Status and Trends in the Education

of Racial and Ethnic Groups

NCES 2010-015

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Susan Aud

National Center for Education Statistics 

Mary Ann Fox

Angelina KewalRamani

Education Statistics Services Institute – 

American Institutes for Research

NCES 2010-015

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Status and Trends in the Education

of Racial and Ethnic Groups

JULY 2010
U.S. Department of Education

Arne Duncan 

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences

John Q. Easton 

Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Stuart Kerachsky 

Deputy Commissioner

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Suggested Citation 

Aud, S., Fox, M., and KewalRamani, A. (2010). Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

(NCES 2010-015). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: 

U.S. Government Printing Office.

For ordering information on this report, write to

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or call toll free 1-877-4ED-Pubs or order online at http://www.edpubs.gov.

Content Contact 

Susan Aud 

(202) 219-7013 

susan.aud@ed.gov
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and 

Ethnic Groups examines the educational progress 

and challenges of students in the United States by 

race/ethnicity. This report shows that over time, the 

numbers of students of each race/ethnicity who have 

completed high school and continued their education 

in college have increased. Despite these gains, the rate 

of progress has varied, and differences persist among 

Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, Native Hawaiians 

or Other Pacific Islanders, American Indians/Alaska 

Natives and students of two or more races in their 

performance on key indicators of educational 

performance. 

Demographics

■ Between 1980 and 2008, the racial/ethnic 

composition of the United States shifted—

the White population declined from 80 

percent of the total population to 66 percent; 

the Hispanic population increased from 6 

percent of the total to 15 percent; the Black 

population remained at about 12 percent; 

and the Asian/Pacific Islander population 

increased from less than 2 percent of the total 

population to 4 percent. In 2008, American 

Indians/Alaska Natives made up about 1 

percent and people of two or more races 

made up about 1 percent of the population. 

(Indicator 1)

■ In 2007, about 14 percent of the U.S. 

population was born outside of the 50 states 

and District of Columbia; this included the 

approximately 69 percent of Asians and 44 

percent of Hispanics who were born outside 

of the 50 states and District of Columbia. 

(Indicator 2)

■ In 2007, across all racial/ethnic groups 

except Blacks and American Indians/Alaska 

Natives, the majority of children under 

18 lived with married parents. About 34 

percent of Black children under 18 lived 

with married parents and 56 percent of Black 

children lived with a female parent with no 

spouse present. (Indicator 3)

■ The percentages of children who were 

living in poverty were higher for Blacks (34 

percent), American Indians/Alaska Natives 

(33 percent), Hispanics (27 percent), and 

Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders 

(26 percent), than for children of two or 

more races (18 percent), Asians (11 percent) 

and Whites (10 percent). (Indicator 4) 

■ In 2008, a higher percentage of Asian 

children (51 percent) had a mother with 

at least a bachelor’s degree than did White 

children (36 percent), children of two or 

more races (31 percent), Black children (17 

percent), American Indian/Alaska Native 

children (16 percent), and Hispanic children 

(11 percent). (Indicator 5) 

 

Highlights
iv Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups Highlights

Preprimary, Elementary, and Secondary 

Education Participation

■ In 2005–06, a higher percentage of White, 

Black, and Asian 4-year-olds participated in 

center-based care than did Hispanic 4-yearolds. (Indicator 6)

■ From 2000–01 to 2007–08, the proportion 

of public school enrollment composed of 

White students decreased from 61 to 56 

percent. During the same period, Hispanic 

school enrollment increased from 17 to 21 

percent of the total enrollment and Asian/

Pacific Islander enrollment increased from 

4 to 5 percent of the total. The percentage 

of Black (17 percent) and American Indian/

Alaska Native (1 percent) students remained 

unchanged. (Indicator 7.1)

■ In 2007–08, White students were concentrated in suburban and rural areas, with 

lower percentages in cities and towns. Black, 

Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific Islander students 

were concentrated in cities and suburban 

areas. (Indicator 7.2)

■ In 2007–08, public schools in which at 

least half of the enrollment was White 

enrolled 87 percent of all White students. 

Schools in which at least half of the 

enrollment was Black enrolled 48 percent 

of all Black students, and schools in which 

at least half of the enrollment was Hispanic 

enrolled 57 percent of all Hispanic students. 

(Indicator 7.4)

■ Forty-eight percent of public school 

4th-graders were eligible for free or reducedprice lunches in 2009, including 77 percent 

of Hispanic, 74 percent of Black, 68 percent 

of American Indian/Alaska Native, 34 

percent of Asian/Pacific Islander, and 29 

percent of White 4th-graders. (Indicator 7.5) 

■ From 1998 to 2007, the percentage of 

6- to 21-year-olds who were served by the 

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 

(IDEA) increased by less than 1 percentage 

point, and in 2007, 9 percent were served 

by IDEA. Fourteen percent of American 

Indians/Alaska Natives in this age group were 

served under IDEA in 2007, compared with 

12 percent of Blacks, 9 percent of Hispanics, 

8 percent of Whites, and 5 percent of Asians/

Pacific Islanders. (Indicator 8.1)

■ In 2007, about 69 percent of Hispanic and 

64 percent of Asian elementary/secondary 

school students spoke a language other 

than English at home. About 18 percent of 

Hispanic and 17 percent of Asian students 

spoke English with difficulty, compared with 

7 percent of Native Hawaiians or Other 

Pacific Islanders, 3 percent of American 

Indians/Alaska Natives, and 1 percent 

each of Whites and Blacks, according to 

household reports. (Indicator 8.2)

■ In 2007–08, about 25 percent of secondary 

mathematics teachers who taught in schools 

with at least half Black enrollment had 

neither a certification nor a college major 

in mathematics, compared to 8 percent 

of secondary mathematics teachers who 

taught in schools with at least half White 

enrollment. (Indicator 9.1) 

Achievement

■ Hispanic and American Indian/Alaska 

Native 4-year-olds had lower rates of proficiency in letter recognition compared with 

4-year-olds of other racial/ethnic groups in 

2005–06. (Indicator 10)

■ On the 2007 National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP) reading 

assessment, higher percentages of Asian/

Pacific Islander and White 4th-graders and 

8th-graders scored at or above Proficient than 

did American Indian/Alaska Native, Black, 

and Hispanic students at the same grade 

levels. On the 2009 NAEP 4th and 8th grade 

mathematics assessment, a higher percentage 

of Asians/Pacific Islanders scored at or above 

Proficient than did 4th- and 8th-graders of all 

other races/ethnicities shown. (Indicator 11)

■ On the 2007 Trends in International 

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 

Asians in the United States scored higher 

in mathematics at both the 4th- and 8thgrade levels than students of any other race/

ethnicity in the United States. In 4th-grade 

mathematics, Asians in the United States 

scored higher than students from all other 

participating jurisdictions except Hong 

Kong, Singapore, and Chinese Taipei. 

(Indicator 12)
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups vHighlights

■ Among 2005 high school graduates, 

a lower percentage of Hispanic students 

had completed courses in geometry, 

algebra II, and statistics than had White, 

Black or Asian/Pacific Islander students. 

(Indicator 13.1)

■ From 1999 to 2008, the total number of 

Black and Hispanic students taking an 

Advanced Placement (AP) exam more than 

tripled, from 94,000 to 318,000 students. 

In 2008, Asians had the highest mean AP 

exam score (3.08) across all exams, while 

Blacks had the lowest (1.91). (Indicator 14)

■ The population of SAT test-takers has 

become more diverse in the past decade, 

predominantly due to an increase in 

participation among Hispanic students. 

Hispanics comprised 9 percent of test-takers 

in 1998 and 13 percent in 2008, while Asians 

comprised 9 percent of test-takers in 1998 

and 11 percent in 2008. White students 

scored higher than any other racial/ethnic 

group on the critical reading portion of the 

exam in 2008, while Asian students had the 

highest average scores on the mathematics 

portion. (Indicator 15.1)

■ In 2008, Black students were 14 percent of 

ACT test-takers, compared with 11 percent 

in 1998, and Hispanic students were 9 

percent, compared with 6 percent in 1998. 

Nearly one-third of Asian ACT test-takers 

met the college readiness benchmark, 

established by ACT, on all four exams, 

compared to 3 percent of Black test-takers. 

(Indicator 15.2)

Persistence

■ Among 8th-graders in 2009, Asians/

Pacific Islanders, at 63 percent, had the 

highest percentage of students who had no 

absences in the past month, compared to 

35 percent of American Indians/Alaska 

Natives. (Indicator 16)

■ In 2007, a higher percentage of Black 

elementary/secondary students had been 

retained in a grade (21 percent) than 

was the case for White, Hispanic, or 

Asian elementary/secondary students. 

Additionally, a higher percentage of Black 

6th- through 12th-grade students had been 

suspended (43 percent) from school at some 

point than was the case for students of any 

other race/ethnicity. (Indicator 17)

■ Between 1997 and 2007, the percentage of 

16- to 24-year-olds who were high school 

status dropouts1

 decreased from 11 percent 

to 9 percent. In 2007, the status dropout rate 

was higher among Hispanics (21 percent) 

than among Blacks (8 percent), Asians/

Pacific Islanders (6 percent), and Whites (5 

percent). (Indicator 18.1)

■ Of the students who entered high school in 

the 2003–04 school year, 74 percent graduated within 4 years, including 91 percent of 

Asians, 80 percent of Whites, 62 percent of 

Hispanics, 61 percent of American Indians/

Alaska Natives, and 60 percent of Blacks. 

(Indicator 18.2)

Student Behaviors

■ In 2007, parents of Asian high school 

students reported that their children spent 

the most hours per week on homework (10 

hours, on average). Of the students ages 

16 years and older who were employed, 

higher percentages of Black and Hispanic 

students reported that they worked more 

than 20 hours per week (50 and 54 percent, 

respectively) than White students (35 

percent), although the percentage of White 

students who worked was higher than that of 

Black and Hispanic students. (Indicator 19)

■ In 2007, a higher percentage of White (18 

percent) children ages 12 to 17 reported 

drinking alcohol in the past month than did 

their Hispanic (15 percent) peers, peers of 

two or more races (13 percent), and Black 

(10 percent) and Asian (8 percent) peers. 

(Indicator 20)

■ Between 1991 and 2005, birth rates for 

15- to 19-year-old females decreased for 

all racial/ethnic groups. However, the teen 

1

 Status dropouts are 16- to 24-year-olds who are not enrolled in school and who have not completed a high school program, 

regardless of when they left school. People who have received a GED are considered high school completers. 
vi Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups Highlights

birth rates increased between 2005 and 2007 

for Whites, Blacks, and American Indians/

Alaska Natives. (Indicator 21) 

■ In 2007, among 9th- through 12th-grade 

students, higher percentages of students 

of two or more races (13 percent), Black 

students (10 percent), and Hispanic students 

(9 percent) reported being threatened or 

injured with a weapon on school property 

in the past 12 months than did White (7 

percent) and American Indian/Alaska Native 

students (6 percent). (Indicator 22) 

Postsecondary Education

■ In 2008, about 72 percent of recent White 

high school completers were enrolled 

in college in that same year, up from 

50 percent in 1980. In addition, the 

immediate transition to college rate was 

higher in 2007 than the rate in 1980 for 

Blacks (56 vs. 44 percent) and for Hispanics 

(62 vs. 50 percent). (Indicator 23.1)

■ In 2008, some 44 percent of White 18- 

to 24-year-olds were enrolled in colleges 

and universities, while in 1980 some 

28 percent were enrolled. In addition, 

approximately 32 percent of Black 18- to 

24-year-olds were enrolled in colleges or 

universities (an increase of 12 percentage 

points from 1980) and 26 percent of 

Hispanic 18- to 24-year-olds were enrolled 

(an increase of 10 percentage points from 

1980). (Indicator 23.2) 

■ Between 1976 and 2008, total undergraduate 

fall enrollment increased for each racial/

ethnic group; Hispanics and Asians/Pacific 

Islanders had the fastest rates of increase 

and Whites had the slowest rate of increase. 

In 2008, more females than males were 

enrolled as undergraduates—the gender gap 

was largest for Black undergraduates, with 

females accounting for 64 percent of Black 

undergraduate enrollment. (Indicator 24.1)

■ Trends in graduate enrollments were similar 

to those in undergraduate enrollment, in that 

while there were increases in the rates for all 

racial/ethnic groups, the largest increases 

were for Hispanics and Asians/Pacific 

Islanders and the smallest increase was for 

Whites. Again, the largest gender gap was 

for Black graduate students, with females 

representing 71 percent of Black graduate 

enrollment in 2008. (Indicator 24.2)

■ Among students enrolled in college in 

2008, about 81 percent of Hispanics and 79 

percent of American Indians/Alaska Natives 

attended public institutions, higher than the 

percentages of Whites (73 percent), Blacks 

(68 percent), and Asians/Pacific Islanders 

(75 percent) who did so. Some 21 percent of 

White, 18 percent of Asian/Pacific Islander, 

and 17 percent of Black students attended 

private not-for-profit institutions, while 

11 percent of Hispanic and 12 percent of 

American Indian/Alaska Native students did 

so. A higher percentage of Black students 

(15 percent) attended private for-profit 

institutions than did students of the other 

races/ethnicities shown (ranging from 6 to 

8 percent). (Indicator 24.3)

■ In 2007–08, some 80 percent of full-time, 

full-year undergraduates received financial 

aid (grants or loans); Black students had the 

highest percentage of recipients (92 percent) 

and received the largest average amount per 

person ($13,500). (Indicator 25)

■ In 2008, females earned more degrees than 

males within each racial/ethnic group, and 

Black females received over twice as many 

degrees as Black males. (Indicator 26.1)

Outcomes of Education

■ In 2008, about 29 percent of U.S. adults (25 

years of age or older) had at least a bachelor’s 

degree, including 52 percent of Asian/Pacific 

Islander adults, 33 percent of White adults, 

20 percent of Black adults, 13 percent of 

Hispanic adults, and 15 percent of American 

Indian/Alaska Native adults. (Indicator 27)

■ In 2008, the unemployment rate was 

higher for Hispanics (8 percent), Blacks (9 

percent), American Indians/Alaska Natives 

(10 percent), and persons of two or more 

races (10 percent), than it was for Whites 

and Asians (4 percent each). In general, lower 

unemployment rates were associated with 

higher levels of education for each racial/

ethnic group. The unemployment rate for 

Blacks without a high school diploma or 

equivalent was 22 percent, compared with 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups vii Highlights

11 percent for those with a high school 

credential and 4 percent for those with at 

least a bachelor’s degree. (Indicator 28)

■ In 2007, the median income of male workers 

was generally higher than that of female 

workers for each race/ethnicity and at each 

educational level. Median income differed by 

race/ethnicity. For example, of those with at 

least a bachelor’s degree, the median income 

was $71,000 for White males and $69,000 

for Asian males, compared with $55,000 

for Black males and $54,000 for Hispanic 

males. For females, of those with at least a 

bachelor’s degree, the median income was 

$54,000 for Asians, compared with $50,000 

for Whites, $45,000 for Blacks, and $43,000 

for Hispanics. (Indicator 29)
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Contents

Highlights................................................................................................................................................. iii

List of Tables..............................................................................................................................................xi

List of Figures............................................................................................................................................xv

Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 1. Demographics .......................................................................................................................... 5

1. Population and Geographic Distributions.................................................................................. 6

2. Nativity.................................................................................................................................... 10

Snapshot of Hispanic and Asian Subgroups: Nativity................................................................... 12

3. Children’s Living Arrangements ............................................................................................... 14

4. Children Living in Poverty....................................................................................................... 16

Snapshot of Hispanic and Asian Subgroups: Children Living in Poverty........................................ 18

5. Parental Education................................................................................................................... 20

Chapter 2. Preprimary, Elementary, and Secondary Education Participation ............................................ 23

6. Care Arrangements .................................................................................................................. 24

7. Elementary and Secondary Enrollment.................................................................................... 26

8. Special Needs........................................................................................................................... 40

Snapshot of Hispanic and Asian Subgroups: English Language Learners........................................ 46

9. Teacher Qualifications and Experience..................................................................................... 48

Chapter 3. Achievement........................................................................................................................... 53

10. Proficiency of 4-Year-Olds ....................................................................................................... 54

11. Reading and Mathematics Achievement................................................................................... 56

12. International Comparisons....................................................................................................... 64

13. Mathematics and Science Coursetaking in High School........................................................... 70

14. Advanced Placement (AP) Courses........................................................................................... 76

Snapshot of Hispanic Subgroups: Advanced Placement................................................................. 79

15. College Entrance Exams........................................................................................................... 80

Page
x Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups Contents

Chapter 4. Persistence.............................................................................................................................. 89

16. Absences .................................................................................................................................. 90

17. Retention, Suspension, and Expulsion ..................................................................................... 92

18. Dropout Rates and Graduation Rates ...................................................................................... 94

Snapshot of Hispanic and Asian Subgroups: Dropout Rate by Nativity.......................................... 98

Snapshot: Dropout Rates for Institutionalized Youth and Young Adults by Race/Ethnicity............. 100

Chapter 5. Student Behaviors................................................................................................................. 103

19. After-School Time Use .......................................................................................................... 104

20. Cigarette, Alcohol, and Drug Use.......................................................................................... 108

21. Teenage Pregnancy................................................................................................................. 110

22. Safety at School...................................................................................................................... 114

Chapter 6. Postsecondary Education ...................................................................................................... 117

23. College Participation Rates .................................................................................................... 118

24. Enrollment ............................................................................................................................ 122

Snapshot: Enrollment in Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Hispanic Serving 

Institutions, and Tribal Colleges ............................................................................................... 130

25. Financial Aid.......................................................................................................................... 132

26. Degrees Awarded ................................................................................................................... 134

Chapter 7. Outcomes of Education........................................................................................................ 139

27. Educational Attainment......................................................................................................... 140

Snapshot of Hispanic and Asian Subgroups: Educational Attainment ......................................... 142

28. Unemployment Rates ............................................................................................................ 144

29. Median Income...................................................................................................................... 146

References .............................................................................................................................................. 149

Appendix A: Guide to Sources................................................................................................................ 151

Page
List of Tables

1a. Resident population and percentage distribution, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 

1980–2008, and projections, selected years, 2010–2025 ............................................................... 7

1b. Percentage distribution of the resident population, by race/ethnicity, region, and state: 

2008 ............................................................................................................................................. 8

2a. Number and percentage of population in the United States, by nativity and race/ethnicity: 

2000, 2005, and 2007................................................................................................................. 11

2b. Number, percentage, and percentage distribution of U.S. population, by nativity and race/

ethnicity with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2007.................................................................... 12

2c. Number, percentage, and percentage distribution of U.S. population under age 18, by 

nativity and race/ethnicity with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2007 ......................................... 13

3. Number and percentage distribution of children under age 18, by living arrangements and 

race/ethnicity: 2007 .................................................................................................................... 14

4. Percentage of children under age 18 living in poverty, by living arrangements and 

race/ethnicity with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2007............................................................. 16

5. Percentage of children ages 6 to 18, by parent’s highest level of educational attainment and 

child’s race/ethnicity: 2008.......................................................................................................... 22

6. Percentage distribution of primary type of care arrangements of children from the 2001 birth 

cohort at about 4 years old, by race/ethnicity: 2005–06 .............................................................. 24

7.1a. Number and percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary students, by region 

and race/ethnicity: Selected years, 2000–01 through 2007–08 .................................................... 26

7.1b. Number and percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary students, by region, 

state, and race/ethnicity: 2007–08............................................................................................... 28

7.2. Number and percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary students, by race/

ethnicity and locale: 2007–08 ..................................................................................................... 30

7.3. Number and percentage distribution of public school enrollment in the United States and 

20 largest public school districts, by race/ethnicity: 2007–08 ...................................................... 33

7.4. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary school students of each 

racial/ethnic group, by percent enrollment in school of selected racial/ethnic group: 2007–08 .... 34

7.5a. Percentage of public school 4th-graders eligible for free or reduced-price lunch, by school 

locale and race/ethnicity: 2009.................................................................................................... 36

7.5b. Percentage distribution of public school 4th-graders, by percentage of students in school 

eligible for free or reduced-price lunch and race/ethnicity: 2009.................................................. 38

8.1a. Percentage of children ages 3 to 5 and ages 6 to 21 served under the Individuals with 

Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), by race/ethnicity: 1998–2007 .............................................. 41

8.1b. Number and percentage of children ages 3 to 5 and ages 6 to 21 served under the Individuals 

with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), by race/ethnicity and type of disability: 2007 ............... 42

8.2a. Number and percentage of elementary and secondary school students who spoke a language 

other than English at home and percentage who spoke English with difficulty, by grade level 

and race/ethnicity: 2007.............................................................................................................. 44

Table Page
xii Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

List of 

Tables

8.2b. Number and percentage of elementary and secondary school students who spoke a language 

other than English at home and percentage who spoke English with difficulty, by race/ethnicity 

with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2007................................................................................... 47

9.1. Percentage of public high school teachers with a college major and standard certification 

in their respective main teaching assignment in mathematics, English, and science, by race/

ethnicity concentration of schools: 2007–08 ............................................................................... 49

9.2 Average number of years of teaching experience of regular full-time public school teachers 

and percentage who have less than 3 years of teaching experience, by race/ethnicity 

concentration of school: 2007–08 ............................................................................................... 50

10. Percentage of children from the 2001 birth cohort who were proficient in letter and number 

and shape recognition at about 4 years old, by race/ethnicity: 2005–06...................................... 54

11.1. Percentage distribution of students at National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 

reading achievement levels, by race/ethnicity and grade: 2005 and 2007..................................... 57

11.2. Percentage distribution of students at National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 

mathematics achievement levels, by race/ethnicity and grade: 2005 and 2009............................. 60

12a. Average scores among 4th- and 8th-graders in the United States on the Trends in International 

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), by race/ethnicity: 2007 ............................................. 64

12b. Average scores among 4th-graders on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science 

Study (TIMSS), by participating country and race/ethnicity in the United States: 2007 ............. 66

12c. Average scores among 8th-graders on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science 

Study (TIMSS), by participating country and race/ethnicity in the United States: 2007 ............. 68

13a. Percentage of high school graduates who completed selected mathematics courses in high 

school, by race/ethnicity: 1998, 2000, and 2005 ........................................................................ 71

13b. Percentage of high school graduates who completed selected science courses in high school, 

by race/ethnicity: 1998, 2000, and 2005.................................................................................... 73

14a. Number and percent change in the number of students taking Advanced Placement (AP) 

examinations, by race/ethnicity: 1999–2008 ............................................................................... 76

14b. Mean grade and percentage distribution of grades on Advanced Placement (AP) exams, by 

subject and race/ethnicity: 2008.................................................................................................. 78

14c. Number of exams taken and mean grade on Advanced Placement (AP) exams, by Hispanic 

subgroup and subject: 2008 ........................................................................................................ 79

15.1a. Percentage distribution of the 12th-grade SAT test-taking population, by race/ethnicity: 

1998–2008 ................................................................................................................................. 80

15.1b. Average SAT scores for the 12th-grade SAT test-taking population, by race/ethnicity and 

subject: Selected years, 1998–2008.............................................................................................. 82

15.2a. Percentage distribution of ACT test-taking population, by race/ethnicity: 1998–2008 ............... 84

15.2b. Average ACT scores in English and mathematics, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1998–2008.. 85

15.2c. Percentage of ACT test-taking population meeting college readiness benchmark scores, by 

race/ethnicity: 2008 .................................................................................................................... 86

16. Percentage distribution of 8th-graders and percentage at or above Basic on the National 

Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) mathematics assessment, by the number of days 

absent from school in the past month and race/ethnicity: 2009................................................... 90

17a. Percentage of public school students in kindergarten through grade 12 who had ever repeated 

a grade, by sex and race/ethnicity: 2007 ...................................................................................... 92

Table Page
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups xiii

List of 

Tables

17b. Percentage of public school students in grades 6 through 12 who had ever been suspended 

or expelled, by sex and race/ethnicity: 2007................................................................................. 93

18.1a. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity 

and sex: 1997–2007 .................................................................................................................... 97

18.1b. Number and percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school status dropouts, by 

nativity and race/ethnicity with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2007 ......................................... 99

18.1c. Number and percentage of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-year-olds 

who were high school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity: 2007.................................................. 100

18.2. Averaged freshman graduation rate for public high school students and number of graduates, 

by race/ethnicity: School year 2006–07..................................................................................... 102

19.1. Percentage of high school students who did homework outside of school and whose parents 

checked that homework was done, by frequency and race/ethnicity: 2007................................. 104

19.2. Percentage of high school students ages 16 years and older who were employed and the 

percentage distribution of those who were employed, by hours worked per week and race/

ethnicity: 2008.......................................................................................................................... 106

20. Percentage of 12- to 17-year-olds and 18- to 25-year-olds who reported using alcohol, 

cigarettes, or marijuana in past month, by race/ethnicity: 2007................................................. 108

21a. Number of live births per 1,000 females ages 15 to 19, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 

1990–2007 ............................................................................................................................... 110

21b. Number of live births per 1,000 females ages 15 to 19, by Hispanic ethnicity: 1990–2007....... 112

22a. Percentage of students in grades 9 through 12 who reported that they were threatened or 

injured with a weapon on school property, carried a weapon to school, engaged in a physical 

fight on school property, or reported that drugs were made available to them on school 

property, by race/ethnicity: 2007............................................................................................... 114

22b. Percentage of students ages 12 to 18 who reported that gangs were present at school, by 

race/ethnicity: 2007 .................................................................................................................. 115

23.1. Percentage of high school completers who were enrolled in 2- or 4-year colleges the October 

immediately following high school completion, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1980–2008... 118

23.2. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds enrolled in colleges and universities, by race/ethnicity 

and sex: Selected years, 1980–2008........................................................................................... 121

24.1. Total number, total percentage distribution, and percent female of undergraduate fall 

enrollment in degree-granting institutions, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1976–2008.......... 123

24.2. Total number, total percentage distribution, and percent female of graduate 

(postbaccalaureate) fall enrollment in degree-granting institutions, by race/ethnicity: 

Selected years, 1976–2008 ........................................................................................................ 125

24.3. Number and percentage distribution of U.S. citizen enrollment in degree-granting 

institutions, by race/ethnicity and institutional type: 2008........................................................ 128

24.4. Fall enrollment in degree-granting institutions that are historically Black colleges and 

universities, in institutions that serve large proportions of Hispanic students, and in tribally 

controlled institutions, by selected race/ethnicity: 2007............................................................. 130

25. Percentage of full-time, full-year undergraduates receiving financial aid and average 

amount of aid, by race/ethnicity and type of aid: 2007–08........................................................ 132

Table Page
xiv Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

List of 

Tables

Table Page

26.1. Number, percentage conferred on females, and percentage distribution of degrees awarded 

by degree-granting institutions, by level of degree, race/ethnicity, and sex: 2007–08 ................. 135

26.2. Percentage of degrees awarded by degree-granting institutions in the most popular fields of 

study, by race/ethnicity and level of study: 2007–08.................................................................. 138

27a. Percentage distribution of adults ages 25 and over according to highest level of educational 

attainment, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1996–2008......................................................... 141

27b. Number and percentage of persons ages 25 to 29 with at least a bachelor’s degree, by 

nativity and race/ethnicity with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2007 ....................................... 143

28. Unemployment rates for persons ages 16 years and older, by educational attainment, age 

group, and race/ethnicity: 2008................................................................................................. 144

29. Median annual earnings of full-time, full-year wage and salary workers ages 25 and older, 

by educational attainment, sex, and race/ethnicity: 2007........................................................... 148
List of Figures

1. Percentage distribution of total population in the United States, by race/ethnicity: Selected 

years, 1980–2008, and projections, selected years, 2010–2025...................................................... 6

2. Percentage distribution of population under 18 in the United States, by race/ethnicity and 

nativity: 2007.............................................................................................................................. 10

3. Percentage distribution of children under age 18, by race/ethnicity and living arrangements: 

2007 ........................................................................................................................................... 15

4. Percentage of children under 18 living in poverty, by living arrangements and race/ethnicity: 

2007 ........................................................................................................................................... 17

5. Percentage of children ages 6 to 18 whose mother attained a level of education less than 

high school completion, and percentage whose mother attained at least a bachelor’s degree, 

 by child’s race/ethnicity: 2008 .................................................................................................... 21

6. Percentage distribution of primary type of care arrangements of children from the 2001 birth 

cohort at about 4 years old, by race/ethnicity: 2005–06 .............................................................. 25

7.1. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary students, by region and 

race/ethnicity: 2007–08 .............................................................................................................. 27

7.2. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary students, by race/ethnicity 

and locale: 2007–08.................................................................................................................... 31

7.4. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary school students of each r 

acial/ethnic group, by percent enrollment in school of selected racial/ethnic group: 2007–08 ..... 35

7.5a. Percentage of public school 4th-graders eligible for free or reduced-price lunch, by school 

locale and race/ethnicity: 2009.................................................................................................... 37

7.5b. Percentage of public school 4th-graders in low-poverty and high-poverty schools, by 

race/ethnicity: 2009 .................................................................................................................... 39

8.1. Percentage of children ages 3 to 5 and ages 6 to 21 served under the Individuals with 

Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), by race/ethnicity: 2007 ........................................................ 41

8.2. Percentage of elementary and secondary school students who spoke a language other than 

English at home and percentage who spoke English with difficulty, by race/ethnicity: 2007........ 45

9.1. Percentage of public high school teachers with neither a college major nor standard 

certification in the subject that is their main teaching assignment, by race/ethnicity 

concentration of schools and subject: 2007–08 ........................................................................... 48

9.2. Average number of years of teaching experience of regular full-time public school 

teachers and percentage who have less than 3 years of teaching experience, by race/ethnicity 

concentration of school: 2007–08 ............................................................................................... 51

10. Percentage of children from the 2001 birth cohort who were proficient in letter and number 

and shape recognition at about 4 years old, by race/ethnicity: 2005–06....................................... 55

11.1a. Percentage distribution of 4th-grade students at National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP) reading achievement levels, by race/ethnicity: 2007 ....................................................... 58

11.1b. Percentage distribution of 8th-grade students at National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP) reading achievement levels, by race/ethnicity: 2007 ....................................................... 58

11.1c. Percentage distribution of 12th-grade students at National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP) reading achievement levels, by race/ethnicity: 2005 ....................................................... 59

Figure Page
xvi Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

List of 

Figures

11.2a. Percentage distribution of 4th-grade students at National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP) mathematics achievement levels, by race/ethnicity: 2009............................................... 61

11.2b. Percentage distribution of 8th-grade students at National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP) mathematics achievement levels, by race/ethnicity: 2009............................................... 61

11.2c. Percentage distribution of 12th-grade students at National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP) mathematics achievement levels, by race/ethnicity: 2005............................................... 62

12a. Average scores among 4th-graders in the United States on the Trends in International 

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), by subject and race/ethnicity: 2007 .......................... 65

12b. Average scores among 8th-graders in the United States on the Trends in International 

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), by subject and race/ethnicity: 2007 .......................... 65

13a. Percentage of high school graduates who completed selected mathematics courses, by 

race/ethnicity: 1998 and 2005 .................................................................................................... 72

13b. Percentage of high school graduates who completed selected science courses, by 

race/ethnicity: 1998 and 2005..................................................................................................... 74

13b. Percentage of high school graduates who completed selected science courses, by 

race/ethnicity: 1998 and 2005—Continued................................................................................ 75

14. Percentage distribution of grades on all Advanced Placement (AP) exams, by 

race/ethnicity: 2008 .................................................................................................................... 77

15.1a. Percentage distribution of the 12th-grade SAT test-taking population, by race/ethnicity: 

1998 and 2008............................................................................................................................ 81

15.1b. Average SAT scores for the 12th-grade SAT test-taking population, by subject and 

race/ethnicity: 2008 .................................................................................................................... 83

15.2a. Percentage distribution of ACT test-taking population, by race/ethnicity: 1998 and 2008 .......... 84

15.2b. Percentage of ACT test-taking population meeting college readiness benchmark scores, 

by race/ethnicity, 2008................................................................................................................ 87

16. Percentage of 8th-graders at or above Basic on the National Assessment of Educational 

Progress (NAEP) mathematics assessment, by race/ethnicity and number of days absent 

from school in the past month: 2009 .......................................................................................... 91

17. Percentage of public school students in grades 6 through 12 who had ever been suspended, 

by race/ethnicity and sex: 2007 ................................................................................................... 93

18.1. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity: 

1997–2007 ................................................................................................................................. 95

18.2. Averaged freshman graduation rate for public high school students, by race/ethnicity: 

School year 2006–07................................................................................................................. 101

19.1. Percentage of high school students who did homework, by frequency and race/ethnicity: 

2007 ......................................................................................................................................... 105

19.2a. Percentage of high school students ages 16 years and older who were employed, by 

race/ethnicity: 2008 .................................................................................................................. 107

19.2b. Percentage distribution of employed high school students 16 years and over, by hours 

worked per week and race/ethnicity: 2008................................................................................. 107

20. Percentage of 12- to 17-year-olds who reported using alcohol, cigarettes, or marijuana 

in the past month, by race/ethnicity: 2007................................................................................ 109

Figure Page
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups xvii

List of 

Figures

21. Number of live births per 1,000 females ages 15 to 19, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 

1990–2007 ............................................................................................................................... 111

22. Percentage of high school students who reported that they were threatened or injured 

with a weapon on school property, carried a weapon to school, or engaged in a physical 

fight on school property, by race/ethnicity: 2007....................................................................... 115

23.1. Percentage of high school completers who were enrolled in 2- or 4-year colleges the 

October immediately following high school completion, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 

1980–2008 ............................................................................................................................... 119

23.2. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds enrolled in colleges and universities, by race/ethnicity: 

Selected years: 1980–2008 ........................................................................................................ 120

24.1. Difference in percentages of female and male undergraduate fall enrollment in 

degree-granting institutions, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1976–2008................................ 124

24.2. Difference in percentages of female and male graduate (postbaccalaureate) fall enrollment 

in degree-granting institutions, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1976–2008............................ 126

24.3. Percentage distribution of U.S. citizen enrollment in degree-granting institutions, by 

institutional type and race/ethnicity: 2008 ............................................................................... 129

25a. Percentage of full-time, full-year undergraduates receiving financial aid, by race/ethnicity: 

2007–08 ................................................................................................................................... 133

25b. Average amount of financial aid awarded to full-time, full-year undergraduates, by 

race/ethnicity and type of aid: 2007–08 .................................................................................... 133

26. Percentage distribution of bachelor’s degrees awarded by degree-granting institutions, 

by sex and race/ethnicity: 2007–08 ........................................................................................... 136

27. Percentage of adults ages 25 and over who completed at least high school and percentage 

who have at least a bachelor’s degree, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1996–2008................... 140

28. Unemployment rates for persons ages 16 and over, by educational attainment and 

race/ethnicity: 2008 .................................................................................................................. 145

29. Median annual earnings of full-time, full-year wage and salary workers ages 25 and older, 

by sex, race/ethnicity, and educational attainment: 2007........................................................... 147

Figure Page
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This report uses statistics to examine, by racial/ethnic 

group, current conditions and changes over time 

in education activities and outcomes in the United 

States. Some traditionally disadvantaged racial/ethnic 

groups have made strides in educational achievement 

over the past few decades, but gaps persist.

Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic 

Groups is part of a series of reports produced by the 

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) that 

focus on specific racial/ethnic groups, including Status 

and Trends in the Education of American Indians and 

Alaska Natives: 2008 (DeVoe and Darling-Churchill 

2008), Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and 

Ethnic Minorities (KewalRamani et al. 2007), Status 

and Trends in the Education of Blacks (Hoffman and 

Llagas 2003), and Status and Trends in the Education 

of Hispanics (Llagas 2003).

Organization of the Report

The report begins with demographic information 

(chapter 1) and then is organized roughly according 

to the chronology of an individual’s education, 

starting with indicators on preprimary, elementary, 

and secondary education participation (chapter 2) 

and continuing with student achievement (chapter 

3) and persistence in education (chapter 4), behaviors 

that can affect educational experience (chapter 5), 

participation in postsecondary education (chapter 

6), and outcomes of education (chapter 7). A list of 

references and a guide to sources appear at the end 

of the report. Standard error tables are available on 

the NCES website: http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/

pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2010015.

The indicators presented in this report are intended 

to provide an overview of the education data available 

from many federal surveys. Readers are cautioned 

not to draw causal inferences based on the univariate 

and bivariate results presented in this report. It 

is important to note that many of the variables 

examined in this report may be related to one another, 

and complex interactions and relationships among 

the variables have not been explored. The variables 

presented here are also just a sample of the thousands 

that can be examined using the surveys included in 

this report. The indicators were selected to provide a 

range of data that are relevant to a variety of policy 

issues, rather than emphasize comprehensive information on any particular issue.

Definitions of Race and Ethnicity 

The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) 

is responsible for the standards that govern the 

categories used to collect and present federal data on 

race and ethnicity. The OMB revised the guidelines 

on racial/ethnic categories used by the federal 

government in October 1997, with a January 2003 

deadline for implementation (Office of Management 

and Budget 1997). The revised standards require a 

minimum of these five categories for data on race: 

American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Black or 

African American, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific 

Islander, and White. The standards also require the 

collection of data on the ethnicity categories Hispanic 

or Latino and Not Hispanic or Latino. It is important 

to note that Hispanic origin is an ethnicity rather than 

a race, and therefore persons of Hispanic origin may 

be of any race. Origin can be viewed as the heritage, 

nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the 

person or the person’s parents or ancestors before their 

arrival in the United States. The races White, Black, 

Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 

and American Indian/Alaska Native, as presented in 

this report, exclude persons of Hispanic origin unless 

noted otherwise.

 

Introduction
2 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Introduction

These racial/ethnic categories are defined as follows: 

American Indian or Alaska Native: A person having 

origins in any of the original peoples of North and 

South America (including Central America) and who 

maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment.

Asian: A person having origins in any of the original 

peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian 

subcontinent, including, for example, Cambodia, 

China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the 

Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam.

Black or African American: A person having origins 

in any of the black racial groups of Africa. 

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander: A person 

having origins in any of the original peoples of 

Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands.

White: A person having origins in any of the original 

peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa.

Hispanic or Latino: A person of Mexican, Puerto 

Rican, Cuban, South or Central American, or other 

Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race.

Within this report, some of the category names have 

been shortened. American Indian or Alaska Native is 

denoted as American Indian/Alaska Native; Black or 

African American is shortened to Black; and Hispanic 

or Latino is shortened to Hispanic. When discussed 

separately, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 

is not shortened in the text, but is shortened in tables 

and figures to Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander.

The indicators in this report are drawn from a number 

of different sources. Many are federal surveys that 

collect data using the OMB standards for racial/

ethnic classification described above; however, some 

sources have not fully adopted the standards and some 

indicators include data collected prior to the adoption 

of the OMB standards. This report focuses on the 

six categories that are the most common among the 

various data sources used: White, Black, Hispanic, 

Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and 

American Indian/Alaska Native. Asians and Native 

Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders are combined 

into one category in indicators for which the data 

were not collected separately for the two groups. 

Some of the surveys from which data are presented 

in this report give respondents the option of 

selecting either an “other” race category, or two or 

more races (in some cases a “multiracial” category 

is the option), or both. Therefore, the remaining 

categories presented consist entirely of persons who 

identify as belonging to only one race or ethnicity. 

Where possible, indicators present data on the “two 

or more races” category; however, in some cases this 

category may not be separately shown, due to various 

data issues. The “other” category is not separately 

shown. Any comparisons made between persons of 

one racial/ethnic group to “all other racial/ethnic 

groups” include only the racial/ethnic groups shown 

in the indicator. In some surveys, respondents are 

not given the option to select more than one race. 

In these surveys, respondents of two or more races 

must select a single race category. Any comparisons 

between data from surveys that give the option to 

select more than one race and surveys that do not 

offer such an option should take into account the 

fact that there is a potential for bias if members of 

one racial group are more likely than members of 

the others to identify themselves as “two or more 

races.”2

 For postsecondary data, foreign students are 

counted separately and therefore are not included 

in any racial/ethnic category. Please see Appendix A: 

Guide to Sources at the end of this report for specific 

information on each of the report’s data sources.

The American Community Survey, conducted 

by the U.S. Census Bureau, collects information 

regarding specific ancestry. “Snapshots” throughout 

this report highlight Hispanic ancestry subgroups 

(such as Mexican, Puerto Rican, or Cuban) and Asian 

ancestry subgroups (such as Asian Indian, Chinese, or 

Filipino). Indicator 2 (Nativity), Indicator 4 (Children 

Living in Poverty), Indicator 8.2 (English Language 

Learner Students), Indicator 18 (Dropout Rates and 

Graduation Rates), and Indicator 27 (Educational 

Attainment) each provide a “Snapshot” table that 

includes detailed Hispanic and Asian ancestries 

and a brief comparison among the subgroups and 

race/ethnicity categories. For more information on 

these subgroup definitions, see Appendix A: Guide 

to Sources.

2

 Such bias was found by a National Center for Health Statistics study that examined race/ethnicity responses to the 2000 Census. 

This study found, for example, that as the percentage of multiple-race respondents in a county increased, the likelihood of 

respondents stating Black as their primary race increased among Black/White respondents but decreased among American Indian 

or Alaska Native/Black respondents. See Parker, J., et al., (2004). Bridging between two standards for collecting information on 

race and ethnicity: an application to Census 2000 and vital rates. Public Health Reports 119(2): 192–205. Available through http://

www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1497618.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 3

Introduction

Technical Note 

This report includes data from both universe and 

sample surveys. In the case of universe data, all 

relevant units are included in the data collection. 

As a result, there is no sampling error, and observed 

differences are reported as true. In the case of 

sample surveys, a nationally representative sample 

of respondents is selected and asked to participate in 

the data collection. Since the sample represents just 

one of many possible samples that could be selected, 

there is error associated with the sample. To avoid 

reaching false conclusions about differences between 

groups or differences over time measured by sample 

survey data, sampling error is taken into account 

in statistical tests that are conducted to support 

statements about differences. Thus, all statements 

about differences in this report are supported by the 

data, either directly in the case of universe surveys 

or with statistical significance testing in the case of 

sample survey data. In addition, there are occasional 

references to apparent differences that are not 

significant. 

All significance tests of differences in sample survey 

data are tested at the .05 level of significance. Several 

test procedures were used, depending on the type 

of data interpreted and the nature of the statement 

tested. The most commonly used test procedures were 

t tests, linear trend tests, and equivalency tests. The 

t tests were not adjusted to compensate for multiple 

comparisons being made simultaneously. Trend 

tests were conducted by evaluating the significance 

of the slope of a simple regression of the annual 

data points and by conducting a t test to compare 

the end points. Equivalence tests at the 0.15 level 

were used to determine whether two statistics were 

substantively equivalent; this was accomplished by 

using a hypothesis test to determine whether the 

confidence interval of the difference between sample 

estimates was significantly greater or less than a preset 

substantively important difference. In most cases 

involving percentages, a difference of 3.0 percentage 

points was used to determine substantive equivalence 

or difference. In some indicators involving only 

very small percentages, a lower value was used. The 

appearance of a “!” symbol (meaning “Interpret data 

with caution”) in a table or figure indicates a data cell 

with a high ratio of standard error to estimate (0.30 or 

greater); therefore, the estimate may be unstable and 

the reader should use caution when interpreting the 

data. These unstable estimates are discussed, however, 

when statistically significant differences are found 

despite large standard errors. 

Although percentages reported in the tables are 

generally rounded to one decimal place (e.g., 76.5 

percent), percentages reported in the text and figures 

are generally rounded from the original number to 

whole numbers (with any value of 0.50 or above 

rounded to the next highest whole number). While 

the data labels on the figures have been rounded to 

whole numbers, the graphical presentation of these 

data are based on the unrounded estimates shown in 

the corresponding table. Due to rounding, cumulative 

percentages may sometimes equal 99 or 101 percent, 

rather than 100 percent. In addition, sometimes 

a whole number in the text may seem rounded 

incorrectly based on its value when rounded to one 

decimal place. For example, the percentage 14.479 

rounds to 14.5 at one decimal place, but rounds to 

14 when reported as a whole number.
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1 

Demographics

The first chapter in this report presents demographic 

information that provides context for the education 

indicators presented in later chapters. In order to 

describe the status of the various racial/ethnic groups 

in this country’s education system, it is important to 

provide contextual information on the relative size 

of each group, where the members of those groups 

come from, and where and how they live.

For this reason, indicators 1 and 2 describe the size 

and distribution of the U.S. population in terms of 

race/ethnicity, geographic distribution, and nativity. 

Between 1999 and 2000, Hispanics surpassed Blacks 

as the country’s largest racial/ethnic group other than 

Whites, and the population of Hispanics continued 

to grow at a faster rate than the overall population 

through 2008 (indicator 1). In 2008, Hispanics represented 15 percent of the total U.S. population. In 

the Western United States, in 2008, the percentages 

of the population who were Hispanic, Asian, Native 

Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, American Indian/

Alaska Native, and persons of two or more races were 

higher than the national percentages. New Mexico, 

California, and Texas had the highest percentages of 

the population who were Hispanic (ranging from 36 

to 45 percent).

In 2007, about 14 percent of the U.S. population 

was born outside of the United States (refers to the 

50 states and the District of Columbia) (indicator 2). 

Approximately 69 percent of Asians and 44 percent 

of Hispanics were born outside of the United States. 

Of the population under 18 years old, 5 percent 

were born outside of the United States, including 24 

percent of Asians, 21 percent of Native Hawaiians or 

Other Pacific Islanders, and 11 percent of Hispanics.

Indicators 3 and 4 examine the living arrangements 

and poverty status of children under the age of 18. 

In 2007, across all racial/ethnic groups except Blacks 

and American Indians/Alaska Natives, the majority of 

children under 18 were living with married parents 

(indicator 3). About 34 percent of Black children 

under 18 lived with married parents and 56 percent 

of Black children lived with a female parent with no 

spouse present.

About 18 percent of children under 18 were living 

in poverty (indicator 4). The overall percentages of 

children who were living in poverty were higher for 

Blacks (34 percent), American Indians/Alaska Natives 

(33 percent), Hispanics (27 percent), and Native 

Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders (26 percent), 

than for children of two or more races (18 percent), 

Asians (11 percent), and Whites (10 percent). 

The last indicator in Chapter 1 focuses on the 

educational attainment of parents. In 2008, a higher 

percentage of Asian children had a mother with 

at least a bachelor’s degree than did White, Black, 

Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native children (indicator 5). In addition, a higher percentage of 

Asian children had mothers with at least a bachelor’s 

degree than Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander 

children and children of two or more races. This 

pattern was also true for the percentages of children 

with a father who had at least a bachelor’s degree.
6 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups Indicator 1 — Population and Geographic Distributions

Figure 1. Percentage distribution of total population in the United States, by race/ethnicity: Selected 

years, 1980–2008, and projections, selected years, 2010–2025

NOTE: “Other” includes the following race categories: Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, American Indian/Alaska Native, and Two or more 

races. Numbers for the year 2000 are from the Decennial Census. All other years are population estimates. Prior to 2000, Asian includes Native 

Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander. The category “Two or more races” was not an option prior to 1996. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2000 and 2004, Population Estimates 

Program, 1980–2000; Table 4: Estimates of the Population by Race and Hispanic Origin for the United States and States: July 1, 2008 (SCEST2008-04), released May 14, 2009, retrieved May 15, 2009, from http://www.census.gov/popest/states/asrh/SC-EST2008-04.html; and Projected Population by Single Year of Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin for the United States: July 1, 2000 to July 1, 2050 (NP2008-T4), released 

August 14, 2008. 

