April 2012
Notice

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department 

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assumes no liability for the use of the information contained in this document. This 

report does not constitute a standard, specifi cation, or regulation.

The U.S. Government does not endorse products of manufacturers. Trademarks 

or manufacturers’ names appear in this report only because they are considered 

essential to the objective of the document.

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The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) provides high-quality information 

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FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

 -ES-1

Nationally, there is a growing awareness among local governments, 

Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPO), and state departments 

of transportation (DOT) that land use and freight planning activities 

should be more closely coordinated. However, many agencies fi nd it 

challenging to coordinate freight transportation and land use planning 

activities to ensure that transportation facilities are compatible with 

adjacent land uses, or that land use decisions are consistent with 

freight mobility and operational needs. These agencies are working to 

understand how land use issues impact freight movements (and vice 

versa), the types of stakeholders that should be involved in land use 

and freight planning activities, and the types of tools, techniques, and 

strategies used by other local, regional, and state agencies across the 

country to deal with these issues.

The goal of this Freight and Land Use handbook is to provide 

transportation and land use planning practitioners in the public and 

private sectors with the tools and resources to properly assess the 

impacts of land use decisions on freight movements, as well as the 

impacts of freight development and growth on land use planning 

goals. The handbook identifi es freight-related land use issues, key 

considerations, and available resources. Throughout the handbook, 

examples and case studies from a range of urban and rural areas 

across the country are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of 

these techniques.

LINKING FREIGHT AND LAND USE PLANNING

Freight generating land uses, such as agriculture, natural resources 

and mining, construction, warehousing, manufacturing, logistics, and 

port and harbor operations, can bring tremendous positive benefi ts to 

a region. Some of the benefi ts of freight generating land uses include: 

direct and indirect employment associated with freight activity; 

business and income tax benefi ts to local, regional, and state economies; 

contribution to state and local economic output; and lower costs for 

goods and services. Freight generating industries also can produce 

negative impacts on a region’s air quality by producing vehicle emissions 

and on land uses near freight generating facilities by producing noise, 

vibration, odor, and light pollution. 

Executive Summary
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

ES-2

Because freight volumes, and their attendant impacts, are anticipated 

to increase signifi cantly in the future, growing by over 60 percent 

(nationally) over the next 25 years, it is important to plan appropriately 

to accommodate freight-generating industries while protecting the 

health, safety, and quality of life of residents. Transportation and land 

use planning cycles can be better coordinated to accommodate freight 

and reduce its impacts by adopting “Freight as a Good Neighbor”

strategies, adopting sustainable freight land use policies and practices, 

and accounting for freight physical and operational needs and impact 

mitigation through zoning.

FREIGHT AS A GOOD NEIGHBOR

If freight planning and land-use decision-making activities are well 

integrated, both the public and private sector may benefi t through 

reduced congestion, improved air quality and safety, enhanced 

community livability, improved operational effi ciency, reduced 

transportation costs, and greater access to facilities and markets. The 

freight community can be considered “a good neighbor” when such a 

balance between economic activity and external impacts is achieved. 

Public agencies can encourage this balance through adoption of 

appropriate and coordinated land use policies, effective transportation 

systems and services, effective operations and management policies 

of transportation infrastructure and terminals, and continuous 

education and outreach programs to engage community and industry 

representatives. 

• Appropriate and Coordinated Land Use Policies. Land use is 

generally planned and implemented at the local agency level, using 

the comprehensive plan, zoning code, and permitting system. 

However, many regional agencies, such as MPOs, can assist through 

regional visioning, which helps to coordinate plans among agencies 

in the region, and tax relief programs to encourage industrial 

development and redevelopment consistent with regional goals. 

Municipalities and regional agencies also may work with the private 

sector to reduce confl icts by establishing buffers between industrial 

and sensitive land uses, infl uencing location and design decisions 

through zoning tools, preserving existing industrial land uses, and 

promoting context-sensitive solutions for site and building design. 

• Effective Transportation Systems and Services. Freight-exclusive 

transportation facilities such as truck lanes, direct highway 

connections to freight facilities, and the reduction of at-grade rail 

crossings are examples of strategies that improve transportation 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

ES-3

system safety and limit the potential impacts of freight movement on 

the safety and quality of life of the public at large.

• Effective Operations and Management Policies. Impacts may be 

reduced by encouraging off-peak deliveries, promoting anti-idling 

technologies to reduce emissions impacts, creating “quiet zones”

along freight rail lines that pass through residential areas, reduce, 

or mitigate airplane noise through airplane design, and airport site 

planning that is sensitive to neighboring land uses. 

• Education and Outreach. Lack of awareness is a key reason 

that logistics needs are not often considered in planning and 

development decisions. By educating public offi cials and the public 

at large regarding freight benefi ts; providing technical assistance to 

offi cials to develop appropriate plans and codes; assisting freightgenerating businesses to understand and mitigate existing or 

potential impacts; local, regional, and state governments can foster 

a common understanding of freight and land use issues among all 

stakeholders at the table. 

FREIGHT LAND USE AND SUSTAINABILITY

The term “sustainability” represents a pattern of human activity that 

aims to use the planet’s resources in a manner that meets the needs 

of the world’s population now and in the future, while achieving a 

balance between environmental conservation, economic development, 

and livability (including consideration of social equity and justice). 

Sustainability is a concept that is increasingly entering discussions 

of freight movement and freight generating land uses. Therefore, 

the concept of sustainable freight is one that maximizes the positive 

features of freight movement (jobs, economic development, etc.) 

while minimizing the negative impacts to communities and the 

natural environment. Many local and regional government agencies 

are adopting sustainable land use strategies, including strategies to 

accommodate freight in urbanized areas, and to develop freight clusters 

in a manner that reduces the environmental and community impacts. 

Examples of sustainable freight land use strategies include industrial 

preservation, brownfi elds redevelopment, and freight villages.

ACCOUNTING FOR THE IMPACTS AND NEEDS OF FREIGHT

Freight and community needs are not necessarily mutually exclusive. In 

fact, the needs of the private-sector freight community may align well 

with local and regional sustainable development strategies. Freight 

shippers and carriers have a variety of needs that are critical to effi cient 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

ES-4

and safe goods movement. Shipper and carrier land use needs vary by 

region and activity type, but generally include: adequate capacity and 

reliable performance of the transportation system; sites with access to the 

transportation networks; loading and staging areas; suffi cient geometric 

design to accommodate trucks and/or rail equipment; policies and 

design to foster safety and security. Local, regional, and state agencies 

can take action to accommodate these needs and properly mitigate 

the impacts. 

• Local governments can conduct traffi c access and impact studies; 

perform site planning reviews; develop or analyze truck routes; 

review the comprehensive plan to ensure land set aside for industrial 

uses is adequate and appropriate; use overlay zones with form-based 

or performance-based criteria; enforce loading zone and parking 

regulations; involve the private sector in developing site design 

standards; and provide guidance to developers.

• Regional agencies’ planning actions include: lead regional visioning 

and goods movement studies; create regional freight plans to defi ne 

key freight mobility goals and land use priorities; create model 

ordinances and best practices for local governments’ use; create 

corridor or subarea plans that consider freight needs and impacts; 

and work with rail, air, and waterborne freight planners to determine 

needs at regional terminals. 

• State governments can help address freight needs by providing a 

vision for planning and guidance to regional and local governments. 

States can: consider freight issues in statewide long-range 

transportation plans; include freight mobility as a criterion in project 

selection processes; take freight needs into account in highway 

design; develop corridor and subarea plans to address congestion 

and safety issues; and work with local zoning authorities to ensure 

consistency with state planning goals and to minimize confl icts 

between adjacent land uses in separate local jurisdictions. 

• Private-Sector Freight Stakeholder planning actions include: 

participating in and comment on local, regional, and state 

transportation plans and studies; participating on freight planning 

committees; and offering opportunities for public-sector offi cials to 

learn about business and operations.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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CONCLUSION

Together, the topics covered in this handbook will introduce some of 

the main players, policies, programs, and strategies that form the basis 

of knowledge for integrating freight into the land use planning process. 

By providing a broad swath of viewpoints, the handbook should appeal 

to public and private-sector freight stakeholders from all sides of the 

issue; including industrial site developers, land use practitioners, local 

government offi cials, members of the public, or anyone else. 

Though this handbook is comprehensive, it is a static document. Readers 

should remember that the freight industry is a rapidly and ever-changing 

industry, refl ective of economic and demographic shifts as well as global 

supply chain developments. Public and private stakeholders, alike, need 

to continue to work towards understanding the regions within which they 

operate. States and regions are constantly identifying ways to increase 

their ability to compete regionally, nationally and globally. Privatesector companies are constantly trying to streamline and economize 

their operations, and develop innovative solutions to existing problems. 

This handbook provides a good understanding of the issues, needs, 

opportunities, and strategies that will serve as a starting point to better 

integrate freight and land use in an ongoing and permanent manner.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

Executive Summary ..........................................................................ES-1

1.0 Background on Freight and Land Use .................................. 1-1

1.1 Purpose and Content ................................................................ 1-1

1.2 Why Should Freight be Considered in the Transportation and 

Land Use Planning Process? .................................................... 1-1

1.3 Land Use and Transportation Planning Processes and 

Linkages .................................................................................... 1-7

1.4 Public- and Private-Sector Stakeholders, Roles, and Needs .. 1-19

1.5 Freight and Land Use Trends and Issues ............................... 1-29

2.0 Freight as a Good Neighbor – Land Use, Transportation 

System, and Environmental Considerations ........................ 2-1

2.1 Purpose and Content ................................................................ 2-1

2.2 Appropriate and Coordinated Land Use Policies ...................... 2-3

2.3 Effective Transportation Systems and Services ...................... 2-13

2.4 Effective Operations and Management Policies ..................... 2-15

2.5 Education and Outreach ......................................................... 2-19

2.6 Putting it All Together............................................................... 2-23

3.0 Freight Land Use and Sustainability ..................................... 3-1

3.1 Purpose and Content ................................................................ 3-1

3.2 Freight and Land Use Sustainability Issues and Implications ... 3-3

3.3 Sustainable Freight Land Use Strategies ................................ 3-13

3.4 Summary and Conclusions ..................................................... 3-17

4.0 Accounting for the Impacts and Needs of Freight ............... 4-1

4.1 Purpose and Content ................................................................ 4-1

4.2 Freight Carrier/Shipper Land Use Needs for Effi cient and Safe 

Goods Movement ...................................................................... 4-2

4.3 Tools and Actions to Address Freight Land Use Needs and 

Impacts .................................................................................... 4-14

4.4 Putting It All Together .............................................................. 4-20

4.5 Conclusion .............................................................................. 4-29

Appendix A Freight and Land Use Glossary ....................................A-1

 Sources ...................................................................................A-10

Appendix B Key Information Sources ..............................................B-1

Table of Contents
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

1.1 Public-Sector Critical Freight and Land Use Issues ....................1-24

1.2 Private-Sector Critical Freight and Land Use Issues...................1-29

2.1 Examples of Freight and Land Use Integration Strategies 

and Tools .............................................................................................. 2-3

2.2 Key Issues Illustrated within the Best Practice Review ..............2-23

2.3 City of Seattle Policies to Manage Urban Freight Operations ....2-30

4.1 Key Issues Illustrated within the Best Practice Review ..............4-21

List of Tables
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

1.1 National Multimodal Freight Tonnage .............................................. 1-5

1.2 Producer Price Index for Highway and Street Construction ........ 1-7

1.3 A Sample Land Use Plan Showing Proposed Land Use 

Designations and Locations ............................................................. 1-8

1.4 Types of Zoning Codes ....................................................................1-10

1.5 The Transportation Planning Process ...........................................1-13

1.6 Transportation Planning Factors and Relationship to Freight 

or Land Use .......................................................................................1-14

1.7 The Transportation Land Use Cycle ..............................................1-17

1.8 Relationships Between Transportation and Land Use 

Planning Processes..........................................................................1-18

1.9 State, Regional, and Local Transportation and Land Use 

Planning Entities ...............................................................................1-20

1.10 Private-Sector Freight Stakeholder Types ....................................1-25

2.1 Creating Buffers or Separation Between Industrial Land Uses 

and Other Land Uses ......................................................................... 2-7

2.2 Creating Buffers between Industrial Land Uses and Other Land 

Uses ...................................................................................................... 2-8

2.3 Flat-lens Lighting Fixtures ...............................................................2-12

2.4 Residential Development Adjacent to Freight-Generating Land 

Use ......................................................................................................2-21

2.5 Chicago’s Designated Industrial Corridors and Planned 

Manufacturing Districts ...................................................................2-24

2.6 Geographic Distribution of Warehousing/ Distribution Centers in 

the Atlanta Region .........................................................................2-28

3.1 Relationship of the Three Dimensions of Sustainability............... 3-1

3.2 U.S. Transportation-Sector GHG Emissions by Mode .................. 3-7

3.3 Impact of Sea-Level Rise and Storm Surge on Rail Facilities in the 

Gulf Coast Region .............................................................................. 3-8

3.4 Conceptual Site Plan for the Redevelopment of a Brownfi eld Site 

into a New Distribution Center Facility ..........................................3-16

4.1 Managed Curbside Loading Zone in New York City ...................... 4-4

4.2 Minimum Turning Radius Requirement for Interstate 

Semitrailers .......................................................................................... 4-6

4.3 When Truck and Rail Access Are Not Separated, Ineffi ciencies 

Can Impact Operations ...................................................................... 4-8

4.4 The C-TIP Public Private Partnership Goal ...................................4-29

List of Figures
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

 -1-1

1.0 Background on Freight and Land Use

1.1 Purpose and Content

The fi rst step towards a more comprehensive inclusion of freight in the 

planning process is to ensure a common understanding of the stakeholders, 

roles and responsibilities, and trends involved in the process. Though 

public-sector agencies often have a fi rm grasp of the transportation 

planning and programming process, they do not always understand the 

private-sector decision-making process, or the land use and transportation 

needs of freight. Private-sector companies, though knowledgeable of 

their own needs and business priorities, often lack a full understanding 

of the public planning and programming process, or the ways that they 

can effectively be included in this process. The purpose of this section is 

to help practitioners to better understand the key concepts in land use and 

freight transportation. This section will be divided into four sections:

• Why Freight Should Be Considered in the Transportation and Land 

Use Planning Processes? summarizes the benefi ts of freight-generating 

businesses, as well as some of the key demographic, fi nancial, 

economic, environmental, public policy, and industry changes that 

signify a need to include freight in the public planning process.

• Transportation and Land Use Planning Processes discusses the 

key steps and products of the transportation and land use planning 

processes, as well as the linkages between them.

• Public-and Private-Sector Stakeholders, Roles, and Needs discusses 

the types of public- and private-sector stakeholders that are involved 

with transportation and land use planning, as well as a discussion of 

some of the key freight issues that drive the decisions of each group. 

• Freight and Land Use Trends and Issues discusses some of the key 

trends and challenges that will impact freight and land use decisions 

in the next 10 to 20 years. 

1.2 Why Should Freight be Considered in the 

Transportation and Land Use Planning 

Process? 

There are several compelling reasons to integrate freight into the land 

use and transportation planning discussion. For one, freight generating 

land uses can potentially bring great benefi ts to a region, by providing 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

1-2

jobs, tax dollars, and proximity of goods to growing populations and 

businesses. Another, freight volumes, and their attendant impacts, are 

anticipated to grow signifi cantly in the future, growing by over 60 percent 

(nationally) over the next 25 years, as will be discussed later in this section. 

Planning for their inclusion now will enable them to fi t seamlessly into the 

community fabric, allowing them to provide benefi ts to their region while 

minimizing adverse impacts to local residents and the environment. 

WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF FREIGHT GENERATING LAND USES?

Freight generating land uses, such as agriculture, natural resources 

and mining, construction, warehousing, manufacturing, logistics, and 

port and harbor operations, can bring tremendous positive benefi ts to a 

region. Understanding the positive benefi ts can help justify the retention 

of industrial land uses in growing urban areas, or of the need to include 

private-sector stakeholders in the public planning process. Some of the 

benefi ts of freight generating land uses include:

Employment 

Freight generating industries can provide direct employment (jobs 

working directly for the business) as well as indirect employment driven 

by the economic activity of the jobs. For example, in an economic impact 

study performed in 2009 at the Port of Seattle, the port reported direct 

employment of 111,317 individuals, 62,128 induced jobs, and indirect 

statewide employment of over 200,000 people in Washington State.1

 

Tax Benefi ts 

Freight generating land uses can bring tax benefi ts to a region. For 

example, a study conducted for the Southern California Association of 

Governments (SCAG) found that industries related to international trade 

and freight contributed $28.3 billion in state and local taxes to Southern 

California in 2005.2

Contribution to State and Local Economic Output 

Freight-related businesses can contribute billions of dollars to regional 

and statewide economies. For example, an economic analysis of the State 

1

 The Port of Seattle 2009 Economic Impact Report.

2

 SCAG 2008 Regional Transportation Plan: Goods Movement Report.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

1-3

of Kansas found that goods dependent industries led by agriculture, 

meat processing, and manufacturing, still accounted for almost 43 

percent3

 (or $40 billion) of state economic output in 2006.4

Other Benefi ts 

Other benefi ts are harder to measure, but nevertheless important to 

mention. For example, the presence of freight uses within heavily 

populated urban areas can offer closer proximity to goods and services 

for local businesses and citizens. In addition, freight movement is 

becoming cleaner and safer every day – with programs like the United 

States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) SmartWay Transport 

program working to increase the environmental effi ciency of freight 

transportation on a national level.5

 Potential benefi ts from freight will 

be most easily realized if freight generating land uses are developed in 

a manner that is consistent with regional land use and transportation 

goals. One way to accomplish this is to include freight stakeholders in 

the public planning process. 

WHAT ARE THE DISBENEFITS OF FREIGHT GENERATING LAND USES?

Clearly, freight land uses can offer substantial economic, employment, 

fi scal, and other benefi ts to a region. Nonetheless, there are negative 

impacts associated with freight operations, particularly when they are 

concentrated within a small area. These disbenefi ts, which are discussed 

in greater detail in Section 3.0, include:

Air Quality Impacts

Most freight vehicles are powered by diesel fuel, as are many pieces 

of support equipment such as yard hostlers and cargo cranes. The 

combustion of diesel fuel for goods movement emits particulate matter, 

oxides of nitrogen, and sulfur dioxide, all of which contribute to air 

quality problems, especially in urban areas and around large freight 

generators. New regulations for several types of freight vehicles will 

reduce freight diesel emissions signifi cantly, but this could take time 

since most freight vehicles have long-service lives.

3

 This is larger than the national share (36 percent of overall output, or about 

$5.1 trillion); nonetheless, these industries remain critical to many state and 

local economies.

4

 Kansas Department of Transportation, Statewide Freight Plan, 2009.

5

 http://www.epa.gov/smartway/.

Assessing and Addressing 

Freight’s Environmental 

Impacts – USEPA SmartWay 

Program

The SmartWay Program is a 

public/private collaboration 

between the United States 

Environmental Protection 

Agency (USEPA) and the 

freight industry, which aims 

to assess and limit freightrelated emissions and energy 

consumption. The program helps 

carriers identify opportunities to 

improve effi ciency reduce energy 

costs, and demonstrate their 

effi ciency to potential customers. 

The program helps shippers and 

logistics companies fi nd effi cient 

carriers, assess mode choice 

options, and reduce the carbon 

footprint of the transportation 

component of their supply 

chains. 

Source: United States 

Environmental Protection Agency, 

available from: http://www.epa.gov/

smartwaylogistics/.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

1-4

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Freight land uses also can be a signifi cant source of greenhouse gas 

(GHG) emissions. GHG are heat trapping gases that accumulate in the 

earth’s atmosphere, thereby contributing to the “greenhouse effect” and 

global warming. Carbon dioxide (CO2

) is the primary GHG produced 

by the transport sector. Although 60 percent of transportation-related 

GHG comes from passenger vehicles, much of the remainder is related to 

freight. 

Environmental Justice 

Environmental justice refers to the geographically equitable distribution 

of the benefi ts and burdens of government policies, programs, and 

investments, and to ensure the full and fair participation by all 

potentially affected communities in the transportation decisionmaking process. Many freight facilities are located in communities 

which have a large number of minority or lower-income residents, 

and which often receive signifi cant environmental impacts from those 

facilities. Expanding freight operations or infrastructure in these 

communities requires taking strategies to reduce or mitigate impacts into 

consideration.6

 What driving forces necessitate the integration of freight 

into the planning process?

CHANGES INDICATING THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING FOR FREIGHT

There are several other demographic changes underway that will change 

the land use consumption needs of freight generating businesses in 

coming years. Understanding these key driving forces helps to illustrate 

the necessity of incorporating freight into the public planning process. 

Some key changes include:

Freight Volumes are Growing Nationally 

Though freight volumes, nationally, have dipped in the 2005-2009 

years (corresponding with a national recession), economic projections 

show sustained growth in the 2010-2035 timeframe (as shown in Figure 

1.1 below). This growth means that there will be additional capacity 

demands on the highway, rail, air cargo, and marine systems. This 

increased demand will have to compete with growing passenger vehicle 

miles traveled (VMT) on the same transportation infrastructure. In 

6 “Envision Freight: A Roadmap to Freight Compatibility,” Transportation 

Research Board, 2010, available from: http://www.envisionfreight.com.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

1-5

addition, there will likely be the need for expanded freight land uses – 

in particular those closely tied to transportation such as rail yards and 

distribution centers. 

Figure 1.1 National Multimodal Freight Tonnage 

2005-2035

Source: IHS-Global Insight, Inc., 2007 TRANSEARCH data and economic 

projections. 

Population Trends 

As of 2007, 81 percent of the U.S. population lived in urban areas. The 

rate of urbanization is anticipated to grow steadily – in fact urban areas 

are expected to grow by an average annual rate of 1.1 percent through 

2025, compared to -0.65 percent in rural areas.7

 In terms of freight, larger 

urban populations will have two chief consequences: 1) Freight traffi c 

will become more and more concentrated in cities, as freight movement 

will naturally increase in order to provide growing populations and 

business centers with the goods and services that they need to thrive; 

and 2) There will be additional demand for the facilities – such as ports, 

distribution centers, and intermodal rail yards – to serve that traffi c. This 

growing need for land will have to compete with other regional land 

uses, including residential, commercial, public use, and open space. 

The aging of the population also may impact these trends. There are 

essentially two ways through which the nation’s economy can grow and 

provide a rising standard of living: by adding workers, or by improving 

productivity. Given a generally aging population and declining birth 

rates, it may be diffi cult to expand output through adding workers. 

7

 United Nations Population Division, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 

Revision, February 2008.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

1-6

However, investing in freight transportation can improve long-term 

productivity in the economy by reducing the cost of moving goods. 

Therefore, investment in freight infrastructure – including public outlays 

for port improvements or intermodal hubs – may increasingly be seen as 

an effective tool for state and regional economic development.

Climate Change, Sustainability, and Livability 

Growing concern among policy-makers and the general public about 

climate change, livability, and sustainability also may impact land 

development as it relates to freight. For instance, community livability 

concerns and “Not In My Back Yard” (NIMBY) sentiments may hamper 

the ability of freight generating businesses and other entities (such as 

ports) to locate or expand in certain places. Industrial lands, ports, and 

rail yards in dense urban areas already are under signifi cant pressure 

to be redeveloped into “higher value” commercial or residential uses. 

This is partially the result of a trend towards denser, urban living 

arrangements for both economic development and sustainability reasons. 

Financial Challenges in Addressing Infrastructure Needs 

This growth in freight fl ows will coincide with increasing challenges 

faced by Federal, state, and local governments in terms of funding 

infrastructure needs. As shown in Figure 1.2, the real costs of building 

streets and highways have been growing consistently over the last 

few decades, with a pronounced spike in the last decade. Meanwhile, 

revenues available for transportation projects have remained fl at or even 

fallen when adjusted for infl ation. Demand for construction materials in 

developing nations such as China will likely contribute to constructioncost infl ation in the years ahead even as the growth in freight tonnage 

adds additional traffi c to the system. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

1-7

Figure 1.2 Producer Price Index for Highway and 

Street Construction

1987-2009

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics.

1.3 Land Use and Transportation Planning 

Processes and Linkages 

WHAT IS LAND USE PLANNING?

Land use planning can generally be described as a branch of public policy 

that seeks to regulate the use of land in an ethical and effi cient manner. 

Land use planning is important to the public and private sectors because 

the process of land use planning determines how land will be used in 

the future, which can create opportunities and issues for businesses 

and citizens. Land use planning practice varies by state, region, and 

municipality. This variation is the result of several factors, including 

differences in the level of authority states grant to local governments and 

differing policy priorities among towns, cities, and regions.

WHO DOES LAND USE PLANNING?

Land use controls, such as zoning, are typically the responsibility of 

local governments, such as municipalities or counties. Therefore, most 

land use planning is conducted by city or county planning departments, 

and/or by regional bodies such as a council of governments. The level 

of authority exercised by these entities will vary depending on states’

enabling legislation. Florida, for example, gives county governments the 

authority to develop their own land use and growth management plans. 

By contrast, counties in Texas have no authority over land use decisions.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

1-8

Some state governments also participate in the land use planning 

process, for example by reviewing local plans to ensure their 

compatibility with statewide goals or plans of neighboring 

municipalities, sometimes through a statewide planning agency or 

commission. Delaware, New Jersey, Florida, Oregon, and Hawaii have 

all adopted such a statewide land use planning approach.

WHAT ARE THE KEY STEPS AND MAIN PRODUCTS OF LAND USE

PLANNING?

Land use planning is comprised of several processes that guide how the 

land within a municipality will be used. The major components of the 

land use process include several different discrete products, including:

• Comprehensive/land use plan;

• Zoning code/land development regulations; and

• Land use permitting issues and process.

The comprehensive plan (also known as the master plan or general plan) 

serves as the overarching blueprint for future growth. It supplies a 

framework that the zoning code helps to implement through the use of 

development guidelines and regulations. The vision of the comprehensive 

plan and zoning code may be facilitated through permitting processes that 

offer specifi c approval to projects that fi t within the framework of the plan 

and code. Each of these components are described in the following sections.

Figure 1.3 A Sample Land Use Plan Showing Proposed 

Land Use Designations and Locations

Source: “Connecting Cleveland: 2020 Citywide Plan,” City Planning 

Commission, City of Cleveland (Ohio).
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

1-9

The Comprehensive Plan

The comprehensive plan is the local government’s development 

guidebook. It typically includes a general statement of goals and 

objectives, policies, and standards upon which future land use decisions 

are to be made.8

 It will also include existing and proposed land uses, 

categorized into groups such as residential, commercial, and industrial 

uses.9

 Throughout the plan development process, a strong public 

participation component is urged to ensure that citizens and businesses 

alike have a say in the plan content. Adoption of the comprehensive 

plan is a legislative act requiring approval by the local government or 

legislative body to become effective. 

The land use information and guidelines in a comprehensive plan 

may or may not be legally binding, depending on state law. In some 

states, the comprehensive plan is generally more of a guide from 

which to create zoning and other land use regulations, or to document 

community wishes for future development. As a result, there can be 

inconsistencies between the comprehensive plan and other regulations 

such as zoning codes or land development regulations. At the other 

end of the spectrum, some states (for example Florida and Oregon) have 

granted comprehensive plans the force of law, and require local zoning 

enforcement to be consistent with plan objectives.10 

The Zoning Code and Land Development Regulations

Zoning is a widely used method by local governments to control the 

physical development of land. The zoning code is a separate document 

from the comprehensive plan, and may or may not be consistent with the 

plan. The zoning code creates “zones” of land designated for residential, 

commercial, industrial, governmental, open space, or other land uses. 

The zoning code is normally included within the local land development 

regulations (LDR). The LDRs govern all aspects of development – such 

as lot subdivision, wetlands protection, storm water management, signs, 

8

 Nolon, John and Salkin, Patricia, Land Use in a Nutshell.

9

 Note that there are no standard requirements for comprehensive plan content 

or update procedures, due to the multiplicity of state laws and requirements. 

However, professional associations such as the American Planning 

Association do identify and develop best practices guidelines.

10 http://pcj.typepad.com/planning_commissioners_jo/2010/02/

comprehensive-plan.html.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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and parking – in addition to zoning. Some cities (for example Houston, 

Texas) do not have zoning. Instead, they rely on subdivision regulations 

(rules that set standards for the design of residential subdivisions, such 

as access road requirements and open space provisions) or land use 

ordinances to guide their development. 

There are four basic types of zoning that cities may employ, as 

summarized below and shown in Figure 1.4:

• Traditional or “Euclidean” zoning11 segregates land uses into 

specifi ed geographic districts and provides dimensional standards 

and other rules to regulate development within each zone. This is 

the most widespread form of zoning in the U.S.

• Form-Based zoning seeks to regulate the form of different land uses/

developments rather than their type. This type of zoning is often 

used when a municipality wishes to preserve or promote a certain 

development pattern, for instance in a downtown or historic area.

• Performance zoning regulates the acceptable intensity of different 

land uses, for instance by specifying the number of residential units 

per acre. In theory this can provide for more fl exibility for both the 

city and developer by reducing land use confl icts.

• Incentive zoning is the practice of granting developers extra amenities 

they want (often by allowing higher density developments) in 

exchange for the provision of urban amenities such as green space, 

infrastructure enhancements, affordable housing, or public spaces.

Figure 1.4 Types of Zoning Codes

Source: Cambridge Systematics, Inc., 2010.

11 Euclidean zoning is named after the 1926 U.S. Supreme Court case which established 

the constitutionality of zoning (Village of Euclid, Ohio v. Ambler Realty Co.).

Traditional 

Zoning

• Creates zones 

for each land 

use

• Special 

permits for 

non-conforming 

uses

Form-Based 

Zoning

• Regulates 

physical form 

rather than land 

use type

• Promotes a 

certain look or 

‘sense of place’

Performance 

Zoning

• Prescribes 

acceptable land 

use intensity

• Allows 

fl exibility 

for cities and 

developers

Incentive 

Zoning

• Reward-based 

system

• Bonuses in 

exchange for 

urban amenities
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Different types of zoning can be used in conjunction with each other. 

For instance, a city may create a form-based overlay district on top of a 

traditional zoning code to achieve specifi c development outcomes. In 

addition, it is possible to make amendments to zoning ordinances, or 

to request a zoning variance or conditional use permit. For example, 

a developer may apply to change the zoned land use of a parcel from 

industrial to residential use, or may argue that a school should be 

allowed as a “conditional use” in a residential area. 

Land Use Permitting Issues and Process

The permitting process is the fi nal stage of land use planning 

implementation. There are a number of issues that may arise during 

the permitting process that will require review. For this reason, the 

permitting process can take years to complete. This is especially true for 

projects that may have signifi cant environmental consequences, or those 

that encroach upon historic landmarks or scenic routes. Projects of this 

type will likely need to be reviewed by several different agencies (such 

as the planning committee, the landmarks board, and the Department of 

Conservation). The permitting stage also is where municipalities may 

be able to hold developers or landowners to other requirements – for 

example mandating minimum or maximum parking requirements in 

order for the project to gain approval. Since the specifi c requirements 

can vary on a city by city basis, it is important for a developer or 

private-sector business to have a clear idea of what is allowed, what is 

prohibited, and what the land use process is for variances within the 

municipality of interest. 

