997–2002.

Severe Weather

Historical Tropical Cyclone Tracks 1851–2004, U.S. National Atlas, www.nationalatlas.gov.

Elevation

LIDAR, NC One Map, www.nconemap.com.

Temperature and Precipitation

Oregon State University, PRISM Group.

Historical Temperature and Precipitation

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Average derived from yearly average observations in Avery, 

Henderson, Macon, Madison, and Haywood counties (1893 to 2006), Moore Myers, J., Raleigh, NC, June 

2007.

Precipitation Pattern

Oregon State University, Spatial Climate Analysis Service, NOAA Cooperative Station.

PHDI Graphs, Mera, R., North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, January 2008.

Climate Scenarios

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Southern Global Change Program, Scenarios and water 

stress (HAD & CGC1): Ge Sun et al., Impacts of multiple stresses on water demand and supply across the 

Southeastern United States, 44(6), 1441-1457, 2008.

State Climate Office of North Carolina, Climate Division Data. http://www.nc-climate.ncsu.edu/climate/

climdiv.php#thumb. 

Ecosystem Health

Continued...
184

Ecosystem Health Text sources

Insects and Diseases

USDA Forest Service, Southern Region, Forest Health Protection, Southern Forest Health Atlas of Insects and 

Diseases, September 2009. 

Journal of Forestry, The southern pine beetle prevention initiative: working for healthier forests, Nowak, J. et 

al., July/August 2008.

USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, Asheville, NC, Slowing the Spread of the Gypsy Moth, http://

www.datcp.state.wi.us/arm/environment/insects/gypsy-moth/pdf/sts_facts.pdf.

Invasive Species

North Carolina State University, Fletcher, NC, Invasive plants and the nursery industry, Proceedings of the 

international plants propagators society, Bir, R.E., February 2000.

USDA Forest Service and University of Georgia, Center for invasive species and ecosystem health, Non-native 

invasive species in southern forest and grassland ecosystems, http://www.invasive.org/.

North Carolina Natural Plant Society, invasive exotic species list, compiled by Misty Franklin, 2006, http://

www.ncwildflower.org/invasives/list.htm.

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Compass 1(2), Silent invaders of our southern forests, Spring 

2005. 

Forest Fire

University of Georgia, School of Forest Resources Extension Pub. FOR 99-010, Drought damage to trees, 

Coder, K. D., April 1999. 

Severe Weather

One North Carolina Naturally, partnerships in conservation, quarterly electronic newsletter, Western North 

Carolina hurricanes reveal opportunities in floodplain areas, Gibson, P., Fall 2004. 

Atlantic Tropical Cyclones layer at http://www.nationalatlas.gov/mld/huralll.html.

Climate Change

U.S. National Atlas, Raw data download, http://www.nationalatlas.gov/atlasftp.html.

Climate Change and Forest Disturbances, Dale et al., 2001, 51(9), 723-734.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy (2111), 236-F-98-007q, Climate change and North 

Carolina, September 1998. 

USDA, Forest Service, In brief: climate change and water- perspectives from the forest service. FS-908. 

Washington, DC, 2008.

Photo Sources

Damaged tree: Norbert Frank, University of West Hungary, Bugwood.org

Mimosa: James H. Miller, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org

Multiflora rose: Leslie J. Mehrhoff, University of Connecticut, Bugwood.org

Oriental bittersweet: James H. Miller, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org

Crimson fountaingrass: John M. Randall, The Nature Conservancy, Bugwood.org
185

Soil, Water and Air Data Sources

Soil Formation 

North Carolina State University, Department of Soil Science, Soil systems map of Western North Carolina, 

Daniels, R.B. et al., Tech. Bull. 314, 1999. Data transfer by Robert Austin, North Carolina State University.

Soil Loss and Degradation (Acidic deposition)

USDA Forest Service, Asheville, NC, and E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc., Corvallis, OR, Model-based 

assessment of the effects of acidic deposition on sensitive watershed resources in the national forests of NC, 

TN, and SC, final report, Sullivan, T.J., B.J. Cosby, K.U. Snyder, A.T. Herlihy, B. Jackson, 2007, http://

webcam.srs.fs.fed.us/pollutants/acid/index.shtml.

River Basins in Western North Carolina 

NC Wildlife Resources Commission, NC Wildlife Action Plan, NC river basins, 2005, http://www.ncwildlife.

org/plan/WSC_WAP_Basins.htm.

Atmospheric Deposition Impacts to Streams

USDA Forest Service, Asheville, NC, and E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc., Corvallis, OR, Model-based 

assessment of the effects of acidic deposition on sensitive watershed resources in the national forests of NC, 

TN, and SC, final report, Sullivan, T.J., B.J. Cosby, K.U. Snyder, A.T. Herlihy, B. Jackson, 2007, http://

webcam.srs.fs.fed.us/pollutants/acid/index.shtml.

