Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

COUNTRY PROFILE: TURKEY

January 2006 

Click to Enlarge Image

Click to Enlarge Image

COUNTRY 

Formal Name: Republic of Turkey (Turkiye Cumhuriyeti). 

Short Form: Turkey. 

Term for Citizen(s): Turk(s). 

Capital: Ankara. 

Other Major Cities: Istanbul, İzmir (Smyrna), Bursa, Adana, Gaziantep, and Konya (in order of 

size). 

Independence: Turkey celebrates October 29, 1923, the date on which the Republic of Turkey 

was declared after the fall of the Ottoman Empire, as its date of independence. 

Public Holidays: New Year’s Day (January 1), Feast of the Sacrifice (January 10, 2006; variable 

date determined by the Islamic calendar), National Sovereignty and Children’s Day (April 23), 

Commemoration of Atatürk and Youth and Sports Day (May 19), Victory Day (August 30), 

Republic Day (October 29), and the End of Ramadan (October 24, 2006; variable date 

determined by the Islamic calendar).

Flag: The flag has a red background with a white crescent, open to the 

right, on the left side and a five-pointed white star in the center. 

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 

The history of the geographical area occupied by the modern state of Turkey and the history of 

the peoples who occupy that state are quite different. Linking the two is the history of the 

Ottoman Empire. That empire was a vast, pan-Islamic state that expanded, beginning in the 

fourteenth century, from a small Turkish emirate located within the boundaries of the presentday Republic of Turkey to include holdings across North Africa, southeastern Europe, and most 

of the Middle East. 

Prehistory and Early History: The land mass occupied by the Asian part of the Republic of 

Turkey, east of the Sea of Marmara, is known as Anatolia. The region was inhabited by an 

advanced Neolithic culture as early as the seventh millennium B.C., and metal instruments were 

in use by 2500 B.C. Late in the third millennium B.C., the warrior Hittites invaded Anatolia and 

established an empire that made significant economic and administrative advancements. In about 

1200 B.C., the Phrygians overthrew the Hittites in western Anatolia, where a Phrygian kingdom

1
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

then ruled until the seventh century B.C. That kingdom was succeeded by a Lydian kingdom, 

which in turn was conquered by the Persians in 546 B.C. Meanwhile, beginning in about 1050 

B.C. Ionian Greeks began founding cities along the Aegean coast of Anatolia, and in the eighth 

century B.C. peoples such as the Armenians and the Kurds moved into eastern Anatolia. In the 

late fourth century B.C., Alexander the Great of Macedonia conquered all of Anatolia. One of 

the city states that Alexander founded, Pergamum, became a unique center of wealth and culture. 

In 133 B.C., Pergamum became the center of a Roman province and remained a cultural center 

for several centuries. In 330 A.D., the Roman emperor Constantine established the capital of the 

Greek-speaking half of his empire at Byzantium, on the Sea of Marmara. The city was renamed 

Constantinople, and the eastern half of the Roman Empire became known as the Byzantine 

Empire. With its center in Anatolia, the Byzantine Empire remained a powerful entity until the 

eleventh century. The Patriarchiate of Constantinople, established in the fourth century, 

represented the Greek-speaking Roman Empire in the Christian church.

Turkish tribes began to migrate westward from China and Central Asia in the seventh century 

A.D. In 1071 Seljuk Turkish forces defeated a Byzantine army at Manzikert and then occupied 

all of Anatolia. In the next few centuries, several Seljuk states were established. Gazi warriors, 

tribal horsemen charged with defending the Seljuk frontier, pushed relentlessly westward, and 

Seljuk governments eventually followed. In 1097 the Christian world responded to this 

movement with the first in a series of religiously inspired military crusades, which reclaimed part 

of Anatolia. However, in the next two centuries what was left of the Byzantine Empire 

fragmented. In the fourteenth century, a new power, the Osmanli Dynasty, came to dominate 

Anatolia. 

The Ottoman Empire: Troops of the Osmanli Dynasty, which gave its name to the Ottoman 

Empire, moved rapidly into southeastern Europe, defeating Serbian forces at the battle of 

Kosovo in 1389. Although they were temporarily halted when the Mongol forces of Timur 

occupied part of Anatolia in the early fifteenth century, in 1453 Ottoman forces captured 

Constantinople, the last outpost of the Byzantine Empire. The Ottomans renamed Constantinople 

Istanbul and made it the capital of a new empire and the seat of Sunni Islam as well as Greek 

Orthodoxy. Under Süleyman the Magnificent (ruled 1520–66), the empire expanded across 

North Africa to Morocco, farther into southeastern Europe, and across the Middle Eastern 

regions of Kurdistan and Mesopotamia. However, after Süleyman’s death the empire began 

showing signs of decay. The Ottoman navy lost the key Battle of Lepanto to Spanish and 

Portuguese forces in 1571, and succession struggles shook Istanbul. 

Under the leadership of the Köprülü family, the empire made its final push into Europe in the 

seventeenth century. The siege of Vienna, which was lifted in 1683, marked the farthest extent of 

Ottoman penetration into Europe. In the years that followed, a multinational European force 

drove Ottoman troops southward and eastward, forcing the empire to cede substantial territory in 

Europe in the Treaty of Karlowicz (1699). In the early eighteenth century, Russian Tsar Peter I 

initiated a long-lasting goal of Russian foreign policy, to gain access to warm-water ports at the 

expense of the Ottoman Empire. During the next two centuries, Russia fought several wars to 

diminish Ottoman power. In 1774 the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kaynarja gained Russian ships access to 

Ottoman waterways. By the nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire had become known as “the 

2
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

sick man of Europe.” The decay of its vast holdings and the nationalist forces that were 

unleashed in the empire were central issues for all European governments. 

In 1832 the European powers forced the Ottoman government to recognize Greek independence 

after a decade-long Greek guerrilla war. However, Europe also recognized the need to avoid the 

complete destruction of the empire. In the Crimean War of 1854–56, France and Britain sided 

with the Ottoman Empire against Russia, which lost the war and ceded some of its power in 

southeastern Europe. In 1878 the Treaty of Berlin established the independent states of Bulgaria, 

Romania, and Serbia from former Ottoman territory. In the same period, Britain took possession 

of Cyprus and Egypt, and France occupied Algeria and Tunisia, further diminishing Ottoman 

holdings. 

Internal conditions also deteriorated in the nineteenth century. Under pressure from the West, 

between 1839 and 1876 the Ottoman government undertook a series of reforms, collectively 

known as Tanzimat. Dissatisfaction with reforms stimulated the Young Ottoman movement, 

which sought Western-style reforms, including secular government and closer relations with 

Europe. However, in the late 1870s Sultan Abdül Hamid II stifled the reform movement and 

established a repressive regime. Meanwhile, the empire’s financial and geopolitical positions

worsened. 

In the early 1900s, reformist groups remained active under the repression of Abdül Hamid II. In 

1907 the Committee of Union and Progress, better known as the Young Turks, united under 

military officer Mustafa Kemal, who later took the name Atatürk, “father of the Turks.” Between 

1909 and 1912, European powers took advantage of a weak Ottoman government to occupy or 

liberate most of the empire’s remaining territory in southeastern Europe. In 1912 the First Balkan 

War deprived the empire of territory in Macedonia and Thrace. In 1913 these losses led to the 

overthrow of the government by Enver Pasha, who headed a dictatorial regime of Young Turks 

during the ensuing war period. The empire regained some European territory during the Second 

Balkan War of 1913. 

When World War I broke out in Europe in 1914, Enver Pasha’s alliance with Germany caused 

Britain, France, and Russia to declare war on the Ottoman Empire. In early 1915, mass 

deportation of the Armenian population led to the slaughter of as many as 1 million Armenians. 

Atatürk defeated a British amphibious landing at Gallipoli on the Dardanelles later that year. 

However, in 1916 a successful British campaign cut through the empire’s Arab territory, 

capturing Damascus in 1918. After the empire had suffered numerous defeats, a provisional 

Ottoman government sued for peace with the Allies. 

The Republic of Turkey: After World War I, the provisional government retained control over 

very little of the former empire. Atatürk led strong nationalist forces seeking to retain Anatolia. 

In 1921 the nationalists elected Atatürk president of a new government, the Grand National 

Assembly. In 1922 Atatürk’s army repulsed an invading Greek force seeking to expand Greece’s 

postwar allotment of Ottoman territory. The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, negotiated between the 

Atatürk government and the Allies, defined control of the Bosporus and the territorial extent of 

the new Republic of Turkey. 

3
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

Atatürk’s reform program, which became known as Kemalism, aimed at establishing a secular, 

Europe-oriented state. European name forms and dress styles were encouraged, and the Latin 

alphabet was adopted. All links between Islam and the state were cut. In 1924 a new constitution 

guaranteed basic civil rights and prescribed a parliamentary form of government in which the 

Grand National Assembly would elect the president. Only one party, Atatürk’s Republican 

People’s Party, existed, giving the president control of all phases of government. In the 1920s 

and 1930s, Turkey’s foreign policy cautiously sought relations with as many countries as 

possible. In 1936 Atatürk was able to negotiate a resumption of Turkish control of the 

Dardanelles and the Bosporus. 

