NASA-CR-175473

19850011330

RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES IN

HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PERFORMANCE

January 1985

Prepared for

THE LIFE SCIENCES DIVISION

OFFICE OF SPACE SCIENCE AND APPLICATIONS

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20546

LIBRARY COpy

j . 0'-"')':::

. ·!I..l i::itJv

under

LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER

Contract Number NASW 3924 LIBRARY, NASA

HAMPTON, VIRGINIA

•

RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES IN

HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PERFORMANCE

January f985

Prepared for

The Life Sciences Division

Office of Space Science and Applications

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Washington, D.C. 20546

under

Contract Number NASW 3924

Edited by

Julien M. Christensen, Ph.D.

John M. Talbot, M.D•

LIFE SCIENCES RESEARCH OFFICE

FEDERATION OF AMERICAN SOCIETIES

FOR EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY

9650 Rockville Pike

Bethesda, Maryland 20814

•

FOREWORD

The Life Sciences Research Office (LSRO), Federation of

American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB), provides

scientific assessments of topics in the biomedical sciences.

Reports are based upon comprehensive literature reviews and the

scientific opinions of knowledgeable investigators engaged in work

in specific areas of biology and medicine.

This technical report was developed for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in accordance with the proV1S1ons of Contract Number NASW 3924. It was prepared and edited

by Julien M. Christensen, Ph.D., Chief Scientist, Universal Energy

Systems, Dayton, Ohio, and John M. Talbot, M.D., Senior Medical

Consultant, LSRO.

The LSRO acknowledges the contributions of the investigators and consultants who assisted with this study. The report

reflects the opinions expressed by an ·ad hoc working group that

met at the Federation on August 6-8, 1984. The study participants

reviewed a draft of the report and their various viewpoints were

incorporated into the final report. The study participants and

LSRO accept responsibility for the accuracy of the report; however, the listing of these individuals in Section VIr does not

imply that they specifically endorse each study conclusion.

The report was reviewed and approved by the LSRO Advisory

Committee (which consists of representatives of each constituent

Society of FASEB) under authority delegated by the Executive Committee of the Federation Board. Upon completion of these review

procedures, the report was approved and transmitted to NASA by the

Executive Director, FASEB.

While this is a report of the Federation of American

Societies for Experimental Biology, it does not necessarily

reflect the opinion of each individual member of the FASEB

consitutent Societies.

Kenneth D. Fisher, Ph.D• Director

Life Sciences Research Office

iii

•

SUMMARY

The NASA research program in the biological and medical

aspects of space flight includes investigations of human behavior

and performance. The research focuses on psychological and psychophysiological responses to operational and environmental stresses

and demands of space flight, and encompasses problems in perception, cognition, motivation, psychological stability, small group

dynamics, and performance. The primary objective is to acquire

the knowledge and methodology to aid in achieving high productivity and essential psychological support of space- and groundcrews

in the Space Shuttle and space station programs.

As a part of the process of research program evaluation,

NASA requested that the Life Sciences Research Office (LSRO) of

the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology

review its program in psychology and identify research for future

program planning. This report is baseq upon the opinions and

suggestions of an ad hoc Working Group of expert behavioral scientists whose names are listed in section VII.

Crew motivation and effectiveness have been high in

NASA's manned missions, and overt functional- impairment caused by

adverse psychological responses has not been reported. However,

some experts believe that longer, increasingly complex, and relatively routine space missions involving larger, heterogeneous

crews may generate psychological and psychosocial problems for

which solutions are not currently available. In the planned space

station, potentially stressful factors include physical and social

isolation, confinement, boredom, threat of potential hazards, and

discomfort associated with crowding, lack of privacy, artificial

life support, and microgravity.

Documented untoward psychological and psychophysiological

responses to space flight include transient disorientation and

spatial illusions, temporary alteration of visual function, as

well as degradation of performance and sleep disturbance associated with undue shifts in work, rest, and sleep schedules. Space

sickness, which compromises crew effectiveness, may have a

significant psychological component in some people.

Anecdotal information from space missions of the United

States and Soviet Union includes other examples of adverse psycho- logical effects such as hostility between space- and groundcrews,

friction between members of spacecrews, and episodes of mental

depression. Past activities of an operational or research nature

that are analogous to space missions in terms of such factors as

v
confinement, physical and social isolation, crowding, lack of

privacy, and perceived danger, include long submarine missions,

undersea habitats, and polar stations. Research and operational

monitoring have shown that adverse psychological effects in these

endeavors have ranged from listlessness and depression through

anxiety with psychosomatic symptoms, sleep disturbance, and

fatigue, to irritability and frank hostility. Evidence for

decreased psychomotor performance in certain undersea activities

has been documented.