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian ■ Other

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Year

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

0

20

40

60

80

90

70

50

30

10

100

Percent Projected

The U.S. population has become more diverse over 

the past two decades as the populations of Hispanics 

and Asians have increased more rapidly than the 

populations of Whites and Blacks. In particular, 

between 1999 and 2000, Hispanics surpassed Blacks 

as the largest racial/ethnic group other than Whites 

(U.S. Department of Commerce 2001a).3 The 

populations of Hispanics, Asians, Native Hawaiians 

or Other Pacific Islanders, and those of two or more 

races are expected to grow faster than the populations 

of Whites, Blacks, and American Indians/Alaska 

Natives between 2008 and 2025.

Between 1980 and 2008, there were shifts in the 

racial/ethnic composition of the resident population 

of the United States. In 1980, the White population 

represented about 80 percent of the total population. 

This percentage decreased to 69 percent in 2000 and 

to 66 percent in 2008. In contrast, the Hispanic population’s share of the total population increased from 

6.4 percent in 1980 to 12.6 percent in 2000 to 15.4 

percent in 2008. In addition, Asians/Pacific Islanders 

represented less than 2 percent of the population in 

1980 and by 2008, their share had increased to 4.5 

percent (Asians represented 4.4 percent and Native 

Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islanders represented 0.1 

percent of the population). The percentage of the total 

population who were Black increased from 11.5 to 

12.2 percent between 1980 and 2000. Since 2000, 

the growth rate for the Black population has been 

similar to the growth rate of the overall population; 

thus, the Black population continued to represent 

12.2 percent of the total population through 2008. 

1. Population and Geographic Distributions

3

 In 1999, Blacks represented 12.1 percent of the population and Hispanics represented 11.5 percent (U.S. Department of 

Commerce 2001b). In Census 2000 (table 1a) Blacks represented 12.2 percent of the population and Hispanics represented 

12.6 percent.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 7Chapter 1 — Demographics

Between 2008 and 2025, these patterns of population 

change are expected to continue. For example, the 

Hispanic population is expected to grow at a faster 

rate than most other races/ethnicities. In 2025, 

about 21 percent of the population is expected to be 

of Hispanic ethnicity. In addition, the growth rate 

for Whites is expected to be slower than the rate for 

other races/ethnicities, decreasing their share of the 

total population. In 2025, the distribution of the 

population is expected to be 58 percent White, 21 

percent Hispanic, 12 percent Black, 6 percent Asian, 

2 percent two or more races, 1 percent American 

Indian/Alaska Native, and less than 1 percent Native 

Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander.

Table 1a. Resident population and percentage distribution, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1980–2008, 

and projections, selected years, 2010–2025

Year Total White Black Hispanic Asian 

Native 

Hawaiian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

Two or 

more 

races

Number (in thousands)

1980 226,546 180,906 26,142 14,609 3,563 (1) 1,326 —

1985 237,924 184,945 27,738 18,368 5,315 (1) 1,558 —

1990 248,791 188,315 29,304 22,379 6,996 (1) 1,797 —

1995 262,803 193,328 31,590 27,107 8,846 (1) 1,932 —

2000 282,158 195,771 34,414 35,629 10,436 369 2,104 3,436

2001 284,915 196,325 34,793 36,958 10,777 377 2,131 3,555

2002 287,501 196,773 35,147 38,264 11,103 384 2,158 3,673

2003 289,986 197,152 35,457 39,579 11,432 391 2,184 3,791

2004 292,806 197,727 35,811 40,956 11,782 399 2,213 3,918

2005 295,583 198,244 36,145 42,354 12,145 407 2,241 4,047

2006 298,442 198,781 36,499 43,777 12,520 416 2,271 4,179

2007 301,280 199,272 36,849 45,219 12,901 425 2,300 4,314

2008 304,060 199,491 37,172 46,944 13,238 435 2,329 4,452

20102 310,233 200,853 37,985 49,726 14,083 452 2,392 4,743

20152 325,540 203,208 39,916 57,711 16,141 497 2,548 5,519

20202 341,387 205,255 41,847 66,365 18,308 541 2,697 6,374

20252 357,452 206,662 43,703 75,772 20,591 585 2,830 7,309

Percentage distribution

1980 100.0 79.9 11.5 6.4 1.6 (1) 0.6 —

1985 100.0 77.7 11.7 7.7 2.2 (1) 0.7 —

1990 100.0 75.7 11.8 9.0 2.8 (1) 0.7 —

1995 100.0 73.6 12.0 10.3 3.4 (1) 0.7 —

2000 100.0 69.4 12.2 12.6 3.7 0.1 0.7 1.2

2001 100.0 68.9 12.2 13.0 3.8 0.1 0.7 1.2

2002 100.0 68.4 12.2 13.3 3.9 0.1 0.8 1.3

2003 100.0 68.0 12.2 13.6 3.9 0.1 0.8 1.3

2004 100.0 67.5 12.2 14.0 4.0 0.1 0.8 1.3

2005 100.0 67.1 12.2 14.3 4.1 0.1 0.8 1.4

2006 100.0 66.6 12.2 14.7 4.2 0.1 0.8 1.4

2007 100.0 66.1 12.2 15.0 4.3 0.1 0.8 1.4

2008 100.0 65.6 12.2 15.4 4.4 0.1 0.8 1.5

20102 100.0 64.7 12.2 16.0 4.5 0.1 0.8 1.5

20152 100.0 62.4 12.3 17.7 5.0 0.2 0.8 1.7

20202 100.0 60.1 12.3 19.4 5.4 0.2 0.8 1.9

20252 100.0 57.8 12.2 21.2 5.8 0.2 0.8 2.0

— Not available.

1 Prior to 2000, estimates for Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander are included in the estimates for Asian.

2 Projected.

NOTE: Numbers for the year 2000 are from the Decennial Census. All other years are population estimates. The category “Two or more races” 

was not an option prior to 1996. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2000 and 2004, Population Estimates 

Program, 1980–2000; Table 4: Estimates of the Population by Race and Hispanic Origin for the United States and States: July 1, 2008 (SCEST2008-04), released May 14, 2009, retrieved May 15, 2009, from http://www.census.gov/popest/states/asrh/SC-EST2008-04.html; and 

Projected Population by Single Year of Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin for the United States: July 1, 2000 to July 1, 2050 (NP2008-T4), 

released August 14, 2008. 
8 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 1 — Population and 

Geographic Distributions

Racial/ethnic composition varies regionally and 

from state to state. In 2008, the West had higher 

percentages of its population who were Hispanic, 

Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 

American Indian/Alaska Native, and of two or more 

races when compared with the national proportions. 

In the West, the population was 28 percent Hispanic, 

9 percent Asian, 0.5 percent Native Hawaiian or 

Other Pacific Islander, 2 percent American Indian/

Alaska Native, and 2 percent persons of two or more 

races. In contrast, the Midwest had lower percentages 

of these racial/ethnic groups when compared with the 

national percentages. In the Midwest, the population 

was 6 percent Hispanic, 2 percent Asian, 1 percent 

each American Indian/Alaska Native and persons of 

two or more races, and less than 0.05 percent Native 

Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander.

Among the 50 states and the District of Columbia, 

Hawaii had the highest percentage of its population 

who were Asian (38 percent), Native Hawaiian or 

Other Pacific Islander (9 percent), and of two or 

more races (16 percent). New Mexico had the highest 

percentage of its population who were Hispanic (45 

percent). Other states with large percentages of their 

population who were Hispanic included California 

(37 percent) and Texas (36 percent). The District of 

Columbia had the highest percentage of its population who were Black (53 percent) when compared 

with the 50 states. 

In contrast to other states, several states had smaller 

percentages of its population who were Black, 

Hispanic, Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific 

Islander, American Indian/Alaska Native, and of two 

or more races. In such states as Maine, Vermont, West 

Virginia, New Hampshire, and Iowa, those racial/

ethnic groups combined represented less than 10 

percent of the population.

Table 1b. Percentage distribution of the resident population, by race/ethnicity, region, and state: 2008

Region and state White Black Hispanic Asian

Native 

Hawaiian/

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

Two or 

more 

races

United States 65.6 12.2 15.4 4.4 0.1 0.8 1.5

Northeast 70.7 11.1 11.7 5.1 # 0.2 1.1

 Connecticut 73.8 9.3 0.2 3.4 # 1.2 12.0

 Maine 95.3 1.0 1.3 0.9 # 0.6 1.0

 Massachusetts 79.2 5.9 8.6 4.9 # 0.2 1.2

 New Hampshire 93.1 1.1 2.6 1.9 # 0.2 1.0

 New Jersey 61.7 13.1 16.3 7.6 # 0.2 1.1

 New York 60.0 14.8 16.7 6.9 # 0.3 1.2

 Pennsylvania 81.4 10.3 4.8 2.4 # 0.1 1.0

 Rhode Island 78.8 5.0 11.6 2.7 0.1 0.4 1.3

 Vermont 95.2 0.8 1.4 1.1 # 0.4 1.1

Midwest 79.2 10.2 6.4 2.4 # 0.6 1.2

 Illinois 64.7 14.5 15.2 4.3 # 0.2 1.1

 Indiana 83.2 8.9 5.2 1.3 # 0.2 1.1

 Iowa 90.3 2.5 4.2 1.6 # 0.3 1.0

 Kansas 80.3 5.9 9.1 2.2 0.1 0.9 1.6

 Michigan 77.5 14.0 4.1 2.3 # 0.5 1.4

 Minnesota 85.4 4.4 4.1 3.5 # 1.1 1.4

 Missouri 82.1 11.3 3.2 1.4 0.1 0.4 1.4

 Nebraska 84.1 4.3 7.9 1.7 0.1 0.9 1.2

 North Dakota 89.6 1.0 2.1 0.7 # 5.4 1.1

 Ohio 82.5 11.8 2.6 1.6 # 0.2 1.3

 South Dakota 86.1 1.1 2.6 0.7 # 8.2 1.3

 Wisconsin 85.1 5.9 5.1 2.0 # 0.9 1.1

See notes at end of table.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 9

Table 1b. Percentage distribution of the resident population, by race/ethnicity, region, and state: 2008—

Chapter 1 — Demographics

Continued

Region and state White Black Hispanic Asian

Native 

Hawaiian/

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

Two or 

more 

races

United States 65.6 12.2 15.4 4.4 0.1 0.8 1.5

South 62.0 18.8 14.8 2.5 0.1 0.7 1.2

 Alabama 68.4 26.2 2.9 0.9 # 0.5 1.0

 Arkansas 75.6 15.5 5.6 1.0 0.1 0.8 1.3

 Delaware 68.3 20.4 6.8 2.8 # 0.3 1.3

 District of Columbia 33.1 53.1 8.6 3.3 0.1 0.3 1.4

 Florida 60.3 15.0 21.0 2.2 0.1 0.3 1.2

 Georgia 58.1 29.6 8.0 2.8 0.1 0.3 1.2

 Kentucky 87.8 7.6 2.4 1.0 # 0.2 1.0

 Louisiana 61.9 31.7 3.4 1.4 # 0.6 1.0

 Maryland 57.7 28.8 6.7 5.0 0.1 0.3 1.5

 Mississippi 58.7 37.0 2.2 0.8 # 0.5 0.8

 North Carolina 67.2 21.2 7.4 1.9 0.1 1.1 1.1

 Oklahoma 71.4 7.7 7.6 1.7 0.1 7.7 3.9

 South Carolina 65.2 28.1 4.1 1.2 # 0.4 1.0

 Tennessee 77.1 16.5 3.7 1.3 # 0.3 1.1

 Texas 47.4 11.3 36.5 3.3 0.1 0.4 1.1

 Virginia 67.0 19.5 6.8 4.8 0.1 0.3 1.6

 West Virginia 93.5 3.5 1.1 0.7 # 0.2 0.9

West 54.7 4.6 27.9 8.6 0.5 1.5 2.3

 Alaska 65.7 3.9 6.1 4.4 0.6 14.8 4.4

 Arizona 58.4 3.5 30.1 2.3 0.1 4.1 1.4

 California 42.3 6.0 36.6 12.1 0.3 0.5 2.1

 Colorado 71.0 3.8 20.2 2.5 0.1 0.7 1.6

 Hawaii 24.9 2.8 8.7 38.4 8.6 0.4 16.1

 Idaho 85.1 0.7 10.2 1.1 0.1 1.3 1.5

 Montana 87.9 0.6 3.0 0.6 0.1 6.2 1.6

 Nevada 57.1 7.3 25.7 6.0 0.5 1.1 2.3

 New Mexico 41.7 2.1 44.9 1.2 0.1 8.6 1.3

 Oregon 80.0 1.8 11.0 3.6 0.3 1.2 2.3

 Utah 81.7 1.0 12.0 1.9 0.7 1.2 1.5

 Washington 75.5 3.4 9.8 6.6 0.4 1.4 2.8

 Wyoming 86.8 1.1 7.7 0.7 0.1 2.3 1.3

# Rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Table 4: Estimates of the Population by Race and Hispanic Origin for the United States 

and States: July 1, 2008 (SC-EST2008-04), released May 14, 2009, retrieved May 15, 2009, from http://www.census.gov/popest/states/asrh/

SC-EST2008-04.html. 

 
10 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 2 — 

Nativity

The population in the United States born outside of 

the 50 states and the District of Columbia (referred to 

in this indicator as “born outside the United States”) 

increased between 2000 and 2007, making up 12 

percent of the U.S. population in 2000 and 14 percent 

in 2007. The percentage of children born outside the 

U.S., however, has remained steady since 2000 at 5 

percent of the U.S. population. 

In the United States in 2007, about 5 percent of 

the 73.9 million children under age 18 were born 

outside of the United States. Some 24 percent of Asian 

children were born outside the United States, a higher 

percentage than any other race/ethnicity except Native 

Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander. The percentages of 

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander (21 percent) 

and Hispanic (11 percent) children who were born 

outside the United States were also higher than those 

for children of two or more races (3 percent), Black 

children (3 percent), White children (2 percent), and 

American Indian/Alaska Native children (0.4 percent). 

Between 2000 and 2007, the percentage of children 

under age 18 who were born outside the United States 

increased by 7 percentage points for Native Hawaiians 

or Other Pacific Islanders and decreased for Hispanics 

and Asians by 3 and 2 percentage points, respectively. 

In 2007, some 14 percent of the total population was 

born outside the United States. The percentage of the 

total population born outside the United States was 

higher than the percentage of children born outside 

the United States for all racial/ethnic groups. Among 

the racial/ethnic groups, 69 percent of Asians, 44 

percent of Hispanics, 40 percent of Native Hawaiians 

or Other Pacific Islanders, 8 percent of Blacks, 7 

percent of those of two or more races, 5 percent of 

Whites, and 2 percent of American Indians/Alaska 

Natives were born outside the United States. Between 

2000 and 2007, the percentage of Blacks and Native 

Hawaiians or other Pacific Islanders who were born 

outside the United States increased. However, during 

the same period, there was a decline in the percentage 

of persons of two or more races born outside the 

United States.

2. Nativity

Figure 2. Percentage distribution of population under 18 in the United States, by race/ethnicity and 

nativity: 2007

# Rounds to zero. 1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

2 United States refers to the 50 states and the District of Columbia.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007.

■ Born within the United States2 ■ Born outside the United States2

Total1 White Black Hispanic Asian

Race/ethnicity

Native

Hawaiian/

Pacific Islander

American

Indian/Alaska

Native

Two or

more

races

Percent

95

5

98

2

97

3

89

11

76

24

79

21

100

#

97

3

0

20

40

60

80

90

70

50

30

10

100
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 11

Table 2a. Number and percentage of population in the United States, by nativity and race/ethnicity: 2000, 

Chapter 1 — Demographics

2005, and 2007

Total population Under 18

Born within the 

United States1

Born outside the 

United States1

Born within the 

United States1

Born outside the 

United States1

Year and race/ 

ethnicity

Number 

(in thousands) Percent

Number 

(in thousands) Percent

Number 

(in thousands) Percent

Number 

(in thousands) Percent

2000

Total2 239,867 87.7 33,764 12.3 68,434 94.9 3,673 5.1

White 181,930 95.5 8,521 4.5 43,562 98.2 806 1.8

Black 29,385 93.1 2,171 6.9 9,950 97.3 273 2.7

Hispanic 19,239 56.2 15,025 43.9 10,318 85.1 1,806 14.9

Asian 3,100 29.9 7,263 70.1 1,863 74.1 651 25.9

Native Hawaiian/ 

Pacific Islander 254 69.0 114 31.0 105 86.1 17 13.9

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 1,786 97.6 45 2.4 602 98.0 12 2.0

Two or more races 3,780 90.1 415 9.9 1,878 96.2 74 3.8

2005

Total2 249,067 86.4 39,332 13.6 69,361 94.8 3,786 5.2

White 183,732 95.4 8,795 4.6 41,570 98.1 795 1.9

Black 31,663 92.0 2,747 8.0 10,297 97.1 311 2.9

Hispanic 23,456 56.0 18,470 44.1 12,554 87.0 1,885 13.1

Asian 3,802 30.8 8,529 69.2 2,131 75.8 682 24.2

Native Hawaiian/ 

Pacific Islander 224 64.6 122 35.4 76 82.5 16 17.5

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 1,996 98.0 40 2.0 578 99.0 6 1.0

Two or more races 3,741 92.5 305 7.5 1,891 97.1 57 2.9

2007

Total2 259,801 86.1 41,821 13.9 70,336 95.2 3,576 4.8

White 189,497 95.4 9,097 4.6 41,218 98.2 737 1.8

Black 33,622 91.8 3,003 8.2 10,275 97.3 290 2.7

Hispanic 25,572 56.4 19,806 43.7 13,581 88.6 1,751 11.4

Asian 4,036 30.8 9,065 69.2 2,197 76.1 690 23.9

Native Hawaiian/ 

Pacific Islander 242 59.8 163 40.2 82 78.8 22 21.2

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 1,989 98.4 32 1.6 557 99.6 2 0.4

Two or more races 4,430 92.6 356 7.4 2,208 97.5 58 2.5

1 United States refers to the 50 states and the District of Columbia. 

2 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. This table uses a different data source from table 1a; therefore, detail in this table 

will not sum to the totals in table 1a. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2000, 2005, and 2007.
12 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 2 — 

Nativity

The two racial/ethnic groups whose populations had the largest proportions of persons born outside the 

United States in 2007 were Asians and Hispanics. About 69 percent of the 13.1 million Asians and 44 

percent of the 45.4 million Hispanics living in the United States in 2007 were born outside the 50 states 

and District of Columbia. 

Among children born outside of the United States under the age of 18 in 2007, some 49 percent were 

Hispanic and 19 percent were Asian. Approximately 32 percent of all children born outside the United 

States were Mexican, a higher percentage than any other Hispanic subgroup. About 4 percent of children 

born outside the United States were South American, 4 percent were Puerto Rican, 3 percent were Other 

Central American, 2 percent were Dominican, 2 percent were Salvadoran, and 1 percent each were Cuban 

and Other Hispanic/Latino. Some 19 percent of all children born outside the United States were Asian, 

with children in the following subgroups: Chinese children (5 percent), Asian Indian children (4 percent), 

Filipino and Korean children (3 percent each), Other Asian and Vietnamese children (2 percent each), and 

Japanese children (1 percent).

Snapshot of Hispanic and Asian Subgroups: Nativity

Table 2b. Number, percentage, and percentage distribution of U.S. population, by nativity and race/

ethnicity with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2007

Born outside the United States1

Race/ethnicity 

and subgroup

Total 

population

Born within the 

United States1 Number Percent

Percentage 

distribution

Total2 301,621,200 86.1 41,820,700 13.9 100.0

White 198,594,500 95.4 9,097,000 4.6 21.8

Black 36,624,900 91.8 3,002,900 8.2 7.2

Hispanic 45,378,600 56.4 19,806,300 43.7 47.4

Mexican 29,189,300 59.5 11,812,300 40.5 28.3

Puerto Rican 4,114,700 64.8 1,448,300 35.2 3.5

Cuban 1,608,800 37.5 1,004,900 62.5 2.4

Dominican 1,198,800 37.9 744,000 62.1 1.8

Salvadoran 1,473,500 33.3 983,400 66.7 2.4

Other Central American 2,059,100 31.2 1,417,000 68.8 3.4

South American 2,500,800 28.9 1,779,000 71.1 4.3

Other Hispanic or Latino 3,233,500 80.9 617,300 19.1 1.5

Asian 13,100,900 30.8 9,064,700 69.2 21.7

Asian Indian 2,578,200 26.3 1,901,000 73.7 4.6

Chinese3 3,022,600 28.2 2,170,100 71.8 5.2

Filipino 2,383,900 29.6 1,678,000 70.4 4.0

Japanese 783,400 56.5 340,900 43.5 0.8

Korean 1,350,500 22.6 1,044,900 77.4 2.5

Vietnamese 1,478,300 32.3 1,000,900 67.7 2.4

Other Asian 1,504,000 38.2 928,900 61.8 2.2

Native Hawaiian/ 

Pacific Islander 404,200 59.8 162,700 40.2 0.4

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 2,021,700 98.4 32,300 1.6 0.1

Two or more races 4,785,900 92.6 356,000 7.4 0.9

1 United States refers to the 50 states and the District of Columbia.

2 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

3 Excludes Taiwanese. Taiwanese is included in the “Other Asian” category.

NOTE: Population estimates may differ from those in other tables due to time of year of estimation. Race categories exclude persons of 

Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 13Chapter 1 — Demographics

Of all the Hispanic subgroups, South Americans had the highest percentage of children who were born 

outside the United States (26 percent). Among Asian subgroups, Koreans had the highest percentage of 

children born outside the United States (39 percent).

The percentage of children under age 18 who were born outside the United States was lower than the 

percentage of the total population who were born outside the United States for all Hispanics (11 vs. 44 

percent) and Asians (24 vs. 69 percent). There were also differences between the distributions of children born 

outside the United States and the total population born outside the United States among some subgroups. 

A larger proportion of children outside the United States were Mexican (32 percent), compared with the 

proportion of Mexicans in the total population who were born outside of the United States (28 percent). 

In contrast, a smaller percentage of Vietnamese children were born outside the United States, compared 

with the percentage of Vietnamese in the total population who were born outside the United States (1.7 

vs. 2.4 percent).

Table 2c. Number, percentage, and percentage distribution of U.S. population under age 18, by nativity 

and race/ethnicity with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2007

Born outside the United States1

Race/ethnicity 

and subgroup

Total 

population

Born within the 

United States1 Number Percent

Percentage 

distribution

Total2 73,912,900 95.2 3,576,500 4.8 100.0

White 41,955,200 98.2 737,100 1.8 20.6

Black 10,565,400 97.3 290,000 2.7 8.1

Hispanic 15,332,000 88.6 1,751,100 11.4 49.0

Mexican 10,616,900 89.3 1,134,400 10.7 31.7

Puerto Rican 1,334,300 89.5 139,700 10.5 3.9

Cuban 328,400 86.0 46,000 14.0 1.3

Dominican 370,200 82.0 66,700 18.0 1.9

Salvadoran 429,600 86.8 56,800 13.2 1.6

Other Central American 558,700 81.3 104,700 18.8 2.9

South American 609,700 74.3 156,800 25.7 4.4

Other Hispanic or Latino 1,084,300 95.8 46,000 4.2 1.3

Asian 2,886,500 76.1 689,700 23.9 19.3

Asian Indian 623,100 77.1 142,600 22.9 4.0

Chinese3 607,600 73.3 162,200 26.7 4.5

Filipino 460,900 76.0 110,800 24.0 3.1

Japanese 84,300 68.2 26,800 31.8 0.8

Korean 287,300 61.2 111,600 38.9 3.1

Vietnamese 372,100 83.7 60,600 16.3 1.7

Other Asian 451,200 83.4 75,000 16.6 2.1

Native Hawaiian/Pacific 

Islander 103,900 78.8 22,000 21.2 0.6

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 558,700 99.6 2,200 0.4 0.1

Two or more races 2,265,300 97.5 57,600 2.5 1.6

1 United States refers to the 50 states and the District of Columbia.

2 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

3 Excludes Taiwanese. Taiwanese is included in the “Other Asian” category.

NOTE: Population estimates may differ from those in other tables due to time of year of estimation. Race categories exclude persons of 

Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007.
14 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 3 — Children’s 

Living Arrangements

In 2007, about 73.9 million children under 18 years 

old resided in the United States. Of these children, 

66 percent lived with married parents, 25 percent 

lived with a female parent with no spouse present, 

7 percent lived with a male parent with no spouse 

present, and 2 percent lived in other arrangements.4

Across all racial/ethnic groups shown except Blacks 

and American Indians/Alaska Natives, the majority 

of children under 18 years old lived with married 

parents. About 83 percent of all Asian children lived 

with married parents, higher than the percentages 

for White children (75 percent), Native Hawaiian 

or Other Pacific Islander children (61 percent), 

Hispanic children (61 percent), children of two or 

more races (56 percent), American Indian/Alaska 

Native children (47 percent), and Black children 

(34 percent). A higher percentage of Black children 

lived with a female parent with no spouse present (56 

percent) than did American Indian/Alaska Native 

children (38 percent), children of two or more 

races (34 percent), Hispanic children (28 percent), 

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander children 

(27 percent), White children (17 percent), and 

Asian children (11 percent). A higher percentage of 

American Indian/Alaska Native children (11 percent) 

lived with a male parent with no spouse present than 

did Hispanic children (9 percent), Black children (8 

percent), children of two or more races (7 percent), 

White children (6 percent), and Asian children (5 

percent). Two percent of all children lived in other 

arrangements, with percentages by race/ethnicity 

ranging from 1 percent of Asian children to 4 percent 

of American Indian/Alaska Native children. 

3. Children’s Living Arrangements

4

 Children are classified by either their parent’s marital status or, if no parents are present in the household, by the marital status of 

the related householder. Children in the “Other” category include those who are not related to the householder (foster children, 

children in unrelated subfamilies, and children living in group quarters), plus any children who were reported as the householder 

or spouse of the householder.

Table 3. Number and percentage distribution of children under age 18, by living arrangements and race/

ethnicity: 2007

Race/ethnicity

Number of 

children

Percentage distribution of children, by living arrangements

Total

Children living with parent(s) or 

related to householder1

All other 

children2

Married 

parents

Female 

parent, 

no spouse 

present

Male 

parent, 

no spouse 

present

Total3 73,913,000 100.0 65.6 25.2 7.0 2.2

White 41,955,000 100.0 75.0 16.8 6.1 2.0

Black 10,565,000 100.0 33.6 56.0 7.6 2.8

Hispanic 15,332,000 100.0 60.7 27.8 8.9 2.5

Asian 2,886,000 100.0 82.5 11.4 4.9 1.2

Native Hawaiian/ 

Pacific Islander 104,000 100.0 60.7 27.4 8.7 3.2

American Indian/

Alaska Native 559,000 100.0 47.1 38.2 11.0 3.7

Two or more races 2,265,000 100.0 56.5 33.8 7.2 2.4

1 Children in these living arrangements live with their parent(s) or live with a householder to whom they are related in some way. Children are 

classified by either their parent’s marital status or, if no parents are present in the household, by the marital status of the related householder. 

2 Children in this category are those who are not related to the householder (foster children, children in unrelated subfamilies, and children living in 

group quarters), plus any children who were reported as the householder or spouse of the householder. 3 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown. 

NOTE: The householder of record is the person living or staying in the household in whose name the house or apartment is owned, being bought, 

or rented. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 15Chapter 1 — Demographics

Figure 3. Percentage distribution of children under age 18, by race/ethnicity and living arrangements: 

2007

1 Children in this category are those who are not related to the householder (foster children, children in unrelated subfamilies, and children living in 

group quarters), plus any children who were reported as the householder or spouse of the householder. 

NOTE: Children are classified by either their parent’s marital status or, if no parents are present in the household, by the marital status of the 

related householder. The householder of record is the person living or staying in the household in whose name the house or apartment is owned, 

being bought, or rented. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007. 

 

■ Married parents ■ Female parent, no ■ Male parent, no ■ Other1 

spouse present spouse present 

White Black Hispanic Asian

Race/ethnicity

Native

Hawaiian/

Pacific Islander

American

Indian/Alaska

Native

Two or

more

races

Percent

0

20

40

60

80

90

70

50

30

10

100

75

17

6

2

34

56

8

3

61

28

9

3

83

11

5

1

61

27

9

3

47

38

11

4

56

34

7

2
16 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 4 — Children 

Living in Poverty

Poverty poses a serious challenge to a child’s ability 

to succeed in school. Research has suggested that 

living in poverty in the early childhood years can lead 

to lower rates of school completion (Brooks-Gunn 

and Duncan, 1997). Further, growing up in poverty 

can negatively affect a child’s physical health as well 

as his or her working memory, due to the chronic 

psychological stress of living in poverty (Evans and 

Schamberg 2009). In the United States in 2007, some 

18 percent of children under age 18 were living in 

poverty.5

 The percentage of these children living in 

poverty ranged from 5 to 52 percent depending on 

race/ethnicity and living arrangement. 

4. Children Living in Poverty

5

 Children are classified by either their parent’s marital status or, if no parents are present in the household, by the marital status 

of the related householder. Poverty information was available for children who were related to the householder. Therefore, this 

indicator excludes any children who were not related to the householder or who are recorded as the householder or spouse of the 

householder. To define poverty, the U.S. Census Bureau utilizes a set of money income thresholds that vary by family size and 

composition. A family, along with each individual in it, is considered poor if the family’s total income is less than that family’s 

threshold. The poverty thresholds do not vary geographically and are adjusted annually for inflation using the Consumer Price 

Index. The official poverty definition counts money income before taxes and does not include capital gains and noncash benefits 

(such as public housing, Medicaid, and food stamps). 

Table 4. Percentage of children under age 18 living in poverty, by living arrangements and race/ethnicity 

with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2007

Race/ethnicity and subgroup

All children 

related to 

householder

Living arrangement

Married 

parents

Female parent, no 

spouse present

Male parent, no 

spouse present

Total1 17.5 8.1 41.4 19.7

White 10.1 5.0 31.4 14.5

Black 34.1 11.2 48.6 28.4

Hispanic 27.1 17.7 48.7 24.3

Mexican 28.6 20.4 50.5 25.1

Puerto Rican 31.6 10.4 52.1 27.1

Cuban 12.7 7.0 28.6 13.4

Dominican 34.1 13.6 50.9 23.0

Salvadoran 19.8 10.9 41.8 17.3

Other Central American 25.1 14.9 45.6 24.3

South American 14.3 9.1 29.8 17.6

Other Hispanic or Latino 20.9 9.4 43.0 23.8

Asian 11.1 8.1 30.6 15.8

Asian Indian 7.5 6.4 21.3 20.1

Chinese2 10.5 8.4 26.1 17.8

Filipino 5.0 2.7 16.3 7.9!

Japanese 9.9 7.3 25.4 41.7!

Korean 10.8 7.4 36.1 9.0!

Vietnamese 15.2 10.6 35.7 15.4

Other Asian 19.9 14.8 45.0 19.3

Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 25.6 18.6 37.7 35.6

American Indian/Alaska Native 32.7 17.9 51.5 30.5

Two or more races 17.9 5.2 38.5 19.8

! Interpret data with caution. 1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown. 2 Excludes Taiwanese. Taiwanese is included in the “Other Asian” category. 

NOTE: Children are classified by either their parent’s marital status or, if no parents are present in the household, by the marital status of the 

related householder. Poverty information was available for children who were related to the householder. Therefore, this table excludes any 

children who were not related to the householder or who are recorded as the householder or spouse of the householder. To define poverty, the 

U.S. Census Bureau utilizes a set of money income thresholds that vary by family size and composition. A family, along with each individual in it, is 

considered poor if the family’s total income is less than that family’s threshold. The poverty thresholds do not vary geographically and are adjusted 

annually for inflation using the Consumer Price Index. The official poverty definition counts money income before taxes and does not include 

capital gains and noncash benefits (such as public housing, Medicaid, and food stamps). Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 17Chapter 1 — Demographics

The percentages of children who were living in 

poverty were higher for Blacks (34 percent), American 

Indians/Alaska Natives (33 percent), Hispanics (27 

percent), and Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific 

Islanders (26 percent), than for children of two or 

more races (18 percent), Asians (11 percent), and 

Whites (10 percent). The poverty rate for children 

living with a female parent with no spouse present was 

higher for American Indian/Alaska Native children 

(52 percent), Hispanic and Black children (49 percent 

each) and children of two or more races (39 percent) 

than for White children (31 percent) and Asian 

children (31 percent). In addition, the percentage of 

children living with a female parent with no spouse 

present and living in poverty was higher for American 

Indian/Alaska Native children than for Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander children (38 percent). 

No other measurable differences were found between 

Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders and other 

racial/ethnic groups living with a female parent with 

no spouse present and living in poverty, in part due to 

high standard errors. For children living with a male 

parent with no spouse present, the percentages in 

poverty for American Indian/Alaska Native children 

(30 percent) and Black children (28 percent) were 

higher than the percentages for Hispanic children 

in poverty (24 percent), and each were higher than 

the percentages for children of two or more races (20 

percent), Asian children (16 percent), and White 

children (15 percent). Among married-parent living 

arrangements, a smaller percentage of White children 

and children of two or more races (5 percent each) 

were living in poverty than was the case for Asian (8 

percent), Black (11 percent), Hispanic (18 percent), 

American Indian/Alaska Native (18 percent), and 

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander (19 

percent) children.

In general, across racial/ethnic groups, a higher 

percentage of children living with a female parent 

with no spouse present were living in poverty than 

children living with a male parent with no spouse 

present. Compared with other living arrangements, 

children living with married parents had the lowest 

poverty rate for each race/ethnicity shown. For 

instance, 49 percent of all Hispanic children classified 

as living with a female parent with no spouse present 

lived in poverty in 2007, compared with 24 percent of 

Hispanic children living with a male parent with no 

spouse present and 18 percent of Hispanic children 

living with married parents.

Figure 4. Percentage of children under 18 living in poverty, by living arrangements and race/ethnicity: 

2007

NOTE: Children are classified by either their parent’s marital status or, if no parents are present in the household, by the marital status of the related 

householder. Poverty information was available for children who were related to the householder. Poverty information was available for children who 

were related to the householder. Therefore, this table excludes any children who were not related to the householder or who are recorded as the 

householder or spouse of the householder. To define poverty, the U.S. Census Bureau utilizes a set of money income thresholds that vary by family 

size and composition. A family, along with each individual in it, is considered poor if the family’s total income is less than that family’s threshold. The 

poverty thresholds do not vary geographically and are adjusted annually for inflation using the Consumer Price Index. The official poverty definition 

counts money income before taxes and does not include capital gains and noncash benefits (such as public housing, Medicaid, and food stamps). 

Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007. 

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian ■ Native Hawaiian/ ■ American Indian/ ■ Two or more 

 Pacific Islander Alaska Native races

Married parents Female parent,

no spouse present

Male parent,

no spouse present

Living arranagement

Percent

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

5

11

18

8

19 18

5

31

49 49

31

38

52

39

15

28

24

16

36

30

20 All

children:

18%
18 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 4 — Children 

Living in Poverty

In 2007, there were 15.3 million Hispanic children and 2.9 million Asian children under age 18 (see 

indicator 3). Of these children who were living with their parents or a relative, 27 percent of Hispanic 

children and 11 percent of Asian children were living in poverty. 

A higher percentage of Hispanic children were living in poverty (27 percent) than the national percentage 

of children living in poverty (18 percent). Some 34 percent of Dominican, 32 percent of Puerto Rican, 29 

percent of Mexican, 25 percent of Other Central American, and 21 percent of Other Hispanic or Latino 

children were living in poverty; each percentage was higher than the national estimate. A lower percentage 

of Cuban children (13 percent) and South American children (14 percent) were living in poverty compared 

with the national estimate. The percentage of Salvadoran families living in poverty was not measurably 

different from the national percentage.

A lower percentage of Asian children were living in poverty (11 percent) than the national percentage of 

children in poverty (18 percent). Specifically, percentages for Filipino (5 percent), Asian Indian (8 percent), 

Japanese (10 percent), Chinese (11 percent), Korean (11 percent), and Vietnamese (15 percent) children in 

poverty were lower than the national percentage, while the percentage of Other Asian (20 percent) children 

living in poverty was not measurably different than the national percentage. 

Snapshot of Hispanic and Asian Subgroups: Children Living in Poverty
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20 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups Indicator 5 — Parental Education

Research has shown a link between parental education levels and child outcomes such as educational 

experience, attainment, and academic achievement. 

For example, there was a positive association between 

children with highly educated mothers and their 

rates of participation in early childhood education 

programs and home literacy activities (U.S. Department of Education 2009, indicators 2 and 3). In 

addition, children with more highly educated parents 

earned higher average reading and mathematics scores 

on the National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP) than did children with less-educated parents 

(U.S. Department of Education 2009, indicators 12 

and 13). Although the overall level of educational 

attainment, in terms of the percentage of students 

earning a college degree, increased between 1996 and 

2008 for each racial/ethnic group (see indicator 27), 

there were differences across these groups. 

Generally, the percentages of Asian and White 

children who had parents with at least a bachelor’s 

degree were higher than the percentages of children 

of other races/ethnicities who had parents with at 

least a bachelor’s degree in 2008. In addition, the 

percentage of Asian children whose mothers held at 

least a bachelor’s degree (51 percent) was higher than 

the corresponding percentage for White children (36 

percent). These two percentages were higher than 

the percentages of Black (17 percent), Hispanic (11 

percent), and American Indian/Alaska Native (16 

percent) children who had mothers with at least 

a bachelor’s degree. In addition, the percentage of 

Asian children with mothers who had at least a 

bachelor’s degree was higher than the percentages of 

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander children 

(25 percent) and children of two or more races (31 

percent) whose mothers had similar educational 

attainment.6

 A higher percentage of children of two 

more races than Black or Hispanic children had a 

mother who had at least a bachelor’s degree, and a 

higher percentage of Black children than Hispanic 

children had mothers who had at least a bachelor’s 

degree. The same patterns held true for the percentages of children who had fathers with at least a 

bachelor’s degree. 

Differences also were apparent across races/ethnicities 

in the lower level of parental education in 2008. 

Among Hispanic children, 39 percent had mothers 

whose highest level of education was less than high 

school completion. This percentage was higher than 

the percentages for Whites (5 percent), Blacks (13 

percent), Asians (15 percent), Native Hawaiians or 

Other Pacific Islanders (9 percent), American Indians/

Alaska Natives (19 percent), and children of two or 

more races (6 percent). Similarly, the percentage of 

Hispanic children with fathers whose highest level of 

education was less than high school completion (41 

percent) was higher than the respective percentages 

for Whites (6 percent), Blacks (11 percent), Asians 

(11 percent), Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific 

Islanders (2 percent), American Indians/Alaska 

Natives (14 percent), and children of two or more 

races (5 percent).

5. Parental Education

6

 Although there appear to be differences between the percentages of Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander children with a 

parent who had at least a bachelor’s degree and children of other races/ethnicities, only the differences between the percentage of 

Asian children and the percentage of Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander children with a parent who had at least a bachelor’s 

degree were statistically significant. 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 21Chapter 1 — Demographics

Figure 5. Percentage of children ages 6 to 18 whose mother attained a level of education less than high 

school completion, and percentage whose mother attained at least a bachelor’s degree, by 

child’s race/ethnicity: 2008

! Interpret data with caution. 

NOTE: Parents include adoptive and stepparents but exclude parents not residing in the same household as their children. Race categories 

exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2008.

Two or more

races

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Native Hawaiian/

Pacific Islander

Asian

Hispanic

Black

White

Two or more

races

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Native Hawaiian/

Pacific Islander

Asian

Hispanic

Black

White

Race/ethnicity Mother with less than high school completion

Mother with at least a bachelor’s degree

50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

20 30 40

31

16

25!

51

11

17

36

6

19

9!

15

39

13

5

0 10
22 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 5 — Parental Education

Table 5. Percentage of children ages 6 to 18, by parent’s highest level of educational attainment and 

child’s race/ethnicity: 2008

Parent and 

race/ethnicity

Less than 

high 

school 

completion

High school 

completion1

Some 

college

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s or higher degree 

Total

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

degree 

Doctor’s 

or firstprofessional 

degree

Mother

Total2 13.2 27.8 19.1 11.5 28.5 20.2 6.5 1.7

White 4.6 26.4 20.2 13.1 35.7 25.0 8.5 2.3

Black 12.9 35.5 23.6 11.2 16.8 12.5 3.5 0.7

Hispanic 39.3 29.0 13.6 7.3 10.7 8.4 1.8 0.5

Asian 14.6 20.5 6.7 7.7 50.6 35.1 12.4 3.1

Native Hawaiian/ 

Pacific Islander 8.8! 32.1 22.0! 12.6! 24.6! 17.4! 1.4! 5.8!

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 19.4 27.2 23.1 14.2 16.1 12.2 ‡ ‡

Two or more races 5.6 21.5 30.5 11.8 30.7 21.4 6.9 2.3!

Father

Total2 13.1 28.6 16.5 9.1 32.7 20.3 7.9 4.6

White 5.8 28.6 17.4 9.8 38.5 23.6 9.2 5.6

Black 11.2 35.0 21.1 11.6 21.0 14.2 5.0 1.8

Hispanic 41.1 28.6 11.9 5.6 12.8 8.9 2.9 1.1

Asian 10.5 17.6 7.5 7.8 56.6 30.7 15.3 10.7

Native Hawaiian/ 

Pacific Islander 2.4! 30.9! 18.0! 24.1! 24.6! 15.5! 4.6! 4.4!

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 14.0! 29.9 26.5 10.8! 18.7 12.7! 0.7! 5.3!

Two or more races 5.2 26.8 25.3 11.3 31.3 20.1 7.7 3.5!

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

1 Includes high school diploma or equivalent.

2 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Parents include adoptive and stepparents but exclude parents not residing in the same household as their children. Race categories 

exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2008.
Preprimary, Elementary, 

and Secondary Education 

Participation

This chapter examines characteristics of students in 

preprimary, elementary, and secondary education. 

Indicator 6 focuses on care arrangements for 4-yearolds from the birth cohort born in the United States 

in 2001. In 2005–06, rates of participation in 

center-based care were higher for White, Black, Asian, 

and American Indian/Alaska Native 4-year-olds than 

for Hispanic and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific 

Islander 4-year-olds. 

Indicator 7 looks at components of elementary and 

secondary enrollment. The racial/ethnic distribution 

of public school students among the total enrolled 

in school has changed over time. Between 2000–01 

and 2007–08, the percentage of White students in 

school decreased from 61 to 56 percent (indicator 

7.1). During this same time period, the percentage of 

students who were Black and American Indian/Alaska 

Native remained unchanged, while the percentage of 

students who were Hispanic increased from 17 to 21 

percent. In addition, the percentage of Asian/Pacific 

Islander students increased from 4 to 5 percent. In 

the 2007–08 school year, Vermont and Maine had 

the highest percentages of students who were White 

(95 and 94 percent, respectively), and the District 

of Columbia had the highest percentage of enrolled 

students who were Black (83 percent). New Mexico 

had the highest percentage of Hispanic students (56 

percent), Hawaii had the highest percentage of Asian/

Pacific Islander students (73 percent), and Alaska 

had the highest percentage of American Indian/

Alaska Native students (25 percent). White students 

were concentrated in suburban and rural areas, with 

lower percentages residing in cities and towns. In 

contrast, Black, Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific Islander 

students were concentrated in cities and suburban 

areas. American Indian/Alaska Native students were 

clustered in rural areas (indicator 7.2). 

A higher percentage of Black, Hispanic, and 

American Indian/Alaska Native students in public 

schools were eligible for the free and reduced-price 

lunch program (frequently used as a proxy measure 

of poverty) compared with their White and Asian/

Pacific Islander peers. A higher percentage of Black 

and Hispanic students attended high-poverty schools 

(as determined by the percentage of students in school 

eligible for the free and reduced-lunch program) 

than did students of other racial/ethnic groups, 

while a lower percentage of Asian/Pacific Islander 

and White students attended high-poverty schools 

(indicator 7.5). 

Indicator 8 explores the demographics of children 

who may require special services in order to address 

their disabilities or their difficulties speaking English. 

In 2007, greater percentages of American Indian/

Alaska Native 6- to 21-year-olds were served under 

the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act than 

was the case for White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian/

Pacific Islander 6- to 21-year-olds (indicator 8.1). 

Also, in 2007, greater percentages of Hispanic and 

Asian elementary and secondary students spoke a 

language other than English at home, compared with 

students of other racial/ethnic groups (indicator 8.2). 

In addition, higher percentages of Hispanic and Asian 

students spoke English with difficulty than students 

of other races/ethnicities. 

The first section of indicator 9 examines the percentage 

of high school teachers who either have a major or 

certification in the subject that they consider their 

main teaching assignment. Twelve percent of teachers 

whose main assignment was secondary mathematics 

had neither a major nor a certification in that subject 

(indicator 9.1). The second section in this indicator 

focuses on “new” teachers, meaning those with 

less than 3 years of experience, by the racial/ethnic 

concentration of schools. Schools that were at least 

half White employed a smaller percentage of new 

teachers (10 percent) than did schools that were at 

least half Black (13 percent) or at least half Hispanic 

(15 percent) (indicator 9.2).

2
24 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups Indicator 6 — Care Arrangements

The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, conducted 

by the National Center for Education Statistics, 

contains a birth cohort of a representative sample 

of children born in the United States in 2001. This 

indicator examines the distribution of 4-year-olds 

from this cohort by their primary type of care 

arrangement, as reported by their parents. The types 

of arrangements include staying home with a parent 

(no regular nonparental arrangement), home-based 

care with either a relative or a non-relative, centerbased care, or multiple arrangements. 

Overall, in 2005, the primary care arrangement for 20 

percent of 4-year-olds was staying at home without 

any regular nonparental care. A higher percentage of 

Hispanic 4-year-olds (27 percent) than 4-year-olds 

of other races/ethnicities were in this arrangement; 

the percentage for Hispanics was 9 percentage points 

higher than Whites, 11 percentage points higher than 

Blacks, 10 percentage points higher than Asians, 7 

percentage points higher than American Indians/

Alaska Natives, and 9 percentage points higher 

than children of two or more races. Although the 

overall rate of participation in center-based care 

was 57 percent, 20 percent of Native Hawaiian or 

Other Pacific Islander 4-year-olds and 49 percent 

of Hispanic 4-year-olds participated in centerbased care. These percentages were lower than the 

percentages for White, Black, Asian, and American 

Indian/Alaska Native 4-year-olds (ranging between 

60 and 62 percent). Thirty-one percent of American 

Indian/Alaska Native 4-year-olds and 25 percent 

of Black 4-year-olds were enrolled in Head Start, 

the federal program for disadvantaged children, 

compared with 7 percent of Whites, 19 percent of 

Hispanics, 5 percent of Asians, and 5 percent of 

Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders. White 

(53 percent) and Asian (55 percent) 4-year-olds had 

the highest percentages of enrollment in center-based 

programs other than Head Start.