Aquatic Species at Risk

USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina, Federally listed aquatic threatened, endangered, and 

species of concern, Pers. Comm., Kauffman, G., 2010.

Water Quantity

USDI Geological Survey, Surface-Water Data for the Nation, Estimated Water Use Summary, 1990, http://

waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/sw.

USDI Geological Survey, Surface-Water Data for the Nation, Estimated Water Use Summary, 2005, http://

waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/sw.

Introduction

USDA Forest Service, Asheville, NC, and E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc., Corvallis, OR, Model-based 

assessment of the effects of acidic deposition on sensitive watershed resources in the national forests of NC, 

TN, and SC, final report, Sullivan, T.J., B.J. Cosby, K.U. Snyder, A.T. Herlihy, B. Jackson, 2007, http://

webcam.srs.fs.fed.us/pollutants/acid/index.shtml.

Visibility

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Air Quality, NC Division of Air 

Quality, Regional Haze State Implementation Plan, http://daq.state.nc.us/planning/RH_SIP_Imp_Plan_12-17-

2007.pdf.

Jackson, W., Pers. Comm., 2010.

Ambient Air Quality (Particulates, Ozone, Growth of Trees)

Colorado State University, Visibility Information Exchange Web System, Fine particle speciation, http://views.

cira.colostate.edu/web/.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Air Explorer, Particulate Matter 2.5, http://www.epa.gov/airexplorer/.

USDA Forest Service, Region 8, Air Resource Management, http://svinetfc6.fs.fed.us/wqmsbeta/frameview.

phtml?winwidth=800&winheight=600&language=0 Ozone calculator, http://webcam.srs.fs.fed.us/tools/

calculator/index.shtml)

Continued...
186

Data Sources

Ambient Air Quality (Particulates, Ozone, Growth of Trees) - Continued

USDA Forest Service, Final report: Southern Appalachian Mountains Initiative, 2002. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Emissions monitoring, Clean air markets, http://www.epa.gov/ airmarkets/emissions/index.html.

Sources of Air Pollution

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Emissions monitoring, Clean air markets, http://www.epa.gov/

airmarkets/emissions/index.html.

Text Sources

Geologic History

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-18, The southern Appalachians: A 

history of the landscape, Yarnell, S.L., 1998.

Soil Formation

North Carolina State University, Department of Soil Science, Soil Systems of North Carolina, Daniels, R.B. et 

al., Tech. Bull. 314, 1999.

Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Natural Heritage, 2006, http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/

natural_heritage/ncTIf.shtml.

Western Carolina University, Dept. of Biology, University of North Carolina, Asheville, Dept. of Environmental 

Studies, Vascular flora of a southern Appalachian fen and floodplain complex, Warren, R.J. et al., Castanea

69(2), 2004. 

A nature guide to northwest NC, Skeate, S., Parkway Publishers, Boone, NC, 2004.

Soil Loss and Degradation (Erosion and Sedimentation)

North Carolina Department of Environment, The Division of Land Resources, Sedimentation Pollution Control 

Act of 1973, http://www.dlr.enr.state.nc.us/pages/sedimentpollutioncontrol.html.

North Carolina Division of Forest Resources, North Carolina Forest Practice Guidelines Related to Water 

Quality, Leaflet WQ-1 December, 2007, http://www.dfr.state.nc.us/publications/Forestry%20Leaflets/WQ01.

pdf.

North Carolina Forest Service, Best management practices: quick reference field guide. http://dfr.nc.gov/

publications/WQ0407/01%2002%20Chapters%20Field%20Guide%20WEB.pdf.

North Carolina State University, Department of Soil Science, http://www.soil.ncsu.edu/about/publications.php.

North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Land Quality Section, Soil Facts, 

North Carolina Erosion and Sedimentation Control Program, http://www.soil.ncsu.edu/publications/Soilfacts/

AG-439-32/#BasicMandatoryRequirements.

Soil Loss and Degradation (Roads, Steep Slopes, Landslides, Acidic Deposition)

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Determining the Range of Acceptable Forest Road Erosion, 

Grace, J.M., American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, Meeting Presentation, Paper 

Number: 083984, 2008. http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_grace034.pdf.

Canadian Geotechnical Society, 1st North American landslide conference, Vail, CO, Landslide hazards and 

landslide hazard mapping in North Carolina, Wooten, R.M. et al., AEG special publication 23, 2007. http://

www.cgs.ca/cgssociety/Boards%20and%20Committees/Committees/lanslides-committee/meeting-report-byakturner-aug-2007.pdf/view.

Soil, Water, and Air
187

Continued...

North Carolina Geological Survey, Geologic Hazards in North Carolina – Landslides, http://www.geology.enr.

state.nc.us/Landslide_Info/Landslides_main.htm.