Among the unresolved problems of long-term human occupancy of a space station are questions of optimal psychological

and psychophysiological criteria and methods for crew selection

and assignment, psychological and psychosocial factors in crew

compatibility, motivation, and productivity, and the effects of

the space station environment on perceptual, intellectual, and

motor skills. The members of the LSRO ad hoc Working Group examined NASA's current research program in psychology, heard presentations on the space station, and focused their deliberations on

such key topics as cognition, perceptual-motor function, performance assessment, psychological stability, motivation, psychosocial

aspects, methodology, and models. In the opinion of the Working

Group, NASA's current research program in psychology includes some

worthwhile investigations whose results may ultimately prove applicable to problems of manned space flight; however, the programmatic level of effort is insufficient to produce the data needed

to satisfy the program objectives. Therefore, the ad hoc Group

reiterated the recurring opinion of past scientific advisory

groups that NASA would benefit grea~ly in both short and long

terms by planning and implementing a comprehensive, well-integrated research program in psychology including basic and applied

research and participation by behavioral scientists in space

station planning, crew selection and training, missions simulations, and actual missions of the space station. Suggested

research and methodology as well as certain technical considerations are specified in Section V.

vi

" '

"
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction •

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. I .

Foreword

Summary

· . · . .

· . · . . .

· . . .

iii

v

1

II. Objectives and Scope of the Study 5

II I. Background Information • • · . . . · . . 7

A. Experience from Space Flight • • • • 7

1. Documented Information • • • • • • • •• 7

2. Inflight Psychological Support • • • 9

3. Anecdotal Information • • •• ••• 10

B.

C.

Experience from Analogous Activities

.,

Past Recommendations of Scientific

Advisory Groups • • • • • • • • • · .

11

12

IV. Observations of the LSRO ad hoc Working Group

on Behavior and Performance • • • • • • • • 19

A. Determinants of Human Behavior and

Psychological Well-being • • • · . 19

1. Current State of Knowledge • · . · . 19

a. Perception · · · · · • · • · b. Cognition · · · · · · · · · c. Perceptual-motor Function · · · d. Psychological Stability · · · · · · e. Motivation · · · · · · · · · f. Performance · · · · · · · · g. Small Group Dynamics · · · · · · h. Environmental Considerations • · · •

19

20

20

21

22

22

24

25

B. Methodology and Models · . . 27

.. 1.

2.

Methodology • • •

Models • • • • • •

vii

· . . . . . . . .

· . . . . . . . . . . 27

30
V. Suggestions for Research and Program Planning

C. NASA-Sponsored Research and Technology in

the Behavioral Sciences • • • • • •

1. Near- and Long-term Needs • • • • •

2. Technical and Other Considerations •

Near- and Long-term Research and

Development • • • • • • •

Page

33

34

35

39 ..

40

42

42

44

45

47

47

51

53

53

55

57

71

. .

. .

• •

. . .

. . . . . .

. . . . .. . . ..

. . . . . . . . . . .

Performance Assessment •

Expert Concept and Position Papers.

Small Group Dynamics • ••• • •

Perceptual, Cognitive, and Motor

Effects • • • • • • • • •

Psychosocial Considerations ••••

Methodology and Models • • • • • • • • •

Description of Tasks • • • •

Comments of the Working Group

1-

2.

Priorities

Technical and Other Considerations

1-

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

A.

Literature Cited •••

B.

C.

Study Participants • •

VI.

VII.

viii
•

I. INTRODUCTION

The Biomedical Research Program of the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) addresses problems

associated with manned space flight. Part of the program concerns the psychological aspects of space flight, representing a

broad field of topics. This report on the psychological aspects

of space flight is based upon the opinions and suggestions of an

ad hoc Working Group of prominent ·behavioral scientists (see

Section VII), whose members met at the Federation on August 6-8,

1984, and who contributed additional data and refinements to the

report in the subsequent months.

NASA's manned space missions have involved flights of

short (hours or days) to medium (weeks to <3 mo) duration, usually

with crews of up to three astronauts. In the current Space Shuttle Program, missions nominally last for 7-10 d, with crews of

four to eight members. Crew motivation, productivity, and effectiveness have been high in all of NASA's manned missions, and overt

functional impairment based on adverse psychological responses has

not been reported (Berry, 1973, 1974; Johnston and Dietlein, 1977;

Nicogossian and Parker, 1982). However, some experts suggest that

longer, increasingly complex, but more. nearly routine space

endeavors such as the Soviet Salyut missions and the planned

United States space station may produce psychological problems

whose solutions are not currently at hand (Brady, 1983; Gurovskiy

and Novikov, 1981; Leonov and Lebedev, 1973; Montemerlo and Cron,

1982; Simonov, 1975). Moreover, anecdotal information suggests

that, in some of the Shuttle missions, phenomena of a psychophysiological and perceptual nature have occurred that are poorly understood and whose operational significance needs careful definition.

The ultimate configuration of the space station has not

been decided. However, as currently conceived, it will consist of

several modules designed to accommodate a crew of three to five

persons initially, and eight to twelve ultimately, in nominal missions lasting 90 d and operating in a low Earth orbit (500 km).

It will be supported logistically by the Shuttle Orbiter of the

Space Transportation System (STS).

In view of the comparatively limited experience in terms

of numbers of participants in long-term (arbitrarily described

here as >30 d) space missions in the programs of the United States

and the Soviet Union, reliable predictive data are not available

on the likelihood of significant performance degradation from

possible adverse behavioral effects of long-term occupancy of a

space station by multiple crew members.