World War II found Turkey still in a weakened state. Despite German pressure, the government 

of Atatürk’s successor, Ismet Inönü, maintained neutrality throughout the conflict. In early 1945, 

Turkey declared war on Germany to ensure it status as one of the charter members of the United 

Nations. During the Cold War era that followed World War II, Turkey’s foreign policy was proWestern. The Truman Doctrine, which guaranteed the security of postwar Turkey and Greece, 

resulted in large-scale U.S. military and economic aid to Turkey. However, Turkey’s

membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which it joined in 1952, was 

complicated by disputes with fellow member Greece over Cyprus and other regional issues. In 

the 1960s, Turkey and Greece nearly went to war twice over their conflicting views on Cyprus, 

and in 1974 armed conflict resulted in the partition of the island. Turkey also joined a number of 

other Western alliances and organizations in the 1950s and the 1960s. 

In the liberalized postwar atmosphere, party politics became a source of instability and 

democracy in Turkey. During the 1950s, tensions between the main parties increased as the 

Democrat Party government of Prime Minister Adnan Menderes became more authoritarian, and 

the economy suffered inflation and heavy debt. In 1960 Menderes responded to protests by 

declaring martial law and suspending all political activity. The army, which considered itself the 

guardian of Atatürk’s principles, then replaced Menderes with an interim military government. In 

the four years following the legislative elections of 1961, the government was an unstable 

coalition. When the Justice Party, successor to the Democrat Party, gained a majority of seats in 

the elections of 1965, Süleyman Demirel formed a one-party government. In the late 1960s, the 

far-right Republican Peasants’ Nation Party (later the Nationalist Action Party) began instigating 

political violence stimulated by economic conditions and resentment of Turkey’s pro-Western 

foreign policy. As the strongest parties continued to lack a parliamentary majority, Turkey 

suffered a series of weak coalition governments throughout the 1970s, and religious sectarianism

gained political influence. 

After political and sectarian violence shook Turkey in 1978–79, the Turkish military took power 

in 1980 to prevent further deterioration. Economic conditions improved significantly in the early 

1980s. Civil order was restored at the expense of measures that curtailed human rights. In 

response to international pressure, a new constitution was ratified in 1982. In the 1980s, the 

government of General Kenan Evren, leader of the 1980 coup, provided stability as power 

continued to shift among political parties and coalitions. Evren’s former minister of state, Turgut 

Özal, succeeded him in 1989. The pattern of coalition governments continued in the 1990s. 

When she became Turkey’s first female prime minister in 1993, Tansu Çiller initiated an 

ambitious privatization program that achieved mixed success. Meanwhile, in the mid-1990s the 

4
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) escalated terrorist attacks aimed at gaining Kurdish autonomy 

in southeastern Turkey, and the Çiller government dropped plans to expand the rights of 

Turkey’s Kurdish minority. 

In 1996 a premiership shared between Çiller and Mesut Yılmaz of the conservative Motherland 

Party failed quickly. When the Yılmaz government resigned, a new coalition government, 

including the Islamic fundamentalist Welfare Party, took power under Necmettin Erbakan. 

Alarmed by the increasing social and political power of Islamic institutions, the military forced 

the resignation of the Erbakan government in 1997. Social tension rose as new regulations 

secularized public dress and education, and several political leaders were accused of corruption. 

In 1998 the Welfare Party was dissolved by order of the Constitutional Court for undermining 

the secular government. The capture of PKK leader Abdullah Öcalan in 1999 was a major event 

in Turkey’s efforts to subdue Kurdish insurgents in southeastern Turkey. In the late 1990s, 

relations with Greece began a long-term process of improvement. Tensions with Greece had 

remained high throughout the 1980s and 1990s, stimulated by issues such as oil drilling rights 

and air space in the Aegean Sea. In 1996 a dispute over islets in the Aegean, the so-called ImiaKardak crisis, nearly led to armed conflict between Greece and Turkey. 

Following the elections of 1999, Bülent Ecevit formed a new coalition government, which by 

2000 had restored some stability. In 1999 and 2000, a series of trials were brought against 

members of the Welfare Party and other Islamic activists. The stability and economic reforms of 

2000 ended with a severe economic crisis and a series of cabinet changes in 2001. In 2002 and 

2004, parliament passed human rights laws aimed at promoting Turkey’s membership in the 

European Union (EU). In the 2002 parliamentary elections, the secular Islamist Justice and 

Development Party, indirect successor to the Welfare Party, won a substantial majority of seats 

in a major shift of parliamentary power. Party leader Tayyip Erdoğan, who became prime 

minister in 2003, was able to bring his Islamic party into the mainstream of political, economic, 

and social reform, thus quieting the bitter disputes between advocates of Kemalist secular policy 

and advocates of an Islamic state. Local elections in 2004 confirmed Erdoğan’s popularity. In 

June 2004, the PKK declared an end to its unilateral five-year cessation of terrorist activity, and 

the People’s Defense Forces, the military arm of the PKK, launched numerous attacks in Turkey 

during the following year. In October 2005, Turkey and the EU began accession negotiations for 

Turkey’s eventual EU membership, a goal supported by traditional enemy Greece. Talks were 

expected to last 10 years or more because the EU required a wide variety of reforms in Turkey. 

GEOGRAPHY 

Click to Enlarge Image

Location: Thrace, the westernmost, European segment of Turkey, 

forms the southeasternmost extremity of Europe, east of Bulgaria and 

Greece. Some 8 percent of Turkey’s territory is in Thrace. Anatolia, 

which comprises the bulk of Turkish territory, is a peninsula in western 

Asia situated between the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Thrace 

and Anatolia are separated by the Sea of Marmara and the strategic Dardanelles and Bosporus 

straits. 

5
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

Size: The total area of Turkey is 780,580 square kilometers, including 9,820 square kilometers of 

water. 

Land Boundaries: The land boundaries of Turkey are as follows: with Syria, 822 kilometers; 

with Iran, 499 kilometers; with Iraq, 352 kilometers; with Armenia, 268 kilometers; with 

Georgia, 252 kilometers; with Bulgaria, 240 kilometers; with Greece, 206 kilometers; and with 

Azerbaijan, 9 kilometers. 

Disputed Territory: Turkey has ongoing airspace disputes with Greece in the Aegean Sea 

region that lies between the two countries, and the division of Cyprus remains an unresolved 

issue between the two countries. Syria and Iraq have protested Turkey’s confiscation of the 

headwaters of the Euphrates River, which flow from Turkey into those two countries. Turkey 

closed its border with Armenia in 1993 in support of Azerbaijan in the Nagorno-Karabakh 

conflict; the border has remained closed since that time, but in 2005 talks between Armenia and 

Turkey aimed at restoring normal traffic. 

Length of Coastline: Turkey has 7,200 kilometers of coastline on the Mediterranean Sea, 

Aegean Sea, Black Sea, and Sea of Marmara. 

Maritime Claims: Turkey claims coastline sovereignty extending six nautical miles in the 

Aegean Sea and 12 nautical miles in the Black and Mediterranean seas. Turkey has a complex 

set of maritime disputes with Greece in the Aegean Sea. 

Topography: Turkey’s extremities are divided into the Black Sea coastline region, the Aegean 

coastline region, the Mediterranean coastline region, and the Arabian Platform along the Syrian 

border in the south. The interior is divided into the Pontus mountain range, which lines most of 

the Black Sea coastline; the Taurus mountain range, which extends from the Mediterranean coast 

north of Cyprus to east-central Anatolia; the Anatolian Plateau, which dominates the interior of 

western Anatolia; and the eastern highlands, which dominate far eastern Anatolia, east of the 

Pontus and Taurus chains. 

The Black Sea region features rocky coastlines cut by rivers flowing from gorges in the Pontus 

Mountains. The European and Asian parts of the Aegean region are mainly rolling terrain 

favorable for agriculture. The narrow Mediterranean coastal region is flat farmland, separated 

from Anatolia by the Taurus Mountains and opening into wide plains at some points. The 

Arabian Platform is a region of rolling hills along the Syrian border. 

The Pontus or North Anatolian Mountains are lower in the west but rise to more than 3,000 

meters in their eastern reaches. The Taurus Mountains are more rugged than the Pontus, but they 

have fewer rivers and thus form a more complete barrier between the sea and the interior. The 

Anatolian Plateau extends from the Aegean coastal region between the two major mountain 

ranges to form the semiarid heartland of Turkey. Elevation is between 600 and 1,200 meters, 

with several major basins. The eastern highlands are formed by the convergence of the Taurus 

and Pontus ranges. Mountains here are more rugged than elsewhere in Turkey; the highest 

mountain, Mt. Ararat, is 5,166 meters high. Turkey’s largest lake, Lake Van, is in the eastern 

highlands. 