WHAT IS TRANSPORTATION PLANNING?

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) defi nes transportation 

planning is: “A continuing, comprehensive, and cooperative process to 

encourage and promote the development of a multimodal transportation 

system to ensure safe and effi cient movement of people and goods while 

balancing environmental and community needs.”12 Transportation 

planning is important to the public and private sectors because it creates 

and maintains the safe, effi cient transportation infrastructure that private 

citizens and businesses rely on for their day-to-day mobility. 

Freight considerations within transportation planning practice include:

12 http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/cmpguidebook/appc.htm.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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• Developing an understanding of the freight volume, value, key 

commodities, and mode splits in a region;

• Establishing policies and programs to integrate freight within the 

overall transportation planning process and account for freight needs 

in project selection and prioritization; and

• Linking freight mobility to other community goals such as economic 

development and job growth.

WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR TRANSPORTATION PLANNING?

Transportation planning is carried out by several different government 

agencies:

• State DOTs are responsible for the overall statewide planning and 

implementation of transportation investments. 

• Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPO) are associations of 

regional decision-makers which every urbanized area above a certain 

population threshold must have by Federal law – are charged with 

planning and prioritizing transportation projects within their region.

• County and local governments design, build, and maintain local 

roads and streets that do not fall under the purview of the state DOT. 

Many larger cities have their own DOTs.

• Transit operators often conduct system planning studies, as well as 

participate in local transportation planning in conjunction with an 

MPO or other local agencies.

• Other entities – such as regional authorities, port authorities, or 

railroads – may be responsible for operating specifi c pieces of the 

transportation system, such as a toll road network. 

The specifi c roles and responsibilities of all these players are described in 

more detail in Section 2.3.

What are the Key Steps and Main Products of Transportation 

Planning?

Figure 1.5 below highlights the transportation planning process at a 

high level. The regional vision and goals are incorporated into new 

strategies, which are then formalized in the Long-Range Plan (LRP) 

sometimes referred to as the Metropolitan Transportation Plan (MTP) or 

the Long-Range Transportation Plan (LRTP) and prioritized within the 

Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) or Statewide Transportation 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Improvement Program (STIP). These are discussed separately in more 

detail later. Projects are then implemented and the performance of 

the system is monitored to provide ongoing feedback, which will then 

inform the ongoing development of the transportation system.13 

Public participation is a key consideration throughout this process. 

In fact, DOTs and MPOs are required to develop and implement a 

documented public involvement plan that provides for meaningful 

participation and input from all stakeholders, including freight shippers 

and public review/comment at important decision points.14 

FHWA provides numerous reference handbooks for transportation 

planning in general as well as for freight planning specifi cally.15 

Figure 1.5 The Transportation Planning Process

Source: DOT/FHWA.

13 More detail on the process, products, and issues associated with 

transportation planning may be found at 23 CFR 450, Subparts A, B, and C.

14 23 CFR 450.210, 23 CFR 450.316.

15 http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/freightplanning/index.htm.
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This planning process revolves around several key factors that must be 

considered when evaluating transportation projects, services, and policy 

options. These planning factors are shown in Figure 1.6, along with their 

relationship to freight and/or land use.

Figure 1.6 Transportation Planning Factors and 

Relationship to Freight or Land Use

Source: Cambridge Systematics, Inc., with content from 23 CFR 450.206, 23 CFR 

450.306, 2010.

Support Economic Vitality

• Freight transportation improvements contribute directly to U.S. 

global competitiveness and productivity

• Preserving freight-intensive land uses provides jobs and revenue 

base in local communities

Enhance Safety

• Fewer accidents involving freight modes improves safety for other 

users while reducing delays for freight

Enhance Security

• Enhanced border controls and cargo screening reduces likelihood 

of terrorist attack

Increase Accessibility and Mobility

• Freight vehicles are better able to access key land uses where 

shipments originate or terminate

• Mobility provides better connections between freight nodes

Protect the Environment

• Freight operational and technological enhancements can reduce 

energy consumption, fuel use, and emissions

• Maintaining freight land uses in strategic areas may shorten trips 

and minimize freight emissions

Promote Consistency Between Transportation Investments and 

Other Planning Goals

• Freight investments can support state and local economic 

development

• Freight projects should comport with localities’ preferred land use 

and development patterns

Improve Multimodal Connectivity and Integration

• Strategic freight system enhancements will provide seamless 

multimodal connections for cargo

Promote Effi cient System Management and Operation

• Maintain existing freight infrastructure to maximize the benefi t of 

the system and minimize capital costs

Preserve the Existing Transportation System

• Effective freight system management enhances freight mobility
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Unifi ed Planning Work Program (UPWP)

This document includes all of the studies and tasks that will be 

performed by the MPO. It covers a one-to two-year period and contains 

planning tasks, Federally funded studies, and state/local planning 

activities conducted regardless of how they are funded, funding sources 

for each project, a schedule of activities, and the agency responsible for 

each task/study. Note that the MPO does not necessarily conduct all of 

the studies contained in the UPWP; sometimes other local agencies (such 

as a transit provider) conduct the study, and may use their own sources 

of funding to conduct part or all of the study.

Metropolitan Transportation Plan (MTP)

In metropolitan areas, the MTP is the regional transportation system 

investment plan. According to Federal regulations, this will include 

both long-range and short-range strategies/actions that lead to the 

development of an integrated intermodal transportation system that 

facilitates the effi cient movement of people and goods. It is important 

to note that the MTP must be fi scally constrained, in the sense that the 

projects contained therein must have a realistic chance of being funded 

with expected revenue streams; in other words, the plan cannot just 

be a ‘wish list.’ The MTP has a time horizon of at least 20 years, and 

is updated every 4 to 5 years depending on the region’s air quality 

attainment status. The plan addresses:

• Policies, strategies, and projects for the future;

• A systems-level approach by considering roadways, transit, 

nonmotorized transportation, and intermodal connections;

• Projected demand for transportation services over 20 years;

• Regional land use, development, housing, and employment goals 

and plans;

• Cost estimates and reasonably available fi nancial sources for 

operation, maintenance, and capital investments; and

• Ways to preserve existing roads and facilities and make effi cient use 

of the existing system.16

16 “The Transportation Planning Process: Key Issues.” Publication of the 

Transportation Planning Capacity Building Program, FHWA, and FTA. 

Updated September 2007.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) 

The TIP is the four-year transportation program for the urbanized area. 

This is the region’s way of allocating limited transportation resources 

among various needs of the MPO region. The TIP implements the 

region’s transportation plan. Often, MPOs will use performancebased criteria to select projects that support plan goals and community 

priorities. This list of projects is updated at least every four years, is 

approved by the MPO and governor, and is incorporated directly into the 

Statewide Transportation Improvement Program (STIP). 

The Long-Range Statewide Transportation Plan (LRTP or LRSTP) 

This is a state-level plan developed by the DOT, which varies from state 

to state in the level of detail. Some plans are policy plans which focus on 

statewide goals, while others are project-specifi c. Most of the statewide 

plans address similar topics as the MTP, but on a statewide scale. 

Namely:

• Policies and strategies, and/or future projects;

• Projected demand for transportation services over 20 or more years;

• Statewide and regional land use, development, housing, natural 

environmental resource and employment goals, and plans; and

• Ways to make more effi cient use of the existing system. 

While not required, cost estimates and reasonably available fi nancial 

sources for operation, maintenance, and capital investments are 

encouraged.

Statewide Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) 

The STIP is a consolidated list of transportation projects covering 

four years at the state level. The state prioritizes projects from rural, 

small urban, and urbanized areas of the state. TIPs from MPOs are 

incorporated directly without change into the STIP. The STIP is 

approved by the U.S. DOT (FHWA and FTA). STIP approval must be 

granted before projects can move from planning to implementation.17

17 “The Transportation Planning Process: Key Issues.” Publication of the 

Transportation Planning Capacity Building Program, FHWA an FTA. 

Updated September 2007.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Other Plans and Studies

There are many other types of studies or plans that may be 

interconnected with freight planning in a state or region. For instance, 

safety plans typically have commercial vehicle safety as one critical 

component. States and regions will sometimes create corridor 

plans to address congestion and mobility issues on specifi c pieces of 

infrastructure, many of which are key freight corridors. Many states and 

some larger metropolitan areas also develop stand alone freight plans to 

better articulate goods movement issues and connect them to the wider 

transportation planning and policy program. 

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO LINK THE TRANSPORTATION AND LAND

USE PLANNING PROCESSES?

Transportation and land use planning processes in many regions are 

separate processes, and are completed by a range of stakeholders on 

different timelines. Nonetheless, the way in which land is developed will 

dictate, to a large extent, the transportation modes and volumes of traffi c 

using our transportation infrastructure (as illustrated in Figure 1.7). For 

example, some types of land uses, including residential land use, will 

attract a small number of trucks at irregular intervals – i.e., the occasional 

delivery or service truck. Other land uses, including manufacturers, 

will rely on a steady stream of large trucks to deliver raw materials and 

remove manufactured product.

In addition, failure to consider land uses when doing freight planning 

(and vice versa), runs the risk of introducing confl icts between types of 

land uses, or competing passenger and freight uses for the transportation 

system. This confl ict can, essentially, run counter to a region’s goals 

– decreasing safety, reducing mobility, and making the region an 

unattractive place for business attraction/retention. Indeed, industrial 

developers prefer to locate in communities with transportation and land 

use vision and a coordinated permitting process.18 

As a result, it is important that land use and transportation planning 

decisions complement, not contradict, one another. Creating overlap 

and links between the transportation and land use processes is necessary 

to ensure that complementary land use and transportation decisions 

are made. Figure 1.8 shows the parallel land use and transportation 

planning processes, and key links between the two. 

18 NCFRP 23 Preliminary Draft Report.

Figure 1.7 The 

Transportation Land 

Use Cycle

Source: Stover and Koepke, 2002.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Figure 1.8 Relationships Between Transportation 

and Land Use Planning Processes

Source: Cambridge Systematics, Inc., 2010.

One key link between these processes involves the “Protect the 

Environment” planning factor (listed in Figure 1.6) and the requirement 

that state and regional transportation plans be consistent with state 

and local environmental goals, growth and development priorities, and 

economic development strategies. This planning factor provides for 

a particularly strong link between freight and land use planning since 

freight operations can contribute substantially to all of these goals.

Some methods already exist to strengthen the ties between transportation and 

land use planning. Federal law outlines land use considerations that need to 

be made when transportation stakeholders, elected offi cials, and the public 

make decisions regarding the maintenance, operations, and expansion of 

transportation systems.19 For instance, it is required that transportation 

improvements be coordinated with planned growth and economic 

development patterns. This is critical to ensuring that local, regional, 

statewide, and national transportation systems are not built in a vacuum but 

with the needs of communities, the environment, and the economy in mind.

Other ways in which the transportation and land use planning cycles can 

be better coordinated include:

19 Title 23, Code of Federal Regulations, Section 450.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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• Ensuring that transportation strategies are adopted into the 

comprehensive plan;

• Adopting transportation policies into the zoning ordinance as 

development standards;

• Transportation agency review of site plans for developments that 

require highway access or that have an impact on traffi c operations;

• Outreach to the public on planning outcomes;

• Partnership efforts with local agencies;

• Transportation project selection criteria that is consistent with 

Comprehensive Plan goals; and

• Financial incentives for local action to support the regional vision.

In addition, public-sector transportation agencies can provide technical 

assistance to public-sector land planners and developers to guide 

successful integration of transportation facilities. Additional strategies 

by which to better integrate freight and transportation planning 

processes will be discussed in later stages of this handbook. 

1.4 Public- and Private-Sector Stakeholders, 

Roles, and Needs

A variety of public- and private-sector stakeholders are involved in the 

transportation and land use planning process. This section will introduce some 

of the key participants in each process, at the local, regional, and state level. 

WHO ARE THE KEY PUBLIC-SECTOR PARTICIPANTS IN

TRANSPORTATION AND LAND USE PLANNING?

There are several key participants in the land use planning process, 

including local decision-makers (members of local legislative bodies, 

planning boards, and zoning boards), professional planners, lawyers and 

judges, code enforcement offi cers, engineers, architects, other related 

boards, and members of the public.20 However, those responsible for 

the process and implementing the laws and plans are public-sector 

employees. Primarily, this involves a variety of agencies that exist at the 

local, regional, and state level. 

20 Babcock, Richard. The Zoning Game: Municipal Practices and Policies.

What are the Primary 

Functions of an MPO?

• Establish and manage a 

fair and impartial setting 

for effective regional 

decision-making in the 

metropolitan area.

• Use data and planning 

methods to generate and 

evaluate alternatives. 

Planning studies and 

evaluations are included in 

the UPWP.

• Develop a long range

(20-year) transportation 

plan for the metropolitan area 

that fosters 1) mobility and 

access for people and goods, 

2) effi cient system performance 

and preservation, and 3) good 

quality of life.

• Develop a short-range 

(four-year) transportation 

improvements program (TIP) 

based on the long-range 

transportation plan.

• Involve the general public and 

other affected constituencies 

in the four essential functions 

listed above.
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The transportation planning process is governed by a variety of agencies, 

including state DOT, MPO, local, and county governments. No single 

agency has control over the entire transportation system. For example, 

most county or city streets are designed, operated, maintained, 

and owned by counties or local governments. Transit systems are 

maintained by transit operators. MPOs are responsible for managing 

the planning process and stakeholder involvement in the process for 

surface transportation modes and facilitating intermodal connections 

in cooperation with their planning partners. Other agencies, such 

as regional authorities for airports, ports, toll roads, ferries, or major 

bridges or transit agencies may help to infl uence policy and planning of 

the transit and road system. The state DOT is responsible for statewide 

planning activities, as well as interstate highways and other stateowned roadways. The responsibilities and roles of each of these entities 

are explained on the following pages of this handbook. Much of the 

background information below is taken from FHWA’s and FTA’s “The 

Transportation Planning Process: Key Issues” briefi ng book.21

The key local, regional, and state-level participants involved in 

transportation and land use planning are illustrated in Figure 1.9 below:

Figure 1.9 State, Regional, and Local Transportation 

and Land Use Planning Entities

Source: Cambridge Systematics, Inc., 2011.

21 “The Transportation Planning Process: Key Issues.” Publication of the 

Transportation Planning Capacity Building Program, FHWA, and FTA. 

Updated September 2007. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Local Legislative Bodies 

Local governments, including counties, cities, townships, or other 

administrative entities may derive land use planning authority from state 

enabling legislation, home rule provisions, the state constitution, and/

or municipal charter. In many cases, state statutes give local legislative 

bodies the authority to decide to keep or distribute planning powers, such 

as the land use process, to planning or zoning boards. Therefore, each local 

government may differ with regards to what board is responsible for what 

actions, and how boards/agencies interact with one another. 

Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPO)

An MPO is a transportation policy-making body made up of 

representatives from local government and transportation agencies. 

Federal regulations require the establishment of MPOs in urbanized 

areas with populations greater than 50,000. MPOs were created to ensure 

that existing and future expenditures for transportation projects and 

programs were based on a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive 

planning process. Therefore, they have responsibility to bring together 

local jurisdictions and transportation authorities to make coordinated 

transportation decisions in the metropolitan area. In addition to MPOs 

that are established as standalone entities, MPOs can be found within 

Councils of Governments (COG) and other types of regional agencies. 

Some single county MPOs can also be found within county planning 

commissions or housed within city governments.

The MPO is responsible for the development of the metropolitan 

transportation plan (MTP). Both the governor and the MPO are required to 

approve the TIP. Generally, MPOs will not take the lead in implementing 

transportation projects, but will provide an overall coordination role in 

planning and programming funds for projects and operations. A state DOT, 

local entity or authority typically implements the projects.

There is no required structure for an MPO as a decision-making policy 

body. A typical MPO may be composed of a policy or executive 

board, a technical and citizen’s advisory committee, and a director and 

staff. Many MPOs in regions with considerable freight activities have 

freight subcommittees that include railroads, ports, airports, trucking 

organizations, state representatives and other stakeholders. MPO staff 

assists the MPO board by preparing documents, fostering interagency 

coordination, facilitating public input and feedback, and managing the 

planning process. The MPO staff also performs technical analysis such as 

freight studies, modeling, and scenario planning to inform the decisionmaking process. 

What are the Primary 

Planning Functions of a 

DOT?

• To develop and update a longrange transportation plan for 

the state; 

• To develop a statewide 

transportation improvement 

program (STIP) based 

on the state’s long-range 

transportation plan. For 

metropolitan areas, the STIP 

incorporates the TIP developed 

by the MPO; 

• To involve the general public 

and all of the other affected 

constituencies in the essential 

functions listed above; and

• Responsibility for the design, 

construction, operation, and 

maintenance of multimodal 

state facilities.
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State Planning Agencies 

State-level involvement in the land use planning process varies by 

state. Several state governments, such as Delaware, Florida, Hawaii, 

and Oregon have become very involved in local land use planning 

processes, often requiring local governments to submit land use plans to 

state or regional agencies for review. A number of other states (such as 

New Jersey) have implemented state-level planning practices that have 

impacts on local land use. 

States resource and regulatory agencies manage most regulatory and 

permitting activities, such as: 

• Sewage facilities;

• Water supply facilities;

• Energy generation;

• Surface water quality;

• Air quality;

• Mining;

• Municipal, residential, and hazardous waste facilities; and

• Storm water management.

State Departments of Transportation (DOT)

State DOTs play three key transportation roles at the statewide level:

• Planning, or the process of establishing overall goals and priorities 

for transportation to shape policy and investment decisions and 

identifying projects that satisfy those goals;

• Project programming, which is the process of funding and 

prioritizing transportation investments; and

• Project implementation, or the construction, operation, and 

maintenance of multimodal transportation infrastructure.

State DOTs carry out these roles in all U.S. States, Puerto Rico, and the 

District of Columbia. State DOTs may work with airports, railroads, 

tolling authorities, ports, local agencies, and special districts that own, 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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operate, or maintain different portions of the transportation network.22 

The state DOT is responsible the maintaining the state transportation 

system other than county and locally owned roads and for planning 

activities outside of metropolitan areas (outside of MPO boundaries) as 

well as interstate highways and other state-owned roadways. 

State DOTs and MPOs work together closely. For instance, the DOT is 

typically part of the MPO policy board. A DOT will often involve the 

MPOs as a key stakeholder in any statewide transportation planning effort, 

in order to ensure that statewide transportation strategies are consistent 

with those of the MPOs. Outside of MPO boundaries, DOTs work with 

local and tribal governments, other public organizations, the privatesector, and the Federal land management agencies, bicycle and pedestrian 

advocates, the disabled and environmental agencies in the development of 

the long-range statewide transportation plan and the STIP.23 

PUBLIC-SECTOR FREIGHT STAKEHOLDERS – KEY ISSUES

The public sector stakeholders summarized in the preceding section 

may feel confl icted about industrial land uses. On the one hand, they 

recognize that the businesses provide jobs, tax benefi ts, and economic 

activity to their region, as well as providing goods and services to the 

local population. On the other hand, the public sector is sometimes 

concerned that the externalities associated with the freight distribution 

system degrades amenities highly valued by nearby residents. Increasing 

truck and train traffi c often generates opposition from local residents due 

to noise, exhaust and perceived safety and congestion impacts. Residents 

near ports, distribution centers, and other freight generating land uses 

are often impacted by light pollution from 24-hour operations and, in the 

case of new construction of freight facilities, may face degraded views or 

increased truck presence. For property owners these concerns go beyond 

simple quality of life issues – they directly impact property values and 

the desirability of certain neighborhoods or regions. Learning to manage 

these different benefi ts and drawbacks to industrial land uses, and 

communicating them to the public, can be very challenging to publicsector offi cials. Some of the key public-sector freight and land use issues 

22 “The Transportation Planning Process: Key Issues.” Publication of the 

Transportation Planning Capacity Building Program, FHWA and FTA. 

Updated September 2007. 

23 “The Transportation Planning Process: Key Issues.” Publication of the 

Transportation Planning Capacity Building Program, FHWA and FTA. 

Updated September 2007.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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are summarized in Table 1.1 below. They are grouped into three general 

categories, 1) Potential negative effects, 2) Potential positive effects, and 

3) Other planning considerations. 

Table 1.1 Public-Sector Critical Freight and Land 

Use Issues

a

 NCFRP Report 24 – Protecting and Preserving Freight Infrastructure and 

Routes, 2011.

b

 A brownfi eld is a property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which 

may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous 

substance, pollutant, or contaminant.24

c

 Greyfi elds are underutilized commercial parcels (such as distressed malls) 

that may be returned to more productive use through targeted land use and 

development initiatives. They are described further in Section 2.4.

24 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Brownfi elds and Land Remediation,”

available from: http://www.epa.gov/brownfi elds/index.html.

General Issue Category Issue

Potential negative effects of freight and industrial land uses that 

public-sector agencies may have to address

• Noise/vibration

• Light pollution

• Air and water quality concerns

• Greenhouse gas emissions 

• Proliferation of invasive plant and animal speciesa

• Odors

• Property value

• Eyesore issues, such as unsightly equipment storagea

• Roadway congestion/pavement maintenance

• Safety issues related to at-grade rail/road crossings, handling of hazardous 

materialsa

, truck safety

• Parking availability

Potential positive effects of freight and industrial land uses that may 

provide justifi cation for their inclusion in the planning discussion

• Economic development

• Job creation and retention

• Tax benefi ts

• Closer access to goods and services

• Access to employment opportunities

• Potential air quality benefi ts from reduced truck travel because of colocation 

of industries and their markets

Other planning considerations that may infl uence the treatment of 

freight and industrial land uses in the planning and programming 

process

• Quality of life concerns

• Environmental justice

• Livable communities

• Smart growth vision for the area

• Brownfi eldb

 and greyfi eldc remediation and redevelopmenta

• Urban renewal efforts

• Sustainability
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Figure 1.10 Private-Sector Freight Stakeholder Types

Source: Cambridge Systematics, Inc., 2010.

WHO ARE THE KEY PRIVATE-SECTOR PLAYERS THAT SHOULD BE

INVOLVED AND KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE TRANSPORTATION AND

LAND USE PLANNING PROCESSES?

Private-sector freight stakeholders do not generally take a lead role in 

public planning decisions. Nonetheless, it is critical to engage them early 

and often in transportation and land use decision-making. In addition, 

the advent of Public Private Partnerships (PPP) and increasingly 

complex transportation projects means that they are being invited more 

frequently as partners into the planning process. This is especially the 

case when considering freight generating land uses, since freight uses 

are generally owned and controlled by the private sector. Collaborative 

planning between the public and private sector can result in greater 

understanding, better design, and more effective integration of freight 

into the land use and transportation planning process.
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Logistics or Supply Chain Managers from Key Industries

Companies’ supply chain managers are responsible for maximizing 

the effi ciency of a company’s supply chain, including monitoring 

the quality, cost, and quantity of goods movement and storage 

activities. As such they are tuned in to the freight and land use 

needs of their business or industry. Since these needs will vary by 

industry, planners should analyze the economic makeup of their 

community, identify the companies involved in key freight-dependent 

local businesses, and then consult with the supply chain and logistics 

managers of those fi rms to gain a better understanding of their needs 

and concerns.

Shippers (Benefi cial Cargo Owners and Consignees)

Shippers are the companies or individuals who own or consign for the 

goods being moved over the transportation system. An example would 

be a manufacturing company which must ship its fi nished product, either 

to an end user or to a warehouse for further distribution to markets. 

Some shippers take control for planning and execution of the logistics 

and freight movement responsibilities for their goods, while others may 

give responsibility to a Third-Party Logistics providers (3PL). Therefore, 

though shippers are very important private-sector stakeholders, they 

sometimes are less knowledgeable about system performance issues than 

the carriers or 3PLs. 

Carriers with Yards or Terminals

Truck, ocean, air, and rail freight carriers operate yards or terminals 

where loads are assembled and equipment such as truck tractors, 

trailers, containers, and railcars are positioned to meet the business 

needs of the carrier. Railroads operate both classifi cation yards 

(where loaded railcars are divided and reassembled into different 

trains according to their destinations) and intermodal yards (which 

serve as the interface between railroads and trucks). Both types 

require considerable acreage. Rail yards frequently have miles of 

receiving, forwarding, and classifi cation tracks; intermodal yards also 

require truck parking and trailer storage facilities. Trucking fi rms use 

terminals to store equipment and reposition fl eets to meet changing 

demand conditions. In communities with water ports, private marine 

terminal operators often handle the day-to-day operations of terminals. 

Airports also have cargo terminals that may be operated by large 

carriers such as FedEx.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Industry Associations and Advocacy Groups 

Advocacy and professional organizations that represent freightdependent industries can range from chambers of commerce (which 

typically represent the entire local business community) to advocacy 

groups focused on a particular industry (such as a farm bureau or 

business association) or transportation mode (such as a state trucking 

association). Association members often range from small “Mom and 

Pop” businesses to international corporations which have a presence in 

a local area or an interest in an aspect of local industry or infrastructure. 

These organizations typically are well aware of the needs of their 

members and often collect data from them to inform their advocacy 

efforts. Planning agencies may already have contacts at local chambers 

of commerce, if they are consulted on other (not necessarily freightrelated) matters. These contacts can be leveraged to fi nd other important 

stakeholders.

Warehouse and Distribution Center Operators and Third-Party 

Logistics Firms

Warehouses and distribution centers are the locations where goods from 

multiple suppliers are consolidated or stored for eventual delivery to 

customers or retail outlets. For example, a warehouse can be used as an 

intermediate storage point between a manufacturer and its suppliers, 

or between the manufacturer and its industrial customers. Distribution 

centers also often provide services to shippers such as multimodal 

transportation, cargo tracking, customs clearance, and packing/labeling.25 

Firms that provide these types of services are known as Third-Party 

Logistics providers (3PL); they specialize in integrating all or part of their 

client companies’ supply chains into a single tailored solution that can be 

scaled up or down according to market conditions. Warehouse operators 

and 3PLs therefore understand freight issues such as bottlenecks, street 

geometrics, and land supply which may be of value to land use and 

transportation planners. 

Industrial and Commercial Site Developers

Developers understand the economic and logistics factors and trends that 

shape the demand for industrial and commercial properties. They also 

have a fi rm understanding of the location and site attribute requirements 

that their clients need. Industrial developments usually require large 

25 Lu, Chin-Shan and Yang, Ching-Chiao. ‘Evaluating Key Logistics 

Capabilities for International Distribution Center Operators in Taiwan.’ 

Transportation Journal, September 22, 2006.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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tracts of land with good access to the highway network. For some 

industries, rail access is becoming increasingly important. For these 

reasons, most private developers will be aware of key freight issues in 

the region. 

PRIVATE-SECTOR FREIGHT STAKEHOLDERS – KEY ISSUES

Private-sector freight stakeholders (like the ones summarized in the 

preceding section) must balance the need to preserve their business 

and profi ts with their desire to stay near the markets that they serve. 

Increasingly, private-sector freight land uses are being impacted by 

encroaching non-freight land uses and the associated increase in 

regulations, property values, and congestion on shared facilities. Many 

existing freight hubs, such as ports and warehouses, were initially 

located away from residences. In recent years, however, with urban 

populations growing and a renewed interest in living in central city 

areas, these freight generating land uses are sometimes hampered by 

regulations created to reduce the impact of freight activities on nearby 

residents. These regulations include limitations on operating hours 

as well as site design guidelines and performance standards. Site 

design guidelines outline acceptable landscaping, driveway access, 

signage, building setbacks, parking and other physical characteristics. 

Performance standards relate to noise, light, odor, vibration, or other 

aspects of operations that nearby residents fi nd objectionable. In 

addition, as areas near freight facilities attract residents, property values 

tend to rise, affecting the ability of freight facilities to expand their 

operations. Growing residential populations near freight facilities can 

also lead to increased congestion on key truck routes. 

All of these impacts can lead to reductions in the effi ciency of freight 

operations. Local government site design guidelines and performance 

standards can increase the operating costs to facility operators, while 

congestion due to increasing residential traffi c leads to decreased 

accessibility. The combination of these factors, along with growing 

property values that limit expansion opportunities, push freight facilities 

towards the less densely populated urban outskirts, where they may face 

less adequate transportation facilities and more lengthy trips. 

Some of the key private-sector freight and land use issues are 

summarized in Table 1.2. They are grouped into two general categories, 

1) Issues that impact the economic viability and functioning of freight 

land uses, and 2) Other planning and site location considerations. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Table 1.2 Private-Sector Critical Freight and Land Use Issues

a

 NCFRP Report 23: Economic and Transportation Drivers for Siting Freight Intermodal and Warehouse Distribution 

Facilities, Draft Final Report, 2011.

1.5 Freight and Land Use Trends and Issues 

Certain national and global trends are worth noting because they are likely 

to impact the needs of freight-dependent industries in the coming years. 

Economic and Logistics Trends: Globalization

Globalization has driven the increasing consolidation of warehouses 

and distribution centers over the last several years and this trend is 

expected to continue as companies constantly seek effi ciencies to gain 

a competitive edge. This will lead to the development of large logistics 

centers (such as the Gardner Intermodal Terminal in Kansas) that 

serve as the key node for fi rms’ entire distribution systems. This trend 

presents challenges and opportunities to many regions of the country, 

as these facilities could contribute to “freight sprawl” or be incorporated 

into industrial preservation or brownfi elds redevelopment initiatives.

General Issue Category Issue

Issues that may impact 

the economic viability and 

functioning of freight land uses

• Increasing congestion on shared-use infrastructure leads to delays

• Site design guidelines may be too restrictive for business needs

• Industrial site access may be constrained or blocked as nearby land uses grow

• Transportation system performance may degrade and harm business transportation if maintenance or upgrading 

of transportation facilities falls behind

• Expansion constraints may limit ability of business to grow

• Operating-hour limitations may be restrictive to allow effi cient business functioning (e.g., nighttime deliveries)

• Street geometric design (such as turning radii or features such as traffi c circles) may restrict freight movement

• Increasing pressure to redevelop industrial land into higher-value uses

• Limited options to enhance logistics effi ciency 

• Costs of implementing mitigation requirements

• Citizen pressure and public resentment

• Lack of communication with public-sector planning agencies

Other factors that may 

infl uence industrial location and 

siting and may be affected by 

regional planning effortsa

• Permitting and regulation requirements

• Local and state taxation and business environment

• Ability to operate “24/7” or according to specifi c schedule requirements

• Proximity to fast and reliable transportation choices (e.g., Interstates for truck access, main line rail access, 

employee transportation accessibility)

• Proximity to customers, shippers, and/or receivers of goods

• Other operating costs

• Connectivity to other modes (rail, water, and/or air)

• Availability of skilled workforce

• Shovel-ready building sites
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Economic and Logistics Trends: Fuel Price Volatility

Fuel (primarily diesel) is one of the major costs in the transportation 

industry. Fuel prices, therefore, can have an enormous impact on 

shippers and carriers alike. During the summer of 2008, the price 

of a barrel of oil peaked at a historic high of nearly $150, before the 

onset of recession caused the price to drop back down significantly. 

This dramatically increased the cost of shipping goods. Many 

analysts predict continued fuel price volatility due to a number 

of factors, including growing demand from developing countries 

and the lengthy amount of time required to explore and develop 

new sources of oil. This could have numerous impacts on freight 

generating businesses. For instance, the 2008 spike generated 

interest among many shippers in more fuel efficient modes. There 

also is a chance that fuel price fluctuations will contribute to the 

slowing or reversal of the trend towards off-shoring many supply 

chain functions, and a return of activities such as production, 

packaging, and value-added activities to domestic or near-shore 

countries. This could lead directly to more clustering of freightintensive land uses in some areas.