6. Care Arrangements 

Table 6. Percentage distribution of primary type of care arrangements of children from the 2001 birth 

cohort at about 4 years old, by race/ethnicity: 2005–06

Race/ethnicity

Primary type of care arrangement

No regular 

nonparental 

arrangement

Home-based care Center-based care1

Multiple 

arrangements2

Relative 

care3

Non-relative 

care4 Total

Head 

Start

Other than 

Head Start

Total 20.0 13.1 7.6 57.5 12.7 44.8 1.9

White 17.9 11.0 9.2 60.1 6.8 53.3 1.9

Black 16.0 13.9 4.3 62.4 25.4 37.1 3.3

Hispanic 27.2 15.9 6.2 49.4 18.6 30.9 1.2

Asian 17.5 16.0 3.4 60.7 5.5 55.3 2.3!

Native Hawaiian/ 

Pacific 

Islander 22.3! 45.0! ‡ 19.9! 5.0! 14.9! ‡

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 20.0 14.0 5.3 59.6 31.1 28.5 1.1!

Two or more 

races

17.8 17.5 8.9 53.9 12.2 41.7 1.8!

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

1 Care provided in places such as early learning centers, nursery schools, and preschools, including Head Start.

2 Children who spent an equal amount of time in each of two or more arrangements.

3 Care provided in the child’s home or in another private home by a relative (excluding parents).

4 Care provided in the child’s home or in another private home by a person unrelated to the child.

NOTE: Primary type of care arrangement is the type of nonparental care in which the child spent the most hours. Data are based on a 

representative sample of children born in 2001. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding and suppression of cells that do not meet 

standards. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort, Longitudinal 

9-month—Preschool Restricted-Use Data File.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 25Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and 

Secondary Education Participation

Figure 6. Percentage distribution of primary type of care arrangements of children from the 2001 birth 

cohort at about 4 years old, by race/ethnicity: 2005–06

! Interpret data with caution.

1 Care provided in places such as early learning centers, nursery schools, and preschools, excluding Head Start. 2 Children who spent an equal amount of time in each of two or more arrangements. 

NOTE: Primary type of care arrangement is the type of nonparental care in which the child spent the most hours. Data are based on a 

representative sample of children born in 2001. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Reporting standards for Native Hawaiian 

and Other Pacific Islanders were not met in some categories; therefore, estimates are not shown. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic 

ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort, Longitudinal 

9-month—Preschool Restricted-Use Data File.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

■ No regular nonparental ■ Home-based care, ■ Head Start ■ Center-based care, ■ Multiple 

 arrangement nonparental other than arrangements2

 Head Start1

Two or

more races

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian

Hispanic

Black

White

Race/ethnicity

18

18

18

27

16

20

20

26

19

22

18

19

7

12

5

19

25

31

53

42

55

31

37

29

2

2!

2!

1

3

1!
26 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 7 — Elementary and 

Secondary Enrollment

Examining patterns in elementary and secondary 

enrollment and the characteristics of schools and 

students helps to illustrate the educational experiences 

of students. Indicator 7.1 looks at the racial/ethnic 

composition of public school enrollment in the 50 

states and the District of Columbia. Indicator 7.2 

examines school enrollment in the four major types 

of locales (city, suburban, town, and rural) by race/

ethnicity. Indicator 7.3 profiles the students enrolled 

in the 20 largest school districts in the United States. 

Indicator 7.4 focuses on the distribution of students of 

different races/ethnicities across schools with varying 

enrollments of White, Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific 

Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native students. 

Finally, indicator 7.5 examines enrollment in terms of 

race/ethnicity and eligibility for the federal free and 

reduced-price lunch program.

7.1. Enrollment by Region and State

The racial/ethnic distribution of public elementary 

and secondary students has changed over time. 

Between 2000–01 and 2007–08, the percentage of 

students enrolled in public school who were White 

decreased from 61 to 56 percent. During this same 

time period, the percentage of Black (17 percent) and 

American Indian/Alaska Native students (1 percent) 

remained unchanged. However, the percentage of 

Hispanic students increased from 17 to 21 percent, 

and the percentage of Asian/Pacific Islander students 

increased from 4 to 5 percent.

Regional differences in the racial/ethnic distribution 

of students were observed over time. For instance, 

the percentage of White students in the West 

decreased from 50 percent in 2000–01 to 44 percent 

in 2007–08. The percentage of Hispanic students 

increased in all regions of the United States. For 

example, the percentage of Hispanic students in 

the West increased from 32 to 38 percent between 

2000–01 and 2007–08, and the percentage of 

Hispanics in the South increased from 15 to 20 

percent. In the Northeast, enrollment of Asian/Pacific 

Islander students increased from 4 to 6 percent during 

that time period. 

7. Elementary and Secondary Enrollment

Table 7.1a. Number and percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary students, by region 

and race/ethnicity: Selected years, 2000–01 through 2007–08

Year and region 

Total 

enrollment Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

2000–01

Total 46,120,425 100.0 61.0 17.0 16.6 4.2 1.2

Northeast 8,227,746 100.0 67.4 15.5 12.4 4.4 0.3

Midwest 10,749,486 100.0 76.6 14.7 5.7 2.2 0.9

South 16,040,151 100.0 54.9 26.7 15.3 2.1 1.0

West 11,103,042 100.0 50.1 6.5 32.1 8.9 2.4

2003–04

Total 47,277,389 100.0 58.4 17.1 18.8 4.5 1.2

Northeast 8,303,699 100.0 65.7 15.6 13.6 4.8 0.3

Midwest 10,752,028 100.0 74.5 15.2 7.0 2.4 0.9

South 16,684,008 100.0 52.4 26.5 17.7 2.4 1.1

West 11,537,654 100.0 46.9 6.5 35.2 9.1 2.4

2007–08

Total 48,397,895 100.0 55.8 17.0 21.2 4.8 1.2

Northeast 8,059,559 100.0 63.4 15.4 15.4 5.6 0.3

Midwest 10,555,854 100.0 72.6 15.2 8.5 2.8 0.9

South 18,149,304 100.0 50.4 25.8 20.0 2.8 1.1

West 11,633,178 100.0 43.7 6.2 38.4 9.4 2.2

NOTE: Enrollment counts exclude schools with no reported enrollment or missing race/ethnicity information. Total enrollment including students 

with missing race/ethnicity information was 47,060,714 in 2000–01; 48,353,523 in 2003–04; and 48,910,025 in 2007–08. Race categories exclude 

persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Northeast includes CT, ME, MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, and VT; Midwest includes IL, IN, IA, KS, MI, MN, MO, NE, ND, 

OH, SD, and WI; South includes AL, AR, DE, DC, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA, and WV; West includes AK, AZ, CA, CO, HI, 

ID, MT, NV, NM, OR, UT, WA, and WY. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), “Public Elementary/Secondary 

School Universe Survey,” 2000–01, 2003–04, and 2007–08.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 27Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and Secondary Education Participation

Figure 7.1. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary students, by region and race/

ethnicity: 2007–08

# Rounds to zero. 

NOTE: Enrollment counts exclude schools with no reported enrollment or missing race/ethnicity information. Race categories exclude persons 

of Hispanic ethnicity. Northeast includes CT, ME, MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, and VT; Midwest includes IL, IN, IA, KS, MI, MN, MO, NE, ND, OH, SD, 

and WI; South includes AL, AR, DE, DC, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA, and WV; West includes AK, AZ, CA, CO, HI, ID, MT, 

NV, NM, OR, UT, WA, and WY. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), “Public Elementary/Secondary 

School Universe Survey,” 2007–08.

50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

0 10 20 30 40

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian/Pacific ■ American Indian/

Islander Alaska Native

West

South

Midwest

Northeast

Total,

United States

Region

1

44 6 38 9 2

50 26 20 3 1

73 15 9 3 1

63 15 15 6 #

56 17 21 5
28 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 7 — Elementary and 

Secondary Enrollment

Table 7.1b. Number and percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary students, by region, 

state, and race/ethnicity: 2007–08

Region and state

Total 

enrollment Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

Total 48,397,895 100.0 55.8 17.0 21.2 4.8 1.2

Northeast 8,059,559 100.0 63.4 15.4 15.4 5.6 0.3

Connecticut 568,405 100.0 65.3 13.8 16.6 3.9 0.4

Maine 190,737 100.0 94.1 2.6 1.1 1.5 0.7

Massachusetts 943,788 100.0 72.2 8.3 14.1 5.0 0.3

New Hampshire 200,772 100.0 92.5 1.9 3.1 2.2 0.3

New Jersey 1,379,626 100.0 55.0 17.3 19.4 8.2 0.2

New York 2,760,141 100.0 51.6 19.5 21.0 7.4 0.5

Pennsylvania 1,779,302 100.0 74.1 15.8 7.2 2.8 0.2

Rhode Island 146,228 100.0 69.0 8.9 18.3 3.1 0.7

Vermont 90,560 100.0 95.2 1.6 1.1 1.7 0.3

Midwest 10,555,854 100.0 72.6 15.2 8.5 2.8 0.9

Illinois 2,054,675 100.0 55.4 19.9 20.4 4.0 0.3

Indiana 1,006,651 100.0 78.9 12.7 6.8 1.4 0.3

Iowa 482,204 100.0 85.1 5.6 6.5 2.1 0.6

Kansas 463,890 100.0 73.2 8.9 13.5 2.6 1.7

Michigan 1,652,120 100.0 71.7 20.2 4.7 2.5 0.9

Minnesota 837,578 100.0 76.4 9.4 6.1 6.0 2.1

Missouri 917,188 100.0 76.1 17.9 3.7 1.8 0.4

Nebraska 291,244 100.0 75.4 8.0 12.9 2.0 1.7

North Dakota 95,052 100.0 86.0 2.0 2.1 1.0 8.8

Ohio 1,760,503 100.0 78.6 17.0 2.7 1.5 0.1

South Dakota 120,271 100.0 83.4 2.0 2.4 1.2 11.1

Wisconsin 874,478 100.0 76.8 10.5 7.6 3.6 1.5

See notes at end of table.

As with the resident population discussed in indicator 

1, the distribution of Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific 

Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native students 

enrolled in public schools varied by state. In the 

2007–08 school year, Vermont and Maine enrolled 

the highest percentages of White students (95 and 94 

percent, respectively), and the District of Columbia 

enrolled the lowest (5 percent). The District of 

Columbia had the highest percentage of enrolled 

students who were Black: 83 percent of the 78,000 

public school students were Black, while Blacks made 

up 53 percent of the District’s resident population 

in 2008 (indicator 1).7

 New Mexico had the highest 

percentage of Hispanic enrollment (56 percent of 

328,000 public school students). This percentage was 

11 points higher than the percentage of the state’s 

resident population that was Hispanic in 2008 (45 

percent). Hawaii had the highest percentage of Asian/

Pacific Islander enrollment: 73 percent of 180,000 

public school students were Asians/Pacific Islanders. 

In comparison, Hawaii’s resident population was 

38 percent Asian and 9 percent Native Hawaiian 

or Other Pacific Islander in 2008 (in addition, 16 

percent of Hawaiians identified themselves as “two 

or more races”). Some 25 percent of 123,000 public 

school students in Alaska were American Indian/

Alaska Native in 2007–08, a larger percentage than in 

any other state. This percentage was 11 points higher 

than the percentage of the Alaska resident population 

that was American Indian/Alaska Native in 2008.

7

 See table 1b on page 9 for the resident population estimates presented in this paragraph.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 29Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and 

Secondary Education Participation

Table 7.1b. Number and percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary students, by region, 

state, and race/ethnicity: 2007–08—Continued

Region and state

Total 

enrollment Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

Total 48,397,895 100.0 55.8 17.0 21.2 4.8 1.2

South 18,149,304 100.0 50.4 25.8 20.0 2.8 1.1

Alabama 743,778 100.0 58.8 35.7 3.5 1.1 0.8

Arkansas 479,016 100.0 67.0 22.6 8.1 1.5 0.7

Delaware 122,574 100.0 53.0 33.0 10.4 3.2 0.4

District of 

Columbia 78,108 100.0 5.4 83.1 9.9 1.5 0.1

Florida 2,570,955 100.0 47.6 23.9 25.7 2.5 0.3

Georgia 1,600,235 100.0 47.5 39.2 10.0 3.1 0.2

Kentucky 654,134 100.0 85.2 10.9 2.7 1.1 0.1

Louisiana 680,911 100.0 49.2 46.0 2.7 1.4 0.8

Maryland 845,700 100.0 47.0 37.9 9.0 5.6 0.4

Mississippi 494,122 100.0 46.4 50.6 1.9 0.9 0.2

North Carolina 1,408,604 100.0 56.7 29.0 10.4 2.4 1.5

Oklahoma 642,065 100.0 58.1 10.8 10.0 1.9 19.2

South Carolina 709,204 100.0 53.7 39.3 5.1 1.5 0.4

Tennessee 963,839 100.0 68.6 24.8 4.9 1.5 0.2

Texas 4,673,455 100.0 34.8 14.3 47.2 3.4 0.3

Virginia 1,200,092 100.0 58.6 26.6 8.8 5.6 0.3

West Virginia 282,512 100.0 93.0 5.2 0.9 0.7 0.1

West 11,633,178 100.0 43.7 6.2 38.4 9.4 2.2

Alaska 123,277 100.0 57.1 4.0 6.1 7.5 25.3

Arizona 1,087,263 100.0 44.5 5.6 41.6 2.8 5.4

California 6,070,428 100.0 29.4 7.6 50.3 11.9 0.8

Colorado 801,867 100.0 61.5 6.0 27.9 3.4 1.2

Hawaii 179,897 100.0 19.4 2.3 4.6 73.0 0.6

Idaho 271,915 100.0 81.6 1.2 14.0 1.7 1.6

Montana 142,823 100.0 84.0 1.0 2.5 1.2 11.4

Nevada 429,362 100.0 43.1 11.0 36.4 7.9 1.5

New Mexico 327,670 100.0 29.5 2.6 55.6 1.4 10.9

Oregon 535,118 100.0 72.3 3.0 17.6 4.9 2.2

Utah 573,515 100.0 78.9 1.5 14.7 3.3 1.6

Washington 1,003,679 100.0 68.0 5.7 15.1 8.6 2.6

Wyoming 86,364 100.0 83.9 1.6 10.0 1.1 3.5

NOTE: Enrollment counts exclude schools with no reported enrollment or missing race/ethnicity information. Total enrollment including students 

with missing race/ethnicity information was 48,910,025. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals 

because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), “Public Elementary/Secondary 

School Universe Survey,” 2007–08.
30 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 7 — Elementary and 

Secondary Enrollment

7.2. Enrollment by Locale

The racial/ethnic distribution of public school 

students by locale illustrates how Black, Hispanic, 

Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska 

Native students are distributed across city, suburban, 

town, and rural areas.8

 In the 2007–08 school year, 

56 percent of all public elementary and secondary 

students in the nation were White, 17 percent were 

Black, 21 percent were Hispanic, 5 percent were 

Asian/Pacific Islander, and 1 percent were American 

Indian/Alaska Native.

A greater percentage of public elementary and 

secondary students attended schools in suburban 

areas (35 percent) than in cities (29 percent), rural 

areas (23 percent), and towns (13 percent). White 

students were concentrated in suburban (36 percent) 

and rural areas (31 percent), with lower percentages 

in cities (17 percent) and towns (16 percent). In 

contrast, Black, Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific Islander 

students were concentrated in cities and suburban 

areas. About 47 percent of all Black students, 45 

percent of Hispanic students, and 42 percent of 

Asian/Pacific Islander students were in cities, while 

14 percent of Black, 11 percent of Hispanic, and 10 

percent of Asian/Pacific Islander students were in 

rural areas. A greater percentage of American Indian/

Alaska Native students (41 percent) were in rural 

areas than in cities (20 percent), suburban areas (16 

percent), and towns (22 percent).

8

 The NCES Common Core of Data (CCD), collected annually, is one source of data on the racial/ethnic composition of schools, 

both overall and for specific locales. See Appendix A: Guide to Sources for definitions of locales.

Table 7.2. Number and percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary students, by race/

ethnicity and locale: 2007–08

Locale Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska Native

Number

Total 48,397,895 26,991,389 8,238,245 10,237,009 2,345,968 585,284

City 14,232,071 4,659,317 3,881,265 4,589,508 982,962 119,019

Suburban 16,913,887 9,751,799 2,513,524 3,536,220 1,017,506 94,838

Town 6,097,471 4,218,463 691,804 940,324 115,775 131,105

Rural 11,154,466 8,361,810 1,151,652 1,170,957 229,725 240,322

Percentage distribution of race/ethnicity for each locale

Total 100.0 55.8 17.0 21.2 4.8 1.2

City 100.0 32.7 27.3 32.2 6.9 0.8

Suburban 100.0 57.7 14.9 20.9 6.0 0.6

Town 100.0 69.2 11.3 15.4 1.9 2.2

Rural 100.0 75.0 10.3 10.5 2.1 2.2

Percentage distribution of locale for each race/ethnicity

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

City 29.4 17.3 47.1 44.8 41.9 20.3

Suburban 34.9 36.1 30.5 34.5 43.4 16.2

Town 12.6 15.6 8.4 9.2 4.9 22.4

Rural 23.0 31.0 14.0 11.4 9.8 41.1

NOTE: Enrollment counts exclude schools with no reported enrollment or missing race/ethnicity information. Total enrollment including students 

with missing race/ethnicity information is 48,910,025. Race/ethnicity categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. For definitions of locales, 

see Appendix A: Guide to Sources. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), “Public Elementary/Secondary 

School Universe Survey,” 2007–08. 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 31Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and Secondary Education Participation

Figure 7.2. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary students, by race/ethnicity and 

locale: 2007–08

NOTE: Enrollment counts exclude schools with no reported enrollment or missing race/ethnicity information. Race categories exclude persons of 

Hispanic ethnicity. For definitions of locales, see Appendix A: Guide to Sources. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), “Public Elementary/Secondary 

School Universe Survey,” 2007–08.

20 16 22 41

42 43 5 10

45 35 9 11

47 31 8 14

17 36 16 31

29 35 13 23

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Total

Race/ethnicity

50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

0 10 20 30 40

■ City ■ Suburban ■ Town ■ Rural
32 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 7 — Elementary and 

Secondary Enrollment

7.3. Enrollment in the 20 Largest School Districts

The largest school districts differ from school districts 

in general in their average school size, median pupil/

teacher ratio, and levels of Black, Hispanic, Asian/

Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native 

student enrollment (Tang and Sable 2009). During 

the 2007–08 school year, approximately 49 million9 

students were enrolled in U.S. public schools within 

13,900 regular public school districts.10 The 20 largest 

school districts enrolled over 5 million students, or 

11 percent of the total student enrollment. 

The number of students enrolled in the 20 largest 

school districts varied substantially, ranging from 

990,000 students in New York City Public Schools 

to 130,000 students in Maryland’s Prince George’s 

County Public Schools. Five of the 20 largest school 

districts were located in Florida, two districts each 

were located in California, Texas, Maryland, and 

North Carolina, and the rest were located in seven 

different states across the country. Many, but not all, 

were located in large cities or their suburbs. 

The racial/ethnic distribution of students in the 20 

largest school districts varied. In 18 out of the 20 

school districts, less than 50 percent of all students 

were White. Dallas Independent School District 

(TX) and Prince George’s County Public Schools 

(MD) had the lowest percentages of White students 

(5 percent each), while Wake County Public Schools 

(NC) had the highest percentage of White students 

(55 percent). Of the 20 largest public school districts, 

Prince George’s County Public Schools (MD) had the 

highest percentage of students who were Black (74 

percent of 130,000 students). Los Angeles Unified 

(CA) had the highest percentage of students who 

were Hispanic (74 percent of 694,000 students). 

The Hawaii Department of Education, the school 

district that encompasses the entire state’s education 

system, had the highest percentage of students who 

were Asian/Pacific Islander (73 percent of 180,000 

students), followed by the Fairfax County Public 

Schools District (VA) (20 percent of 166,000 

students). In each of the 20 largest districts, the 

percentage of students who were American Indian/

Alaska Native was less than the national percentage of 

students who were American Indian/Alaska Native.

9

 Total enrollment is higher than the total on table 7.3 due to missing race/ethnicity information. 10 “Regular public school districts” are local agencies that are responsible for providing education services to school-age children 

within their jurisdiction. For more information, see http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/pdf/pau08pgen.pdf. 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 33Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and 

Secondary Education Participation

Table 7.3. Number and percentage distribution of public school enrollment in the United States and 20 

largest public school districts, by race/ethnicity: 2007–08

School district State

Total 

enrollment Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

Total, United States † 48,397,895 100.0 55.8 17.0 21.2 4.8 1.2

Total, 20 largest public 

school districts † 5,241,310 100.0 21.3 28.3 40.2 9.8 0.3

New York City Public 

Schools NY 989,941 100.0 14.2 31.7 39.7 14.0 0.4

Los Angeles Unified CA 693,680 100.0 8.8 10.9 73.7 6.4 0.3

City of Chicago IL 407,510 100.0 8.2 47.9 40.2 3.4 0.2

Dade County School 

District FL 348,128 100.0 9.3 26.6 62.8 1.2 0.1

Clark County School 

District NV 309,051 100.0 36.1 14.2 39.7 9.2 0.8

Broward County School 

District FL 258,893 100.0 31.2 38.6 26.6 3.4 0.2

Houston Independent 

School District TX 199,534 100.0 8.0 28.4 60.3 3.2 0.1

Hillsborough County 

School District FL 193,180 100.0 44.3 23.3 29.1 3.1 0.3

Hawaii Department of 

Education HI 179,897 100.0 19.4 2.3 4.6 73.0 0.6

Orange County School 

District FL 174,142 100.0 35.0 28.1 32.0 4.4 0.4

Philadelphia City School 

District PA 172,704 100.0 13.4 63.4 16.9 6.1 0.2

Palm Beach County 

School District FL 170,883 100.0 41.8 30.1 24.8 2.8 0.5

Fairfax County Public 

Schools VA 165,722 100.0 51.0 11.3 17.9 19.5 0.3

Dallas Independent School 

District TX 157,804 100.0 4.8 28.7 65.3 1.0 0.2

Qwinnett County GA 155,618 100.0 38.0 28.3 22.7 10.8 0.1

Montgomery County Public Schools MD 137,717 100.0 40.1 22.9 21.5 15.2 0.3

Wake County Public 

Schools NC 134,401 100.0 54.7 27.7 11.6 5.8 0.3

San Diego Unified School 

District CA 131,577 100.0 25.3 13.5 44.4 16.3 0.5

Charlotte-Mecklenburg 

Schools NC 131,176 100.0 35.8 43.7 15.4 4.6 0.5

Prince George’s County 

Public Schools MD 129,752 100.0 5.1 74.2 17.4 2.9 0.4

† Not applicable.

NOTE: Total enrollment, including students with missing race/ethnicity information, is 48,910,025. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic 

ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), “Public Elementary/Secondary 

School Universe Survey,” 2007–08.
34 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 7 — Elementary and 

Secondary Enrollment

7.4. Racial/Ethnic Concentration

Examining the composition of public schools 

by specific racial/ethnic group provides a more 

detailed snapshot of the extent to which students are 

concentrated in schools in which at least half of the 

students were White, Black, or Hispanic. Nationally, 

public schools in which at least half of the students 

were White enrolled 87 percent of all White, 51 

percent of all American Indian/Alaska Native, 43 

percent of all Asian/Pacific Islander, 26 percent of all 

Black, and 22 percent of all Hispanic public school 

students in 2007–08. Public schools in which at least 

half of the students were Black enrolled 48 percent of 

all Black public school students and 2 to 4 percent of 

public school students from each of the other racial/

ethnic groups. Similarly, public schools in which at 

least half of the students were Hispanic enrolled 57 

percent of all Hispanic public school students, 12 

percent of all Asian/Pacific Islander public school 

students, 8 percent each of Black and American 

Indian/Alaska Native students, and 3 percent of 

White students. 

Table 7.4. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary school students of each racial/

ethnic group, by percent enrollment in school of selected racial/ethnic group: 2007–08

Percent White enrollment

50 percent or more

Race/ethnicity Total

Less than 

25 percent

25–49 

 percent Total

50–74 

 percent

75 percent 

or more

Total1 100.0 25.5 14.4 60.1 20.7 39.4

White 100.0 3.7 9.8 86.6 23.5 63.1

Black 100.0 53.1 20.6 26.3 17.9 8.4

Hispanic 100.0 58.7 19.3 22.0 14.3 7.6

Asian/Pacific Islander 100.0 34.3 22.5 43.2 24.8 18.4

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 100.0 29.7 19.2 51.2 27.9 23.3

Percent Black enrollment

50 percent or more

Total

Less than 

25 percent

25–49 

percent Total

50–74 

percent

75 percent 

or more

Total1 100.0 77.9 11.5 10.6 4.8 5.8

White 100.0 89.7 7.9 2.3 1.9 0.4

Black 100.0 27.8 23.8 48.3 17.1 31.2

Hispanic 100.0 84.4 11.5 4.1 3.0 1.0

Asian/Pacific Islander 100.0 86.4 10.3 3.3 2.4 0.9

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 100.0 91.2 6.2 2.7 1.8 0.9

Percent Hispanic enrollment

50 percent or more

Total

Less than 

25 percent

25–49 

 percent Total

50–74 

 percent

75 percent 

or more

Total1 100.0 71.5 12.5 15.9 8.0 7.9

White 100.0 88.3 8.4 3.3 2.6 0.7

Black 100.0 78.5 13.2 8.4 6.5 1.8

Hispanic 100.0 21.9 21.4 56.7 23.5 33.2

Asian/Pacific Islander 100.0 68.8 19.3 11.9 8.7 3.2

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 100.0 81.7 10.4 7.9 5.4 2.5

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), “Public Elementary/Secondary 

School Universe Survey,” 2007–08.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 35Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and 

Secondary Education Participation

Figure 7.4. Percentage distribution of public elementary and secondary school students of each racial/

ethnic group, by percent enrollment in school of selected racial/ethnic group: 2007–08

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD), “Public Elementary/Secondary 

School Universe Survey,” 2007–08.

51

43

22

26

87

30 19

34 23

59 19

53 21

4 10

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Race/ethnicity Percent White enrollment

50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

0 10 20 30 40

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

91 6 3

86 10 3

84 11 4

28 24 48

90 8 2

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Race/ethnicity Percent Black enrollment

Percent

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Race/ethnicity Percent Hispanic enrollment

■ Less than 25 percent ■ 25–49 percent ■ 50 percent or more

Percent

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

82 10 8

69 19 12

22 21 57

78 13 8

88 8 3
36 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 7 — Elementary and 

Secondary Enrollment

7.5. Free and Reduced-Price Lunch

The National School Lunch Program is a federally 

assisted meal program that provides nutritionally 

balanced, low-cost or free lunches to children from 

low-income families in public and nonprofit private 

schools and residential child care institutions (U.S. 

Department of Agriculture 2005).11 Eligibility for the 

free and reduced-price lunch program is often used 

as a proxy measure of family income.

Overall, 48 percent of public school 4th-graders 

were eligible for free or reduced-price lunches in 

2009. White 4th-graders had the lowest percentage 

of eligible students (29 percent). The percentages 

of Black (74 percent), Hispanic (77 percent), 

and American Indian/Alaska Native (68 percent) 

4th-graders who were eligible were higher than the 

percentages of White 4th-graders and Asian/Pacific 

Islander (34 percent) 4th-graders who were eligible. 

A higher percentage of public school 4th-graders in 

cities (62 percent) were eligible for free or reducedprice lunch than were 4th-graders in suburban areas 

(39 percent), towns (52 percent), and rural areas (42 

percent). Eighty-two percent of Hispanics in cities 

and 84 percent of Hispanics in towns were eligible; 

these percentages were higher than those for their 

Hispanic counterparts in suburban (70 percent) and 

rural areas (72 percent). For Blacks, the percentage 

of eligible students was higher in cities and towns (80 

and 83 percent, respectively) than in suburban and 

rural areas (65 and 72 percent, respectively). Higher 

percentages of Black and Hispanic students in cities 

were eligible compared with students of other races/

ethnicities living in cities.

11 Children from households with incomes at or below 130 percent of the poverty level are eligible for free meals. Those with 

incomes between 130 percent and 185 percent of the poverty level are eligible for reduced-price meals, for which students can be 

charged no more than 40 cents. The poverty level for a family of four in 2009 was $22,050. The thresholds for free and reducedprice lunch are $28,665 and $40,793, respectively.

Table 7.5a. Percentage of public school 4th-graders eligible for free or reduced-price lunch, by school 

locale and race/ethnicity: 2009

Race/ethnicity Total City Suburban Town Rural

Total1 48 62 39 52 42

White 29 31 21 39 34

Black 74 80 65 83 72

Hispanic 77 82 70 84 72

Asian/Pacific Islander 34 45 25 41 23

American Indian/Alaska Native 68 67 52 70 72

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: To be eligible for the National School Lunch Program, a student must be from a household with an income at or below 185 percent of the 

poverty level for reduced-price lunch or at or below 130 percent of the poverty level for free lunch. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic 

ethnicity. For definitions of locales, see Appendix A: Guide to Sources. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009 

Mathematics Assessment, NAEP Data Explorer.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 37Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and 

Secondary Education Participation

Figure 7.5a. Percentage of public school 4th-graders eligible for free or reduced-price lunch, by school 

locale and race/ethnicity: 2009

NOTE: To be eligible for the National School Lunch Program, a student must be from a household with an income at or below 185 percent of the 

poverty level for reduced-price lunch or at or below 130 percent of the poverty level for free lunch. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic 

ethnicity. For definitions of locales, see Appendix A: Guide to Sources. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009 

Mathematics Assessment, NAEP Data Explorer.

City Suburban

School locale

Town Rural

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

31

80 82

45

67

21

65

70

25

52

39

83 84

41

70

34

72 72

23

72

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian/Pacific ■ American Indian/

Islander Alaska Native

Total: 

48%
38 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 7 — Elementary and 

Secondary Enrollment

The concentration of students in low-poverty and 

high-poverty public schools also differed by race/

ethnicity in 2009. Low-poverty public schools are 

defined here as schools in which 10 percent or less of 

students are eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. 

High-poverty public schools pertain here to schools 

in which more than 75 percent of students are eligible 

for free or reduced-price lunch. Higher percentages 

of Asian/Pacific Islander (27 percent) and White 

(19 percent) public school 4th-graders attended 

low-poverty schools than did Black (3 percent), 

Hispanic (3 percent), and American Indian/Alaska 

Native (4 percent) 4th-graders. Black and Hispanic 

4th-graders had the highest percentages of attendance 

at high-poverty public schools (47 and 52 percent, 

respectively), while White 4th-graders had the lowest 

percentage of attendance at schools in this category 

(7 percent).

Table 7.5b. Percentage distribution of public school 4th-graders, by percentage of students in school 

eligible for free or reduced-price lunch and race/ethnicity: 2009

Percentage eligible for free or reduced-price lunch

Race/ethnicity Total

10 

percent 

or less

11–25 

percent

26–50 

percent

51–75 

percent

More than 

75 percent

Total1 100 13 14 25 23 24

White 100 19 20 32 22 7

Black 100 3 7 18 25 47

Hispanic 100 3 6 15 24 52

Asian/Pacific Islander 100 27 16 22 21 13

American Indian/Alaska Native 100 4 6 20 33 37

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: To be eligible for the National School Lunch Program, a student must be from a household with an income at or below 185 percent of the 

poverty level for reduced-price lunch or at or below 130 percent of the poverty level for free lunch. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic 

ethnicity. Detail may not sum to total because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009 

Mathematics Assessment, NAEP Data Explorer.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 39Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and Secondary Education Participation

Figure 7.5b. Percentage of public school 4th-graders in low-poverty and high-poverty schools, by race/

ethnicity: 2009

NOTE: Low-poverty schools are those in which 10 percent or less of students are eligible for free or reduced-price lunch, and high-poverty 

schools are those in which more than 75 percent of students are eligible. To be eligible for the National School Lunch Program, a student must be 

from a household with an income at or below 185 percent of the poverty level for reduced-price lunch or at or below 130 percent of the poverty 

level for free lunch. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009 

Mathematics Assessment, NAEP Data Explorer.

Percent

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian/Pacific ■ American Indian/

Islander Alaska Native

Low-poverty schools High-poverty schools

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

19

27

4 7

47

52

13

37

3 3
40 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 8 — 

Special 

Needs

Students with special needs are protected by federal 

laws that are aimed at improving their educational 

outcomes. The Individuals with Disabilities Education 

Act (IDEA) supports state and local education systems’ 

efforts to protect the rights and meet the needs of 

children with disabilities. Indicator 8.1 profiles the 

students served by IDEA. Students with limited 

English proficiency, or English Language Learners 

(ELL), are protected by the Civil Rights Act, which 

requires schools to improve language deficiencies 

of students so that they may fully participate in the 

education system. Indicator 8.2 presents data on the 

number and percentage of elementary and secondary 

students who spoke another language at home and 

who spoke English with difficulty in 2007.

8.1. Students With Disabilities

Students with disabilities may require services to 

provide them access to the same learning opportunities 

as students without disabilities. The Individuals with 

Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA,12 supports 

states and localities in their efforts to aid infants, 

toddlers, children, and the families of youth with 

disabilities by protecting their rights, meeting their 

individual needs, and improving their educational 

outcomes13 (U.S. Department of Education, Office 

of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, n.d.; 

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004). 

This indicator examines trend data for racial/ethnic 

groups in percentages of the resident population 

served by IDEA and the 2007 prevalence rates of 

different disabilities.

The percentage of all preschoolers (children 3 to 5 

years old) served under IDEA increased 1 percentage 

point from 1998 to 2007. Six percent of 3- to 

5-year-olds, or 700,000 children, received services 

under IDEA in 2007. Nine percent of American 

Indian/Alaska Native preschoolers in this age group 

were served under IDEA, compared with 6 percent 

each of White and Black preschoolers and 4 percent 

each of Hispanic and Asian preschoolers. In 2007, 

three percent of all preschoolers were identified as 

having a speech or language impairment; 4 percent of 

American Indian/Alaska Native preschoolers had this 

disability, compared with 3 percent of Whites and 2 

percent each of Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians/Pacific 

Islanders in this age group. Though percentages varied 

by race, all other disabilities shown were identified in 

less than 1 percent of all preschoolers.

From 1998 to 2007, the percentage of 6- to 21-yearolds served under IDEA increased by less than 1 

percentage point; increases in this percentage were 

seen for all races/ethnicities shown, with the exception 

of Whites. Nine percent of all 6- to 21-year-olds, or 

5.9 million people in this age group, were served in 

2007. Fourteen percent of American Indians/Alaska 

Natives in this age group were served under IDEA, 

compared with 12 percent of Blacks, 9 percent of 

Hispanics, 8 percent of Whites, and 5 percent of 

Asians/Pacific Islanders. Four percent of all 6- to 

21-year-olds were identified as having a specific 

learning disability; 7 percent of American Indians/

Alaska Natives in this age group had this type of 

disability, compared with 5 percent of Blacks and 

Hispanics, 3 percent of Whites, and 2 percent 

of Asians/Pacific Islanders. Two percent of 6- to 

21-year-olds were identified as having a speech or 

language impairment. In addition, 2 percent of Black 

6- to 21-year-olds were identified as having mental 

retardation, while 1 percent or less of 6- to 21-yearolds in other racial/ethnic groups had this disability. 

All other disabilities shown had a prevalence rate of 

1 percent or less of the population in this age group, 

though percentages varied by race/ethnicity.

8. Special Needs

12 Previously the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, and amended in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 

(IDEA) of 2004 (P.L. 94-142). 

13 Under IDEA, each public school child who receives special education and related services must have an Individualized Education 

Program (IEP) to address the student’s unique needs. See Appendix A: Guide to Sources for more information about IDEA history 

and requirements.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 41Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and 

Secondary Education Participation

Table 8.1a. Percentage of children ages 3 to 5 and ages 6 to 21 served under the Individuals with 

Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), by race/ethnicity: 1998–2007

Age group and year Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native

3 to 5 years

1998 4.8 4.9 4.4 3.0 2.3 5.7

1999 5.0 5.5 5.0 3.5 2.5 5.8

2000 5.1 5.6 5.3 3.5 2.8 6.6

2001 5.3 5.8 5.5 3.8 3.0 7.1

2002 5.6 6.1 5.8 4.0 3.2 7.7

2003 5.8 6.4 5.9 4.3 3.6 8.3

2004 5.9 6.5 5.9 4.4 3.8 8.6

2005 5.8 6.5 5.7 4.4 4.0 8.8

2006 5.8 6.4 5.7 4.5 4.0 9.0

2007 5.7 6.3 5.6 4.5 4.2 8.6

6 to 21 years

1998 8.6 8.5 11.4 7.5 3.8 10.2

1999 8.7 8.3 11.2 7.4 3.9 11.9

2000 8.7 8.5 11.8 7.5 4.2 12.4

2001 8.8 8.6 12.0 7.7 4.2 12.9

2002 8.9 8.6 12.2 8.0 4.4 13.2

2003 9.1 8.7 12.4 8.2 4.5 13.8

2004 9.2 8.8 12.6 8.4 4.7 14.1

2005 9.2 8.7 12.5 8.5 4.8 14.3

2006 9.1 8.7 12.4 8.5 4.8 14.3

2007 9.0 8.5 12.2 8.5 4.8 14.4

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), 1998 through 2007.

Figure 8.1. Percentage of children ages 3 to 5 and ages 6 to 21 served under the Individuals with 

Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), by race/ethnicity: 2007

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), 2007. 

 

3 to 5 years

Age group

6 to 21 years

0

10

20

30

40

50

Percent

6 6 4 4

9 8

12

9

5

14

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian/Pacific ■ American Indian/

Islander Alaska Native
42 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 8 — 

Special 

Needs

Table 8.1b. Number and percentage of children ages 3 to 5 and ages 6 to 21 served under the Individuals 

with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), by race/ethnicity and type of disability: 2007

Age group and 

type of disability Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

3 to 5 years

Number

Any disability1 700,166 439,421 100,133 124,796 23,649 9,377

Specific learning disability 11,922 6,875 1,502 3,131 313 101

Speech or language 

impairment 318,937 207,627 39,230 59,320 8,939 3,821

Mental retardation 12,380 5,428 2,308 3,970 585 89

Emotional disturbance 3,416 2,143 742 425 58 48

Autism 39,041 23,602 4,834 7,251 3,112 242

Hearing impairment 7,678 4,373 899 1,850 469 87

Visual impairment 3,200 1,875 399 732 138 56

Percent

Any disability1 5.74 6.31 5.58 4.50 4.19 8.62

Specific learning disability 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.11 0.06 0.09

Speech or language 

impairment 2.61 2.98 2.19 2.14 1.58 3.51

Mental retardation 0.10 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.10 0.08

Emotional disturbance 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.04

Autism 0.32 0.34 0.27 0.26 0.55 0.22

Hearing impairment 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.08

Visual impairment 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.05

6 to 21 years

Number

Any disability1 5,912,586 3,399,744 1,208,195 1,060,112 135,098 90,741

Specific learning disability 2,563,665 1,372,432 552,552 558,082 46,542 47,703

Speech or language 

impairment 1,085,497 698,670 174,920 207,919 37,360 15,696

Mental retardation 487,854 240,576 155,151 73,136 10,734 6,402

Emotional disturbance 438,867 248,041 126,384 50,523 5,044 7,029

Autism 79,085 172,020 36,264 31,707 14,095 1,889

Hearing impairment 71,332 38,362 11,514 16,678 3,741 860

Visual impairment 25,855 15,176 4,404 4,796 1,066 334

Percent

Any disability1 8.96 8.47 12.15 8.51 4.85 14.38

Specific learning disability 3.89 3.42 5.32 4.55 1.60 7.09

Speech or language 

impairment 1.65 1.74 1.76 1.67 1.34 2.49

Mental retardation 0.74 0.60 1.56 0.59 0.39 1.01

Emotional disturbance 0.67 0.62 1.27 0.41 0.18 1.11

Autism 0.12 0.43 0.36 0.25 0.51 0.30

Hearing impairment 0.11 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.14

Visual impairment 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05

1 Total includes other disabilities not separately shown.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), 2007.
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44 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 8 — 

Special 

Needs

8.2. English Language Learner Students

Providing equal educational opportunities to students 

who may not be proficient in English presents a 

growing challenge to schools. Students who are 

English language learners (ELL) must be evaluated 

by school officials to determine if they are eligible for 

special services.14

Students who speak a language other than English 

at home and speak English with difficulty15 may be 

in need of special services. In 2007, an estimated 

11 million elementary and secondary students, or 

21 percent of all such students, spoke a language 

other than English at home. According to a survey 

of parents, about one-quarter of these students 

had difficulty speaking English; this means that 

approximately 5 percent of all elementary and 

secondary students spoke another language at home 

and had difficulty speaking English.

14 Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination based on race, color, or national origin. This law requires school 

districts to help limited-English-proficient (LEP) students overcome language barriers and to ensure that they can participate 

meaningfully in the district’s educational programs. 

15 “Speaking English with difficulty” was defined by responses to a survey. Respondents were asked if each child in the household 

spoke a language other than English at home. If they answered “yes,” they were asked how well each child could speak English. 

Categories used for reporting were “very well,” “well,” “not well,” and “not at all.” All those who reported speaking English less than 

“very well” were considered to have difficulty speaking English. 

Table 8.2a. Number and percentage of elementary and secondary school students who spoke a language 

other than English at home and percentage who spoke English with difficulty, by grade level 

and race/ethnicity: 2007

Grade level and race/ethnicity

Number who 

spoke a language 

other than 

English at home

Percentage of 

population who spoke 

a language other 

than English at home

Percentage of 

population who spoke 

English with difficulty

Kindergarten–grade 121 11,008,000 20.6 5.1

White 1,723,000 5.6 1.2

Black 450,000 5.6 1.4

Hispanic 7,231,000 68.9 17.5

Asian 1,331,000 64.3 16.8

Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 30,000 36.6 6.7

American Indian/Alaska Native 69,000 16.1 2.5

Two or more races 117,000 7.9 1.2

Kindergarten–grade 81 7,308,000 20.3 5.3

White 1,026,000 5.0 1.0

Black 262,000 5.1 1.2

Hispanic 4,964,000 67.6 18.8

Asian 884,000 62.9 16.9

Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 17,000 31.4 7.0

American Indian/Alaska Native 39,000 14.1 2.5

Two or more races 76,000 7.1 1.0

Grades 9–121 3,701,000 21.3 4.5

White 696,000 6.9 1.5

Black 187,000 6.7 1.7

Hispanic 2,267,000 71.7 14.5

Asian 447,000 67.5 16.6

Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 14,000 45.9 6.2!

American Indian/Alaska Native 30,000 19.7 2.6

Two or more races 41,000 9.9 1.8

! Interpret data with caution.

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Respondents were asked if each child in the household spoke a language other than English at home. If they answered “yes,” they were 

asked how well each child could speak English. Categories used for reporting were “very well,” “well,” “not well,” and “not at all.” All those who 

reported speaking English less than “very well” were considered to have difficulty speaking English. Includes those students who are age 5 or 

older. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 45Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and 

Secondary Education Participation

Among the races/ethnicities, higher percentages 

of Hispanic (69 percent) and Asian (64 percent) 

elementary and secondary students spoke a language 

other than English at home than students of other 

racial/ethnic groups. The percentage of Native 

Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander students (37 

percent) and American Indian/Alaska Native students 

(16 percent) who spoke languages other than English 

at home were also higher than the percentages of 

White and Black students (both 6 percent) who did 

so. About 18 percent of Hispanic and 17 percent 

of Asian students spoke English with difficulty; 

these percentages were higher than those for Native 

Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander students (7 

percent) and American Indian/Alaska Native (3 

percent) students. Whites, Blacks, and students of 

students of two or more races (1 percent each) had 

the lowest percentages of students who spoke English 

with difficulty. Comparisons were similar among 

students in kindergarten through grade 8 and among 

students in grades 9 through 12.

Figure 8.2. Percentage of elementary and secondary school students who spoke a language other than 

English at home and percentage who spoke English with difficulty, by race/ethnicity: 2007

NOTE: Respondents were asked if each child in the household spoke a language other than English at home. If they answered “yes,” they were 

asked how well each child could speak English. Categories used for reporting were “very well,” “well,” “not well,” and “not at all.” All those who 

reported speaking English less than “very well” were considered to have difficulty speaking English. Includes those students who are age 5 or 

older. The percentages shown are of the total population for that particular race/ethnicity. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007.

Two or

more races

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Native Hawaiian/

Pacific Islander

Asian

Hispanic

Black

White

Total

Race/ethnicity

50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

0 10 20 30 40

21

5

6

1

6

1

69

18

64

17

37

7

16

3

8

1

■ Spoke a language other than English at home ■ Spoke English with difficulty
46 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 8 — 

Special 

Needs

In 2007, about 7.2 million Hispanic elementary and secondary school students spoke a language other 

than English at home. Higher percentages of Dominican and Salvadoran students (88 and 87 percent, 

respectively) spoke a language other than English at home when compared with South American (79 

percent), other Central American (78 percent), Mexican (72 percent), and Cuban (70 percent) students. 

Of those of Hispanic ethnicity, Puerto Ricans (50 percent) and Other Hispanics or Latinos (43 percent) 

had the lowest percentages of students who spoke a language other than English at home. In addition, the 

percentages of Mexican, Dominican, Salvadoran, and other Central American students (ranging from 18 to 

20 percent) who had difficulty speaking English were higher than the percentages of Cuban (13 percent), 

South American (14 percent), Puerto Rican (8 percent), and Other Hispanic or Latino (8 percent) students 

who had difficulty speaking English. 

In 2007, an estimated 1.3 million Asian students spoke a language other than English at home. A higher 

percentage of Vietnamese students (80 percent) spoke a language other than English at home than was 

the case for Korean (75 percent), Chinese (71 percent), Other Asian (69 percent), and Asian Indian (66 

percent) students. Of those of Asian race, Japanese (51 percent) and Filipinos (34 percent) had the lowest 

percentages of students who spoke a language other than English at home. In addition, 18 to 25 percent of 

Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, and other Asian students spoke English with difficulty, compared 

with 8 percent of Filipino students and 10 percent of Asian Indian students. 