6
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

Principal Rivers: Turkey's longest rivers, the Kızılırmak, Sakarya, and Yeşilırmak, flow 

northward from the interior of the country into the Black Sea. The Dicle (Tigris) and Firat 

(Euphrates) originate in the eastern mountains and flow southward across the Arabian Platform

into Syria and Iraq. The Büyük Menderes and Gediz are the major rivers flowing from the 

Anatolian Plateau westward into the Aegean Sea. The Meric (known in Greece as the Evros and 

in Bulgaria as the Maritsa) forms the border between Greece and Turkish Thrace before flowing 

into the northern Aegean. The Seyhan flows south from the Eastern Highlands into the 

Mediterranean Sea. 

Climate: The Aegean and Mediterranean coastal regions have cool, rainy winters and hot, 

moderately dry summers, with annual precipitation ranging from 580 to 1,300 millimeters. The 

Black Sea coastal region, whose temperature range is cooler than the other coastal regions, has 

the heaviest rainfall in Turkey, averaging 1,400 millimeters per year. Because it is blocked from

the sea by Turkey’s mountain ranges, the Anatolian Plateau has a severely continental climate, 

with extreme cold in the winter (reaching –40o C) and extreme heat in summer. Rainfall there is 

very sparse in summer, but snowfall in winter is heavy. Annual precipitation averages 400 

millimeters. The eastern highlands have hot, dry summers and very cold winters with heavy 

snowfall. 

Natural Resources: Turkey has abundant arable land; its water resources are greater than those 

elsewhere in the Middle East but generally less than those in European countries. Rivers offer 

hydroelectric power generation and irrigation. Known oil and natural gas deposits are small, but 

relatively large amounts of coal are present. Other significant mineral resources are boron and 

chromium. Long coastlines with a temperate climate support commerce, tourism, and fishing. 

Land Use: Some 31 percent of Turkey’s land is rated as arable, and another 11.5 percent is used 

as pasture. About 11 percent of the arable land (3.3 percent of the total) is planted to permanent 

crops, and 18 percent of the arable land is irrigated. 

Environmental Factors: Turkey’s main environmental problems are water pollution from the 

dumping of chemicals and detergents; air pollution, particularly in urban areas; deforestation; 

and the potential for spills from the 5,000 oil- and gas-carrying ships that pass through the 

Bosporus annually. The most pressing needs are for water treatment plants, wastewater treatment 

facilities, solid waste management, and the conservation of biodiversity. The release of

pollutants by neighboring countries has critically contaminated the Black Sea, and multinational 

cooperation has not adequately addressed the problem. Air pollution has accelerated since rapid 

economic growth began in the mid-1990s. The problem is especially acute in Istanbul, Ankara, 

Erzurum, and Bursa, where the combustion of heating fuels increases particulate density in 

winter. Especially in Istanbul, increased car ownership and the slow development of public 

transportation cause frequent urban smog conditions. Mandatory use of unleaded gas was 

scheduled to begin only in January 2006. Industrial air pollution comes mainly from power 

plants and the metallurgy, cement, sugar, and fertilizer industries, a large percentage of which 

lack filtration equipment. Land degradation is a critical agricultural problem, caused by 

inappropriate use of agricultural land, overgrazing, over-fertilization, and deforestation. Serious 

soil erosion has occurred in more than half of Turkey’s land surface. According to one estimate, 

7
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

Turkey loses 1 billion tons of topsoil annually. Large areas of Turkey are prone to major 

earthquakes.

The establishment of the Ministry of Environment in 1991 accelerated progress on some

environmental problems such as urban air pollution. In the early 2000s, prospective membership 

in the European Union (EU) spurred the updating of some environmental legislation. However, 

in 2003 the merger of the Ministry of Environment with the Ministry of Forestry reduced the 

influence of environmental officials in policy making, and enforcement procedures (such as 

those regulating traffic through the Bosporus) are considered weak. In general, private firms 

have responded more fully to environmental regulation than state-owned enterprises, which still 

constitute a large percentage of Turkey’s economy. 

Time Zone: Turkey’s time zone is two hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time. 

SOCIETY 

Population: In 2005 the estimated population of Turkey was 69,661,000. The growth rate, 

which has decreased sharply in recent decades, was about 1.1 percent per year. In 2000 some 65 

percent of the population was classified as urban (compared with 27 percent in 1960), and the 

process of urbanization is expected to continue for the foreseeable future. In 2005 overall 

population density was 90.4 people per square kilometer. About 25 percent of the population is 

concentrated around the Sea of Marmara. The fastest rate of growth is in the southeast, which in 

2003 accounted for about 10 percent of the total population. In 2005 immigration and emigration 

rates were equal. 

Demography: In 2005 some 26 percent of the population was 14 years of age or younger, and 

6.7 percent was 65 or older. The birthrate, which has declined significantly in recent decades, 

was 16.8 births per 1,000 population. The fertility rate was 1.94 children per woman. The death 

rate was 5.96 deaths per 1,000 population, and the infant mortality rate was 41 deaths per 1,000 

live births. Life expectancy, which has increased rapidly since 1960, was 69.9 years for males 

and 74.9 years for females. 

Ethnic Groups: Approximately 80 percent of the population is Turkish, and an estimated 17 

percent, concentrated in the southeast, is Kurdish. Smaller minority groups include Arabs, 

Armenians, Greeks, Jews, and Dönme (a small, separate group of Muslims, concentrated in 

Edirne and Istanbul, whose forbears converted from Judaism). In recent decades, the Armenian, 

Greek, and Jewish populations have declined steadily. Because of their numbers and their 

geographical concentration, the Kurds have been by far the most significant ethnic minority. Key 

issues are the Kurds’ demand for autonomy and complaints that they are forbidden to learn 

Kurdish and forced to abandon their customs. 

Languages: The official language is Turkish; Kurdish, Arabic, Armenian, and Greek also are 

used. The Latin alphabet has been in use since it superseded the Arabic alphabet in 1928. 

8
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

Religion: More than 99 percent of the population is Muslim, mostly Sunni. Christianity (Greek 

Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic) and Judaism are the other religions in practice, but the nonMuslim population declined in the early 2000s. Beginning in the 1980s, the role of religion in the 

state has been a divisive issue, as influential factions challenged the complete secularization 

called for by Kemalism and the observance of Islamic practices experienced a substantial revival. 

In the early 2000s, Islamic groups challenged the concept of the secular state with increasing 

vigor after the Erdoğan government had calmed the issue in 2003. The Alevi community, a 

group of non-orthodox Muslims that make up 10–25 percent of the population, has suffered 

discrimination and occasional massacres. 

Education and Literacy: In 2003 Turkey’s overall literacy rate was 86.5 percent, but the rate 

was only 78.7 percent for females. Eight years of primary education are mandatory between the 

ages of six and 14, and in 2001 the enrollment of male students of those ages was nearly 100 

percent. Female enrollment was substantially lower in some rural areas. Three or more years of 

secondary education are available in general, open, and vocational high schools. Islamic Imam

Hatip secondary schools expanded rapidly and achieved elite status in the 1990s, but the 

government has discouraged them since the late 1990s, and their popularity dwindled in the early 

2000s. The high-school dropout rate in Turkey has been high compared with Western countries. 

Below university level, about 95 percent of students attend public schools, but inadequacies of 

the public system increasingly motivate middle-class parents to seek private education. The 

public program generally needs curriculum updates and suffers from over-reliance on rote 

memorization and standardized examinations. Teachers are poorly trained and paid, and classes 

are large. Rural schools generally are poorly equipped. In 2001 some 1,273 institutions of higher 

learning were in operation. Except for the Open University, entrance is by national examination, 

which limited university attendance to about 18 percent of the population in 2002. In 2004 the 

state budget allocated US$6.7 billion, about 6 percent of total expenditures, for education. 

Health: Health care in Turkey is dominated by a centralized state system run by the Ministry of 

Health. However, in 2003 the governing Justice and Development Party introduced a sweeping 

health reform program aimed at increasing the ratio of private to state health provision and 

making health care available to a larger share of the population. In its initial stages, the reform

program has encountered significant opposition. At 3.5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) 

in 2001, Turkey’s public expenditure on national health was substantially below average for a 

developed country. In the early 2000s, about 63 percent of health expenditures came from public 

sources. In 2003 there was one doctor for every 700 people, one nurse for every 590 people, and 

one hospital bed for every 400 people. The rural population is poorly served by the health-care 

system, which is much more developed in the western half of the country. Between 80 and 90 

percent of the population, including self-employed workers, have health care provided by the 

national pension system, but the low quality of care encourages the use of private health 

providers in urban areas. Although the private health industry has grown rapidly since the 1990s, 

only about 2 percent of the population, mainly in urban areas, has private health insurance. In 

2005 about 75 percent of private health expenditures were out-of-pocket rather than being 

covered by insurance. 

The most frequent causes of death, in order of frequency, are infectious and parasitic diseases, 

cancer, heart disease, and cerebrovascular diseases. Since the 1980s, the occurrence of measles, 

9
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

pertussis, typhoid fever, and diphtheria has decreased sharply because of improved availability of 

potable water. More than 80 percent of one-year-olds received inoculations against childhood 

diseases in 2004. Between 1980 and 2004, the infant mortality rate decreased by 65 percent. In 

2002 an estimated 1,515 adults in Turkey were infected by the human immunodeficiency virus 

(HIV); more recent statistics are not available. Reportedly, in 2002 sexual activity was the cause 

of 58.4 percent of HIV cases, and drug abuse was the cause of 6.9 percent of cases. No cause is 

given for the remaining cases; commercial blood donation has been abolished in order to 

eliminate that cause of HIV transmission. 