Economic and Logistics Trends: The Opening of the 

Panama Canal

The expansion of the Panama Canal to accommodate increasing 

trade volumes and larger container ships will be complete by 2014 

and may affect supply chain patterns as companies reevaluate 

which maritime trade routes they use to get goods to market. For 

example, Canal expansion could make U.S. Gulf Coast ports more 

competitive with West Coast locations for receiving import cargoes 

from Asia. In fact, some companies have been hesitant to make big 

site location decisions until there is a clear picture of the effects of an 

expanded canal. 

Land Use Trends: Encroachment

Urban encroachment is a growing problem for freight stakeholders as 

populations grow and cities expand into outlying areas that used to be 

industrial in nature. This is driving the conversion of industrial land into 

other uses (primarily residential) that may come into confl ict with freight 

uses. It also is driving a number of development trends which, taken 

together, could have a negative impact on land availability for freight 

stakeholders in future.

Development of large 

logistics parks to meet the 

needs of globalization – the 

Gardner Intermodal Terminal, 

Gardner, Kansas

The Gardner Intermodal 

Terminal is a truck/rail 

intermodal terminal currently 

under development by the 

Burlington Northern Santa Fe 

(BNSF) Railway. The terminal 

is being built as a result of the 

railroad’s need to accommodate 

its growing intermodal traffi c 

and diversify away from Chicago, 

where rail traffi c is becoming 

increasingly congested. It will be 

located in Gardner, Kansas (25 

miles southwest of Kansas City) 

and will also include a logistics 

park that is being simultaneously 

built by a private developer. 

The intermodal facility will 

include BNSF rail and truck 

facilities and will concentrate 

on the movement of freight from 

rail to truck. The logistics park 

includes ancillary warehouses 

that store and process freight. 

Both the intermodal terminal and 

the initial stages of warehouse 

development opened in fall 2009. 

The total size of the combined 

terminal and logistics park is 

approximately 1,000 acres, 

of which 418 are devoted to 

the BNSF intermodal facility. 

The rest of the acreage will be 

devoted to warehousing and 

distribution centers, primarily 

for large retailers like Target and 

Vanity Fair.

In all, the project is expected 

to result in 7.1-million square 

feet of new development. This 

does not include speculative 

development that is already 

occurring around the park. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

1-31

Land Use Trends: Greenfi eld, Brownfi eld, and Greyfi eld 

Development

Greenfi eld development occurs as cities approve new residential and 

commercial development in previously unoccupied, vacant land. This 

is a normal response to population growth, but it does lead directly to 

encroachment issues when Greenfi elds on the periphery (where many 

freight uses tend to be located) end up being developed and occupied by 

new residents.

Brownfi eld development is the redevelopment of land that may be 

contaminated by one or more pollutants, for example as a result of 

previous industrial activity. Oftentimes these parcels are located in 

central cities, and municipalities thus see redeveloping them as a way to 

remove blight, revitalize downtowns, increase tax revenues, and relieve 

Greenfi eld development pressure. Such redevelopment usually involves 

converting the land to some other use (such as residential or commercial) 

and possibly subdividing it. This can result in encroachment on 

existing freight land uses and the reduction of available land for new or 

expanding freight businesses. 

Greyfi eld development is similar in concept to Brownfi eld 

redevelopment, but typically deals with underutilized retail or 

commercial sites such as malls. These sites usually are not contaminated, 

but are instead suffering from disinvestment as retail tenants follow 

populations to areas of new development or redevelopment. These 

lands offer a relative rarity in urbanized areas: a large tract of land that 

has not yet been subdivided and may be suitable for freight generating 

activities, often without the complications of environmental remediation. 

However, cities may gravitate towards residential or commercial uses for 

these parcels, further limiting freight stakeholders’ options for expansion 

or relocation.

Green Trends: Smart Growth

In the planning and development realm, there has been increasing focus 

on ‘smart growth.’ Smart growth is a planning philosophy that seeks 

to restore vitality to areas suffering from disinvestment or ‘blight’ to 

provide neighborhoods with a mix of housing types, and create more 

pedestrian-oriented and transit friendly cities. While interest in these 

types of communities has certainly expanded in recent years, these 

growth patterns can have unintended consequences from a goods 

movement perspective. Compact growth patterns may end up pushing 

freight land uses to the periphery of cities, thus forcing trucks to take 

longer routes – with attendant increases in safety concerns, infrastructure 

Example: Regional impacts 

from declining industrial 

land in the urban region – 

The San Francisco Bay Area 

Metropolitan Transportation 

Commission’s (MTC) 

Goods Movement and Land 

Use Study

In a 2008 study, the MTC region 

found that if current land use 

development patterns continue, 

the existing industrial land 

supply in the urbanized region 

would be gone in 13 years. By 

2035, goods movement business 

(including manufacturing, 

warehousing, transportation, 

etc.) with 87,100 jobs would 

have to relocate in outlying 

areas because of land shortages. 

The markets for many of these 

businesses, however, will remain 

concentrated in the central 

Bay Area. 

Efforts to quantify the impacts 

of this trend revealed that over 

8,400 daily truck trips shifted 

to new, mostly longer routings. 

These trips would add an 

additional 347,900 truck VMT 

to regional highways by 2035. 

This increase in truck VMT 

means increased wear and tear 

on regional highway surfaces, 

more trucks adding to congestion 

on already congested corridors, 

greater safety concerns, 

and increased emissions of 

criteria pollutants. 

Source: http://www.mtc.ca.gov/

planning/rgm/fi nal/Final_Summary_

Report.pdf.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

1-32

wear and tear, and emissions.26 For example, smart growth design 

guidelines calling for pedestrian-scaled streets with traffi c calming 

devices such as speed humps may not easily accommodate large freight 

vehicles. Bicycle lanes, if not carefully planned, may take curbside 

loading or commercial vehicle parking areas. Freight carriers may 

need to adapt (e.g., by using smaller vehicles) while design standards 

should have some fl exibility (for instance, by making exceptions for key 

freight routes). 

Green Trends: Conversion of Abandoned Rail Corridors to 

Recreational Trails

Another trend involves the conversion of abandoned rail corridors to 

multi-use trails for use by bicyclists and pedestrians. These ‘rails to trails’

conversions do provide important community amenities, but they may also 

restrict the already at-capacity rail freight network, hampering its ability 

to meet growing demand. Railbanking is a method by which corridors 

that would otherwise be abandoned can be preserved for future rail use 

through interim conversion to a trail. Established in 1983 as an amendment 

to Section 8(d) of the National Trails System Act, the railbanking statute 

allows a railroad to remove all of its equipment, with the exception of 

bridges, tunnels and culverts, from a corridor, and to turn the corridor over 

to any qualifi ed private organization or public agency that has agreed to 

maintain it for future rail use.27 They also may limit economic development 

opportunities for communities, particularly in rural areas where access to 

rail may be a key catalyst for local industries. Some states and communities 

have chosen to subsidize short-line rail operations for this reason.28 

Green Trends: Modal Shift from Truck to Rail

Many public and private stakeholders invest in infrastructure that 

supports rail intermodal services, with the goal of shifting some longdistance freight shipments from trucks alone to a combination of 

short-distance trucking and long-distance rail service. Mode shift from 

26 Metropolitan Transportation Commission, Goods Movement/Land Use Study 

Update, 2008.

27 Rails to Trails Conservancy, Secrets of Successful Rail-Trails, 2009.

28 The Surface Transportation Board (STB) defi nes a shortline railroad as a 

“Class III” carrier, with annual operating revenues of $28 million or less, and 

all switching or terminal railroads. “Class II” carriers are also often included 

in the popular defi nition of shortline. “Class II” carriers have revenues of 

more than $28 million, but less than $346.8 million.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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long-haul truck to rail can be driven by a number of factors, including 

rising fuel costs and the perception that trains are ‘greener’ than trucks. 

Indeed, trains enjoy a fuel effi ciency advantage of about three to one 

over trucks, on a ton-mile basis.29 Intermodal rail services are the fastestgrowing business line for Class I railroads. This means there will be 

more demand in the future for intermodal yards like the Gardner facility 

in Kansas City. While these services may reduce fuel consumption and 

emissions for long-haul freight, there are a number of local impacts 

associated with intermodal terminals. Intermodal terminals generate 

many truck trips, because containers are transloaded from truck to rail or 

vice-versa. Trucks must transport the containers for the “last mile” to/

from distribution centers or the customer’s door. As a result, there are 

many impacts such as increased truck traffi c volumes, emissions, noise 

and light pollution, which could affect quality of life for residents living 

in close proximity to these facilities. Section 2.0 will address ways to 

plan for and mitigate these impacts. 

29 Federal Highway Administration, Freight and Air Quality Handbook, May 2010.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

 -2-1

2.0 Freight as a Good Neighbor – Land Use, 

Transportation System, and Environmental 

Considerations

2.1 Purpose and Content

The previous section discussed some of the positive benefi ts of freight 

movements – including jobs, increased tax revenue, and supporting the 

demands of growing “just in time” consumer markets. Unfortunately, if 

not properly planned, freight movements and related land uses also have 

the potential to produce negative environmental impacts, including noise 

and light pollution, unwanted odors, vibrations, safety concerns, and 

impacts to regional air and water quality. 

These impacts can be mitigated, to a great extent, by careful and smart 

regional planning, local land use and zoning, site and facility design, 

and operational considerations. However, these enhancements are 

only possible if they are implemented as part of a public transportation 

planning and land use planning, and zoning and permitting processes. 

If freight planning and land use decision-making activities are well 

integrated, both the public and private sector may benefi t through 

reduced congestion, improved air quality and safety, enhanced 

community livability, improved operational effi ciency, reduced 

transportation costs, and greater access to facilities and markets. The 

freight community can be considered “a good neighbor” when such a 

balance between economic activity and external impacts is achieved. 

The purpose of this section is to review a range of strategies and tools 

that have been used successfully to ensure that freight land uses have 

a positive relationship with surrounding land uses. Throughout the 

section, “best practices” will be used to illustrate how other regional 

authorities and cities have successfully implemented freight uses 

into their land use fabric. Since land use and zoning rules, and 

responsibilities of public agencies regarding them vary widely from 

place to place, “best practices” were drawn from agencies of all sizes, and 

refl ect freight and community needs in urban, rural, and suburban areas 

alike. A number of “critical success factors” are identifi ed in each case, 

which are intended to provide key lessons learned and guidance to a 

variety of stakeholder and agency types.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

2-2

SECTION ORGANIZATION

This section will provide regional and local-level tools, strategies 

and resources to ensure that freight is a good neighbor. These tools, 

strategies, and resources will be focused in fi ve areas:

• Appropriate and Coordinated Land Use Policies – identifi es land 

use policies, including regional visioning and planning, local zoning 

and transportation policies, and site-specifi c policies and practices 

addressing context-sensitive design and access to industrial and 

freight transportation facilities. 

• Effective Transportation Systems and Services – presents suggested 

ways of improving transportation systems. The development 

and maintenance of transportation systems that can effectively, 

effi ciently, and safely accommodate freight and passenger traffi c can 

help freight systems be better neighbors in a community or region. 

• Effective Operations and Management Policies – provides 

examples of policies to operate and manage transportation systems 

in order to reduce peak-period demand, and therefore, reduce 

congestion, and in ways that produce fewer negative impacts to 

quality of life and the environment. 

• Education and Outreach – describes how state and regional agencies, 

by educating themselves and providing technical assistance to local 

jurisdictions and other agencies and authorities, can effectively 

engage private stakeholders and develop effective land use and 

transportation policies. 

• Putting it All Together – demonstrates, through a series of detailed 

case studies, how several government agencies throughout the 

country have tied each of the previous four sets of policies and 

practices into a successful program. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

2-3

2.2 Appropriate and Coordinated Land Use 

Policies

As described in Section 1.0, agencies at all levels of government have 

responsibilities regarding transportation and land use planning. 

Through goods movement studies, corridor studies, modal plans, and 

other planning efforts, state and regional agencies collect and publish 

data on goods movement, on economic activity, and on changing land 

use patterns at the state and regional level. These agencies establish 

policy guidelines and offer technical assistance to local jurisdictions, 

which have zoning authority. Local comprehensive planning and 

zoning authorities have the responsibility of establishing areas for 

residential, institutional, commercial, industrial, and other types of 

zones their areas require while ensuring that the various types of land 

uses can coexist, and minimizing impacts on residents and businesses. 

One important way to make sure that freight is a good neighbor is to 

implement appropriate land use policies, and to coordinate those policies 

among various local initiatives and between agencies in neighboring 

Policy Area Strategy/Tool Case Study Examples Goals

Appropriate and 

Coordinated Land 

Use Policies

Regional visioning and scenario 

planning Pittsburgh Region “Power of 32” Sets regional stakeholder goals and gain common understanding between different levels of government

Incentives to reinvest in existing 

industrial space – e.g., tax 

credits

Connecticut Urban and Industrial 

Reinvestment Tax Credit Program

Offers tax credits as an incentive to (re)develop in 

urban and industrial areas, provided performance 

criteria are met

Creating buffers around freight Vancouver, Washington pedestrian 

bridge

Provides safe means for residents to traverse a 

freight facility

Using zoning tools to preserve 

industry and limit freight 

impacts

Baltimore, Maryland Maritime 

Industrial Zone Overlay District 

(MIZOD)

Layton City, Utah manufacturing (M) 

zoning code

Provides space for manufacturing where appropriate 

infrastructure and adjacent land uses exist, and 

protect industry from pressures to change use

Promote context-sensitive site 

and building design features

Port of Seattle Central Waterfront 

Project mitigation

Reduces the noise and vibration, light, aesthetic, 

and local air quality impacts of freight facilities on 

neighboring land uses

Effective 

Transportation 

Systems and 

Services

Freight-exclusive facilities I-5 Truck Lanes

Reduces the noise and vibration, light, aesthetic, 

and local air quality impacts of freight facilities on 

neighboring land uses

Effective truck route networks Arroyo Grande, California truck route 

network

Ensures truck routes avoid sensitive areas and link 

with truck routes in neighboring jurisdictions.

Effective Freight 

Operations and 

Management

Offering incentives for off-peak 

delivery Boston downtown delivery hours

Spreads truck traffi c times across a wider timeframe, 

as well as increase their effi ciency because of 

decreased road congestion

Education and 

Outreach

Technical assistance to local 

jurisdictions

Atlanta, Georgia – Atlanta Regional 

Commission 

Ensures that local land use policy-makers are 

informed of freight needs and can help codify freight 

and land use integration best practices

Table 2.1 Examples of Freight and Land Use Integration Strategies and Tools
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

2-4

jurisdictions. The planning process, whether through regional 

transportation planning or local land use planning, can facilitate this 

interaction and problem solving. This section demonstrates how regional 

and local agencies can work together through the use of land use 

strategies, tools, policies, and practice, to include industrial and freight 

generating land uses, while minimizing their impact on other, sensitive 

land uses. 

REGIONAL-LEVEL STRATEGIES AND TOOLS

Land use is generally planned and implemented at the local agency level, 

using the comprehensive plan, zoning code, and permitting system as 

reviewed in the previous section. However, many regional agencies, 

such as Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPO) are recognizing 

the importance of linking freight transportation and land use planning, 

and are learning to fi nd ways to guide or educate local jurisdictions 

without infringing on their sovereignty. As such, strategies and tools at 

the regional level involve guidance in locating major freight-generating 

uses (such as manufacturing centers, distribution centers, etc.) within the 

region, as well as gaining regional planning consensus, and suggesting 

regionwide policies and approaches. Some strategies and tools 

implemented by regional agencies include scenario planning, preferential 

zoning and tax relief programs. 

Scenario Planning 

Scenario planning is a collaborative visioning exercise which analyzes 

trends and alternative futures regarding forces such as health, 

transportation, livability issues, economic, environmental, and land use 

patterns, that affect the transportation needs of a community or region. 

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) encourages and supports 

scenario planning that is focused on transportation issues. From a 

freight perspective, changes in demographics (e.g., aging populations 

or changing population densities), advancements in alternative fuel 

technologies, fl uctuations in fuel prices, climate change and associated 

policies, and economic variability can result in radical changes in 

global supply chains, infl uencing where raw materials are sourced, 

where goods are produced, and where and how they are transported to 

consumer markets.

Shifts in global supply chain patterns can have signifi cant implications 

for local and regional governments in the United States. For example, 

in scenarios in which diesel fuel prices become volatile, advancements 

in alternative fuels or mode shift from truck to rail may accelerate. Such 

an outcome could result in changes in distribution networks, industry 

Example of Regional 

Visioning Process Recognizing 

the Needs of Freight Land 

Uses – Pittsburgh, 

Pennsylvania region

The “Power of 32” is a regional 

visioning effort launched in May 

of 2009. The goal of the process 

is to allow every resident of the 

4-state, 32-county region to 

participate in creating a shared 

vision for the region’s best 

future. 

Representing the economic 

region centered on metropolitan 

Pittsburgh, the process 

recognizes and communicates 

the importance of freight land 

uses such as manufacturing, 

research and development, and 

fuel extraction to the region’s 

economy, and has taken steps to 

include freight-intensive land 

uses, and the transportation 

infrastructure supporting 

them, in the visioning process. 

The region’s vision includes 

strategies to help businesses 

fi nd suitable development sites, 

including those with existing 

utilities, transportation facilities, 

and/or in existing industrial or 

commercial areas. 

The effort also includes an 

extensive outreach and education 

program to communicate the 

importance of the region’s major 

industries to its economy, and 

to receive constructive feedback 

from stakeholders and the 

public. In addition, the group’s 

steering committee includes 

representatives of many of the 

region’s major shippers and 

receivers. 

The Power of 32 effort is a 

good example of how statewide 

and regional agencies can 

work together to address 

multijurisdictional freight and 

land use issues. It is also a 

good example of how private 

sector freight stakeholders can 

participate in the process.

Source: http://www.regionalvision.

org/pressrelease.htm#.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

2-5

location decisions, and truck and rail travel patterns at the global, 

national and local levels. At the local level, land use policy scenarios 

that account for current trends versus “smart growth” scenarios could 

demonstrate the impact of land use policy decisions on economic 

development and land use confl ict issues. 

The specifi c issues addressed by a scenario planning process will depend 

on the priorities of the community, region, or study area engaging in the 

exercise. The engagement of freight stakeholders, including the public 

at large, is therefore required in order to develop a collaborative vision 

of a desired future, and principles that guide the development of the 

trend and alternative scenarios. FHWA published the Scenario Planning 

Guidebook which helps agencies understand and engage in the scenario 

planning process. The guidebook suggests six phases that agencies are 

likely to encounter when implementing scenario planning process. The 

phases are:

• Phase 1: How Should We Get Started? Scope the effort and engage 

partners.

• Phase 2: Where Are We Now? Establish baseline analysis. Identify 

factors and trends that affect the state, region, community or study 

area.

• Phase 3: Who Are We and Where Do We Want to Go? Establish 

future goals and aspirations based on values of the state, region, 

community or study area.

• Phase 4: What Could the Future Look Like? Create baseline and 

alternative scenarios.

• Phase 5: What Impacts Will Scenarios Have? Assess scenario 

impacts, infl uences, and effects.

• Phase 6: How Will We Reach Our Desired Future? Craft the 

comprehensive vision. Identify strategic actions and performance 

measures.30

30 FHWA Scenario Planning Guidebook, Federal Highway Administration, 

available from: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/scenplan/guidebook/

index.htm.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

2-6

Tax Relief Programs to Preserve Freight–Dependent Land Uses

Although the redevelopment of former industrial sites for residential 

and/or commercial land uses near many city and town centers is 

acting as a force to push freight development to the fringes of many 

metropolitan areas, regions and states are fi nding that preserving 

industrial areas can contribute to economic vitality and a variety of other 

regional objectives, such as limiting “freight sprawl” and associated 

impacts.31 Tax incentives are among the tools states, regions, and 

municipalities can use to encourage the preservation of industrial activity 

on existing industrial sites. Recognizing the public purpose provided 

by private rail services (such as job creation or retention, reduced 

congestion, reduced fuel consumption and emissions reductions), 

some states grant property tax relief for certain rail properties. The 

Federal Government offers tax credits (ranging from 10 to 20 percent) to 

businesses that rehabilitate existing and/or historic industrial buildings. 

Many states and municipalities offer additional incentives to encourage 

reinvestment in existing industrial buildings or parcels. 

LOCAL POLICIES AND PRACTICES

Local policies and practices generally refer to issues within a 

municipality, including the existence of truck routes and the access to 

intermodal facilities. Municipalities and businesses can work together 

in a number of ways to reduce the confl ict between freight and sensitive 

land uses within communities, such as neighborhoods, schools, 

playgrounds, or near other areas where freight movement may have a 

negative impact. Tools and strategies included in this section, therefore, 

are most likely instituted by the municipality. However, private-sector 

businesses have also been active in voluntary restrictions to mitigate the 

impacts of goods movement on the communities that surround them. 

The following sections highlight some of the “best practices” (including 

local government policies and business practices) to mitigate the confl icts 

between freight and sensitive land use at the local level.32 

31 Freight sprawl can result in increased truck vehicle miles traveled (VMT), 

introducing signifi cant air quality, congestion, safety, pavement issues, and 

other implications. Local and regional planning agencies sometimes facilitate 

this process because uses such as residential, commercial, or tourism are seen 

as preferred ways to foster economic development and expand the tax base. 

32 Many examples in this section came from NCHRP Report 320. 

Example of a State Tax 

Relief Program – Urban and 

Industrial Reinvestment Tax 

Credit Program, State of 

Connecticut Department of 

Economic and Community 

Development

The Urban and Industrial 

Sites Reinvestment Tax Credit 

Program is an example of an 

economic development tool that 

a state may develop in order 

to steer investment to urban 

centers, economically distressed 

communities, and existing or 

former industrial sites. Under 

the Connecticut program, the 

State may provide up to $100 

million in tax credits over 

a 10-year period to support 

projects that create signifi cant 

jobs and capital investment 

in these areas. The program’s 

expenditures are capped at $500 

million by statute. The amount 

of credits offered to applicants is 

determined upon the outcome of 

a comprehensive fi nancial and 

economic impact review process, 

including the use of econometric 

modeling. 

Eligible projects must 

demonstrate signifi cant new 

economic activity, increased 

employment, additional tax 

revenues to the municipality 

and state, and (if applicable) 

a return of contaminated 

property to a viable business 

condition. Candidate projects 

must be located on an “urban 

site,” defi ned as 1) a designated 

enterprise zone, 2) an 

acknowledged distressed area, 3) 

a municipality with a population 

of more than 100,000; or in on 

an “industrial site,” defi ned as 

a site that has been subject to 

environmental contamination. 

Many states offer similar 

incentive programs to encourage 

development in desirable 

areas, such as urban and 

former industrial sites where 

appropriate land use regulations 

and supporting infrastructure 

are established. 

Source: http://www.ct.gov/ecd/cwp/

view.asp?a=1101&q=249842.
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Creating Buffers or Separation Between Industrial Land Uses and 

Other Land Uses

One method to reduce the impact of freight on the rest of the 

environment is to minimize the interference of freight on communities’

quality of life. This can be achieved through the construction of physical 

barriers, freight routing, and others. Examples are discussed below. 

• Create walls around freight corridors or create pedestrian/bicycle 

paths to make crossing of freight facilities safer. Pedestrian 

crossing of freight rail facilities and major highways is a safety 

concern, which governments and businesses can mitigate through 

the construction of walls to discourage pedestrian crossing of 

railways and highways. A better but more expensive option is to 

build pedestrian crossings over the facilities.

• Build sound walls or berms around areas with freight activity. 

Installing these can reduce noise and light pollution. These types 

of structures can be mandated in zoning codes for specifi c sites 

or can be required through agreements between the surrounding 

community and the facility. Trees or tall plants can also act as a good 

visual barrier to freight centers. 

• Include buffer zones around freight generating sites. Creating a 

buffer zone between freight intensive activities and the rest of the 

community can insert space between two incompatible land uses. 

The buffer could take the form of open space, or make use of the 

concept of “stepping up” land uses, which refers to incremental 

increases in land use intensity over a given area. Intermediate 

land uses, such as retail or offi ce, may be located between freightintensive land use areas and sensitive areas such as residential areas 

and schools. The intermediate land uses should be less sensitive to 

industrial and freight activity, and impose fewer impacts on sensitive 

areas. The use of buffers in this manner reduces noise and air quality 

issues that increase with proximity to heavy industrial and freightheavy facilities.

Example of Industrial Uses 

and Highway Access – Layton 

City, Utah

Layton City, Utah, provides an 

example of using zoning codes to 

ensure that freight facilities are 

located with appropriate access 

to infrastructure while avoiding 

sensitive land uses. 

In its Municipal Code, Layton 

City describes characteristics 

about each of the zones in the 

zoning code, including industrial 

uses. It states: The “M”

(Manufacturing/Industrial) 

zoning districts are intended to 

provide areas for manufacturing 

and industrial uses, where they 

will have the necessary services 

and facilities, and minimize 

obtrusions by adjoining uses 

and districts. These districts 

shall be located near rail lines 

and shall be near interstate 

highway interchanges for ease 

of transportation of goods. In 

order to minimize confl ict among 

incompatible uses, most nonindustrial uses are not allowed in 

the “M” zoning districts.

Source: http://www.laytoncity.org.

Figure 2.1 Creating 

Buffers or Separation 

Between Industrial 

Land Uses and Other 

Land Uses 
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Figure 2.2 Creating Buffers between Industrial Land 

Uses and Other Land Uses 

Upgrade Rail Crossings with New Technologies 

The public and private sectors are developing and deploying 

technologies to reduce hazards at at-grade rail crossings. These new 

technologies include installation of median barriers (raised islands with 

markers mounted atop), four-quadrant crossing gates, and intelligent 

signal monitoring systems, which provide notifi cation when the grade 

crossing mechanisms have failed.33

Utilize Zoning Powers 

Zoning can be used to guide the development of industrial land uses, 

such as new freight warehouses or intermodal facilities, near major 

highway access points. It is recommended to locate new warehousing 

facilities close to major truck routes, such as interstates. The closer 

these freight generators are to major highway infrastructure, the fewer 

miles trucks will need to move on local roads before moving onto 

highways. The same can be said for intermodal facilities. Airports, 

rail/truck terminals, and seaports should have proximate and adequate 

freeway access to avoid truck movements on local roads. While facilities 

generating large volumes of freight should be located away from 

33 Luczak, M., “Beating Back the ‘beat-the-train’ Brigade,” Railway Age, July 

1999, available: http://www.railwayage.com/jul99/beat-the-train.html.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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sensitive land uses, some industrial and retail activities which generate 

smaller volumes of freight activity may be allowable or even desired 

within multiple-use communities. Tools such as zoning overlay districts 

and preferential zoning can establish parameters to accommodate those 

activities while minimizing external impacts on surrounding areas.

• Zoning overlay districts. Zoning overlays allow for the requirement 

of fewer or more restrictions on land use types within a zone or a 

district. Zoning overlay districts are typically designed to promote 

or discourage a particular type of land use or activity. Zoning 

overlay districts are often applied to historic neighborhoods in order 

to preserve scale and design features, or in special industrial areas to 

preserve endangered or incubate emerging industrial activities. Two 

examples of zoning tools used in overlay districts include form-based 

and performance zoning. Rather than segregating all industrial land 

uses, form-based and performance zoning may be used as tools to 

accommodate suitable retail and light industrial activities within or 

on close proximity to residential or multi-use communities. 

— Form-based zoning. Form-based zoning codes are methods 

for regulating development by building form rather than by 

land use. Form-based codes are typically employed in urban 

districts where mixed-use developments are encouraged, and 

address the physical and aesthetic relationship of a building to 

the streetscape and to surrounding buildings. Planners may use 

form-based codes to require retail and light industrial activities 

be housed in buildings that conform to neighborhood standards. 

The requirements may include maximum setbacks from the 

lot line, restrictions on driveways and curb cuts in front of a 

building, and establishment of loading areas on the rear façade 

of a building, away from the street, where possible. The desired 

form and design principles established in a form-based code are 

communicated with developers graphically using site plans and 

street section drawings to limit confusion or misinterpretation.

— Performance zoning. While traditional zoning addresses land 

use types and form-based zoning addresses building form 

and design, performance zoning codes address the intensity 

of activity on a given parcel and the impacts of that activity 

on surrounding areas. Performance codes are more fl exible 

regarding permitted land uses, provided impacts such as 

noise, odors, light pollution, water contaminants, and traffi c 

generation remain within allowable thresholds. Theoretically, 

performance zoning could allow industrial land uses to be 

located almost anywhere in a community, as long as the impacts 

Example of Construction of a 

Bike/Pedestrian Bridge at a 

Major Railyard – Vancouver, 

Washington

Washington State DOT 

(WSDOT) provides an example 

of how an investment in a 

pedestrian bridge can effectively 

connect neighborhoods, and 

provide safe travel for residents 

over a busy freight facility.

At one of the busiest railyards 

in the Pacifi c Northwest, located 

in Vancouver, Washington, 

WSDOT is improving 

pedestrian and bike safety by 

constructing an overpass over 

tracks near the railyard. In 

addition to providing a safe 

separation of pedestrian and 

bicycle traffi c from the railyard 

freight activity, this crossing 

will improve connectivity 

between neighborhoods in this 

Portland suburb.

Source: http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/

projects/rail/pnwrc_vancouver/.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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to adjacent properties are not excessive. Communities which 

adopt performance standards will have to weigh the benefi t of 

reducing the effort required to draft zoning codes and administer 

variance procedures under traditional zoning codes against the 

effort required to establish performance criteria frameworks and 

a system to monitor performance.

• Preferential zoning. It is possible to develop zoning regulations 

that encourage development that meets established planning 

goals. For instance, if regional stakeholders have determined 

that the provision/retention of freight-dependent land uses is an 

important goal, the planning authority can establish special zoning 

designations based on existing land use patterns and then offer 

rewards to developers who include desired freight amenities in their 

plans. These can include incentives such as fl oor-area-ratio (FAR) 

bonuses34 or height limit bonuses.35 Allowing a developer to build 

to a higher FAR or height will increase the value of the property for 

the developer.

34 FAR refers to the ratio of the total fl oor area of a building to the total area of 

the parcel on which it sits. Limits on FAR (often built into zoning codes) thus 

regulate the intensity of development.

35 Height limits are another way agencies regulate development intensity, in this case 

by specifying the allowable building heights for a property in a particular zone.

Example of Zoning Overlay to Preserve Freight Activity and Reduce Land Use Confl icts –Maritime Industrial 

Zoning Overlay District (MIZOD) – Baltimore, Maryland

The City of Baltimore’s Maritime Industrial Zoning Overlay District (MIZOD) is an example of an effective zoning tool that 

preserves a limited and desirable resource (waterfront land) for industrial uses in the face of a mixed-use real estate boom that 

has applied considerable pressure to convert waterfront industrial properties to mixed-use. 