1
Several factors in the environment of a space station may

become psychologically stressful as mission duration extends from

days to weeks to months. Examples of such factors are physical

isolation, social deprivation, confinement, a constant potential

for the occurrence of hazardous incidents, and discomfort associated with crowding, lack of privacy, artificial life support, and

weightlessness. No reports are available suggesting that such conditions have compromised crew performance in American space missions. However, numerous reports from somewhat analogous types of

missions document certain adverse psychological and psychophysiological responses of some of the participants: medium and long

submarine missions (Earls, 1969; Serxner, 1968; Tansey et al.,

1979; Weybrew, 1957}; undersea habitats (Deutsch, 1971; Helmreich,

1973; Radloff and Helmreich, 1968); polar stations (Gunderson,

1968); and long-term (e.g., 6 mo) Soviet manned space missions

(Bluth, 1981; Gurovskiy and Novikov, 1981; Petrov et al., 1979;

Simonov, 1975; Vinograd, 1974).

Adverse effects in these primarily operational experiences ranged from listlessness and depression through heightened

anxiety with psychosomatic symptoms, sleep disturbance, and

fatigue, to irritability, hostility, and deterioration of personality. The potential' for impairment of performance associated

with such responses appears obvious. In a laboratory setting,

however, ground-based studies of confined, physically isolated

subjects for periods up to 30 d have not demonstrated consistent

untoward effects on cognitive function and skilled performance

(Chiles et al., 1968; Smith, 1969; ZUbek, 1969). Moreover, while

behavioral abberations have been observed in divers living in

undersea habitats, such as development of hostility toward topside

personnel in Project Tektite I (Deutsch, 1971), sleep disturbances, and diminished psychomotor performance on the more complex

tests in Project Sealab II (Miller et al., 1967), adverse behavioral responses in the Sealab and Tektite series were minimal and

apparently did not significantly compromise planned mission

achievements.

Among the unresolved problems concerning the human components of the space station system are questions of optimal psychological and psychophysiological criteria and methods for crew

selection, psychological and psychosocial factors in crew compatibility and productivity, and the effects of the space station

environment on perceptual, intellectual, and motor skills. Numerous other pertinent questions are suggested by the list of topics

in Table 1. Some of the topics may appear more appropriate to

NASA's Human Factors Program, which is aimed at optimizing space

station habitability and the interfaces between the human operator

and his equipment, machines, and total system. The Human Factors

Program is outside the scope of this study. However, a great deal

of basic research is still needed to provide an adequate data base

for human factors applications in terms of perceptual, cognitive

2

•
and psychomotor processes, capabilities, and limitations in relation to spacecraft and space systems.

To achieve its objectives in the manned space programs,

NASA's policies concerning operational personnel require that the

best qualified individuals be selected, that the most effective

educational and training methods be used to develop and maintain

necessary skills, and that tested methods of preventing or ameliorating the untoward biological effects of space flight be employed

to promote physical and mental well-being and maximum operational

effectiveness. NASA conducts a research program in the psychological aspects of manned space flight in order to support its space

missions and its personnel policies. The program seeks to expand

the data base on the psychological responses to operational and

environmental stresses of the proposed space station, develop

methodology for identifying stress-susceptible individuals and for

nonintrusive measurement of psychological problems and performance

decrements in mission personnel, and to develop measures for preventing or controlling space-related psychological and performance

impairment. An associated program objective is development of a

model relating stress, psychological well-being, and task performance.

As a part of the ongoing effort to review and evaluate

its research program in the life sciences, NASA requested that the

Life Sciences Research Office of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology undertake a review of its research

program in psychology.

3
Table 1. Some factors that influence behavior and performance of spacecrew and other operational personnel

A. Psychological,

Psychosocial, and

Psychophysiological

limits of performance

(perceptual, motor)

cognitive abilities

decision-making

motivation

adaptability

leadership

productivity

emotions/moods

attitudes

fatigue (physical

and mental)

crew composition

crew compatibility

psychological stability

personality variables

social skills

human reliability

(error rate)

space adaptation

syndrome

spatial illusions

time compression

B. Environmental

spacecraft

habitability

confinement

physical isolation

social isolation

weightlessness

lack of privacy

artificial life

support

noise

work-rest cycles

shift changes

desynchronization

simultaneous and/or

sequential multiple

stresses

hazards

boredom

c. Space System

mission duration and

complexity

organization for

commsnd and control

division of work,

man/machine

crew performance

requirements

information load

task load/speed

crew composition

spacecrew autonomy

physical comfort/

quality of life

communications

(intracrew and

space-ground)

competency

requirements

time compression

4

D. Support Measures

inflight psychosocial

support

recreation

exercise

selection cri'teria

work-rest/avoiding

excess workloads

job rotation

job enrichment

preflight environmental

adaptation training

social sensitivity

training

training for team

effort

inflight maintenance

of proficiency

cross training

recognition, awards,

benefits

ground contacts

self-control training

..
II. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the LSRO study of the psychological

aspects of manned space flight are to:

1. review extant information on the subject;

2. examine NASA's psychology research program;

3. identify significant gaps in knowledge;

4. formulate suggestions for future research program

planning;

5. produce a documented report of the foregoing items

that can be used for program planning.