Welfare: The state welfare and pension system provides health, welfare, and pension payments 

to a large majority of citizens. The Social Insurance Law prescribes maternity, illness, on-the-job 

injury, retirement, and death insurance for all workers except those in agriculture and those who 

are self-employed. Self-employed workers, including those in agriculture, receive similar 

coverage under the Social Security Organization for the Self-Employed. In 2000 compulsory 

unemployment insurance was added to the coverage of the existing law. In the early 2000s, 

reforms were introduced to make Turkey’s system comply more fully with European Union 

standards. In 2002 a voluntary private pension system was established as a supplement to the 

mandatory state system. Contributions in the private system are invested in personal retirement 

accounts, making pension payments dependent on account performance. However, in 2005 

mandatory social security contributions remained high, equaling one-third of gross salaries. In 

2003 an estimated 29 percent of Turkey’s population lived below the poverty level, which was 

about US$130 per month for a single individual. However, the poverty rate was 

disproportionately high in the population of the rural east. 

ECONOMY 

Overview: Non-agricultural economic activity is concentrated in four regions, centered 

respectively around the Sea of Marmara, Edirne on the west coast, the Adana-Mersin-İskenderun 

triangle along the Mediterranean Sea, and Ankara. In 2005 a large share of Turkey’s major 

enterprises remained in state hands. These included all of the transportation, utilities, and 

communications infrastructure, many basic industries, and about 30 percent of the banking 

sector. After failing to fulfill earlier privatization plans, in 2004 Turkey announced plans to 

privatize a wide range of industries, including tobacco and sugar processing, communications, 

and energy. No target dates were set, however. The economy has been plagued by high inflation 

and high fiscal deficits. Those conditions improved somewhat in 2004, when private investment 

increased significantly and the inflation rate declined. Beginning in 1999, the International 

Monetary Fund (IMF) has exerted strong pressure to reform the economic system. The IMF 

responded to Turkey’s serious economic crisis of 2001 with stand-by assistance programs 

contingent on reduced state spending and debt, banking reform, accelerated privatization, and 

reduced inflation. 

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): In 2004 Turkey’s GDP of US$307.5 billion showed a real 

increase of 8.8 percent over the previous year, when the total was US$239 billion. In the first 

half of 2005, the GDP grew at a rate of 4.5 percent. The growth between 2002 and 2003 was 5.8 

percent. Between 1999 and 2002, the average annual GDP increase was 2.9 percent, but the 

10
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

economy recorded decreases in 1999 and 2001. In 2004 the per capita GDP was US$4,414. The 

sectoral contribution to GDP was as follows: services 59.6 percent, industry and construction 29 

percent, and agriculture 11.4 percent. In the early 2000s, the share of agriculture has decreased, 

the share of industry and construction has remained approximately constant, and the share of 

services has increased. 

Government Budget: In 2004 Turkey’s state revenues totaled US$86.4 billion, and its 

expenditures totaled US$108.1 billion, creating a deficit of US$21.7 billion. In 2003 revenues 

were US$66.8 billion and expenditures were US$93.3 billion, resulting in a deficit of US$26.5 

billion. In 2002 the deficit was US$21.1 billion. An important component of the budget deficit 

has been the 40 percent of state expenditures devoted to interest payments on debt. 

Inflation: Inflation has been a chronic problem in Turkey’s economy. The rate for 2004, 

estimated at between 8.6 and 9.3 percent, was the lowest since 1982. For the first three quarters 

of 2005, the rate was about 8 percent. Between 1988 and 1999, the annual inflation rate varied 

between 60 percent and 90 percent.

Agriculture: Turkey is self-sufficient in most foods, although some agricultural commodities are 

imported. The principal agricultural exports are cotton, fruits, hazelnuts, tobacco, and wheat. 

Other important agricultural products are barley, corn, oilseeds, olives, potatoes, sugar beets, and 

tea. The most important livestock are cattle, chickens, goats, and sheep, but livestock raising has 

declined significantly since the 1980s. The efficiency of the agricultural sector is limited by the 

predominance of small, non-mechanized farms on which a disproportionately large segment of 

the population depends for its livelihood. Output varies substantially according to weather 

conditions. The Southeastern Anatolia Project is an extensive series of dams and canals in the 

Firat (Euphrates) Valley, scheduled for completion in 2010. The project will provide irrigation to 

improve agricultural productivity in the southeast. State support, an important component of

agricultural enterprises, often has been poorly distributed and without proportionate returns. In 

the early 2000s, the government reduced agricultural support and began restructuring marketing 

systems. 

Forestry: In 2000 the extent of Turkey’s forests was estimated at 10.2 million hectares. 

However, the forests of eastern Anatolia are not suitable for harvesting. The only usable timber 

comes from the Black Sea coastal region, and timber does not make a significant contribution to 

the economy. Because poor management and infrequent cutting have left many forests overmature, only about 20 percent of the total forested area is classified as commercially exploitable. 

In 2003 Turkey’s timber industry produced a total of 16 million cubic meters of wood products, 

about 32 percent of which was fuelwood. Forest protection by the state is handicapped by the 

dependence of local populations on trees for fuel. In 2004 forestry contributed 0.4 percent of 

GDP. 

Fishing: Despite Turkey’s long coastline, fishing is not an important contributor to the economy. 

The fishing industry is concentrated on the coasts of the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara, 

where output has been cut by pollution and over-fishing. In 2002 Turkey’s fish catch totaled 

567,000 tons, a substantial decrease from the annual totals of the 1990s. Anchovies accounted 

11
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

for more than 60 percent of the catch. A small aquaculture industry also exists. In 2004 fishing 

contributed 0.4 percent of GDP. 

Mining and Minerals: Turkey’s major mining operations, formerly controlled by state-owned 

companies, have been increasingly privatized in the early 2000s. During that period, aluminum, 

chrome, copper, and silver mines have moved into the private sector. By far the most important 

mineral product is lignite coal, of which Turkish mines yielded nearly 50 million tons in 2002 

and of which reserves are estimated at 8.4 billion tons. Turkey’s low-quality lignite, burned 

mainly in power stations, is highly polluting. The output of hard coal has declined in the early 

2000s, reaching 3.3 million tons in 2002. Hard coal reserves are estimated at 1.1 billion tons. The 

most important non-fuel mineral is boron, of which Turkey has an estimated 60 percent of world 

reserves, and production of which remains in state hands. Gold, of which Turkey is estimated to 

have 450 tons of reserves, is receiving increased investment. Marble is the most important 

mineral export.

Industry and Manufacturing: Turkey’s diverse manufacturing sector satisfies domestic 

demand for a wide variety of products; the main manufactured exports are consumer goods. 

Most manufacturing enterprises are privately owned, but the size of such enterprises varies 

greatly, and the state has influenced the relative growth of industries by providing 

disproportionate investment and incentives. Multinational companies are present in many light 

and heavy industries. Foreign auto companies—Fiat, Honda, Hyundai, Renault, and Toyota—

have plants in Turkey. Other industries such as appliances are mainly Turkish-owned. A large 

proportion of the appliances, consumer electronics, and vehicles manufactured in Turkey are 

exported. The largest privately owned industrial company is the Arcelik firm, which 

manufactures a wide variety of consumer products. Textiles and clothing are by far the largest 

products of light industry, accounting for about one-third of exports. However, much of this 

production is unreported because it is in the “informal” sector. The most important textile 

product is cotton cloth. Besides textiles, the most important consumer items produced are 

televisions, automobiles, refrigerators, washing machines, and vacuum cleaners. The most 

important heavy industrial products are processed fuels, steel, cement, tractors, and fertilizers. 

Traditionally, the construction industry has made an important contribution to the economy. 

However, the share of construction’s contribution has declined since the late 1990s because of a 

reduction in demand for domestic and foreign building projects and because of Turkey’s 2001 

economic crisis. Expansion resumed at a moderate rate in 2004. In 2003 the construction 

industry earned US$900 million in foreign contracts. In the early 2000s, the industry’s foreign 

operations expanded, particularly in Russia, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Saudi Arabia, and 

Afghanistan.

Energy: Coal is the only fossil fuel that Turkey possesses in abundance, meaning that large 

amounts of oil and natural gas are imported. In the early 2000s, the domestic distribution of fuels 

and electricity has been reformed to meet European Union standards. Distribution of natural gas, 

nearly all of which is imported, is to be privatized by 2009. Since the 1990s, Turkey has 

attempted to substitute cleaner natural gas for highly polluting domestic coal. In the early 2000s, 

about two-thirds of the 1.1 billion cubic feet of natural gas that Turkey imported was used by the 

electric power industry. In 2005 authorities reduced their predictions of rapidly increasing 

12
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

natural gas consumption for the rest of the decade. Russia is the main supplier of natural gas; its 

share of total imports is expected to rise from the 2003 figure of 25 percent to 58 percent in 

2010. Other major suppliers are Iran and Azerbaijan. In 2004 Turkey’s domestic oil output was 

43,000 barrels per day, about half the level of 1990. Turkey imports about 90 percent of its oil, 

mainly from Iran, Iraq, Russia, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. The demand for oil is expected to grow 

steadily during the next decade. Turkey’s location along several international oil and gas 

pipelines eases transport. Ceyhan, on the Black Sea coast, is the terminus of the newly completed 

Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline, which may gain Turkey substantial transit fees. However, 

recent downward revisions of the Caspian’s estimated potential oil deposits may reduce the value 

of that line. 