Snapshot of Hispanic and Asian Subgroups: English Language Learners
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 47Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and 

Secondary Education Participation

Table 8.2b. Number and percentage of elementary and secondary school students who spoke a 

language other than English at home and percentage who spoke English with difficulty, 

by race/ethnicity with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2007

Race/ethnicity and subgroup

Number who spoke a 

language other than 

English at home

Percentage of 

population who spoke 

a language other than 

English at home

Percentage of 

population who spoke 

English with difficulty

Total1 11,008,000 20.6 5.1

White 1,723,000 5.6 1.2

Black 450,000 5.6 1.4

Hispanic 7,231,000 68.9 17.5

Mexican 5,132,000 71.6 19.9

Puerto Rican 474,000 49.5 8.3

Cuban 164,000 70.0 13.2

Dominican 242,000 87.6 17.7

Salvadoran 257,000 86.9 20.5

Other Central American 296,000 78.5 19.1

South American 338,000 78.8 14.5

Other Hispanic or Latino 327,000 42.8 7.7

Asian 1,331,000 64.3 16.8

Asian Indian 257,000 65.9 10.0

Chinese2 315,000 71.3 21.1

Filipino 121,000 34.3 8.2

Japanese 32,000 51.1 21.5

Korean 165,000 74.6 20.6

Vietnamese 212,000 79.5 25.0

Other Asian 228,000 68.7 18.5

Native Hawaiian or other 

Pacific Islander 30,000 36.6 6.7

American Indian/Alaska Native 69,000 16.1 2.5

Two or more races 117,000 7.9 1.2

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

2 Excludes Taiwanese. Taiwanese is included in the “Other Asian” category.

NOTE: Respondents were asked if each child in the household spoke a language other than English at home. If they answered “yes,” they 

were asked how well each child could speak English. Categories used for reporting were “very well,” “well,” “not well,” and “not at all.” All 

those who reported speaking English less than “very well” were considered to have difficulty speaking English. Includes those students who 

are age 5 or older. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007.
48 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 9 — 

Teacher Qualifications and Experience

Current federal education legislation requires 

school districts to measure and report on teacher 

qualifications, both to ensure that students are being 

taught by highly qualified teachers and to ensure 

that teachers are distributed equitably across schools, 

regardless of student demographics. Indicator 9.1 

examines the percentage of high school teachers 

who had either a college major or certification in the 

subject that they consider to be their main teaching 

assignment. The focus is on those teachers who are 

lacking both, as they are not likely to be considered 

highly qualified. Indicator 9.2 reports the percentage 

of novice teachers (teachers with less than 3 years of 

experience), as well as the average years of teaching 

experience, by the concentration of various racial/

ethnic groups in high schools. These data indicate 

where the most experienced teachers are working. 

It has been suggested that, even for highly effective 

teachers, the first few years of their career can be 

difficult. Research has shown that Black and White 

students have different levels of exposure to novice 

teachers (Clotfelter, Ladd, and Vigdor 2004). 

9.1. Teacher Qualifications

Teachers are certified by the state in which they teach. 

Certification can be standard, advanced professional, 

or probationary. The 2007–08 Schools and Staffing 

Survey (SASS) asked teachers whether they were 

certified in the subject that they taught most often 

(referred to as their main assignment), as well as what 

their major was in college. These data were combined 

for public high school teachers and reported by 

subject area (mathematics, English, and science), as 

well as by the percentage of the school enrollment 

that was White, Black, or Hispanic.16

9. Teacher Qualifications and Experience

16 The Schools and Staffing Survey did not contain sufficient numbers of public secondary school teachers to be able to analyze 

schools with concentrations of Asian/Pacific Islander or American Indian/Alaska Native students.

Figure 9.1. Percentage of public high school teachers with neither a college major nor standard 

certification in the subject that is their main teaching assignment, by race/ethnicity 

concentration of schools and subject: 2007–08

! Interpret data with caution. 

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey, Public School Teacher and Public 

School Data Files, 2007–08.

■ Math ■ English ■ Science

Total White enrollment

of 50 percent or more 

Race/ethnicity concentration of school

Black enrollment

of 50 percent or more

Hispanic enrollment

of 50 percent or more

0

10

20

30

40

50

Percent

12

8

4

8

6 4

25

13

4!

15 15

9!
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 49Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and 

Secondary Education Participation

Twelve percent of teachers whose main assignment 

was secondary mathematics had neither a major 

nor a certification in the subject. This percentage 

was higher than the percentage of English teachers 

or science teachers that had neither qualification (8 

and 4 percent, respectively). For schools with at least 

half White enrollment, 8 percent of mathematics 

teachers had neither qualification, which was lower 

than the overall rate and the rate for schools with 

at least half Black enrollment (25 percent). Other 

differences between racial/ethnic groups could not 

be distinguished, in part due to large standard errors.

Table 9.1. Percentage of public high school teachers with a college major and standard certification in 

their respective main teaching assignment in mathematics, English, and science, by race/

ethnicity concentration of schools: 2007–08

Major in main assignment No major in main assignment

Subject and race/ethnicity 

concentration of school Total Total Certified

Not 

certified Total Certified

Not 

certified

Main assignment in 

mathematics

All schools 100.0 71.6 59.8 11.8 28.4 16.2 12.2

Percentage of White 

enrollment

Less than 10 percent 100.0 70.6 47.0 23.7! 29.4 10.1 19.2

50 percent or more 100.0 75.1 65.2 9.9 24.9 16.6 8.3

Percentage of Black 

enrollment

Less than 10 percent 100.0 75.9 64.4 11.5 24.1 15.1 9.0

50 percent or more 100.0 56.0 48.6 7.4! 44.0 19.3 24.7

Percentage of Hispanic 

enrollment

Less than 10 percent 100.0 74.8 65.6 9.2 25.2 15.5 9.7

50 percent or more 100.0 70.3 44.8 25.6! 29.7 15.0 14.7

Main assignment in English

All schools 100.0 81.9 66.6 15.4 18.1 9.7 8.4

Percentage of White 

enrollment

Less than 10 percent 100.0 75.6 56.6 19.0 24.4 11.8 12.6

50 percent or more 100.0 83.9 70.3 13.6 16.1 9.9 6.2

Percentage of Black 

enrollment

Less than 10 percent 100.0 81.8 67.6 14.2 18.2 10.4 7.8

50 percent or more 100.0 76.2 59.0 17.1 23.8 10.8! 13.0

Percentage of Hispanic 

enrollment

Less than 10 percent 100.0 84.3 70.4 14.0 15.7 9.1 6.6

50 percent or more 100.0 72.8 53.2 19.6 27.2 12.0 15.2

Main assignment in science

All schools 100.0 83.6 70.5 13.1 16.4 11.9 4.5

Percentage of White 

enrollment

Less than 10 percent 100.0 82.5 62.3 20.2 17.5! 11.9! 5.6!

50 percent or more 100.0 84.8 73.3 11.5 15.2 11.2 4.0

Percentage of Black 

enrollment

Less than 10 percent 100.0 84.4 72.7 11.7 15.6 11.1 4.6

50 percent or more 100.0 77.6 57.3 20.3 22.4 18.7 3.7!

Percentage of Hispanic 

enrollment

Less than 10 percent 100.0 84.4 72.9 11.5 15.6 11.5 4.0

50 percent or more 100.0 80.5 64.7 15.7! 19.5! 10.6! 8.9!

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey, Public School Teacher and Public 

School Data Files, 2007–08.
50 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 9 — 

Teacher Qualifications and Experience

9.2. Teacher Experience

Another measure of potential teacher quality is years 

of teaching experience. Indicator 9.2 uses 2007–08 

Schools and Staffing Survey data to look at the 

percentage of “new” teachers, meaning those with 

less than 3 years of experience, by the racial/ethnic 

concentration of schools. 

Schools with at least half White enrollment had a 

smaller percentage of new teachers (10 percent) than 

schools that were more than half Black (13 percent), 

or at least half Hispanic (15 percent). In contrast, 

schools with at least half White enrollment had 

teachers with more experience (14 years of experience, 

on average) than schools with at least half Hispanic 

enrollment (12 years of experience, on average).

Table 9.2 Average number of years of teaching experience of regular full-time public school teachers and 

percentage who have less than 3 years of teaching experience, by race/ethnicity concentration 

of school: 2007–08

Race/ethnicity concentration of school

Average number of years 

 of teaching experience 

Percentage of teachers 

with less than 3 years 

of experience

Total1 13.5 11.5

White enrollment of 50 percent or more 14.1 10.0

Black enrollment of 50 percent or more 13.1 12.9

Hispanic enrollment of 50 percent or more 12.4 15.4

Asian/Pacific Islander enrollment of 50 percent or more 12.5 15.7!

American Indian/Alaska Native enrollment of 50 percent or more 13.1 13.8

1 Total includes all regular full-time public school teachers.

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey, Public School Teacher, and Public 

School Data Files, 2007–08.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 51Chapter 2 — Preprimary, Elementary, and Secondary Education Participation

Figure 9.2. Average number of years of teaching experience of regular full-time public school teachers 

and percentage who have less than 3 years of teaching experience, by race/ethnicity 

concentration of school: 2007–08

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing Survey, Public School Teacher, and Public 

School Data Files, 2007–08.

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian/Pacific ■ American Indian/ 

Islander Alaska Native

Average number of years

of teaching experience

0

5

10

15

20

25

Years

14

13 12 13 13

Percentage of teachers 

with less than 3 years of experience

Schools in which enrollment is 50 percent or more:

0

10

20

30

40

50

Percent

10

13

15 16! 14
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Chapter 3 focuses on different measures of academic 

achievement for elementary and secondary students. 

In 2005, Hispanic and American Indian/Alaska 

Native 4-year-olds from the 2001 birth cohort had 

lower rates of proficiency in letter recognition than 

White, Black, and Asian children and children of two 

or more races (indicator 10). 

On the 2007 main National Assessment of 

Educational Progress (NAEP) reading assessment, 

higher percentages of Asian/Pacific Islander and 

White 4th- and 8th-graders scored at or above 

Proficient than did Black, Hispanic, or American 

Indian/Alaska Native students at the same grade 

levels. At 12th grade, a higher percentage of White 

students scored at or above Proficient than did Asian/

Pacific Islander, Black, and Hispanic students. On 

the 2009 (4th and 8th grade) and 2005 (12th grade) 

NAEP mathematics assessment, a higher proportion 

of Asians/Pacific Islanders in 4th, 8th, and 12th grade 

scored at or above Proficient than did White, Black, 

Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native 4th-, 

8th-, and 12th-graders (indicator 11).

On an international level, U.S. 4th- and 8th-graders 

scored higher than the international average on 

the 2007 Trends in International Mathematics and 

Science Study (TIMSS). Within the United States, 

Asian students scored higher in mathematics than any 

other race/ethnicity at both the 4th- and 8th-grade 

level. A similar pattern held for science, with the 

exception that there was no measurable difference 

between the scores of Asian students and White 

students at either 4th or 8th grade (indicator 12).

Another way to measure student achievement is by 

the courses that students complete in high school. 

In 2005, a smaller percentage of Hispanic students 

took geometry, algebra II, and statistics than did 

White, Black, or Asian/Pacific Islander students. A 

higher percentage of Asian/Pacific Islander students 

took chemistry and physics than did White, Black, 

Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native 

students (indicator 13). 

High school students who wish to advance in a 

particular area of study may take Advanced Placement 

(AP) courses. Students who take an AP exam can earn 

college credit based on their scores. In 2008, over 

1.5 million students in the United States took an AP 

exam, up from nearly 0.7 million students in 1999. 

Black students experienced the largest percentage 

increase in the number of students taking an AP exam 

during this time period. Similarly, the number of 

Hispanics participating in the AP program has more 

than tripled between 1999 and 2008 (indicator 14).

College entrance examination test-takers have become 

more diverse over the past decade. In 1998, Hispanic 

students represented 9 percent of SAT test-takers 

and 6 percent of ACT test-takers. By 2008, those 

percentages had increased to 13 percent and 9 

percent, respectively. On the SAT, White students had 

the highest average critical reading score in 2008 and 

Asian students had the highest average mathematics 

score. On the ACT exam, one-third of Asian students 

met the college readiness benchmarks on all four 

sections, compared with 3 percent of Black students 

(indicator 15).

3 

Achievement
54 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 10 — Proficiency of 4-

Year-Olds 

The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Birth 

Cohort of 2001 assessed a representative sample of 

children born in the United States in 2001. These 

children were assessed when they were about 4 years 

old on their ability to identify a letter by either its 

name or the sound it makes (letter recognition), and 

their ability to identify single-digit numbers and basic 

geometric shapes (number and shape recognition). 

Children who met predetermined thresholds on letter 

recognition or number and shape recognition were 

considered proficient in those subjects. This indicator 

reports on the cognitive abilities of these 4-year-olds, 

in terms of letter recognition and number and shape 

recognition.

Overall, 33 percent of the 4-year-olds tested in 

2005–06 were proficient in letter recognition. 

Hispanic and American Indian/Alaska Native 

children had lower rates of proficiency (23 percent 

and 19 percent, respectively), while Asian children 

had a higher rate of proficiency (49 percent) than 

other groups. White children (37 percent) and 

children of two or more races (35 percent) had higher 

rates of proficiency than Black (28 percent), Hispanic 

(23 percent), and American Indian/Alaska Native (19 

percent) children.

Approximately 65 percent of the 4-year-olds tested 

were proficient in recognizing numbers and shapes. 

American Indian/Alaska Native children had a lower 

rate of number and shape proficiency (40 percent) 

than Hispanic children (51 percent), Black children 

(55 percent), children of two or more races (65 

percent), White children (73 percent), and Asian 

children (81 percent). Asian 4-year-olds had higher 

rates of proficiency than any other racial/ethnic 

group. No measurable differences in the proficiency 

rates were found between Hispanic and Black 

children.

10. Proficiency of 4-Year-Olds 

Table 10. Percentage of children from the 2001 birth cohort who were proficient in letter and number and 

shape recognition at about 4 years old, by race/ethnicity: 2005–06

Race/ethnicity

Proficient in 

letter recognition

Proficient in 

numbers and 

shape recognition

Total 32.7 65.4

White 36.8 73.1

Black 28.3 54.7

Hispanic 23.0 51.4

Asian 49.4 81.2

Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander ‡ ‡

American Indian/Alaska Native 18.8 39.9

Two or more races 35.4 65.4

‡ Reporting standards not met.

NOTE: Data are based on a representative sample of children born in 2001. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort, Longitudinal 

9-month—Preschool Restricted-Use Data File.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 55Chapter 3 — Achievement

Figure 10. Percentage of children from the 2001 birth cohort who were proficient in letter and number 

and shape recognition at about 4 years old, by race/ethnicity: 2005–06

NOTE: Data are based on a representative sample of children born in 2001. Estimates for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders are not 

shown because reporting standards were not met. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort, Longitudinal 

9-month—Preschool Restricted-Use Data File.

Percent proficient at letter recognition Percent proficient in numbers and shapes

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

37

28

23

49

19

35

73

55 51

81

40

65

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian ■ American Indian/ ■ Two or more races

 Alaska Native 
56 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 11 — 

Reading and 

Mathematics Achievement

The National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP) is a nationally representative assessment 

of what U.S. students know and can do in various 

subject areas. This indicator focuses on the results of 

4th-, 8th-, and 12th-grade students in the subjects 

of reading and mathematics.

NAEP results are reported as average scores and the 

percentage of students performing at or above three 

achievement levels: Basic, Proficient, and Advanced. 

These achievement levels are performance standards 

showing what students should know and be able 

to do. Basic denotes partial mastery of knowledge 

and skills that are fundamental for proficient work 

at a given grade. (Below Basic, therefore, denotes 

less than this level of achievement.) Proficient

represents solid academic performance. Students 

reaching this level have demonstrated competency 

over challenging subject matter. Advanced signifies 

superior performance.17 

11.1. Reading Achievement

In grades 4, 8, and 12 the NAEP reading assessment 

gauges student performance in reading for literary 

experience and reading for information. In grades 

8 and 12 it also gauges performance in reading 

to perform a task. In 2007, about 33 percent of 

4th-graders scored at or above the Proficient level. 

Higher percentages of Asian/Pacific Islander (46 

percent) and White (43 percent) students scored at 

or above this level than did their Black (14 percent), 

Hispanic (17 percent), and American Indian/Alaska 

Native (18 percent) peers. Over one-half of Black (54 

percent) 4th-graders and about one-half of Hispanic 

(50 percent) and American Indian/Alaska Native 

(51 percent) 4th-graders scored below the Basic 

achievement level in 2007.

At the 8th-grade level, 31 percent of all students scored 

at or above the Proficient level. Higher percentages 

of Asian/Pacific Islander (41 percent) and White (40 

percent) students scored at or above this level than did 

their Black (13 percent), Hispanic (15 percent), and 

American Indian/Alaska Native (18 percent) peers. 

In 2005, approximately 35 percent of 12th-grade 

students scored at or above the Proficient level. The 

percentages of White (43 percent) and Asian/Pacific 

Islander (36 percent) students who scored at or above 

Proficient were higher than the percentages of Black 

(16 percent) and Hispanic (20 percent) students who 

did so. The percentage of White 12th-graders at the 

Proficient level was also higher than the percentage 

of Asian/Pacific Islander 12th-graders at that level. 

The percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native 

12th-graders at the Proficient level was not measurably 

different from the respective percentages of other 

racial/ethnic groups, which may be due in part to a 

large standard error.

11. Reading and Mathematics Achievement

17 Achievement levels are determined by the National Assessment Governing Board (NAGB), based on recommendations from 

panels of educators and members of the public, to provide a context for interpreting student performance on NAEP. Detailed 

descriptions of the NAEP achievement levels for each subject and grade can be found on the NAGB website (http://www.nagb.org/

publications/achievement.htm).
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 57Chapter 3 — Achievement

Table 11.1. Percentage distribution of students at National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 

reading achievement levels, by race/ethnicity and grade: 2005 and 2007

Grade, year, and 

achievement level Total1 White Black Hispanic

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

4th grade, 2007

Below Basic 33 22 54 50 23 51

At Basic 34 35 32 32 32 30

At or above Proficient 33 43 14 17 46 18

At Advanced 8 11 2 3 15 4

8th grade, 2007

Below Basic 26 16 45 42 20 44

At Basic 43 43 42 43 39 38

At or above Proficient 31 40 13 15 41 18

At Advanced 3 4 # 1 5 2!

12th grade, 2005

Below Basic 27 21 46 40 26 33!

At Basic 37 36 38 40 38 41

At or above Proficient 35 43 16 20 36 26!

At Advanced 5 6 1! 2! 5 ‡

# Rounds to zero. 

! Interpret data with caution. 

‡ Reporting standards not met. 1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown. 

NOTE: Achievement levels are performance standards showing what students should know and be able to do. Basic denotes partial mastery 

of knowledge and skills that are fundamental for proficient work at a given grade. (Below Basic, therefore, denotes less than this level of 

achievement.) Proficient represents solid academic performance. Students reaching this level have demonstrated competency over challenging 

subject matter. Advanced signifies superior performance. NAEP reports data on student race/ethnicity based on information obtained from school 

rosters. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. The NAEP assessment was not administered to grade 12 in 2007. Detail may not 

sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2005 

and 2007 Reading Assessment, NAEP Data Explorer.
58 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 11 — 

Reading and 

Mathematics Achievement

Figure 11.1a. Percentage distribution of 4th-grade students at National Assessment of Educational 

Progress (NAEP) reading achievement levels, by race/ethnicity: 2007

NOTE: Achievement levels are performance standards showing what students should know and be able to do. Basic denotes partial mastery 

of knowledge and skills that are fundamental for proficient work at a given grade. (Below Basic, therefore, denotes less than this level of 

achievement.) Proficient represents solid academic performance. Students reaching this level have demonstrated competency over challenging 

subject matter. Advanced signifies superior performance. NAEP reports data on student race/ethnicity based on information obtained from school 

rosters. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2007 

Reading Assessment, NAEP Data Explorer.

Figure 11.1b. Percentage distribution of 8th-grade students at National Assessment of Educational 

Progress (NAEP) reading achievement levels, by race/ethnicity: 2007

# Rounds to zero. 

! Interpret data with caution. 

NOTE: Achievement levels are performance standards showing what students should know and be able to do. Basic denotes partial mastery 

of knowledge and skills that are fundamental for proficient work at a given grade. (Below Basic, therefore, denotes less than this level of 

achievement.) Proficient represents solid academic performance. Students reaching this level have demonstrated competency over challenging 

subject matter. Advanced signifies superior performance. NAEP reports data on student race/ethnicity based on information obtained from school 

rosters. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2007 

Reading Assessment, NAEP Data Explorer.

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Race/ethnicity

70 60 50 40

Percent below Basic Percent at or above Basic

30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

51 30 14 4

23 32 31 15

50 32 15 3

54 32 12 2

22 35 32 11

■ Below Basic ■ At Basic ■ At Proficient ■ At Advanced 

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Race/ethnicity

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

44 38 16 2!

20 39 36 5

42 43 15 1

45 42 12 #

16 43 36 4

Percent below Basic Percent at or above Basic

■ Below Basic ■ At Basic ■ At Proficient ■ At Advanced 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 59Chapter 3 — Achievement

Figure 11.1c. Percentage distribution of 12th-grade students at National Assessment of Educational 

Progress (NAEP) reading achievement levels, by race/ethnicity: 2005

! Interpret data with caution. 

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

NOTE: Achievement levels are performance standards showing what students should know and be able to do. Basic denotes partial mastery 

of knowledge and skills that are fundamental for proficient work at a given grade. (Below Basic, therefore, denotes less than this level of 

achievement.) Proficient represents solid academic performance. Students reaching this level have demonstrated competency over challenging 

subject matter. Advanced signifies superior performance. NAEP reports data on student race/ethnicity based on information obtained from school 

rosters. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. The NAEP assessment was not administered to grade 12 in 2007. Detail may not 

sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2005 

Reading Assessment, NAEP Data Explorer.

Race/ethnicity

Percent below Basic Percent at or above Basic

■ Below Basic ■ At Basic ■ At Proficient ■ At Advanced 

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

33! 41 24! ‡

26 38 31 5

40 40 18 2!

46 38 15 1!

21 36 37 6
60 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 11 — 

Reading and 

Mathematics Achievement

11.2. Mathematics Achievement

The NAEP mathematics assessment measures 

students’ abilities in five content areas: number 

sense, properties, and operations; measurement; 

geometry and spatial sense; data analysis, statistics, 

and probability; and algebra and functions. In 2009, 

about 39 percent of 4th- graders scored at or above the 

Proficient level. Asians/Pacific Islanders (60 percent) 

had the highest percentage of 4th-graders scoring 

at or above Proficient, followed by White students 

(51 percent). Both of these groups had higher 

percentages of students scoring at this level than did 

Hispanics (22 percent) and American Indian/Alaska 

Natives (21 percent) students. Blacks had the lowest 

percentage of 4th-grade students scoring at or above 

the Proficient level (16 percent) of all groups.

The percentage of 8th-graders scoring at or above 

Proficient followed a similar pattern: in 2009, 

approximately 54 percent of Asian/Pacific Islander 

students scored at or above Proficient, higher than the 

percentages for White (44 percent), American Indian/

Alaska Native (18 percent), Hispanic (17 percent), 

and Black (12 percent) 8th-graders. In 2005, at the 

12th-grade level, a higher percentage of Asian/Pacific 

Islander students (36 percent) scored at or above 

Proficient than did White (29 percent), Hispanic (8 

percent), Black (6 percent), and American Indian/

Alaska Native (6 percent) students.

Table 11.2. Percentage distribution of students at National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 

mathematics achievement levels, by race/ethnicity and grade: 2005 and 2009

Grade, year, and 

achievement level Total1 White Black Hispanic

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

4th grade, 2009

Below Basic 18 9 36 29 8 34

At Basic 43 40 48 49 31 45

At or above Proficient 39 51 16 22 60 21

At Advanced 6 8 1 1 17 2

8th grade, 2009

Below Basic 27 17 50 43 15 44

At Basic 39 40 37 40 31 38

At or above Proficient 34 44 12 17 54 18

At Advanced 8 11 1 2 20 3

12th grade, 2005

Below Basic 39 30 70 60 27 58

At Basic 38 41 25 32 37 36

At or above Proficient 23 29 6 8 36 6!

At Advanced 2 3 # # 6 1!

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution.

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Achievement levels are performance standards showing what students should know and be able to do. Basic denotes partial mastery 

of knowledge and skills that are fundamental for proficient work at a given grade. (Below Basic, therefore, denotes less than this level of 

achievement.) Proficient represents solid academic performance. Students reaching this level have demonstrated competency over challenging 

subject matter. Advanced signifies superior performance. NAEP reports data on student race/ethnicity based on information obtained from school 

rosters. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. The NAEP assessment was not administered to grade 12 in 2007. Detail may not 

sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2005 

and 2009 Mathematics Assessment, NAEP Data Explorer.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 61Chapter 3 — Achievement

Figure 11.2a. Percentage distribution of 4th-grade students at National Assessment of Educational 

Progress (NAEP) mathematics achievement levels, by race/ethnicity: 2009

NOTE: Achievement levels are performance standards showing what students should know and be able to do. Basic denotes partial mastery 

of knowledge and skills that are fundamental for proficient work at a given grade. (Below Basic, therefore, denotes less than this level of 

achievement.) Proficient represents solid academic performance. Students reaching this level have demonstrated competency over challenging 

subject matter. Advanced signifies superior performance. NAEP reports data on student race/ethnicity based on information obtained from school 

rosters. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009 

Mathematics Assessment, NAEP Data Explorer.

Figure 11.2b. Percentage distribution of 8th-grade students at National Assessment of Educational 

Progress (NAEP) mathematics achievement levels, by race/ethnicity: 2009

NOTE: Achievement levels are performance standards showing what students should know and be able to do. Basic denotes partial mastery 

of knowledge and skills that are fundamental for proficient work at a given grade. (Below Basic, therefore, denotes less than this level of 

achievement.) Proficient represents solid academic performance. Students reaching this level have demonstrated competency over challenging 

subject matter. Advanced signifies superior performance. NAEP reports data on student race/ethnicity based on information obtained from school 

rosters. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009 

Mathematics Assessment, NAEP Data Explorer.

Percent below Basic Percent at or above Basic

■ Below Basic ■ At Basic ■ At Proficient ■ At Advanced 

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Race/ethnicity

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

34 45 19 2

8 31 43 17

29 49 20 1

36 48 15 1

9 40 42 8

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Race/ethnicity

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

44 38 15 3

15 31 34 20

43 40 15 2

50 37 11 1

17 40 33 11

Percent below Basic Percent at or above Basic

■ Below Basic ■ At Basic ■ At Proficient ■ At Advanced 
62 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 11 — 

Reading and 

Mathematics Achievement

Figure 11.2c. Percentage distribution of 12th-grade students at National Assessment of Educational 

Progress (NAEP) mathematics achievement levels, by race/ethnicity: 2005

# Rounds to zero. 

! Interpret data with caution. 

NOTE: Achievement levels are performance standards showing what students should know and be able to do. Basic denotes partial mastery 

of knowledge and skills that are fundamental for proficient work at a given grade. (Below Basic, therefore, denotes less than this level of 

achievement.) Proficient represents solid academic performance. Students reaching this level have demonstrated competency over challenging 

subject matter. Advanced signifies superior performance. NAEP reports data on student race/ethnicity based on information obtained from school 

rosters. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. The NAEP assessment was not administered to grade 12 in 2007. Detail may not 

sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2005 

Mathematics Assessment, NAEP Data Explorer.

Race/ethnicity

Percent below Basic Percent at or above Basic

■ Below Basic ■ At Basic ■ At Proficient ■ At Advanced 

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

58 36 5! 1!

27 37 30 6

60 32 8 #

70 25 5 #

30 41 26 3
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64 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 12 — International Comparisons

The Trends in International Mathematics and 

Science Study (TIMSS) began in 1995 and has been 

administered four times since by the International 

Association for the Evaluation of Educational 

Achievement (IEA). In 2007, thirty-six jurisdictions 

participated at the 4th-grade level and 48 participated 

at the 8th-grade level. These assessments measure 

how well students have acquired knowledge and skills 

taught in school, as they are designed to align with 

the curricula of participating jurisdictions. 

This indicator compares the 2007 average mathematics 

and science scores of 4th- and 8th-grade students in 

the United States with the overall TIMSS average 

and the scores of the other participating jurisdictions. 

In all grades and subjects, the U.S. average score 

exceeded the TIMSS average of 500. 

At the 4th-grade level in mathematics, the U.S. 

average score was 529. Of U.S. students, Asian 

students scored the highest at 582, compared with 

White students who scored 550, students of two or 

more races who scored 534, Hispanic students who 

scored 504, and Black students who scored 482, on 

average. 

At the 8th-grade level in mathematics, the U.S. 

average score was 508, with scores ranging from 457 

for Black students to 549 for Asian students. Asian 

and White students scored higher than the TIMSS 

average of 500, while Black and Hispanic students 

scored lower. The average score for students of two or 

more races (506) was not measurably different than 

the TIMSS average. 

The U.S. average score on the 4th-grade science 

assessment was 539, with Asian students scoring 573, 

White students scoring 567, students of two or more 

races scoring 550, Hispanic students scoring 502, and 

Black students scoring 488. 

The U.S. average score in 8th-grade science was 520; 

scores ranged from 455 for Black students to 551 for 

White students. White students, Asian students, and 

students of two or more races scored higher than the 

TIMSS average, while Black and Hispanic students 

scored lower.

12. International Comparisons

Table 12a. Average scores among 4th- and 8th-graders in the United States on the Trends in International 

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), by race/ethnicity: 2007

Mathematics Science

Grade and race/ethnicity Average score Grade and race/ethnicity Average score

4th grade 4th grade

TIMSS scale average 500 TIMSS scale average 500

United States1 529 United States1 539

White 550 White 567

Black 482 Black 488

Hispanic 504 Hispanic 502

Asian 582 Asian 573

Two or more races 534 Two or more races 550

8th grade 8th grade

TIMSS scale average 500 TIMSS scale average 500

United States1 508 United States1 520

White 533 White 551

Black 457 Black 455

Hispanic 475 Hispanic 480

Asian 549 Asian 543

Two or more races 506 Two or more races 522

1 Includes other races/ethnicities not separately shown.

NOTE: Scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1,000. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study 

(TIMSS), 2007.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 65Chapter 3 — Achievement

Figure 12a. Average scores among 4th-graders in the United States on the Trends in International 

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), by subject and race/ethnicity: 2007 

1 Includes other races/ethnicities not separately shown. 

NOTE: Scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1,000. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study 

(TIMSS), 2007.

Figure 12b. Average scores among 8th-graders in the United States on the Trends in International 

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), by subject and race/ethnicity: 2007 

1 Includes other races/ethnicities not separately shown. 

NOTE: Scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1,000. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study 

(TIMSS), 2007.

Mathematics

Subject

Science

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Score

529 550

482 504

582

534 TIMSS

average:

500

539

567

488 502

573 550

■ U.S. average1 ■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian ■ Two or more races

TIMSS

average:

500

■ U.S. average1 ■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian ■ Two or more races

Mathematics

Subject

Science

508 533

457

475

549

506 520

551

455

480

543 522

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Score
66 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 12 — International Comparisons

Table 12b. Average scores among 4th-graders on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study 

(TIMSS), by participating country and race/ethnicity in the United States: 2007

Mathematics Science

Country and race/ethnicity Average score Country and race/ethnicity Average score

TIMSS scale average 500 TIMSS scale average 500

United States1,2,3 529 United States1,2,3 539

White 550 White 567

Black 482 Black 488

Hispanic 504 Hispanic 502

Asian 582 Asian 573

Two or more races 534 Two or more races 550

Countries whose scores were higher than the U.S. score Countries whose scores were higher than the U.S. score 

Hong Kong SAR4 607 Singapore 587

Singapore 599 Chinese Taipei 557

Chinese Taipei 576 Hong Kong SAR4 554

Japan 568 Japan 548

Kazakhstan5 549

Russian Federation 544 Countries whose scores were not measurably different 

England 541 from the U.S. score

Latvia5 537 Russian Federation 546

Latvia5 542

Countries whose scores were not measurably different 

from the U.S. score

England 542

Hungary 536

Netherlands6 535 Italy 535

Lithuania5 530 Kazakhstan5 533

Germany 525

Denmark1 523 Countries whose scores were lower than the U.S. score

Germany 528

Countries whose scores were lower than the U.S. score Australia 527

Australia 516 Slovak Republic 526

Hungary 510 Austria 526

Italy 507 Sweden 525

Austria 505 Netherlands6 523

Sweden 503 Slovenia 518

Slovenia 502 Denmark1 517

Armenia 500 Czech Republic 515

Slovak Republic 496 Lithuania5 514

Scotland1 494 New Zealand 504

New Zealand 492 Scotland1 500

Czech Republic 486 Armenia 484

Norway 473 Norway 477

Ukraine 469 Ukraine 474

Georgia5 438 Iran, Islamic Republic of 436

Iran, Islamic Republic of 402 Georgia5 418

Algeria 378 Colombia 400

Colombia 355 El Salvador 390

Morocco 341 Algeria 354

El Salvador 330 Kuwait7 348

Tunisia 327 Tunisia 318

Kuwait7 316 Morocco 297

Qatar 296 Qatar 294

Yemen 224 Yemen 197

1 Met guidelines for sample participation rates only after substitute schools were included.

2 National Defined Population covers 90 percent to 95 percent of National Target Population.

3 Includes other races/ethnicities not separately shown.

4 Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People’s Republic of China.

5 National Target Population does not include all of the International Target Population defined by TIMSS.

6 Nearly satisfied guidelines for sample participation rates only after substitute schools were included.

7 Kuwait tested the same cohort of students as other countries, but later in 2007, at the beginning of the next school year.

NOTE: Scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1,000. The tests for significance take into account the standard error for the reported difference. Thus, a 

small difference between the United States and one country may be significant while a larger difference between the United States and another country 

may not be significant. For more information on the international requirements for sampling, data collection, and participation rates, see Highlights From 

TIMSS 2007: Mathematics and Science Achievement of U.S. Fourth- and Eighth-Grade Students in an International Context, Appendix A (Gonzales et 

al. 2008) for information.

SOURCE: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study 

(TIMSS), 2007.
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68 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 12 — International Comparisons

Table 12c. Average scores among 8th-graders on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science 

Study (TIMSS), by participating country and race/ethnicity in the United States: 2007

Mathematics Science

Country and race/ethnicity Average score Country and race/ethnicity Average score

TIMSS scale average 500 TIMSS scale average 500

United States1,2,3 508 United States1,2,3 520

White 533 White 551

Black 457 Black 455

Hispanic 475 Hispanic 480

Asian 549 Asian 543

Two or more races 506 Two or more races 522

Countries whose scores were higher than the U.S. score Countries whose scores were higher than the U.S. score 

Chinese Taipei 598 Singapore 567

Korea, Republic of 597 Chinese Taipei 561

Singapore 593 Japan 554

Hong Kong SAR1,4 572 Korea, Republic of 553

Japan 570 England1 542

Hungary 539

Countries whose scores were not measurably different 

from the U.S. score

Czech Republic 539

Slovenia 538

Hungary 517 Russian Federation 530

England1 513

Russian Federation 512 Countries whose scores were not measurably different 

Lithuania from the U.S. score 5 506

Czech Republic 504 Hong Kong SAR1,4 530

Lithuania5 519

Australia 515

See notes at end of table.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 69Chapter 3 — Achievement

Table 12c. Average scores among 8th-graders on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science 

Study (TIMSS), by participating country and race/ethnicity in the United States: 2007—

Continued

Mathematics Science

Country and race/ethnicity Average score Country and race/ethnicity Average score

Countries whose scores were lower than the 

U.S. score 

Countries whose scores were lower than the 

U.S. score

Slovenia 501 Sweden 511

Armenia 499 Scotland1 496

Australia 496 Italy 495

Sweden 491 Armenia 488

Malta 488 Norway 487

Scotland1 487 Ukraine 485

Serbia2,5 486 Jordan 482

Italy 480 Malaysia 471

Malaysia 474 Thailand 471

Norway 469 Serbia2,5 470

Cyprus 465 Bulgaria6 470

Bulgaria 464 Israel6 468

Israel6 463 Bahrain 467

Ukraine 462 Bosnia and Herzegovina 466

Romania 461 Romania 462

Bosnia and Herzegovina 456 Iran, Islamic Republic of 459

Lebanon 449 Malta 457

Thailand 441 Turkey 454

Turkey 432 Syrian Arab Republic 452

Jordan 427 Cyprus 452

Tunisia 420 Tunisia 445

Georgia5 410 Indonesia 427

Iran, Islamic Republic of 403 Oman 423

Bahrain 398 Georgia5 421

Indonesia 397 Kuwait7 418

Syrian Arab Republic 395 Colombia 417

Egypt 391 Lebanon 414

Algeria 387 Egypt 408

Colombia 380 Algeria 408

Oman 372 Palestinian National Authority 404

Palestinian National Authority 367 Saudi Arabia 403

Botswana 364 El Salvador 387

Kuwait7 354 Botswana 355

El Salvador 340 Qatar 319

Saudi Arabia 329 Ghana 303

Ghana 309

Qatar 307

1 Met guidelines for sample participation rates only after substitute schools were included.

2 National Defined Population covers 90 percent to 95 percent of National Target Population. 

3 Includes other races/ethnicities not separately shown.

4 Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People’s Republic of China.

5 National Target Population does not include all of the International Target Population defined by TIMSS.

6 National Defined Population covers less than 90 percent of National Target Population (but at least 77 percent). 

7 Kuwait tested the same cohort of students as other countries, but later in 2007, at the beginning of the next school year.

NOTE: Scores are reported on a scale of 0 to 1,000. The tests for significance take into account the standard error for the reported difference. 

Thus, a small difference between the United States and one country may be significant while a larger difference between the United States and 

another country may not be significant. For more information on the international requirements for sampling, data collection, and participation 

rates, see Highlights From TIMSS 2007: Mathematics and Science Achievement of U.S. Fourth- and Eighth-Grade Students in an International 

Context, Appendix A (Gonzales et al. 2008) for information.

SOURCE: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), Trends in International Mathematics and Science 

Study (TIMSS), 2007.
70 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 13 — 

Mathematics and 

Science Coursetaking in High 

School

This indicator examines the percentage of high school 

students who completed selected mathematics and 

science courses using data from high school graduates’ 

transcripts from 1998, 2000, and 2005. These data 

only report the percentage of students who earned 

credit in each course while in high school (grades 

9–12) and do not count those students who took 

these courses prior to entering high school.

13.1. Mathematics Coursetaking 

Compared with 1998 high school graduates, a 

higher percentage of 2005 graduates had completed 

geometry, algebra II, statistics, precalculus, and 

calculus while in high school. For all racial/ethnic 

groups, a higher percentage of graduates had 

completed a geometry course in 2005 than in 1998, 

including Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians/

Alaska Natives: these groups had increases ranging 

from 12 to 18 percentage points. A similar pattern 

was found for the completion of algebra II—a higher 

percentage of White, Black, Hispanic, and American 

Indian/Alaska Native students had completed algebra 

II in 2005 than in 1998, and these increases ranged 

from 7 to 21 percentage points. Partly due to high 

standard errors, there was no measurable difference 

between the 1998 and 2005 percentages of Asian/

Pacific Islander graduates who had completed algebra 

II. Furthermore, the gap between the percentage of 

White students and Black students who had taken 

algebra II decreased from 9 percentage points in 

1998 to 2 percentage points in 2005. Similarly, the 

gap between the percentage of White students and 

Hispanic students who had taken algebra II decreased 

from 16 to 9 percentage points between 1998 and 

2005.

A higher percentage of White and Asian/Pacific 

Islander graduates had completed a calculus course 

in 2005 than in 1998. During this period, the 

percentage of White students who had completed 

a calculus course increased by 3 percentage points, 

while the percentage of Asian/Pacific Islander students 

increased by 11 percentage points.

Among 2005 high school graduates, a lower 

percentage of Hispanic students had completed 

courses in geometry, algebra II, and statistics than 

had White, Black, or Asian/Pacific Islander students. 

A higher percentage of Asian/Pacific Islander 

graduates than graduates of other racial/ethnic 

groups had completed precalculus and calculus 

courses. For example, 30 percent of Asian/Pacific 

Islander graduates had completed a calculus course 

in high school, compared with 15 percent of White, 

6 percent each of Black and Hispanic, and 8 percent 

of American Indian/Alaska Native graduates. 

13. Mathematics and Science Coursetaking in High School
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 71Chapter 3 — Achievement

Table 13a. Percentage of high school graduates who completed selected mathematics courses in high 

school, by race/ethnicity: 1998, 2000, and 2005

Year and race/ethnicity Geometry Algebra II Trigonometry Statistics Precalculus Calculus

1998

Total 75.1 61.7 8.9 3.7 23.1 11.0

White 77.7 64.6 10.0 4.3 25.0 12.1

Black 72.5 55.6 4.8 2.1 13.8 6.6

Hispanic 62.3 48.3 5.6 1.7 15.3 6.2

Asian/Pacific Islander 75.9 70.1 11.7 3.8 41.3 18.4

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 57.2 46.6 5.5 3.7! 16.4 6.2!

2000

Total 78.3 67.8 7.5 5.7 26.7 11.6

White 79.2 68.9 8.5 6.1 28.2 12.5

Black 77.9 64.8 4.1 3.8! 16.2 4.7

Hispanic 72.8 59.8 2.9 2.3 19.3 5.6

Asian/Pacific Islander 80.6 80.4 14.5! 11.5 48.8 30.8

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 65.0 60.3 4.3! 2.1! 12.6 2.4!

2005

Total 83.3 70.3 8.3 7.7 29.5 13.6

White 83.4 71.2 9.6 8.5 32.0 15.3

Black 84.7 69.2 3.9 5.8 17.9 5.5

Hispanic 80.5 62.7 4.8 3.4 20.5 6.3

Asian/Pacific Islander 86.1 78.3 9.4 13.0 48.8 29.8

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 74.2 67.5 10.4! 2.8! 15.9 7.9!

! Interpret data with caution.

NOTE: These data only report the percentage of students who earned credit for each course while in high school and do not count those students 

who took these courses before entering high school. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 1998, 2000, and 2005.
72 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 13 — 

Mathematics and 

Science Coursetaking in High 

School

Figure 13a. Percentage of high school graduates who completed selected mathematics courses, by 

race/ethnicity: 1998 and 2005 

! Interpret data with caution. 

NOTE: These data only report the percentage of students who earned credit for each course while in high school and do not count those students 

who took these courses before entering high school. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 1998 and 2005.

■ 1998 ■ 2005

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Course and

 race/ethnicity

Geometry

Algebra II

Calculus

50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

0 10 20 30 40

8!

6!

30

18

6

6

6

7

15

12

68

47

78

70

63

48

69

56

71

65

74

57

86

76

80

62

85

72

83

78
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 73Chapter 3 — Achievement

13.2. Science Coursetaking

A higher percentage of 2005 high school graduates 

than 1998 graduates completed chemistry and/or 

physics while in high school. Higher percentages of 

2005 graduates who were White, Black, Hispanic, 

and Asian/Pacific Islander had completed a chemistry 

course than had 1998 graduates from those racial/

ethnic groups. In addition, a higher percentage of 

White graduates had completed physics in 2005 than 

in 1998. The percentage of 2005 graduates who had 

completed both a biology and a chemistry course was 

higher than the percentage of 1998 graduates who 

had completed both courses, and this held true for 

White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific Islander 

graduates. The percentage of 2005 graduates who 

had completed courses in all three subjects—biology, 

chemistry, and physics—did not differ measurably 

from 1998. 

In 2005, a higher percentage of Asian/Pacific Islander 

graduates had completed a chemistry course than 

had White, Black, Hispanic, and American Indian/

Alaska Native graduates. This pattern was also true 

for physics. Asian/Pacific Islander students had the 

highest percentages of graduates who completed 

courses in both biology and chemistry (75 percent) 

and who completed courses in biology, chemistry, 

and physics (43 percent). There was a 29 percentage 

point difference between Asians/Pacific Islanders who 

took biology, chemistry, and physics and American 

Indians/Alaska Natives who did so, a 24 percentage 

point difference between Asians/Pacific Islanders and 

Hispanics who did so, a 22 point difference between 

Asians/Pacific Islanders and Blacks who did so, and a 

14 percentage point difference between Asians/Pacific 

Islanders and Whites who did so.

Table 13b. Percentage of high school graduates who completed selected science courses in high school, 

by race/ethnicity: 1998, 2000, and 2005

Year and race/ethnicity Biology Chemistry Physics

Biology and 

chemistry

Biology, 

chemistry, 

and physics

1998

Total 92.7 60.4 28.8 59.0 25.4

White 93.7 63.2 30.7 62.0 27.6

Black 92.8 54.3 21.4 53.0 17.4

Hispanic 86.5 46.1 18.9 43.7 15.9

Asian/Pacific Islander 92.9 72.4 46.4 69.5 40.2

American Indian/Alaska Native 91.3 46.9 16.2 43.2 14.2

2000

Total 91.2 62.0 31.4 59.4 25.1

White 91.8 63.0 32.4 60.3 25.7

Black 92.3 59.9 25.2 58.0 20.1

Hispanic 89.7 52.4 23.2 50.4 17.6

Asian/Pacific Islander 88.3 75.4 54.0 71.1 47.2

American Indian/Alaska Native 88.4 43.6 17.5 39.4 11.9

2005

Total 92.3 66.2 32.7 64.3 27.3

White 92.6 67.1 34.6 65.3 29.0

Black 93.6 63.6 25.8 62.0 21.3

Hispanic 89.1 59.2 23.3 57.2 18.9

Asian/Pacific Islander 92.1 79.4 49.9 75.5 42.8

American Indian/Alaska Native 92.1 49.3 18.2 48.0 14.1

NOTE: These data only report the percentage of students who earned credit for each course while in high school and do not count those students 

who took these courses before entering high school. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 1998, 2000, and 2005.
74 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 13 — 

Mathematics and 

Science Coursetaking in High 

School

Figure 13b. Percentage of high school graduates who completed selected science courses, by race/

ethnicity: 1998 and 2005

See notes at end of figure.

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Physics

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Course and

 race/ethnicity

Chemistry

18

16

50

46

23

19

26

21

35

31

49

47

79

72

59

46

64

54

67

63

■ 1998 ■ 2005

50 90 100

Percent

0 10 20 30 40 60 70 80
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 75Chapter 3 — Achievement

Figure 13b. Percentage of high school graduates who completed selected science courses, by race/

ethnicity: 1998 and 2005—Continued

NOTE: These data only report the percentage of students who earned credit for each course while in high school and do not count those students 

who took these courses before entering high school. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 1998 and 2005.

■ 1998 ■ 2005

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Biology,

Chemistry,

 and Physics

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian/

Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Black

White

Biology and

Chemistry

50 90 100

Percent

0 10 20 30 40 60 70 80

14

14

43

40

19

16

21

17

29

28

48

43

75

69

57

44

62

53

65

62

Course and

 race/ethnicity
76 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 14 — Advanced Placement (AP) Courses

In 2008, a total of 12,323 U.S. public high schools 

offered Advanced Placement (AP) courses to their 

graduating classes (The College Board 2008). 

Students who take AP courses in high school are 

eligible to take AP exams and may earn college credit 

for scores above a minimum threshold. Currently, 

37 AP exams are offered, and a school that offers 

the AP program offers 10 different AP courses, on 

average. Students who complete AP courses may be 

better prepared for college than their peers and could 

potentially complete their college degrees in a shorter 

time period.

In 2008, over 1.5 million students in the United States 

took at least one AP exam, a number that has more 

than doubled since 10 years ago. While the number 

of students taking an AP exam increased for all racial 

and ethnic groups, the largest relative increase in AP 

exam taking was among Black students. Just over 

31,000 Black students participated in 1999, while 

more than 108,500 Black students participated in 

2008. In addition, Hispanic student participation 

in AP exam taking has more than tripled over the 

same time period, increasing from 62,900 students 

to 209,700 students. 