USDA Forest Service, Asheville, NC, and E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc., Corvallis, OR, Model-based 

assessment of the effects of acidic deposition on sensitive watershed resources in the national forests of NC, 

TN, and SC, final report, Sullivan, T.J., B.J. Cosby, K.U. Snyder, A.T. Herlihy, B. Jackson, 2007, http://

webcam.srs.fs.fed.us/pollutants/acid/index.shtml.

Soil Conservation

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Model ordinances to protect local resources, 2007, http://www.epa.gov/

nps/ordinance/mol1.htm#sec3.

River Basins and Health of River Basins in Western North Carolina 

NC Wildlife Resources Commission, NC Wildlife Action Plan, NC river basins, 2005, http://www.ncwildlife.

org/plan/WSC_WAP_Basins.htm.

NC Wildlife Resources Commission, Basinwide Planning Program: 2002 Little Tennessee River, Basinwide 

Water Quality Plan, Water quality issues related to the entire Little Tennessee river Basin, http://www.

wildlifeactionplans.org/pdfs/action_plan_summaries/north_carolina.pdf.

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Office of Environmental Education, 

Savannah River Basin, 2007, http://www.ee.enr.state.nc.us/public/ecoaddress/riverbasins/savannah.150dpi.

pdf.

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Office of Environmental Education, New 

River Basin, 2007, http://www.ee.enr.state.nc.us/public/ecoaddress/riverbasins/new.150dpi.pdf.

Clean Water for North Carolina, A River in Jeopardy: The Yadkin and Pee Dee Rivers of North Carolina, 

Carpenter, B. et al., October 2002, http://www.cwfnc.org/Yadkinreport.pdf.

Atmospheric Deposition Impacts to Streams

USDA Forest Service, Asheville, NC, and E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc., Corvallis, OR, Model-based 

assessment of the effects of acidic deposition on sensitive watershed resources in the national forests of NC, 

TN, and SC, final report, Sullivan, T.J., B.J. Cosby, K.U. Snyder, A.T. Herlihy, B. Jackson, 2007, http://

webcam.srs.fs.fed.us/pollutants/acid/index.shtml.

Aquatic Species at Risk

USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina, List of threatened, endangered, and species of 

concern, Pers. Comm., Kauffman, G., 2010.

Crayfish, Crandall, K.A., Fetzner, J.W., Crayfish conservation, http://crayfish.byu.edu/conservation.htm, 

updated, 2006.

NC Wildlife Resources Commission, wildlife species & conservation, North Carolina freshwater mussels, 

2010, http://www.ncwildlife.org/wildlife_species_con/wsc_fwmussels_endfish_mussels.htm.

Davidson College, Salamanders of North Carolina, Wilson, J. et al., http://www.bio.davidson.edu/projects/

herpcons/herps_of_nc/salamanders/salamanders.html.

Water Quantity

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2008-1104, Inventory of Well Yields in Avery and Watauga Counties, 

North Carolina, Huffman, B.A. et al., http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1104/.

Soil, Water, and Air
188

Text Sources

Introduction

USDA Forest Service, Asheville, NC, and E&S Environmental Chemistry, Inc., Corvallis, OR, Model-based 

assessment of the effects of acidic deposition on sensitive watershed resources in the national forests of NC, 

TN, and SC, final report, Sullivan, T.J., B.J. Cosby, K.U. Snyder, A.T. Herlihy, B. Jackson, 2007, http://

webcam.srs.fs.fed.us/pollutants/acid/index.shtml.

Visibility

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Air Quality, NC Division of 

Air Quality, Regional Haze State Implementation Plan for North Carolina Class I Areas, http://daq.state.nc.us/

planning/RH_SIP_Imp_Plan_12-17-2007.pdf.

USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina, Jackson, W., Pers. Comm., 2010.

Ambient Air Quality (Particulates, Ozone, Growth of Trees)

Colorado State University, Visibility Information Exchange Web System, Fine particle speciation, http://views.

cira.colostate.edu/web/.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Air Explorer, Particulate Matter 2.5, http://www.epa.gov/airexplorer/.

USDA Forest Service, Region 8, Air Resource Management, http://svinetfc6.fs.fed.us/wqmsbeta/frameview.

phtml?winwidth=800&winheight=600&language=0 Ozone calculator, http://webcam.srs.fs.fed.us/tools/

calculator/index.shtml).

USDA Forest Service, Final report: Southern Appalachian Mountains Initiative, 2002. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Emissions monitoring, Clean air markets, http://www.epa.gov/

airmarkets/emissions/index.html.

USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina, Jackson, W., Pers. Comm., 2010.

Sources of Air Pollution 

Final report of the Southern Appalachian Mountains Initiative, 2002. 

USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina, Air quality trends in Western North Carolina, 

Jackson, W., Pers. Comm., 2010.