Because the demand for electric power doubled in the 1990s, Turkey became a net importer of 

electricity as domestic generating capacity was unable to keep up with demand. Although in 

2004 Turkey’s generating capacity of 32,000 megawatts exceeded demand, another 13,000 

megawatts of capacity was being added in anticipation of increased demand in the following 10 

years, and some power is imported from Turkmenistan. In the early 2000s, domestic power 

supply was inefficient because new plants came online slowly and industry privatization stalled. 

Turkey abandoned plans for its first and only nuclear power plant in 2000. Since 2002 an 

independent Energy Market Regulatory Authority has overseen privatization and distribution. 

This agency is considered an important improvement in Turkey’s energy management. 

Services: Banking, the most important of Turkey’s financial services, has undergone significant 

changes in the early 2000s. The current system is based on the banking law of 1999, which calls 

for transparency and accountability. The financial crisis of 2001, for which the banks were partly 

responsible, had a severe impact on the sector. The resulting rationalization of the banking 

system reduced the number of banks by about one-third to 36, leaving the five largest banks with 

more than 50 percent of total assets. Those five private banks are part of large conglomerates 

with interests in many other sectors. Three state banks control about 30 percent of the industry’s 

assets. In 2004 government securities constituted about 40 percent of the assets of Turkish banks. 

Bad loans accounted for 14 percent of assets, a very high figure. Long-term loans such as 

mortgages are rare, and both credits and deposits are mostly very short-term. Since the 1990s, the 

Istanbul Stock Exchange has been quite active, although political developments have caused 

substantial volatility. In 2004 the exchange listed 309 companies, including most of the largest in 

Turkey. Most of Turkey’s large insurance companies are connected with banks or international 

insurance firms. Per capita insurance expenditures are the lowest in the industrialized world. In 

2004 total premiums reached US$4 billion after a 20 percent increase in 2003. In 2005 a new 

agency was expected to replace the National Treasury in regulating the insurance industry. 

Small enterprises have dominated retail trade. However, in the early 2000s large Turkish chains 

such as Migros, Gima, and Tansas and foreign companies such as Metro of Germany, Carrefour 

of France, and Tesco of Britain occupied an expanding share of the retail sector. Turkey has 

taken advantage of its wide variety of scenic and historic locations, particularly along its 

southern and western coasts, to build a substantial tourism industry based on local ownership of 

hotels and restaurants. Some 17.5 million tourists visited Turkey in 2004, an increase of 25 

percent over 2003. This activity generated revenues estimated at US$15.9 billion and provided 

an important source of foreign currency. 

13
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

Labor: In 2004 Turkey’s labor force was estimated at 24.3 million. However, a large part of this 

labor force works in the “informal sector,” making measurement of its activities difficult. In 

2003 about 34 percent of the official workforce was occupied in agriculture, 43 percent in 

services, and 23 percent in construction and industry. Industrial labor is heavily unionized, and 

unions exert strong political influence. In the first half of 2005, unemployment was estimated at 

10.5 percent overall, the same rate as in the previous three years, but unemployment among the 

youngest workers was estimated at 20 percent. Another 6 percent of the workforce was 

considered underemployed. Despite substantial wage increases in the 1990s and the early 2000s, 

the real value of wages has been depressed by inflation. However, in the early 2000s a series of 

sharp increases brought the 2005 minimum wage to US$360 per month. Wage disparities are 

great between eastern and western Turkey. Women account for only about one-quarter of the 

overall workforce but for 60 percent of the agricultural workforce. Remittances from Turks 

working abroad, chiefly in Germany and Saudi Arabia, have been an important source of 

national income. However, after reaching a peak of US$5 billion in 1998, remittances in the 

early 2000s have been substantially lower. In 2004 an estimated 3 million workers remitted 

slightly less than US$1 billion.

Foreign Economic Relations: Beginning in the late 1970s, Turkey has liberalized what was a 

policy of import substitution and protection of domestic industries by import restrictions. In the 

1990s, export subsidies were abolished. Beginning in the early 1990s, trade with the European 

Union (EU) has increased slowly and steadily. Turkey was admitted to the World Trade 

Organization (WTO) in 1995. In 1996 a customs union was established between Turkey and the 

EU, abolishing tariffs on industrial products for both sides. An agreement on agricultural 

products retains tariffs on some agricultural imports from EU countries. In 1999 Turkey revised 

its customs legislation in accordance with EU standards. Between 1990 and 2004, the EU share 

of Turkey’s exports remained steady between 51 and 55 percent, and the EU share of Turkey’s 

imports also remained steady between 44 and 47 percent. Throughout that period, Germany 

remained Turkey’s primary trade partner, although that country’s percentage of total trade (13.9 

percent of exports and 13.6 percent of imports in 2004) diminished steadily in the early 2000s. 

The level of trade with the United States generally has increased since the late 1990s. In 2003 

exports to the United States increased by 11.5 percent over 2002, and imports increased by 10.4 

percent. In 2004 the export share of the United States decreased slightly, and its import share 

remained the same as in 2003. In 2004 the United States accounted for 7.7 percent of Turkey’s 

exports and 5 percent of its imports. In the early 2000s, a larger share of Turkey’s imports came 

from the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), mainly because of reliance on natural gas 

from Russia, than had been imported during the 1990s. In 2003 and 2004, Russia accounted for 

7.9 percent of Turkey’s imports, and the CIS as a whole accounted for 6.3 percent of exports. 

In the early 2000s, agricultural products dropped below 10 percent of Turkey’s exports. Minerals 

and mineral products accounted for about 5 percent. In 2004 finished textiles accounted for about 

28 percent. Other important exported manufactured products were steel, construction materials, 

appliances, televisions, and motor vehicles. The main customers for Turkey’s exports were the 

EU countries, the United States, countries of the Middle East, CIS countries, and Turkey’s 

neighboring countries in southeastern Europe. 

14
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

Substantial unofficial trade occurs with neighboring countries of the Middle East and the CIS. 

The value of such trade in 2004 was estimated at US$4 billion. Fuels are the leading “official” 

imported commodity. Others are chemical products and machinery and transport equipment. 

Russia and Saudi Arabia are the chief suppliers of fuels. Other major suppliers of imports are the 

EU countries, Switzerland, Japan, and China. Between 2002 and 2004, imports from China 

increased by 170 percent. 

Trade Balance: In 2004 Turkey’s imports had a total value of US$94.5 billion, and its exports 

were valued at US$69.5 billion. Thus, the trade deficit for 2004 was US$25 billion, continuing a 

persistent trend. Between 2000 and 2003, the trade deficits were, respectively, US$26.7 billion, 

US$10.1 billion, US$15.5 billion, and US$21.8 billion. 

Balance of Payments: In the early 2000s, Turkey’s balance of payments has varied widely, 

although it was negative every year from 2000 through 2004. The financial crisis of 2001 

increased the balance-of-payments deficit to US$12.9 billion, but in 2002 the deficit was only 

US$214 million. In 2004 the current account showed a deficit of US$15.3 billion, and the capital 

and financial account showed a surplus of US$12.9 billion, creating a negative overall balance of 

US$2.4 billion. 

External Debt: In 2004 Turkey’s medium- and long-term foreign debt totaled US$129.8 billion, 

compared with US$124 billion in 2003 and US$116 billion in 2002. In the same year, short-term

foreign debt increased from US$23 billion to US$31.9 billion. 

Foreign Investment: Foreign direct investment has been relatively low, exceeding US$2 billion 

in only one year since 1999. The total for 2004 was about US$2 billion. Portfolio investment, 

however, increased substantially in 2004 over previous years. A reform of foreign direct 

investment laws in 2003 streamlined procedures and improved the investment climate. A US$1.5 

billion power plant near İskenderun, completed in 2004 by the STEAG utilities company of 

Germany, is the largest direct investment ever by a German company in Turkey. Automotive 

companies in France, Italy, Japan, South Korea, and the United States have plants in Turkey. In 

2005 a Japanese consortium will begin building a railroad tunnel under the Bosporus. The United 

States-based General Dynamics Corporation has invested substantially in fighter plane 

manufacture in Turkey. 

Currency and Exchange Rate: In January 2005, a currency reform established the new Turkish 

lira, which was worth 1 million of the previous unit, the Turkish lira. In January 2006, the 

exchange rate was 1.34 new Turkish liras to the U.S. dollar. Thus, in 2005 the new lira was 

stronger against the dollar than the old lira had been in 2002 and 2003, when the average rate 

was slightly more than 1.5 million to the dollar. 