14. Advanced Placement (AP) Courses

Table 14a. Number and percent change in the number of students taking Advanced Placement (AP) 

examinations, by race/ethnicity: 1999–2008

Year Total1 White Black Hispanic Asian

American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native

1999 685,981 445,880 31,023 62,853 75,875 3,136

2000 747,922 504,600 36,158 74,852 85,756 3,584

2001 820,880 549,065 40,078 86,018 92,762 3,472

2002 913,251 607,816 45,271 98,495 102,653 3,896

2003 998,329 660,225 51,160 114,246 111,704 4,530

2004 1,081,102 702,489 57,001 130,042 121,038 4,974

2005 1,197,439 762,548 67,702 148,960 135,815 5,654

2006 1,312,523 816,301 79,171 166,197 147,381 6,449

2007 1,432,169 890,169 92,574 188,323 162,505 7,084

2008 1,546,020 949,986 108,545 209,721 177,198 7,750

Percent change 

1999 to 2008 125.4 113.1 249.9 233.7 133.5 147.1

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown. 

NOTE: Data reported are for all students who completed an Advanced Placement exam. The College Board collects racial/ethnic information 

based on the following categories: American Indian/Alaskan, Asian/Asian American, Black/Afro-American, Latino (Chicano/Mexican, Puerto Rican, 

Other Latino), White, and Other. Black refers to test-takers who identified themselves as Black/Afro-American, and Hispanic refers to the sum of 

all Latino subgroups. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: The College Board, Advanced Placement Program, National Summary Report, 1999–2008.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 77Chapter 3 — Achievement

AP examinations are scored on a scale from 1 to 

5, with a 5 being the highest. The College Board 

considers a student to have been “successful” on an 

exam if he or she receives a 3 or higher. In 2008, 

the average score across all exams was a 2.83, with 

57 percent of all test scores being a 3 or higher. The 

highest mean score was attained by Asian students 

(3.08), followed by White (2.96), Hispanic (2.42), 

American Indian/Alaska Native (2.39), and Black 

students (1.91). Some 26 percent of Black students 

received a score of 3 or higher, compared with 64 

percent of Asian students. 

Figure 14. Percentage distribution of grades on all Advanced Placement (AP) exams, by race/ethnicity: 

2008

NOTE: The grades for all AP examinations range from 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest score. Data reported are for all students who completed 

an Advanced Placement exam. The College Board collects racial/ethnic information based on the following categories: American Indian/Alaskan, 

Asian/Asian American, Black/Afro-American, Latino (Chicano/Mexican, Puerto Rican, Other Latino), White, and Other. Black refers to test-takers 

who identified themselves as Black/Afro-American, and Hispanic refers to the sum of all Latino subgroups. Race categories exclude persons of 

Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: The College Board, Advanced Placement Program, National Summary Report, 2008. 

■ 1 ■ 2 ■ 3 ■ 4 ■ 5

American Indian/

Alaska Native

Asian

Hispanic

Black

White

Race/ethnicity

50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

0 10 20 30 40

29 28 614

17 19 23 21 20

34 24 14 10

48 26 15 38

Percent of all exams 

scoring 3 or above: 57%

16 21 27 21 14

19

23
78 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 14 — Advanced Placement (AP) Courses

The most common AP exams taken each year are 

calculus AB, English literature and composition, and 

U.S. history. The average score on the calculus AB 

exam was 3.01 and ranged from a low of 2.00 for 

Black students to a high of 3.23 for Asian students. 

For the English literature and composition exam, 

the average score was 2.84. White students scored 

the highest on this exam (3.03), followed by Asian 

students (2.94). The average score on the U.S. 

history exam was 2.57. On this exam, Asian students 

scored the highest (2.81), followed by White (2.73), 

American Indian/Alaska Native (2.19), Hispanic 

(1.93), and Black students (1.77).

Table 14b. Mean grade and percentage distribution of grades on Advanced Placement (AP) exams, by 

subject and race/ethnicity: 2008

Subject and race/ethnicity

Mean 

grade

Grade

5 4 3 2 1

All exams, total1 2.83 13.9 19.3 24.2 21.5 21.1

White 2.96 14.4 21.4 26.5 21.2 16.4

Black 1.91 3.1 7.5 15.2 25.6 48.5

Hispanic 2.42 9.8 13.9 18.8 23.6 33.9

Asian/Asian American 3.08 20.3 20.9 22.9 18.6 17.3

American Indian/Alaska Native 2.39 6.0 13.6 23.1 28.2 29.2

Calculus AB, total1 3.01 21.6 21.1 17.9 15.3 24.0

White 3.14 23.1 22.8 18.9 15.4 19.8

Black 2.00 6.5 10.8 13.1 15.2 54.4

Hispanic 2.28 9.9 13.9 14.9 16.6 44.7

Asian/Asian American 3.23 27.1 21.8 17.3 14.3 19.5

American Indian/Alaska Native 2.51 11.4 17.0 18.1 18.1 35.3

English literature and composition, 

total1 2.84 6.5 19.8 33.9 30.7 9.1

White 3.03 7.6 23.4 37.7 27.0 4.3

Black 1.99 1.0 5.4 17.9 43.4 32.4

Hispanic 2.27 2.1 8.9 24.6 42.8 21.6

Asian/Asian American 2.94 8.2 21.3 33.8 29.8 6.9

American Indian/Alaska Native 2.44 2.6 11.0 29.6 41.7 15.0

U.S. history, total1 2.57 8.5 18.2 21.4 25.5 26.5

White 2.73 9.5 20.3 23.6 26.5 20.1

Black 1.77 2.1 7.0 12.3 22.6 56.0

Hispanic 1.93 3.1 9.0 14.5 24.7 48.8

Asian/Asian American 2.81 12.3 21.6 22.1 22.8 21.2

American Indian/Alaska Native 2.19 3.3 13.4 18.2 29.4 35.7

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown. 

NOTE: Calculus AB, English literature and composition, and U.S. history are some of the most frequently taken AP exams (The College Board 

2005). The grades for all AP examinations range from 1 to 5, with 5 being the highest score. Data reported are for all students who completed an 

Advanced Placement exam. The College Board collects racial/ethnic information based on the following categories: American Indian/Alaskan, 

Asian/Asian American, Black/Afro-American, Latino (Chicano/Mexican, Puerto Rican, Other Latino), White, and Other. Black refers to test-takers 

who identified themselves as Black/Afro-American, and Hispanic refers to the sum of all Latino subgroups. Race categories exclude persons of 

Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: The College Board, Advanced Placement Program, National Summary Report, 2008. 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 79Chapter 3 — Achievement

In 2008, Hispanic students in the United States took about 338,700 AP exams. The most common exam taken 

by Hispanic students, Spanish language, had the highest average scores for each Hispanic subgroup—3.69 

for both Mexican American students and Other Hispanic students, and 3.27 for Puerto Rican students. 

In addition to the 57,200 Spanish language exams they completed, students of Hispanic ethnicity also 

completed about 40,300 exams in English language and composition and approximately 39,400 exams in 

U.S. history in 2008.18 Puerto Rican students had the highest average score of the Hispanic subgroups on 

four of the five most commonly taken AP exams—biology, calculus AB, English language and composition, 

and U.S. history.

Snapshot of Hispanic Subgroups: Advanced Placement

18 English language and composition and U.S. history exams represented approximately 12 percent each of the exams taken by 

Hispanic students. In comparison, 12 percent of all AP exams taken in 2008 were English language and composition and 11 

percent were U.S. history.

Table 14c. Number of exams taken and mean grade on Advanced Placement (AP) exams, by Hispanic 

subgroup and subject: 2008

Subject

Mexican American Puerto Rican Other Hispanic

Exams taken Mean grade Exams taken Mean grade Exams taken Mean grade

Total1 161,410 2.38 20,260 2.39 157,064 2.47

Biology 6,116 1.73 1,040 2.06 6,472 1.99

Calculus AB 9,980 2.13 1,168 2.55 8,682 2.41

Calculus BC 1,604 2.76 205 3.43 1,909 3.18

Chemistry 3,359 1.75 520 2.22 3,422 2.11

English language and 

composition 19,915 2.13 2,278 2.47 18,097 2.27

English literature and 

composition 16,346 2.20 2,552 2.39 16,437 2.33

Human geography 1,376 2.03 590 1.80 2,726 2.17

Psychology 4,346 2.36 1,065 2.52 6,932 2.59

Spanish language 30,981 3.69 1,897 3.27 24,280 3.69

Spanish literature 6,780 2.66 199 2.59 5,039 2.78

U.S. history 19,569 1.85 2,526 2.12 17,277 1.98

World history 7,835 1.86 1,172 2.11 7,913 2.02

1 Totals include other subjects not separately shown.

NOTE: Data reported are for all students who completed an Advanced Placement exam. The College Board collects racial/ethnic information 

based on the following categories: American Indian/Alaskan, Asian/Asian American, Black/Afro-American, Latino (Chicano/Mexican, Puerto 

Rican, Other Latino), White, and Other.

SOURCE: The College Board, Advanced Placement Program, National Summary Report, 2008. 
80 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 15 — College Entrance Exams

Many colleges and universities in the United States 

require students to submit standardized assessment 

scores from either the SAT or ACT as part of their 

applications (Snyder, Dillow, and Hoffman 2009, 

table 326). Of the class that graduated from high 

school in 2008, 1.5 million students took the SAT 

and 1.4 million students took the ACT (SAT 2008 

and ACT 2008). While overall more students are 

taking these examinations, differences remain across 

racial/ethnic groups in both SAT and ACT results. 

Compared with previous years, in 2008, White 

students represented a lower percentage of SAT testtakers (60 percent) and ACT test-takers (68 percent).

15.1. SAT Results

The population of SAT test-takers is becoming more 

diverse. Over the last decade, Black students have 

consistently represented 11–12 percent of high school 

graduates who took the SAT. Hispanic students, 

however, represented 13 percent of total test-takers in 

2008, up from 9 percent in 1998. The percentage of 

Asian/Pacific Islander test-takers also increased, from 

9 percent in 1998 to 11 percent in 2008.

15. College Entrance Exams

Table 15.1a. Percentage distribution of the 12th-grade SAT test-taking population, by race/ethnicity: 

1998–2008

Race/ethnicity 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Total1 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

White 67.1 66.8 66.4 65.5 65.0 63.8 62.7 62.3 62.1 60.8 59.8

Black 10.9 11.1 11.1 11.2 11.4 12.0 12.0 11.6 11.3 12.0 12.1

Hispanic 8.6 8.8 9.1 9.4 9.7 10.2 10.7 10.9 11.4 12.0 13.2

Asian/Pacific Islander 9.0 8.9 9.0 9.5 9.6 9.6 9.8 10.2 10.4 10.0 10.5

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.0 0.7

1 Total includes other races/ethnicities not separately shown; therefore, detail may not sum to 100. 

NOTE: Test-takers were asked to self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. The categories “Mexican American,” “Puerto Rican,” and “Other 

Hispanic/Latino” are combined into the category “Hispanic” for this table. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: The College Board, College Bound Seniors, 1998–2008. 

 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 81Chapter 3 — Achievement

Figure 15.1a. Percentage distribution of the 12th-grade SAT test-taking population, by race/ethnicity: 

1998 and 2008

NOTE: Test-takers were asked to self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: The College Board, College Bound Seniors, 1998 and 2008. 

■ 1998 ■ 2008

White Black Hispanic

Race/ethnicity

Asian/Pacific

Islander

American Indian/

Alaska Native

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

67

60

11 12 9

13

9 11

1 1
82 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 15 — College Entrance Exams

The SAT includes a critical reading section and a 

mathematics section, each scored on a scale ranging 

from 200 to 800 points.19,20 In 2008, the overall 

average score on the critical reading section was 502, 

with White students having the highest average of 

any racial/ethnic group (528). Asian/Pacific Islander 

students had the second highest average critical 

reading score (513), followed by American Indian/

Alaska Native (485), Puerto Rican (456), Other 

Hispanic/Latino (455), Mexican American (454), 

and Black students (430).

The overall average score on the critical reading section 

has declined over the last decade from 505 to 502, yet 

many of the racial/ethnic groups have not followed 

the pattern. White, Mexican American, Puerto Rican, 

Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska 

Native students each had higher average critical 

reading scores in 2008 than in 1998. Black students’ 

average critical reading score declined from 434 in 

1998 to 430 in 2008, and Other Hispanic/Latino 

students’ average score declined from 461 to 455 

during this time period.

Although the critical reading and mathematics 

sections have the same score range, in general, average 

scores were higher on the mathematics section. The 

overall average score on the mathematics section 

was 515 in 2008. Asian/Pacific Islander students 

had the highest mathematics average in 2008 (581), 

which was higher than the averages of White (537), 

American Indian/Alaska Native (491), Mexican 

American (463), Other Hispanic/Latino (461), 

Puerto Rican (453), and Black (426) students. 

Although Asian/Pacific Islander and White students 

improved their mathematics scores from 2006 to 

2008 (by 3 points and 1 point, respectively), the 

performance of all other racial/ethnic groups shown 

declined by 1 to 3 points. 

Table 15.1b. Average SAT scores for the 12th-grade SAT test-taking population, by race/ethnicity and 

subject: Selected years, 1998–2008

Subject and 

year Total1 White Black

Mexican 

American

Puerto 

Rican

Other 

Hispanic/

Latino

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

Critical Reading

1998 505 526 434 453 452 461 498 480

2000 505 528 434 453 456 461 499 482

2002 504 527 430 446 455 458 501 479

2004 508 528 430 451 457 461 507 483

2006 503 527 434 454 459 458 510 487

2008 502 528 430 454 456 455 513 485

Mathematics

1998 512 528 426 460 447 466 562 483

2000 514 530 426 460 451 467 565 481

2002 516 533 427 457 451 464 569 483

2004 518 531 427 458 452 465 577 488

2006 518 536 429 465 456 463 578 494

2008 515 537 426 463 453 461 581 491

Writing

2006 497 519 428 452 448 450 512 474

2007 494 518 425 450 447 450 513 473

2008 494 518 424 447 445 448 516 470

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Data are for seniors who took the SAT any time during high school (through March of their senior year). If a student took a test more 

than once, the most recent score was used. The SAT was formerly known as the Scholastic Assessment Test and the Scholastic Aptitude Test. 

Possible scores on each part of the SAT range from 200 to 800. The critical reading section was formerly known as the verbal section. The writing 

section was introduced in March 2005; however, the first aggregate data on the writing section was reported in 2006. Test-takers were asked to 

self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: The College Board, College Bound Seniors, selected years, 1998–2008.

19 The critical reading section of the exam includes sentence completions, passage-based reading, and analogies that measure 

extended reasoning, literal comprehension, and vocabulary in context. The mathematics section of the exam includes multiplechoice items, student-produced responses, and quantitative comparisons. 

20 In 2006, the SAT introduced a new writing section, but results are not discussed in this indicator. 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 83Chapter 3 — Achievement

Figure 15.1b. Average SAT scores for the 12th-grade SAT test-taking population, by subject and race/

ethnicity: 2008

NOTE: Data are for seniors who took the SAT any time during their high school years through March of their senior year. If a student took a test 

more than once, the most recent score was used. The SAT was formerly known as the Scholastic Assessment Test and the Scholastic Aptitude 

Test. Possible scores on each part of the SAT range from 200 to 800. The critical reading section was formerly known as the verbal section. Testtakers were asked to self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: The College Board, College Bound Seniors, 2008.

■ White ■ Black ■ Mexican ■ Puerto Rican ■ Other Hispanic/ ■ Asian/Pacific ■ American Indian/

American Latino Islander Alaska Native

Subject

0 100 200 300 400

Score

500 600 700 800

Critical

Reading

513

455

456

454

430

528

Mathematics

491

581

461

453

463

426

537

Writing

470

516

448

445

447

424

518
84 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups Indicator 15 — College Entrance Exams

15.2. ACT Results

The ACT consists of four sections: English, 

mathematics, reading, and science. Scores for each 

section range from 0 to 36. The ACT calculates 

composite scores for each section that indicate a 

minimal readiness for college (Allen and Scoming 

2005). 

Similar to the SAT, the race/ethnicity mix of ACT 

test-takers has changed over the past decade. Black 

students represented 14 percent of the test-takers in 

2008, up from 11 percent in 1998. Similarly, the 

percent of test-takers that were Hispanic increased 

from 6 percent in 1998 to 9 percent in 2008.

Figure 15.2a. Percentage distribution of ACT test-taking population, by race/ethnicity: 1998 and 2008 

NOTE: Estimates are based on all students who took the ACT assessment during their sophomore, junior, or senior year, and who graduated from 

high school in the spring of the respective year shown. If a student tested more than once, only his/her most recent test record was used. Testtakers were asked to self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: American College Testing Program, ACT National Scores Report, 1998 and 2008. 

 

■ 1998 ■ 2008

White Black Hispanic

Race/ethnicity

Asian/

Pacific Islander

American Indian/

Alaska Native

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

76

68

11 14

6 9

3 4 1 1

Table 15.2a. Percentage distribution of ACT test-taking population, by race/ethnicity: 1998–2008 

Race/ethnicity 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Total1 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

White 76.1 76.1 75.6 75.2 74.2 73.3 72.4 71.2 69.9 68.8 68.3

Black 10.8 10.8 11.0 11.1 11.5 11.8 12.1 12.7 12.8 13.5 13.6

Hispanic 5.6 5.5 5.7 5.9 6.4 6.9 7.2 7.6 7.9 8.2 8.7

Asian/Pacific Islander 3.3 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.7 3.7 3.9

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.1

1 Includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown; therefore, detail may not sum to 100.

NOTE: Estimates are based on all students who took the ACT assessment during their sophomore, junior, or senior year, and who graduated 

from high school in the spring of the respective year shown. Test-takers were asked to self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. Race categories 

exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: American College Testing Program, ACT National Scores Report, 1998–2008.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 85Chapter 3 — Achievement

ACT English scores have fluctuated over time. In 

English, the overall average score decreased from 

20.4 in 1998 to 20.2 in 2002 and then increased to 

20.6 in 2008. The racial/ethnic groups whose scores 

in 2008 were not higher than their scores in 1998 

were Black students (16.4 in 1998 and 16.1 in 2008) 

and American Indian/Alaska Native students (18.1 

in both years). 

ACT mathematics scores also decreased between 1998 

and 2002 and then increased between 2002 and 2008 

for each race/ethnicity group. The largest overall gain 

made during this time period was for Asian/Pacific 

Islander students. Their average score was 0.7 points 

higher in 2008 than it was in 1998 (24.1 and 23.4, 

respectively).

Table 15.2b. Average ACT scores in English and mathematics, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1998–

2008

Year Total1 White Black Hispanic

Mexican 

American

Puerto 

Rican/ 

Other 

Hispanic

Asian/ 

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

English

1998 20.4 21.2 16.4 — 17.5 18.7 20.5 18.1

2000 20.5 21.3 16.4 — 17.6 18.7 20.5 18.0

2002 20.2 21.2 16.2 — 17.1 17.9 20.5 17.6

2004 20.4 21.4 16.3 — 17.3 17.9 21.0 17.8

2006 20.6 21.7 16.3 — 17.4 18.1 21.5 17.8

2008 20.6 21.7 16.1 17.7 — — 22.1 18.1

Mathematics

1998 20.8 21.4 16.9 — 18.6 19.7 23.4 18.6

2000 20.7 21.3 16.8 — 18.7 19.5 23.2 18.5

2002 20.6 21.3 16.7 — 18.4 18.9 22.9 18.4

2004 20.7 21.4 16.9 — 18.5 18.9 23.0 18.6

2006 20.8 21.6 17.0 — 18.7 19.1 23.4 18.6

2008 21.0 21.8 17.0 19.0 — — 24.1 18.8

— Not available.

1 Includes students who did not report their race/ethnicity.

NOTE: Scores for both English and mathematics range from 0 to 36. Some data have been revised from previously published figures. Estimates 

are based on all students who took the ACT assessment during their sophomore, junior or senior year, and who graduated from high school in 

the spring of the respective year shown. Test-takers were asked to self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. Race categories exclude persons of 

Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: American College Testing Program, ACT National Scores Reports, selected years, 1998–2008.
86 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 15 — College Entrance Exams

The ACT benchmarking scores provide insight as to 

the college preparedness of high school seniors who 

took the ACT. For each subject area, benchmarking 

scores reflect the average score associated with a 50 

percent likelihood of obtaining a “B,” or a 75 percent 

likelihood of obtaining a “C” in a corresponding 

college course. In 2008, about 22 percent of the 

ACT test-takers met the college readiness benchmark 

in all four subjects. About one-third of Asian/

Pacific Islander test-takers met all four benchmarks, 

compared to 3 percent of Black test-takers. 

The highest college readiness rate was in English 

and the lowest was in science (68 percent vs. 28 

percent). In all four subjects, Black test-takers had 

the lowest readiness rates. White test-takers had the 

highest readiness rates in English and reading (77 

percent and 61 percent, respectively), while Asians/

Pacific Islanders had the highest readiness rates in 

mathematics and science (63 percent and 38 percent, 

respectively).

Table 15.2c. Percentage of ACT test-taking population meeting college readiness benchmark scores, by 

race/ethnicity: 2008

Race/ethnicity All four

English 

(benchmark 

score: 18)

Mathematics 

(benchmark 

score: 22)

Reading 

(benchmark 

score: 21)

Science 

(benchmark 

score: 24)

Total1 22 68 43 53 28

White 27 77 49 61 33

Black 3 37 11 21 5

Hispanic 10 49 26 35 13

Asian/Pacific Islander 33 75 63 59 38

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 11 52 25 40 16

1 Includes students who did not report their race/ethnicity. 

NOTE: College readiness benchmark scores are based on the actual performance of college students and are the minimum ACT subject-area 

scores associated with a 50 percent chance of earning at least a B or a 75 percent chance of earning at least a C in corresponding college 

classes. English scores predict performance in English composition, mathematics scores predict performance in algebra, reading scores predict 

performance in social sciences, and science scores predict performance in biology. Estimates are based on all students who took the ACT 

assessment during their sophomore, junior, or senior year, and who graduated from high school in the spring of 2008. Test-takers were asked to 

self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: American College Testing Program, ACT National Scores Report, 2008. 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 87Chapter 3 — Achievement

Figure 15.2b. Percentage of ACT test-taking population meeting college readiness benchmark scores, by 

race/ethnicity, 2008

NOTE: College readiness benchmark scores are based on the actual performance of college students and are the minimum ACT subject-area 

scores associated with a 50 percent chance of earning at least a B or a 75 percent chance of earning at least a C in corresponding college 

classes. English scores predict performance in English composition, mathematics scores predict performance in algebra, reading scores predict 

performance in social sciences, and science scores predict performance in biology. Estimates are based on all students who took the ACT 

assessment during their sophomore, junior, or senior year, and who graduated from high school in the spring of 2008. Test-takers were asked to 

self-identify a single racial/ethnic group. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: American College Testing Program, ACT National Scores Report, 2008.

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian/Pacific Islander ■ American Indian/Alaska Native

Subject area

50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

0 10 20 30 40

Science

16

38

13

5

33

Reading

40

59

35

21

61

Mathematics

25

63

26

11

49

English

52

75

49

37

77

All four

11

33

10

3

27
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Chapter 4 looks at three measures of student 

persistence in school. Indicator 16 examines student 

absences from school. Among eighth-graders in 2009, 

Asians/Pacific Islanders had the highest percentage of 

students who had no absences in the month prior to 

the survey, while American Indians/Alaska Natives 

had the highest percentage of students who had 

missed 3 or more days. Generally, a higher percentage 

of students who had not missed school scored at 

or above the Basic achievement level on the NAEP 

mathematics assessment than students who had been 

absent.

Indicator 17 examines rates of retention, suspension, 

and expulsion. In 2007, a higher percentage of Black 

students than students of any other race/ethnicity in 

grades 6 through 12 had been suspended from school 

at some point in their school career. Additionally, 

a higher percentage of Black students than White, 

Hispanic, or Asian students in kindergarten through 

grade 12 had been retained in a grade. Overall rates 

of retention, suspension, and expulsion were higher 

for males than females.

Indicator 18 discusses high school status dropout 

rates and graduation rates. Between 1997 and 2007, 

the percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were 

high school status dropouts, meaning they were not 

enrolled in school and had not earned a high school 

credential (either a diploma or equivalency credential, 

such as a General Education Development [GED] 

certificate), decreased from 11 percent to 9 percent. 

In 2007, Hispanics had a higher percentage of status 

dropouts (21 percent) than did Blacks, Whites, and 

Asians/Pacific Islanders, and Blacks and American 

Indians/Alaska Natives had higher percentages than 

did Whites and Asians/Pacific Islanders (indicator 

18.1). For each year between 1997 and 2007, males 

had a higher status dropout rate than females. This 

indicator also examines the averaged freshman 

graduation rate (AFGR), which is an estimate of the 

percentage of a freshman class that receives a regular 

high school diploma within 4 years of entering high 

school. Of the students that entered high school in 

the 2002–03 school year, some 74 percent graduated 

within 4 years (indicator 18.2). The AFGR was higher 

for White and Asian/Pacific Islander students than 

for Black, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska 

Native students.

4 Persistence
90 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 16 — Absences

Children who are frequently absent from school may 

experience academic difficulties and are less likely 

to complete school if no intervention takes place 

(DeSocio et al. 2007). Examining school absences 

by racial/ethnic group may reveal racial/ethnic 

differences in the percentages of students who are at 

risk academically.

In 2009, about 63 percent of Asian/Pacific Islander 

8th-grade students reported zero absences from 

school in the preceding month, while 35 percent of 

American Indian/Alaska Native 8th-grade students 

reported no absences. Asians/Pacific Islanders had 

the lowest percentage of students who had missed 

3 or more days of school (11 percent), while 

American Indians/Alaska Natives had the highest (28 

percent). Higher percentages of Black (23 percent) 

and Hispanic students (22 percent) had missed 3 

or more days than was the case for White students 

(19 percent).

Examining students’ school attendance and their 

scores on the National Assessment of Educational 

Progress (NAEP) mathematics assessment sheds 

light on the link between absences and achievement 

(see indicator 11.2 for more information on the 

NAEP mathematics assessment). Students with fewer 

absences were more likely to score at or above Basic on 

the NAEP mathematics assessment. For 8th-graders 

overall, 78 percent of students who had no absences 

in the past month scored at or above Basic, whereas 

74 percent of those with one or two absences and 60 

percent of those with three or more absences scored 

at or above Basic. This pattern held true for most 

racial/ethnic groups.21

16. Absences

21 There was one exception to this pattern: the percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native students with no absences who scored 

at or above Basic was not measurably different from the percentage with one or two absences who scored at or above Basic. 

Table 16. Percentage distribution of 8th-graders and percentage at or above Basic on the National 

Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) mathematics assessment, by the number of days 

absent from school in the past month and race/ethnicity: 2009

Race/ethnicity Total No absences

1–2 

absences

3 or more 

absences

Percentage distribution

Total1 100 45 35 20

White 100 44 37 19

Black 100 45 32 23

Hispanic 100 45 34 22

Asian/Pacific Islander 100 63 26 11

American Indian/Alaska Native 100 35 36 28

Percentage at or above Basic

Total1 73 78 74 60

White 83 87 84 73

Black 50 56 50 38

Hispanic 57 63 58 44

Asian/Pacific Islander 85 89 84 68

American Indian/Alaska Native 56 64 59 43

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009 

Mathematics Assessment, retrieved November 18, 2009, from the NAEP Data Explorer (http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/nde).
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 91Chapter 4 — Persistence

Figure 16. Percentage of 8th-graders at or above Basic on the National Assessment of Educational 

Progress (NAEP) mathematics assessment, by race/ethnicity and number of days absent from 

school in the past month: 2009

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009 

Mathematics Assessment, retrieved November 18, 2009, from the NAEP Data Explorer (http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/nde).

■ No absences ■ 1–2 absences ■ 3 or more absences

White Black Hispanic

Race/ethnicity

Asian/

Pacific Islander

American Indian/

Alaska Native

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

87 84

73

56

50

38

63

58

44

89

84

68 64

59

43
92 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 17 — 

Retention, 

Suspension, and Expulsion

Students may be retained in a grade if they lack 

the required academic or social skills to advance to 

the next grade. In 2007, some 11 percent of public 

school students in kindergarten through grade 12 

had ever been retained (i.e., repeated a grade since 

starting school). Students in higher grades may also 

be suspended (temporarily removed from regular 

school activities either in or out of school) or expelled 

(permanently removed from school with no services) 

due to behavior problems. In 2007, some 22 percent 

of public school students in grades 6 through 12 had 

been suspended and 3 percent had been expelled. 

In 2007, about 21 percent of Black students in 

kindergarten through grade 12 had been retained, 

a higher percentage than the percentages for White, 

Hispanic, or Asian students. The percentages of 

Hispanic students (12 percent) and students of two 

or more races (14 percent) who had been retained in 

a grade were higher than the percentages of White 

(9 percent) and Asian (3 percent) students who had 

been retained. 

Of students in grades 6 through 12, a larger percentage 

of Black students (43 percent) had been suspended 

than White (16 percent), Hispanic (22 percent), 

Asian (11 percent), American Indian/Alaska Native 

(14 percent) students, and students of two or more 

races (25 percent). Students of two or more races and 

Hispanic students had higher rates of suspension than 

the rates for White and Asian students. In addition, a 

higher percentage of Black students had been expelled 

(13 percent) than was the case for White students (1 

percent), Hispanic students (3 percent), and students 

of two or more races (4 percent). 

Differences exist between males and females when 

examining rates of retention, suspension, and 

expulsion. In 2007, about 14 percent of male students 

in kindergarten through grade 12 had repeated a 

grade, compared with 9 percent of female students. 

Additionally, for both Black and White students, 

a larger percentage of males than females had been 

retained. A similar pattern emerged for suspensions. 

Overall, the percentage of males in grades 6 through 

12 who had been suspended was almost twice the 

percentage of females who had been suspended (28 vs. 

15 percent) and the same ratio was observed for White 

and Hispanic males and females. Additionally, among 

students overall, the percentage of males in grades 6 

through 12 who had been expelled was twice that of 

their female counterparts. 

17. Retention, Suspension, and Expulsion

Table 17a. Percentage of public school students in kindergarten through grade 12 who had ever 

repeated a grade, by sex and race/ethnicity: 2007

Race/ethnicity Total Male Female

Total1 11.5 13.9 8.9

White 8.7 11.2 6.1

Black 20.9 25.6 15.3

Hispanic 11.8 12.4 11.1

Asian 3.5! 6.5! #

American Indian/Alaska Native 13.0! ‡ ‡

Two or more races 14.5 15.7 13.1

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: All data are based on parent reports. Reporting standards for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders were not met; therefore, data for 

this group are not shown on the table. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2007.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 93Chapter 4 — Persistence

Figure 17. Percentage of public school students in grades 6 through 12 who had ever been suspended, 

by race/ethnicity and sex: 2007

! Interpret data with caution. 

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

NOTE: All data are based on parent reports. Reporting standards for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders and American Indians or Alaska 

Natives were not met; therefore, data for those groups are not shown on the figure. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2007.

■ Male ■ Female

White Black Hispanic

Race/ethnicity

Asian Two or 

more races

0

10

20

30

40

50

Percent

21

10

49

35

30

14

‡

15!

29

21

Table 17b. Percentage of public school students in grades 6 through 12 who had ever been suspended or 

expelled, by sex and race/ethnicity: 2007

Suspended Expelled

Race/ethnicity Total Male Female Total Male Female

Total1 21.6 27.9 14.9 3.4 4.5 2.3

White 15.6 21.3 9.7 1.0 1.3 0.7!

Black 42.8 49.5 34.7 12.8 16.6 8.2

Hispanic 21.9 29.6 14.1 3.0! 3.1! 2.9!

Asian 10.8! 14.9! ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/Alaska Native 14.2! ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more races 25.5 29.2 20.5 3.7! 6.2! 0.3!

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: All data are based on parent reports. Reporting standards for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders were not met; therefore, data for 

this group are not shown on the table. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2007.
94 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 18 — Dropout 

Rates and 

Graduation 

Rates

Young adults who do not finish high school are more 

likely to be unemployed than those who complete 

high school and if they do find employment they may 

earn less than high school graduates. (see indicators 

28 and 29). The status dropout rate represents the 

percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who are not enrolled 

in school and have not earned a high school credential 

(either a diploma or an equivalency credential such 

as a General Educational Development [GED] 

certificate). In the first part of this indicator, status 

dropout rates are estimated using both the Current 

Population Survey (CPS) and the American 

Community Survey (ACS). The CPS provides several 

decades of historical trends on status dropouts that are 

not available from the ACS. However, the ACS allows 

for more detailed comparisons of status dropout rates 

by race/ethnicity and nativity. And unlike the CPS, 

the ACS includes institutionalized persons, such as 

those who are incarcerated.

The second part of this indicator provides estimates 

on the percentage of public school students who 

are graduating on time with a regular diploma. To 

do so, it uses the Averaged Freshman Graduation 

Rate—an estimate of the percentage of a freshman 

class that receives a regular diploma within four years 

of entering high school.

18.1. Dropouts

Between 1997 and 2007, the percentage of 16- to 

24-year-olds who were status dropouts decreased from 

11 to 9 percent. Status dropout rates and changes in 

these rates over time differ by race/ethnicity. In 1997, 

a higher percentage of Hispanics were status dropouts 

(25 percent) than were Blacks (13 percent), Whites 

(8 percent), Asians/Pacific Islanders (7 percent), and 

American Indians/Alaska Natives (15 percent). The 

percentages of Blacks and American Indians/Alaska 

Natives who were status dropouts were also higher 

than the respective percentages of Whites and Asians/

Pacific Islanders. In 2007, a similar pattern was 

evident: a higher percentage of Hispanics were status 

dropouts (21 percent) than Blacks (8 percent), Asians/

Pacific Islanders (6 percent), and Whites (5 percent), 

and the percentages of Blacks and American Indians/

Alaska Natives (19 percent) who were status dropouts 

were higher than the percentages of Whites and 

Asians/Pacific Islanders who were status dropouts. No 

measurable differences in status dropout rates were 

found between Hispanics and American Indians/

Alaska Natives in 2007. 

In general, the status dropout rates for Whites, Blacks, 

and Hispanics declined between 1997 and 2007. 

However, for each year during that period, the status 

dropout rate was lower for Whites and Blacks than 

for Hispanics. The rate for Asians/Pacific Islanders 

was also lower than the rates for Hispanics and Blacks 

between 1997 and 2007. During that period, the gap 

between the status dropout rates of Blacks and Whites 

narrowed. While the gap between the status dropout 

rates of Hispanics and Whites was larger in 1998 than 

in 1997, this gap narrowed between 1998 and 2007. 

18. Dropout Rates and Graduation Rates
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 95Chapter 4 — Persistence

Figure 18.1. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity: 

1997–2007

NOTE: The data presented here represent status dropout rates. The status dropout rate is the percentage of civilian, noninstitutionalized 16- to 

24-year-olds who are not in high school and who have not earned a high school credential (either a diploma or equivalency credential such as 

a GED). It includes all dropouts, regardless of when they last attended school, as well as individuals who may have never attended school in 

the United States, such as immigrants who did not complete a high school diploma in their home country. The 1999 data for American Indians/

Alaska Natives have been suppressed due to unstable estimates. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October 1997–2007. 

 

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Year

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

0

10

20

30

40

50

Percent

 White  Black  Hispanic  Asian/Pacific Islander  American Indian/Alaska Native



        

          

   

     





    

    





 

  

 


96 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 18 — Dropout 

Rates and 

Graduation 

Rates

The decreases in status dropout rates that were found 

for males and females were similar to the decreases 

in overall status dropout rates. For example, status 

dropout rates were lower in 2007 than in 1997 for 

males (10 percent vs. 12 percent) and for females (8 

percent vs. 10 percent). In addition, the rates varied 

by race/ethnicity for each sex. A higher percentage 

of Hispanic males (25 percent) were status dropouts 

than were Black males (8 percent) and White and 

Asian/Pacific Islander males (6 percent each) in 2007. 

Similarly, a higher percentage of Hispanic females 

(18 percent) were status dropouts than were Black 

(9 percent), White (4 percent), and Asian/Pacific 

Islander (6 percent) females. Overall, males had a 

higher status dropout rate than females for each year 

between 1997 and 2007. In addition, in 2007, White 

and Hispanic males had higher status dropout rates 

(6 and 25 percent, respectively) than their female 

counterparts (4 and 18 percent, respectively).

Status dropout rates for White and Black males and 

White, Black, and Hispanic females declined between 

1997 and 2007. Comparing rates in 1997 with those 

in 2007, there was no measurable change in the 

gap between White males and females or the gap 

between Black males and females. Despite apparent 

differences in the rates of Hispanic males and females, 

no measurable change in the gap was found between 

1997 and 2007. 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 97

Table 18.1a. Percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity 

Chapter 4 — Persistence

and sex: 1997–2007

Year and sex Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native

Total

1997 11.0 7.6 13.4 25.3 6.9 14.5

1998 11.8 7.7 13.8 29.5 4.1 11.8

1999 11.2 7.3 12.6 28.6 4.3 ‡

2000 10.9 6.9 13.1 27.8 3.8 14.0

2001 10.7 7.3 10.9 27.0 3.6 13.1

2002 10.5 6.5 11.3 25.7 3.9 16.8

2003 9.91 6.3 10.9 23.5 3.9 15.0

2004 10.31 6.8 11.8 23.8 3.6 17.0

2005 9.41 6.0 10.4 22.4 2.9 14.0

2006 9.31 5.8 10.7 22.1 3.6 14.7

2007 8.71 5.3 8.4 21.4 6.1 19.3

Male

1997 11.9 8.5 13.3 27.0 5.9 12.2!

1998 13.3 8.6 15.5 33.5 3.4! 9.0!

1999 11.9 7.7 12.1 31.0 5.9 ‡

2000 12.0 7.0 15.3 31.8 4.9 10.9!

2001 12.2 7.9 13.0 31.6 5.4 10.3!

2002 11.8 6.7 12.8 29.6 4.9 21.4

2003 11.31 7.1 12.5 26.7 5.5 17.4!

2004 11.61 7.1 13.5 28.5 2.2! 12.6!

2005 10.81 6.6 12.0 26.4 2.8! 16.6

2006 10.51 6.4 9.7 25.7 4.7 16.8!

2007 9.81 6.0 8.0 24.7 5.8 21.4

Female

1997 10.1 6.7 13.5 23.4 7.9 16.9

1998 10.3 6.9 12.2 25.0 4.8 14.4!

1999 10.5 6.9 13.0 26.0 2.9! ‡

2000 9.9 6.9 11.1 23.5 2.6! 17.8!

2001 9.3 6.7 9.0 22.1 1.6! 14.9

2002 9.2 6.3 9.9 21.2 2.8! 12.7

2003 8.41 5.6 9.5 20.1 2.3! 12.7!

2004 9.01 6.4 10.2 18.5 4.9 21.7

2005 8.01 5.3 9.0 18.1 3.0! 11.3!

2006 8.51 5.3 11.7 18.1 2.5! 12.1!

2007 7.71 4.5 8.8 18.0 6.4 17.6

‡ Reporting standards not met.

! Interpret data with caution. 

1 For 2003 through 2007, totals include other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: The data presented here represent status dropout rates. The status dropout rate is defined for this table as the percentage of civilian, 

noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-year-olds who are not in high school and who have not earned a high school credential (either a diploma or 

equivalency credential such as a GED). It includes all dropouts, regardless of when they last attended school, as well as individuals who may have 

never attended school in the United States, such as immigrants who did not complete a high school diploma in their home country. The 1999 data 

for American Indians/Alaska Natives have been suppressed due to unstable estimates. This table uses a different data source from table 18.1b. In 

addition, this table includes persons in the civilian, noninstitutionalized population, while tables 18.1b and 18.1c include institutionalized persons 

in addition to noninstitutionalized persons. Therefore, estimates are not directly comparable to the 2007 estimates in table 18.1b or 18.1c. Race 

categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October 1997–2007.
98 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 18 — Dropout 

Rates and 

Graduation 

Rates

The status dropout rate includes all 16- to 24-year-old dropouts, regardless of when they last attended 

school, as well as individuals who may never have attended school in the United States and who may never 

have earned a high school credential. Therefore, examining status dropout rates for those born within the 

United States (refers to the 50 states and the District of Columbia) may provide a more accurate measure 

of those who have attended U.S. schools. Based on data from the ACS, the status dropout rate in 2007 was 

higher for Hispanics born in the United States (11 percent) than for Whites (6 percent), Asians (2 percent), 

and Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders (6 percent) born in the United States. However, the status 

dropout rate for Hispanics born in the United States was lower than the rate for American Indians/Alaska 

Natives born in the United States, and no measurable differences were found between Hispanics and Blacks 

born in the United States. 

Overall, the status dropout rate for 16- to 24-year-olds born in the United States was lower than the rate 

for their peers born outside the United States (8 vs. 21 percent). Hispanics, Asians, and Native Hawaiians 

or Other Pacific Islanders born in the United States had lower status dropout rates than their counterparts 

born outside the United States, whereas Whites, Blacks, and American Indians/Alaskan Natives born in 

the United States had higher status dropout rates than their counterparts born outside the United States. 

Higher dropout rates among Hispanics born outside the United States partially account for the high dropout 

rates among all Hispanic young adults. For Hispanic 16- to 24-year-olds who were born outside the United 

States, the 2007 status dropout rate was 34 percent—higher than the rate for Hispanics born within the 

United States. (11 percent). 

Among Hispanic subgroups, Other Central Americans (29 percent) and Salvadorans (26 percent) in the 

United States had the highest percentages of young adults who were status dropouts, followed by Mexicans 

(22 percent), Puerto Ricans (15 percent), Dominicans (13 percent), and Other Hispanics or Latinos (12 

percent). Cubans (6 percent) and South Americans (8 percent) had the lowest percentages among all Hispanic 

subgroups of young adults who were status dropouts. Among Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, 

Salvadorans, Other Central Americans, South Americans, and Other Hispanics or Latinos, the status 

dropout rate was higher for young adults who were born outside the United States than for those who were 

born in the United States.

Among Asian subgroups, the status dropout rate for young adults in the Other Asian subgroup (including 

Cambodian, Hmong, and other groups) (7 percent) was higher than the rates for Indian (1 percent), Filipino 

(1 percent), Korean (1 percent), Chinese (3 percent), Japanese (3 percent), and Vietnamese young adults (4 

percent). Indian, Chinese, Filipino, and Other Asian young adults who were born outside the United States 

had higher status dropout rates than did those born in the United States of the same subgroups.

Snapshot of Hispanic and Asian Subgroups: Dropout Rate by Nativity
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 99Chapter 4 — Persistence

Table 18.1b. Number and percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who were high school status dropouts, by 

nativity and race/ethnicity with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2007

Race/ethnicity Population

Number of 

status 

dropouts

Status dropout 

rate (percent)

Dropout rate for 

born within the 

United States1

(percent)

Dropout rate 

for born 

outside the 

United States1

(percent)

Total2 38,491,300 3,582,600 9.3 7.7 21.2

White 23,350,100 1,425,900 6.1 6.1 5.4

Black 5,535,400 634,600 11.5 11.8 7.6

Hispanic 6,766,000 1,349,500 19.9 11.5 34.3

Mexican 4,459,300 991,100 22.2 12.1 38.8

Puerto Rican 604,100 89,200 14.8 12.8 23.0

Cuban 180,200 10,900 6.0 5.3 8.0

Dominican 192,500 25,100 13.0 8.7 18.1

Salvadoran 215,300 55,600 25.8 10.1 41.1

Other Central American 323,600 94,500 29.2 8.6 40.8

South American 319,900 25,500 8.0 5.4 9.8

Other Hispanic or Latino 471,200 57,500 12.2 11.3 18.8

Asian 1,565,400 46,600 3.0 2.2 3.7

Asian Indian 286,200 3,900 1.4 0.8! 1.8

Chinese3 356,700 10,100 2.8 1.0! 4.6

Filipino 192,900 2,300 1.2 0.4! 1.7

Japanese 266,900 6,900 2.6 2.6 2.6

Korean 63,200 800! 1.3! 1.3! 1.4!

Vietnamese 164,600 6,600 4.0 3.9 4.1

Other Asian 234,900 16,000 6.8 4.8 9.7

Native Hawaiian/Pacific 

Islander 72,400 5,500 7.6 5.5 12.0

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 317,700 48,600 15.3 15.4 1.8!

! Interpret data with caution.

1 United States refers to the 50 states and the District of Columbia.

2 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

3 Excludes Taiwanese. Taiwanese is included in the “Other Asian” category.

NOTE: The data presented here represent status dropout rates. The status dropout rate is defined for this table as the percentage of 16- to 

24-year-olds who are not in high school and who have not earned a high school credential (either a diploma or equivalency credential such as a 

GED). It includes all dropouts, regardless of when they last attended school, as well as individuals who may have never attended school in the 

United States, such as immigrants who did not complete a high school diploma in their home country. This table uses a different data source 

from table 18.1a. In addition, this table includes institutionalized persons and noninstitutionalized persons, whereas table 18.1a includes only 

noninstitutionalized persons. Therefore, estimates are not directly comparable to the 2007 estimates in table 18.1a. Race categories exclude 

persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007.
100 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 18 — Dropout 

Rates and 

Graduation 

Rates

The 2007 ACS included persons residing in institutionalized and noninstitutionalized group quarters. 

Institutionalized group quarters include adult and juvenile correctional facilities, nursing facilities, and 

other health care facilities. Noninstitutionalized group quarters include college and university housing, 

military quarters, and other noninstitutional facilities such as quarters for workers and religious groups and 

temporary shelters for the homeless. This section focuses on status dropout rates for institutionalized 16- to 

24-year-olds. Comparisons are made between institutionalized 16- to 24-year-olds and their peers residing 

in both households and noninstitutionalized group quarters.

In 2007, the status dropout rate was 46 percent for institutionalized youth and young adults and 9 percent 

for their noninstitutionalized agemates. Institutionalized Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American 

Indians/Alaska Natives had higher status dropout rates than their noninstitutionalized peers. Among the 

institutionalized, Hispanics (52 percent) had a higher status dropout rate than Whites (40 percent), Asians (38 

percent), and American Indians/Alaska Natives (38 percent). Additionally, the rate for institutionalized Blacks 

(50 percent) was higher than the rate for institutionalized Whites. Similarly, looking at noninstitutionalized 

youth and young adults, the status dropout rate for Hispanics (19 percent) was higher than the rates for 

Whites (6 percent), Blacks (10 percent), Asians (3 percent), Native Hawaiians/Pacific Islanders (7 percent), 

and American Indians/Alaska Natives (15 percent).

Snapshot: Dropout Rates for Institutionalized Youth and Young Adults by Race/Ethnicity

Table 18.1c. Number and percentage of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized 16- to 24-year-olds 

who were high school status dropouts, by race/ethnicity: 2007

Race/ethnicity 

Total status 

dropout rate

Institutionalized group 

quarters Noninstitutionalized

Total 

number

Status 

dropout rate

Total 

number

Status 

dropout rate

Total1 9.3 538,100 45.9 37,953,200 8.8

White 6.1 192,800 39.8 23,157,200 5.8

Black 11.5 203,300 49.6 5,332,100 10.0

Hispanic 19.9 114,700 52.5 6,651,300 19.4

Asian 3.0 6,100 38.1 1,559,300 2.8

Native Hawaiian/Pacific 

Islander 7.6 ‡ ‡ 71,300 7.5

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 15.3 7,300 37.9 310,400 14.8

‡ Reporting standards not met.