Photo and Illustration Sources

Introduction

Waters of Coweeta: USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station file photo

Soil Formation

Western North Carolina soil systems map: NEMAC 

Soil Loss and Degradation 

Steep Slope Development: Patrick Parton, Haywood County

Case Camp Ridge Road: Dick Jones

Steep Slope Development: North Carolina Geological Survey, North Carolina Department of Environment and 

Natural Resources

Map of Landslides: NEMAC

Landslide, Debris pile: North Carolina Geological Survey, North Carolina Department of Environment and 

Natural Resources

Map of lithology: NEMAC

Soil, Water and Air
189

Photo and Illustration Sources

Water Basins in Western North Carolina

Map of river basins: NEMAC

Total land in Western North Carolina river basins: NEMAC

Atmospheric Deposition Impacts to Streams

Buffering capacity for brook trout survival: Sullivan et al., 2007

Acid Neutralizing Capacity: Sullivan et al., 2007

Aquatic Species at Risk

Blotched Chub: Brett Albanese, Georgia Department of Natural Resources

Appalachian elktoe mussel, littlewing pearly mussel, noonday globe: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Asheville 

Field Office, NC

Pygmy Salamander: Matthew Niemiller, http://www.herpetology.us/field_trips/2009/cherokee_national_forest_

mo.html

Smoky dace, Betty Creek: Katie Owers

Wounded darter: Bud Freeman, Georgia Museum of Natural History, 2008

Water Quantity

Average Water Withdrawals in WNC (million gallons per day), 1990: NEMAC 

Average Water Withdrawals in WNC (million gallons per day), 2005: NEMAC

Visibility

Simulated visibility conditions in Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock Wilderness Area (1860, 2000–2004, 2018, 2064), 

Winhaze model (http://www.air-resource.com/resources/downloads.html)

Visibility Conditions at Shining Rock Wilderness: http://www.fsvisimages.com/image-library-start.aspx

Ambient Air Quality (Airborne Particulates, Ground-level ozone, Nitrous Oxides)

Fine particulates: http://views.cira.colostate.edu/web/

Visibility, Shining Rock Wilderness Area: http://www.fsvisimages.com/image-library-start.aspx

Sensitivity of Tree Species to Ozone Exposure: Southern Appalachian Mountains Initiative, 2002

Hourly Average Ozone Exposures: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002

Ozone Monitor Elevations: Southern Appalachian Mountains Initiative, 2002

Sources of Air Pollution

Sulfur dioxide/Nitrogen oxide emission maps: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002

Wet sulfate deposition, 1993, Jackson, W., USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina, 2010

Wet sulfate deposition, 2008, Jackson, W., USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina, 2010

Soil, Water and Air
190

Carbon Cycle Data Sources

Carbon Storage in Western North Carolina, USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Forest Inventory 

Data Online (FIDO), EVALIDator 4.01 tool, http://fiatools.fs.fed.us/fido/index.html.

Text Sources

Introduction

U.S. Global Change Research Program. National Climate Change, “Global Climate Change Impacts in the 

United States,” 27, 2009, http://www.globalchange.gov/images/cir/pdf/National.pdf.

National Geographic, “It starts at home,” Miller, P., March 2009, http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/03/

energy-conservation/miller-text.

Carbon Storage and Release

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Climate change-greenhouse gas emissions, Carbon dioxide, March 

2010, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/co2.html.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center, EOS project science office, 

Earth observatory, The ocean’s carbon balance, Riebeek, H., June 2008, http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/

Features/OceanCarbon/.

U.S. Department of Energy, Fossil energy office of communications, How fossil fuels were formed, October 

2008, http://www.fe.doe.gov/education/energylessons/coal/gen_howformed.html.

Carbon Storage in Western North Carolina Forests

Biotic and abiotic factors regulating forest floor CO2 flux across a range of forest age classes in the southern 

Appalachians, Vose, J.M., and Bolstad, P.V., Pedobiologia, 50:577-587, 2007.

Haida climate forest, general information on trees, carbon and climate, 2007, http://www.haidaclimate.com/

content/view/28/34/.

Carbon Market in Western North Carolina

Exploring the feasibility of a local carbon offset market in western North Carolina, Chipley, S., Proceedings of 

the national conference on undergraduate research, University of Montana, April 2010.

USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, A description and comparison of selected forest 

carbon registries: a guide for States considering the development of a forest carbon registry, SRS-107, 2007.

The economic effects of climate change, Tol, R.S., Journal of Economic Perspectives 23(2), Spring 2009.

Market-based policy options to control U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, Metcalf , G.E., Journal of Economic 

Perspectives 23(2), Spring 2009.

Paying for avoided deforestation - Should we do it?, Sohngen, B., Choices: The magazine of food, farm, and 

resource issues 23(1), 28 (2008).

Photo and Illustration Sources

The Greenhouse Effect, U.S. National Assessment of the Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and 

Change: A Detailed Overview of the Consequences of Climate Change and Mechanisms for Adaptation, 

http://www.usgrcp.gov/usgcrp/nacc/default.htm.