The City enacted the MIZOD in 2004 to preserve maritime properties with deep water, rail and highway access in order to 

protect maritime-dependent uses and intermodal freight movement. The goal was to balance the needs of both mixed-use and 

maritime shipping, maximizing each to the extent possible without harming the other. The City categorized its waterfront into 

two general districts: Mixed-Use and Maritime Industrial. In the fi rst, mixed-use would be allowed, enabled, and encouraged. 

In the second, the MIZOD would protect maritime uses by prohibiting conversion of land to non-industrial uses. Establishing 

clearly defi ned mixed-use and maritime industrial areas streamlined the development by avoiding costly and time-consuming 

delays associated with site-by-site decision-making regarding changes of use. It is also credited with protecting the integrity of 

the maritime area by avoiding the “leapfrogging” of mixed use into maritime areas. 

The City publishes an annual report to tracks performance indicators such as number of businesses located in the district, 

number of new permits, property tax collected, cargo volumes, and a survey of fi rms within or dependent upon the City’s 

maritime industry. The 2010 MIZOD Annual Report concluded that MIZOD protection has allowed companies to feel 

confi dent in making signifi cant capital investments in Baltimore, citing a series of recent and planned investments as evidence.

The Baltimore experience can serve as an example for other locales experiencing rapid land development and population growth, 

and other pressures on industrial land uses. 

Source: http://www.baltimorecity.gov/LinkClick.aspx?fi leticket=riYFfE-1s44%3d&tabid=273&mid=639.
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Preserve and Maintain Existing Industrial Land Uses 

Some regions have found that dedicated, preserved space in which 

to foster manufacturing and industrial land uses is a good way to 

support the development of freight generating land uses. In addition, 

by designating this space as industrial land and explicitly discouraging 

other land uses (such as residential or commercial), it is easier to build 

infrastructure and policies to support freight land uses. This can include 

infrastructure considerations – such as buffers or wide turning radii – but 

can also include supportive policies, for example relaxing any timeof-day restrictions in freight districts that may apply in surrounding 

residential communities. Supporting brownfi eld redevelopment for 

industrial use is another strategy that municipalities can consider. This 

can be accomplished through incentives and assistance in order to foster 

freight intensive activities in suitable locations, as well as to maintain 

some freight generating land uses within the urban core. Brownfi eld 

development is discussed in greater detail in Section 3.0.

Promote Context-Sensitive Solutions (CSS) 

CSS is an approach used in transportation planning to achieve consensus 

among project stakeholders, and to ensure that a transportation project 

(solution) is in keeping with the context of a community’s identity. CSS 

requires the continuous involvement of stakeholders in the process of 

establishing an understanding of the context, documenting problems and 

issues, identifying and evaluating alternatives, and selecting a solution. 

CSS can be an effective process for freight-related transportation projects, 

as it calls for solutions that are sensitive to surrounding land uses, and it 

can solve the “freight doesn’t vote” problem by bringing private-sector 

freight stakeholders such as shippers, receivers, and motor carriers 

into the planning process with community residents and leaders. The 

outcome of CSS when applied to freight projects should be a solution 

that addresses the needs of the community, and which has the support of 

businesses and residents. Examples of building and site design features 

that could be part of context-sensitive applications are listed below:

• Orient loading facilities to minimize aesthetic, noise, and 

pollution impacts on residents, including creating loading bays 

that are suffi ciently large to allow easy truck entrance, egress, and 

maneuvering. 

• Consider creating a buffer around all freight generating land 

uses to preserve land for expansion and prevent encroachment of 

incompatible uses. Another option is to allow only those other land 

uses that are compatible with freight activities.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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• Establish staging areas for freight delivery. Many stores and other 

facilities receiving shipments do not have staging areas or freight 

loading docks. Trucks making deliveries must park along the curb or 

in a parking lot, which can impede traffi c fl ow and cause congestion on 

the streets around the store. One solution calls for municipalities and 

other zoning authorities to require on-site, and, preferably, off-street 

staging areas for facilities and businesses that regularly receive freight 

shipments. In some cases there may not be suffi cient space for on-site 

loading docks or parking areas. The establishment of common loading 

areas in multiple-tenant facilities, and/or regulations to effectively 

manage curbside truck parking may be more suitable solutions. 

• Reduce light spillage from freight facilities. Often, freight yards 

or businesses use heavy lighting for security, signage, or other 

reasons. However, lighting can have negative impacts on neighbors 

surrounding the facility, as the light might be a nuisance during 

sleeping hours or at other times of the day. This is referred to 

as “light pollution.” When selecting lighting for a facility, it is 

important to select fi xtures, locations, and lighting orientations that 

minimize light spilling onto adjacent properties.36 Freight locations 

located near highways or roadways should make sure that glare is 

reduced, so that drivers are not distracted by the glare produced by 

these lights. Glare can be reduced by locating the lights at an angle 

that minimizes disturbance to drivers. 

• Employ “Green Port” Technologies. Ports have historically been 

hotspots for air pollution and GHG emissions, as a result of the high 

density of truck, marine, and rail traffi c at these facilities. As a result, 

much can be gained in terms of air pollution reduction at these 

facilities. This includes the following:

 — Installing electric gantry cranes;

 — Using modern generator set, or “GenSet” locomotives, which do 

not consume as much fuel as a diesel locomotive engine, for yard 

operations or drayage activities; and

 — Improving effi ciency of fl ow through the port through the 

implementation of appointment systems, virtual container yards, 

peak-hour truck reduction programs and others.

— Installing electric plug-in, or “cold-ironing” at ship berths so that ships 

do not need to idle their engines to power the ship while in port. 

36 http://www.todaysfacilitymanager.com/tfm_07_02_sustainable.php.

Figure 2.3 Flat-lens 

Lighting Fixtures

Direct light downward, 

reducing light pollution 

and glare

Example of Truck Lanes – 

Interstate 5, California

Caltrans, through its 

implementation of truck lanes on 

Interstate 5 and other highways, 

provides an example of managing 

traffi c through freight-only 

transportation facilities. 

Caltrans has developed truck 

lanes on segments of Interstate 5 

to facilitate the rapid movement 

of freight and passenger traffi c in 

a safer, separated confi guration. 

Caltrans and other DOTs 

throughout the country are 

examining the feasibility of 

developing truck lanes and/or 

truck-only toll (TOT) lanes. 

Source: http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/

traffops/trucks/ops-guide/trucklanes.htm.
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2.3 Effective Transportation Systems and 

Services

In addition to pursuing “good neighbor” land use policies, developing 

and maintaining effective transportation systems and services is an 

important element of supporting the freight community and mitigating 

potential adverse effects of freight. Freight-exclusive transportation 

facilities such as truck lanes, direct highway connections to freight 

facilities, and the reduction of at-grade rail crossings are examples 

of strategies that improve transportation system safety and limit the 

potential impacts of freight movement on the safety and quality of life of 

the public at large.

FREIGHT-EXCLUSIVE FACILITIES

Many of the issues and challenges associated with freight transport 

revolve around safety and quality of life concerns that arise when freight 

vehicles come into contact with passenger modes. At the regional level, 

motorists and businesses are often concerned with the safety, congestion, 

and air quality impacts of commercial motor vehicle traffi c on major 

freeways and arterials. Although it is usually recognized that freight 

movements are essential to commerce and economic growth, there is 

often pressure to fi nd policies which reduce these negative externalities.

One way to mitigate these problems is to establish infrastructure solely 

dedicated to freight movements. The most common example is truckonly lanes, which are typically implemented as a regionwide network 

of managed lanes dedicated to trucks. This can reduce freight delays 

(trucks no longer have to contend with passenger cars for road space) 

while simultaneously minimizing confl icts between trucks and passenger 

cars. It can also focus truck traffi c on one or more specifi ed corridors – as 

opposed to having trucks impacting multiple routes in a region. 

Truck-only lanes are typically planned as tolled facilities (truck-only toll, 

or TOT lanes), because it is often politically infeasible to raise taxes or use 

bonding authority to pay for transport infrastructure that is perceived 

to only benefi t the freight industry. This raises the possibility of making 

the TOT lanes self-fi nanced through user fees or using private capital 

through a public-private partnership (PPP) arrangement. However, 

there are some practical considerations which must be evaluated when 

looking at TOT implementation:

Example of Truck Route 

Language in the General Plan - 

Arroyo Grande, California 

The City of Arroyo Grande, a 

small city with nearly 16,000 

residents on California’s 

Central Coast, illustrates how a 

municipal truck route network 

should be coordinated with 

neighboring jurisdictions, and 

avoid areas containing sensitive 

land uses.

The City includes language in 

the circulation element of its 

General Plan that seeks to keep 

truck movements away from 

residential areas. The plan states 

“Truck routes should coordinate 

with County and adjoining cities 

designated routes and avoid 

traversing residential areas.” 

(CT3-4.1)

Source: http://www.arroyogrande.

org/.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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• Tradeoff between limiting access and generating demand. From 

an operational standpoint, the most effi cient TOT-lane confi guration 

would feature limited access points, for example between a port and 

a major transcontinental Interstate link. However, research suggests 

that average truck trip distances in many regions are shorter than 

might be expected, as freight trucks often need to access warehouses 

and distribution centers nearby other freight generators such as ports 

or intermodal yards. In this instance, providing access points at just 

a few locations would discourage truckers making local trips from 

using the facility. More access points may generate additional local 

demand, but this could come at the expense of operating speeds/

effi ciency while also increasing project capital costs.37

• Time-of-day distribution of truck traffi c. Peak truck travel patterns 

differ from peak commuter travel patterns largely because truckers 

strive to avoid the most congested periods of the day. As a result 

truck volumes often peak in the mid-morning (after the morning 

rush) and again in the mid-afternoon (before the evening peak), 

and long-haul trucks are much more likely to operate at night than 

passenger vehicles. This means that travel-time savings associated 

with TOT lanes may be minimal – which reduces demand – unless 

the roadway in question is congested for most of the day.38

• Tradeoff between toll rates and demand. Ideally, toll rates would 

be set in a way that maximizes toll revenues, achieves an acceptable 

level of service and a high-utilization rate, and diverts a signifi cant 

number of trucks from local roads to the TOT lanes. In practice it 

is diffi cult to achieve all four of these objectives at the same time, 

since they may work at cross-purposes. For instance, if tolls are set 

higher than the travel-time savings that truckers would realize by 

using the facility, they would be unlikely to use the TOT lanes, thus 

reducing demand and toll revenues without removing many trucks 

from congested free lanes.39 Trucker utilization of TOT lanes also is 

affected by the value and time-sensitivity of the cargo.

37 Fischer, Michael J., Ahanotu, D.N., and Waliszewski, J.M. Planning 

Truck-Only Lanes: Emerging Lessons from the Southern California Experience. 

Transportation Research Record No. 1833. 

38 Ibid.

39 Chu, Hsing-Chung. Implementing Truck-Only Toll Lanes at the State, Regional, 

and Corridor Levels: Development of a Planning Methodology. Doctoral 

dissertation, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2007.
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Replace At-Grade Rail Crossings

Rail tracks running near neighborhoods often create safety issues for 

pedestrians, bicyclists, and motorists looking to cross from one side of the 

tracks to the other. While expensive, replacing at-grade rail crossings with 

above or below-grade crossings for these modes will reduce confl icts with 

freight trains. These may also mitigate the divisive impact of a rail line on 

the community, allowing for more integration between neighborhoods on 

both sides of the tracks. Removing an at-grade crossing can reduce noise 

(no whistle blowing required) and may increase the effectiveness of freight 

rail operations. If removing at-grade crossings is not an option, upgrading 

rail crossings with new technologies, such as four quadrant crossing gates 

and intelligent signal monitoring system, can help make existing at-grade 

rail crossings safer. 

2.4 Effective Operations and Management 

Policies 

In addition to providing a safe and effective transportation system, 

there are a number of strategies that can be implemented to improve 

the operations of the transportation system to reduce freight impacts. 

Such operations strategies include incentivizing off-peak deliveries to 

reduce freight contributions to congestion during peak travel periods, 

creating “quiet” or “no whistle” zones along rail lines to reduce noise 

pollution in residential areas, and installing “hush kits” to reduce 

airplane noise impacts. 

INCENTIVES FOR OFF-PEAK DELIVERY

One way to minimize the freight contribution to traffi c congestion in 

a region is to provide incentives that encourage delivery during offpeak-periods such as nights and weekends. Since one 70-foot long 

tractor-trailer occupies space on the road equivalent to 1.5 to 8 passenger 

cars depending upon the type and condition of the roadway,40 any 

reduction in peak-hour truck volumes can yield signifi cant congestion 

relief benefi ts. It can also reduce the environmental impacts of goods 

movement since the time trucks spend idling in traffi c typically translates 

into wasted fuel and increased emissions. 

40 Highway Capacity Manual 2000, Transportation Research Board.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Successful implementation of off-peak delivery incentives requires 

freight carriers and receivers to come to an agreement about delivery 

times. Modeling simulation research suggests that the businesses that 

are most receptive to off-peak deliveries are those that would likely 

be open during off-peak hours anyway, such as restaurants, bars, 

convenience stores, 24-hour supermarkets and big-box retailers, and 

medical facilities.41 The same research also found that off-peak delivery 

activity is driven mainly by receivers’ preferences. This is because the 

freight transportation industry is fragmented and intensely competitive, 

which makes it hard for carriers to unilaterally impose delivery times 

on their customers. The model found a positive correlation between 

tax deductions given to receivers and off -peak delivery participation 

rates among both carriers and receivers. This suggests that incentives 

targeted towards the receivers of freight may have the largest impacts on 

congestion relief. Such incentives might be paired with discounted truck 

tolls on nights and weekends, which might encourage carriers to engage 

in off-peak deliveries where feasible. 

At the local level, agencies, ports, and freight carriers can work together 

to adjust the times during which freight movements occur within 

municipalities. There are a number of options, which have different 

benefi ts and drawbacks:

• Encourage off-peak delivery/pick-up times for major freight 

generators. Major freight generators, such as seaports, can reduce 

peak-hour traffi c congestion by incentivizing goods pick-up/delivery 

during off-peak hours. For example, the Ports of Los Angeles and Long 

Beach created a program called PierPASS, which provides incentives for 

shippers to move cargo at night and on weekends, rather than during 

congested daytime hours. This leads to reduced queues at the Port, 

which reduces truck idling and therefore has a positive impact on the air 

quality of surrounding communities. One drawback of this strategy is 

that off-peak hours usually are night hours, or quiet hours. If the freight 

facility or port is located in or near a residential area, this strategy may 

result in increased noise pollution near the facility. 

• Use an appointment system to schedule delivery of goods to 

freight pick-up or drop-off facilities. At facilities where numerous 

trucks are scheduled to deliver or pick up goods every day, it may 

be benefi cial to create an appointment system to clear traffi c. For 

41 Silas, Michael S. ‘A Simulation-Optimization Formulation for Design of OffPeak Delivery Policies.’ Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, presentation dated 

September 18, 2007. Retrieved April 12, 2010 from http://www.nymtc.org/

download_fi le.cfm?fi lename=Silas-2007-09-21.pdf.

Example of Restricted 

Downtown Core 

Delivery Hours – Boston, 

Massachusetts

The City of Boston offers an 

example of a management policy 

that can reduce congestion and 

limit competition between trucks 

and automobiles for curb space.

Boston prohibits commercial 

vehicles from using certain 

downtown streets within the 

Downtown Crossing area (a 

high business and commercial 

area) between 11:00 a.m. and 

6:00 pm. This helps to reduce 

congestion during the evening 

peak period of 3:00 p.m. to 

6:00 p.m. Exceptions are made 

for trucks with time-sensitive 

cargoes, including trucks from 

Brinks, FedEx, and the U.S. 

Postal Service.

Source: http://www.downtown

crossing.org/visit/vehicle.php.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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example, if 5:00 p.m. is a very congested time when all carriers would 

like to pickup goods, an appointment system would require goods 

to be picked up at the discretion of the business or factory – this 

would enable the business to spread out the times at which goods 

are picked up, which can improve operations and lower the number 

of trucks around the factory at one time. This, in turn, can reduce 

negative externalities for surrounding communities and traffi c. Any 

appointment system should be developed in coordination with 

the trucking industry, as it will likely impact company’s logistics 

patterns, labor needs, and scheduling. 

• Implement restricted delivery hours in the downtown core or 

create surcharges for peak-hour delivery. This strategy can reduce 

congestion and potential confl icts between residents and goods 

movement activities in the downtown core during peak travel 

times. In some cases (mostly smaller deliveries), this strategy can 

be coupled with the use of unattended delivery systems (such as 

electronic drop boxes or off-site collection locations) to minimize the 

impacts on labor or business opening hours. 

• Implement restricted delivery hours in residential zones. This 

strategy can reduce congestion in residential zones during peak 

personal travel hours or “quiet” hours. The main reason to do 

this would be to reduce the noise impact from freight movement 

on neighborhood residents during the least desirable periods for 

noise. This strategy is not applicable everywhere, as the shifting of 

truck travel from one period of the day, from nighttime to daytime, 

for example, may result in negative impacts on traffi c congestion, 

by pushing more trucks onto the road during peak daytime 

traffi c hours. 

• Modify rail hours of operation to minimize noise/vibrations during 

“quiet” hours. Trains can create noise pollution due to contact with 

the rails and their horns. For residences in close proximity to the 

railroad, vibrations may be another impact felt by residents. One 

strategy is for railroads to voluntarily move goods only during 

daytime hours when most residents are not asleep or at home, 

thus reducing confl icts. This is likely only a potential strategy for 

smaller, regional “shortline” railroads. Some shortlines, such as the 

Morristown and Erie (M&E) Railway, have done this.42 

42 NCFRP 320.
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PROMOTE THE APPLICATION OF ANTI-IDLING TECHNOLOGIES

FOR TRUCKS

Idling trucks are recognized as a signifi cant source of localized pollution 

in neighborhoods around the country. A heavy-duty diesel truck engine 

can burn one gallon of diesel for every hour the engine idles, and emit 

tons of CO2

 and particulates over the course of a year. In many states 

and locales, truck idling is prohibited for periods longer than a few 

minutes. One method to reduce truck idling is to use on-board antiidling technologies such as engine control modules, automatic shutdown/turn-on systems, direct-fi red heaters, auxiliary power units, 

or generator sets. These technologies reduce or eliminate the need to 

idle the engine, although each has different capabilities (engine control 

and automatic shut-down/turn-on systems to not address cab comfort 

or power source needs, for example), and costs to install. Electrifi ed 

parking spaces can provide electrical power and cab heating or air 

conditioning while trucks are parked at spaces equipped with the 

technology. Through the SmartWay Program, the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA) has partnered with trucking companies 

throughout the country to upgrade truck fl eets with power units, 

generator sets, and other emissions-reduction technologies. Government 

agencies may fi nd it worthwhile to direct motor carrier and locomotive 

fl eet operators to programs like SmartWay for assistance in determining 

their emissions reduction needs and opportunities.43 

CREATE “NO-WHISTLE ZONES” OR “QUIET ZONES” FOR RAIL

While it is a Federal requirement for trains to blow their horns at at-grade 

intersections, there are some instances where alternate safety measures 

can be put in place that waive this requirement. The required measures 

are site-specifi c and vary per intersection, but can include measures such 

as four quadrant gates or public education. Communities can apply for 

“quiet zone designations,” but are responsible for all costs to make their 

crossings qualify.44 

43 More information regarding the U.S. EPA SmartWay Program is available 

from: http://www.epa.gov/smartwaylogistics/.

44 http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4ADFA_enUS361US367&q=fr

a+quiet+zone+&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&gs_rfai=.
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REDUCE OR MITIGATE AIRPLANE NOISE

Aircraft, especially older ones, create lots of noise for surrounding 

communities. As a result, airlines have retrofi tted many of their older 

planes with hush kits, which reduce the noise produced by aircraft. 

Newer airplanes are designed with larger fan blades, which turn at 

a slower speed and emit less noise. Installation of sound-protective 

walls between airports and adjacent sensitive land uses can reduce the 

spillage of noise associated with on-airport activities into surrounding 

areas. In addition, strategies that manage approach and on-the-ground 

operations, including suggested limits on use of reverse thrust upon 

landing, limitations on power used while taxiing, and reconfi gurations 

of runways or taxiways (where possible) to direct activity away from 

residential areas may be implemented to reduce noise impacts. The 

ability to implement these and other noise-reducing strategies at 

airports depends upon airport size, space availability, the location and 

confi guration of sensitive land uses near the airport and along approach 

paths, and day-to-day weather and runway conditions.45 

2.5 Education and Outreach 

Lack of awareness is a key reason that logistics needs are not often 

considered in planning and development decisions. Local and regional 

authorities can therefore make sure that its staff members are well 

educated in freight and land use issues, and can develop and deliver 

training targeted towards planning and zoning board offi cials and 

professional planners that educates them on logistics and freight needs 

with regard to transportation and land use planning. This can help 

provide the institutional push to integrate freight into the planning 

process. Through improving the understanding of material fl ows, 

receiving technical assistance and engaging and educating community 

groups and residents, and industry representatives, dialog about 

community needs and freight impacts can be undertaken in an educated 

manner, in which the benefi ts of freight and the community impacts are 

understood by everyone at the table. 

45 ACRP Report 15: Aircraft Noise: A Toolkit for Managing Community 

Expectations, available from: http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/acrp/

acrp_rpt_015.pdf.
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STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT

Freight-dependent businesses may be engaged in zoning and land 

use planning processes, however, they may not fully understand the 

transportation implications of zoning and land use decisions. Therefore, 

it is important for local and regional authorities to “go to them” by 

actively reaching out to the freight generators. For example, a regional 

body could host a “Freight Forum” bringing stakeholders and local 

planning agencies together periodically or on a regular recurring basis to 

discuss freight-related land use needs and issues.

ENGAGE COMMUNITY GROUPS AND RESIDENTS 

The communities who are impacted by freight have legitimate concerns 

about the noise, vibrations, light, air quality and other impacts they 

experience. While many communities may fi nd freight an undesirable 

neighbor, there are strategies that industry groups, possibly with the 

assistance of government, can implement to engage the community and 

become a welcome neighbor. 

• Create a neighborhood investment fund. Freight generating 

industries or freight carriers themselves can volunteer to give back 

to their surrounding communities by setting up neighborhood 

investment funds. These funds can help facilitate local economic 

development, which improves the lives of those in surrounding 

communities by adding jobs and improving services. This also can 

work as a public relations tool for the freight company, as direct 

investment in the community can lead to better relations with 

neighbors and local offi cials. 

• Hire locally. Another strategy that helps to make the economic 

benefi ts of freight uses very evident to nearby communities is to 

develop an on-site workforce composed largely of community 

residents. This also can serve to improve private-sector relations 

with the community and offi cials. 

• Create complaint hotlines and open communication with 

neighbors and the community. It is important to create a way for 

neighbors and the community to express their concerns, so that they 

can be addressed as appropriate by the business. Businesses can add 

such information to their web sites, while the government also can 

take complaints, if citizens feel more comfortable going to the local 

jurisdiction for complaints. 
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TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE TO LOCAL JURISDICTIONS

Oftentimes, inadequate consideration for freight in local land use and 

development decisions stems from a lack of freight provisions in local 

comprehensive planning efforts and associated zoning codes and land 

development regulations (LDR). As a result, freight and logistics needs 

end up as an afterthought in the planning and development review 

process. This can result in development projects getting approved even 

if the plans do not include suffi cient provisions for effi cient freight 

operations. For example, a freight and land use study in Atlanta found 

examples of large new mixed-use (residential and commercial) centers 

with no loading zones, off-street truck parking, or rear access for trucks. 

This could easily lead to confl icts between freight and passenger vehicles, 

not to mention pedestrians. The same study found instances of new 

residential development immediately adjacent to truck and rail terminals 

(see Figure 2.4).46 

Figure 2.4 Residential Development Adjacent to 

Freight-Generating Land Use

Source: Atlanta Regional Commission.

State DOTs and MPOs can help resolve this problem by educating 

their own staff members, and other divisions and departments, and by 

offering technical assistance to local governments. 

46 Mays, Caroline A. ‘Integrating Freight and Land Use in the Atlanta Region.’ 

Presentation given November 9, 2008 to FHWA Talking Freight Seminars.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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This assistance should cover several key areas, including:

• Providing data and modeling tools that quantify freight needs and 

impacts. Often, state and regional agencies, through transportation 

planning activities and special studies such as corridor and subregional 

freight studies, have developed detailed freight data and regional modeling 

tools and products that local jurisdictions may not have the capability to 

develop or use on their own. By sharing these data, local jurisdictions 

may achieve a fuller understanding of freight activity occurring in 

their areas, weigh the costs and benefi ts of freight activity to the area’s 

economy and quality of life, and make appropriate policy decisions. 

• Assisting local jurisdictions in developing coordinated comprehensive 

plans that consider freight. Because agencies at all levels of government 

(local, regional, state, and Federal) are engaged in transportation, 

economic development, land use, and many other subjects of 

comprehensive plans, the task of ensuring that planning activities 

are coordinated with other agencies’ and neighboring jurisdictions’

activities can be daunting for local government planners. State and 

MPO agencies can assist by being engaged in local planning activities 

occurring within their jurisdictions, participating on advisory committees, 

and by cataloguing published planning documents for reference. 

• Model zoning/land development regulations. Since freight is often not 

considered in local zoning ordinances or LDRs, a regional authority can 

help by developing model land development and zoning codes for use 

and adaptation by local agencies. These codes may include provisions for: 

 — Buffer zones between incompatible land uses; 

 — Protecting undeveloped land near freight facilities from 

encroachment through zoning, easements, or outright purchase 

of the land (this has the benefi t of providing future expansion 

opportunities for freight businesses); or

 — Directing warehouse and distribution center development 

towards sites with multimodal access options.

• Develop “logistics supportive design guidelines.” Ultimately all 

development occurs at the site level, so it is important that freightfriendly design requirements are built into the site design and 

development review process. Regional agencies can provide site 

layout and building design guidelines that address logistics needs 

such as loading zones, street geometry, truck routes, and access points. 

This helps ensure that logistics needs are met for individual projects. 

Example of Offering 

Technical Assistance to 

Local Jurisdictions and 

Stakeholders – A Lesson 

from the Atlanta Regional 

Commission – Atlanta, 

Georgia

The Atlanta Regional 

Commission (ARC), the 

MPO for the Atlanta, Georgia 

region, offers a Community 

Choices Resource Center, which 

provides tools and guidance 

to communities to help them 

wrestle with land use decisions 

and (re)development plans. This 

service is a proven example of 

how a regional agency can assist 

local governments in making 

smart land use policy decisions. 

Through the Community Choices 

Program, ARC provides a broad 

range of tools, staff resources, 

and technical assistance to 

help local governments design 

communities that work for 

them. The goal is to assist local 

governments with making good, 

long-term decisions about where, 

when and how they should grow 

in order to achieve the unique 

and individual vision of each 

community. ARC has assisted 

over seven local governments to 

implement their growth and land 

use visions. 

Source: http://www.atlantaregional.

com/local-government/planningassistance.
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2.6 Putting it All Together

This section highlights, through three detailed case studies, specifi c 

examples of how issues in Sections 2.1 through 2.4 have been addressed 

and mitigated in three different metropolitan regions. Each case study is 

presented according to the following outline:

• Issue Background – insight into the key problem and causes of the 

issue addressed by the case study plan or initiative.

• Approach and Resolution – a summary explanation of the 

procedure, fi ndings and recommendations each case study plan or 

initiative identifi ed.

• Critical Success Factors – key points or “takeaways” that planners 

in other jurisdictions should learn from the case study subjects’ 

experiences.

Table 2.2 Key Issues Illustrated within the Best 

Practice Review

CASE STUDY: CITY OF CHICAGO’S INDUSTRIAL CORRIDOR PROGRAM

AND THE METROPOLIS FREIGHT PLAN: DELIVERING THE GOODS

Issue Background

Since its founding in 1833, Chicago has been a major transportation 

hub – growing from a small trade link between the Great Lakes and 

the Mississippi region – to the point where it now sees the convergence 

of over 500 freight trains a day, as well as thousands of trucks and a 

vibrant air cargo industry. Chicago’s residential housing market has 

been putting increasing pressure on many of the city’s prime industrial 

sites, especially those located near downtown. Many sites previously 

devoted to transportation and industry are now being converted into 

residential lofts and condominiums – leading to tension between uses 

Case Study Key Issues Addressed

Chicago Industrial 

Corridor Program 

• The importance of preserving industrial and freight-related land uses

• Retaining manufacturing in the urban core

Atlanta Regional Freight 

Mobility Plan

• Encroachment of residential development onto freight/industrial land 

uses

• Site design to mitigate freight/industrial noise, light, and dirt

Seattle’s Urban 

Mobility Plan 

• The use of restricted delivery hours in the urban core

• Provisions of off-street loading areas and reservation of on-street 

parking for trucks
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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and diminishing the city’s manufacturing employment base. These 

factors led to two different actions by two different groups:

The City of Chicago created an Industrial Corridor Program in the early 

1990s to protect and guide industrial land use development along specifi c 

corridors. Part of this included the creation of “Planned Manufacturing 

Districts (PMD).” The latter is a special zoning designation for a defi ned 

geographic area that limits the types of development to industrial 

activity, as well as other compatible land uses. The Industrial Corridors 

and the PMD are shown in Figure 2.5.

In 2004, Chicago Metropolis 2020 created The Metropolis Freight 

Plan: Delivering the Goods in 2004. Chicago Metropolis 2020, since 

renamed Metropolis Strategies, is not the region’s MPO, rather it is an 

organization composed of civic and business leaders, collaborating in 

an effort to secure the region’s economic competitiveness.47 Starting 

with the Industrial Corridor Program activities, this plan goes further 

to suggest a series of steps that Chicago Metropolis 2020 believes are 

needed to prevent future freight gridlock and to secure the economic 

benefi ts of growing freight traffi c.

Figure 2.5 Chicago’s Designated Industrial Corridors 

and Planned Manufacturing Districts

Source: City of Chicago.

47 “Metropolis Strategies” available from: http://www.metropolisstrategies.org. 
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Approach and Resolution

The City of Chicago established Planned Manufacturing District (PMD) 

zones in 1991 to preserve the city’s industrial economy. The zones 

protect industry from encroachment of incompatible land uses by 

disallowing residential and other sensitive uses within the PMD zones. 

The City established “buffer” subzones near the edges of some of the 

PMD zones that allow for a variety of commercial and institutional uses 

to smooth the transition between industrial and sensitive land uses. 

Chicago’s zoning code also includes performance criteria specifi c to the 

conditions within each PMD zone that limit the levels of noise, vibration, 

smoke and particulate matter, toxic matter, noxious odorous matter, fi re 

and explosive hazards, and glare or heat emitted from properties within 

the zones.48 

The City of Chicago’s Industrial Corridor Program is designed to support 

Chicago’s industrial environment by bringing company and community 

interests together to plan and implement improvements in dedicated 

industrial areas. Corridors are identifi ed by a series of characteristics, 

including their accessibility to goods dependent industries and transit, 

the existence of compatible uses within the corridor. By mid-2004, the 

City of Chicago had delineated 24 industrial corridors, and 35 were 

designated by 2011.49 The industrial corridors program has helped to 

organize and “legitimize” the industrial clusters throughout the City as 

neighborhoods or districts. The corridors have served as mechanisms 

through which appropriate redevelopment and improvement programs 

have been implemented.50

In 2004, this concept was expanded upon by Chicago Metropolis 2020, 

which completed the Metropolis Freight Plan: Delivering the Goods. This 

report began with a close study of the Industrial Corridor and Planned 

Manufacturing District program. It then went further, to complete an 

in-depth interview/discussion period, held with a wide range of industry 

professionals involved in freight, logistics managers, drayage carriers, 

commercial real estate developers, academics, transportation advocacy 

groups, county planning departments, municipal government, and law 

48 Zoning Ordinance, City of Chicago, available from: http://forum49.chicago.

il.us/local/docs/Pre2004ZoningLaw/section6.html.