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: The data presented here represent status dropout rates for 16- to 24-year-olds. The status dropout rate is defined for this table as 

the percentage of 16- to 24-year-olds who are not in high school and who have not earned a high school credential (either a diploma or 

equivalency credential such as a GED). It includes all dropouts, regardless of when they last attended school, as well as individuals who may 

have never attended school in the United States, such as immigrants who did not complete a high school diploma in their home country. This 

table uses a different data source from table 18.1a. In addition, this table includes institutionalized persons and noninstitutionalized persons, 

whereas table 18.1a includes only noninstitutionalized persons. Therefore, total status dropout rate estimates are not directly comparable to 

the 2007 estimates in table 18.1a. Institutionalized group quarters include adult and juvenile correctional facilities, nursing facilities, and other 

health care facilities. Noninstitutionalized group quarters, such as college and university housing, military quarters, facilities for workers and 

religious groups, and temporary shelters for the homeless are included in the noninstitutionalized category. Race categories exclude persons 

of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 101Chapter 4 — Persistence

18.2. Averaged Freshman Graduation Rates

The averaged freshman graduation rate (AFGR) 

estimates the percentage of an incoming freshman 

class that graduates with a regular high school diploma 

4 years later. The averaged freshman enrollment count 

is the average of the number of 8th-graders enrolled 5 

years prior to graduation, the number of 9th-graders 

enrolled 4 years prior, and the number of 10th-graders 

enrolled 3 years prior. The intent of this averaging is to 

account for the relatively high rate of grade retention 

in the freshman year. Of the 3.9 million students 

estimated to have entered public high school in the 

2003–04 school year (data not shown), 2.9 million, 

or 74 percent, graduated in 2006–07. However, the 

numbers vary across race/ethnicities. The AFGR was 

91 percent for Asian students and 80 percent for 

White students; in contrast, it was 60 percent for 

Blacks, 62 percent for Hispanics, and 61 percent for 

American Indians/Alaska Natives. 

Figure 18.2. Averaged freshman graduation rate for public high school students, by race/ethnicity: 

School year 2006–07

NOTE: New York and Kentucky did not report graduate counts by race/ethnicity, and race/ethnicity graduate counts for the District of Columbia 

were suppressed due to inaccuracy. Therefore, data for the AFGR for these states are not included. In addition, the AFGR could not be calculated 

by race/ethnicity for Nevada as enrollments by race/ethnicity were not reported for the 2004–05 school year. For more information, see Appendix 

A: Guide to Sources. The AFGR is an estimate of the percentage of an entering freshman class that graduates within 4 years. For 2006–07, it 

equals the total number of diploma recipients in 2006–07 divided by the average membership of the 8th-grade class in 2002–03, the 9th-grade 

class in 2003–04, and the 10th-grade class in 2004–05. Ungraded students were allocated to individual grades proportional to each state’s 

enrollment in those grades. Graduates include only those who earned regular diplomas or diplomas for advanced academic achievement (e.g., 

honors diplomas) as defined by the state or jurisdiction. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Common Core of Data (CCD), “NCES Common Core of 

Data State Dropout and Completion Data File,” school year 2006–07, version 1a.

White Black Hispanic

Race/ethnicity

Asian/

Pacific Islander

American Indian/

Alaska Native

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

80

60 62

91

61

Total:

74%
102 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 18 — Dropout 

Rates and 

Graduation 

Rates

Table 18.2. Averaged freshman graduation rate for public high school students and number of graduates, 

by race/ethnicity: School year 2006–07

Race/ethnicity

Averaged freshman 

graduation rate (AFGR) Number of graduates

Total 73.9 2,892,351

White 80.3 1,723,915

Black 60.3 374,075

Hispanic 62.3 376,396

Asian/Pacific Islander 91.4 138,589

American Indian/Alaska Native 61.3 29,724

NOTE: New York and Kentucky did not report graduate counts by race/ethnicity, and race/ethnicity graduate counts for the District of Columbia 

were suppressed due to inaccuracy. Data for these states were used in the calculation of the totals, but are not included in the race/ethnicity 

categories. In addition, the AFGR could not be calculated by race/ethnicity for Nevada as enrollments by race/ethnicity were not reported for the 

2004–05 school year. Data for Nevada are included in the totals and the number of graduates by race/ethnicity, but are not included in the AFGR 

by race/ethnicity. As a result, the sum of the number of graduates in each racial/ethnic group does not equal the total number of graduates. For 

more information, see Appendix A: Guide to Sources. The AFGR is an estimate of the percentage of an entering freshman class that graduates 

within 4 years. For 2006–07, it equals the total number of diploma recipients in 2006–07 divided by the average membership of the 8th-grade 

class in 2002–03, the 9th-grade class in 2003–04, and the 10th-grade class in 2004–05. Ungraded students were allocated to individual grades 

proportional to each state’s enrollment in those grades. Graduates include only those who earned regular diplomas or diplomas for advanced 

academic achievement (e.g., honors diploma) as defined by the state or jurisdiction. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Common Core of Data (CCD), “NCES Common Core 

of Data State Dropout and Completion Data File,” school year 2006–07, version 1a.
This chapter focuses on behaviors students engage in 

that could influence their educational experiences and 

outcomes. The first indicator, indicator 19, examines 

students’ use of after-school time, focusing on the 

time spent on homework or at a part-time job. For 

example, in 2007, parents of Asian high schoolers 

reported that their children spent the highest number 

of hours on homework per week—10 hours on 

average—when compared with parents of students 

of other races/ethnicities. In addition, 68 percent 

of parents of Asian students reported that their 

children did homework 5 or more days per week; 

this percentage was higher than the percentages for 

White (44 percent), Hispanic (40 percent), and Black 

(30 percent) students. In 2008, about 24 percent of 

all high school students who were 16 years or older 

were employed. The percentage of White students 

who worked (29 percent) was higher than that of 

Black (14 percent), Hispanic (18 percent), Asian 

(14 percent), or American Indian/Alaska Native (14 

percent) students. 

Indicators 20, 21, and 22 examine negative student 

behaviors and focus on illegal substance usage, 

teenage pregnancy rates, and crime rates at school. 

In 2007, among children between the ages of 12 

and 17, about 16 percent reported drinking alcohol 

in the past month, 10 percent reported smoking 

cigarettes in the past month, and 7 percent reported 

using marijuana in the past month. These percentages 

varied by race/ethnicity (indicator 20). For example, a 

higher percentage of White (18 percent) and Hispanic 

(15 percent) children ages 12 to 17 reported drinking 

alcohol in the past month than did their Black and 

Asian peers (10 and 8 percent, respectively).

Although teenage birth rates declined between 

1991 and 2005, they increased in the more recent 

time period between 2005 and 2007 (indicator 21). 

Expressed as a rate per 1,000 15- to 19-year-olds, 

the 2007 birth rates for Hispanic (82 births per 

1,000 15- to 19-year-olds), Black (64 per 1,000), 

and American Indian/Alaska Native (59 per 1,000) 

teenage females were higher than the birth rates for 

White (27 per 1,000) and Asian/Pacific Islander (17 

per 1,000) teenage females.

Indicator 22 provides information on the percentages 

of high school students who reported being threatened 

or injured with a weapon on school property; the 

percentages who reported having illegal drugs 

offered, sold, or given to them on school property; 

and the reported presence of gangs in elementary and 

secondary schools. Percentages also varied by race/

ethnicity: for example in grades 9 through 12, in 

2007, about 13 percent of students of two or more 

races, 10 percent of Black students, and 9 percent 

of Hispanic students reported being threatened or 

injured with a weapon on school property in the past 

12 months. The percentages for White and American 

Indian/Alaska Native students were lower: 7 percent 

and 6 percent, respectively.

5 

Student Behaviors
104 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 19 — AfterSchool 

Time 

Use 

What adolescents do with their time after school 

can influence their success. Some research has 

shown that how students spend their time outside 

of school is linked to their academic achievement 

(Tierney, Baldwin Grossman, and Resch 1995; Zaff 

et al. 2003).

19.1 Homework

The completion of homework has been found to 

have a positive effect on academic achievement, 

particularly for high school students (Cooper, 

Robinson and Patall 2006). In 2007, parents reported 

that their high school students spent 7 hours, on 

average, on homework per week. About 42 percent 

of parents reported that their students did homework 

5 or more days per week, while 5 percent reported 

that their students did homework less than once per 

week. Overall, 65 percent of parents reported that 

they checked to make sure that their high school 

students’ homework was done.

Asian high school students spent more hours per week 

on homework (10 hours on average) than students 

of all other races/ethnicities shown (who spent an 

average of 6 to 7 hours per week on homework). 

Additionally, 68 percent of Asian parents reported 

that their students did homework 5 or more days per 

week, compared with 44 percent of White parents, 30 

percent of Black parents, and 40 percent of Hispanic 

parents. There was no measurable difference between 

the percentage of parents of Asian students and the 

percentage of parents of students of two or more races 

who reported that their children did homework 5 or 

more days per week. 

A higher percentage of parents of Black students (83 

percent) reported that they checked to make sure 

that their students’ homework was done than did 

the parents of White students (57 percent), Asian 

students (59 percent), or students of two or more 

races (66 percent). In addition, a higher percentage of 

Hispanic parents (76 percent) than of White or Asian 

parents reported checking their students’ homework.

19. After-School Time Use 

Table 19.1. Percentage of high school students who did homework outside of school and whose parents 

checked that homework was done, by frequency and race/ethnicity: 2007

Race/ethnicity

Average 

hours 

per week 

spent on 

homework by 

students 

who did 

homework 

outside of 

school

Percentage distribution of students who did 

homework outside of school by how frequently they 

did homework

Percent of 

students 

whose 

parents1 

checked 

that 

homework 

was done

Less than 

once 

per 

week

1 to 2 days 

per week

3 to 4 days 

per week

5 or more 

days per 

week

All high school students2 

(grades 9 through 12) 6.8 5.4 14.8 38.0 41.9 64.6

White 6.8 4.2 12.9 38.6 44.3 57.2

Black 6.3 9.3! 20.1 41.0 29.7 83.1

Hispanic 6.4 5.9 17.7 36.6 39.9 75.6

Asian 10.3 # 13.8! 18.5! 67.7 59.0

Two or more races 7.1 6.2 10.5 32.9 50.5 65.9

# Rounds to zero.

! Interpret data with caution.

1 Refers to one or more parent or other household adult.

2 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Data based on responses of the parent most knowledgeable about the student’s education. Reporting standards for Native Hawaiian and 

Other Pacific Islanders and American Indians/Alaska Natives were not met; therefore, data for these groups are not shown in the table. Race 

categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2007.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 105Chapter 5 — 

Student Behaviors

Figure 19.1. Percentage of high school students who did homework, by frequency and race/ethnicity: 

2007

# Rounds to zero. 

! Interpret data with caution. 

NOTE: Data based on responses of the parent most knowledgeable about the student’s education. Reporting standards for Native Hawaiian and 

Other Pacific Islanders and American Indians/Alaska Natives were not met; therefore, data for these groups are not shown in the figure. Race 

categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 

National Household Education Surveys Program (NHES), 2007.

■ Less than once per week ■ 1–2 days per week ■ 3–4 days per week ■ 5 or more days per week

Two or 

more races

Asian

Hispanic

Black

White

Race/ethnicity

50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

0 10 20 30 40

6 10 33 50

14! 19! 68

6 18 37 40

9! 20 41 30

4 13 39 44

#
106 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups Indicator 19 — After-School Time Use 

19.2 Part-Time Work

Research suggests that working more than 15 hours 

per week while in high school can have a negative 

effect on academic achievement (Singh, Change, 

and Dike 2007). Overall, 24 percent of high school 

students who were 16 years or older were employed 

in 2008. The percentage of White students (29 

percent) who worked was higher than the percentages 

of Black (14 percent), Hispanic (18 percent), Asian 

(14 percent), and American Indian/Alaska Native 

(14 percent) students who worked. However, of the 

students who did work, White students worked fewer 

hours, on average, than Black and Hispanic students. 

For example, 35 percent of White students who were 

employed worked more than 20 hours per week, 

compared with 50 percent of Black students and 54 

percent of Hispanic students. 

Table 19.2. Percentage of high school students ages 16 years and older who were employed and the 

percentage distribution of those who were employed, by hours worked per week and race/

ethnicity: 2008

Percentage distribution of hours worked per week

Race/ethnicity Percent employed

Less than 

10 hours 10–20 hours More than 20 hours

Total1 23.8 20.0 40.7 39.3

White 28.8 21.8 42.8 35.4

Black 14.2 12.8! 37.2 50.1

Hispanic 17.6 14.0 32.0 54.0

Asian 13.8 ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 13.6! ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more races 22.5 ‡ ‡ ‡

‡ Reporting standards not met.

! Interpret data with caution.

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Reporting standards for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders were not met; therefore, data for this group are not shown in the 

table. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to 100 percent because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2008.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 107Chapter 5 — 

Student Behaviors

Figure 19.2a. Percentage of high school students ages 16 years and older who were employed, by race/

ethnicity: 2008

! Interpret data with caution. 1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown. 

NOTE: Reporting standards for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders were not met; therefore, data for this group are not shown in the 

figure. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2008.

Figure 19.2b. Percentage distribution of employed high school students 16 years and over, by hours 

worked per week and race/ethnicity: 2008

NOTE: Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown. Reporting standards for Asian, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific 

Islanders, American Indian/Alaska Native, and two or more races were not met; therefore, data for these groups are not shown in the figure. Race 

categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2008.

Total1

Race/ethnicity

0

10

20

30

40

50

Percent

24

White

29

Black

14

Hispanic

18

Asian

14

American Indian/

Alaska Native

14!

Two or

more races

22

■ Less than 10 hours ■ 10–20 hours ■ More than 20 hours

Hispanic

Black

White

Total

Race/ethnicity

50 60 70 80 90 100

Percent

0 10 20 30 40

14 32 54

13 37 50

22 43 35

20 41 39
108 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 20 — Cigarette, Alcohol, and Drug 

Use

Students who use alcohol, cigarettes, and drugs 

such as marijuana are more likely than their peers to 

experience low academic achievement, truancy, and 

other discipline-related issues (Bryant et al. 2003; 

Bryant and Zimmerman 2002). In the National 

Survey on Drug Use and Health, children between 

the ages of 12 and 17 and adults between the ages of 

18 and 25 were surveyed to determine whether they 

had used alcohol, cigarettes, or marijuana in the past 

30 days. 

In 2007, among youth between the ages of 12 and 

17, about 16 percent reported drinking alcohol in the 

past month, 10 percent reported smoking cigarettes 

in the past month, and 7 percent reported using 

marijuana in the past month. These percentages 

varied by race/ethnicity. A higher percentage of 

White (18 percent) and Hispanic (15 percent) 

children ages 12 to 17 reported drinking alcohol in 

the past month than did their Black and Asian peers 

(10 and 8 percent, respectively), with the percentage 

of Whites exceeding that of Hispanics. In addition, 

the percentage of White 12- to 17-year-olds drinking 

alcohol in the past month was higher than the 

percentage of youth of two or more races doing so 

(13 percent). Cigarette use was reported by a higher 

percentage of Whites (12 percent) than Blacks (6 

percent), Hispanics (7 percent), Asians (3 percent), 

and youth of two or more races (9 percent). Although 

there appear to be differences in the percentage of 

American Indians/Alaska Natives and the percentages 

of Blacks and Hispanics reporting cigarette use in the 

past month, these differences were not statistically 

significant. Marijuana use was reported by 7 percent of 

White 12- to 17-year-olds, higher than the percentages 

reported by Black (6 percent), Hispanic (6 percent), 

and Asian (4 percent) 12- to 17-year-olds. 

Among young adults ages 18 to 25, a higher percentage 

of Whites (68 percent) and young adults of two or 

more races (63 percent) reported having at least one 

alcoholic drink in the past month than did Blacks, 

Hispanics, or Asians (whose percentages ranged from 

50 to 51 percent). Fifty-two percent of American 

Indians/Alaska Natives reported cigarette smoking in 

the past month, higher than the percentage of most 

other races: 41 percent of White young adults reported 

cigarette use in the past month, and the percentage of 

Black, Hispanic, and Asian young adults who reported 

cigarette use in the past month ranged between 26 and 

30 percent. There was no measurable difference in the 

percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native young 

adults and young adults of two or more races who 

reported cigarette smoking in the past month, in part 

due to large standard errors. A higher percentage of 

White and Black young adults ages 18 to 25 reported 

using marijuana in the past month (18 and 16 percent, 

respectively) than did Hispanic (12 percent) and Asian 

(9 percent) young adults. In addition, the percentage 

of young adults of two or more races who reported 

using marijuana in the past month (24 percent) was 

higher than the percentage of Blacks, Hispanics, and 

Asians who reported doing so.

20. Cigarette, Alcohol, and Drug Use

Table 20. Percentage of 12- to 17-year-olds and 18- to 25-year-olds who reported using alcohol, 

cigarettes, or marijuana in past month, by race/ethnicity: 2007

Age group and 

substance used Total1 White Black Hispanic Asian

American 

Indian/

Alaska 

Native

Two or 

more 

races

12- to 17-year-olds

Alcohol 15.9 18.2 10.1 15.2 8.1 ‡ 12.5

Cigarettes 9.8 12.2 6.1 6.7 3.4 13.4 8.9

Marijuana 6.7 7.3 5.8 5.7 4.2! ‡ 6.9

18- to 25-year-olds 

Alcohol 61.2 67.5 50.2 50.7 50.1 ‡ 63.1

Cigarettes 36.2 40.8 26.2 29.5 25.7 52.2 41.5

Marijuana 16.4 18.1 16.4 11.9 8.9 ‡ 23.5

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Reporting standards for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders were not met; therefore, data for this group are not shown on the 

table. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied 

Studies, National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2007. 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 109Chapter 5 — 

Student Behaviors

Figure 20. Percentage of 12- to 17-year-olds who reported using alcohol, cigarettes, or marijuana in the 

past month, by race/ethnicity: 2007

! Interpret data with caution. 

‡ Reporting standards not met. 

NOTE: Reporting standards for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders were not met; therefore, data for this group are not shown on the 

figure. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied 

Studies, National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2007. 

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian ■ American Indian/ ■ Two or more races

Alaska Native 

Marijuana

Cigarettes

Alcohol

Substance

30 40 50

Percent

0 10 20

7

4!

6

6

7

9

13

3

7

6

12

13

8

‡

‡

15

10

18
110 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 21 — 

Teenage Pregnancy

Teenagers who have children are less likely to 

complete high school than their peers who do not 

have children (Hofferth, Reid, and Mott 2001). For 

this indicator, teenage birth rates are reported as the 

number of live births per 1,000 females who are 15 

to 19 years old. In 2007, the birth rate was 43 births 

per 1,000 15- to 19-year-old females.22 The birth rates 

for Hispanic (82 per 1,000), Black (64 per 1,000), 

and American Indian/Alaska Native (59 per 1,000) 

teenage females were higher than that of the general 

population of teenage females. Comparatively, the 

2007 birth rate for White teenage females was 27 

births per 1,000 females and that for Asians/Pacific 

Islanders was 17 per 1,000.

In 1991, the teenage birth rate was highest for Black 

females (118 per 1,000) and Hispanic females (105 

per 1,000). Between 1991 and 2005, birth rates 

dropped for 15- to 19-year-old females of all racial/

ethnic groups. The birth rate for Black teenage females 

declined from 118 per 1,000 in 1991 to 61 per 1,000 

in 2005, which was the greatest drop of all racial/

ethnic groups. During this same period, the birth 

rates for Hispanic teenage females declined from 105 

per 1,000 to 82 per 1,000, and American Indian/

Alaska Native teenage birth rates declined from 84 

per 1,000 to 53 per 1,000. White teenage birth rates 

declined from 43 per 1,000 to 26 per 1,000, and 

Asian/Pacific Islander teenage birth rates declined 

from 27 per 1,000 to 17 per 1,000. Between 2005 

and 2007, birth rates increased for the first time in 

15 years for each race/ethnicity, with the exception of 

Hispanics and Asians/Pacific Islanders. The birth rate 

increased to 64 per 1,000 for Blacks, 59 per 1,000 for 

American Indians/Alaska Natives, and 27 per 1,000 

for Whites. The birth rate in 2007 for Hispanic 15- to 

19-year-olds was the same as the birth rate in 2005 

(82 per 1,000). 

Asian/Pacific Islander teenage females have had 

consistently lower birth rates compared with White, 

Black, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska 

Native teenage females. Black teenage females had 

higher birth rates than their peers of other racial/

ethnic groups from 1990 through 1994. Since 1995, 

Hispanic teenage females have had higher birth rates 

than Black teenage females and teenage females from 

all other racial groups shown. The gap between the 

birth rates of Blacks and Hispanics generally increased 

through 2005, but decreased more recently between 

2005 and 2007.

21. Teenage Pregnancy

22 Data for 2007 are preliminary.

Table 21a. Number of live births per 1,000 females ages 15 to 19, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 

1990–2007

Year Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/Pacific

Islander

American Indian/

Alaska Native

1990 59.9 42.5 116.2 100.3 26.4 81.1

1991 61.8 43.4 118.2 104.6 27.3 84.1

1992 60.3 41.7 114.7 103.3 26.5 82.4

1993 59.0 40.7 110.5 101.8 26.5 79.8

1994 58.2 40.4 105.7 101.3 26.6 76.4

1995 56.0 39.3 97.2 99.3 25.5 72.9

1996 53.5 37.6 91.9 94.6 23.5 68.2

1997 51.3 36.0 88.3 89.6 22.3 65.2

1998 50.3 35.3 85.7 87.9 22.2 64.7

1999 48.8 34.1 81.0 86.8 21.4 59.9

2000 47.7 32.6 79.2 87.3 20.5 58.3

2001 45.3 30.3 73.5 86.4 19.8 56.3

2002 43.0 28.5 68.3 83.4 18.3 53.8

2003 41.6 27.4 64.7 82.3 17.4 53.1

2004 41.1 26.7 63.1 82.6 17.3 52.5

2005 40.5 25.9 60.9 81.7 17.0 52.7

2006 41.9 26.6 63.7 83.0 17.0 55.0

20071 42.5 27.2 64.3 81.7 17.3 59.0

1 Data are preliminary.

NOTE: The race categories White and Black exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity, and the categories Asian/Pacific Islander and American Indian/

Alaska Native include persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Vital Statistics Reports, 

Vol. 57, no. 12, Births: Preliminary Data for 2007, National Center for Health Statistics, 2009.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 111Chapter 5 — 

Student Behaviors

Figure 21. Number of live births per 1,000 females ages 15 to 19, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 

1990–2007

1 Data are preliminary. 

NOTE: The race categories White and Black exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity, and the categories Asian/Pacific Islander and American Indian/

Alaska Native include persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Vital Statistics Reports, 

Vol. 57, no. 12, Births: Preliminary Data for 2007, National Center for Health Statistics, 2009.

1990 1995

Year

2000 2005 20071

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

Number of live births

per 1,000 females

 White  Black  Hispanic  Asian/Pacific Islander  American Indian/Alaska Native

                 

                 

  







    



     

     

     

    

        

       




112 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 21 — 

Teenage Pregnancy

In 2006, teenage birth rates varied across Hispanic 

subgroups.23 Mexican-American teenage females 

had a higher birth rate (93 per 1,000) than Puerto 

Ricans (69 per 1,000) and other Hispanics (67 per 

1,000). From 1990 to 2005, all Hispanic subgroups 

experienced a decline in teenage birth rates. The 

greatest decline was for Puerto Rican teenage females, 

whose birth rate declined from 102 per 1,000 to 63 

per 1,000. For Cuban teenage females, the birth rate 

declined from 30 per 1,000 to 24 per 1,000 between 

1990 and 2000 (the last year of available data). 

Between 2005 and 2006, the birth rates increased to 

69 per 1,000 for Puerto Ricans and 67 per 1,000 for 

other Hispanic subgroups, while the birth rate for 

Mexican-American females remained at 93 per 1,000. 

In 2006, Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans, and 

other Hispanics each had birth rates higher than the 

rates for the general population of teenage females.

Table 21b. Number of live births per 1,000 females ages 15 to 19, by Hispanic ethnicity: 1990–2007

Year Total Hispanic Mexican Puerto Rican Cuban Other Hispanic

1990 100.3 108.0 101.6 30.3 86.0

1991 104.6 108.3 111.0 — 100.7

1992 103.3 105.1 106.5 — 108.2

1993 101.8 103.6 104.9 — 102.0

1994 101.3 109.2 99.6 — 82.6

1995 99.3 115.9 82.8 — 72.1

1996 94.6 112.2 76.5 — 64.8

1997 89.6 103.4 68.9 — 66.4

1998 87.9 96.4 76.2 — 75.0

1999 86.8 94.3 74.0 — 75.5

2000 87.3 95.4 82.9 23.5 69.9

2001 86.4 95.4 82.2 — 65.3

2002 83.4 94.5 61.4 — 63.0

2003 82.3 93.2 60.8 — 60.4

2004 82.6 95.5 62.6 — 57.7

2005 81.7 93.4 63.3 — 62.2

2006 83.0 92.9 69.3 — 67.0

20071 81.7 — — — —

— Not available.

1 Data are preliminary.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Vital Statistics Reports, 

Vol. 57, no. 7, Births: Final Data for 2006, and Vol. 57, no. 12, Births: Preliminary Data for 2007, National Center for Health Statistics, Final Natality 

Statistics, 2009.

23 Data for 2007 by Hispanic subgroups were not available at the time of publication.
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114 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 22 — 

Safety at 

School

Student reports of experiencing violence, the threat of 

violence, and the presence of gangs at school are one 

indicator of school safety. The Youth Risk Behavior 

Survey, conducted by the Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention (CDC), asks students in 

grades 9 through 12 whether they have carried a 

weapon to school in the past 30 days, have been 

threatened or injured with a weapon in school in 

the past year, or have engaged in a physical fight on 

school property in the past year, as well as whether 

drugs were available to them on school property 

in the past year. The School Crime Supplement to 

the National Crime Victimization Survey (SCS/

NCVS) asks students ages 12 to 18 in elementary and 

secondary schools about crime on their campuses, 

including the presence of gangs.

In 2007, among 9th- through 12th-grade students, 

higher percentages of students of two or more 

races (13 percent), Black students (10 percent), 

and Hispanic students (9 percent) reported being 

threatened or injured with a weapon on school 

property in the past 12 months than did White 

students (7 percent) and American Indian/Alaska 

Native students (6 percent). No other measurable 

differences were found among the races/ethnicities. 

In 2007, approximately 6 percent of all students in 

grades 9 through 12 reported carrying a weapon on 

school property during the previous 30 days. Few 

measurable differences were found among the races/

ethnicities in the percentage who reported carrying 

a weapon on school property—a larger percentage 

of Hispanic students (7 percent) reported doing so 

than did White (5 percent) and Asian (4 percent) 

students, but no other differences were detected. 

About 12 percent of all high school students engaged 

in a physical fight on school property in the past 

12 months. This percentage was higher for Black 

students, Hispanic students, American Indian/Alaska 

Native students, and students of two or more races 

(from 15 to 20 percent) than for White and Asian 

students (10 and 8 percent, respectively). 

An estimated 22 percent of high school students 

reported having illegal drugs offered, sold, or given 

to them on school property in 2007. Differences 

in this percentage were found across racial/ethnic 

groups. Specifically, higher percentages of Hispanic 

(29 percent) and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific 

Islander (38 percent) students reported that drugs 

were made available to them than did Black, White, 

and Asian students (from 19 to 21 percent). Although 

it appears that a higher percentage of Native Hawaiian 

or Other Pacific Islander students than Hispanic 

students reported that drugs were made available to 

them, the difference was not found to be statistically 

significant. 

22. Safety at School

Table 22a. Percentage of students in grades 9 through 12 who reported that they were threatened or 

injured with a weapon on school property, carried a weapon to school, engaged in a physical 

fight on school property, or reported that drugs were made available to them on school 

property, by race/ethnicity: 2007

Race/ethnicity

Were threatened 

or injured with a 

weapon1

Carried 

a weapon2

Engaged in 

a physical fight1

Drugs were 

available on 

school property1

Total 7.8 5.9 12.4 22.3

White 6.9 5.3 10.2 20.8

Black 9.7 6.0 17.6 19.2

Hispanic 8.7 7.3 15.5 29.1

Asian 7.6! 4.1 8.5 21.0

Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 8.1! 9.5! 9.6! 38.5

American Indian/Alaska Native 5.9 7.7 15.0 25.1

Two or more races 13.3 5.0 19.6 24.6

! Interpret with caution.

1 In the past 12 months.

2 On one or more of the past 30 days.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) , National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Youth Risk 

Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), 2007.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 115Chapter 5 — 

Student Behaviors

Youth gangs are linked to serious crime problems 

such as the presence of guns and drugs in elementary 

and secondary schools (Chandler et al. 1998). In 

2007, about 23 percent of students ages 12 to 18 

reported a presence of gangs at their school. A higher 

percentage of Black (38 percent) and Hispanic (36 

percent) students reported a presence of gangs at their 

schools than did White (16 percent) and Asian (17 

percent) students.

Figure 22. Percentage of high school students who reported that they were threatened or injured with 

a weapon on school property, carried a weapon to school, or engaged in a physical fight on 

school property, by race/ethnicity: 2007

! Interpret with caution. 1 In the past 12 months. 2 On one or more of the past 30 days. 

NOTE: High school students are defined as students enrolled in grades 9 through 12. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Youth Risk 

Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), 2007.

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian ■ Native Hawaiian/ ■ American Indian/ ■ Two or more 

 Pacific Islander Alaska Native races 

Percent

Were threatened or injured

with a weapon1

Incident

Carried a weapon2 Engaged in a physical fight1 0

10

20

30

40

50

7

10 9 8! 8!

6

13

5 6 7

4

9! 8

5

10

18

15

8 10!

15

20

Table 22b. Percentage of students ages 12 to 18 who reported that gangs were present at school, by 

race/ethnicity: 2007

Race/ethnicity Total

Total 23.2

White 16.0

Black 37.6

Hispanic 36.1

Asian 17.4

Other1 26.4

1 Includes American Indians, Alaska Natives, Pacific Islanders, and persons of two or more races. 

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, School Crime Supplement (SCS) to the National Crime Victimization Survey, 

2007.
This page intentionally left blank.
This chapter focuses on indicators of postsecondary 

education participation, including the number of students 

who enroll in 2-year and 4-year colleges and universities 

and the rate at which they enroll, the percentage of students 

who receive financial aid and the amount received, and the 

number of students awarded degrees from colleges and 

universities by type of degree and field of study. About 

72 percent of 2008 White high school completers were 

enrolled in college in that same year, up from 50 percent for 

White recent high school completers in 1980. In addition, 

this immediate transition to college rate was higher in 2007 

(the latest year for which data are available due to the use of 

a moving average) than the rate in 1980 for Blacks (56 vs. 

44 percent) and for Hispanics (62 vs. 50 percent) (indicator 

23.1). Similarly, the overall college participation rate, 

meaning the percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds enrolled in 

2-year or 4-year colleges or universities, was higher in 2008 

than it was in 1980 for Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics. In 

2008, 44 percent of White 18- to 24-year-olds (up from 28 

percent in 1980), 32 percent of Black 18- to 24-year-olds 

(up from 20 percent in 1980), and 26 percent of Hispanic 

18- to 24-year-olds (up from 16 percent in 1980) were 

enrolled in 2- or 4-year colleges and universities (indicator 

23.2). Although there was no measurable increase in the 

participation rate of Asians/Pacific Islanders between 1990 

and 2008, the rates for Asians/Pacific Islanders have been 

consistently higher than the rates for the other racial/ethnic 

groups shown: in 2008, 58 percent of 18- to 24-year-old 

Asians/Pacific Islanders were enrolled in 2- or 4-year 

colleges and universities. 

Between 1976 and 2008, total undergraduate enrollment 

increased for several racial/ethnic groups (indicator 24.1). 

The fastest rate of increase was for Hispanics and Asians/

Pacific Islanders, and the slowest rate was for Whites. 

Differences in the rate of increase accounted for shifts in 

the racial/ethnic distribution of students enrolled. For 

example, in 1976, Hispanics accounted for 4 percent 

of total undergraduate enrollment; in 2008, Hispanics 

accounted for 13 percent of enrollment. 

In 2008, females made up 57 percent of undergraduate 

enrollment. The difference between male and female 

enrollments was largest for Black students, with females 

accounting for 64 percent of Black undergraduate 

enrollment in 2008.

Trends in graduate enrollments were similar to those in 

undergraduate enrollment, with enrollment of Hispanics 

and Asians/Pacific Islanders each increasing five- and 

six-fold, respectively, between 1976 and 2008 (indicator 

24.2). As with undergraduate enrollment, female graduate 

enrollment exceeded male graduate enrollment for all 

racial/ethnic groups, with the largest difference being 

between Black males and Black females. By 2008, some 71 

percent of Black graduate students were female. 

In terms of undergraduate enrollment by institution type, 

Black students had the highest percentage (15 percent) 

attending private, for-profit schools, and nearly half of 

Hispanic students attended 2-year public institutions 

(indicator 24.3). 

In 2007–08, some 80 percent of full-time, full-year 

undergraduate students received some financial aid. 

A higher percentage of Black undergraduate students 

received financial aid than did White, Hispanic, and 

Asian/Pacific Islander undergraduates. Black students 

also received higher average amounts of aid ($13,500) in 

2007–08 than White, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, or 

American Indian/Alaska Native students. Hispanics had a 

lower average amount of aid than White and Asian/Pacific 

Islander students (indicator 25). 

Over 3 million degrees were awarded by colleges and 

universities in 2008, of which 51 percent were bachelor’s 

degrees. Within each racial/ethnic group, more females 

than males received degrees. Over twice as many Black 

females received degrees as Black males (indicator 26.1). 

Business was the most popular field of study for recipients 

of bachelor’s degrees in 2008 for all racial/ethnic groups. Of 

all racial/ethnic groups, Blacks had the highest percentage 

of bachelor’s degrees awarded in business (25 percent) and 

the lowest percentage of degrees awarded in engineering 

and engineering technologies (indicator 26.2). Asian 

recipients of master’s degrees had a higher percentage 

awarded in engineering and engineering technologies, 

computer and information sciences and support services, 

and biological and biomedical sciences than any other 

racial/ethnic group.

6 Postsecondary 

 education
118 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 23 — College Participation 

Rates

23.1. Immediate Transition to College Rate

The immediate college enrollment rate is defined as 

the percentage of high school completers24 of a given 

year who enroll in 2- or 4-year colleges in the fall 

immediately after completing high school. In 2008, 

this rate was 69 percent, up from 49 percent in 1980. 

In 1980, the immediate transition to college rate 

was higher for White high school completers (50 

percent) than it was for Black high school completers 

(44 percent), but was not measurably different from 

the rate for Hispanic high school completers (50 

percent).25 Although the immediate transition to 

college rate increased for each of these racial and 

ethnic groups between 1980 and 2007 (and to 2008 

for Whites), the rates for Blacks and Hispanics have 

been lower than the rate for their White peers for 

almost all years shown since 1985. Between 1980 and 

2008, the rate increased from 50 percent to 72 percent 

for Whites; and between 1980 and 2007, the rate 

increased from 44 percent to 56 percent for Blacks 

and from 50 percent to 62 percent for Hispanics.

23. College Participation Rates

Table 23.1. Percentage of high school completers who were enrolled in 2- or 4-year colleges the October 

immediately following high school completion, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1980–2008

Black Hispanic

Year Total1 White Annual

Moving 

average2 Annual

Moving 

average2

1980 49.3 49.8 42.7 44.0 52.3 49.6

1985 57.7 60.1 42.2 39.5 51.0 46.1

1990 60.1 63.0 46.8 48.9 42.7 52.5

1995 61.9 64.3 51.2 52.9 53.7 51.6

2000 63.3 65.7 54.9 56.3 52.9 48.6

2005 68.6 73.2 55.7 58.2 54.0 57.5

2006 66.0 68.5 55.5 55.6 57.9 58.5

2007 67.2 69.5 55.7 55.7 64.0 62.0

2008 68.6 71.7 55.7 — 63.9 —

— Not available.

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

2 Due to short-term data fluctuations associated with small sample sizes for the Black and Hispanic categories, moving average rates are also 

presented. Moving average rates were calculated as the average of the annual estimates for the following three adjacent years: the year in 

question, the year immediately before it, and the year immediately after it.

NOTE: Includes high school completers ages 16–24, who accounted for about 98 percent of all high school completers in a given year. The 

Current Population Survey (CPS) questions about educational attainment were reworded in 1992. Before then, high school completers referred 

to those who had completed 12 years of schooling; beginning in 1992, the term referred to those who had received a high school diploma or 

equivalency certificate. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), selected years, October 1980–2008.

24 Includes high school completers ages 16–24, who accounted for about 98 percent of all high school completers in a given year. 

Before 1992, high school completer referred to those who had completed 12 years of schooling. Beginning in 1992, high school 

completer has referred to those who have received a high school diploma or equivalency certificate. 25 For this indicator, moving averages are reported for Blacks and Hispanics due to short-term fluctuations associated with small 

sample sizes. The moving average is defined here as the average of the annual estimates for the following three adjacent years: the 

year in question, the year immediately before it, and the year immediately after it. Therefore, 2007 data is the most recent year 

mentioned for comparisons among races/ethnicities.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 119Chapter 6 — Postsecondary Education

Figure 23.1. Percentage of high school completers who were enrolled in 2- or 4-year colleges the 

October immediately following high school completion, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 

1980–2008

1 Due to short-term data fluctuations associated with small sample sizes for the Black and Hispanic categories, moving average rates are 

presented. Moving average rates were calculated as the average of the annual estimates for the following three adjacent years: the year in 

question, the year immediately before it, and the year immediately after it. 

NOTE: Includes high school completers ages 16–24, who accounted for about 98 percent of all high school completers in a given year. The 

Current Population Survey (CPS) questions about educational attainment were reworded in 1992. Before then, high school completers referred 

to those who had completed 12 years of schooling; beginning in 1992, the term referred to those who had received a high school diploma or 

equivalency certificate. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), selected years, October 1980–2008. 

 

1980 1985 1990 1995

Year

2000 2005 2008

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

 White  Black1

  Hispanic1



   



  







    



  

  
120 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 23 — College Participation 

Rates

23.2. College Participation Rate

The college participation rate is the percentage of 

all 18- to 24-year-olds enrolled in 2-year and 4-year 

colleges or universities, including both undergraduate 

and graduate studies. This measure accounts for 

population growth within the demographic group. 

The overall college participation rate has increased 

over the past 27 years. In 1980, some 28 percent of 

White 18- to 24-year-olds were enrolled in colleges 

and universities, compared with 44 percent in 

2008—an increase of 17 percentage points. The 

college participation rates of Blacks and Hispanics 

also increased. In 2008, approximately 32 percent of 

Black 18- to 24-year-olds were enrolled in colleges or 

universities (an increase of 12 percentage points from 

1980) and 26 percent of Hispanic 18- to 24-year-olds 

were enrolled (an increase of 10 percentage points 

from 1980). No measurable differences were found 

between 1990 and 2008 in the participation rates 

of Asians/Pacific Islanders or American Indians/

Alaska Natives (data were not available for 1980). 

The apparent increase in the participation rate of 

American Indians/Alaska Natives was not statistically 

significant, in part due to large standard errors. 

Although there was no measurable increase in the 

participation rate of Asians/Pacific Islanders between 

1990 and 2008, the participation rates of Asians/

Pacific Islanders have been consistently higher than 

the rates of the other racial/ethnic groups shown. For 

example, in 2008, 58 percent of all 18- to 24-year 

old Asians/Pacific Islanders were enrolled in colleges 

and universities, and this rate was higher than each of 

the rates of the other races/ethnicities shown (ranging 

from 22 to 44 percent). 

Participation rates also differed for males and females 

in 2008. Hispanic females had a participation rate 

of 29 percent, compared to a rate of 23 percent for 

Hispanic males. In addition, Black females had a 

higher participation rate (34 percent) than their 

male counterparts (30 percent). White females also 

enrolled at a higher rate (47 percent) than White 

males (42 percent). No measurable differences were 

detected between the sexes in the participation rates 

of Asians/Pacific Islanders and American Indians/

Alaska Natives, in part due to high standard errors.

Figure 23.2. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds enrolled in colleges and universities, by race/ethnicity: 

Selected years: 1980–2008

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), October 1980–2008. 

 

1980 1985 1990 1995

Year

2000 2005 2008

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

  

     

 

        

 

        

  

       





 

    

 White  Black  Hispanic  Asian/Pacific Islander  American Indian/Alaska Native
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 121

Table 23.2. Percentage of 18- to 24-year-olds enrolled in colleges and universities, by race/ethnicity and 

Chapter 6 — Postsecondary Education

sex: Selected years, 1980–2008

Sex and year Total1 White Black Hispanic

Asian/Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native

Total

1980 26.1 27.7 19.7 16.3 — —

1985 27.9 30.1 19.8 17.0 — —

1990 32.1 35.1 25.2 15.9 56.9 15.8

1995 34.3 37.9 27.5 20.7 54.6 27.6

2000 35.5 38.7 30.5 21.7 55.9 15.9

2005 38.9 42.8 33.1 24.8 60.5 27.8

2006 37.3 41.0 32.6 23.6 57.0 26.2

2007 38.8 42.6 33.1 26.6 56.1 24.7

2008 39.6 44.2 32.1 25.8 57.6 21.9

Male

1980 26.9 28.9 17.7 16.3 — —

1985 28.4 30.8 20.3 15.1 — —

1990 32.4 35.6 25.8 15.4 59.2 8.4!

1995 33.1 37.0 26.0 18.7 55.7 27.4!

2000 32.6 36.2 25.1 18.5 59.0 12.8!

2005 35.3 39.4 28.2 20.7 62.0 25.7

2006 34.1 37.9 28.1 20.0 58.2 18.1!

2007 35.5 39.6 32.2 20.7 56.5 11.8!

2008 37.0 41.7 29.7 23.0 53.8 18.7!

Female

1980 25.4 26.7 21.3 16.4 — —

1985 27.4 29.3 19.3 19.0 — —

1990 31.8 34.7 24.7 16.4 54.9 21.7!

1995 35.5 38.8 28.7 23.0 53.7 27.8!

2000 38.4 41.3 35.2 25.4 52.8 20.5!

2005 42.5 46.1 37.6 29.5 59.0 29.5

2006 40.6 44.1 36.9 27.6 55.8 35.9

2007 42.1 45.7 34.0 33.0 55.7 34.5

2008 42.3 46.9 34.2 28.9 61.1 24.3

— Not available.

! Interpret data with caution.

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), selected years, October 1980–2008.
122 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 24 — Enrollment

Over the past 25 years, the total enrollment of adults 

in degree-granting institutions increased for Whites, 

Blacks, and Hispanics. Within each racial/ethnic 

group, female enrollment increased more than male 

enrollment, although the rates of increase varied by 

race/ethnicity. This indicator also examines differences 

in the percentage distribution of enrollment by 

institution type among the races/ethnicities. 

24.1. Undergraduate Enrollment

Undergraduate enrollment figures include all 

students, regardless of age, enrolled either part time 

or full time in undergraduate studies at a degreegranting institution. Between 1976 and 2008, total 

undergraduate fall enrollment increased for each 

racial/ethnic group. Asian/Pacific Islander enrollment 

increased six-fold, from 169,000 in 1976 to 1,118,000 

in 2008. Hispanic enrollment rose from 353,000 

in 1976 to 2,103,000 in 2008—approximately six 

times the enrollment in 1976. These two racial/ethnic 

groups had the fastest rates of enrollment growth, 

leading to increases in their share of total enrollment 

between 1976 and 2008: from 2 to 7 percent for 

Asians/Pacific Islanders and from 4 to 13 percent 

for Hispanics.26 During that time period, American 

Indian/Alaska Native enrollment more than doubled, 

increasing from 70,000 to 176,000. Black enrollment 

rose from 943,000 to 2,269,000, increasing their share 

of overall enrollment from 10 to 14 percent. White 

enrollment also increased, but at the slowest rate of 

all racial/ethnic groups. Although White enrollment 

rose from 7,740,000 to 10,339,000, White enrollment 

as a percentage of total enrollment declined from 82 

percent in 1976 to 63 percent in 2008.

24. Enrollment

26 Percentages are based on total enrollment, including nonresident aliens, for whom race/ethnicity is not known.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 123

Table 24.1. Total number, total percentage distribution, and percent female of undergraduate fall 

Chapter 6 — Postsecondary Education

enrollment in degree-granting institutions, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1976–2008

Race/ethnicity 1976 1980 1990 2000 2003 2005 2008

Number enrolled

Total 9,418,970 10,469,088 11,959,106 13,155,393 14,480,364 14,963,964 16,345,738

White 7,740,485 8,480,661 9,272,630 8,983,455 9,664,641 9,828,594 10,339,216

Black 943,355 1,018,840 1,147,220 1,548,893 1,838,043 1,955,356 2,269,284

Hispanic 352,893 433,075 724,561 1,351,025 1,579,783 1,733,555 2,103,524

Asian/Pacific Islander 169,291 248,711 500,486 845,545 922,749 971,353 1,117,865

American Indian/

Alaska Native 69,729 77,900 95,474 138,506 157,821 160,404 175,552

Nonresident alien 143,217 209,901 218,735 287,969 317,327 314,702 360,297

Percentage 

distribution

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

White 82.2 81.0 77.5 68.3 66.7 65.7 63.3

Black 10.0 9.7 9.6 11.8 12.7 13.1 13.9

Hispanic 3.7 4.1 6.1 10.3 10.9 11.6 12.9

Asian/Pacific Islander 1.8 2.4 4.2 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.8

American Indian/

Alaska Native 0.7 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1

Nonresident alien 1.5 2.0 1.8 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.2

Percent female

Total 48.0 52.3 55.0 56.1 57.0 57.2 56.9

White 47.6 52.2 54.9 55.4 55.9 55.9 55.5

Black 54.3 58.0 61.0 62.7 64.1 64.3 63.8

Hispanic 45.7 51.2 54.9 56.9 58.4 58.6 58.0

Asian/Pacific Islander 46.2 48.3 49.2 52.5 53.6 53.9 54.0

American Indian/

Alaska Native 50.1 55.4 58.2 59.3 61.0 61.1 59.9

Nonresident alien 32.7 33.4 42.4 47.9 50.3 51.8 50.7

NOTE: Data from 1976 through 1990 are for institutions of higher education, while later data are for degree-granting institutions. Degree-granting 

institutions grant associate’s or higher degrees and participate in Title IV federal financial aid programs. The degree-granting classification is very 

similar to the earlier higher education classification, but it includes more 2-year colleges and excludes a few higher education institutions that do 

not grant degrees. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Fall 

Enrollment in Colleges and Universities” surveys, 1976 and 1980, and 1990 through 2008 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), “Fall Enrollment” survey, 1990, and selected years, Spring 2001 through Spring 2009.
124 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 24 — Enrollment

Overall, the number of both males and females in 

undergraduate programs has increased since 1976. 