In accordance with NASA's guidance, the report focuses on

issues of human behavior and performance related to the contemplated United States Space Station, to the Shuttle Program, and to

both near- and long-term, space-related problems of a generic

nature in applicable disciplines of psychology.

Members of the LSRO ad hoc Working Group on Behavior and

Performance heard present~tions by NASA program managers and principal investigators and reviewed the scientific literature, unpublished information from the United States and Soviet space programs,

and NASA's program documents for the research program in psychology. In broad terms, the ad hoc Working Group focused its discussions on: (1) human performance requirements for the long-term

(90 d) manned mission; (2) human perceptual, cognitive, and motor

capabilities and limitations in space; (3) crew composition,

individual competencies, crew competencies, selection criteria,

and special training; (4) environmental factors influencing behavior; (5) psychosocial aspects of multi-person space crews in longterm missions; (6) career determinants in NASA; (7) investigational methodology and equipment; and (8) psychological support.

5

..

III. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

A. EXPERIENCE FROM SPACE FLIGHT

1. Documented Information

Most of the published accounts of manned space

missions suggest that, with few exceptions, the perceptual, cognitive, and psychomotor performance of the crews was apparently

unimpaired in terms of mission completion (Gazenko et al., 1981;

Johnston et al., 1975; Johnston and Dietlein, 1977; Nicogossian

and Parker, 1982). Individual exceptions to maintaining adequate

performance and psychological well-being during space flight have

been caused in some cases by space sickness (part of the "space

adaptation syndrome") (Homick and Miller, 1975; Homick, 1979;

Johnson, 1984), transient disorientation and spatial illusions

in a few cases (Yuganov and Kopanev, 1975), and, in nearly all

flights initial slowness in accomplishing tasks (or a reduced work

efficiency) and diminished motor coordination and precision of

movement during the adaptation to weightlessness. However, the

crew members adjust rapidly to the weightless environment and

become proficient in developing techniques to optimize task performance. Thus, the initial disturbances of motor function have

not been considered critical (Pestov and Geratewohl, 1975).

However, postflight motor dysfunction can be rather debilitating

for days or weeks.

When work, rest, and sleep schedules were shifted from a

24-h day set to local time of the launch site during the Soyuz

program, cosmonauts experienced some degradation of performance

and disturbed sleep (Leonov and Lebedev, 1973; Leonov, 1979).

Sleep loss, poor quality sleep, and fatigue were reported from

the Gemini IV, Apollo 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, and STS-1 missions (Berry,

1970; Goldwater, 1981; Strughold and Hale, 1975). In Apollo

mission 7, the sleep periods of the three astronauts were staggered so that one crew member could always be on watch. In

Apollo 8, operational demands required sleep schedules that were

quite different from preflight practice. In neither mission was

sleep judged to be adequate. In Apollo 9, the quality of sleep

improved when the astronauts slept simultaneously during their

accustomed terrestrial hours (Strughold and Hale, 1975). During

lunar surface periods in the Apollo Program sleep was generally

inadequate. Space flight experience suggests that, at least for

near-Earth missions, sleep periods should be synchronous with

customary bed times at the launch site •

Two Russian cosmonauts observed deterioration of the

accuracy of their "standard" movements during the first few days

of orbital flight in the Soyuz-9 spacecraft; motor responses frequently exceeded nominal levels for a given movement (Beregovoy,

7
1979). Beregovoy (1979) reported a sensation of slow movement

of the hand while writing in weightlessness, apparently another

transient illusion of space flight involving alteration of time

sense. At the time of entering the weightless state it is fairly

common to experience illusory sensations such as overturning or

inversion of the body, or apparent movement of objects within the

visual field. These false sensations are transient and usually of

only a few minutes' duration. However, in some cases, the illusions persisted for up to a day (Leonov and Lebedev, 1973).

A perceptual problem described as "unoriented vision" is

associated with an empty visual field, in which human accommodation responds by focusing not at optical infinity, but at a relatively short distance of 1-2 m (Whiteside, 1965). In this situation, the individual becomes, in effect, near-sighted, and, partly

on this basis, his ability to estimate distances and sizes of

objects may be impaired. Such anomalous myopias have been studied

as subjects of interest to psychophysiologists (Liebowitz and

Owens, 1975) and in relation to practical problems of vision ia

aviation (Roscoe, 1982). In addition, empty field myopia has

significant implications for visual performance in space (Liebowitz et al., 1975).