49 http://www.cityofchicago.org.

50 http://www.cityofchicago.org/city/en/depts/dcd.html.
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enforcement. Finally, it included a truck modeling effort, including 

different scenarios of truck-only infrastructure, including a truck bypass of 

the downtown core. Outcomes from this effort include the identifi cation 

of a need for more intermodal facilities in the region, as well as the 

establishment of local truck routes to connect freight-generating facilities 

to the main freeway facilities effi ciently to reduce VMT and associated 

impacts. It also called for improved coordination between land use 

authorities and transportation agencies throughout the metropolitan region.

Critical Success Factors 

Two key lessons emerge from these two actions: 

• Preservation and maintenance of manufacturing and industrial 

land uses in urban areas. Both actions began with the assumption 

that it is critically important for cities to maintain a mix of land uses 

in order to support a full range of employment opportunities for 

residents. It also is vital that manufacturing and industrial land 

uses be maintained in their current locations in dense urban areas so 

that the jobs they provide can be reached by public transit systems 

and so that their freight transportation needs can be met on existing 

facilities.

• Zoning as a tool. The City of Chicago used several tools at its 

disposal, in this case zoning and land use planning, to maintain 

the viability of its manufacturing sector and attract new industrial 

development. By designating 35 industrial corridors, and 15 Planned 

Manufacturing Districts this land is preserved in a manner that 

means it will not be encroached upon by residential or commercial 

land uses. 

In all, these two efforts are an example of incremental freight and land 

use integration. They offer: 1) key lessons to any growing urban region, 

in particular those experiencing residential redevelopment pressures 

on industrial land, 2) guidelines by which to retain goods movement 

industries within the urban center, instead of pressuring them to relocate 

towards the urban fringe, and 3) a compelling argument for cities to 

understand the hidden costs of these changes, both in terms of job loss 

and new infrastructure needs. 

CASE STUDY: ATLANTA REGIONAL FREIGHT MOBILITY PLAN

Issue Background

According to the Atlanta Regional Freight Mobility Plan, the population 

of the Atlanta region is expected to reach almost seven million people by 
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2030. The region is one of the fastest growing metropolitan areas in the 

nation. This growth has and will continue to put development pressure 

on areas with existing infrastructure. Key freight corridors with access 

to the interstate and major arterials also are becoming prime space for 

high-density offi ce and residential or mixed-use developments. As a 

result, the incidence of adjacent but incompatible land uses is growing 

(e.g., residential subdivisions bordering warehouse facilities). As 

property values increase within the urban core, distribution and logistics 

fi rms locate facilities at more remote sites at the metropolitan fringe, a 

phenomenon that has come to be known as “freight sprawl.” 

Approach and Resolution

The Atlanta Regional Commission (ARC) identifi ed the connection 

of land use and transportation as a key element of developing the 

ARC Regional Freight Mobility Plan. The Plan is intended to provide 

guidance for accommodating freight facilities and reduce the sprawl 

of freight activities (illustrated in Figure 2.6) by developing goods 

and trade-related distribution facilities within existing transportation 

corridors and zones. This can also help ensure a balance between the 

movement of people and the movement of goods across key corridors in 

the region. The goals of integrated freight-land use planning are to:

• Preserve the region’s quality of life by seeking “peaceful coexistence”

of freight and non-freight land uses; 

• Preserve and enhance effi cient and safe access and mobility for 

freight transportation purposes; and

• Support smart transportation planning and projects.51

The ARC study examined planning documents completed by various 

agencies in the region, interviewed stakeholders, and conducted a review 

of literature produced in other regions to identify freight and land 

use issues and strategies that are in use, or could be used, to mitigate 

confl icts. 

51 Atlanta Regional Commission, Atlanta Regional Freight Mobility Plan, 

February 2008.
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Figure 2.6 Geographic Distribution of Warehousing/ 

Distribution Centers in the Atlanta Region

Source: Atlanta Regional Freight Mobility Plan, Atlanta Regional Commission.

Critical Success Factors

The Freight Mobility Plan discovered the following issues and opportunities:

• Recognizing corridor-level impacts of freight. The study found that 

corridor-level impacts of freight-related development is fairly minimal, 

and that the focus of freight planning activities tends to rest in resolving 

local traffi c concerns and accommodating future traffi c volumes rather 

than management of mobility and access. Many planning documents 

and processes do not fully understand logistics and supply chain systems 

and the needs of different freight system users, and they apply one-sizefi ts-all solutions to freight issues that may not address unique activities 

or impacts, and may result in the potential for poorly coordinated land 

use planning. As the region grows, so too will the need for freight 

infrastructure to support the population. Current trends indicate that 

freight facilities will locate in areas with relatively inexpensive land 

capable of accommodating facilities with large footprints, and with access 

to high-speed/high-capacity transportation networks. A proactive 

approach is needed to plan to accommodate the needs of the industry, to 

keep freight mobile and the population mobile. 

• Recognizing freight’s contribution to a region’s economy. The 

plan recognizes that freight-supportive land use planning is critical 

to sustaining the Atlanta Region’s economic vitality, mobility, and 

quality of life in the future. The plan advised ARC and its planning 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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partners to evaluate in future Metropolitan Transportation Plans 

(MTP) and Regional Development Plan (RDP) updates and pursue 

the following objectives:

 — Preserve freight mobility as the region continues to develop;

 — Coordinate freight and non-freight land uses and mobility needs;

— Ensure adequate segregation and protection of different land uses; and

 — Build goods movement and logistics needs into land 

development and site design.52

CASE STUDY: CITY OF SEATTLE URBAN MOBILITY PLAN

Issue Background

Seattle’s Urban Mobility Plan (UMP) was undertaken in order to chart 

a course for the City as it undergoes rapid population and employment 

growth in the coming decades. The goal of the plan was to ensure that 

Seattle’s Center City would continue to grow in size, economic vitality, 

and accessibility through improving the effi ciency of infrastructure, 

while also making it more inviting, and accommodating to users. The 

Plan specifi cally recognizes the importance of goods movement to 

support industry, facilitate port activities, and attract businesses. 

Approach and Resolution

The UMP includes a section detailing best practices in freight movement, 

which identifi es practices in use or under consideration by other cities to 

keep freight moving in congested multiuse areas. Many of the examples 

profi led in this review are European cities, since they often deal with 

tighter geometric requirements that U.S. cities and have been considering 

this issue for many years. Recent developments include:53

• Low emission zones – where vehicles can only enter a designated Low 

Emission Zone (LEZ) if they meeting specifi c emissions criteria set by the 

local government (currently in use in Sweden, Amsterdam, and London).

• Combined-use lanes – where lanes are designated for different 

uses throughout the day – for example certain time periods allow 

through -traffi c, truck stopping, or parking (currently is being used 

on Barcelona’s Balms Street arterial).

52 Ibid.

53 Briefi ng Book, Seattle Urban Mobility Plan, January 2008.
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• Preferential zoning or property tax relief for properties used in 

urban goods movement – which offers incentive to incorporate 

goods movement into new development plans, exists in several 

Canadian cities.

• Unattended delivery systems – that allow deliveries to be made 

when offi ces are closed or recipients are not at home, so trucks do not 

need to return goods to the depot for later delivery. This may be in 

the form of a drop box, or a convenience store. 

• Retail delivery stations – micro-warehouses are used to receive large 

truckloads of goods. The goods are later transported to individual 

businesses by pallet truck, small carts, etc. This reduces the amount 

of large truck trips in the urban core (currently in use in Brussels). 

In addition, the UMP reviewed a wide variety of other freight and land 

use coordination methods from around the U.S., including restricted 

delivery hours, incentives for off-peak deliveries, and combined use or 

freight-exclusive lanes. 

The UMP also identifi ed a set of policies and practices that Seattle could 

use to best manage urban freight operations in a manner that both 

optimizes street operations and ensures safety. These proposed policies 

and practices are summarized in Table 2.3.54

Table 2.3 City of Seattle Policies to Manage Urban 

Freight Operations

54 Ibid.

Key Issues Addressed

Reserve some on-street parking for commercial vehicles.

Reserve some on-street parking for commercial vehicles.

Require permits for all over-dimension trucks.

Require new developments to provide off-street truck loading areas.

Retain alleys for truck deliveries and garbage/recycling collection.

Provide signage for truck drivers to identify appropriate routes and note prohibitions.

Provide businesses with information regarding route closures and detours early enough for them to 

adjust routes or delivery schedules if required.

Provide real-time information about incidents that will disrupt traffi c operations.
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Critical Success Factors

• Establish space for freight. By requiring new developments to 

provide off-street truck loading areas, and reserving some onstreet parking for commercial vehicles, Seattle is implementing a 

management policy that will offer commercial vehicles a “place to 

work” while loading and unloading. This limits illegal and unsafe 

parking that may have occurred otherwise. 

• Share travel information. By providing appropriate signage 

for truck drivers, and making information on route closures and 

incidents available to the freight community, businesses can take 

appropriate measures to “plan accordingly” and avoid undesirable 

routes and congested areas. When incidents occur, trucks and 

passenger vehicles may divert to other routes, but not all routes are 

suitable alternatives for trucks. By having truck route and detour 

information available, trucks can take appropriate actions to avoid 

sensitive areas. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

 -3-1

3.1 Purpose and Content

The term “sustainability” represents a pattern of human activity that 

aims to use the planet’s resources in a manner that meets the needs of 

the world’s population now and in the future, while achieving a balance 

between environmental conservation, economic development, and livability 

(including consideration of social equity and justice). The United States 

Department of Transportation has elevated discussions of sustainability 

in its “Livability Initiative,” which is tasked to improve the relationship 

between infrastructure and community needs across the nation. Specifi cally, 

the U.S. DOT defi nes sustainability and livability as the following:

“Livability is about tying the quality and location of transportation facilities to 

broader opportunities such as access to good jobs, affordable housing, quality 

schools, and safe streets. This includes addressing safety and capacity issues on 

all roads through better planning and design, maximizing and expanding new 

technologies such as ITS and the use of quiet pavements, using Travel Demand 

Management approaches to system planning and operations, etc.” 55

Sustainability is achieved at the intersection of social, economic, and 

environmental factors (see Figure 3.1). 

Figure 3.1 Relationship of the Three Dimensions of 

Sustainability

Source: FHWA Sustainable Highways Program.

55 http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/livability/.

3.0 Freight Land Use and Sustainability
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3-2

For example a project that results in economic development while also 

benefi tting local communities and the environment. If only two out 

of three overlap, (for instance social and economic), it may result in a 

situation that is “equitable,” but does not necessarily consider the needs 

of the environment. Likewise, a situation that balances the social needs 

with environmental needs may be “bearable,” but may not result in 

optimal economic gains. Sustainability is a concept that is achieving an 

increasingly high level of public awareness and interest, and is beginning 

to shape government transportation and land use policies, particularly 

through actions such as FHWA’s Livability Initiative. 

The private sector is also addressing sustainability concepts, with 

increasing effort being placed on creating effi ciencies within logistics 

supply chains. Though some of this is in response to consumer and 

government demands, it is also driven internally, by the recognition 

that increased effi ciency often results in cost savings – from reduced 

fuel consumption, reduced vehicle miles traveled (VMT) and 

other opportunities. 

This section discusses the linkages between land use planning and 

policies on a variety of different aspects of sustainability, including 

economic development, environmental sustainability and social 

factors (including livability, equity and justice). For example, in some 

growing urban areas, local and regional “smart growth” land use 

policies can result in the relocation of industrial and freight land uses to 

regional fringe areas, which can result in negative environmental and 

transportation impacts (increased truck VMT and effi ciency) that can 

run counter to the goals of smart growth. This section also discusses 

how freight land uses can be integrated into existing land use plans 

in a manner that maximizes the benefi ts of freight, while minimizing 

the negative impacts to communities and the natural environment. 

Guidance about how to avoid or mitigate the unintended consequences 

of land use decisions on freight movements is provided. 

SECTION ORGANIZATION

This section is divided into the following three sections:

• Freight and Land Use Sustainability Issues and Implications – 

Provides an overview of issues related to freight land uses and the 

three dimensions of sustainability and identifi es the confl icts that 

can result from land use decisions leading to “freight sprawl” and its 

impacts on environmental, economic, and social sustainability issues.

FHWA Livability Initiative

According to FHWA, livability 

is about tying the quality and 

location of transportation 

facilities to broader opportunities 

such as access to good jobs, 

affordable housing, quality 

schools, and safe streets. Six 

guiding principles of livability 

include:

• Develop safe, reliable and 

economical transportation 

choices;

• Promote equitable, affordable 

housing;

• Enhance economic 

competitiveness;

• Target Federal funding toward 

existing communities;

• Coordinate policies and 

leverage investment; and

• Invest in healthy, safe, and 

walkable neighborhoods—

rural, urban, and suburban.

Source: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/

livability.
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3-3

• Sustainable Freight Land Use Strategies – Presents strategies to 

preserve and restore freight facilities in urban areas and small towns. 

Examples of freight land use strategies that some areas are exploring 

and implementing, which uphold the principles of environmental, 

economic, and social sustainability are discussed in this section. 

• Summary and Conclusions – Reviews the key fi ndings from this 

section and discusses elements that will be incorporated into fi nal 

section of this guidebook.

3.2 Freight and Land Use Sustainability Issues 

and Implications

Freight transportation and land use systems have impacts on all three 

dimensions of sustainability – social, environmental, and economic. 

Issues such as emissions reductions and climate change impacts, job 

creation and preservation, and community impacts of freight are some of 

the current issues relevant to freight land use sustainability. This section 

provides an introduction to the freight and land use issues relevant to 

each aspect of sustainability and lists the sustainability implications of 

freight land use trends and decisions. 

In many communities, “traditional” land use policies, many of which 

have been in place for decades, encourage sprawling development on 

greenfi elds and disinvestment from traditional urban core areas and small 

towns. High-property values and/or “not-in-my-back-yard” (NIMBY) 

sentiments regarding freight have often led to the reclamation of existing 

industrial and freight land uses (particularly where the land is vacant or 

underutilized) for residential or recreational uses, and an exclusion of 

new freight land uses in growing communities. Combined with economic 

factors such as real estate values, these practices have, in many places, 

encouraged freight land uses to locate, or relocate, farther and farther away 

from population centers where the goods are consumed, resulting in a 

phenomenon known as “freight sprawl.”

While removing freight land uses from populated areas ensures that 

there will be fewer freight impacts on communities that abut freight 

facilities, there are many impacts that such policies introduce or 

exacerbate, though likely unintentionally. In addition, poor planning for 

freight facilities located in urbanized areas can result in negative impacts 

on nearby residents, some of these communities could be low-income or 

minority populations which brings up environmental justice issues. The 

potential ramifi cations of land use policies which exclude freight impact 

all three aspects of sustainability environmental sustainability, economic 

development, and social factors.
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ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND IMPLICATIONS

Measures to improve the environmental aspect of freight sustainability 

seek to diminish the environmental footprint of freight operations. 

Among other impacts, the movement of freight contributes to regional 

and local air and water pollution – in particular along high-volume 

freight facilities, corridors, and at large freight generating land uses. 

The buildings and infrastructure of freight facilities and operations can 

disrupt habitat and can contribute to the loss of green and open space. 

Therefore, efforts to reduce the impacts of freight often focus on the 

reduction of freight-related emissions, by good site design and practices 

that minimize the impacts and runoff from freight facilities, by creating 

more fuel-effi cient freight vehicles and facilities, and by recognizing and 

addressing climate change impacts. 

Freight movement and freight facilities can impact the natural 

environment in many different ways. The movement of freight 

contributes to regional and local and air pollution – both from runoff 

from freight land uses and from particles emitted in the combustion 

process. The buildings and infrastructure of freight facilities and 

operations can disrupt habitat and can contribute to the loss of 

greenspace and open space. Other potential environmental impacts of 

freight land use decisions include:

• “Freight sprawl” can result in greater VMT and related congestion 

and emissions impacts, as trucks must travel greater distances 

between port and rail terminals in older industrial areas, and 

distribution centers and warehouses located farther into the exurban 

and rural areas. This phenomenon may also result in longer return 

trips to customers located either in the metropolitan area or other 

exurban locations. 

• Poorly planned freight hubs and systems create congestion, causing 

delays and increasing costs for fuel and time. In addition, poorly 

planned freight systems create congestion that affects other users of 

the transportation system, increasing delays, fuel use, and costs.

• The emissions from the movement of freight (PM, Ozone, Carbon 

Dioxide, and others) directly impact the natural environment, human 

health, and property. In addition, these emissions also contribute 

to regional and atmospheric changes that can exacerbate acid 

rain, ozone depletion, damage to crops, plants, and property, and 

contribute to global warming concerns. Sprawling land development 

can result in longer trips (increased VMT) and hence, more PM and 

GHG emissions. 
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• Expanding or relocating freight facilities may require a conversion of 

land from greenspace to industrial facilities. Greenspace can prevent 

soil erosion and absorb rainwater, and help to improve drainage and 

avoid fl ooding. Trees and shrubs can absorb pollution and reduce 

the urban heat island effect, and provide a buffer zone that can help 

reduce noise pollution. In addition, greenspace serves as a valuable 

recreational space to play, gather, and rest. It has also been shown 

to raise property values and protect the livability and vitality of 

communities. 

• Land uses associated with freight facilities and corridors have the 

potential to negatively impact water supply in several ways. If 

done improperly, without adherence to environmental regulations, 

fueling, maintenance, cleaning, and other routine operational 

activities can lead to pollutants in surrounding surface and ground 

waters and soils. 

• The land uses associated with freight facilities and movement often 

consists of large amounts of impervious surfaces which can lead to 

increased non-point source storm water runoff into surrounding 

waterways. Though new buildings are typically required to meet 

specifi cations regarding runoff and ground cover, many existing 

facilities may not meet those requirements.

Emissions Reductions

Emissions from the movement of freight can have serious impacts on 

public health, as well as on the natural environment. From the public 

health perspective, the presence of emissions have been linked to 

health conditions, including: reduced lung function, asthma and other 

respiratory illnesses, increased risk of cancer, and premature death 

(especially in vulnerable groups such as children and the elderly). Diesel 

exhaust from freight vehicles is a primary source of several healthharming emissions, including:

• Particulate Matter (PM) is divided into two subcategories: PM10

(particles between 2 and 10 microns in diameter); and PM2.5 (particles 

less than 2.5 microns in diameter). Freight is a signifi cant source of 

PM. In fact, the transport sector is responsible for over one-half of 

all PM10 emissions,56 and freight sources comprise 51 percent of that 

total (not including off-road diesel equipment, some of which is used 

for freight applications).

56 U.S. EPA 2005 National Emissions Inventory.
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• Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions, which, when combined with 

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), light, and heat, produces Ozone. 

• Ozone is a pollutant that is a signifi cant health risk, especially for 

children with asthma and the elderly. It is also the main contributor 

to urban smog. 

In addition to these public health impacts, freight emissions comprise 

close to one-third of U.S. transportation greenhouse gas (GHG) 

emissions, and have grown by more than 50 percent since 1990.57 

Efforts to reduce the emission of harmful pollutants and GHGs into the 

atmosphere include: 

• Transportation demand management strategies to reduce the amount 

of vehicle miles traveled (VMT) by offering and incentivizing the use 

of alternative transportation modes.

• Transportation system management to improve the effi ciency of 

transportation system operations, reduce congestion and bottlenecks 

(which can cause emissions “hot spots” from the high concentration 

of idling vehicles).

• Advanced vehicle and fuel technologies to reduce exhaust and 

evaporative emissions from truck, locomotive, and marine engines.

• Regulatory measures, such as the U.S. DOT and Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA) proposed “Greenhouse Gas and Fuel 

Effi ciency Standard”58 for trucks and buses, the fi rst national standards 

aimed at GHG emissions. If implemented, the standards could result in 

signifi cant fuel and cost savings over the life of a truck or bus vehicle. 

Understanding and Responding to Climate Change Impacts

The emissions from the movement of freight contribute to regional and 

atmospheric changes that can exacerbate acid rain, result in damage 

to crops, plants, and property, and contribute to global warming 

concerns. Although there is little documentation of the specifi c effects 

of freight movement on climate change, much work has been done on 

the transportation-sector’s contribution as a whole to global warming, 

including freight. 

57 Federal Highway Administration. Freight and Air Quality Handbook, 

May 2010.

58 http://www.epa.gov.
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Recent estimates (Figure 3.2) suggest that direct transportation emissions 

are responsible for 29 percent of total U.S. GHG emissions. Of that total, 

approximately one-third comes from freight sources,59 through key 

emissions, including Carbon dioxide (CO2

), Hydrofl ourocarbons (HFC), 

Nitrous oxide (N2O) and Methane (CH4). CO2 alone accounts for 95 

percent of total transportation-related GHG emissions.60 

Figure 3.2 U.S. Transportation-Sector GHG 

Emissions by Mode

Source: Cambridge Systematics, Inc. Analysis of U.S. EPA Emissions Data Program.

In the long run, climate change may have signifi cant impacts on 

the freight transportation system as well. Increased precipitation, 

accelerated relative sea-level rise, and increased intensity of storms, 

including hurricanes, can negatively affect freight systems by exposing 

them to higher frequencies of fl ooding, potential rises in road and rail 

buckling due to heat, potential increases in subgrade erosion in fl ooded 

areas, and increased delays due to inclement weather. Erratic and 

severe weather affect the ability to move goods and to assure adequate 

safety in moving freight through the system. Beyond controlling 

emissions to reduce transportation’s contribution to climate change, 

the transportation sector will increasingly need to adapt to its effects 

by designing infrastructure to survive more severe climate conditions, 

achieving strategic redundancy in the transportation system to allow for 

the use of alternate routings when weather events or other emergencies 

59 Cambridge Systematics analysis of the U.S. EPA emissions data.

60 Most human-produced CO2

 is the product of fossil fuel combustion.
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compromise components of the system, and including disaster and 

climate change in scenario and emergency planning activities at the state, 

regional, and local levels.61 As shown in Figure 3.3, some transportation 

agencies are taking inventory of freight transportation facilities that are 

vulnerable to climate change impacts such as rising sea levels and storm 

surge brought on by hurricanes and tropical storms. 

Figure 3.3 Impact of Sea-Level Rise and Storm Surge 

on Rail Facilities in the Gulf Coast Region 

Source: U.S. DOT, USGS, 2008.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS

The economic component of sustainability strives to achieve an economic 

model in which the actions taken in the present will not diminish the 

prospects of future generations to enjoy the levels of consumption, 

wealth, utility, or welfare enjoyed in the present.62 As noted during the 

TRB Conference Proceedings Report 37 on Integrating Sustainability 

into the Transportation Planning Process, “this is the crux of sustainable 

development – how to have economic growth without environmental 

61 “Climate Change Impacts,” U.S. Department of Transportation, available 

from: http://climate.dot.gov/impacts-adaptations/forcasts.html.

62 “Sustainability,” The New Pelgrave Dictionary of Economics, available from: 

http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_S000482&editio

n=current&q=sustainability&topicid=&result_number=1.
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decay.”63 In the short term, jobs and growth tend to be the most 

important drivers of decisions at the local, state, and Federal level, and 

economic development plans attempt to ensure that a state, region, 

or city’s economy remains robust and diverse and that prosperity 

enjoyed today continues into the future. The challenge is ensuring that 

sustainability objectives are injected into real-world decision-making and 

the planning process. While economic growth initiatives to attract new 

business are included in many economic development plans, preserving 

existing economic activity also is an important part of an economic 

development strategy. Industrial preservation programs, an example of 

which is discussed later in this section, seek to maintain the viability of 

industrial land uses in the face of pressures to remove those land uses 

– such as rising land values and encroachment by other types of land 

uses. Implications of freight land use decisions impacting economic 

sustainability include:

• Freight is a tremendously important aspect of any region’s economy. 

The 2004 Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) Regional 

Goods Movement Study, for example, found that goods movement 

industries play a critical role in the economy, and that 37 percent 

of San Francisco Bay Area economic output is in manufacturing, 

freight transportation, and warehouse and distribution businesses.64 

These are the sectors employed in the production and movement of 

products, part, and raw materials. The retreat of freight land uses 

from population centers could reverse economic development by 

reducing economic activity in several sectors (such as manufacturing 

and distribution), and weakening an area’s economic diversity. The 

economic impact would extend to social impacts, as the retreat of 

industrial facilities would remove employment opportunities for 

area residents and potentially affect access to products. 

• When a former industrial facility is redeveloped into a residential or 

recreational facility, the new residents may experience substantial 

impacts, such as pollutant emissions, noise and light pollution, etc., 

from the remaining freight activity. Additional encroachments 

may change the character of the neighborhood from industrial to 

residential and threaten the viability of the remaining industrial uses. 

63 Thomas B. Deen Keynote Address, TRB Conference Proceedings Report 37 

on Integrating Sustainability into the transportation planning process. http://

onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/conf/CP37.pdf.

64 Regional Goods Movement Study for the San Francisco Bay Area, MTC (2004).
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SOCIAL ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS

The social dimension of sustainability takes on the need to address 

human needs fairly and effi ciently.65 This relates to livability and human 

rights issues and achieving better standards of living for disadvantaged 

populations while enhancing the quality of life of all populations. With 

respect to freight and land use, social issues can be apparent in negative 

freight facility and transportation impacts on residential areas, including 

those that impact disadvantaged populations. The location of freight 

facilities may also negatively affect workers’ access to jobs, especially for 

workers who do not have access to a personal vehicle and must rely on 

public transit. Accessibility within communities for delivering products 

is also important to livability (safety, etc.) and availability of essential 

products at reasonable costs. Sustainable freight land use practices that 

address these issues are presented later in this section. 

Externalities associated with the goods movement industry can 

negatively impact nearby residents. Increasing truck and train traffi c 

can bring noise, increased air pollution, truck parking and safety 

concerns, and congestion impacts. Residents near ports, distribution 

centers, manufacturing facilities and other freight generating land uses 

can be impacted by light and noise pollution from 24-hour operations. 

Community impacts can overlap with social issues, including 

environmental justice66 and equity concerns because communities 

with large proportions of disadvantaged populations tend to suffer 

disproportionate negative environmental impacts. Some of the potential 

community and social impacts of freight land use decisions include:

• Community safety-related impacts from truck movements can 

include injuries, and crashes, hazardous materials incidents, and 

security concerns. According to the Federal Motor Carrier Safety 

Administration (FMCSA), there were 3,380 fatalities from large truck 

crashes in 2009.67 

65 “Policy Guide on Planning for Sustainability,” American Planning 

Association, available from: http://www.planning.org/policy/guides/pdf/

sustainability.pdf.

66 In 1994, Executive Order 12898 defi ned Environmental Justice (EJ) as “the fair 

treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, 

national origin, or income.”

67 “2009: Historic Truck Crash Declines,” Federal Motor Carrier Safety 

Administration, 2010.
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• The (re)location of freight facilities from urban corridors can result 

in negative transportation impacts. For example, it may increase the 

vehicle miles traveled by trucks which have to dray freight between 

terminals such as ports, airports, and intermodal terminals and 

distribution centers or receivers. If these facilities are located far 

apart, trucks have to travel longer distances. In addition, locating 

facilities away from urban corridors could result in a smaller local 

labor pool and potentially long commutes for employees traveling 

from urban areas or small towns farther away In addition, the lack of 

transit service may make it diffi cult for employees who lack access to 

a personal vehicle.

• Environmental Justice (EJ) refers to equitable distribution of benefi ts 

and burdens of government policies, programs, and investments, 

and the avoidance of disproportionate burdens on low-income 

and minority populations. Often, freight facilities are located near 

communities whose populations are predominantly low-income 

and/or minority. While freight facilities provide employment 

opportunities and local tax revenue, the external impacts on nearby 

communities should be reduced or mitigated.

• Expanding freight operations or infrastructure in these communities 

requires taking strategies to reduce or mitigate impacts into 

consideration.68 

• Rail safety concerns tend to be concentrated around at-grade 

crossings (where the potential exists for vehicular/train interactions) 

as well as the issue of rail carrying HazMat material. Pipelines 

carrying oil and other potentially hazardous material traverse 

through residential areas, creating a situation that is generally safe, 

but has the potential for catastrophic incident. 

• Congestion is a recurrent problem in many regions throughout the 

nation. Apart from the economic cost of time lost to delay, there 

can also be public health consequences. Traffi c congestion has 

been linked to negative health effects caused primarily by stress – 

hypertension, headaches, and weakened immune system. 

• Air pollution from transportation sources presents a health risk as 

well. Emissions of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds 

(VOC) in diesel fuel transform into ozone, which contributes to the 

68 “Envision Freight: A Roadmap to Freight Compatibility,” Transportation 

Research Board, 2010, available from: http://www.envisionfreight.com.
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buildup of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere and could 

contribute to climate change. Particulate matter from road dust and 

engine exhaust can be a contributing cause for asthma. 

• Noise pollution is described by the EPA as “unwanted or disturbing 

sound.” In terms of freight movement, noise pollution complaints 

generally focus on truck sounds (including braking, loading, and 

engine sounds), train whistles, horns and movement, the sound of 

air cargo planes, or the sounds that tend to accompany industrial 

land uses. Noise pollution can have major consequences to people’s 

health. Problems can include annoyance, sleep disturbance, reduced 

productivity, hearing loss and tinnitus, cardiovascular disease, 

and effects on the immune system, among others. Noise induced 

Hearing Loss (NIHL) is the most common health impact,69 though 

research has shown that there are numerous other negative impacts 

on public health. 

• Light pollution has been linked to such adverse health outcomes 

as headaches, carcinoma and other cancers, sleep deprivation 

and associated health effects such as decreased mental capacity, a 

compromised immune system, depression, hypertension, and weight 

gain. Light pollution can also have environmental consequences 

such as disrupting delicate ecosystems by confusing animal 

navigation or changing predator-prey relationships. It can also waste 

energy if not being used for an active and necessary purpose.70 

69 http://www.epa.gov/air/noise.html.

70 Chepesiuk, P., “Missing the Dark: Health Effects of Light Pollution,” 

Environmental Health Perspectives, National Institute of Health, January 2009.
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3.3 Sustainable Freight Land Use Strategies

To offset sprawl, urban and small town disinvestment, and related 

impacts, many local and regional government agencies are adopting 

sustainable land use strategies, including strategies to accommodate 

freight in urbanized areas, and to develop freight facilities in clusters, 

to reduce the environmental and community impacts while providing 

benefi ts from freight transportation (cost of goods, accessibility of goods, 

accessibility of jobs) In addition to the “good neighbor” strategies such 

as effi cient truck routing and facility design to avoid and minimize 

neighborhood impacts identifi ed in Section 2.0, examples of sustainable 

freight land use strategies include industrial preservation, brownfi elds 

redevelopment, and freight villages. 