Global Average Temperature and Carbon Dioxide Concentrations, 1880–2004, Data source temperature: ftp://

ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/anomalies/annual_land.and.ocean.ts; data source CO2 (Siple Ice Cores): http://

cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/co2/siple2.013; data source CO2 (Mauna Loa): http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/ftp/

trends/co2/maunaloa.co2; graphic design by Michael Ernst, The Woods Hole Research Center.

Carbon Storage in Western North Carolina: NEMAC.

Carbon Cycling and Sustainable Forestry illustration: Forest Foundation, 2006. http://www.forestboundation.org.

Avoided deforestation carbon offset market, USDA Forest Service file photo.
191

Data Sources

Economic Trends in Western North Carolina

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, 1970–2000s, Average number of total jobs and 

wage rate per decade, Mera, R.

North Carolina State University, The Western North Carolina Economy: Overview and Challenges, The Harold 

and Mazie Jones Levenson Program on Growth and Change in Western North Carolina: Are We Ready for 

Change? Cherry, T.L., 2008.

Appalachian State University, Center for Economic Research & Policy Analysis, WNC economic index, county 

unemployment rankings, Cherry, T.L. et al., July 2009.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Arts, Entertainment, Recreation Employment, 

2001–2007.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, CA30, Regional Economic profiles, NC, 1998–

2007.

Recreation Areas

USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina, Internal annual visitation and receipt report, 2000–

2009.

Recreation Use

Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, Sustainable tourism: the case of the blue ridge national heritage area, Stoddard, 

J.E., Evans, M.R., Dinesh, D.S., August 2008.

Total Visitation for the Pisgah and Nantahala National Forests, Blue Ridge Parkway, and Great Smoky 

Mountains National Park, 1985–2009, http://usparks.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?zi=1/

XJ&sdn=usparks&cdn=travel&tm=30&gps=423_406_1276_818&f=00&su=p531.50.336.

ip_&tt=2&bt=1&bts=1&zu=http%3A//www.nature.nps.gov/stats/park.cfm.

Development and Conservation

University of North Carolina, Charlotte, RENCI, Trends in land use and development in the Western North 

Carolina (2006–2030), 2010.

Roundwood Product Output and Distribution

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Forest Inventory and Analysis, Average volume of 

roundwood products by product and years, 1995–2007.

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Forest Inventory and Analysis, Number of mill operations in 

the region, Pers. Comm., Johnson, T., 2010.

Arts and Craft

Billy Graham Training Center at the Cove, Spiritual Retreats, Spiritual Retreats, Pers. Comm., 2010.

Find the Divine - Directory of Spiritual Retreats, Religious Retreats and Conference Centers, Retreat centers by 

State and region, 2010, http://www.findthedivine.com.

Socioeconomic 

Benefits
192

Data and Text Sources

Paying for Forest-Based Recreation

US Department of the InteriorI, National Park Service in cooperation with the Blue Ridge Parkway foundation, 

Blue Ridge Parkway Facts, October, 2008, http://www.brpfoundation.org/parkway_facts.php#Facts1.

National Park Service, http://www.nps.gov/grsm/planyourvisit/whyfree.htm.

BlueRidgeNow.com, Congress seeks $75 million for Blue Ridge Parkway land purchase, staff report, January 

2010 http://www.blueridgenow.com/article/20100127/NEWS/100129811?p=all&tc=pgall&tc=ar.

UNC Asheville, The Blue Banner, Officials Aim to get $75 million for Blue Ridge Parkway, Brooks, K., 2010, 

http://www.thebluebanner.net/.

National Parks Conservation Association, State of the Parks, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 2004, 

http://www.npca.org/stateoftheparks/smokies/smokies.pdf.

Asheville: Anyway you like it, Asheville Area Tourism Research, January, 2010,www.exploreasheville.com.

Coloradoan.com, Public Lands Fees Creating a Dispute, Magill, B., May, 2010, http://www.coloradoan.com/

article/20100524/NEWS01/100524001/Public-lands-fees-creating-a-dispute.

USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina, Designated Fee Areas, 1996.

USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina, Carolina connections, 2009.

Roadless Areas

The Southern Appalachian Forest Coalition, A Forest Link Report, Our Green is Our Gold, Economic Benefits 

of National Forests for Southern Appalachian Communities.

The Southern Appalachian Assessment, Social Cultural, Economic Technical Report 4 of 5. Prepared by 

Federal and State agencies, July 1996.

Southern Appalachia Forest Coalition, Roadless Facts, Updated June 2009, http://www.safc.org/campaigns/

roadless/roadless_facts.php.

Mountain Express, North Shore Road settlement brings $52 million to Swain County, Williams, M., February 

2010.

Value of Forest Products

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Forest Inventory and Analysis, Average volume of 

roundwood products by product and years, 1995–2007. 

North Carolina Agricultural Statistics, Forest, fish, and seafood income, 2007.

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Research Triangle Park, TimberMartSouth, June 2010.

USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina, Fact sheets, Payment in lieu of taxes, 2001–2009.