By 1980, the percentage of females enrolled as 

undergraduates surpassed the percentage of males 

enrolled as undergraduates. The largest difference 

between male and female enrollments was among 

Black students. In 1976, some 54 percent of Black 

undergraduates were female. Over time, Black females 

continued to enroll in degree-granting institutions 

in larger numbers than Black males, and in 2008, 

females accounted for 64 percent of the total Black 

undergraduate enrollment. American Indian/

Alaska Native female enrollment also overtook male 

enrollment. In 1976, enrollment numbers were almost 

equal between American Indian/Alaska Native males 

and females, but by 2008, females made up 60 percent 

of the total American Indian/Alaska Native student 

enrollment. Additionally, females increased their 

shares of the total Hispanic and White enrollment 

(from 46 to 58 percent for Hispanic females and from 

48 to 56 percent for White females). Between 1976 

and 1990, Asian/Pacific Islander females represented 

less than half of the total Asian/Pacific Islander 

enrollment. Since 2000, however, more females have 

enrolled, and in 2008, females represented 54 percent 

and males represented 46 percent of total Asian/Pacific 

Islander undergraduate enrollment. For Asians/Pacific 

Islanders, these percentages are a near reversal from 

the percentages of three decades earlier.

Figure 24.1. Difference in percentages of female and male undergraduate fall enrollment in degreegranting institutions, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1976–2008

NOTE: Data from 1976 through 1990 are for institutions of higher education, while later data are for degree-granting institutions. Degree-granting 

institutions grant associate’s or higher degrees and participate in Title IV federal financial aid programs. The degree-granting classification is very 

similar to the earlier higher education classification, but it includes more 2-year colleges and excludes a few higher education institutions that do 

not grant degrees. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Fall 

Enrollment in Colleges and Universities” surveys, 1976 and 1980, and 1990 through 2008 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), “Fall Enrollment” survey, 1990, and selected years, Spring 2001 through Spring 2009.

1976 1980 1990 2000 2005 2008

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

Difference in percentage (female percent – male percent)

More females enrolled

More males enrolled

Year



 White  Black  Hispanic  Asian/Pacific  American Indian/  Nonresident alien

Islander Alaska Native

  



 







    

   













  





 

  

 







 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 125Chapter 6 — Postsecondary Education

24.2. Graduate Enrollment

Total graduate27 enrollment also increased for 

each racial/ethnic group between 1976 and 2008. 

During that time period, Asian/Pacific Islander 

enrollment grew six-fold, rising from 29,000 to 

185,000 students. Hispanic graduate enrollment 

in 2008 was over five times that of enrollment in 

1976, increasing from 31,000 to 169,000 students. 

Additionally, the number of Black graduate students 

increased from 90,000 in 1976 to 315,000 in 2008. 

Each of these racial/ethnic groups increased its share 

of total enrollment during this time. For example, 

the percent of total graduate enrollment increased 

from 6 to 12 percent for Blacks, from 2 to 6 percent 

for Hispanics, and from 2 to 7 percent for Asians/

Pacific Islanders.28 American Indian/Alaska Native 

graduate enrollment more than doubled, increasing 

from 6,400 to 17,700 students. Although the 

number of White graduate students increased from 

1,336,000 to 1,750,000, the percentage share of total 

enrollment decreased for Whites between 1976 and 

2008 from 85 to 64 percent.

27 Includes enrollment in master’s, first-professional, and doctorate programs.

28 Percentages are based on total enrollment, including nonresident aliens, for whom race/ethnicity is not known.

Table 24.2. Total number, total percentage distribution, and percent female of graduate 

(postbaccalaureate) fall enrollment in degree-granting institutions, by race/ethnicity: Selected 

years, 1976–2008

Race/ethnicity 1976 1980 1990 2000 2003 2005 2008

Number enrolled

Total 1,566,644 1,617,720 1,859,531 2,156,896 2,431,117 2,523,511 2,737,076

White 1,335,646 1,352,351 1,449,830 1,478,644 1,616,272 1,666,846 1,749,565

Black 89,670 87,910 99,819 181,425 230,342 259,205 315,194

Hispanic 30,897 38,642 57,888 110,781 136,488 148,420 169,364

Asian/Pacific Islander 28,587 37,735 71,954 132,679 152,834 163,029 184,932

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 6,381 6,003 7,319 12,644 14,825 15,899 17,737

Nonresident alien 75,463 95,079 172,721 240,723 280,356 270,112 300,284

Percentage 

distribution

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

White 85.3 83.6 78.0 68.6 66.5 66.1 63.9

Black 5.7 5.4 5.4 8.4 9.5 10.3 11.5

Hispanic 2.0 2.4 3.1 5.1 5.6 5.9 6.2

Asian/Pacific Islander 1.8 2.3 3.9 6.2 6.3 6.5 6.8

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

Nonresident alien 4.8 5.9 9.3 11.2 11.5 10.7 11.0

Percent female

Total 42.7 46.2 51.4 56.3 57.5 58.5 59.0

White 43.0 46.9 53.3 57.8 58.8 59.4 59.7

Black 56.3 59.6 63.2 67.8 69.5 70.4 71.3

Hispanic 41.5 47.3 53.3 59.8 61.5 62.2 63.0

Asian/Pacific Islander 39.3 39.7 43.8 51.8 54.0 54.7 55.3

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native 41.7 49.7 56.3 60.3 62.1 62.7 63.1

Nonresident alien 23.6 25.4 30.4 38.9 40.3 41.6 41.5

NOTE: Data from 1976 through 1990 are for institutions of higher education, while later data are for degree-granting institutions. Degree-granting 

institutions grant associate’s or higher degrees and participate in Title IV federal financial aid programs. The degree-granting classification is very 

similar to the earlier higher education classification, but it includes more 2-year colleges and excludes a few higher education institutions that do 

not grant degrees. Data include enrollment in master’s, first-professional, and doctorate programs. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic 

ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Fall 

Enrollment in Colleges and Universities” surveys, 1976 and 1980, and 1990 through 2008 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), “Fall Enrollment” survey, 1990, and selected years, Spring 2001 through Spring 2009.
126 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 24 — Enrollment

Shifts between male and female graduate enrollment 

were similar to shifts between male and female 

undergraduate enrollment. More females were 

enrolled in graduate programs in 2008 than males, 

and the size of the gap differed by race/ethnicity. 

Again, the difference in the percentages of males and 

females enrolled was largest for Black students. In 

1976, Black females composed 56 percent of the total 

Black graduate enrollment. Black females continued to 

enroll at faster rates than did their male counterparts 

and, by 2008, some 71 percent of Black graduate 

students were female. In 1976, females represented 

less than 50 percent of the total graduate enrollment 

of Whites, Hispanics, Asians/Pacific Islanders, and 

American Indians/Alaska Natives. However, between 

1976 and 2008, female enrollment grew faster than 

male enrollment for each of these racial/ethnic groups, 

and in 2008 females accounted for 60 percent of 

White, 63 percent of Hispanic, 55 percent of Asian/

Pacific Islander, and 63 percent of American Indian/

Alaska Native graduate enrollment.

Figure 24.2. Difference in percentages of female and male graduate (postbaccalaureate) fall enrollment in 

degree-granting institutions, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1976–2008

NOTE: Data from 1976 through 1990 are for institutions of higher education, while later data are for degree-granting institutions. Degree-granting 

institutions grant associate’s or higher degrees and participate in Title IV federal financial aid programs. The degree-granting classification is very 

similar to the earlier higher education classification, but it includes more 2-year colleges and excludes a few higher education institutions that do 

not grant degrees. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Higher Education General Information Survey (HEGIS), “Fall 

Enrollment in Colleges and Universities” surveys, 1976 and 1980, and 1990 through 2008 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), “Fall Enrollment” survey, 1990, and selected years, Spring 2001 through Spring 2009.

Difference in percentage (female percent – male percent)

1976 1980 1990

Year

2000 2003 2005 2008

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

More females enrolled

More males enrolled

 White  Black  Hispanic  Asian/Pacific  American Indian/  Nonresident alien

Islander Alaska Native

 





  

   







  









 





  















   






Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 127Chapter 6 — Postsecondary Education

24.3 Enrollment by Institutional Type

Within the broader context of higher education 

are several different types of institutions. In terms 

of governance, institutions are public, private 

not-for-profit, or private for-profit. The first group 

includes most traditional state university systems, 

as well as community colleges. The second group 

ranges from major research universities, such as 

Harvard or Stanford, to small liberal arts colleges. 

The third group includes privately operated higher 

education corporations, such as Strayer University or 

the University of Phoenix. Beyond their ownership 

structure, postsecondary institutions can also be 

characterized by the length of programs offered, from 

less than 2-year to 4-year institutions, and by their 

level of research activity.

In 2008, some 73 percent of the 18.4 million U.S. 

college students attended public institutions, 19 

percent attended private not-for-profit institutions, 

and 8 percent attended private for-profit institutions. 

There were variations by race/ethnicity, however. 

About 81 percent of Hispanics and 79 percent of 

American Indians/Alaska Natives attended public 

institutions, higher than the percentages for Whites 

(73 percent), Blacks (68 percent), and Asians/Pacific 

Islanders (75 percent). Some 21 percent of White, 

18 percent of Asian/Pacific Islander, and 17 percent 

of Black students attended private not-for-profit 

institutions, while 11 percent of Hispanic and 12 

percent of American Indian/Alaska Native students 

did so. A higher percentage of Black students (15 

percent) attended private for-profit institutions than 

of students of any of the other races/ethnicities shown 

(ranging from 6 to 8 percent). 

Enrollment among the races/ethnicities also varied 

by the length of programs offered and by the level 

of research activity at the institutions that students 

attended. About 24 percent of Asian/Pacific Islander 

students and 22 percent of White students attended 

public research institutions,29 higher than the 

percentages for Black, Hispanic, and American 

Indian/Alaska Native students (ranging from 13 to 

17 percent). A higher percentage of Asian/Pacific 

Islander students attended private research institutions 

(9 percent) compared with the other races/ethnicities 

shown (ranging from 3 to 6 percent). Almost half 

(49 percent) of Hispanic college and university 

students attended public 2-year institutions, a higher 

percentage than any other race/ethnicity shown 

(ranging from 33 to 42 percent).

29 Research institutions include those with a high level of research activity or those that award at least 20 doctor’s degrees per year. 

Relative levels of research activity for research universities were determined by an analysis of research and development expenditures, science and engineering research staffing, and doctoral degrees conferred, by field. Further information on the research index 

ranking may be obtained from http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/classifications/index.asp?key=798#related. 
128 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 24 — Enrollment

Table 24.3. Number and percentage distribution of U.S. citizen enrollment in degree-granting institutions, 

by race/ethnicity and institutional type: 2008

Institutional type Total White Black Hispanic

Asian/Pacific 

Islander 

American 

Indian/Alaska 

Native

Number enrolled

Total, all types 18,442,233 12,088,781 2,584,478 2,272,888 1,302,797 193,289

Public institutions 13,545,180 8,817,677 1,759,200 1,832,397 982,876 153,030

Research 3,614,610 2,612,923 355,490 294,693 318,678 32,826

Other 4-year 3,392,814 2,266,300 471,852 415,226 199,662 39,774

2-year 6,537,756 3,938,454 931,858 1,122,478 464,536 80,430

Private, not-forprofit 3,454,943 2,513,749 431,988 248,545 236,537 24,124

Research 1,012,479 692,750 103,743 87,379 122,796 5,811

Other 4-year 2,407,925 1,799,663 321,311 158,120 112,079 16,752

2-year 34,539 21,336 6,934 3,046 1,662 1,561

Private, for-profit 1,442,110 757,355 393,290 191,946 83,384 16,135

4-year 1,147,730 615,507 312,559 136,784 70,205 12,675

2-year 294,380 141,848 80,731 55,162 13,179 3,460

Percentage distribution

Total, all types 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Public institutions 73.4 72.9 68.1 80.6 75.4 79.2

Research 19.6 21.6 13.8 13.0 24.5 17.0

Other 4-year 18.4 18.7 18.3 18.3 15.3 20.6

2-year 35.4 32.6 36.1 49.4 35.7 41.6

Private, not-forprofit 18.7 20.8 16.7 10.9 18.2 12.5

Research 5.5 5.7 4.0 3.8 9.4 3.0

Other 4-year 13.1 14.9 12.4 7.0 8.6 8.7

2-year 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.8

Private, for-profit 7.8 6.3 15.2 8.4 6.4 8.3

4-year 6.2 5.1 12.1 6.0 5.4 6.6

2-year 1.6 1.2 3.1 2.4 1.0 1.8

NOTE: Nonresident alien enrollment is not included in table. Research institutions include those with a high level of research activity or those 

that award at least 20 doctor’s degrees per year. Relative levels of research activity for research universities were determined by an analysis of 

research and development expenditures, science and engineering research staffing, and doctoral degrees conferred, by field. Further information 

on the research index ranking may be obtained from http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/classifications/index.asp?key=798#related. Other 4-year 

institutions include those that award at least 50 master’s degrees per year, those that primarily emphasize undergraduate education, and those 

that award degrees primarily in single fields of study such as medicine, business, fine arts, theology, and engineering. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2008 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), 

Spring 2009. 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 129Chapter 6 — Postsecondary Education

Figure 24.3. Percentage distribution of U.S. citizen enrollment in degree-granting institutions, by 

institutional type and race/ethnicity: 2008

NOTE: Research institutions include those with a high level of research activity or those that award at least 20 doctor’s degrees per year. Relative 

levels of research activity for research universities were determined by an analysis of research and development expenditures, science and 

engineering research staffing, and doctoral degrees conferred, by field. Further information on the research index ranking may be obtained from 

http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/classifications/index.asp?key=798#related. Other 4-year institutions include those that award at least 50 

master’s degrees per year, those that primarily emphasize undergraduate education, and those that award degrees primarily in single fields of 

study such as medicine, business, fine arts, theology, and engineering. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2008 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), Spring 2009. 

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian/Pacific Islander ■ American Indian/Alaska Native

Private

for-profit

2-year

Private

for-profit

4-year

Private

not-for-profit

 other 4-year

Private

not-for-profit

research

Public

2-year

Public

other

4-year

Public

research

Institutional type

20 30 40 50

Percent

0 10

22

14

13

24

17

19

18

18

15

21

33

36

49

36

42

6

4

4

9

3

15

12

7

9

9

5

12

6

5

7

1

3

2

1

2
130 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 24 — Enrollment

Almost 2.8 million college students are enrolled in institutions that serve large percentages of particular 

races/ethnicities. Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) are those that were established prior 

to 1964 and have the principal mission of educating Black Americans. In 2007, approximately 11 percent 

of Black students attended one of these institutions. Half of all Hispanic college and university students 

(50 percent) attended an institution in which Hispanics represent 25 percent or more of the full-time 

equivalent undergraduate enrollment (sometimes referred to as “Hispanic serving institutions,” or HSIs). 

Tribally controlled institutions are, for the most part, located on reservations and controlled by a Native 

American tribe. Of the total American Indian/Alaska Native college and university enrollment, 7 percent 

attended one of these institutions in 2007.

Snapshot: Enrollment in Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Hispanic Serving 

Institutions, and Tribal Colleges

Table 24.4. Fall enrollment in degree-granting institutions that are historically Black colleges and 

universities, in institutions that serve large proportions of Hispanic students, and in tribally 

controlled institutions, by selected race/ethnicity: 2007

Institution and race/ethnicity Enrollment

Enrollment in historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) 306,515

As a percentage of total enrollment 1.7

Black HBCU enrollment 253,415

As a percentage of total Black enrollment 10.6

Enrollment in institutions that serve large proportions of Hispanic students 2,453,109

As a percentage of total enrollment 13.4

Hispanic enrollment in institutions that serve large proportions of Hispanic students 1,034,762

As a percentage of total Hispanic enrollment 49.8

Enrollment in tribally controlled institutions 17,418

As a percentage of total enrollment 0.1

American Indian/Alaska Native enrollment in tribally controlled institutions 13,820

As a percentage of total American Indian/Alaska Native enrollment 7.3

NOTE: Historically Black colleges and universities are degree-granting institutions established prior to 1964 with the principal mission of 

educating Black Americans. Federal regulations, 20 U.S. Code, Section 1061 (2), allow for certain exceptions to the founding date. Institutions 

that serve large proportions of Hispanic students are defined as institutions with a full-time-equivalent undergraduate enrollment of Hispanic 

students that represent 25 percent or more of the full-time-equivalent undergraduate enrollment of U.S. citizens. Tribally controlled institutions 

are, with a few exceptions, tribally controlled and located on reservations—they are all members of the American Indian Higher Education 

Consortium. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2007 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), Spring 2008.
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132 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 25 — 

Financial Aid

The cost of a postsecondary education is a potential 

barrier to completing an undergraduate degree. 

Financial aid can help ease this burden. Financial 

aid includes assistance in the form of grants, loans, 

work-study, or any other type of aid. In the 2007–08 

school year, the percentage of full-time undergraduate 

students who received financial aid and the amount 

of financial aid received varied by racial/ethnic group.

In 2007–08, a higher percentage of Black full-time, 

full-year undergraduate students received financial 

aid than did White, Hispanic, Asian, and Native 

Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander full-time, 

full-year undergraduates and full-time, full-year 

undergraduates of two or more races. Ninety-two 

percent of full-time, full-year Black undergraduate 

students received financial aid, compared to 85 

percent of Hispanic students, 77 percent of White 

students, 68 percent of Asian students, 80 percent of 

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander students, 

and 83 percent of students or two or more races. 

The percentage of American Indian/Alaska Native 

students (85 percent) who received aid was not 

measurably different from the percentage of Black 

students who received aid, in part due to a large 

standard error.

Grants and loans are two primary forms of financial 

aid. Grants are a type of student financial aid that does 

not require repayment or employment. Grants include 

need-based grants, merit-only scholarships, tuition 

waivers, and employer tuition reimbursements. In 

contrast, loans require repayment and can be issued by 

federal, state, institutional, or private sector financial 

institutions. Loans also include federal PLUS loans30

to parents, but do not include loans from family or 

friends to the student or commercial loans to parents.

In 2007–08, among full-time, full-year students 

who received financial aid, Black students received 

higher average amounts of aid ($13,500), than White 

($12,900), Hispanic ($11,400), Asian ($12,600), and 

American Indian/Alaska Native ($10,900) students. 

Hispanic students received a lower average amount 

of aid than White and Asian students. Asian students 

received the highest amount of aid in the form of 

grants ($8,800). However, Asian students received a 

lower amount of aid in the form of loans ($8,800) 

than did White students ($9,800).

25. Financial Aid

30 Federal PLUS loans are available to parents of dependent undergraduate students and include Direct Loans from the federal 

government and loans from private lenders under the Federal Family Education Loan (FFEL) program.

Table 25. Percentage of full-time, full-year undergraduates receiving financial aid and average amount of 

aid, by race/ethnicity and type of aid: 2007–08

Percent receiving aid Average amount of aid

Race/ethnicity Any aid Grants Loans Any aid Grants Loans

 Total1 79.5 64.4 53.3 $12,700 $7,100 $9,500

White 77.2 60.5 52.6 12,900 7,100 9,800

Black 91.9 79.5 70.1 13,500 7,000 8,900

Hispanic 85.2 74.0 49.2 11,400 6,500 9,000

Asian 68.3 55.8 37.0 12,600 8,800 8,800

Native Hawaiian/Pacific 

Islander 80.3 68.4 53.1 13,400 6,100 11,100

American Indian/Alaska Native 85.2 76.0 47.6 10,900 6,700 8,000

Two or more races 82.7 67.0 57.6 13,600 8,200 8,900

1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Students may receive aid from multiple sources. Estimates include PLUS loans (loans to parents). Data include undergraduates in degreegranting and non-degree-granting institutions. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2007–08 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

(NPSAS:08).
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 133Chapter 6 — Postsecondary Education

Figure 25a. Percentage of full-time, full-year undergraduates receiving financial aid, by race/ethnicity: 

2007–08

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2007–08 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

(NPSAS:08).

Figure 25b. Average amount of financial aid awarded to full-time, full-year undergraduates, by race/

ethnicity and type of aid: 2007–08

NOTE: Aid averages are for those full-time, full-year students who received the specified type of aid. Students may receive aid from multiple 

sources. Figures include PLUS loans (loans to parents). Data include undergraduates in degree-granting and non-degree-granting institutions. 

Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2007–08 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

(NPSAS:08).

30

White Black Hispanic Asian

Race/ethnicity

Native 

Hawaiian/

Pacific Islander

American 

Indian/

Alaska Native

Two or 

more races

0

10

20

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

77

92

85

68

80

85 83 Total:

80%

Any aid Grants

Type of aid

Loans

0

3,000

6,000

9,000

12,000

$15,000

Dollars

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian ■ Native Hawaiian/ ■ American Indian/ ■ Two or more

 Pacific Islander Alaska Native races
134 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 26 — Degrees Awarded

Adults who graduate from a postsecondary institution 

have more stable employment patterns and higher 

earnings than adults without postsecondary degrees 

(indicators 28 and 29). This indicator provides a 

snapshot by race/ethnicity of the degrees conferred in 

the 2007–08 school year with a focus on the different 

types of degrees earned, the differences in the number 

of degrees earned by males and females, and the most 

common fields of study.

26.1. Types of Degrees

Over 3 million degrees were awarded in 2008; about 

half of these degrees (51 percent) were bachelor’s 

degrees. Twenty-four percent of all degrees conferred 

were associate’s degrees, 20 percent were master’s 

degrees, 3 percent were first-professional degrees, 

and 2 percent were doctor’s degrees. This overall 

distribution of degrees awarded was not the same for 

each racial/ethnic group. 

Bachelor’s degrees were the most common degree 

conferred for all races/ethnicities shown: 54 percent 

of degrees conferred on Asians/Pacific Islanders 

were bachelor’s degrees, compared with 53 percent 

conferred on Whites, 48 percent conferred on 

Hispanics, 47 percent conferred on Blacks, and 

46 percent conferred on American Indians/Alaska 

Natives. In 2008, a higher percentage of the total 

degrees earned by Hispanics and American Indians/

Alaska Natives were associate’s degrees compared 

with other racial/ethnic groups: 36 percent of degrees 

conferred on Hispanics and 35 percent of degrees 

conferred on American Indians/Alaska Natives were 

associate’s degrees, compared with 30 percent for 

Blacks, 23 percent for Whites, and 19 percent for 

Asians/Pacific Islanders.

Master’s degrees accounted for 19 to 20 percent of 

all degrees awarded to Whites, Blacks, and Asians/

Pacific Islanders, whereas master’s degrees accounted 

for 15 percent of degrees of American Indians/Alaska 

Natives and 14 percent of degrees of Hispanics. The 

percentage of first-professional degrees conferred on 

Asians/Pacific Islanders (6 percent) was higher than 

the percentages of first-professional degrees conferred 

on all other racial/ethnic groups shown, including 

Whites (3 percent), American Indians/Alaska Natives 

(3 percent), Blacks (2 percent) and Hispanics (2 

percent). The percentage of doctor’s degrees awarded 

ranged from 1 to 2 percent of all degrees conferred 

in 2007 for each race/ethnicity shown.

26. Degrees Awarded
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 135

Table 26.1. Number, percentage conferred on females, and percentage distribution of degrees awarded 

Chapter 6 — Postsecondary Education

by degree-granting institutions, by level of degree, race/ethnicity, and sex: 2007–08

Race/ethnicity and sex Total Associate’s Bachelor’s Master’s

Firstprofessional1 Doctor’s

Number of degrees

Total2 3,093,277 750,164 1,563,069 625,023 91,309 63,712

White 2,134,839 501,079 1,122,675 409,312 65,383 36,390

Male 892,057 194,099 492,137 155,035 34,618 16,168

Female 1,242,782 306,980 630,538 254,277 30,765 20,222

Percent female 58.2 61.3 56.2 62.1 47.1 55.6

Black 323,527 95,702 152,457 65,062 6,400 3,906

Male 104,321 30,016 52,247 18,357 2,389 1,312

Female 219,206 65,686 100,210 46,705 4,011 2,594

Percent female 67.8 68.6 65.7 71.8 62.7 66.4

Hispanic 256,940 91,274 123,048 36,801 4,840 2,279

Male 98,036 33,817 47,884 13,057 2,301 977

Female 158,904 57,457 75,164 23,744 2,539 1,302

Percent female 61.8 63.0 61.1 64.5 52.5 57.1

Asian/Pacific Islander 200,773 38,843 109,058 37,408 11,846 3,618

Male 89,411 15,936 49,485 17,227 5,135 1,628

Female 111,362 22,907 59,573 20,181 6,711 1,990

Percent female 55.5 59.0 54.6 53.9 56.7 55.0

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 25,063 8,849 11,509 3,758 675 272

Male 9,264 3,003 4,523 1,280 343 115

Female 15,799 5,846 6,986 2,478 332 157

Percent female 63.0 66.1 60.7 65.9 49.2 57.7

Percentage distribution

Total2 100.0 24.3 50.5 20.2 3.0 2.1

White 100.0 23.5 52.6 19.2 3.1 1.7

Male 100.0 21.8 55.2 17.4 3.9 1.8

Female 100.0 24.7 50.7 20.5 2.5 1.6

Black 100.0 29.6 47.1 20.1 2.0 1.2

Male 100.0 28.8 50.1 17.6 2.3 1.3

Female 100.0 30.0 45.7 21.3 1.8 1.2

Hispanic 100.0 35.5 47.9 14.3 1.9 0.9

Male 100.0 34.5 48.8 13.3 2.3 1.0

Female 100.0 36.2 47.3 14.9 1.6 0.8

Asian/Pacific Islander 100.0 19.3 54.3 18.6 5.9 1.8

Male 100.0 17.8 55.3 19.3 5.7 1.8

Female 100.0 20.6 53.5 18.1 6.0 1.8

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 100.0 35.3 45.9 15.0 2.7 1.1

Male 100.0 32.4 48.8 13.8 3.7 1.2

Female 100.0 37.0 44.2 15.7 2.1 1.0

1 Includes degrees that require at least 6 years of college work for completion (including at least 2 years of preprofessional training). By the 

National Center for Education Statistics’ definition, first-professional degrees are awarded in the fields of dentistry (D.D.S. or D.M.D.), medicine 

(M.D.), optometry (O.D.), osteopathic medicine (D.O.), pharmacy (D.Phar.), podiatric medicine (D.P.M.), veterinary medicine (D.V.M.), chiropractic 

(D.C. or D.C.M.), law (J.D.), and theological professions (M.Div. or M.H.L.).

2 Includes degrees conferred to nonresident aliens not separately shown; therefore, numbers within each degree do not sum to totals.

NOTE: Estimates in this table may differ from those reported in other publications due to a change in the level of award categories; see Appendix 

A: Guide to Sources for more information. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of 

rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2007–08 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), Fall 2008.
136 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 26 — Degrees Awarded

Within each racial/ethnic group shown, more females 

than males received degrees in 2008, which reflects 

the increased number of females enrolling in degreegranting institutions (see indicator 24). The difference 

in the number of degrees awarded to females and 

males was pronounced among Blacks, with Black 

females representing 68 percent of recipients and 

receiving over twice as many degrees (219,200) as 

Black males (104,300). This pattern was evident 

across the levels of degrees, with about twice as many 

degrees conferred on Black females as Black males 

at each level. The largest difference was seen at the 

master’s degree level: about 2.5 times as many Black 

females received master’s degrees as Black males. 

The difference in the number of degrees between 

the sexes was also seen for other races/ethnicities: 

the percentage of degrees conferred on females was 

63 percent for American Indians/Alaska Natives, 62 

percent for Hispanics, 58 percent for Whites, and 55 

percent for Asians/Pacific Islanders. Similar patterns 

were evident across levels of degree; for example, 

the percentage of bachelor’s degrees conferred on 

females was 66 percent for Blacks, 61 percent each for 

Hispanics and American Indians/Alaska Natives, 56 

percent for Whites, and 55 percent for Asians/Pacific 

Islanders. The only exception to this overall pattern 

was seen among Whites earning first-professional 

degrees: in 2008, White males earned about 3,900 

more first professional degrees than White females.

Figure 26. Percentage distribution of bachelor’s degrees awarded by degree-granting institutions, by sex 

and race/ethnicity: 2007–08

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2007–08 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), Fall 2008.

White Black Hispanic

Race/ethnicity

Asian/Pacific

 Islander

American Indian/

Alaska Native

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

56

44

66

34

61

39

55

45

61

39

■ Male ■ Female
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 137Chapter 6 — Postsecondary Education

26.2. Degrees by Level and Field of Study

In 2007–08, similarities and differences existed in the 

relative percentage of bachelor’s, master’s, and doctor’s 

degrees awarded in various fields of study among the 

races/ethnicities shown. This indicator discusses the 

10 most popular fields of study as measured by the 

percentage of degrees awarded in those fields for each 

type of degree.

Business was the most popular bachelor’s degree for 

all racial/ethnic groups shown, followed by the social 

sciences and history. Of all racial/ethnic groups, 

Blacks had the highest percentage of bachelor’s 

degrees awarded in business (25 percent) and the 

lowest percentage awarded in engineering and 

engineering technologies (3 percent). Asians/Pacific 

Islanders received 12 percent of their bachelor’s 

degrees in the biological and biomedical sciences 

and 9 percent in engineering technologies; these 

were higher percentages than those of all other racial/

ethnic groups shown. They also received the lowest 

percentage of degrees in education (2 percent) of any 

racial/ethnic group shown. American Indians/Alaska 

Natives and Whites had higher percentages of their 

bachelor’s degrees awarded in education (8 percent 

for both) than all other racial/ethnic groups shown.

The most popular master’s degrees were in education 

and business. This was true for all racial/ethnic groups 

shown, although the relative percentages varied. For 

example, although education was either the most 

common or second most common field of study for 

all races/ethnicities shown, 12 percent of master’s 

degrees awarded to Asians/Pacific Islanders were in 

education, compared with the 33 percent awarded 

to Whites and 33 percent awarded to Hispanics. 

Asians/Pacific Islanders had higher percentages of 

their master’s degrees awarded in engineering and 

engineering technologies (11 percent), computer and 

information sciences and support services (5 percent), 

and biological and biomedical sciences (3 percent) 

than all other racial/ethnic groups shown. American 

Indians/Alaska Natives, Blacks, and Hispanics 

received higher percentages of master’s degrees in 

public administration and social services (8 to 9 

percent) than all other racial/ethnic groups shown. 

Blacks earned the lowest percentage of their master’s 

degrees in engineering and engineering technologies 

(2 percent) of any racial/ethnic group shown.

There was also variation by race and ethnicity in the 

fields of study for doctor’s degrees. For example, 37 

percent of all doctor’s degrees awarded to Blacks were 

in education, compared with 15 percent for Whites, 

19 percent for Hispanics, 8 percent for Asians/Pacific 

Islanders, and 22 percent for American Indians/

Alaska Natives. Also, 15 percent of degrees awarded 

to Asians/Pacific Islanders were in engineering and 

engineering technologies—this percentage was higher 

than the respective percentages for all other races/

ethnicities shown (ranging from 4 to 6 percent). 
138 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 26 — Degrees Awarded

Table 26.2. Percentage of degrees awarded by degree-granting institutions in the most popular fields of 

study, by race/ethnicity and level of study: 2007–08

Level and field of study Total1 White Black Hispanic

Asian/

Pacific 

Islander

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native

Bachelor’s degrees

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Biological and biomedical sciences 5.0 4.5 4.0 4.2 11.9 4.5

Business 21.4 20.4 24.9 21.2 22.6 19.3

Communication and communications 

technologies 5.2 5.5 5.3 4.7 3.4 4.0

Education 6.6 7.7 4.3 4.4 1.9 7.9

Engineering and engineering technologies 5.3 5.2 3.0 4.4 8.7 4.2

English language and literature/letters 3.5 3.9 2.8 3.1 2.4 3.2

Health professions and related clinical sciences 7.1 7.3 8.4 5.5 6.5 7.2

Psychology 5.9 5.7 7.2 7.2 5.8 5.9

Social sciences and history 10.7 10.6 10.0 11.9 12.0 12.0

Visual and performing arts 5.6 6.0 3.4 5.2 5.3 5.3

Master’s degrees

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Biological and biomedical sciences 1.5 1.4 0.9 1.3 3.0 1.7

Business 24.9 22.1 31.6 23.2 36.4 22.6

Computer and information sciences 2.7 1.5 1.7 1.3 5.1 1.4

Education 28.1 33.0 27.7 32.7 12.2 32.2

Engineering and engineering technologies 5.5 3.4 1.9 3.5 10.6 2.7

Health professions and related clinical sciences 9.3 10.1 9.4 8.9 11.1 10.8

Psychology 3.4 3.7 4.5 4.6 2.4 3.4

Public administration and social services 5.3 5.1 9.5 7.5 3.8 7.8

Social sciences and history 3.0 2.9 2.0 2.6 2.5 2.4

Visual and performing arts 2.3 2.4 1.0 1.8 2.3 1.4

Doctor’s degrees

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Biological and biomedical sciences 10.9 10.1 6.2 11.1 16.4 6.3

Business 3.3 2.8 5.8 2.6 3.2 5.5

Computer and information sciences 2.7 1.4 0.8 0.6 2.8 0.0

Education 13.3 15.4 36.8 19.4 7.8 22.4

Engineering and engineering technologies 12.8 6.5 3.6 6.1 15.3 5.9

Health professions and related clinical sciences 15.5 21.3 11.7 15.8 15.9 16.5

Physical sciences and science technologies 7.5 6.1 2.4 5.3 6.7 2.9

Psychology 8.3 10.8 9.2 14.3 8.8 16.2

Social sciences and history 6.4 6.2 4.7 7.1 5.7 5.5

Visual and performing arts 2.3 2.6 1.1 1.5 2.4 1.8

1 Includes degrees conferred to nonresident aliens not separately shown.

NOTE: Reported racial/ethnic distributions of students by level of degree, field of degree, and sex were used to estimate race/ethnicity for 

students whose race/ethnicity was not reported. Detail does not sum to totals because degree-granting institutions conferred degrees in many 

other fields not shown separately. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2007–08 Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS), Fall 2008.
The final chapter of this report discusses three 

measures of educational outcomes in adults. Indicator 

27 looks at educational attainment and completion. 

In 2008, about 29 percent of U.S. adults over the age 

of 25 had at least a bachelor’s degree, an increase of 

6 percentage points from 1996. In 2008, 13 percent 

of Hispanic adults and 15 percent of American 

Indian/Alaska Native adults had obtained at least 

a bachelor’s degree, compared with 52 percent of 

Asians/Pacific Islanders, 33 percent of Whites, and 

20 percent of Blacks. 

Adults with higher levels of education had higher 

median incomes and lower unemployment rates than 

their less educated peers. In 2008, about 5 percent of 

the labor force ages 16 and over were unemployed. 

The unemployment rates for Hispanics (8 percent), 

Blacks (9 percent), American Indians/Alaska Natives 

(10 percent) and persons of two or more races (10 

percent) were higher than the unemployment rates 

for Asians and Whites (4 percent each) (indicator 

28). In general, higher unemployment rates were 

associated with lower levels of education for each 

racial/ethnic group. For example, the unemployment 

rate for Blacks without a high school credential was 

22 percent, compared with 11 percent for Blacks 

with a high school credential and 4 percent for Blacks 

with at least a bachelor’s degree. Finally, the median 

income in 2007 for all full-time, full-year workers 

ages 25 and over was $41,000 (indicator 29). White 

workers at all educational levels, other than doctorate 

or first-professional, had higher median incomes than 

Black workers at the same educational level. Similarly, 

Whites at all educational levels, other than master’s, 

had higher median incomes than Hispanics at the 

same level.

7 Outcomes of 

Education
140 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 27 — Educational Attainment

Educational attainment contributes to future earnings 

and employment opportunities. In 2008, about 

87 percent of U.S. adults over the age of 25 had 

completed at least high school or the equivalent. 

This was a 5 percentage point increase from 1996. 

Similarly, in 2008, about 29 percent of U.S. adults 

over the age of 25 had at least a bachelor’s degree, an 

increase of 6 percentage points from 1996.

Overall, Hispanic adults in the United States had 

lower rates of high school attainment than adults 

of other racial/ethnic groups. In 2008, about 62 

percent of Hispanic adults over the age of 25 had 

completed at least high school or the equivalent, 

while 92 percent of Whites, 89 percent of Asians/

Pacific Islanders, 83 percent of Blacks, and 78 percent 

of American Indians/Alaska Natives had done so. 

Between 1996 and 2008, the percentage of adults 

who had completed at least high school increased for 

each race/ethnicity, and some gaps between racial/

ethnic groups decreased. For example, the percentage 

of adults who had completed at least high school 

increased by 9 percentage points each for Blacks and 

Hispanics, compared with an increase of 5 percentage 

points each for Whites and Asians/Pacific Islanders.

In 2008, in terms of college education, 13 percent of 

Hispanic adults and 15 percent of American Indian/

Alaska Native adults had obtained at least a bachelor’s 

degree; 52 percent of Asians/Pacific Islanders, 33 

percent of Whites, and 20 percent of Blacks had done 

so. Although bachelor’s degree attainment rates for 

all racial/ethnic groups have increased over the past 

12 years, gaps are not narrowing and, in some cases, 

they are widening. For example, between 1996 and 

2008, the percentage of adults who had at least a 

bachelor’s degree increased by 10 percentage points 

for Asians/Pacific Islanders, by 7 percentage points 

for Whites, by 6 percentage points for Blacks, and by 

4 percentage points each for Hispanics and American 

Indians/Alaska Natives. 

In 2007, a higher percentage of White and Black 

adults (ages 25 to 29) that were born in the United 

States (refers to the 50 states and District of 

Columbia) had at least a bachelor’s degree (45 and 

24 percent, respectively) than did White and Black 

adults in this age group that were born outside of the 

United States (32 and 16 percent, respectively). For 

Hispanics and Native Hawaiians/Pacific Islanders, a 

higher percentage of adults (ages 25 to 29) born in the 

United States had at least a bachelor’s degree (16 and 

24 percent, respectively), than did adults born outside 

the United States (8 and 11 percent, respectively). 

27. Educational Attainment

Figure 27. Percentage of adults ages 25 and over who completed at least high school and percentage 

who have at least a bachelor’s degree, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1996–2008 

NOTE: “Completed high school” includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic 

ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Demographic Supplement, 1996, 2000, 

2004, and Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2008.

1996 2000

Year Year

2004 2008 1996 2000 2004 2008

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent

Percent who have

Percent at least a bachelor’s degree

Percent who completed

at least high school

   

 White  Black  Hispanic  Asian/Pacific Islander  American Indian/Alaska Native

   



  

   

   



 



 

 

      

   
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 141

Table 27a. Percentage distribution of adults ages 25 and over according to highest level of educational 

Chapter 7 — Outcomes of Education

attainment, by race/ethnicity: Selected years, 1996–2008

Race/ethnicity 

and year

Less than 

high 

school 

completion

At least high school completion

Total

High 

school 

completion1

Some 

college

Associate’s 

degree

At least a bachelor’s degree

Total

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

degree

Doctorate 

or firstprofessional 

degree

Total

1996 18.3 81.7 33.6 17.3 7.2 23.6 15.8 5.4 2.4

2000 15.9 84.1 33.1 17.6 7.8 25.6 17.0 5.9 2.6

2004 14.8 85.2 32.0 17.0 8.4 27.7 18.1 6.7 2.9

2008 13.4 86.6 31.2 17.2 8.8 29.4 19.1 7.5 2.8

White

1996 14.0 86.0 34.7 17.8 7.6 25.9 17.2 6.0 2.7

2000 11.6 88.4 34.1 17.9 8.4 28.1 18.6 6.5 2.9

2004 10.0 90.0 32.8 17.6 9.0 30.6 19.8 7.6 3.2

2008 8.5 91.5 31.6 17.9 9.3 32.6 21.1 8.4 3.1

Black

1996 25.4 74.6 35.3 18.8 6.7 13.8 10.1 2.9 0.8

2000 21.1 78.9 35.3 20.1 6.8 16.6 11.5 4.2 0.9

2004 18.9 81.1 36.2 19.3 7.9 17.7 12.4 4.1 1.2

2008 16.7 83.3 35.1 19.6 8.9 19.7 13.6 4.9 1.3

Hispanic

1996 46.9 53.1 26.0 13.2 4.6 9.3 6.7 1.8 0.9

2000 43.0 57.0 27.9 13.5 5.0 10.6 7.3 2.2 1.2

2004 41.6 58.4 27.7 13.2 5.4 12.1 8.8 2.2 1.1

2008 37.7 62.3 29.6 13.3 6.1 13.3 9.4 2.9 1.0

Asian/Pacific 

Islander

1996 16.5 83.5 21.7 12.1 7.3 42.3 27.8 9.2 5.3

2000 14.3 85.7 22.0 12.4 7.0 44.4 28.9 9.5 5.9

2004 13.1 86.9 20.3 10.6 7.2 48.9 29.7 11.9 7.2

2008 11.0 89.0 20.0 10.2 6.9 51.9 31.6 14.0 6.4

American Indian/ 

Alaska Native

1996 27.6 72.4 33.6 20.4 7.2 11.2 5.9 3.7 1.6!

2000 24.1 75.9 33.2 20.2 9.0 13.6 9.7 2.9 1.0!

2004 22.2 77.8 31.0 21.5 11.0 14.3 9.2 3.6 1.5!

2008 21.6 78.4 33.4 21.7 8.4 14.9 9.8 3.6 1.4

! Interpret data with caution.

1 Includes high school diploma or equivalent.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Demographic Supplement, 1996, 2000, 

2004, and Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2008.
142 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 27 — Educational Attainment

In the United States, 11 percent of Hispanic adults between the ages of 25 and 29 had at least a bachelor’s 

degree (compared with 27 percent of the total population, 33 percent of Whites, and 17 percent of Blacks 

in that age group) in 2008. However, there was variation among the different Hispanic subgroups. Cubans 

and South Americans had the highest rates of college attainment (30 and 28 percent, respectively), which 

were not measurably different from the average rate for the United States. Among the Hispanic subgroups, 

Salvadorans and Mexicans generally had the lowest rates of college attainment at 8 percent each. Among 

the Hispanic subgroups, Mexican Americans, Cubans, Salvadorans, other Central Americans and South 

Americans who were born in the United States (meaning within the 50 states and the District of Columbia) 

had higher rates of college attainment than adults of those subgroups born outside the United States. For 

example, within the Cuban subgroup, those who were born in the United States had a college attainment 

rate of 38 percent, while those who were born outside the United States had a rate of 18 percent.

Sixty percent of Asian adults ages 25 to 29 had at least a bachelor’s degree in 2008. Among Asian subgroups, 

Asian Indians had the highest percentage of adults with at least a bachelor’s degree (80 percent), while the 

Other Asian category generally had the lowest percentage (36 percent). The percentage of Native Hawaiians 

and other Pacific Islanders who had completed college (18 percent) was lower than the percentages for each 

of the Asian subgroups and lower than the U.S. average. U.S.-born members of the Chinese, Japanese, 

and Vietnamese subgroups had higher college attainment rates than members of the same subgroups that 

were born outside the United States. For example, within the Vietnamese subgroup, 57 percent of those 

who were born in the United States had a college degree, compared to 39 percent of those who were born 

outside the United States.

Snapshot of Hispanic and Asian Subgroups: Educational Attainment
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 143Chapter 7 — Outcomes of Education

Table 27b. Number and percentage of persons ages 25 to 29 with at least a bachelor’s degree, by nativity 

and race/ethnicity with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2007

Race/ethnicity Population

Number with 

at least a 

bachelor’s degree

Percentage

Total

Born within the 

United States1

Born outside the 

United States1

Total2 20,612,000 5,648,000 27.4 28.2 24.0

White 12,341,000 4,025,000 32.6 32.1 44.5

Black 2,661,000 457,000 17.2 16.3 24.3

Hispanic 4,082,000 457,000 11.2 15.6 7.8

Mexican 2,768,000 234,000 8.5 13.4 4.6

Puerto Rican 318,000 50,000 15.7 15.1 16.7

Cuban 84,000 25,000 29.7 37.8 18.3

Dominican 96,000 15,000 15.5 19.5 13.5

Salvadoran 154,000 12,000 7.8 15.7 6.7

Other Central American 225,000 23,000 10.2 23.7 8.1

South American 205,000 58,000 28.2 35.3 26.0

Other Hispanic or 

Latino 230,000 41,000 17.6 17.6 17.6

Asian 999,000 595,000 59.6 59.3 59.7

Asian Indian 276,000 221,000 80.0 81.6 79.7

Chinese3 202,000 142,000 70.3 77.0 67.9

Filipino 99,000 59,000 59.6 66.0 57.3

Japanese 164,000 67,000 40.8 45.5 37.8

Korean 38,000 20,000 54.0 48.6 58.7

Vietnamese 83,000 37,000 44.6 57.3 38.7

Other Asian 138,000 49,000 35.8 38.1 34.8

Native Hawaiian/Pacific 

Islander 36,000 6,000 18.0 23.9 10.7!

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 144,000 14,000 9.7 9.5 ‡

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

1 United States refers to the 50 states and District of Columbia.

2 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

3 Excludes Taiwanese. Taiwanese is included in “Other Asian.” 

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2007.
144 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 28 — 

Unemployment 

Rates

The unemployment rate, one of the important labor 

market outcomes related to educational attainment, 

is the percentage of the total labor force population 

that is jobless, looking for a job, and available for 

work. People who have no job and are not looking for 

one, such as those who are going to school, who have 

retired, or who have a physical or mental disability 

that prevents them from participating in the labor 

force are not included in the labor force and are not 

considered unemployed. In 2008, about 5 percent of 

the labor force ages 16 and over were unemployed; 

however, this rate varied by race/ethnicity and level 

of educational attainment.

28. Unemployment Rates

Table 28. Unemployment rates for persons ages 16 years and older, by educational attainment, age 

group, and race/ethnicity: 2008

Age group and 

race/ethnicity Total

Less than 

high school 

completion

High school 

completion1

Some 

college

Associate’s 

degree

At least a 

bachelor’s 

degree

Total,2 ages 16 and 

older 5.4 13.0 6.8 4.9 3.7 2.3

White 4.3 12.5 5.7 4.2 3.1 2.0

Black 9.5 21.6 10.9 8.2 5.6 3.5

Hispanic 7.5 10.9 7.6 5.2 4.9 3.3

Asian 3.6 8.3 5.0 3.8! 3.3! 2.5

Native Hawaiian/Pacific 

Islander 5.6! ‡ 9.7! 3.5! ‡ ‡

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 10.0 19.5! 11.2 7.9! 3.4! 5.2!

Two or more races 10.3 27.4 11.9 7.6! 12.0! 2.6!

Ages 16 to 242 11.5 20.2 13.3 6.3 4.6 4.3

White 9.4 17.3 12.0 5.0 3.3! 3.9

Black 20.2 33.3 20.0 13.5 12.2! 6.5!

Hispanic 13.2 19.4 12.7 7.1 3.3! 8.3!

Asian 6.6 16.1! 8.9! 5.5! ‡ 2.0!