Example of Addressing Air Quality Impacts in a Region – The San Pedro Bay Ports Clean Air Action Plan (CAAP) – 

Los Angeles and Long Beach, California

The San Pedro Bay Ports Clean Air Action Plan (CAAP) is an emissions reduction plan adopted by the ports of Los Angeles and 

Long Beach to improve air quality in the Los Angeles basin by implementing strategies to reduce port-related emissions from 

ships, trains, trucks, terminal equipment, and harbor craft. Although the San Pedro Bay ports are a signifi cant source of diesel 

emissions in the region, the Federal and state governments have no authority over many port emissions sources (such as foreignfl agged vessels), so the ports can employ emissions strategies that other entities cannot.

The CAAP is a collaborative program that has been endorsed and adopted by both ports. Getting both ports on-board was 

critical because port tenants need assurance that they would not be subject to different requirements at each port. The plan also 

has the support of the South Coast Air Quality Management District, EPA, and California Air Resources Board. The CAAP 

is a fi ve-year plan, but it also has a long-term component that describes how fi ve-year emissions reduction actions would be 

integrated into port operations over the long term, and their expected impact on emissions. The plan targets PM emissions, but 

SOx

 and NOx reductions are secondary goals.

The CAAP focuses on three implementation strategies:

• Tenant Leases. Whenever new development occurs on port property, the port works with the tenant to put mitigation 

measures into the lease. When port tenants amend or renew their leases, the port must comply with the California 

Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) and the NEPA (if applicable). The CAAP serves as the guiding document for 

developing mitigation strategies during the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and the state-required Environmental 

Impact Report (EIR) phases of the project. The port then negotiates with the tenant to incorporate feasible mitigation 

measures into the lease. Measures that are not feasible for the tenant to undertake become the responsibility of the port. 

Examples of mitigation measures placed in a lease include requiring the use of shore power by ships berthed at the terminal 

and tenant adoption of clean yard equipment.

• Incentives. The ports provide monetary incentives to retrofi t older trucks accessing the terminals with emissions control 

devices, or replace them with new, cleaner models. This approach has been effective since trucks often access multiple 

terminals and are outside of the control of any one tenant. There also are incentives to use ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD) and 

to reduce vessel speeds when approaching the ports.

• Tariffs. The CAAP calls for tariff changes to encourage the adoption of emissions reduction strategies by vessels calling on the 

port, but to date these have not been implemented largely because of the economic downturn.

Source: http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/fhwahop10024/sect1.htm.
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INDUSTRIAL PRESERVATION

One sustainable practice is to implement strategies that preserve the 

viability of existing freight land uses. It is important for cities and towns 

to maintain a mix of land uses and to provide employment opportunities 

for residents and accessibility for goods movement. Industrial areas can 

be preserved by designating manufacturing or industrial districts. Such 

district designations ensure that there is a “place” for such land uses in 

the municipal code. 

The designations can be accompanied with zoning codes that ensure 

that industrial land uses remain separated from incompatible land uses, 

and to restrict the encroachment of residential and other incompatible 

uses on the industrial districts. This could include form-based zoning 

or performance zoning,71 the latter which specifi es the intensity of land 

uses that are acceptable. A good example of this is the City of Chicago,72

which has designated 35 industrial corridors, a designation that commits 

the City to maintain infrastructure and zoning that supports industrial 

activity along the corridors. As part of this, a special zoning designation 

called “Planned Manufacturing Districts (PMD)” was developed. PMD is 

a special zoning designation for a defi ned geographic area that limits the 

types of development that may occur in the area to industrial activity and 

other compatible land uses. Ten PMD sites have been identifi ed along 

the 24 corridors. 

Any industrial zoning code should also include provisions that require 

context sensitive solutions, such as lighting requirements, buffers, etc., 

(as recommended in Section 2.0) to limit the external impacts of freight 

and industrial land uses on adjacent land uses. Additionally, it is 

important to preserve freight access to multiple modes of transportation, 

for the sake of transportation system redundancy, freight transport 

effi ciency, and modal balance. Therefore, freight land uses with a 

combination of highway, rail, water, and air access offer particularly 

strategic opportunities.

71 Detailed description of different types of zoning codes, including Zoning 

Overlay Districts, form-based zoning, and performance zoning is included in 

Chapter 3 of this Handbook, Section 3.1.

72 Chicago Metropolis 2020: The Metropolis 2020 Freight Plan: Delivering the 

Goods, 2004.

Example of Industrial 

Preservation – The Puget 

Sound Regional Council’s 

(PSRC) VISION 2040 – 

Seattle, Washington

Seattle, Washington: The PSRC 

VISION 2040 demonstrates how 

proactive land use planning can 

shape a desired future scenario 

for freight land uses and preserve 

the viability of those uses in an 

urban environment.

VISION 2040 is a regional 

strategy for accommodating an 

additional 1.7 million people and 

1.2 million new jobs expected to 

be in the region by the year 2040. 

The plan is an integrated, longrange vision for maintaining 

a healthy region – promoting 

the well-being of people and 

communities, economic vitality, 

and a healthy environment. It 

contains an environmental 

framework, a numeric regional 

growth strategy, and six policy 

sections guided by overarching 

goals.

Recognizing that industrial land 

uses generate a signifi cant share 

of the region’s employment, 

VISION 2040 designated 21 

desired growth areas, including 

8 industrial and manufacturing 

centers. The industrial and 

manufacturing centers are areas 

in which clusters of freight 

generating industries are located. 

One goal of VISION 2040 is 

to preserve the industrial and 

manufacturing centers, and to 

continue to provide adequate 

public services. VISION 2040 

includes an implementation 

strategy, which will monitor 

the vital signs of each of the 

industrial and manufacturing 

centers (such as employment, 

number of facilities, etc.), 

comparing them to performance 

goals, and evaluating the success 

of the implementation program.

Source: http://psrc.org/growth/

vision2040/pub/vision2040-

document/.
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BROWNFIELDS REDEVELOPMENT

While much of the growth in freight land uses in recent decades has 

occurred at the fringe of metropolitan areas throughout the country, 

there are increasing pressures to develop or redevelop industrial and 

distribution land capacity near major seaports, intermodal terminals, 

and other freight hubs, which are often located in urban areas, to 

support growing international trade and domestic consumer demand. 

Brownfi elds, which are abandoned, vacant, or underutilized industrial 

parcels, represent opportunities for redevelopment to accommodate 

growth in freight land use demand. Many freight developers are 

recognizing the transportation costs associated with serving markets 

from distant facilities and desire locations closer to major freight 

terminals and consumer markets. Planners are recognizing the potential 

to restore urban and small town employment and opportunities to clean 

up contaminants that present health and environmental hazards and to 

restore sites to active use. 

Developing or redeveloping brownfi eld sites for modern freightsupporting uses such as industrial or distribution centers does not 

come without challenges, since many brownfi elds may be desirable to 

residential developers, especially in waterfront locations or areas in close 

proximity to downtowns. It is important that planners recognize that 

in some cases, “highest and best use” does not mean luxury residential 

development, but that supporting freight facilities is of importance to a 

municipality, county, and region. 

Because brownfi elds are former industrial sites, they are often linked 

or in very close proximity to freight rail and water port terminals, and 

are typically surrounded by other industrial land uses, minimizing 

the potential for impacts on residential neighborhoods. In addition, 

Brownfi eld sites usually provide an opportunity to redesign the area to 

meet current transportation needs. Brownfi eld redevelopment comes 

with many challenges, however, including the potentially high costs of 

remediating contaminated sites. Successful brownfi elds redevelopment 

strategies require comprehensive planning that includes land use, 

transportation and freight needs and impacts, streamlining of review and 

permitting processes, and the offering of incentives to offset the cost of 

remediation costs.73

73 “Brownfi eld Economic Redevelopment: Preparing Modern Intermodal 

Freight Infrastructure to Support Brownfi eld Economic Redevelopment,” 

North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority and the New Jersey Institute 

of Technology, 2003; “Brownfi elds and Land Revitalization,” U.S. EPA, 

available from http://epa.gov/brownfi elds/basic_info.htm#plan.
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Figure 3.4 Conceptual Site Plan for the 

Redevelopment of a Brownfi eld Site into a 

New Distribution Center Facility 

Source: North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority and New Jersey 

Institute of Technology, 2001.

FREIGHT VILLAGES

A freight village is a defi ned area, often master-planned, within which 

all activities relating to the transport, logistics and distribution of goods 

are carried out by various operators. Freight villages are effectively 

clusters of freight and logistics facilities where any number of supply 

chain activities (such as consolidation, value-added activities, and 

transloading) occur within the boundaries of the district. Often, freight 

villages include support services such as truck rest areas, banks, customs 

for international cargo, restaurants, and vehicle repair services. Freight 

villages come in many shapes, sizes and combinations of facility types, 

and can be applied in urban and suburban environments. The freight 

village concept originated in Europe in the 1960s, and includes examples 

in Barcelona, Paris, and The Netherlands. Alliance, Texas is a good 

example of an existing “freight village” in the United States. Several 

addition freight villages are also under consideration, including a 

potential freight village at Tremley Point in Linden, New Jersey and a 

possible Harlem River freight village in the Bronx in New York.
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The sustainability benefi ts of freight villages include reduced truck 

VMT due to the close geographic proximity of different supply chain 

components (intermodal terminals, distribution centers, etc.) and 

associated benefi ts, employment opportunities and “spin-off” economic 

activity generated by the supporting land uses such as banks and 

restaurants. Freight villages that incorporate multimodal terminals can 

also encourage freight to use alternative modes.74

3.4 Summary and Conclusions

Sustainability is a concept that is increasingly entering discussions of 

freight movement and freight generating land uses. Sustainability is 

often defi ned as contributing to environmental sustainability, economic 

development, and environmental justice. Therefore, the concept of 

sustainable freight is one that maximizes the positive features of freight 

movement (jobs, economic development, etc.) while minimizing the 

negative impacts to communities and the natural environment. Though 

74 “Feasibility of Freight Villages in the NYMTC Region,” New York 

Metropolitan Transportation Council, available from: http://www.nymtc.

org/project/freight_planning/freight_village.html.

Example of Brownfi elds Redevelopment – The North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority (NJTPA) and New 

Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Brownfi eld Economic Redevelopment Study

The NJTPA and NJIT Brownfi eld Economic Redevelopment Study identifi ed public sector initiatives that could help spur 

redevelopment of many abandoned and underutilized industrial sites in the region.

Recognizing that “freight sprawl” was having a noticeable impact on traffi c congestion and quality of life in the northern New 

Jersey region, and anticipating a signifi cant increase in port-related freight volumes traveling into the region (which would 

require more freight-supporting land-uses), the NJTPA and NJIT conducted a study to identify the potential for redeveloping 

brownfi eld industrial sites near the port terminals and the region’s population core. The study quantifi ed the expected growth 

in container traffi c and the associated demand for warehouse and distribution space, and gave specifi cations for the needs of 

modern facilities. An analysis of potential sites and government land use and environmental policies identifi ed the potential for 

redeveloping brownfi eld sites in the region.

The study found that at least 2,500 acres of brownfi eld sites suitable for freight-related redevelopment existed within just 10 

miles of the seaport, and thousands of additional acres existed up to 25 miles away. The sites ranged in size from a dozen to more 

than 100 acres, and many had desirable highway access and were located away from sensitive residential land uses.

The study showed that while some state policies encourage brownfi eld redevelopment (such as a fund that reimburses developers 

up to 75 percent of the site cleanup costs), there are many barriers to redeveloping brownfi elds, including a lack of coordination 

between government agencies at the state and local levels, confl icting requirements, delays caused by multiple reviews, and high 

costs for permitting and plan approvals. The study recommended policy changes and a number of transportation, environmental 

and planning recommendations to facilitate brownfi eld redevelopment.

The NJTPA and NJIT Brownfi eld Economic Redevelopment Study is an example of a regional visioning and planning tool to 

help the region identify the potential for reclaiming fallow industrial lands and to accommodate freight land uses in a more 

sustainable confi guration.

Source: http://www.njtpa.org/plan/Element/SmartGr/Brownfi elds/BERfi nalreport.aspx.
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there are many actions being taken at the state and Federal level to build 

sustainability into the planning process, challenges remain. This section 

has outlined some of the challenges, issues, and opportunities involved 

with achieving sustainability in the planning process. Section 4.0 will 

discuss, in more detail, some of the ways that these needs could be better 

integrated into the planning process, freight, land use, and sustainability 

impacts and needs of freight:

• The private sector is increasingly addressing sustainability concepts, 

with special focus on creating effi ciencies within logistics supply 

chains. Though some of this is in response to consumer and 

government demands, it is also driven internally, by the recognition 

that increased effi ciency often results in cost savings – from reduced 

fuel consumption, reduced truck VMT and other opportunities. 

• The environmental component of sustainability includes impacts 

to the natural and human environment. The movement of freight 

contributes to regional and local air and water pollution, can 

disrupt habitat, and can contribute to the loss of green and open 

space. In addition, freight emissions comprise close to one-third 

of U.S. transportation GHG emissions, and have grown by more 

than 50 percent since 1990.75 GHG emissions have been linked to 

environmental trends, including global warming, sea-level rise, and 

increasingly unpredictable weather patterns. 

• Emissions from the movement of freight can have serious impacts on 

public health. The presence of emissions have been linked to health 

conditions, including: reduced lung function, asthma and other 

respiratory illnesses, increased risk of cancer, and premature death 

(especially in vulnerable groups such as children and the elderly). 

• The economic component of sustainability strives to achieve an 

economic model in which the actions taken in the present will not 

diminish the prospects of future generations to enjoy the levels of 

consumption, wealth, utility, or welfare enjoyed in the present. This is 

a particular challenge, as many local and regional plans tend to focus 

on short-term economic development (job creation) and growth. 

75 Federal Highway Administration. Freight and Air Quality Handbook, May 

2010.
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• The social dimension of sustainability takes on the need to address 

human needs fairly and effi ciently.76 This dimension relates to 

livability and environmental justice issues and achieving better 

standards of living for disadvantaged populations while enhancing 

the quality of life of all populations. Important issues include 

ensuring the safety of the movement of freight, as well as minimizing 

the noise, light, and air pollution from freight land uses on their 

neighbors and providing access to affordable goods. 

Many local and regional government agencies are adopting sustainable 

land use strategies, including strategies to accommodate freight in 

urbanized areas, and to develop freight clusters in a manner that reduces 

the environmental and community impacts. In addition to the “good 

neighbor” strategies such as effi cient truck routing and facility design 

to avoid and minimize neighborhood impacts identifi ed in Section 2.0, 

examples of sustainable freight land use strategies include industrial 

preservation, brownfi elds redevelopment, and freight villages. 

76 “Policy Guide on Planning for Sustainability,” American Planning 

Association, available from: http://www.planning.org/policy/guides/pdf/

sustainability.pdf.
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4.0 Accounting for the Impacts and Needs 

of Freight

4.1 Purpose and Content

While the private and public sectors try to respond to rapidly and everchanging industry needs, the transportation planning community wants 

to better guide transportation investment to support economic and 

freight needs. States and regions are identifying ways to increase their 

ability to compete regionally, nationally, and globally. This includes 

coordinating investment to support new industries and understanding 

their changes in land use patterns and freight transportation needs. It 

is important for freight to be a “good neighbor” in its host communities, 

as described in the previous section, and land use and zoning policies 

also have to account for the needs of freight transportation. These needs 

include access, on-site circulation, building size and use needs, geometric 

requirements for trucks and/or railcars, adequate truck parking and 

loading areas or sidings and/or working tracks for railcars, and security 

provisions. Freight and community needs are not necessarily mutually 

exclusive. In fact, the needs of the private-sector freight community may 

align well with local and regional sustainable development strategies. 

Concepts such as industrial preservation, brownfi eld redevelopment, 

and freight villages, presented in Sections 2.0 and 3.0, could serve as 

“common ground” strategies through which the needs and aspirations 

of freight and planning agencies and stakeholders can be achieved. 

This section will provide an understanding of freight needs, land use 

and transportation planning practices, and opportunities to implement 

sustainable freight land use and transportation strategies.

SECTION ORGANIZATION

This section is divided into the following three sections:

• Freight Carrier/Shipper Land Use Needs – Identifi es the site 

selection criteria and site design features that are required for safe 

and effi cient freight operations.

• Land Use and Transportation Planning Tools to Address Freight 

Needs and Impacts – Examines the transportation and land use 

planning processes and identifi es strategies and action steps aimed at 

engaging private-sector stakeholders and incorporating freight needs 

into the planning processes.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Example of Site Selection 

Criteria – Roanoke Region 

Intermodal Facility Roanoke, 

Virginia

In order to provide both eastwest and north-south capacity 

for freight rail traffi c and to 

improve multistate freight 

rail facilities, as a part of the 

Heartland Corridor initiative, 

Virginia committed to building 

a new intermodal facility in the 

Roanoke region. A report was 

prepared which reviewed 10 sites 

and made recommendations on 

where to locate the facility based 

on the following evaluation 

criteria:

(a) Proximity and easy access to 

a major highway (Interstate 81); 

(b) Located on the Heartland 

Corridor’s rail line to ensure a 

competitive time advantage for 

freight shipments; 

(c) Suffi cient land available (65 

acres minimum if possible), an 

appropriate site confi guration 

for freight transfer operations, 

and located on relatively fl at 

topography; 

(d) Does not create the need 

for additional grade separation 

bridges, particularly in congested 

urban areas; 

(e) To the extent possible, seek 

to minimize associated roadway 

costs that might be required; and 

(f) Well confi gured from a rail 

operating perspective to avoid 

degrading other rail traffi c, result 

in more effi cient rail intermodal 

operations and result in lower 

relative facility development or 

delivery costs. 

This provides an idea of the types 

of variables that developers may 

take into consideration when 

selecting a site for a freight 

facility such as an intermodal 

facility. 

Source: Roanoke Region Intermodal 

Facility Report, March 2008.

• Putting It All Together – Demonstrates, through a series of detailed 

case studies, how cities and Metropolitan Planning Organizations 

(MPO) have addressed freight needs and incorporated sustainable 

principles into their land use planning processes. 

4.2 Freight Carrier/Shipper Land Use Needs 

for Effi cient and Safe Goods Movement

Freight shippers and carriers have a variety of needs that, if not met, can 

have critical impacts on effi cient and safe goods movement. This section 

focuses on the nexus between freight needs and land use planning 

and activities, which is followed by a discussion on how to take action 

at the local, regional, state, and private-sector level to address these 

needs through various methods and through integration into plans 

and processes. Shipper and carrier land use needs vary by region and 

activity type.

TRANSPORTATION AND LOGISTICS PHYSICAL AND OPERATIONAL

NEEDS – CAPACITY AND RELIABILITY

The most fundamental physical requirements for conducting freight 

operations are adequate freight system capacity and maintenance. This 

includes both capacity and maintenance on general freight infrastructure 

(such as interstate highways and railways) as well as in terminals and 

logistics centers such as rail yards, seaports, airports, and distribution 

centers. In this discussion, capacity refers primarily to freight system 

congestion and proper maintenance to facilitate the movement of goods 

to improve speed and reliability and reduce costs. Low congestion 

and proper maintenance are critical to shippers and carriers, as these 

factors impact travel time and reliable operations, and therefore impact 

cost for both industries and consumers. In areas where congestion 

and deteriorating infrastructure are the norm, the reliability of the 

system is eroded and the costs of moving goods between locations will 

increase. As a result, it is necessary to provide adequate capacity and to 

adequately maintain the freight system for all applicable modes in order 

to improve freight effi ciency. 

SUITABLE LAND FOR FREIGHT ACTIVITIES

Land is an important resource required for all freight transportation 

activities. A lack of available industrial land can create overcrowded 

existing facilities or may encourage companies to search elsewhere for 

locating their business. It also is important that land is available at the 

right locations. For example, in port communities, some waterfront land 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

4-3

near urban centers should be protected for freight uses or port expansion 

(if feasible) in order to keep goods close to market and to reduce truck or 

rail travel time and emissions. 

Some of the key desired characteristics of land for development include:

• Access to key markets within a given radius;

• Interaction with the transportation network, meaning effi cient and 

logical connections to interstate highways, railroad terminals, and/or 

major seaports and airports;

• Workforce availability, skill, and cost;

• Cost environment, including freight and logistics costs, labor costs, 

utilities, facilities costs, and business, real estate and, in some states, 

personal property taxes;

• Availability of suitable facilities or developable sites;

• Cooperation from local, state, and Federal agencies regarding 

permitting and regulations;

• Availability of public assistance and incentives; and

• Perception of low or reduced risk of natural hazards or climate 

change impacts.77

An inventory of land for development potential is critical information 

for private-sector stakeholders looking to develop, redevelop, 

expand, or relocate their facilities. In turn, it is important for local 

and regional governments to take the above freight selection criteria 

into account when selecting which land to make available for freightdependent uses. 

ADEQUATE LOADING AND STAGING ZONES, PARKING, AND

ENFORCEMENT

Freight carriers rely on adequate loading zones and parking to support 

loading and unloading of goods at freight facilities. Generally, three 

types of freight facilities exist which have differing loading zone and 

parking requirements: urban business districts, warehouses and retail 

centers, and intermodal or marine terminals. 

77 NCFRP 23, Preliminary Draft Report.
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Figure 4.1 Managed 

Curbside Loading 

Zone in New 

York City

Urban Business Districts

In urban environments in large cities and small town downtowns, where 

loading docks often do not exist, loading and unloading activities tend 

to occur curbside or in alleys. Management of the curbside loading/

unloading freight activities are typically defi ned by local zoning or other 

ordinances. Commercial loading zones tend to be located in front of 

commercial buildings with designated signage for the loading zone. 

Curbside loading zones may be enforceable during certain periods of the 

day, corresponding with business hours or off-peak delivery periods. 

Alleys also are points of access to commercial facilities, refuse pick-up, 

and deliveries at the rear lots. Many alleys are narrower than a twolane street and may not be wide enough to accommodate tractor-trailer 

combinations, or may only handle traffi c in a one-way pattern, with little 

or no room to turn around or back into a loading dock or bay. An alley 

may therefore be “blocked” when a delivery or pick-up is in progress. 

Some key considerations for managing urban loading areas include:

• Establish loading zones in areas that are as close to the receiving 

areas of shipping/receiving businesses as possible to reduce 

delivery/pick-up time and disruptions to pedestrian and vehicular 

traffi c that could result from moving goods to and from the truck. 

• Make sure commercial loading zones are designated as being available 

when demand is highest. Whether deliveries on a particular street tend 

to occur during normal business hours or during certain off-peakperiods, the commercial loading zones should be made available 

to meet the demand. Depending upon the other land uses present 

in the neighborhood, there may be competing demands for curb 

space (i.e., shoppers and business patrons may need on-street 

parking during business hours, while residents may demand onstreet parking overnight). Commercial loading zones should be 

established to meet freight needs while being sensitive to other 

demands for curbside space.

• Enforcement of parking and loading rules should be strict. To 

ensure that curbside and alley loading space is used effectively 

without impacts to traffi c operations and safety, enforcement of 

parking and loading rules is critical. Enforcement of vehicle types 

allowed to park or stand in the loading zones, time limits, and 

metering discourages parking by passenger vehicles in these loading 

zones, and encourages trucks to occupy the space for the shortest 

period of time possible, ensuring that space is available for other 

trucks. When trucks are unable to fi nd an appropriate place to load 

or unload, they may fi nd alternative means of making their deliveries 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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or pickups by double-parking, blocking travel lanes or driveways, or 

parking in other confi gurations that disrupt traffi c fl ows and could 

present unsafe conditions for passing traffi c. 

Suburban Retail Centers 

In suburban retail centers, such as shopping centers, shopping malls, 

big box retailers, etc., there is typically more space available to provide 

adequate loading/unloading and parking areas for trucks. Often, 

however, retail center site plans are developed with the “customer 

experience” as the top priority, while freight access, loading areas, and 

truck parking areas are considered as an afterthought. 

Key considerations for freight loading and parking at suburban retail 

facilities include:

• Ensure adequate loading dock space for receiving deliveries and 

for staging outbound shipments. Anticipated shipment volumes 

should be considered in the design process. If a possibility that 

more than one truck may have to pick up or deliver goods at the 

same time, multiple loading bays should be provided to serve 

them. Within the building, space for staging outbound shipments 

and receiving inbound shipments should be provided to expedite 

the process and to keep trucks at the loading docks for the shortest 

period of time possible. 

• Ensure adequate space for truck maneuvering. Providing adequate 

space for the largest trucks that will serve the facility is a critical 

consideration that is sometimes ignored. It is important to consider 

the size of the trucks that will serve the facility. Will all deliveries 

be made by vans or small box trucks, or will 53-foot trailers need 

to be accommodated? A tractor-trailer combination with a 53-foot 

trailer can measure between 70 and 75 feet in length, and require 

large turning radii and space to move into align the vehicle with the 

loading bays and back-in or pull-out. The minimum turning radii for 

a 68.5-foot tractor-trailer combination is shown in Figure 4.2. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Figure 4.2 Minimum Turning Radius Requirement 

for Interstate Semitrailers

Source: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/programadmin/y2kgb2.htm.

• Limit interaction with passenger vehicles. To the extent possible, 

opportunities to segregate freight traffi c with passenger vehicle 

(customer) traffi c on-site should be taken. Loading areas should be 

located at the rear of retail buildings, away from customer parking 

and entry points. Loading and customer parking areas may be 

accessed using separate driveways or access roads. 

• Provide space for trucks to park while awaiting loading or 

unloading. If a truck arrives prior to its scheduled delivery window, 

and it cannot pull up to the loading dock due to the presence of other 

trucks or because the facility staff are not ready to receive the truck, 

it will need a place to park and await service. A designated parking 

area should be provided on-site for this purpose. 

Warehouse and Distribution Centers

Warehouses, where goods are stored until demanded, and distribution 

centers, where goods are packaged, broken-down, or otherwise prepared 

for shipment to retailers or directly to consumers, are facilities designed 

for the receiving, handling, and shipment of freight. Warehouses 

and distribution centers may be located in urban, suburban, or rural 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

4-7

areas, and may be served directly by truck, rail or both. While most 

warehouses and distribution centers are designed and developed by 

companies that are experienced in industrial design and understand 

freight needs, there are several key considerations that public-sector 

offi cials should be sure to check for in site plan reviews.

• Segregate truck and rail traffi c. If a facility is being served by truck 

and rail, it is important to separate the two modes to the extent 

possible. Trucks and railcars should be served in separate loading 

dock areas. In some facilities, railcars and trucks are served from 

the same loading areas (see Figure 4.3). Such an arrangement causes 

confl icts, since all of the truck trailers must be moved out of the 

way in order for railcars to be moved along the track paralleling the 

loading docks. If a truck access route crosses a rail spur or working 

tracks, trucks may be subjected to lengthy delays as trains are 

broken-down, built, or as individual railcars are being positioned. 

Keeping the truck and rail circulation and working areas separated 

eliminates the confl icts between the two modes and allows both to 

operate as effi ciently and safely as possible. 

• Ensure adequate loading dock/rail shed space. Suffi cient loading 

docks for truck deliveries and rail sheds, which consist of spur 

tracks and loading docks where railcars can be loaded or unloaded, 

should be provided for truck-served and/or rail-served facilities. 

Anticipated facility throughput volumes for each mode should be 

considered in the design process to ensure that suffi cient space for 

delivery of inbound freight, and pick-up of outbound freight can be 

handled effi ciently, so that trucks and trains do not have to idle for 

long periods, waiting for dock or rail shed space to become available. 

• Ensure adequate space for maneuvering. Providing adequate space 

for trucks to move into and out of the loading docks and to circulate 

through the facility’s driveways and access routes is critical. Plan for 

suffi ciently large turning radii and space to move into align the vehicle 

with the loading bays and back-in or pull-out. The minimum turning 

radii for a 68.5-foot tractor-trailer combination is shown in Figure 4.2. 

• Ensure adequate space for drilling railcars. Space for railcars to 

be handled should also be provided if the facility is being served by 

rail. The activities of positioning, linking, and breaking-down blocks 

of railcars are referred to as “drilling.” In addition to rail sheds for 

loading and unloading, working tracks where blocks of arriving 

railcars can be broken down, and where departing railcars can be 

linked and prepared for pickup should be provided at or as near to 

the facility as possible. 
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• Provide space for trucks to park while awaiting loading or 

unloading. Designated parking areas for trucks to park while 

awaiting their delivery window should be provided on-site. 

Figure 4.3 When Truck and Rail Access Are Not 

Separated, Ineffi ciencies (Such as the 

Orphaned Railcar Shown, Center) Can 

Impact Operations

Source: Cambridge Systematics, Inc., 2008.

Intermodal and Bulk Transload Terminals 

Intermodal terminals are facilities where containerized cargo is 

transloaded from truck to rail, or vice versa. Bulk transload terminals 

are facilities where bulk commodities such as aggregates, liquids, 

gases, and agricultural products, are transloaded from truck or 

pipeline to rail, or vice versa. These are controlled access facilities 

for large scale freight operations, which are intended to be accessible 

by large trucks and long-unit trains. Bulk transload terminals may 

only require a few acres of land, on which bulk materials are piled 

or stacked. Intermodal terminals may occupy dozens of acres, with 

staging areas for trucks or chassis, container storage areas, and 

working tracks served by cranes. Developers prefer long working 

tracks of 1,500-2,500 feet in length so that long-unit trains can be 

assembled and dissembled with few moves. 

Marine Terminals

Wait times at such facilities can be long because of high volume during 

peak pick-up times, drayage movements within the facility, a thorough 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

4-9

security process or for other reasons. As a result of these waits, parking 

turnover rates can be low, which may require the facility to need a 

high number of parking spaces. Use of electronic data interchange, 

automatic vehicle identifi cation and equipment tracking technologies can 

signifi cantly reduce the wait times at the gate and improve the parking 

and loading area capacity. 

GEOMETRIC SITE DESIGN OF THE FREIGHT SYSTEM

It is important for trucks to be able to move effi ciently and safely between 

their origin and destination points. Many smart growth principles 

suggest that new neighborhoods be developed with narrow roads, which 

may have an impact on how effectively trucks move. Height restrictions 

on trucks vary by state, but usually range between 13.5 feet and 14 feet. 

The national maximum weight standards for interstate highways are 

20,000 pounds for single axle, 34,000 pounds per tandem axle, and a 

gross vehicle weight not to exceed 80,000 pounds. On state and local 

roads and older bridges, weight limits could be much lower.78 As a 

result, it is important that freight carriers are aware of height, size, and 

weight restrictions when moving through different neighborhoods. It 

also is important for local, regional, and state governments to take into 

account the size and height of trucks that move through its boundaries 

early in the planning process. Engaging in a Context Sensitive Solutions 

(CSS) approach, as described in Section 2.0, which seeks to arrive at 

solutions that meet the needs of all stakeholders is an approach that 

FHWA advocates.

Truck dimensions must also be taken into account in industrial, 

commercial, and freight facility site design. Roadways and driveways 

within these sites must allow for safe and effi cient passage of trucks. Key 

considerations include:

• Ensuring suffi cient turning radii. Internal roadways and driveways 

where trucks are intended to have access must be designed with the 

minimum turning radii shown previously in Figure 4.2. 