Recycling

Asheville Citizen-Times, Morrison, C., Buncombe rates 4th in State for recycling; resident’s attitudes, county 

programs get credit, 2010.

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, North Carolina recycling data sends mixed 

signals, May, 2009, nc_county_recycling_rates.pdf.

Paper and wood recovery by WNC counties, 2009: Pers. Comm., Mour, S., 2010.

Socioeconomic 

Benefits
193

Text Sources

Economic Trends in Western North Carolina

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, 1970–2000s, Average number of total jobs and 

wage rate per decade, Mera. R., 2009.

North Carolina State University, The Western North Carolina Economy: Overview and Challenges, The Harold 

and Mazie Jones Levenson Program on Growth and Change in Western North Carolina: Are We Ready for 

Change? Cherry, T.L., 2008.

Average wage rates, 1970s–2000s adjusted for inflation using consumer price index, 1975–2005, http://

crisistimes.com/calculator.php.

Appalachian State University, Center for Economic Research & Policy Analysis, The 2001 recession and WNC: 

Illustrating the urban-rural divide, Policy brief #1, Cherry, T.L. et al., January 2009.

Appalachian State University, Center for Economic Research & Policy Analysis, WNC economic index, county 

unemployment rankings, Cherry, T.L. et al., July 2009.

Recreation Areas 

USDA Forest Service, WO History Unit, Research in the USDA Forest Service: a historians view: The Weeks 

act and eastern forests, West, Terry, 1991. 

Asheville: Anyway you like it, www.exploreasheville.com.

USDI National Park Service, Blue Ridge Natural Heritage Area, Heritage and history, attractions and 

destinations, www.blueridgeheritage.com.

Development and Conservation

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Smart Growth, http://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/about_sg.htm.

The Conservation Fund, What is Green Infrastructure?, greeninfrastructure.net/content/definition-greeninfrastructure.

Land-of-Sky Regional Council, Linking lands and communities in the land of sky region, http://www.

linkinglands.org/.

Roundwood Product Output and Distribution

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, North Carolina’s forest, 2002, Brown, M.J., New, B.D., 

Oswalt, S.N., Johnson, T.G., Rudis , V.A., Resource Bulletin SRS–113, 2002.

North Carolina’s Timber Industry; An assessment of Timber Product Output and Use, 1995–2007, Resource 

Bulletins SRS–18,39, 73,94, 112,127,156.

Internal Auditor, Auditing timber assets, Straka, T.J., June 1995, http://www.allbusiness.com/accounting/

methods-standards/509452-1.html.

Arts and Craft

May we all remember well, A journal of the history & cultures of Western North Carolina, Vol. 1, Brunk, S., 

editor, 1997.

Western Carolina University, Hunter Library, Craft revival: Shaping Western North Carolina past and present, 

The crafts, the people, the collection, 2010, http://www.wcu.edu/craftrevival/index.htm.

HandMade in America, Economic impact of the professional craft industry in Western North Carolina, 2010, 

http://s3.amazonaws.com/hia_user_files/files/12/original.pdf?1271338510.

Foxfire 40th anniversary book: faith, family, and the land, Cheek, A., Nix, H.L., 2006.

Asheville.com community news, Biltmore Industries Holds Distinguished Position in Asheville’s History, 1999.

The roots of mountain music, Holt, D., 2002, http://www.davidholt.com/music/rootsmtnmsc.html.

Socioeconomic 

Benefits

Continued...
194

Text Sources

Arts and Craft - Continued

The heritage of western North Carolina: a collaborative database, Western North Carolina artists & illustrators 

to 1950, http://www.heritagewnc.org/WNC_artists/artists2.htm.

Journal of Environmental Psychology, A qualitative exploration of the wilderness experience as a source of 

spiritual inspiration, Fredrickson, L.M., Anderson, D.H., 1999, http://www.ncrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/1999/

nc_1999_Fredrickson_001.pdf.

Photo and Illustration Sources

Introduction

Historic Cabin Nantahala National Forest: USDA Forest Service file photo

Economic Trends in Western North Carolina

Average number of total jobs and wage rate: NEMAC

Arts, Entertainment, Recreation Employment, 2001–2007: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis

Western North Carolina Population by County, 1970–2020: NEMAC

Recreation Areas 

Map of Recreation Areas in Western North Carolina: NEMAC, 2010.