Fiscal Year: Turkey’s fiscal year is the calendar year. 

15
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Transportation Overview: The development of efficient domestic transportation systems in 

Turkey has been slowed by long distances, difficult terrain, and low investment. Major 

investment projects are expected to improve the national road and railroad systems by 2010. 

Roads: Roads are Turkey’s most important domestic transportation system, although only 

130,000 kilometers of paved roads were in service in 2004, and little expansion has occurred 

since the 1950s. More than 250,000 kilometers of existing roads are unpaved. The state and 

provincial system includes about 65,000 kilometers of roads, of which 1,900 kilometers are 

classified as highways. Main highways radiate from Ankara in central Anatolia; Istanbul and 

İzmir in the west; Adana in the south; and Erzurum and Diyarbakır in the east. The most 

important recent addition to the system is the Ankara-Istanbul toll road. Because the number of 

motor vehicles increased by more than 5 million between 1983 and 2004, Turkey’s city streets 

are very congested. In 2004 several major road and bridge projects were under discussion to link 

Anatolia more effectively with Europe. 

Railroads: In 2004 Turkey had only 8,671 kilometers of railroad, all standard gauge and mostly 

in service for more than 60 years. Most major population centers are connected by rail. From a 

ring around the Anatolian Plateau, rail lines radiate to Zonguldak and Samsun on the Black Sea; 

Istanbul, İzmir, and Bandırma in the west; and via Adana to Syria and Iraq in the south. Three 

lines go into eastern Anatolia. The state-owned system is slow and unprofitable. In 2004 only 4 

percent of freight transport and 2 percent of passenger transport were by rail. Between 1990 and 

2003, passenger trips decreased by 50 percent. Planned improvements include limited 

privatization, upgrading of the Istanbul-Ankara trunk line to include high-speed trains, and 

improved rail links between Anatolia and Thrace. The Marmaray project, scheduled for 

completion in 2008, aims to improve rail transportation through Istanbul. It will include a 

railroad tunnel under the Bosporus. Plans call for some private railroad operations to supplement 

the state system in the future. Ankara, Istanbul, and İzmir have metro systems; lines in Ankara 

and İzmir were expanding in the early 2000s. 

Ports: Turkey’s ports have suffered from overcrowding and inefficiency. The main facilities are 

located at Antalya, İskenderun, and Mersin on the Mediterranean; Gemlik, Istanbul, and İzmit in 

the Marmara region; İzmir on the Aegean Sea; and Hopa, Samsun, and Trabzon on the Black 

Sea. The ports of Istanbul, İzmir, İzmit, and Mersin are particularly vital because they are outlets 

for large industrial regions. The state railroad manages all the largest ports, but six of them were 

on the government’s privatization list in 2005. In the early 2000s, Turkey’s 11-million-ton 

merchant marine has carried a decreasing share of the total freight passing through its ports; in 

2004 less than 30 percent of port traffic was under the Turkish flag. Passenger ships in Istanbul 

are important commuter carriers. 

Inland Waterways: Turkey has about 1,200 kilometers of inland waterways, none of which 

offers a vital line of transportation. Not included in that amount is the channel formed by the 

Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus, linking the Black Sea with the 

Mediterranean Sea and forming one of the most important water connections in the world. In the 

16
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

early 2000s, safety and environmental factors have made expansion of traffic through this 

heavily traveled route problematic. 

Civil Aviation and Airports: Of Turkey’s 87 mainly state-owned airports with paved runways, 

16 have runways longer than 3,000 meters. Some 14 heliports were in operation in 2004. The 

three largest airports are located at Istanbul, Ankara, and İzmir. Istanbul-Atatürk, the largest 

airport, was expanded in 2000, as was the primary tourist airport at Ankara. The state-owned 

national airline, Turk Hava Yollari (THY, Turkish Airlines), is a state-controlled enterprise that 

flies from Ankara and Istanbul to 79 international destinations, including major cities in Europe 

and the United States. In 2004 THY, which is scheduled for privatization, flew 11.4 million 

passengers. Private airline activity increased in the early 2000s, carrying about 2 million 

passengers in 2004.

Pipelines: In 2004 Turkey had 3,177 kilometers of natural gas pipelines and 3,562 kilometers of 

oil pipelines. In the early 2000s, controversial pipeline issues were Turkey’s role in new routes 

bringing oil and natural gas from the flourishing Caspian Sea region into Europe and the 

configuration of a new pipeline that would connect Russia with the Mediterranean and bypass 

the Bosporus. The potentially lucrative Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) line, 1,000 kilometers of 

which passes through Turkey, began bringing oil from the Caspian in 2005. That line is 

advantageous because it bypasses both Russia and the crowded Bosporus corridor. Because the 

BTC line is considered insufficient for future volume, Turkey is involved in international 

discussions of several other pipeline routes that would bypass the Bosporus. 

Telecommunications: In the 1980s and 1990s, Turkey’s telecommunications systems underwent 

substantial modernization, including nearly complete digitization and advanced intercity trunk 

lines. In 2004 some 19 million main telephone lines were in use. A satellite system links users in 

remote areas. The use of cellular telephones has increased rapidly since the late 1990s, reaching 

more than 50 percent of the population in 2004. In the early 2000s, three private mobile services, 

the largest with more than 20 million subscribers, were operating. However, in the early 2000s 

demand has exceeded the supply of Internet and data services. In 2005 an estimated 10.2 million

people were using the Internet. Initial steps for the privatization of Turk Telekom, the stateowned telecommunications monopoly, were taken in 2005. 

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 

Overview: The present constitution was adopted in November 1982 and amended in 1995, 1999, 

2001, and 2004. The government is a parliamentary system in which the president is elected by 

the legislative branch. Power is highly centralized at the national level. Since the adoption of a 

multiparty system in 1946, most of Turkey’s governments have been coalitions of two or more 

parties. Many of those governments have been weak and ephemeral. The government chosen in 

2002 was the first since 1991 to be formed by a single majority party, the Justice and 

Development Party. As of late 2005, that party retained strong public support. The military has 

taken power three times, in 1960, 1971, and 1980. Although in each case elections were held 

within three years, the military remains an important political force in the early 2000s. In the 

1990s and early 2000s, the power of Islamist parties has increased, despite the principle of 

17
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

strictly secular government established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the first president of modern 

Turkey. The judicial branch is genuinely independent. 

Executive Branch: The president is elected by the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TGNA, 

parliament) for a single term of seven years. The last presidential election was in May 2000. The 

president, who has limited powers and abdicates party membership upon election, appoints the 

prime minister and has the power to summon sessions of the TGNA, promulgate laws, and ratify 

international treaties. The president also is commander of the armed forces. The prime minister, 

who supervises the implementation of government policy, usually is the head of the majority or 

plurality party of the TGNA. Members of the Council of Ministers, which in 2005 included 22 

full ministers and three deputy prime ministers, are nominated by the prime minister and 

approved by the president. The president also appoints members of the national courts and the 

heads of the Central Bank and broadcasting organizations, and the president has the power to 

dissolve the Grand National Assembly. The president presides over the National Security 

Council, whose members include the prime minister; the chief of the General Staff; the ministers 

of national defense, interior, and foreign affairs; and the commanders of the branches of the 

armed forces and the gendarmerie. This powerful body sets national security policy and 

coordinates all activities related to mobilization and defense. 

Legislative Branch: Legislative power is exercised by the Turkish Grand National Assembly 

(TGNA), a one-chamber parliament composed of 550 deputies who serve five-year terms. The 

TGNA writes legislation, supervises the Council of Ministers, and adopts the budget. The TGNA 

also elects the president, by a two-thirds majority, from among its members. The president can 

be voted out of office by a vote of three-quarters of TGNA members. The TGNA decides on 

declaring war, martial law, and emergency rule and approves international agreements. 

Parliamentary elections are based on proportional representation subject to a national threshold 

of 10 percent. Members are elected by party lists drawn up by party leaders. Once elected, 

members have immunity from prosecution. TGNA legislation is developed by specialized 

commissions. The laws passed by the TGNA are promulgated by the president within 15 days. 

The president may refer a law back to the assembly for reconsideration.

Judicial Branch: The highest court in Turkey is the Constitutional Court, which examines the 

constitutionality of laws and other government actions. Members of that court are appointed by 

the president. The Court of Cassation, which is divided into 30 specialized chambers whose 

members are appointed by a Supreme Council of Judges and Prosecutors (in turn appointed by 

the president), hears appeals from lower courts. The military court system, whose top level is the

Military Court of Appeals, hears only cases related to the military. The Council of State settles 

administrative cases and offers opinions on laws drafted by the Council of Ministers. A 2004 

amendment to the constitution abolished State Security Courts (SSCs), which had been cited for 

human rights violations as they carried out their function of trying individuals deemed a threat to 

national interests. However, the special new courts appointed to replace the SSCs received 

similar powers. 

Administrative Divisions: Turkey is divided into 81 provinces (iller; sing., il), which in turn are 

divided into districts and sub-districts. Provinces have an average of eight districts each. Sixteen 

18
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

large metropolitan municipalities, about 3,200 smaller towns, and about 50,000 villages have 

their own local governments. 