• Vertical clearance. A minimum clearance of 12 feet, 6 inches should 

be provided for truck-served sites, with many design guidelines 

calling for clearances over 13 feet. Rail clearances vary depending 

upon the type of railcars served. Tanker and hopper cars require 

clearances as low as 15 feet, while double-stacked intermodal 

78 “Commercial Vehicle Size and Weight Program,” FHWA, available from: 

http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/freight/sw/overview/index.htm.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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containers require a 22-feet, 6-inch clearance. Bridges, tunnels, 

overhead utilities and signage, and tree limbs on a truck-served site 

should be designed to provide suffi cient vertical clearance for safe 

truck movement. 

• Avoid “blind corners.” Landscaping, building dimensions, and 

utility infrastructure can hinder visibility and create potentially 

dangerous situations when drivers in two or more vehicles are 

unable to see one another. Sites should be designed to ensure that 

drivers can see where they are headed and so they can identify 

potential hazards such as oncoming vehicles in advance. 

TRUCK PARKING AND REST FACILITIES

The need for truck parking/rest area facilities differs from the earlier 

parking discussion. This paragraph refers to truck parking facilities 

along major truck routes and near major freight hubs such as air cargo 

airports, seaports, and clusters of warehousing/distribution centers and 

manufacturing facilities to allow truck operators to take breaks and rest 

while enroute between their origin and destination points. While the 

need for truck parking/rest area facilities is obvious in order to improve 

safety for truck operators and for those sharing the road with trucks, 

land must be made available along major routes to support the projected 

increase in trucks using highways. A lack of designated truck parking 

areas can lead to parking in unsafe areas such as highway shoulders, 

expressway ramps, and desolate parking lots. Parking demand can be 

met with publicly owned and operated, roadside parking and rest areas, 

or by off-freeway privately owned truck stops, which typically provide 

additional services such as restaurants, showers, tractor maintenance and 

repair services. 

State DOT or other highway authorities are typically the lead agencies 

involved in on-highway truck parking and rest area planning and 

development, and should work with private stakeholders to confi rm 

truck parking demand and identify opportunities to expand capacity 

where necessary. Off-highway, municipalities must work with regional 

and state governments and the private sector to identify opportunities 

to expand truck parking capacity by utilizing land around freeways 

and other strategic locations. Public-sector offi cials also may work 

with the private sector to incorporate space for truck parking/rest area 

into the design of industrial and commercial facilities. Some major 

national retailers, such as Wal-Mart, allow truck drivers to park in their 

store and distribution center parking areas at many of their stores and 

distribution centers. Such a parking area could be provided adjacent 

to the loading area, or in the general (customer) parking area during 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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Examples – Extending Hours 

of Operation at Freight 

Facilities

The U.S. Government 

Accountability Offi ce (GAO) also 

suggested the extension of hours 

of operation at freight facilities 

to reduce peak hour congestion. 

Examples cited by GAO:

In New York City, some retail 

stores have extended hours of 

operation to receive deliveries 

after 9:00 p.m. and the City, in 

turn, has provided incentives 

to these businesses in the form 

of special approval of curbside 

parking for deliveries during offpeak hours.

The Off-Peak program and a fee 

concept together are implemented 

through PierPASS Inc. at 

the San Pedro Bay Ports. All 

international container terminals 

at the Los Angeles and Long 

Beach ports implemented fi ve 

new shifts per week – Monday 

through Thursday nights, and 

during the daytime on Saturdays. 

In addition, a Traffi c Mitigation 

Fee was created, and is required 

for cargo movement through the 

ports during peak hours (Monday 

through Friday, 3:00 a.m. to 

6:00 p.m.). This fee is used as a 

congestion pricing mechanism 

providing an incentive to use the 

off-peak shifts. 

The extension of hours of 

operation at freight facilities can 

reduce peak hour congestion, 

but requires the participation of 

shippers and receivers, who make 

the decisions regarding when 

deliveries are to be made. Motor 

carriers must make deliveries 

when their customers demand 

them. For off-peak delivery 

programs to be successful, those 

customers must be willing to 

have staff available or make 

arrangements to give motor 

carriers access to their facilities 

to make deliveries during these 

off-peak periods. 

Source: GAO-08-287 “Freight 

Transportation: National Policy and 

Strategies.”

late night hours if the store is closed or experiencing light volumes of 

customer traffi c. Implementing an arrangement for allowing trucks to 

park on-site may introduce liability and security issues that are unique 

to state and local laws and conditions, and which will have to be 

examined and addressed carefully. 

One of the key challenges to developing new truck parking capacity 

is overcoming the impacts that truck parking facilities may have on 

adjacent residential areas. Because truck parking demand peaks during 

the overnight hours, the noise, light, and emissions impacts affect 

residential areas when peace and quiet are desired most. This challenge 

can often be overcome with smart site selection for truck stop and 

parking area development, and with implementation of design features 

to reduce spillover of light and noise. Many truck stops and truck 

parking facilities are equipped with idle-reduction equipment that allow 

truck drivers to run electronics and control the climate within their cabs 

without idling the engine. These technologies reduce fuel consumption 

and emissions while trucks are at rest. Vendors supply many of the 

nation’s truck stops and rest areas with stationary power hookups, some 

of which include Internet and entertainment hookups as well. Many 

truck stops offer recharging stations for trucks equipped with onboard power units. Agencies should work with motor carriers to take 

advantage of opportunities to equip fl eets with on-board units, and with 

the agencies and companies that operate rest areas truck stops to make 

electrifi cation and recharging hookups more widely available.79

FLEXIBLE TIMELINES FOR DELIVERY/PICK-UP 

Extending the business hours of operation of freight handling facilities 

creates the opportunity to shift trucks from most congested peak hours 

of traffi c to off-peak hours. Peak-hour congestion results in increased 

travel times, decreases in the reliability of deliveries, and in turn disrupts 

delivery schedules and inventory control operating plans in warehousing 

and distribution facilities. Flexibility in delivery times gives carriers 

the opportunity to more effi ciently utilize the existing highway 

infrastructure. Flexible delivery times for terminal operators allows 

for more effi cient utilization of freight handling equipment. Receivers 

that can typically accommodate off-peak deliveries include restaurants, 

convenience stores, 24-hour big box retailers and grocers, and industrial 

79 The U.S. Department of Energy web site has a truck stop electrifi cation 

locator to help planners and motor carriers identify truck stops equipped with 

electrifi cation technologies, available at: http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/

locator/tse/.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

4-12

facilities with two or three labor shifts. Many small businesses which 

have one labor shift during business hours are not always able or willing 

to arrange to have staff on-site to receive a delivery during off-peak 

hours. An off-peak delivery pilot program completed in New York 

City in 2010 showed that many small receivers were willing to receive 

deliveries off-peak with the help of small cash incentives or by providing 

drop-key or key-code access to trusted motor carriers so the deliveries 

could be made without the receiver’s staff being on-site.80

SAFETY AND SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS 

It is important that safety and security of the public and of goods are 

taken into consideration when designing terminals and other facilities 

that ship or receive freight. Intermodal terminals, warehouses, 

distribution centers, and many industrial facilities are areas where trucks, 

trains, forklifts, cranes, and other moving pieces of equipment represent 

potential hazards to workers if precautions and appropriate protocols are 

not followed. Mishandling of hazardous materials could result in safety 

risks to the general public beyond the confi nes of the facility. Failure 

to secure facilities and goods from theft or vandalism could result in 

damage to property and harm to facility employees or the public at large. 

Important attributes to consider include:

• Keeping unauthorized persons away from the freight activities. 

Whether in a retail center where the public have access to portions 

of the facility, or in a freight terminal where the public are not 

generally permitted, it is important to ensure that people who are 

not authorized to be in a working freight area are not permitted 

to enter. Trespassers run the risk of being harmed if they are 

unfamiliar with the facility’s confi guration and potential hazards. 

Fencing, signage, cameras, and security personnel may be utilized, 

as appropriate, to protect the facility and discourage trespassing. 

Some large facilities may effectively separate one part of a 

community from another. Facility developers and local offi cials 

should work together early in the project development process to 

identify any opportunities to provide alternate means of access 

(pedestrian bridges over rail yards, pedestrian crossing signals at 

signalized driveways, etc.) where appropriate.

80 New York City Department of Transportation, “NYC DOT Pilot Program 

fi nds economic savings, effi ciencies for truck deliveries made during offhours,” Press Release # 10-028, July 1, 2010.
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• Ensuring that there is a designated space for each activity occurring 

at the facility (processing, shipment consolidation, receiving, 

loading/unloading, transloading, etc.) to occur safely and without 

the interference of other activities. When multiple various activities 

compete for space, equipment, and personnel, product may be left in 

locations where they do not belong, increasing the risk of accident, 

misshipment, or damage. Furthermore, loading areas, access routes 

and driveways, and parking areas should meet geometric guidelines 

to limit potential confl icts. 

• Terminal/Facility operators must develop a plan with fi rst 

responders. Depending upon the size and nature of a facility’s 

operation, the operators should work with fi rst responders, port 

authorities, the Department of Homeland Security, the Federal 

Emergency Management Agency, and other applicable local, state, 

and Federal agencies to develop a plan of response to terrorism, 

natural or man-made disasters, or other situations that could 

threaten the security of the facility and/or the general public. The 

plan should include communications, evacuation, and incident 

management procedures.

ACCESS MANAGEMENT 

Employing good access management techniques on infrastructure at the 

local level can help improve the effi ciency and safety of the transportation 

and the freight system. Access management involves the proactive 

management of vehicular access points to land parcels adjacent to all 

manner of roadways. This presents an opportunity to link transportation 

and land use for the mutual benefi t of freight operators, passenger vehicles 

and livability in the community. Access management includes the 

following techniques:

• Access Intersection and Driveway Spacing – Much of the congestion 

and delay on arterial highways results from traffi c entering and exiting 

the highway from closely spaced driveways and intersections. Where 

possible, new commercial and industrial development should consider 

establishing a common driveway or access to a side street intersection 

with the arterial highway among several adjacent parcels. Increasing 

the distance between traffi c signals improves the fl ow of traffi c on 

major arterials, reduces congestion, and improves air quality and 

safety for heavily traveled corridors. It is important to ensure that 

parcels maintain reasonable access to the highway, and that access 

management concepts do not make access routes unreasonably long or 

complicated in such a way that the benefi t is lost. The ideal spacing of 

intersections and driveways varies by functional class and speed limit 
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on the highway. According to AASHTO, for a primary arterial with a 

speed limit of 45-55 miles per hour, the minimum suggested signalized 

intersection spacing is 1⁄2 mile. Unsignalized driveways (right-in-rightout confi guration) should be spaced no less than 860 feet to avoid 

impacts on highway throughput capacity.81

• Safe Turning Lanes – dedicated left- and right-turn, indirect 

left-turns and U-turns, and roundabouts keep through-traffi c 

fl owing, and can provide safe pockets for cars and trucks to await 

opportunities to make turns. Roundabouts represent an opportunity 

to reduce an intersection with many confl ict points or a severe 

crash history (T-bone crashes) to one that operates with fewer 

confl ict points and less severe crashes (sideswipes) if they occur. 

Roundabouts with small radii can be diffi cult for trucks to navigate. 

The design of these features should take truck dimensions (especially 

turning radii) into account. Trucks should be able to make a turn 

without “sweeping” the tractor or trailer into adjacent traffi c lanes. 

• Right-of-Way Management – For the sake of preserving 

the capability to widen highways, expand, or reactivate rail 

infrastructure, existing rights-of-way should be maintained. When 

rights-of-way are encroached upon, the prospect of developing new 

transportation infrastructure is made far more diffi cult.82 

The needs discussed above are some of the major items to be considered 

when planning the development of freight terminals, freight-dependent 

facilities such as stores and warehouses, on-site circulation and access 

routes, and general transportation infrastructure, such as bridges and 

highways. Other needs exist as well, but these highlight some of the 

major needs which can be positively impacted by public-sector policy 

and actions. 

4.3 Tools and Actions to Address Freight Land 

Use Needs and Impacts

This section will review some of the key actions that can be taken at the 

local, regional, and state level to help meet the needs of freight stakeholders 

while also accounting for the needs of the community. Please refer back 

81 “Driveway and Street Intersection Spacing,” Transportation Research Board 

Circular 456, March 1996, available from: http://www.accessmanagement.

info/pdf/TRC_456_Driveway.pdf.

82 FHWA: http://www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/access_mgmt/what_is_accsmgmt.htm.
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to Section 1.0 for further information on the role of various levels of 

government in the transportation planning process. With respect to land 

use, local governments are, for the most part, responsible for making land 

use decisions in response to private-sector development actions. Zoning 

requirements are established by the local government. Regional planning 

commissions help establish consensus-based regional visions for land use 

patterns. State agencies such as environmental regulatory and resource 

agencies perform permitting roles for specifi c developments, but generally 

have limited land use planning responsibilities. 

LOCAL PLANNING ACTIONS

Local governments are responsible for comprehensive plans and zoning 

ordinances which can have a substantial impact on the effectiveness 

of freight movements at the site level and on the transportation 

infrastructure in general. In addition, local planning departments 

also can meet freight needs through additional freight stakeholder 

involvement and documents which clarify process and open 

communication between the groups. When reviewing the key freight 

needs discussed in Section 5.1, the following actions can be implemented 

at the local level to address key freight needs:

• Traffi c access and impact studies gather and analyze information 

that will help determine the need for any improvements to interior, 

adjacent, and nearby road systems. New development sites can impact 

the surrounding roadway system by adding to existing traffi c volumes 

or altering traffi c patterns. In addition to designing appropriate 

access for proposed developments, planners and developers should 

strive to maintain a satisfactory level of transportation service and 

safety for all roadway users. Many municipalities or local planning 

agencies require a traffi c access and impact study, which includes a trip 

generation estimate, prior to approving changes to zoning or proposed 

developments. In some instances, developers may be responsible for 

mitigating impacts to the adjacent transportation facility to meet the 

needs of the changed land use.

• Perform site planning reviews to make sure that new 

developments meet freight needs set forth by the community. For 

example, the Anchorage, Alaska MPO (highlighted as a case study 

in Section 4.3) has a committee of freight stakeholders who assist in 

site plan review and offer recommendations to better accommodate 

deliveries/freight. This type of review by an outside committee 

allows in-progress site plans to be checked to make sure that freight 

needs are met and that freight has the least possible negative 

impact on the community. 
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• Analyze truck routes through the municipality to ensure that key 

freight-dependent businesses are located near these truck routes 

and that the operational equipment, roadway maintenance and 

infrastructure along the truck route support large truck movement. 

For example, it is necessary to ensure that roads are in good 

condition and that bridges are high enough to accommodate both 

local and regional freight traffi c moving through the area. 

• Review the comprehensive plan to ensure that adequate land is set 

aside for industrial uses and potentially create a land use type which 

differentiates freight and intermodal uses from other industrial and 

commercial uses. Also review the comprehensive plan to ensure 

that current road design standards allow trucks to move effi ciently 

through the municipality and to key loading and unloading areas. 

• Enforce loading zone and parking restrictions in front of busy 

freight loading and unloading areas. Failure to do so will make 

loading and unloading in busy areas diffi cult for freight carriers and 

disrupt traffi c.

• Involve private-sector freight stakeholders in developing site 

design standards to gather their input on how to best improve design 

standards and plans to ensure freight effi ciency.

• Develop freight stakeholder committees that allow freight 

stakeholders to voice their concerns regarding land use policies 

and other infrastructure which impact the effi ciency of freight 

movements.

• Integrate access management principles into the design of the local 

transportation infrastructure.

• Provide guidance to developers and others regarding expected 

regulations and highlight key items that they should be aware of 

and follow when developing a parcel of land. The guidance should 

include providing an inventory of appropriate developable or 

redevelopable industrial sites, information regarding available local 

tax incentives or fi nancing mechanisms, and assistance interpreting 

and navigating through local permitting processes. In many cases, 

a municipality’s economic development offi cer also may serve as a 

liaison to state and Federal regulatory and permitting agencies.83 

83 NCFRP 23 Preliminary Draft Report.
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• Develop toolkits for industrial developers, including zoning 

requirements, permitting processes, key steps to complete the 

permitting process, and contacts at the planning/zoning offi ces. 

This will clearly defi ne the process up front and open the lines of 

communication between public sector and developers up front. 

• Use overlay zones with form-based or performance-based criteria 

to accommodate the needs of freight, or of particular industry types, 

while ensuring sensitivity to surrounding land uses. Overlay zones, 

can specify requirements for setbacks, parking, driveway spacing, 

and a variety of other factors, and require that development conform 

to the underlying zone. In this capacity, overlay zones offer zoning 

authorities an opportunity to maintain consistency with the zoning 

map, while having the fl exibility to apply special circumstances in 

areas where warranted. 

• Work with railroads and the Federal Railroad Administration 

to establish “quiet zones.” Quiet zones are areas in which trains 

can pass through at-grade intersection crossings without blowing 

their whistle, provided there are specifi c safety precautions taken to 

protect motorists and pedestrians crossing the rail right-of-way. 

• Work with port planners to address “outside the gate” impacts. 

As domestic and international waterborne cargoes continue to land 

at port facilities throughout the country, communities that host 

port terminals should be engaged with terminal owners, operators, 

whether they be public or private entities, to address impacts of 

truck and rail traffi c that are going “out the gate” onto the local 

transportation system. Developing suggested routing schemes 

to desirable intermodal connectors that avoid local neighborhood 

streets, optimizing signal timings, encouraging use of rail, and 

consideration of around-the-clock gate operations can help alleviate 

some of the impacts on the local transportation system. These 

strategies will have to be weighed against any noise, light, and 

air quality impacts that around-the-clock operation may have on 

adjacent properties.84 

84 NCHRP Synthesis 320 suggests that port operations can be limited to 

daytime hours (when most residents are away from home), though such a 

schedule could lead to adverse impacts on the transportation network, as 

daytime hours are when traffi c volumes are highest. Potential operating 

schedules should be investigated and negotiated based upon considerations 

of both factors – effects on local residents and the transportation system – to 

determine the most desirable and least detrimental operating scheme. 
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REGIONAL PLANNING ACTIONS

Regional governments, while generally not working on specifi c site 

design and land use issues, can have a role in helping regions and 

municipalities meet freight needs. The following are actions that MPOs 

and other regional government agencies can take to help meet freight 

and community needs:

• Lead regional visioning and goods movement studies to help lay 

out a bigger picture which local governments in the region can turn 

to in order to incorporate freight concerns when developing their 

plans and regulations.

• Create regional freight plans to help defi ne key freight mobility 

goals and land use priorities in terms of freight. 

• Create model land development ordinances and best practices for 

use by local governments when creating plans, ordinances, and other 

regulations that may impact freight.

• Create corridor or subarea plans to address congestion or safety issues 

on certain highway and rail freight corridors, regions, and/or major 

intermodal facilities that experience high traffi c and crash volumes.

• Consider freight issues in development of metropolitan transportation 

plans and corridor studies. Freight is recognized among the planning 

factors that guide the metropolitan transportation planning process. 

• Work with rail, air, and waterborne freight planners to ensure 

that the region’s ports, airports, and rail intermodal terminals 

are capable of handling current and future volumes of traffi c 

safely and effi ciently without signifi cant adverse impacts on host 

communities or the region’s transportation system. Attributes such 

as transportation network capacity and utilization, terminal capacity 

and operating characteristics, truck stop and parking availability on a 

corridor or regional level should be examined.

STATE PLANNING ACTIONS

State governments can help address freight needs in some of the 

same ways that regional governments can: by providing a vision for 

planning, by developing freight plans (statewide), and by providing 

model land development ordinance and best practices. Some states, 

including Florida and Oregon also have a limited active role in ensuring 

consistency among local land use plans relative to neighboring 

communities or state planning guidelines. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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• Consider freight issues in the development of the statewide longrange transportation plan. Work with stakeholders across all modes 

to take inventory of the state’s transportation assets, including 

networks and nodes (terminals and other activity centers), identify 

needs, and develop a state policy on developing and maintaining 

freight infrastructure in the state. 

• Include criteria in project selection processes that consider freight 

mobility as a criterion for project selection. For example, the Oregon 

Statewide Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) requires 

considering of freight mobility in the process of selecting projects. 

• Design state highways, interchanges, and other freight 

infrastructure in such a way as to take freight needs into account and 

maintain mobility and safety.

• Create corridor plans or subregional plans to address congestion or 

safety issues on freight corridors and/or major intermodal facilities 

that experience high traffi c and crash volumes.

• Work with municipalities or other local zoning authorities to 

ensure consistency with state planning goals and consistency among 

local land use plans to minimize confl icts between adjacent land uses 

in separate local jurisdictions.

Private-Sector Freight Stakeholder Actions

While the public sector can do many of the items listed above to meet 

freight needs, private-sector leaders, and stakeholders also need to take 

part in the planning process in order to make their needs heard. Several 

key actions that private-sector stakeholders should take to help meet 

freight needs:

• Participate in committees and the development of freight 

plans designed to improve freight operations in cities and states. 

Participation by private-sector stakeholders, including representatives 

from key regional businesses or industry groups, helps make sure 

that private-sector needs are considered. These committees may be 

organized by the MPO or local government agency.

• Offer opportunities for public-sector offi cials to learn about business 

and operations. This can come through presentations or by offering 

public-sector offi cials a site visit or a tour of the facility. Allowing 

public-sector offi cials to understand industry operations and to see 

the needs fi rst-hand will help improve their understanding of the 

requirements that are to be addressed in plans and ordinances. 
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• Participate in and comment on metropolitan transportation plans, 

Long-Range Transportation Plans, corridor studies, comprehensive 

plans and other freight-related documents to make sure that 

private-sector comments are heard during the planning process. 

Public participation and consultation are key elements of the 

planning process.

Overall, it is important for both public-sector offi cials at all levels of 

government and private-sector representatives, such as chambers 

of commerce, rail and trucking associations, private rail or marine 

terminal operators, major shippers and receivers in the local area or 

region, and supply chain managers, to be engaged with one another 

and to understand each other’s viewpoints. This will help lead to 

plans and visions that both support livable communities and address 

freight needs.

4.4 Putting It All Together

The following case studies provide examples of collaborative efforts 

involving numerous levels of government, public-sector entities, and the 

private sector freight community. In each case, stakeholders were able 

to successfully implement projects that account for the needs of freight 

while preserving environmental and community sustainability. Each 

case study is presented according to the following outline:

• Issue Background – insight into the root and causes of the issue 

addressed by the case study plan or initiative.

• Approach and Resolution – a summary explanation of the 

procedure, fi ndings and recommendations each case study plan or 

initiative identifi ed.

• Critical Success Factors – key points or “takeaways” that may 

offer useful insight to planners and government agencies in other 

jurisdictions.
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Table 4.1 Key Issues Illustrated within the Best 

Practice Review

CASE STUDY: ANCHORAGE METROPOLITAN AREA

TRANSPORTATION SOLUTIONS (AMATS) PRIVATE-SECTOR

INVOLVEMENT STRATEGIES

Issue Background

Anchorage Metropolitan Area Transportation Solutions (AMATS) is the 

MPO for the City of Anchorage, Alaska. In addition to serving as the MPO, 

AMATS also is a municipal agency with zoning and land use authority. 

AMATS recognized that poorly planned industrial and retail sites did 

not account for the needs of freight, including provisions for adequate 

space for truck deliveries and circulation. The agency also recognized 

that government offi cials needed to better understand freight needs and 

incorporate them into the planning and site plan review processes. 

Approach and Resolution

AMATS addressed these issues by engaging private-sector 

stakeholders. AMATS established a Freight Advisory Committee 

(FAC) to offer feedback on and enrich planning activities by providing 

the private-sector freight industry perspective, and to identify freightrelated transportation and land use issues. AMATS also encourages 

FAC members to review and provide comments on-site plans for 

industrial and retail land uses. The FAC members offer advice on 

issues that affect the safety and effi ciency of freight movements into, 

Case Study Program Freight Needs Addressed Critical Success Factors

AMATS (Anchorage, Alaska 

MPO) Private-Sector 

Involvement Strategies

• Freight site design needs

• Site access and local 

circulation

• Engage freight stakeholders

• Educate agency staff

• Demonstrate progress

NYMTC (New York City MPO) 

Freight Villages Study

• Site requirements

• Site access and local 

circulation

• Effi cient regional 

transportation system

• MPO leadership role in 

freight and land use visioning

• Accounting for the site 

design needs of freight

CenterPoint Intermodal Center, 

Elwood, Illinois 

• Brownfi eld redevelopment

• Adequate buffers to prevent 

encroachment

• Shared costs and shared 

benefi ts

• Inclusion of multiple public 

and private stakeholders

• Highlighted the positive 

benefi ts of industrial 

development

• Shared resources and 

shared benefi t

Kansas City Cross-Town 

Improvement Project (C-TIP)

• Clearly defi ned issue 

statements

• Implementable solution

• Inclusion of multiple public 

and private stakeholders

• Identifi cation of clear vision 

and goals
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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out of, and within a proposed facility, including space requirements, 

turning radii, parking lot confi gurations, and landscaping that could 

create unsafe blind corners. Although the Municipality of Anchorage 

does not pin all site plan review requirements on freight needs, they 

appreciate the FACs involvement and advice, and have on several 

occasions requested that developers of industrial and commercial 

properties make changes to their site plans to improve truck access 

and safety accordingly. In one example, the Municipality, based 

upon FAC input, asked the developer of a retail property to reduce 

the amount landscaping which was intended to hide loading bays. 

While the shrubs and trees screened loading bays from customers’

view, they also created a potentially dangerous blind spot and confl ict 

between trucks entering and exiting the loading bays, and passenger 

vehicles traveling in the adjacent parking lot driveways. Upon 

hearing this concern, the developer made appropriate modifi cations 

to the site plan. 

Through coordination with the FAC, AMATS has developed a 

collaborative relationship with private stakeholders. One FAC member 

invited local and state transportation planning staff to participate in 

a virtual reality simulation exercise. The exercise gave planners an 

opportunity to experience the sensation of driving a tractor-trailer 

through city streets and facility parking lots and loading zones. Through 

this exercise, public offi cials were able to better understand freight 

operations and transportation and land use requirements. 

Critical Success Factors

• Engage freight stakeholders. AMATS has been able to develop 

a mutually rewarding collaborative relationship with freight 

stakeholders in Anchorage. The agency learned that getting the 

private-sector involved early in the planning process can help to 

improve transportation plans and site plans. 

• Educate agency staff. The FAC has helped agency staff acquire 

a better understanding of freight issues through participation in 

meetings and by allowing staff to experience freight operations. 

Having staff who are educated in freight needs helps to ensure 

that those issues are addressed in transportation plans, project 

development, and site plans. 

• Demonstrate progress. An important part of maintaining a 

relationship with private stakeholders is to ensure that their 

needs and issues are integrated into the creation, evaluation, and 

prioritization of strategies. If the private-sector stakeholders feel 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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that their participation does not result in change, they may lose 

faith and interest in the participation program. By incorporating 

FAC ideas into the planning and project development processes, 

and by implementing projects, stakeholders could see that their 

input was valued and resulting in improvements. 

CASE STUDY: NEW YORK METROPOLITAN TRANSPORTATION

COUNCIL (NYMTC) FREIGHT VILLAGES STUDY

Issue Background

The New York Metropolitan Transportation Council (NYMTC) is the 

MPO for a 10-county portion of the New York City metropolitan area 

within New York State. Although the New York City region is a place 

where residents rely on transit services such as trains and subways 

for commuting and intercity trips, there are few alternatives to trucks 

and highways for freight shipments. Because the region consists 

of many islands and waterways, freight relies upon the region’s 

highway bridges and tunnels to reach terminals, distribution centers, 

and customers located throughout the region and beyond. Freight 

activity contributes to chronic and severe congestion on the limited 

number of bridges connecting the region. The NYMTC region also is 

a mature region, with little land available for new freight land uses. 

Freight land uses have sprouted throughout neighboring regions in 

New Jersey and Pennsylvania resulting in longer movements and few 

opportunities to attract new economic activity to the NYMTC region. 

Approach and Resolution

The 2004 NYMTC Regional Freight Plan recommended a feasibility 

study of freight villages in the region as a means to consolidate supply 

chain functions into several activity centers served by multiple modes. 

This strategy, in theory, would reduce truck VMT, achieve redundancy 

and mode balance through multimodalism, and introduce new freight 

activities and economic development to parts of the region. The Freight 

Villages Study, (under development in 2011), has taken the following 

work steps:

• Literature review to uncover freight village types and applications 

throughout the world, and to identify the features of a typical 

freight village;

• Through input from industrial developers, third-party logistics fi rms, 

and transportation service providers, the project developed a list of 

site evaluation criteria and weighted evaluation metrics pertinent to 

the NYMTC region;
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• Selection of six candidate sites and an evaluation of those sites 

relative to freight village features and NYMTC goals; and

• Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis 

of the six sites to determine the potential for development of each. 

The site analysis was conducted by applying scores to each of the sites 

using four evaluation criteria areas:

1. Site suitability characteristics such as total and developable acreage, 

topography, potential for further expansion, utilities infrastructure, 

environmental characteristics, and security; existing facilities and 

activities that could be incorporated into the freight village activities; 

2. Access and transportation characteristics, including road, rail, water 

and air access, and ease of commuting for employees; 

3. Property conditions characteristics such as property ownership 

and cost, land use and zoning, running covenants that may restrict 

use, neighboring land uses and confl icts, recurring costs, attitude 

of neighboring communities, and pressures from existing property 

users; and 

4. Location and interconnected business activities attributes, including 

centrality of the site in relation to important consuming areas, 

proximity to major retailers and logistics providers, location in relation 

to interstate and regional freight transshipment facilities, availability of 

local trucking and availability of a suitable local workforce. 

The Freight Villages Study currently is fi nalizing the results of the site 

evaluations, and will make recommendations regarding how and where 

freight villages could be implemented in the NYMTC region. 

Critical Success Factors

• MPO leadership role in freight and land use visioning. The Freight 

Villages Study represents a strategy by which an MPO can take a 

leadership role in visioning and planning for goods movement and 

related land uses. Through this study, the MPO and constituent 

agencies have achieved a better understanding of a potential 

alternative for freight land use and development that may help them 

reach their sustainability goals. 

• Account for the needs of freight stakeholders. The Freight Villages 

Study evaluated potential applications of freight village development 

patterns while keeping in mind the needs of the freight industries that 

will be encouraged to operate in these environments. Working with 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

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the industrial developers, third-party logistics fi rms, motor carriers, 

and railroads, the study conducted an evaluation of potential sites to 

account for attributes that are important to these stakeholders: site 

confi guration and design, transportation system access, workforce and 

trucking availability, and accessibility to other freight facilities. The study 

recognized that the freight needs and regional sustainability needs should 

be met in order for sites to be feasible for freight village development. 

CASE STUDY: CENTERPOINT INTERMODAL CENTER

ELWOOD, ILLINOIS

Issue Background

The CenterPoint Intermodal Center in Elwood, Illinois, is a 2,500-acre 

intermodal facility used for the transfer, distribution, and warehousing 

of consumer materials and goods. Located about 50 miles southwest 

of Chicago, the site is a brownfi eld redevelopment project that includes 

a 775-acre intermodal transfer facility, as well as 8 million square feet 

of warehouse and distributions space.85 The project included a wide 

range of public and private participation, in both the planning stages 

and to provide the roughly $1 billion in public and private fi nancing. 