Soviet scientists measured the optical resolving power of

cosmonauts' eyes as well as the number of eye movements per unit

time in some of the Voskhod missions. They concluded that, under

weightless conditions, the functional capabilities of the eye are

subject to definite changes in terms of oculomotor function and

visual work capacity (Leonov and Lebedev, 1973). However, the

changes were considered to be slight and insignificant in terms

of required visual function inflight (Beregovoy, 1979). More

recently, Soviet scientists reported decreases in visual contrast

sensitivity during the first few days in orbit, and there are indications of a sustained interest in evaluating inflight visual function of the cosmonauts (Schreiber, 1984). No documented reports

of inflight impairment of visual function of the U.S. astronauts

have come to the attention of the ad hoc Working Group; however,

some members of Shuttle crews have complained of "presbyopia" and

"misplaced horizon" during flight (Genco and Task, 1984). NASA

has conducted testing of visual performance in some of the Shuttle

missions by means of a newly developed Portable Vision Function

Tester (Genco and Task, 1984). Reports of test results are

expected in 1985. Some space flyers have reported seeing objects

such as automobiles and ships, that, at the distances involved,

were beyond the optical resolving power of the eye (Yuganov and

Kopanev, 1975). No satisfactory explanation of such claims has

been advanced; however, inference appears to be involved.

Simonov (1975) reviewed the subject of psychophysiological stress of space flight and concluded that "Space flight is

accompanied by clear signs of emotional stress." Evidence for

8

•
this conclusion has been documented (Gagarin and Lebedev, 1971;

Lindsley, 1972). According to Simonov (1975), psychophysiologic

stress is evo~ed by informational, not physical, factors: "Signals

that are insignificant in their physical characteristics carry information concerning events which are significant for man and only

indirectly, through a change in the state of the brain, exert powerful effects on various functions of the organism." Psychophysiological stress is marked by objective signs and symptoms such as

shifts in electrical activity of the brain and changes in autonomic and motor functions (Simonov, 1975). Responses to psychophysiologic stress are not always negative; that is, some authorities believe that it is necessary to maintain a level of "internal

stress" as a means of preserving working capacity, working "tone",

and constant readiness (Sevast'yanov, 1979; Simonov et al., 1980).

Simonov (1975) emphasized the importance of developing

practical, reliable methods for monitoring inflight crew performance and to diagnose shifts in emotional state so as to institute

interventions. Cosmonauts have described instances of interpersonal hostility between members of flight crews; apparently these

were related to excessive fatigue and were quickly and amicably

resolved (Sevast'yanov, 1979). Instances of hostility in communications between spacecrews and ground controllers have occurred in

both the U.S. and Soviet space programs.

In summary, few, if any instances of overt maladaptive

emotional responses to stresses of space flight have been documented, and critical psychophysiologic functions such as memory,

concentration, vigilance, information processing, and decisionmaking have apparently been unimpaired except for transient decrements in performance during episodes of space sickness (Berry,

1974; Johnston and Dietlein, 1977; Johnston et al., 1975; Vorob'yev

et al., 1984). Indeed, striking examples of psychophysiologic

stability under emergency conditions have been reported; for

example, the successful recovery of the Apollo 13 mission following rupture of a main oxygen tank (Johnston et al., 1975).

2. Inflight Psychological Support

Soviet practice in providing psychological

supportive measures during missions of 90 d or more suggests a

strong conviction of their efficacy. Myasnikov (1983) noted that

such measures helped significantly to maintain a high emotional

and work "tonus". He wrote:

During the period of the five main expeditions

(Salyut-6 missions lasting from 75-185 d, Ed.)

an onboard video and record library was organized for the cosmonauts' leisure hours, which

included more than 110 spectator and music programs taken from among the best of the Soviet

9
and foreign screen and stage. A total of 132

meetings were organized for the crews involving

121 representatives of different areas of pUblic life: political reviewers, sports commentators, specialists, scientists, dramatic, film

and variety artists who, being the logical

source of information for the crews, often of a

personal nature, also had a positive psychotherapeutic effect ••• "talks with families

eliminated nervous stress and envigorated us

for more than a day. After the 'meeting' with

our families, we were ready to work without

demanding rest around the clock" ••• The efficacy of psychological support, along with other

preventive measures, was confirmed both by the

statements of the participants of long-term

space flights and the results of medical monitoring of the cosmonauts' mental status and

work capacity.

Less elaborate measures have been used in the U.S. programs which, except for the Skylab missions, were of relatively

short duration when compared with the Salyut-6 and 7 missions.

Radio and video communications with families and news networks

have helped to maintain morale and to alleviate concerns about

families and friends.

3. Anecdotal Information

Despite pUblished reports that mission accomplishment has been unimpaired by behavioral and performance problems,

anecdotal information from both Soviet and American experience

suggests that instances of altered behavior and performance have

occurred. The Working Group recognizes that anecdotal material is

both limited and sketchy at best. Indeed, there is no way to

document its veracity. Nevertheless, some of these reports provide additional insight into possible problems of behavior and

performance in space flight that may be amenable to resolution by

research that identifies preventive approaches.

Bluth (1981; 1984) has reviewed mission reports and

interviewed a relatively large number of both American and Soviet

space flight and ground personnel. According to Bluth (1984):

Both the Americans and Soviets have lost data,

ruined experiments, lost equipment, and manifested a long list of symptoms ••• It includes:

fatigue, sleep disorders, irritability, depression, anxiety, mood fluctuation, hostility,

social withdrawal, vacillating motivation,

boredom, tension, and lowered efficiency.