Recreation Use

Tourist Activity Preferences in BRNHA: NEMAC

Total Visitation on National Forests, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Blue Ridge Parkway: NEMAC

Paying for Forest-Based Recreation 

Foggy View at Wayah Bald: Delce Dyer, National Forests in North Carolina

Mountain Biking: Doug Byerly

Couple Fishing from Picnic Site: Delce Dyer, National Forests in North Carolina

Canoeing on Balsam Lake, Nantahala National Forest: Delce Dyer, National Forests in North Carolina

Recreation Fees

Sample of camping fees in Pisgah and Nantahala National Forests: NEMAC

Development and Conservation

Distance to roads: NEMAC

WNC Roads and Roadless Areas: NEMAC

Map of areas changing from natural to developed, 2006–2030: NEMAC

Roundwood Product Output and Distribution

Distribution of Softwood and Hardwood Products, 1995–2007: NEMAC

Total roundwood output in WNC, 1995–2007: NEMAC

Number of wood manufacturing mills in WNC: NEMAC

Value of Forest Products

Loading Roundwood: Tony Johnson, SRS

Value of Timber Products in WNC, 1995–2007: NEMAC.

Total forest products income by county, 2005–6: NEMAC

Payment in Lieu of Taxes and Total National Forest acres, 2001–2009: NEMAC

Socioeconomic 

Benefits
195

Recycling

Average Recycling Rates by Regional Council of Government, 2009: NEMAC

Paper and wood recovery by WNC counties, 2009: NEMAC

Arts and Craft

George Masa, 1933: NPS.gov

Musicians, circa 1930: USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina file photo 

Economic impact of craft industry in WNC: Sarah Jackson 

McCarter family making baskets (1930–1936): USDA Forest Service, National Forests in North Carolina file 

photo

Photograph by George Masa: http://ashevilleart.org

Contemplative Moment: D. Hiden Ramsey Library, UNC Asheville

Spiritual Retreats in WNC: Sarah Jackson

Socioeconomic 

Benefits
196

Policy Data Sources

Planning and Monitoring

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Forest Resources, Forest 

Stewardship Plans, custom retrieval for 18 counties (number and acres), Michael Creek (1970–2007).

Public Participation: Cooperators and Concerns

National Forests of North Carolina, Public Affairs Office, Asheville, NC, List of public and private cooperators 

and their concerns regarding issues of sustainability in Western NC.

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Questionnaire to Western North Carolina natural resource 

groups regarding issues of sustainability, Fox, S., January 2009.

Text Sources

Planning and Monitoring

Private and Public Lands

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Forest Resources, Forest 

stewardship plan program, http://www.dfr.state.nc.us/Managing_your_forest/.

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, FS-865 Forest inventory and analysis strategic plan, a history 

of success; a dynamic future, January, 2007.

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Eastern forest environmental threat assessment program, 

http://www.forestthreats.org/.

USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, National forest health monitoring program, http://fhm.fs.fed.

us/.

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Forest Resources, Urban and 

Community Forestry, http://www.dfr.state.nc.us/Urban/Urban_Forestry.htm.

City of Asheville, NC, Street Services, Urban Forestry, http://www.ashevillenc.gov/residents/public_services/

streets/default.aspx?id=756&terms=urban+forest&searchtype=2&fragment=False.

USDA Forest Service, Southern Region, Land and Resource Management Plan, Amendment 5, Nantahala and 

Pisgah National Forests, North Carolina, March 1994. 

http://www.ashevillenc.gov/residents/public_services/streets/default.aspx?id=756&terms=urban+forest&search

type=2&fragment=False.

Land Conservation and Protection

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Natural Resources Planning and 

Conservation, One NC-naturally, http://www.onencnaturally.org/.

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Natural heritage program, http://www.

ncnhp.org/.

Blue Ridge Forever, Conservation vision, 

http://www.appalachian.org/blueridgeforeverinfo/ConservationVisionES.pdf.

NC Land of Sky Regional Council of Government, Linking lands and communities, green infrastructure 

initiative, http://www.landofsky.org/planning/p_linking_lands.html.

NC High Country Council of Government, Regional trail plans, http://www.regiond.org/images/

regionaltrailsmap2.pdf.
197

Text Sources

Land Conservation and Protection (Continued)

NC High Country Council of Government, Regional water resources assessment and plan, Personal 

communication, Kelly Coffey, October, 2009.

NC Southwestern Commission Council of Government, Mountain Landscapes Initiative, http://www.

mountainlandscapesnc.org/.

UNC Charlotte Urban Institute, Forecasting urbanization in the Carolina piedmont region, http://www.gis.uncc.

edu/ospc/.

Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere, Brevard, NC, http://www.samab.org/

National Park Service, Inventory & monitoring program, southern Appalachian, http://www.nbii.gov/portal/

community/Communities/Geographic_Perspectives/Southern_Appalachian/SAIN_Special_Focus_Areas/

Regional_Ecosystems/Appalachian_Trail_Environmental_Monitoring/.

Southern Blue Ridge Fire Learning Network, http://www.wiserearth.org/group/sbrfln, http://www.gafw.org/

newsletters/2009summer_newsletter.pdf. 

U.S., Environmental Protection Agency, geobook project, southeastern ecological framework, Decision support 

for ecosystem protection, http://geobook.sain.utk.edu/.

Aquatic and Terrestrial Wildlife

North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission, Wildlife action plan, 

http://www.wildlifeactionplan.org/pdfs/action_plan_summaries/north_carolina.pdf. 