Provincial and Local Government: The provinces are administered by governors, who are 

appointed by the Council of Ministers with the approval of the president. The governors function 

as the principal agents of the central government and report to the Ministry of Interior. Districts 

are administered by sub-governors. Provinces, districts, and local jurisdictions also have directly 

elected councils. Although local jurisdictions have gained political powers since 1980, the 

system remains highly centralized. The national government oversees elected local councils in 

order to ensure the effective provision of local services and to safeguard the public interest; the 

minister of interior is empowered to remove from office local administrators who are being 

investigated or prosecuted for offenses related to their duties. Several ministries of the national 

government have offices at the provincial and district levels. An autonomous local 

administration exists at the level of municipalities, which elect a mayor and a municipal council. 

In the villages, the village assembly elects a council of elders and a village headman. 

Judicial and Legal System: When the Republic of Turkey was established, the Islamic law of

the Ottoman Empire was replaced in 1926 with a secular system borrowed from the Swiss and 

Italian legal codes. The judicial system has been criticized for the influence of the executive 

branch, particularly the National Security Council, over adjudication of certain cases. Also 

criticized is the membership of the minister of justice, a member of the executive branch, on the 

powerful Supreme Council of Judges and Prosecutors, whose functions of overseeing the lower 

courts and choosing judges have no review mechanism. Prosecutors have wide authority in the 

investigation of cases. All cases are heard by judges, not by juries. Every province has one penal 

and at least one civil court, each consisting of one judge, to hear routine cases. Central criminal 

courts, of which Turkey has 172, hear more serious criminal cases. Those courts consist of a 

judicial panel of three. In 2002 Turkey abolished application of the death penalty in peacetime. A 

new penal code, responding to some but not all of the membership requirements of the European 

Union (EU), was approved in September 2004. 

Electoral System: Suffrage is universal for citizens 18 years of age and older. Only 

parliamentary delegates and local governments are elected directly. The Grand National 

Assembly elects the president, who must receive two-thirds of assembly votes to be elected in 

the first or second round of voting. If a third round of voting is necessary, a simple majority is 

acceptable. Direct parliamentary and local elections are held (separately) every five years, but 

the president or the Grand National Assembly can declare elections at an earlier date. In the 2002 

parliamentary elections, which were judged to be fair by international observers, the Justice and 

Development Party won a majority of seats and formed a one-party government on that basis. 

Political Parties: Turkey has had a multiparty system since 1946. In 2005 some 49 official 

parties were in operation. The existence and alignments of Turkey’s political parties have been 

fleeting, although the Republican People’s Party, founded by Atatürk in 1923, retained 

substantial power in 2005. After the parliamentary elections of 2002 caused a major shift in party 

strength, only two parties—the Republican People’s Party and the Justice and Development 

Party—held seats in parliament. The latter party held the majority, and in 2003 its head, Tayyip 

Erdoğan, was named prime minister. Nine seats were held nominally by independents, who in 

19
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

fact represented Islamic parties. Party representation in the Grand National Assembly is 

proportional to total votes received by a party’s candidates, but those candidates must receive at 

least 10 percent of the total vote for the party to be represented. The officially unrepresented 

parties receiving the most votes in the 2002 elections were the center-right True Path Party, the 

conservative Nationalist Action Party, the nationalist Youth Party, the pro-Kurdish Democratic 

People’s Party, the moderate Motherland Party, and the Islamic fundamentalist Felicity Party. 

Mass Media: Turkey has a wide variety of domestic and foreign periodicals expressing diverse 

views, and domestic newspapers are extremely competitive. The media exert a strong influence 

on public opinion. The most popular daily newspapers are Sabah, Hürriyet, Milliyet, Zaman, and 

Yeni Asir. Of those titles, Milliyet (630,000) and Sabah (550,000) have the largest circulation. 

Milliyet and the daily Cumhuriyet are among the most respected serious newspapers. Most 

newspapers are based in Istanbul, with simultaneous Ankara and İzmir editions. The broadcast 

media have very wide dispersion because satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available. 

The High Board of Radio and Television is the government body overseeing the broadcast 

media. Media ownership is concentrated among large private companies, a factor that limits the 

views that are presented. The largest such operator is the Dogan group, which in 2003 received 

40 percent of the advertising revenue from newspapers and broadcast media in Turkey. In 2003 a 

total of 257 television stations and 1,100 radio stations were licensed to operate, and others 

operated without licenses. Of those licensed, 16 television and 36 radio stations reached national 

audiences. In 2003 some 22.9 million televisions and 11.3 million radios were in service. Aside 

from Turkish, the state television network offers some programs in Arabic, Circassian, Kurdish, 

and Zaza. 

Foreign Relations: In 2004 the center of Turkey’s foreign relations remained the United States 

and Western Europe. Relations with Greece, a long-time antagonist, began to improve in 1999. 

Although the two countries’ fundamental dispute over Cyprus still was unresolved, in 2004 

Turkey gained Greece’s support and the endorsement of the Council of Europe for membership 

in the European Union (EU), pending negotiation of a series of domestic reforms. Relations with 

the United States, close since the beginning of the Cold War, were damaged in 2003 when 

Turkey refused to allow U.S. troops to cross into Iraq from Turkey. The United States canceled a 

major aid package, which later was restored in a smaller form. Relations improved in 2004 and 

2005, and the United States continued advocating Turkey’s membership in the EU. 

In the 1990s, Turkey developed economic relationships with the Turkic republics of the former 

Soviet Union—Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan—and 

economic and military relations with traditional enemy Russia improved dramatically. Beginning 

in the mid-1990s, relations with Israel have been unusually close for an Islamic nation, based 

mainly on Israeli military and security assistance. In the early 2000s, Turkey has cultivated 

closer relations with Syria, although a dispute remains over distribution of water from the 

Euphrates River. Close relations have not been established with Iran, aside from a natural gas 

supply agreement. Despite reservations about Kurdish autonomy in Iraq, in 2005 Turkey 

expressed readiness to establish relations with a new government in that country. 

Membership in International Organizations: Among the international organizations of which 

Turkey is a member are the Asian Development Bank, Bank for International Settlements, Black 

20
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

Sea Economic Cooperation Pact, Council of Europe, Economic Cooperation Organization, EuroAtlantic Partnership Council, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, European 

Court of Human Rights, Food and Agriculture Organization, International Atomic Energy 

Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Civil Aviation 

Organization, International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), International Development 

Association, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, International 

Finance Corporation, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Labour 

Organization, International Maritime Organization, International Monetary Fund, International 

Organization for Migration, International Telecommunication Union, Islamic Development 

Bank, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Nuclear Energy Agency, Nuclear Suppliers 

Group, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Organization 

of the Islamic Conference, Pollution Control Agency, United Nations, United Nations 

Committee on Trade and Development, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural 

Organization, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Universal Postal Union, 

World Customs Organization, World Federation of Trade Unions, World Health Organization, 

World Intellectual Property Organization, World Tourism Organization, and World Trade 

Organization. Turkey is an applicant for membership in the European Union. 

Major International Treaties: Among the multilateral treaties to which Turkey is a signatory 

are the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and 

Their Disposal, Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, Convention on Biological Diversity, 

Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, 

Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, conventions prohibiting the 

development, production, stockpiling, and use of biological and chemical weapons (known 

respectively as the Biological Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention), 

Energy Charter Treaty, Geneva Conventions, Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the 

Ozone Layer, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear 

Weapons, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, and United Nations Framework 

Convention on Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol. 

NATIONAL SECURITY 

Armed Forces Overview: Turkey’s armed forces, the second largest in the North Atlantic 

Treaty Organization (NATO), are mainly made up of conscripts commanded by a cadre of 

professional soldiers. In 2005 the army had 402,000 active personnel, the navy had 52,750 active 

personnel, and the air force had 60,100. Of the active personnel, about 391,000 were conscripts, 

mainly in the army. In addition, some 379,000 were in the reserves and 150,000 in the national 

guard. Turkey contributes troops to several United Nations and NATO peacekeeping operations 

as well as maintaining a significant force in Turkish Cyprus. In 1998 a major expansion of the 

domestic arms industry began with the aim of withstanding an arms embargo such as the one 

imposed by the United States in the mid-1970s after the Cyprus conflict. The Ministry of 

Defense nominally controls the military, but in fact the chief of the General Staff is the most 

powerful figure in the military, and he enjoys substantial autonomy. 

21
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

Foreign Military Relations: In 1996 Turkey signed two military cooperation agreements with 

Israel, making it the first Muslim country to establish such a relationship with that country. 

Between 1996 and 2002, military and economic ties between the two countries blossomed. The 

two nations shared training exercises and intelligence information and cooperated on joint 

security and weapons projects. However, in the early 2000s Turkey condemned Israeli actions 

against Palestine, cooling the relationship. In 2005 Israel and Turkey signed a new round of joint 

military production agreements. Turkey participated actively in the United States-led war on 

terrorism, sending 1,000 troops to Afghanistan in 2002 and taking command of the North 

Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)’s International Security Assistance Force in that country 

in 2002 and again in 2005. However, because of the Kurdish situation Turkey blocked U.S. troop 

movement into Iraq at the onset of Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003. In 2002 Turkey was 

granted an advisory role in military operations of the European Union (EU). In the early 2000s, 

nearly all of Turkey’s arms acquisitions have been from EU countries or Israel. 