Native Hawaiian/Pacific 

Islander ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 20.3! ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more races 17.0 33.8 13.3! 6.8! ‡ ‡

Ages 25 and over2 4.4 9.8 5.7 4.4 3.6 2.2

White 3.6 8.9 4.8 3.9 3.1 1.9

Black 7.5 16.1 9.2 6.9 5.1 3.4

Hispanic 6.3 9.0 6.4 4.6 5.1 3.0

Asian 3.3 6.9! 4.6 3.0! 3.0! 2.5

Native Hawaiian/Pacific 

Islander 4.5! ‡ 6.0! ‡ ‡ ‡

American Indian/Alaska 

Native 8.3 14.2! 11.6! 5.3! 2.7! 5.3!

Two or more races 8.1 17.9! 11.4 7.9! 11.0! 2.1!

! Interpret data with caution.

‡ Reporting standards not met.

1 Includes equivalency.

2 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2008.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 145Chapter 7 — Outcomes of Education

In 2008, for person ages 16 and over, the 

unemployment rates for Hispanics (8 percent), 

Blacks (9 percent), American Indians/Alaska Natives 

(10 percent) and persons of two or more races (10 

percent) were higher than the rates for Asians and 

Whites (4 percent each).31 Youth and young adults 

(ages 16 to 24) generally had higher unemployment 

rates than adults ages 25 and over, and differences in 

unemployment rates were found among racial/ethnic 

groups within each age group. Among 16- to 24-yearolds, the unemployment rate for Blacks (20 percent) 

was higher than the rate for Hispanics (13 percent), 

and both were higher than the rates for Whites (9 

percent) and Asians (7 percent). In addition, among 

adults ages 25 and over, the unemployment rates for 

Blacks, American Indians/Alaska Natives, and persons 

of two or more races (8 percent each) and Hispanics 

(6 percent) were higher than the unemployment rates 

for Whites (4 percent) and Asians (3 percent).

In general, lower unemployment rates were associated 

with higher levels of education for each racial/ethnic 

group. While the overall unemployment rate for those 

over 16 years old was 5 percent, it was 13 percent for 

those without a high school diploma and 2 percent for 

those with at least a bachelor’s degree. Similarly, the 

unemployment rate for Blacks without a high school 

credential was 22 percent, compared with 11 percent 

for those with a high school credential and 4 percent 

for those with at least a bachelor’s degree. This pattern 

was also generally evident in the unemployment rates 

for the two age groups—youth and young adults ages 

16 to 24 and adults ages 25 and over. For example, 

for Hispanic adults (ages 25 and over) who did not 

complete high school, the unemployment rate was 

9 percent, compared with 6 percent for those whose 

highest level of education was a high school credential 

and 3 percent for those who completed at least a 

bachelor’s degree.

31 No statistical differences were found between the unemployment rate for Native Hawaiians/Pacific Islanders and the rate of any 

other race/ethnicity group shown; the estimates for Native Hawaiians/Pacific Islanders had relatively large standard errors. 

Figure 28. Unemployment rates for persons ages 16 and over, by educational attainment and race/

ethnicity: 2008 

! Interpret data with caution. 

‡ Reporting standards not met. 1 Includes equivalency. 

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2008.

 

■ White ■ Black ■ Hispanic ■ Asian ■ Native Hawaiian/ ■ American Indian/ ■ Two or more 

 Pacific Islander Alaska Native races

Less than high school completion High school completion1

Educational attainment

At least a bachelor’s degree

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Unemployment rate

13

22

11

8

19!

27

6

11

8

5

10!

11 12

4 3 2

‡ ‡

5! Total:

3! 5%

2
146 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 29 — 

Median Income

This indicator compares the median income of 

different racial/ethnic groups in 2007 by educational 

attainment. Median income is the reported annual 

wage and salary earnings of full-time, full-year 

workers ages 25 years and over.

The median income in 2007 for all full-time, full-year 

workers ages 25 and over was $41,000. Generally, for 

both sexes and all races/ethnicities, higher median 

earnings were associated with higher educational 

attainment. For example, those with at least a 

bachelor’s degree had a median income of $58,900, 

while those who had completed high school had a 

median income of $32,000. 

In 2007, the median income of male workers was 

higher than the median income of female workers 

($48,000 vs. $36,000). Males generally had higher 

median incomes than females for each race/ethnicity 

and at each educational level, although the income 

gaps varied in size. For example, White males with 

at least a bachelor’s degree out-earned their female 

peers by $21,000. At the same level of educational 

attainment, Black males out-earned their female peers 

by $10,000. Among Blacks with a master’s degree, no 

measurable difference was found between the income 

of males and the income of females. 

Among males, Asians and Whites had higher median 

incomes ($52,000 and $50,000, respectively) than 

males of other racial/ethnic groups, except Native 

Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander males.32 Hispanic 

males had a lower median income ($33,000) than 

Black males ($38,000), American Indian/Alaska 

Native males ($39,000), Native Hawaiian or Other 

Pacific Islander males ($45,000), and males of two 

or more races ($45,000). At all levels of educational 

attainment, other than doctorate/first-professional, 

the median income for Black males was lower than 

the median income for White males. Similarly, at each 

level of educational attainment, other than master’s, 

the median income for Hispanic males was lower than 

the income for White males. Additionally, the median 

income of Asian males with at least a bachelor’s degree 

was higher than that of Black males and Hispanic 

males with the same level of educational attainment. 

Among those with at least a bachelor’s degree, the 

median income was $71,000 for White males and 

$69,000 for Asian males, compared with $55,000 for 

Black males and $54,000 for Hispanic males.

Among females, Asians had a higher median income 

($42,000) than females of other racial/ethnic groups, 

except Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islanders.33 

In addition, White females and females of two or 

more races had higher median incomes ($38,000 

and $35,000, respectively) than Black ($31,000) and 

Hispanic ($30,000) females. White females who had 

completed high school, some college, or an associate’s 

degree had a higher median income than Black and 

Hispanic females with similar educational attainment. 

Asian females with at least a bachelor’s degree had 

higher median earnings ($54,000) compared to 

White females ($50,000), Black females ($45,000), 

and Hispanic females ($43,000). In addition, Asian 

females with a master’s degree had higher median 

earnings ($67,000) than other females with the 

same level of education (ranging between $52,500 

and $55,000).

29. Median Income

32 There was no statistically significant difference between the median income of White males or Asian males and the median 

income of Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander males, as the standard error for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander 

males was relatively large. 

33 There were no statistically significant differences between the median income of Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander 

females and females of any other racial/ethnic group, as the standard error for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander females 

was relatively large.
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups 147Chapter 7 — Outcomes of Education

Figure 29. Median annual earnings of full-time, full-year wage and salary workers ages 25 and older, by 

sex, race/ethnicity, and educational attainment: 2007

‡ Reporting standards not met. 1 Includes equivalency. 

NOTE: Reporting standards for many of the educational attainment categories for Native Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders, American Indians/

Alaska Natives, or persons of two or more races were not met; therefore, data for these groups are not shown on the figure. Race categories 

exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2008.

White Black Hispanic

Male Female

Asian White Black Hispanic Asian

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

$80,000

Median earnings

‡

 Less than high school  High school  Associate’s  Bachelor’s or

 completion completion1 degree higher degree






























































148 Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups

Indicator 29 — 

Median Income

Table 29. Median annual earnings of full-time, full-year wage and salary workers ages 25 and older, by 

educational attainment, sex, and race/ethnicity: 2007

Sex and 

race/ethnicity Total

Less than 

high 

school 

completion

High 

school 

completion1

Some 

college

Associate’s 

degree

Bachelor’s or higher degree

Total

Bachelor’s 

degree

Master’s 

degree

Doctorate 

or firstprofessional 

degree

Total $41,000 $25,000 $32,000 $38,000 $41,700 $58,900 $53,000 $62,000 $86,000

Male 48,000 28,000 37,200 45,000 49,000 69,000 61,000 75,000 100,000

White 50,000 32,000 40,000 47,000 50,000 71,000 65,000 75,500 100,000

Black 38,000 27,000 32,000 37,000 41,000 55,000 50,000 60,000 95,000

Hispanic 33,000 25,000 30,000 38,000 42,000 54,000 50,000 68,000 85,000

Asian 52,000 28,000 32,000 44,000 41,000 69,000 60,000 75,000 95,000

Native 

Hawaiian/ 

Pacific 

Islander 45,000 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

American 

 Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native 39,000 ‡ 35,000 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more 

races 45,000 ‡ 30,000 39,000 ‡ 78,000 75,600 ‡ ‡

Female 36,000 20,000 27,000 33,000 35,800 50,000 45,000 55,000 70,000

White 38,000 20,800 29,000 34,000 38,000 50,000 46,000 55,000 70,000

Black 31,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 33,000 45,000 42,000 55,000 65,400

Hispanic 30,000 18,200 25,000 31,000 32,500 43,000 40,000 52,500 ‡

Asian 42,000 ‡ 26,000 34,000 35,000 54,000 50,000 67,000 65,000

Native 

Hawaiian/ 

Pacific 

Islander 35,000 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

American 

Indian/ 

Alaska 

Native 30,000 ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Two or more 

races 35,000 ‡ 26,500 32,900 ‡ 50,000 ‡ ‡ ‡

‡ Reporting standards not met.

1 Includes equivalency.

NOTE: Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Current Population Survey (CPS), Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2008.
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Education and Rehabilitative Services. (n.d.). 

Building the Legacy: IDEA 2004. Retrieved 

September 4, 2009, from http://idea.ed.gov/. 

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special 

Education and Rehabilitative Services. (2000). A 

Guide to the Individualized Education Program. 

Retrieved December 20, 2005, from http://www.

ed.gov/parents/needs/speced/iepguide/iepguide.

pdf. 

Zaff, J., Moore, K., Romano Papillo, A., and Williams, 

S. (2003). Implications of Extracurricular Activity 

Participation During Adolescence on Positive 

Outcomes. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18(6): 

599–623.
The indicators in this report present data from a 

variety of sources. The sources and their definitions of 

key terms are described below. Most of these sources 

are federal surveys and many are conducted by the 

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). 

The majority of the sources are sample surveys; these 

are the sources of the estimates for which standard 

errors are provided on the NCES website: http://nces.

ed.gov/. A few sources are universe surveys, meaning 

that they collect information on the entire population 

of interest, and therefore there are no standard errors 

because there is no error introduced by sampling. 

All of the definitions of key terms appear after the 

description of the data source to which they apply.

Some of the indicators in this report use different data 

sources or different definitions of terms to present 

estimates on similar variables. It is important to 

note that comparisons between estimates with such 

differences should be made with caution, if at all, 

because differences in populations, methodologies, 

question phrasing, and other factors may compromise 

such comparisons.

American College Testing Program (ACT)

ACT (formerly the American College Testing Program) 

is an independent, not-for-profit organization that 

provides services in the broad areas of education and 

workforce development. ACT scores represent a selfselecting sample, and therefore are not necessarily 

representative of the population as a whole.

Students taking the ACT college entrance exam 

are asked to self-select one of the following racial/

ethnic groups to describe themselves: AfricanAmerican/Black, American Indian/Alaskan Native, 

Caucasian-American/White, Mexican-American/

Chicano, Asian-American/Pacific Islander, Puerto 

Rican/Hispanic, Other, Multiracial, or prefer not 

to respond. 

Indicator 15.2 includes data on the ACT, presented 

for the following mutually exclusive race/ethnicity 

categories: White (non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), Mexican-American, or Puerto Rican/Other 

Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic), 

and American Indian/Alaska Native (non-Hispanic). 

Since students could only select one racial/ethnic 

category, all persons of Hispanic origin are included 

in one of the two Hispanic categories, regardless of 

race. Data for students who selected the categories 

“Other,” “Multiracial,” or “Prefer not to respond” 

are not separately shown, but these data are included 

in the totals.

For more information on the ACT, see http://www.

act.org/news/data.html.

The College Board

The College Board is a not-for-profit membership 

association whose mission is to connect students to 

college success and opportunity. The College Board 

conducts the SAT and Advanced Placement (AP) testing. Scores on tests conducted by the College Board 

are not necessarily representative of the population 

as a whole as test-takers are self-selected.

Advanced Placement (AP) Program

Students taking an AP test are asked to select one 

of the following categories to describe their race/

ethnicity: American Indian/Alaskan; Asian/Asian 

American; Black/Afro-American; Latino: Chicano/

Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Other Latino; White; 

and Other.

Indicator 14 presents data from the AP program, and 

presents data on the following mutually exclusive race/

ethnicity categories: White (non-Hispanic), Black 

(non-Hispanic), Hispanic, Asian (non-Hispanic), and 

American Indian/Alaska Native (non-Hispanic). The 

 Appendix A: 

 Guide to Sources
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152

category Hispanic includes the Chicano/Mexican, 

Puerto Rican, and Other Latino categories listed 

above. Since students could only select one racial/

ethnic category, all persons of Hispanic origin are 

included in the Hispanic category, regardless of race. 

Data for students who selected the category “Other” 

are not separately shown, but these data are included 

in the totals.

SAT

Students taking the SAT are asked to select one of the 

following categories to describe their race/ethnicity: 

American Indian or Alaskan Native; Asian, Asian 

American, or Pacific Islander; African American or 

Black; Latino: Chicano/Mexican, Puerto Rican, and 

Other Latino; White; and Other.

Indicator 15.1 reports SAT data. This indicator uses 

the following mutually exclusive race/ethnicity categories: White (non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), 

Mexican American, Puerto Rican, Other Hispanic/

Latino, Asian/Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic), and 

American Indian/Alaska Native (non-Hispanic). 

In table 15.1a, Mexican American, Puerto Rican, 

and Other Hispanic/Latino were combined into 

the category labeled Hispanic. Since students could 

only select one racial/ethnic category, all persons of 

Hispanic origin are included in one of the three Hispanic categories, regardless of race. Data for students 

who selected the category “Other” are not separately 

shown, but are included in the totals.

For more information on the College Board, see 

http://professionals.collegeboard.com/data-reportsresearch.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Census 

Bureau

American Community Survey (ACS)

The American Community Survey (ACS) is a sample 

survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau. The 

ACS was first implemented in 1996 and expanded 

in scope in subsequent years. The ACS will replace 

the long-form survey in the 2010 Decennial Census.

The race/ethnicity questions in the ACS are the same 

as in the Decennial Census (see p. 153). Therefore, 

prior to 1999, respondents could choose only one 

race, but from 2000 on respondents could choose 

one or more races. The ACS also asks respondents 

to write in their ancestry or ethnic origin.

Indicators 2, 3, 4, 8.2, 18.1b, and 27b present the 

following mutually exclusive race/ethnicity categories: White (non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), 

Hispanic, Asian (non-Hispanic), Native Hawaiian 

or Other Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic), American 

Indian/Alaska Native (non-Hispanic), and Two or 

more races (non-Hispanic). Data on persons who 

identified themselves as “Some other race” are included in the totals, but these data are not separately 

shown. All persons of Hispanic origin are included in 

the Hispanic category regardless of the race option(s) 

chosen. Therefore, persons of Hispanic origin may 

be of any race. 

Indicators 2, 4, 8.2, 18, and 27 include “Snapshots” 

that provide statistics on more detailed ancestry subgroups for Hispanics and Asians. Due to sample size 

limitations, several subgroups have been combined 

into broader categories. The Hispanic ancestry categories presented in this report are Mexican, Puerto 

Rican, Cuban, Dominican, Salvadoran, Other Central American (includes Costa Rican, Guatemalan, 

Honduran, Nicaraguan, Panamanian, and Other 

Central American), South American (includes Argentinean, Bolivian, Chilean, Colombian, Ecuadorian, 

Peruvian, Uruguayan, Venezuelan, and Other South 

American), and Other Hispanic or Latino (includes 

Spaniard and All other Spanish/Hispanic/Latino). 

The Asian ancestry categories presented in this report 

are Asian Indian, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, 

Vietnamese, and Other Asian (includes Taiwanese, 

Bangladeshi, Cambodian, Hmong, Indonesian, 

Laotian, Malaysian, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Thai, and 

Other Asian).

For more information on the American Community 

Survey, see http://www.census.gov/acs/www/.

Current Population Survey (CPS)

The Current Population Survey (CPS) is a monthly 

sample survey of households conducted by the Census 

Bureau for the Bureau of Labor Statistics to obtain 

information on the labor force characteristics of the 

U.S. population. Supplementary questions are often 

added to the CPS interview in a particular month to 

gather in-depth information on specific aspects of the 

labor force or other topics. For example, the Annual 

Social and Economic Supplement in March includes 

questions on income and work experience.

CPS respondents are asked to identify their race. 

Between 1979 and 2002, respondents were asked to 

choose one of the following race categories: White, 
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153

Black, Asian or Pacific Islander, or American Indian/

Aleut/Eskimo. For 2003 and later years, respondents 

were asked to choose from White, Black or African 

American, Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific 

Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native; respondents had the option to select more than one race 

category from that list. Also, in 2003 and subsequent 

years, respondents were asked to specify whether or 

not they were of Hispanic origin after answering the 

race question. 

Indicators 5, 18.1a, 19, 23, 27a, 28, and 29 use data 

from the CPS. In each of these indicators, data are 

presented for the following mutually exclusive race/

ethnicity categories: White (non-Hispanic), Black 

(non-Hispanic), Hispanic, Asian (non-Hispanic), 

Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic), 

and American Indian/Alaska Native (non-Hispanic). 

All persons of Hispanic origin are included in the 

Hispanic category regardless of the race option(s) 

chosen. Therefore, persons of Hispanic origin may 

be of any race. In Indicators 18.1 and 27a, data for 

the categories Asian and Native Hawaiian or Other 

Pacific Islander are combined for 2003 and later years 

in order to provide continuity with previous years 

of data and in order for cell sizes to meet reporting 

standards. 

For more information on the CPS, see http://www.

census.gov/cps/.

Decennial Census, Population Estimates, and 

Population Projections

The Decennial Census is a universe survey mandated 

by the U.S. Constitution. It is a questionnaire sent to 

every household in the country, and it is composed of 

seven questions about the household and its members 

(name, sex, age, relationship, Hispanic origin, race, 

and whether the housing unit is owned or rented). 

The Census Bureau also produces annual estimates 

of the resident population by demographic characteristics (age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin) for the 

nation, states, and counties, as well as national and 

state projections for the resident population. The 

reference date for population estimates is July 1 of the 

given year. With each new issue of July 1 estimates, 

the Census Bureau revises estimates for each year back 

to the last census. Previously published estimates are 

superseded and archived.

Census respondents self-report race and ethnicity. 

In the 2000 Census, they were first asked, “Is this 

person Spanish/Hispanic/Latino?” and then given 

the following options: No, not Spanish/Hispanic/

Latino; Yes, Puerto Rican; Yes, Mexican, Mexican 

American, Chicano; Yes, Cuban; and Yes, other 

Spanish/Hispanic/Latino (with space to print the 

specific group). The next question was “What is this 

person’s race?”, and the options were White; Black, 

African American, or Negro; American Indian or 

Alaska Native (with space to print the name of 

enrolled or principal tribe); Asian Indian; Japanese; 

Native Hawaiian; Chinese; Korean; Guamanian or 

Chamorro; Filipino; Vietnamese; Samoan; Other 

Asian; Other Pacific Islander; and Some other race. 

The last three options included space to print the 

specific race. The 2000 Census was also the first time 

that respondents were given the option of choosing 

more than one race. The Census population estimates 

program modified the enumerated population 

from the 2000 Census to produce the population 

estimates base for 2000 and onward. As part of the 

modification, the Census Bureau recoded the “Some 

other race” responses from Census 2000 to one or 

more of the five OMB race categories used in the 

estimates program (U.S. Department of Commerce 

2008). Prior to 2000, the Census Bureau combined 

the categories Asian and Native Hawaiian or Other 

Pacific Islander. For all years, all persons of Hispanic 

origin were included in the Hispanic category 

regardless of the race option(s) chosen. Therefore, 

persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Indicators 1 and 2 use data from the Decennial Census 

and the Census population estimates and projections 

program. 

For more information, see http://www.census.gov.

Decennial Census terms:

Poverty

To define poverty, the Census Bureau utilizes a set 

of money income thresholds that vary by family 

size and composition. A family, along with each 

individual in it, is considered poor if the family’s 

total income is less than that family’s threshold. 

The poverty thresholds do not vary geographically and are updated annually for inflation using 

the Consumer Price Index. The official poverty 

definition counts money income before taxes 

and does not include capital gains and noncash 

benefits (such as public housing, Medicaid, and 

food stamps).
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U.S. Department of Education

Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP)

The Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) assesses progress in implementing the Individuals with 

Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), including state 

and local efforts to provide (1) free and appropriate 

public education to children with disabilities and (2) 

early intervention services to infants and toddlers 

with disabilities. Prior to the IDEA Amendments 

of 1997, disabled children whose parents enrolled 

them in private schools were also required to have 

Individualized Education Plans (IEPs). Beginning in 

1997, parentally placed private school children were 

required to have “service plans,” rather than IEPs, to 

denote the fact that IEP is a term used in the definition of Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE), 

which does not apply to families who choose to place 

their children in private schools. Children who are 

placed in or referred to private schools by a public 

agency are still required to have IEPs (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and 

Rehabilitative Services 2000). 

States are required to report counts of children who 

have IEPs or service plans. Each child can only be 

reported in one of the following race/ethnicity categories: American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian or 

Pacific Islander, Black, Hispanic, and White. Since 

children may only be reported in one category, all 

children of Hispanic origin are reported as Hispanic, 

regardless of race, and are not included in any of the 

four race categories. 

Indicator 8.1 reports OSEP data. The mutually 

exclusive race/ethnicity categories are White (nonHispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), Hispanic, Asian/

Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic), and American Indian/Alaska Native (non-Hispanic). 

 For more information about OSEP, see http://www.

ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/index.html.

OSEP terms:

Child with a disability 

This term refers to a child “. . . having mental 

retardation, a hearing impairment including 

deafness, a speech or language impairment, a 

visual impairment including blindness, serious 

emotional disturbance (hereafter referred to as 

emotional disturbance), an orthopedic impairment, autism, traumatic brain injury, another 

health impairment, a specific learning disability, 

deaf-blindness, or multiple disabilities, and who, 

by reason thereof, needs special education and 

related services.” (34 Code of Federal Regulations 

§300.7(a)(1)) 

Specific learning disability 

“. . . a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding 

or in using language, spoken or written, that 

may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to 

listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do 

mathematical calculations, including conditions 

such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, 

minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include 

learning problems that are primarily the result of 

visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental 

retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.” 

(34 Code of Federal Regulations §300.7(c)(10)) 

Mental retardation 

“. . . significantly subaverage general intellectual 

functioning, existing concurrently with deficits 

in adaptive behavior and manifested during the 

developmental period, that adversely affects a 

child’s educational performance.” (34 Code of 

Federal Regulations §300.7(c)(6)) 

Speech or language impairment 

“. . . a communication disorder, such as stuttering, 

impaired articulation, a language impairment, or 

a voice impairment, that adversely affects a child’s 

educational performance.” (34 Code of Federal 

Regulations §300.7(c)(11)) 

Hearing impairment 

“. . . an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s 

educational performance but that is not included 

under the definition of deafness in this section.” 

Although children and youth with deafness 

are not included in the definition of hearing 

impairment, they are counted in the hearing 

impairment category. (34 Code of Federal Regulations §300.7(c)(5)) 

Visual impairment including blindness 

“. . . an impairment in vision that, even with 

correction, adversely affects a child’s educational 

performance. The term includes both partial 

sight and blindness.” (34 Code of Federal Regulations §300.7(c)(13)) 
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155

Autism

“. . . a developmental disability significantly 

affecting verbal and nonverbal communication 

and social interaction, generally evident before 

age 3, that adversely affects a child’s educational 

performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive 

activities and stereotyped movements, resistance 

to environmental change or change in daily 

routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. The term does not apply if a child’s 

educational performance is adversely affected 

primarily because the child has an emotional 

disturbance, as defined in paragraph (b)(4) of 

this section.” (34 Code of Federal Regulations 

§300.7(c)(1)(i)) 

Emotional disturbance (previously termed serious emotional disturbance)

“The term means a condition exhibiting one or 

more of the following characteristics over a long 

period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance: 

(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained 

by intellectual, sensory, or health factors; (B) An 

inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers; 

(C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings 

under normal circumstances; (D) A general 

pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; 

or (E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school 

problems. The term includes schizophrenia. The 

term does not apply to children who are socially 

maladjusted, unless it is determined that they 

have an emotional disturbance.” (34 Code of 

Federal Regulations §300.7(c)(4)) 

National Center for Education Statistics 

(NCES)

Common Core of Data (CCD), Public Elementary/

Secondary School Universe Survey

The Common Core of Data (CCD) is a universe 

survey database with comprehensive, annually 

updated information. The Public Elementary/Secondary School Universe Survey compiles data from 

state education agencies based on school records to 

provide a complete listing of all public elementary 

and secondary schools in the country and basic information and descriptive statistics on all schools, their 

students, and their teachers. Data are collected for a 

particular school year via an online reporting system 

open to state education agencies during the school 

year. Beginning with the 2006–07 school year, nonfiscal CCD data are collected through the Department 

of Education’s Education Data Exchange Network 

(EDEN). Since the CCD is a universe collection, 

CCD data are not subject to sampling errors.

Indicators 7 and 18.2 report CCD data. The mutually exclusive race/ethnicity categories for CCD, 

which are presented in these indicators, are White 

(non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), Hispanic, 

Asian/Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic), and American 

Indian/Alaska Native (non-Hispanic). All students of 

Hispanic origin are included in the Hispanic category 

regardless of their race.

In 2006–07, Kentucky and New York did not report 

graduate counts by race/ethnicity. In addition, race/

ethnicity graduate counts for the District of Columbia 

were suppressed due to inaccuracy. Further, the averaged freshman graduation rates (AFGR) (indicator 

18.2) could not be calculated by race/ethnicity for 

Nevada as enrollments by race/ethnicity were not 

reported for the 2004–05 school year. Data for each 

of these states were included in the totals, but these 

data were excluded in the race/ethnicity categories for 

the AFGR, and data for the District of Columbia, 

Kentucky, and New York were excluded in the race/

ethnicity categories for the number of graduates. In 

2006–07, the number of graduates and the percentage of total graduates were: 2,944 (0.1 percent) for 

the District of Columbia, 39,099 (1.4 percent) for 

Kentucky, 16,455 (0.6 percent) for Nevada, and 

168,333 (5.8 percent) for New York. 

For more information on the CCD, see http://nces.

ed.gov/ccd/index.asp.

CCD terms:

Locale

A school’s locale is classified based on its address, 

according to a mix of classifications from the 

Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and 

the Census Bureau. The Census Bureau updated 

its classification system after the 2000 Decennial Census, and the CCD adopted these new 

standards for the 2002–03 data collection. The 

definitions are as follows:
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City

Large: Territory inside an urbanized area and 

inside a principal city with population of 250,000 

or more

Midsize: Territory inside an urbanized area and 

inside a principal city with population less than 

250,000 and greater than or equal to 100,000

Small: Territory inside an urbanized area and 

inside a principal city with population less than 

100,000

Suburb

Large: Territory outside a principal city and inside 

an urbanized area with population of 250,000 

or more

Midsize: Territory outside a principal city and inside an urbanized area with population less than 

250,000 and greater than or equal to 100,000

Small: Territory outside a principal city and 

inside an urbanized area with population less 

than 100,000

Town

Fringe: Territory inside an urban cluster that is 

less than or equal to 10 miles from an urbanized 

area

Distant: Territory inside an urban cluster that is 

more than 10 miles and less than or equal to 35 

miles from an urbanized area

Remote: Territory inside an urban cluster that 

is more than 35 miles from an urbanized area

Rural

Fringe: Census-defined rural territory that is less 

than or equal to 5 miles from an urbanized area, 

as well as rural territory that is less than or equal 

to 2.5 miles from an urban cluster

Distant: Census-defined rural territory that is 

more than 5 miles but less than or equal to 25 

miles from an urbanized area, as well as rural territory that is more than 2.5 miles but less than or 

equal to 10 miles from an urban cluster

Remote: Census-defined rural territory that is 

more than 25 miles from an urbanized area and 

is also more than 10 miles from an urban cluster

For more information on locale codes, see http://nces.

ed.gov/ccd/rural_locales.asp. 

Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort 

of 2001

The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth 

Cohort (ECLS-B) is designed to provide decisionmakers, researchers, child care providers, teachers, and 

parents with nationally representative information 

about children’s early learning experiences and the 

transition to child care and school. Children’s physical and cognitive development, care, and learning 

experiences at home and school are measured from 

birth through kindergarten entry using standardized 

assessments.

At the 9-month parent interview, respondents indicated whether the child belonged to one or more of 

14 race categories: (1) White, (2) Black or African 

American, (3) American Indian or Alaska Native, (4) 

Asian Indian, (5) Chinese, (6) Filipino, (7) Japanese, 

(8) Korean, (9) Vietnamese, (10) Other Asian, (11) 

Native Hawaiian, (12) Guamanian or Chamorro, 

(13) Samoan, and (14) Other Pacific Islander. Data 

were collected on Hispanic ethnicity as well; specifically, respondents were asked whether the child was 

of Hispanic or Latino origin. A child’s ethnicity was 

classified as Hispanic if a parent respondent indicated 

the child’s ethnicity was Hispanic, regardless of the 

race identified. During the 2-year parent interview, 

for cases that were identified as being of American 

Indian/Alaska Native descent in the 9-month collection (by either the birth certificate data or during 

the parent interview), parent interview respondents 

were asked to confirm that the child was of American 

Indian/Alaska Native descent. If the parent interview 

respondent indicated “no,” the case was reclassified 

as the race/ethnicity specified by the parent interview 

respondent. Similar procedures were repeated at the 

preschool round. 

Indicators 6 and 10 report ECLS-B data. The mutually 

exclusive race/ethnicity categories presented in these 

indicators are White (non-Hispanic), Black (nonHispanic), Hispanic, Asian (non-Hispanic), Native 

Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic), 

American Indian/Alaska Native (non-Hispanic), and 

Two or more races (non-Hispanic). All children of 

Hispanic origin are included in the Hispanic category 

regardless of the race option(s) chosen. Therefore, 

children of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Further information on the ECLS-B may be obtained 

from http://nces.ed.gov/ecls/Birth.asp.
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157

High School Transcript Study Tabulations 

High school transcript studies have been conducted 

since 1982 and are associated with a major NCES 

data collection. The studies collect information that is 

contained in a student’s high school record—courses 

taken while attending secondary school, information 

on credits earned, when specific courses were taken, 

and final grades. 

Studies were conducted of the coursetaking patterns 

of 1998, 2000, and 2005 high school graduates. 

For these studies, NCES collected high school 

transcripts from a nationally representative sample 

of both public and private schools that had been 

selected to participate in the National Assessment 

of Educational Progress (NAEP). A representative 

sample of graduating seniors within each school 

was selected. Most of the transcripts collected were 

those of students who participated in the NAEP 

assessments that year. After collection, the courses 

appearing on the student transcripts were coded 

using the Classification of Secondary School Courses, 

which contains over 2,200 course codes. Actual course 

content may vary widely among schools.

NAEP reports data on student race/ethnicity based on 

information obtained from school rosters. Indicator 13

reports the following race/ethnicity categories: White 

(non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), Hispanic, 

Asian American/Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic), 

American Indian (non-Hispanic), and Unclassified. 

Unclassified students are reported in the total, but not 

separately shown. All students of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of race.

For more information on the High School Transcript 

Studies, see http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/hst.

Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS)

The Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System 

(IPEDS) and the postsecondary survey that preceded 

it, the Higher Education General Information Survey 

(HEGIS), are systems of universe surveys that collect 

data from all institutions whose primary mission 

is the provision of postsecondary education. The 

surveys collect institution-level data in such areas 

as enrollments, program completions, faculty, staff, 

and finances. HEGIS was conducted in 1980, 1984, 

and 1985, while IPEDS has been conducted annually from 1986 on. This report uses the IPEDS Fall 

Enrollment survey and Completions survey. 

Beginning in fall 2008, the IPEDS data collection 

began phasing out the category “first-professional” 

degree. Institutions had the option to report programs 

previously classified as first-professional programs 

and awards as first-professional as master’s degrees, 

if appropriate, or under one of three types of doctor’s 

degrees: doctor’s—research/scholarship, doctor’s—

professional practice, or doctor’s—other. In this 

publication, table 26.1 provides estimates based on 

the old classification. Estimates from institutions who 

provided information based on the new classification 

were cross-walked back to the old categories. Therefore, estimates in table 26.1 may not match estimates 

reported in other publications. 

IPEDS asks institutions to provide enrollment and 

completion data on students based on the following 

race/ethnicity categories: Black; American Indian/

Alaska Native; Asian/Pacific Islander; Hispanic; and 

White. Each student may only be reported in one 

category.

Indicators 24 and 26 use data from IPEDS and its 

predecessor, HEGIS, with the following mutually 

exclusive race/ethnicity categories: White (non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), Hispanic, Asian/Pacific 

Islander (non-Hispanic), and American Indian/Alaska Native (non-Hispanic). Persons of Hispanic origin 

may be of any race.

For more information on HEGIS/IPEDS, see http://

nces.ed.gov/ipeds/.

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)

The National Assessment of Educational Progress 

(NAEP) is a nationally representative and continuing 

assessment of what America’s students know and can 

do in various subject areas. For over three decades, 

assessments have been conducted periodically in reading, mathematics, science, writing, history, geography, 

and other subjects. 

NAEP reports data on student race/ethnicity based 

on information obtained from school rosters. Race/

ethnicity categories are White, Black, Hispanic, 

Asian American/Pacific Islander, American Indian, 

and Unclassified. All students of Hispanic origin are 

classified as Hispanic, regardless of race. Information 

on student eligibility for free or reduced-price 

lunch (as presented in indicator 7.5) is reported by 

school administrators in the school background 

questionnaire.
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Indicators 7.5, 11, and 16 provide data from 

NAEP, using the following mutually exclusive race/

ethnicity categories: White (non-Hispanic), Black 

(non-Hispanic), Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander 

(non-Hispanic), and American Indian/Alaska Native 

(non-Hispanic). Data on unclassified students are 

included in the totals, but these data are not separately 

shown.

For more information on NAEP, see http://nces.

ed.gov/nationsreportcard/.

NAEP terms:

Achievement levels

In addition to reporting student scale scores, 

NAEP reports results in terms of achievement 

levels, which are intended to measure how 

well students’ actual achievement matches the 

achievement desired of them in different subjects 

assessed by NAEP. 

Basic

Partial mastery of prerequisite knowledge and 

skills that are fundamental for proficient work 

at each grade.

Proficient

Solid academic performance for each grade 

assessed. Students reaching this level have demonstrated competency over challenging subject 

matter, including subject-matter knowledge, 

application of such knowledge to real-world 

situations, and analytical skills appropriate to 

the subject matter.

Advanced

Superior performance.

The National Household Education Surveys (NHES) 

Program

The National Household Education Surveys Program 

(NHES) was developed by NCES to complement its 

institutional surveys. This program is the principal 

mechanism for addressing topics that cannot be 

addressed in institutional data collections. By 

collecting data directly from households, NHES 

enables NCES to gather data on a wide range of 

issues, such as early childhood care and education, 

children’s readiness for school, parent perceptions of 

school safety and discipline, before- and after-school 

activities of school-age children, participation in adult 

and continuing education, parent involvement in 

education, and civic involvement.

The 2007 NHES reports data on the following 

race categories: White, Black or African American, 

Asian, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 

American Indian or Alaska Native, and Other races. 

NHES allows respondents to choose more than one 

race. NHES also asked respondents about Hispanic 

origin; those who were Hispanic were classified as 

Hispanic, regardless of race. 

Indicators 17 and 19 report NHES data on the following mutually exclusive race/ethnicity categories: 

White (non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), 

Hispanic, Asian (non-Hispanic), American Indian/

Alaska Native (non-Hispanic), and Two or more 

races (non-Hispanic). All persons of Hispanic origin 

were included in the Hispanic category regardless 

of race. Data on respondents who reported Native 

Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander and “Other 

race” are included in the totals, but these data are 

not separately shown. 

For more information on the NHES Program, see 

http://nces.ed.gov/nhes/. 

National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS)

The National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

(NPSAS) is a comprehensive nationwide study 

designed to determine how students and their 

families pay for postsecondary education and describe 

some demographic and other characteristics of 

those enrolled. The study is based on a nationally 

representative sample of students in postsecondary 

education institutions, including undergraduate, 

graduate, and first-professional students. Students 

attending all types and levels of institutions are 

represented, including public and private not-forprofit and for-profit institutions, less-than-2-year 

institutions, 2-year institutions, and 4-year colleges 

and universities. The NPSAS surveys provide 

information on the price of postsecondary education, 

the distribution of financial aid, and the characteristics 

of both aided and nonaided students and their 

families. 

NPSAS asks students to self-report race/ethnicity. 

Race/ethnicity categories are White, Black, Hispanic, 

Asian, American Indian, Pacific Islander, and Other. 

Students may select more than one race and students 

of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic regardless of race. 

Indicator 25 presents NPSAS data for the following 

mutually exclusive race/ethnicity categories: White 

(non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), Hispanic, 
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159

Asian/Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic), and American 

Indian/Alaska Native (non-Hispanic). Students who 

selected “Other” or specified more than one race are 

included in the totals, but these data are not separately 

shown.

For more information about NPSAS, see http://nces.

ed.gov/surveys/npsas/.

NPSAS terms: 

Total financial aid 

The total amount of financial aid received by a 

student. Includes grants, loans, work-study, or 

any other types of aid, as well as loans to parents 

under the PLUS program and veterans’ benefits 

and military education aid.

Total grants 

The total amount of grant and scholarship aid 

received from any source for the NPSAS year. A 

grant is a type of student financial aid that does 

not require repayment or employment. Grants 

include need-based grants, merit-only scholarships, tuition waivers, and employer tuition 

reimbursements.

Total loans 

The total amount of all student loans (federal, 

state, institutional, and private sector) and federal PLUS loans to parents received during the 

NPSAS year. Does not include loans from family 

or friends to the student or commercial loans to 

parents (such as home equity loans).

School Crime Supplement to the National Crime 

Victimization Survey (SCS/NCVS)

Created as a supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) and co-designed by the 

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) and 

Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), the School Crime 

Supplement (SCS) survey collects information about 

school-related victimization, crime, and safety. The 

SCS is a national survey of about 8,300 students ages 

12–18 in U.S. public and private elementary, middle, 

and high schools. 

In the NCVS, a question on Hispanic origin is followed by a question on race. Race categories are 

White, Black, Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other 

Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native. 

Respondents in 2007 were allowed to specify more 

than one race. Respondents who identified themselves 

as Hispanic were classified as Hispanic regardless of 

their race. 

Indicator 22 reports data from the SCS. Table 

22b reports the following mutually exclusive race/

ethnicity categories: White (non-Hispanic), Black 

(non-Hispanic), Hispanic, Asian, and Other. The 

“Other” category in this case includes data on Native 

Hawaiians or Other Pacific Islanders, American 

Indians/Alaska Natives, and persons of two or more 

races which were combined due to data reporting 

issues for these groups. 

For more information about the SCS, see http://nces.

ed.gov/programs/crime/surveys.asp.

Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS)

This report draws upon data from the Schools and 

Staffing Survey (SASS), which provides national- and 

state-level data on public schools and national- and 

affiliation-level data on private schools. The 2007–08 

SASS was collected by the U.S. Census Bureau and 

sponsored by the National Center for Education 

Statistics (NCES). SASS consists of five sets of linked 

surveys, including surveys of schools, the principal of 

each selected school, a subsample of teachers within 

each school, the public school district in which the 

sample school is located, and public school library 

media centers.

In 2007–08, there were three types each of teacher 

and school questionnaires: public (including public 

charter), private, and Bureau of Indian Education 

(BIE). For this report, public charter schools are included with public schools, but BIE schools are not. 

The public school sampling frames for the 2007–08 

SASS were created using the 2005–06 NCES Common Core of Data (CCD) Public School Universe 

Files. In SASS, a school was defined as an institution 

or part of an institution that provides classroom 

instruction to students; has one or more teachers to 

provide instruction; serves students in one or more 

of grades 1–12 or the ungraded equivalent; and is 

located in one or more buildings apart from a private 

home. It was possible for two or more schools to share 

the same building; in this case they were treated as 

different schools if they had different administrations 

(i.e., principals or school head). 

Information on the racial and ethnic composition 

of schools was provided by the school questionnaire. 

Each respondent to the school questionnaire was 

asked how many students were in each of the following categories: Hispanic, White (non-Hispanic), 

Black (non-Hispanic), Asian or Pacific Islander 

(non-Hispanic), and American Indian/Alaska Native 

(non-Hispanic). Each student had to be included in 
Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Minorities

Guide to 

Sources

160

only one of these categories. Based on these counts, 

the percentages of enrolled students who were White 

(non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), Hispanic, 

Asian/Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic), and American 

Indian/Alaska Native (non-Hispanic) were calculated. 

Indicator 9 reports data from SASS, and results are 

shown separately for schools with varying percentages 

of White (non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), 

Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic), 

and American Indian/Alaska Native (non-Hispanic) 

enrollment. 

For more information about the SASS, see http://

nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/.

Trends in International Mathematics and Science 

Study (TIMSS)

Trends in International Mathematics and Science 

Study (TIMSS) (formerly known as the Third International Mathematics and Science Study) is a 

cross-national comparative study of the performance 

and schooling contexts of 4th- and 8th-grade students 

in mathematics and science. TIMSS provides trend 

data on students’ mathematics and science achievement from an international perspective. Through 

participation in TIMSS, the United States has 

gained reliable and timely data on the mathematics 

and science achievement of U.S. students compared 

to that of students in other jurisdictions. TIMSS is 

coordinated by the International Association for the 

Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), with 

national sponsors in each participating jurisdiction.

Students’ races/ethnicities were obtained through 

student responses to a two-part question. Students 

were asked first whether they were Hispanic or Latino, 

and then whether they were members of the following racial groups: American Indian or Alaska Native, 

Asian, Black or African American, Native Hawaiian 

or other Pacific Islander, or White. Multiple responses 

to the race classification question were allowed. All 

students of Hispanic origin are classified as Hispanic, 

regardless of race. The small numbers of students 

indicating that they were American Indian or Alaska 

Native or Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander 

were combined into a group labeled “Other.” This 

category is reported as part of the total but is not 

reported separately.

Indicator 12 reports data from TIMSS, and results are 

shown separately for Whites (non-Hispanic), Blacks 

(non-Hispanic), Hispanics, Asians (non-Hispanic), 

and persons of two or more races (non-Hispanic). 

For more information about the TIMSS, see http://

nces.ed.gov/timss/. 

U.S. Department of Health and Human 

Services

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

National Vital Statistics System (NVSS)

The National Vital Statistics System (NVSS) is the 

method by which data on births, deaths, marriages, 

and divorces are provided to the National Center for 

Health Statistics (NCHS), part of the Centers for 

Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The data 

are provided to NCHS through the Vital Statistics 

Cooperative Program (VSCP). In 1984 and earlier 

years, the VSCP included varying numbers of states 

that provided data based on a 100-percent sample 

of their birth certificates. Data for states not in the 

VSCP were based on a 50-percent sample of birth 

certificates filed in those states. Population data used 

to compile birth rates are based on special estimation 

procedures and are not actual counts. 

Race and Hispanic ethnicity are reported separately 

in the NVSS. Data are available for non-Hispanic 

Whites and non-Hispanic Blacks for 1990 and later; 

however, for 1980 and 1985, data for Whites and 

Blacks may include persons of Hispanic ethnicity. 

For all years, Asian/Pacific Islander and American 

Indian/Alaska Native categories include persons of 

Hispanic ethnicity. Indicator 21 uses NVSS natality 

data. Race/ethnicity categories are White, Black, 

Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American 

Indian/Alaska Native. Data for specified Hispanic 

subgroups are shown for these groups: Mexican, 

Puerto Rican, Cuban, and Other Hispanic, which 

includes Central and South American and “other 

and unknown Hispanic.” This indicator excludes 

data from New Hampshire for 1990–1992 and from 

Oklahoma for 1990 because information on Hispanic 

ethnicity was not reported. Since 2003, respondents 

in 18 states and the District of Columbia had the 

option of selecting more than one Hispanic origin 

group. Those respondents who selected more than 

one Hispanic origin group are classified as “other 

Hispanic.” Changes in the reporting of Hispanic 

origin, including the reporting of more than one 

Hispanic origin, have affected the distribution of 

births among specified Hispanic categories, resulting 

in increases for “other and unknown Hispanic” and 

small decreases for the specified Hispanic origin 

groups. 
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161

For more information on the National Center for 

Health Statistics and the NVSS, see http://www.cdc.

gov/nchs/nvss.htm.

Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS)

The National School-Based Youth Risk Behavior 

Survey (YRBS) is one component of the Youth Risk 

Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), an epidemiological surveillance system developed to monitor the 

prevalence of youth behaviors that most influence 

health. The YRBS uses a three-stage cluster sampling 

design to produce a nationally representative sample 

of students in grades 9–12 in the United States. 

Race/ethnicity was computed from two questions: 

(1) “Are you Hispanic or Latino?” (response options 

were “yes” and “no”); and (2) “What is your race?” 

(response options were “American Indian or Alaska 

Native,” “Asian,” “Black or African American,” 

“Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander,” or 

“White”). For the second question, students could 

select more than one response option. Students were 

classified as “Hispanic” if they answered “yes” to 

the first question, regardless of how they answered 

the second question regarding race. Students who 

answered “no” to the first question and selected 

more than one race/ethnicity in the second category 

were classified as “Two or more races.” Students 

who answered “no” to the first question and selected 

only one race/ethnicity were classified as that race/

ethnicity.

Indicator 22 uses data from the YRBS. The mutually 

exclusive race/ethnicity categories reported are White 

(non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), Hispanic, 

Asian (non-Hispanic), Native Hawaiian and Other 

Pacific Islander (non-Hispanic), American Indian/

Alaska Native (non-Hispanic), and Two or more races 

(non-Hispanic).

For more information on the YRBS, see http://www.

cdc.gov/yrbs. 

National Survey on Drug Use and Health 

(NSDUH)

The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services 

Administration’s National Survey on Drug Use 

and Health (NSDUH) collects information on the 

prevalence, patterns, and consequences of drug and 

alcohol use and abuse in the general U.S. civilian 

noninstitutionalized population ages 12 and over. 

NSDUH is an annual sample survey. 

The survey asks separate questions about Hispanic 

ethnicity and race. Respondents’ race options are 

White, Black/African American, American Indian 

or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific 

Islander, and Asian. Respondents may choose more 

than one race.

Indicator 20 uses data from the NSDUH. The 

mutually exclusive race/ethnicity categories reported 

are White (non-Hispanic), Black (non-Hispanic), 

Hispanic, Asian (non-Hispanic), American Indian/

Alaska Native (non-Hispanic), and Two or more 

races (non-Hispanic). The Substance Abuse and 

Mental Health Services Administration did not report 

estimates on drug use for Native Hawaiians or Other 

Pacific Islanders; therefore, data for this race group are 

included in the totals, but these data are not shown 

separately in indicator 20. 

For more information on the NSDUH, see http://

oas.samhsa.gov/nsduh.htm.