North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission, Wildlife species & conservation, Wildlife diversity program, 

http://www.ncwildlife.org/give/WD_Projects.htm#volunteer.

USDI, U.S. Geological Survey, North American breeding bird survey, http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/BBS/ .

Water Quality and Quantity

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Water Resources, Water supply 

planning, http://www.ncwater.org/basins/. 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, N.C. Division of Water Resources, Rules, 

policies and regulations, http://www.ncwater.org/Rules_Policies_and_Regulations/.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Monitoring and assessing water quality, http://www.epa.gov/owow/

monitoring/monintr.html.

University of North Carolina, Asheville, The Environmental Quality Institute, 

Volunteer water information network, http://orgs.unca.edu/EQI/vwin.html.

Air Quality

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Air Quality, AQMP workshop: 

update from North Carolina, Boothe, L., June, 2008,

http://www.ncair.org/planning/AQMP_Presentation_06082009.pdf.

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Air Quality, Planning and 

Attainment, http://daq.state.nc.us/planning/.

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Air Quality, Ambient 

monitoring program, http://daq.state.nc.us/monitor/.

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Division of Air Quality, Air toxics 

program, http://daq.state.nc.us/toxics/.

Policy
198

General Reference County Boundaries: NC OneMap, http://www.nconemap.com/ 

County Seats: U.S. National Atlas, cities and towns layer, http://www.nationalatlas.gov/mld/citiesx.html.

Rivers: NC OneMap, http://www.nconemap.com/

Lakes: NC OneMap, http://www.nconemap.com/

Highways: U.S. National Atlas, roads layer at http://www.nationalatlas.gov/mld/roadtrl.html

Interstates: U.S. National Atlas, roads layer at http://www.nationalatlas.gov/mld/roadtrl.html

Corporate Limits: NC DOT, http://www.ncdot.org/

Council of Government: NC OneMap, http://www.nconemap.com/ 

Text Sources

Laws, Regulations, and Guidelines

North Carolina Cooperative Extension, Trees and Local Regulations in North Carolina,

http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/forestry/ordinance/regulations.html#federal

Photo Sources

Policy introduction

Workshop: UNC Asheville’s NEMAC

Aquatic and Terrestrial Wildlife

Red fox: Ronald Laubstein, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bugwood.org

Deer, black bear, river otter: Terry L. Spivey, Terry Spivey Photography, Bugwood.org

Wood duck, blue grouse: Alfred Viola, Northeastern University, Bugwood.org

Raccoons: Johnny N. Dell, Bugwood.org

Water Quality

Mountain stream: Gary Kaufman

Straight piping sewage into stream: Riverlink

Sedimentation from muddy runoff: NCDENR

Mining activity: Jim Fox

Grazing near stream: Keith Weller, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Bugwood.org

Failing septic system: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.epa.gov/region09/tribal/success/04/

communities.html

Air Quality

Red spruce-Fraser fir forest: Manfred Mielke, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org

Mountains and sky: Chris Evans, River to River CWMA, Bugwood.org

Coal fired power plants: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/ozone/areas/

etscem.htm.

Automobile exhaust: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Ramp Management 

& Control: A Primer, Report No: FHWA-HOP-06-080, http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/ramp_mgmt_

handbook/primer/primer.htm

Policy
The Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 

is dedicated to the principle of multiple use management of the Nation’s 

forest resources for sustained yields of wood, water, forage, wildlife, 

and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the States 

and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National 

Grasslands, it strives—as directed by Congress—to provide increasingly greater service 

to a growing Nation.

The USDA prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of 

race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, 

familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, 

political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived 

from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) 

Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program 

information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET 

Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 

1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-

3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 ( TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and 

employer.

Fox, Susan; Jackson, Bill; Jackson, Sarah [and others]. 2011. Western North Carolina 

report card on forest sustainability. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-142. Asheville, NC: U.S. 

Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station, 198 p.

Western North Carolina encompasses 4.8 million acres of highly valued temperate 

forests. To help address future management and conservation decisions surrounding 

these resources, the report card evaluates environmental, social, and economic conditions 

in recent decades across an 18 county area. The report card describes the status of 

indicators of forest sustainability as improving, worsening, uncertain, stable, stable/at 

risk, or dynamic. Results varied considerably among criteria measured. Conditions that 

show improvement include lands managed for conservation; timber volume, growth, 

and removals; water and air quality; forest economics; cultural/spiritual values; resource 

planning and monitoring; and public participation in policy formation. Conditions that are 

worsening include loss of natural communities and species, rate of land conversion, rate of 

forest fragmentation, spread of invasive species, developed recreation resources, and soil 

movement associated with development on steep slopes.

Keywords: biodiversity, carbon cycling, forest economy, forest health, forest policy, 

forest productivity, forest recreation, forest sustainability, resource conditions, Western 

North Carolina.