External Threat: Beginning in the 1960s, regional disputes have brought Turkey and Greece 

close to war on several occasions. Although general relations have improved, in the early 2000s 

negotiators failed to reach a treaty ending the Cyprus crisis. In 2003 the U.S. invasion of Iraq 

increased Turkey’s fears that Kurds from northern Iraq would unite with Kurds in southeastern 

Turkey to renew claims for an autonomous or independent Kurdistan. 

Defense Budget: In 2002 Turkey’s official defense expenditure was US$6.5 billion, but 

reportedly the actual expenditure, including funds for the military police and Coast Guard, was 

US$9.2 billion. The official expenditure for 2003 was US$8.1 billion and US$8.5 billion for 

2004. The 10-year program to upgrade the defense industry received an initial allocation of 

US$31 billion. 

Major Military Units: In 2004 the army had 2 infantry divisions, 17 armored brigades, 15 

mechanized infantry brigades, 11 infantry brigades, 5 commando brigades, 8 training brigades, 4 

aviation regiments, 1 attack helicopter battalion, and 3 aviation battalions. The air force had 11 

squadrons of ground attack fighters, 7 squadrons of fighter jets, 2 reconnaissance squadrons, 5 

transport squadrons, and 4 surface-to-air missile squadrons. The Naval Forces Command was 

divided into the Northern Sea Area Sub-command, the Southern Sea Area Sub-command, a 

Training Sub-command, and a Fleet Sub-command. One regiment of marines (3,100 troops) also 

was on active duty. 

Major Military Equipment: In 2004 the army had 4,205 main battle tanks, 250 armored 

reconnaissance vehicles, 650 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 830 armored personnel carriers, 

more than 679 pieces of towed artillery, 868 pieces of self-propelled artillery, about 100 multiple 

rocket launchers, 5,813 mortars, 1,283 antitank guided weapons, 3,869 recoilless launchers, 

3,288 antiaircraft guns, 897 surface-to-air missiles, 820 aircraft, 37 attack helicopters, and 284 

support helicopters. The navy had 13 submarines, 19 frigates, 21 missile combat vessels, 28 

patrol craft, 1 minelayer, 23 mine countermeasures vessels, 8 amphibious vessels, 27 support 

vessels, and 16 armed helicopters. The air force had 480 combat aircraft, 40 support helicopters, 

and no attack helicopters. 

22
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

Military Service: The majority of military personnel are conscripted. At age 19, males are 

eligible to be conscripted for a 15-month tour of active duty, which was shortened from 18 

months in 2003. University graduates may be conscripted as reserve officers for a 12-month 

period. 

Paramilitary Forces: The National Guard, or Jandarma, includes 150,000 active personnel and 

a reserve of 50,000, under the command of the Ministry of Interior in peacetime and the Ministry

of Defense in wartime. Included are one border division and three brigades, of which one is a 

commando brigade. Between 1988 and 2004, border security was the responsibility of the 

military; the Ministry of Interior reassumed this duty to meet a European Union requirement. 

The Coast Guard has 2,200 active-duty personnel, of which 1,400 are conscripts. 

Foreign Military Forces: Turkey hosts the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization (NATO) Joint Command South-East. In 2005 that installation included some 1,650 

U.S. Air Force personnel.

Military Forces Abroad: In 2004 Turkey had 36,000 troops, including two infantry divisions, in 

the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Turkey also had 161 troops with the International 

Stabilization Force in Afghanistan, 1,200 with the stabilization force in Bosnia, one infantry 

battalion group with United Nations forces in East Timor, 940 troops with the Kosovo Force in 

Serbia and Montenegro, and observers in Georgia and Italy. In 2005 Turkey took a second turn 

in command of the International Stabilization Force. Because of strong public disapproval of the 

war in Iraq, no Turkish troops participated in the United States-led Operation Iraqi Freedom. 

Police: The National Police, under the Ministry of Interior, are responsible for security in urban 

areas. Under the central directorate of this force are sub-directorates for each province. 

Specialized units deal with problems such as narcotics and smuggling. The exact size of the 

police force is not known. The 150,000-member paramilitary National Guard, or Jandarma, also 

under the Ministry of Interior except for wartime situations, is responsible for security outside 

urban areas—about 90 percent of Turkey’s territory. Jandarma officers come from the military 

academy, and recruits are conscripted. In the early 2000s, another force, called the village 

guards, was stationed mainly in southeastern Turkey to prevent upheavals in Kurdish territory. In 

the early 2000s, Turkey responded to international human rights pressure by revising the training 

of its Jandarma and National Police, which had a longstanding reputation for brutality and 

corruption. Younger police cadets now are sought to undergo a much longer training program

emphasizing human rights. However, in 2004 several incidents of human rights abuses by police

were reported, and sentences for such crimes remained light. In 2004 parliament established a 

judicial police force, under the administration of the Ministry of Interior, to assist prosecutors in 

investigating criminal cases. 

Internal Threat: Because of its location, Turkey is a major transfer point on east-west drug 

smuggling routes, particularly those moving heroin from southwest Asia into Europe. Drugrelated crimes such as money laundering also are common. However, the rate of violent crime 

and street crime is relatively low. The Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), the main Kurdish 

terrorist organization, officially renounced terror in 2000 but resumed attacks in 2004. Turkey’s 

fears of Kurdish autonomy revived when the United States invaded neighboring Iraq in 2003. 

23
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Turkey, January 2006 

Terrorism: Beginning in 1984, Turkey suffered waves of terrorist activity by the Kurdistan 

Workers’ Party (PKK). Urban terrorism increased sharply in the early 1990s. Many incidents 

were attributed to the radical Islamist group Dev Sol, which attacked Western targets in response 

to the Persian Gulf War of 1991. In the 1990s and the early 2000s, Dev Sol and its successor 

organization, the Revolutionary People’s Liberation Party, launched assassinations and other 

attacks against Turkish authorities and Westerners. For extended periods of time in the early 

1990s, the PKK was able to control significant territory in the southeast. In the mid-1990s, 

Turkish forces launched a series of attacks against PKK bases, and PKK leader Abdullah Öcalan 

was captured in 1999. In 2000 the PKK announced a formal end to its terrorist campaign against 

Turkey. Renunciation of that status in 2004 resulted in a series of terrorist attacks in 2004 and 

2005. Meanwhile, in the late 1990s the Turkish military was accused of having ties with the 

Iranian-supported Hezbollah terrorist group (a separate group from the Lebanese Hezbollah), and 

in 2000 Turkish authorities launched a successful attack against the Hezbollah leadership in 

Turkey. Although in 2005 Hezbollah and the Great Eastern Islamic Raiders Front were 

considered the strongest Islamic terrorist organizations in Turkey, neither was believed capable 

of large-scale attacks. In November 2003 and March 2004, a series of terrorist bomb attacks 

targeted Western and Jewish sites in Istanbul. The Great Eastern Islamic Raiders Front, 

suspected to have connections to al Qaeda, claimed responsibility for the November bombings. 

Human Rights: In the early 2000s, the position of Turkey’s large Kurdish minority remained 

the largest ethnic human rights issue. Some improvement occurred in the position of Turkey’s 

Kurdish minority after governments had blocked public assemblies and the distribution of 

literature by Kurdish groups. In 2002 the rights of Kurds were expanded, together with a broader 

human rights reform program. In 2003 Turkey passed extensive reforms to comply with the 

human rights standards of the European Union. Reforms included harsher sentences for 

authorities convicted of torture, improving the availability of lawyers to accused individuals, 

allowing media broadcasts in Kurdish and other minority languages, and making it possible for a 

civilian to head the National Security Council. The death penalty was abolished for civil crimes 

in peacetime. However, human rights groups reported that implementation of these reforms was 

slow. In 2004 arbitrary arrest and detention occurred, journalists were harassed for 

antigovernment views, assembly and association were restricted occasionally, pretrial detention 

and judicial trials were overly long, the government still appeared to influence the outcome of 

some trials, and prison conditions were described as poor. The government has limited the 

activities of the media and harassed journalists expressing controversial views. In December 

2005, the trial of novelist Orhan Pamuk for writings allegedly insulting the Turkish nation 

received international attention. 

The right to practice religion generally has been respected. The state has limited financial and 

organizational activities of Greek and Armenian Christians, although legislation proposed in 

2004 would remove some restrictions. Muslim activities have been circumscribed when 

undertaken in state-run institutions, and the state Directorate of Religious Affairs, responsible to 

the prime minister, oversees the operation of all religious institutions. Violence against women, 

particularly spousal abuse, is very common, and few victims file complaints. Honor killings of 

“disgraced” female family members continue in rural areas. Turkey is a destination and a transit 

point for a moderate amount of trafficking in women and children. 

24