10
Bluth (1981) reported that cosmonauts were reluctant to

discuss hostility among crew members and between flight- and groundcrews. Errors in distance jUdgement that compromised docking procedures and disturbance of time sense have occurred (Beregovoy, 1979)

as have mistakes in preparation for landing (Leonov, 1979). Helmreich

(1984) has noted the similarity of conflicts and instances of lack of

cooperation between flight- and groundcrews in both American and

Soviet space flights to similar incidents experienced in the Sealab

and Tektite experiments. Even though preflight simulations suggest

time-lines for procedures during flight and approach and landing are

feasible, "time compression" appears to be a recognized phenomenon.

While NASA has instituted operational measures to address

these types of problems, their existence suggests that additional

careful analysis and definition, together with investigational

approaches would enhance operational safety and preserve optimal

crew performance.

Unpublished information from the Soviet space.program

indicates that, during some of the long-term missions, cosmonauts

have experienced periods of mental depression for which various

intervention techniques were required including private radio

talks with their flight surgeons and trusted cosmonaut friends on

the ground. Other methods of inflight psychological support of

the cosmonauts are noted on page 9.

B. EXPERIENCE FROM ANALOGOUS ACTIVITIES

Marked limitation in the actual numbers of people who have

participated in space flights and, more significantly, their relative

inaccessibility for expert observation and tests, make it necessary

to look elsewhere for information on psychologic aspects of human

activities in unusual environments under conditions of confinement

and isolation. Environments such as large, multi-crew aircraft, longrange submarines, undersea habitats, and isolated scientific and operational stations with small-to-medium-sized crews have certain characteristics in common with the contemplated space station. They feature

physically isolated groups of operational and scientific personnel

doing complex and routine tasks over periods of weeks or months. They

experience confinement, minimal privacy, and varying degrees of physical discomfort and potential danger. Such enterprises have lent themselves to expert behavioral science observations as well as to limited

experiments and tests (Vinograd, 1974).

The occurrence of aberrant psychological, psychosocial, and

psychophysiologic responses has been reported during medium and long

submarine missions (Earls, 1969; Serxner, 1968; Tansey et al., 1979;

Weybrew, 1957); while living and working in undersea habitats

(Deutsch, 1971; Helmreich, 1971a, 1973; Radloff and Helmreich,

11
1968); and while operating polar stations (Gunderson, 1968, 1973;

Strange and Klein, 1973). Adverse effects have ranged from boredom and listlessness through heightened anxiety with psychosomatic

symptoms, sleep disturbances, fatigue, and impaired cognition to

irritability, hostility, depression, and deterioration of personality. Table 2 lists examples of observed responses. Despite the

stressful nature of some of the listed environments and the associated performance requirements, human ability to adapt and perform

effectively in such circumstances has repeatedly been demonstrated. •

Psychological and psychosocial studies of crews and test

subjects involved in such space analogues have identified positive

and negative behavioral responses, stressful environmental factors, and personal qualities favoring successful participation.

They have defined individual and group factors that promote group

cohesion, improve morale, and support improved performance (Angiboust, 1967; Chambers, 1964; Chambers and Fried, 1963; Kubis, 1972;

NASA, 1966; Smith," 1969; Trego and Sells, 1970). Data, procedures,

and scientific principles derived from such studies are applicable

to the space station as well as to the Shuttle Program, in terms

of crew selection and training, improved habitability and psychological support. Moreover, such information could facilitate' the

development within NASA of urgently needed capabilities for participation of behavioral scientists in NASA's training programs, space

mission simulations, Shuttle flights, detailed task analyses of

space- and groundcrews and design studies of the space station

itself.

C. PAST RECOMMENDATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY GROUPS

Comparison of the recommendations of past scientific

advisory groups with the current research program (RTOP No.

199-22-62, Psychology; see page 33), suggests that widely divergent views on the value of research in this field have long

existed in NASA. A major study initiated in 1967 by the Space

Science Board of the National Academy of Sciences on biomedical

and human factors aspects of manned space flight identified important gaps in knowledge and recommended substantial research in

pertinent areas of the behavioral sciences (Lindsley, 1972). An

ad hoc panel responded to a NASA request for assessment of its

research program on behavior and performance, noting lack of:

(1) an overall strategy for the program; (2) consideration of

long-duration space missions with autonomous crews; and (3) consideration of the psychosocial aspects of manned space missions

(Neff, 1977).

• NASA's program in human behavior and performance was

appraised by the Life Sciences Advisory Committee of the NASA

Advisory Council (Whedon, 1978). Overall, the Committee regarded

the efforts and priorities in the contemporary activity as adequate to support NASA's planned programs. They recognized, however, that new social and behavioral questions regarding small

12
:>II -.

Table 2. Effects of Isolation and/or Confinement on Human Behavior

.&

Setting

Underwater Habitat

Ben Franklin. 6 subjects.

30-d in cylindrical submersible 10' diam•• 48'

long

Sealab II. three 10-man

teams. 15-d each in submersible 12.5' diam•• 57.5'

long, at 205' depth.

LaJolla. CA

Tektite II. four 5-person

teams 14-d each; six

5-person teams. 20-d in

submerged habitat;

2 cylinders 12.5' diam.,

18' high. tunnel-connected,

at 49' depth, Virgin Is.