Now nearing completion (in 2011), the project is one that highlights 

the benefi ts of freight movement while minimizing the impacts to 

communities and the natural environment. 

Approach and Resolution

Many existing truck-rail intermodal centers are located in or close to 

urban areas. Over time, growing regional populations will often begin 

to encroach on the facilities, converting land that was once vacant to 

higher-value residential and commercial uses. This can lead to capacity 

constraints of the intermodal facility, as well as growing freight and 

land use confl icts, including congestion, noise, and safety concerns. The 

Chicago area illustrates some of these concerns. It is one of the major 

freight hubs in the United States, and also one of the most congested. As 

freight volumes and the local population have grown, confl icts (such as 

congestion) have inevitably arisen. By some estimates, railed freight can 

take one day to reach Chicago from the West Coast ports, and can then 

take another entire day to move through Chicago.86 

85 http://casestudies.uli.org/Profi le.aspx?j=8307&p=1&c=6.

86 Jack Lanigan, Sr., John Zumerchik, Jean-Paul Rodrequez, Randall Guensler, 

and Michael O. Rodgers, “Shared Intermodal Terminals and Potential for 

Improving Effi ciency of Rail-Rail Interchange,” Transportation Research 

Board Annual Meeting, 2007, Paper #07-2563.
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The goal of this project is to increase the speed and capacity of freight. 

However, project proponents decided, early on, to achieve these goals 

in a manner that benefi tted local communities and the environment. 

Several factors illustrate this approach:

• Choice of a brownfi eld redevelopment site. The site itself was the 

Joliet Arsenal, an abandoned plant located strategically on the Union 

Pacifi c (UP) and Burlington Northern Santa Fe (BNSF) mainlines 

and Interstates I-80 and I-55. However, the site also is a brownfi eld, 

and this project provided cleanup and remediation of an otherwise 

unused brownfi eld property.

• Choice of a site with adequate buffers to protect from encroaching 

land uses. As shown in Figure 4.4 below, the site is well-buffered 

from confl icting land uses. The buffers themselves are likely 

permanent entities, and include the Abraham Lincoln National 

Cemetery, and the Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie restoration 

project. 

• Shared costs and shared benefi ts. Multiple partners, including 

CenterPoint, the railroads, the Illinois DOT, the Illinois Department 

of Commerce and Community Affairs (DCCA), are taking part 

in fi nancing the project. This partnership is possible because the 

benefi ts to multiple stakeholders have been documented. For 

example, the railroads will benefi t from capacity improvements and 

freight effi ciency enhancements, while local governments will benefi t 

from thousands of new jobs and millions of dollars in tax revenues. 

Critical Success Factors

• Inclusion of multiple levels of government, public agencies, and 

private industry. During the planning phases, the project brought 

together “virtually all levels of governments, more than a dozen public 

agencies, and private industry.”87 In fact, CenterPoint estimates that 

it dealt with 5088 governmental entities throughout the planning and 

development cycle. Though time consuming, the inclusion of all these 

entities meant that issues were resolved as they arose, without ever 

resulting in loss of partners or build-up of animosity. 

87 Michael M. Mullen, “CenterPoint Intermodal Center,” Economic 

Development Journal, April 2005, p. 2.

88 Michael Brick, “Village Says, ‘Yes, in My Backyard,’ to Rail Center,” July 17, 

2002. The New York Times.
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• Highlighting the positive benefi ts of the development to the 

public. The site is located in an area of high unemployment. 

Therefore, using the site as an engine of local economic development 

was critically important. It is estimated that this site will employ 

over 8,00089 people once completed. 

• Shared resources and shared benefi ts. The project was designed 

and is being implemented with shared public private fi nancing. 

Therefore, there was “give and take” throughout the process so 

that all parties felt that they were receiving benefi ts. For example, 

though the Illinois DOT and the Illinois Department of Commerce 

and Community Affairs (DCCA) is funding the road improvements, 

CenterPoint is donating 60 acres of land to a wetlands conservation 

project and another 83 acres to the U.S. Forest Service. These types of 

arrangements have helped to prevent a buildup of public animosity 

towards a large-scale industrial development. 

CASE STUDY: THE KANSAS CITY CROSS-TOWN IMPROVEMENT

PROJECT (C-TIP)

Issue Background

The Cross-Town Improvement Project (C-TIP) was fi rst conceived in 

the fall of 2004 and has since grown in both size and stature. The C-TIP 

is a technological solution to the problems arising from transferring 

goods from rail to truck in metropolitan regions. Whether it is truckto-rail transfers near ports, or rail to truck to rail transfer near rail 

interchanges, the ineffi ciency of cross-town “rubber tire” interchanges 

can have negative impacts, including: congestion, loss of effi ciency 

in the transportation network, safety concerns, energy consumption 

concerns, and impacts to the local environment.90 Kansas City was 

chosen as a pilot study location because it is the second largest rail hub 

in the U.S. (after Chicago), yet is smaller and less expensive to implement 

(compared to a pilot study in Chicago). 

The C-TIP concept is an intermodal move database that will coordinate 

cross-town traffi c to reduce empty moves between terminals, track 

intermodal assets, and distribute information to truckers wirelessly.

89 http://www.centerpoint-prop.com/projects/article.

aspx?id=151&mode=ALL.

90 “Cross Town Improvement Project” given by Randy Butler, U.S. Department 

of Transportation. The “Talking Freight” seminar, November 17, 2010.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

4-28

Approach and Resolution

Several key steps highlight the approach that was taken to this project.

Work with stakeholders to defi ne a problem. The approach to the 

project fi rst focused on defi ning the problems that were to be solved. 

This was accomplished through discussions with public and private 

freight stakeholders. These discussions revealed several growing 

problems in the Kansas City region that are caused by cross-town 

drayage, such as:

• Growing freight volumes;

• Increasing port-related traffi c; 

• Growing congestion at key locations where “cross-towns” occur;

• Air quality degradation from an aging fl eet and unnecessary truck 

miles traveled within urban areas; and

• Ineffi ciency of the port-related truck fl eet. 

Once the issues had been discussed among multiple public- and privatesector stakeholders, it was determined that the root cause of the issue 

was a lack of communication between the many parties involved in 

cross-town drayage. 

Defi ne a solution that is implementable. When completed, C-TIP will 

help to mitigate the number of trucks involved with cross-town “rubber 

tire” interchanges. This, in turn, will help to improve the effi ciency of 

the region’s transportation network, as well as ensure the safety of its 

citizens. These benefi ts are illustrated in Figure 4.4 below. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

4-29

Figure 4.4 The C-TIP Public Private Partnership Goal

Source: U.S. DOTs Federal Highway Administration (FHWA).

Critical Success Factors

• Inclusion of multiple levels of government, public agencies, and 

private industry. The key players throughout the pilot study are the 

U.S. DOT – FHWA, multiple Class I railroads (BNSF, UP, and Kansas 

City Southern (KCS)), trucking companies, state governments, 

Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPO), economic development 

groups, and traffi c management organizations. 

• Identifi cation of a clear vision and goals. The project began 

with a clear identifi cation of the problem at hand (i.e., too many 

unproductive moves in a congested urban area), and then worked 

with stakeholders to envision an innovative, yet implementable, 

solution. The goal statement for C-TIP is now: “To develop and 

deploy an information sharing/transfer capability that enables the 

coordination of moves between parties to maximize loaded moves 

and minimize unproductive moves.”

4.5 Conclusion

As highlighted in these case studies, as well as throughout the rest of the 

handbook, land use patterns and land use decision-making can impact 

freight movements and industries in many ways – including impacts 

on regional truck vehicle miles traveled (VMT), intermodal accessibility 

and safety, land consumption, and access to jobs. If freight planning and 

land-use decision-making activities are well-integrated, both the public 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

4-30

and private sectors may benefi t through reduced congestion, improved 

air quality, enhanced community livability, increased industrialrelated jobs and activity; and improved operational effi ciency, reduced 

transportation costs, and greater access to facilities and markets. 

However, arriving at decisions that maximize the benefi ts of freight, 

while minimizing the impacts, can be very complex. On the public 

side, industrial development goals are too often overshadowed by 

other community goals, including smart growth strategies that seek to 

redevelop industrial lands into residential and commercial uses, and 

efforts to push freight facilities to the regional fringe. From the privatesector side, the slower pace and many stages of land use planning 

can seem complex, frustrating, and not inclusive to private-sector 

participation. As a result, many agencies are struggling to understand 

how land use issues impact freight movements (and vice versa), the types 

of stakeholders that should be involved in land use and freight planning 

activities, and the tools, techniques, and strategies used by agencies 

across the country to deal with these issues. 

This handbook has provided some grounding, knowledge, and examples 

for public- and private-sector entities that are interested in understanding 

freight and land use integration issues. Topics highlighted within this 

handbook include:

• Background on freight and land use issues, including the key 

concepts and trends in land use and freight transportation, as well as 

the linkage between freight, land use, and economic development. 

• Key steps and products of the transportation and land use planning 

processes and the linkages between those processes, including 

a discussion about the relevant public and private stakeholders, 

their roles and needs, the key freight and land use issues and trends 

affecting decision-making now and in the future. 

• Discussion of freight as a good neighbor, including a range of 

strategies and tools that have been used successfully to ensure that 

freight land uses have a positive relationship with surrounding land 

uses, and have been used successfully to integrate freight uses into 

the community fabric. 

• Discussion of sustainability, including the potential ramifi cations 

of poor land use planning and policies on an economic development, 

environmental sustainability, and social equity and justice. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

4-31

• Discussion of how freight and land use decisions can meet current 

freight demands, while encouraging desirable growth patterns 

in the future, including guidance about how to avoid or mitigate 

the unintended consequences of land use decisions on freight 

movements.

• Discussion of the impacts and needs of freight, including the land 

use needs of freight-generating industries and facilities, including 

access, on-site circulation, dimensional requirements for trucks, 

adequate truck parking and loading areas, and security provisions. 

• Discussion of transportation and land use planning processes, 

including strategies and action steps aimed at engaging private-sector 

stakeholders and incorporating freight needs into the planning processes. 

Together, the topics covered in this handbook will introduce some of 

the main players, policies, programs and strategies that form the basis 

of knowledge for integrating freight into the land use planning process. 

By providing a broad swath of viewpoints, the handbook should appeal 

to public- and private-sector freight stakeholders from all sides of the 

issue – including industrial site developers, land use practitioners, local 

government offi cials, members of the public – or anyone else. 

Though this handbook is comprehensive, it is a static document. Readers 

should remember that the freight industry is a rapidly and ever-changing 

industry, refl ective of economic and demographic shifts as well as global 

supply chain developments. Public and private stakeholders, alike, need 

to continue to work towards understanding the regions within which they 

operate. States and regions are constantly identifying ways to increase 

their ability to compete regionally, nationally and globally. Privatesector companies are constantly trying to streamline and economize 

their operations, and develop innovative solutions to existing problems. 

This handbook provides a good understanding of the issues, needs, 

opportunities, and strategies that will serve as a starting point to better 

integrate freight and land use in an ongoing and permanent manner.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

 -A-1

Access Management. A set of techniques that state and local 

governments can use to control access to highways, major arterials, and 

other roadways. The benefi ts of access management include improved 

movement of traffi c, reduced crashes, and fewer vehicle confl icts. 

Air Quality. Refers to the measure of air pollutants (including 

greenhouse gases and particulate matter) present in a given area. Poor 

air quality can have detrimental impacts to the environment and human 

health. 

Average Annual Daily Truck Traffi c (AADTT). The total volume of 

truck traffi c on a highway segment for one year, divided by the number 

of days in the year. 

Backhaul. The process of a transportation vehicle (typically a truck) 

returning from the original destination point to the point of origin. A 

backhaul can be with a full or partially loaded trailer. 

Bottleneck. A section of a highway or rail network that experiences 

operational problems such as congestion. Bottlenecks may result from 

factors such as reduced roadway width or steep freeway grades that can 

slow trucks.

Boxcar. An enclosed railcar, typically 40 or more feet long, used for 

packaged freight and some bulk commodities. 

Breakbulk Cargo. Cargo of nonuniform sizes, often transported on 

pallets, sacks, drums, or bags. These cargoes require labor-intensive 

loading and unloading processes. Examples of breakbulk cargo include 

coffee beans, logs, or pulp. 

Brownfi eld. Real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse 

of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of 

a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant. Cleaning up and 

reinvesting in these properties protects the environment, reduces blight, 

and takes development pressures off green spaces and working lands. 

Bulk Cargo. Cargo that is unbound as loaded; it is without count in a 

loose unpackaged form. Examples of bulk cargo include coal, grain, and 

petroleum products. 

Appendix A Freight and Land Use Glossary
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

A-2

Capacity. The physical facilities, personnel and process available to 

meet the product of service needs of the customers. Capacity generally 

refers to the maximum output or producing ability of a machine, 

a person, a process, a factory, a product, or a service. In regards 

to the transportation system, this term references the ability of the 

transportation infrastructure to accommodate traffi c fl ow. 

Cargo Ramp. A dedicated load/unload facility for cargo aircraft. 

Carrier. A fi rm which transports goods or people via land, sea, or air. 

Chassis. A trailer-type device with wheels constructed to accommodate 

containers, which are lifted on and off. 

Class I Railroad. Railroad with annual operating revenue of at least 

$272.0 million (2002). 

Climate Change. Any signifi cant change in measures of climate (such 

as temperature, precipitation, or wind) lasting for an extended period 

(decades or longer). Climate change may result from:

• Natural factors, such as changes in the sun’s intensity or slow 

changes in the Earth’s orbit around the sun;

• Natural processes within the climate system (e.g., changes in ocean 

circulation); and

• Human activities that change the atmosphere’s composition (e.g., 

through burning fossil fuels) and the land surface (e.g., deforestation, 

reforestation, urbanization, desertifi cation, etc.).

Comprehensive Planning. A process through which a community’s or 

region’s long-term community development goals and policies relating 

to a full array of topics such as transportation, land use, utilities, cultural 

institutions, and housing, are determined. 

Commodity. An item that is traded in commerce. The term usually 

implies an undifferentiated product competing primarily on price and 

availability. 

Consignee. The party who is to receive a freight shipment, as specifi ed 

on a bill of lading. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

A-3

Container. A large, standard-sized metal box into which cargo is 

packed for shipment; containers are designed to be moved with common 

handling equipment, functioning as the transfer unit between modes 

rather than the cargo itself. 

Containerized Cargo. Cargo that is transported in containers that can be 

transferred easily from one transportation mode to another. 

Container on Flat Car (COFC). A method of transporting goods by rail, 

which accommodates international shipping containers on top of a fl at 

railcar. 

Context-Sensitive Solutions. A collaborative, interdisciplinary approach 

that involves all stakeholders to develop a transportation facility that 

fi ts its physical setting and preserves scenic, aesthetic, historic, and 

environmental resources, while maintaining safety and mobility. 

CSS is an approach that considers the total context within which a 

transportation improvement project will exist. 

Distribution Center (DC). The warehouse facility which holds inventory 

from manufacturing pending distribution to the appropriate stores. 

Dock. A space used or receiving merchandise at a freight terminal. 

Double-Stack. Railcar movement of containers stacked two high.

Drayage. Transporting of rail or ocean freight by truck to an 

intermediate or fi nal destination; typically a charge for pickup/

delivery of goods moving short distances (e.g., from marine terminal to 

warehouse). 

Drop. A situation in which an equipment operator deposits a trailer or 

boxcar at a facility at which it is to be loaded or unloaded. 

Encroachment. For the purpose of this handbook, “encroachment” refers 

to the development of incompatible land uses such as residential areas, 

parks, and schools in close proximity to existing industrial and freightgenerating land uses. Encroachment presents land use confl icts and can 

exacerbate the impacts of freight on a community’s environment and 

quality of life. 

Freight as a Good Neighbor. Refers to a wide range of site selection, 

site and building design, and operating strategies that limit the negative 

impacts (such as noise, light, emissions, etc.) on nearby communities. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

A-4

Freight Exclusive Facilities. Transportation facilities, such as truck-only 

lanes, that accommodate freight traffi c at the exclusion of passenger 

traffi c. 

Freight Forwarder. A person whose business is to act as an agent 

on behalf of a shipper. A freight forwarder frequently consolidates 

shipments from several shippers and coordinates booking reservations. 

Freight Sprawl. A phenomenon in which freight-generating land uses 

are “pushed out” of urban areas and small towns due to forces such as 

rising land values, chronic congestion, and/or NIMBYism, and relocate 

to greenfi elds at the rural fringes of metropolitan areas. 

Freight Village. A clustering of activities related to transport, logistics 

and the distribution of goods, for domestic and/or international are 

carried out by various operators.

Free Trade Zone (FTZ). An area or zone set aside at or near a port or 

airport, under the control of the U.S. Customs Service, for holding goods 

duty-free pending customs clearance. 

Greenfi eld. Undeveloped rural land, usually natural or agricultural, 

which may be considered for new, urban development. 

Greenhouse Gas (GHG). Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere. Some 

greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide occur naturally and are emitted 

to the atmosphere through natural processes and human activities. 

Other greenhouse gases (e.g., fl uorinated gases) are created and emitted 

solely through human activities. The principal greenhouse gases that 

enter the atmosphere because of human activities are:

• Carbon Dioxide (CO2

): Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere 

through the burning of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), 

solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of other 

chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement). Carbon dioxide 

also is removed from the atmosphere (or “sequestered”) when it is 

absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon cycle.

• Methane (CH4

): Methane is emitted during the production and 

transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result 

from livestock and other agricultural practices and by the decay of 

organic waste in municipal solid waste landfi lls.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

A-5

• Nitrous Oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural 

and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of fossil fuels 

and solid waste.

• Fluorinated Gases: Hydrofl ourocarbons, perfl uorocarbons, and 

sulfur hexafl uoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that 

are emitted from a variety of industrial processes. Fluorinated gases 

are sometimes used as substitutes for ozone-depleting substances 

(i.e., CFCs, HCFCs, and halons). These gases are typically emitted 

in smaller quantities, but because they are potent greenhouse gases, 

they are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential 

gases (“High GWP gases”).

Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW). The combined total weight of a vehicle 

and its freight. 

Hazardous Material. A substance or material which the Department of 

Transportation has determined to be capable of posing a risk to health, 

safety, and property when stored or transported in commerce. 

Hours of Service (HOS). A ruling that stipulates the amount of time 

a driver is allotted to work enforced by the Federal Motor Carrier 

Administration. 

Industrial Preservation. A strategy or program of strategies to support 

and maintain the viability of existing industrial land and facilities, 

particularly in urban areas and small towns. Industrial preservation 

can be an objective within a larger smart growth or jobs preservation 

program. 

Industrial Real Estate. Land and facilities used for the production, 

modifi cation, storage, and distribution of goods. Examples of industrial 

real estate include manufacturing plants, warehousing, and distribution 

centers. 

Intermodal Transportation. Transporting freight by using two or more 

transportation modes such as by truck and rail or truck and oceangoing 

vessel. For example, a shipment moved over 1,000 miles could travel by 

truck for one portion of the trip, and then transfer to rail at a designated 

terminal. 

Intermodal Container Transfer Facility (ICTF). A location at which 

intermodal containers are transferred from one mode to another. A yard 

at a seaport, at which containers are transferred from rail to oceangoing 

ship or vice-versa is an example. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

A-6

Intermodal Terminal. A location where links between different 

transportation modes and networks connect. 

Just-in-Time (JIT). An inventory control system that controls material 

fl ow into assembly and manufacturing plants by coordinating demand 

and supply to the point where desired materials arrive just in time for 

use. An inventory reduction strategy that feed production lines with 

products delivered “just-in-time.”

Level of Service (LOS). A qualitative assessment of a road’s operating 

conditions. For local government comprehensive planning purposes, 

level of service means an indicator of the extent or degree of service 

provided by, or proposed to be provided by, a facility based on and 

related to the operational characteristics of the facility. Level of service 

indicates the capacity per unit of demand for each public facility. 

Logistics. All activities involved in the management of product 

movement; delivering the right product from the right origin to the right 

destination, with the right quality and quantity, at the right schedule and 

price. 

Logistics Supportive Design Guidelines. Site design guidelines, 

which can be built into an agency’s site design and development review 

process, accounting for the physical and operational needs of freight, 

including loading zones, street geometry, truck routes, and access points, 

etc.

Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO). A Federally funded 

and mandated organization, composed of representatives from local 

government and transportation authorities, charged with establishing 

transportation policy and decision-making for a metropolitan area. 

Model Zoning Regulations. A tool through which an MPO or a 

state agency can provide technical assistance to local jurisdictions, 

using sample regulatory language and examples, to develop zoning 

requirements aimed at achieving community development goals. 

Node. A fi xed point in a fi rm’s logistics system where goods come to 

rest; includes plants, warehouses, supply sources, and markets. 

Not-In-My-Backyard (NIMBY). Refers to opposition, among 

community residents or other stakeholders, to development within 

their communities that may adversely impact the quality of life 

or environment. NIMBY sentiments may serve as a warning that 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

A-7

impacts are not properly addressed in the zoning, planning, or project 

development processes. 

Off-Peak Delivery. A strategy to incentivize or otherwise encourage the 

delivery of goods at times other than peak traffi c periods.

Post-Panamax. Refers to ships that are too large to fi t in the Panama 

Canal, such as supertankers and the largest modern container ships. 

Placard. A label required by the U.S. Department of Transportation that 

identifi es a hazardous material shipment and the hazards present. 

Piggyback. A rail/truck service in which a shipper loads a highway 

trailer, and a carrier drives it to a rail terminal and loads it on a fl atcar; 

the railroad moves the trailer-on-fl atcar combination to the destination 

terminal, where the carrier offl oads the trailer and delivers it to the 

consignee. 

Pool/Drop Trailers. Trailer that are staged at a facility for preloading 

purposes. 

Port Authority. State or local government that owns, operates, or 

otherwise provides wharf, dock, and other terminal investments at ports. 

Private Carrier. A carrier that provides transportation service to the fi rm 

that owns or leases the vehicles and does not charge a fee.

Preferential Zoning. Zoning regulations encouraging development that 

meets established planning goals. For instance, if regional stakeholders 

have determined that the provision/retention of freight-dependent land 

uses is an important goal, the planning authority can establish special 

zoning designations based on existing land use patterns and then offer 

rewards to developers who include desired freight amenities in their plans. 

Quiet Zones. Designated areas in which trains are not required 

to sound their whistles while approaching grade crossings. Quiet 

zones are intended to reduce the noise impacts of rail operations, but 

require the installation of advance warning systems and gates, and 

possibly additional safety equipment depending upon location-specifi c 

conditions. 

Regional Railroad. Railroad-defi ned as line-haul railroad operating at 

least 350 miles of track and/or earns revenue between $40 million and 

$272 million (2002). 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

A-8

Regional Visioning. An exercise through which an MPO or other 

regional planning agency establishes a “vision” scenario representing 

desired future growth patterns. 

Reliability. Refers to the degree of certainty and predictability in travel 

times on the transportation system. Reliable transportation systems 

offer some assurance of attaining a given destination within a reasonable 

range of an expected time. An unreliable transportation system is subject 

to unexpected delays, increasing costs for system users. 

Reverse Logistics. A specialized segment of logistics focusing on the 

movement and management of products and resources after the sale and 

after delivery to the customer. Includes product returns and repair for 

credit. 

Receiving. The function encompassing the physical receipt of material, 

the inspection of the shipment for conformance with the purchase order 

(quantity and damage), the identifi cation and delivery to destination, and 

the preparation of receiving reports. 

Shipper. Party that tenders goods for transportation. 

Short-line Railroad. Freight railroads which are not Class I or Regional 

Railroads, that operate less than 350 miles of track and earn less than $40 

million. 

Short Sea Shipping. Also known as coastal or coastwise shipping, 

describes marine shipping operations between ports along a single coast 

or involving a short sea crossing. 

Site Plan Review. An exercise through which site plans for proposed 

developments are reviewed by zoning offi cials to ensure compliance 

with zoning regulations and applicable comprehensive, land use or 

transportation plans. 

Stakeholders. Public-sector agencies, community groups, and private 

sector businesses which have a direct role in, or are impacted by, 

transportation and land use planning and decision-making processes. 

Stakeholder Committee. A forum in which stakeholders are invited to 

participate in the transportation and land use planning and decisionmaking processes. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

A-9

Strategic Highway Network (STRAHNET). A network of highways 

which are important to the United States’ strategic defense policy and 

which provide defense access, continuity, and emergency capabilities for 

defense purposes. 

Strategic Rail Corridor Network (STRACNET). An interconnected 

and continuous rail line network consisting of over 36,000 miles of track 

serving over 140 defense installations. 

Sustainability. An objective calling for policies and strategies that 

meet society’s present needs without compromising the ability of future 

generations to meet their own needs. 

Switching and Terminal Railroad. Railroad that provides pick-up and 

delivery services to line-haul carriers. 

Supply Chain. Starting with unprocessed raw materials and ending 

with fi nal customer using the fi nished goods. 

Third-Party Logistics (3PL) Provider. A specialist in logistics who may 

provide a variety of transportation, warehousing, and logistics-related 

services to buyers or sellers. These tasks were previously performed inhouse by the customer. 

Trailer on Flatcar (TOFC). Transport of trailers with their loads on 

specially designed rail cars. 

Transloading. Transferring bulk shipments from the vehicle/container 

of one mode to that of another at a terminal interchange point. 

Transportation Planning Process. The procedure through which an 

MPO or state identifi es transportation needs, analyzes alternatives, 

develops projects, and mitigates environmental impacts, while engaging 

stakeholders. 

Truck Climbing Lane. An highway lane provided where steep grades 

exist, allowing slower-moving vehicles such as trucks to travel with 

limited disruption to the fl ow of other traffi c. 

Truck-Only Toll (TOT) Lanes. On an expressway, a separated set of 

lanes dedicated to trucks, which allows trucks to avoid congestion in 

general purpose lanes during peak-periods. Use of the TOT lanes is 

voluntary, and a toll is charged to users. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

A-10

Truck Parking. Facilities either on-highway (such as state-operated rest 

areas and service-plazas) or off-highway (private truck stops), which 

provide spaces for trucks to park and for drivers to rest. 

Twenty-Foot Equivalent Unit (TEU). The 8-foot by 8-foot by 20-foot 

intermodal container is used as a basic measure in many statistics and is 

the standard measure used for containerized cargo.

Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT). A unit to measure vehicle travel 

made by a private vehicle, such as an automobile, van, pickup truck, or 

motorcycle. 

Warehouse. Storage place for products. Principal warehouse activities 

include receipt of product, storage, shipment, and order picking. 

Zoning. Regulations established by local governments which designate 

“zones” and defi ne the allowable land uses, density, ground cover, 

building types, and dimensions within them. 

Sources

This glossary was assembled from a number of sources, including:

• “Freight Glossary and Acronyms,” Federal Highway Administration. 

(http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/freight/FPD/glossary/index.htm).

• NCHRP Synthesis 320 – Integrating Freight Facilities and Operations 

with Community Goals 

(http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_syn_320.pdf), 

by Anne Strauss-Wieder, Inc., Anne Strauss-Wieder, 2003.

• U.S. EPA, http://www.epa.gov. 

• Cambridge Systematics, Inc., 2010. 
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

 -B-1

Appendix B Key Information Sources

1. NCHRP Synthesis 320 – Integrating Freight Facilities and Operations 

with Community Goals (http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/

nchrp/nchrp_syn_320.pdf), by Anne Strauss-Wieder, Inc., Anne 

Strauss-Wieder, 2003.

2. NCHRP Report 423A – Land Use Impacts of Transportation: A 

Guidebook, 1999.

3. NCHRP Report 594 – Guidebook for Integrating Freight into 

Transportation Planning and Project Selection Processes 

(http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_594.pdf), 

by Cambridge Systematics with Prime Focus LLC and Kevin 

Heanue, 2007.

4. NCFRP Report 23 – Economic and Transportation Drivers for 

Siting Freight Intermodal and Warehouse Distribution Facilities: 

Preliminary Draft Final Report, February 2011.

5. NCFRP Report 24 – Protecting and Preserving Freight Infrastructure 

and Routes, 2011.

6. Freight and Air Quality Handbook (http://ops.fhwa.dot.

gov/publications/fhwahop10024/index.htm), FHWA Freight 

Management and Operations, May 2010.

7. The Transportation Planning Process: Key Issues (http://www.

planning.dot.gov/documents/briefi ngbook/bbook_07.pdf). 

Transportation Planning Capacity Building Program, FHWA and 

FTA, September 2007.

8. Planning Truck-Only Lanes: Emerging Lessons from the 

Southern California Experience (http://pubsindex.trb.org/

view.aspx?id=682016) by M. J. Fischer, D. N. Ahanotu, and J. M. 

Waliszewski, 2003.

9. An Interim Guidebook on the Congestion Management Process 

in Metropolitan Transportation (http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/

publications/cmpguidebookindex.htm#contents), FHWA Offi ce of 

Operations, February 2008.

10. A Guidebook for Engaging the Private Sector in Freight 

Transportation Planning (http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/

freightplanning/guidebook/guidebookps00.cfm), FHWA Offi ce of 

Planning, June 2010.
FHWA Freight and Land Use Handbook

B-2

11. Policy Guide on Planning for Sustainability (http://www.planning.

org/policy/guides/pdf/sustainability.pdf), American Planning 

Association, April 2000.

12. Climate Change Impacts (http://climate.dot.gov/impactsadaptations/forcasts.html), U.S. DOT.

13. Translating a Regional Vision into Action (http://commerce.

uli.org/Content/NavigationMenu/MyCommunity/

RegionalVisioningandCooperation/Regional_Plan_intoAction.pdf), 

Urban Land Institute Land Use Policy Forum, March 2005.
1. Report No.

FHWA-HOP-12-006

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient’s Catalog No.

4. Title and Subtitle

Freight and Land Use Handbook

5. Report Date

April 2012

6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s)

Sophie Hartshorn, Christopher Lamm

8. Performing Organization Report No.

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

Cambridge Systematics, Inc.

100 CambridgePark Drive, Suite 400

Cambridge, MA 02140

10. Work Unit No.

11. Contract or Grant No.

DTFH61-06-D-00004 CA04-045

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

U.S. Department of Transportation

Federal Highway Administration 

Offi ce of Freight Management and Operations 

1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE 

Washington, DC 20590 

13. Type of Report and Period Covered

Final Report

August 2009-April 2012

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

HOFM

15. Supplementary Notes

FHWA COTR: Ed Strocko, Offi ce of Freight Management and Operations

16. Abstract

The goal of this Freight and Land Use Handbook is to provide transportation and land use planning practitioners 

in the public and private sectors with the tools and resources to properly assess the impacts of land use 

decisions on freight movements, as well as the impacts of freight development and growth on land use 

planning goals. The handbook identifi es freight-related land use issues, key considerations, and available 

resources. Throughout the handbook, examples and case studies from a range of urban and rural areas across 

the country are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of these techniques.

17. Key Words

Freight, Land Use, Planning, Interagency Coordination, 

Stakeholder Involvement, Community Impacts, Impact 

Mitigation Strategies, Context-Sensitive Solutions, Zoning

18. Distribution Statement

No restrictions.

19. Security Classif. (of this report)

Unclassifi ed

20. Security Classif. (of this page)

Unclassifi ed

21. No of Pages

138

22.

Technical Report Documentation Page

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed pages authorized