Submarines

Polaris nuclear submarine,

2 crews of 140 men. two

60-d runs

Behavioral Observations

High motivation, morale; no psychomotor

decrement; some tension. transient

depression; discontent directed toward

topside personnel

Social interaction strongly related

to adaptation; older. later-born

divers from small towns adjusted best;

high morale, motivatio~ and diving

experience favored good performance;

some decrement in psychomotor performance as complexity of tests increased

Gregariousness correlated positively

with performance; very little anxiety

or depression; few interpersonal conflicts; positive moods prevailed but

weakened as missions progressed; rolesharing increased productivity and

cohesiveness

Sleep disturbances common; headaches;

decline in mood and a depressive trend

peaked at 4-5 wk with introspection

and social withdrawal; some noted poor

concentration. reduced alertness; sex

a favorite topic; pecking orders were

established; irritability; vulgar langguage; feuds between small groups;

moods improved at 6-7 wk; "hypomanic"

at end of 8th wk, sense of well-being

Comment

No professional or

maintenance difficulties; chief

complaint: lack of

privacy

No overt maladaptive

responses

Privacy was an important factor; methods

used for behavioral

assessment were

verified

Prominent adverse

factors: lack of

objective reward; no

ability to communicate

with outside persons;

crowding; unchanging

environment; family

concerns; onboard

nuclear weapons

Source

Del Vecchio et al••

1970; Grumman Aerospace Corp., 1970

Helmreich. 1967;

Pauli and Clapper.

1967; Radloff and

Helmreich. 1968

Helmreich. 1971b.

1972; Miller

et aI., 1971

Earls. 1969;

Serxner, 1968;

Weybrew, 1963
Table 2. (continued)

Setting

Isolated Stations

Antarctic station.

85 men. about l-y

Antarctic station: studies

of scientists and naval

personnel in prolonged

isolation

Review of studies of

Arctic remote stations

(2-12 mo) and Antarctic

stations (4-12 mo)

Antarctic station. 27 men

l-y

,

Behavioral Observations

Tension. headaches. sleep disturbances.

reduced intellectual energy. impaired

concentration; increased appetite and

weight gain

Sleep disturbances. depression. tension.

headaches. irritability. reduced work

satisfaction. social relationships. and

group accomplishments

Decreased morale and performance.

anxiety. boredom. day-dreaming.

irritability. depression. and

hostility

Tension. headaches. pains in hearts.

muscles. joints; "asthenoneurotic syndrome" after onset of polar night

(headaches. unstable mood. decreased

libido. restless sleep. itching. dermatographism. constipation); emotional

uplift with return of day. but neuropsychologic status did not improve;

hostility and conflict between individuals and between informal subgroups that

formed after 5-6 mo.

Comment

Principal psychologic

stresses were group

adjustment problems.

unvarying environment.

absence of some

customary sources of

emotional satisfaction

Size of groups was

unrelated to somatic

and emotional symptoms

Principal stresses were

lack of privacy and

social stimuli; informal

group structures evolved

including choosing "emottional leaders"; good

leadership supported

emotional and social

needs of crews. improved

cohesion and performance

Results of hematologic.

hormonal. and immunologic tests described

as consistent with the

behavioral responses

Source

Mullin. 1960

Gunderson and

Nelson. 1963

,

Kubis. 1972

Kurbanovet al ••

1977
..

Table 2. (continued)

Setting

Space Flight Simulation

Three 30-d runs, two with

4 men, one with 5; different cabin atmospheres and

life support systems (LSS);

8-h sleep in one, 7-h in

one, and a 4-on 8-off

schedule in third

A 60-d mission, 4 college

volunteers, closed LSS;

sleep 8-h for each of 2

shifts; tasks: domestic

chores, operate and maintain LSS; perceptual

motor and behavioral

tests

A 90-d mission, 4 college

volunteers, closed ecological system, 100% oxygen;

sleep, 8-h for each of 2

shifts; tasks same as in

60-d mission (above)

Behavioral Observations

Group adjustment good in one test,

marginal in two; motivation high in one,

indifferent in one; poor in third; cognitive function, performance, and psychologic stability good in all runs;

irritability and hostility in one test;

attitude toward outside monitors positive in one test, negative in two

Minor interpersonal conflicts; friction

between subjects and outside monitors;

crew function good throughout; psychologic status remained good; perceptual

motor skills unchanged or improved; crew

functioned smoothly

Slight improvement in performance and

less time per task as mission progressed;

high cognitive performance; some sleep

disturbance; good morale except 10-d at

6-7 wk; transient hostilities; tension

noteworthy in two, anxiety in one;

increased affect needs in one; no

friction with monitors; little group

cohesiveness developed

Comment

Curtailed social stimulation and boredom

were negative factors;

environments not

particularly stressful; careful selection

and pre-test training

optimized motivation,

cohesiveness, and

group performance

Careful selection

and pre-mission

training including

group dynamics. Noise,

insomnia, food were

irritants

Careful selection and

pre-mission training

were employed

Source

Boeing Co., 1964;

Dunlap, 1964;

General Electric

Co., 1964.

McDonnell Douglas

Astronautics Co.,

1968.

Jackson et al.,

1972; Pearson and

Grana, 1971;

Seeman' and

MacFarland, 1972

------------------------------------------ -----
group interactions might arise as types and durations of space

missions change in the future and as the composition of space

teams diversifies. They recommended that research on behavior

and performance continue to be supported because of the long lead

times required "to achieve practically usable information for

application to operational space flight requirements."

Another major study of NASA's needs in the space life

sciences conducted by the Committee on Space Biology and Medicine

of the Space Science Board excluded consideration of behavioral

and social problems except for reference to the existence of

psychosocial stressors and spatial illusions during space missions, a suggestion that biofeedback techniques be further

explored in relation to space sickness, and recommendations for

additional studies of protective adaptation to motion sickness

(Bricker, 1979).

In 1980, a NASA advisory panel (Kubis, 1980) recommended

considerable expansion of NASA's research in behavior and performance to include: (1) total system studies, including ground-based

and space flight teams; (2) behavioral and social interactions of

spacecrews and groundcrews composed of astronauts, nonastronaut

scientists and others, of both sexes and different races; (3) designation and management of authority in the system; (4) performance

including measurements during Shuttle simulations at JSC; (5) longterm maintenance of critical performance skills; (6) causes and

diagnosis of mental overload, including development of onboard monitoring capability; (7) development of means to identify "systems

overload" and to monitor system trends; (8) optimal division of

function between automated and crew-operated parts of the space

system; and (9) behavioral medicine as a preventive and supportive

approach to optimal performance. In addition, the panel recommended that NASA maintain competence in the science of biorhythms

as they relate to fatigue, alertness, sustained performance,

work/rest patterns, and socia+ interaction.

A more recent evaluation of NASA's research needs in

human behavior (Brady, 1983) emphasized the desirability of an

expanded behavioral science data base to support future space

missions. A series of recommendations was made for further

research in this area. Areas included: (1) selection, training,

and organization functions; (2) physiological adaptation and stability; (3) operational performance requirements and general living conditions; (4) conceptual and methodological approaches to

long-term research requirements; and (5) general implementation

considerations.

NASA has requested and received over the years, a number

of suggestions and reports on aspects of human behavior and performance in short- and long-term space missions. As with most

previous expert groups, the LSRO ad hoc Working Group on Behavior

and Performance is convinced of the practical potential of an

16
expanded research program that will provide data and procedures

for optimizing individual and group performance of both space- and

groundcrews in future missions of both the Shuttle and the space

station (see Sections IV and V).

17

IV. OBSERVATIONS OF THE LSRO ad hoc WORKING GROUP ON

BEHAVIOR AND PERFORMANCE

The Working Group represents broad expert investigative

experience in such pertinent areas as experimental, cognitive,

engineering, and social psychology, psychiatry, and aerospace

medicine (see list of participants in Section VII). In addition,

four members have participated in NASA activities either directly,

contractually, or as scientific advisors. Information sources

available to the ad hoc Group included detailed written and oral

descriptions of NASA's current research in psychology, selections

from the literature, briefings on psychological and social problems of space flight, and plans for the space station from the

point of view of the life sciences.

A. DETERMINANTS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PSYCHOLOGICAL

WELL-BEING

The principal factors that influence the behavioral

responses of spacecrew and associated operational personnel are

listed in Table 1. Certain of these were considered in detail by

the ad hoc Group; however, an absence of comment on some of the

items in the table should not suggest they are considered unimportant as factors that may affect behavior and performance.

1. Current State of Knowledge

a. Perception

The small inflight alterations of visual

performance parameters reported by Soviet investigators (see

page 8) tend toward preflight values as missions proceed, and

Soviet space medical scientists have concluded that inflight

visual function is as reliable as on Earth (Nicogossian and

Parker, 1982). Moreover, the essentially negative results of

tests to detect inflight and postflight changes in visual performance during the Gemini program (Nicogossian and Parker, 1982)

and the apparent lack of abberations of visual performance in the

Apollo and Skylab missions have not suggested a need for much

further scientific investigation of visual performance in space

flight. However, as noted on page 8, some transitory changes in

visual performance have been reported, and NASA is conducting more

sophisticated tests of inflight visual function than have been

feasible in the past. Moreover, improved means of aiding optical

accommodation for distant objects in unstructured visual fields

are needed; for example, a device that projects a pattern at

infinity (Whiteside, 1965) and methods of accommodation control

(Roscoe, 1982).

19
Similarly, future plans should include preC1S10n inflight

measurement of hearing, made at selected times during a mission

including the early hours and days. In addition, inflight tests

should be devised to detect possible changes in olfaction and gustation. NASA's current program for inflight assessment of vestibular function is probably sufficient; however, instances of

disorientation during orbital insertion and reentry appear to be

inadequately defined, especially as regards operational significance. Such disorientation should be the subject of expert

inflight observation and, if feasible, follow-up ground-based

investigation.

b. Cognition

One perceptual-cognitive phenomenon that should

be investigated scientifically is so-called "time compression"

(see page 11) • It is understood that NASA has alleviated this

problem of apparent operator overload during Shuttle landing

approach by operational means; however, time compression is not

well enough defined to be set aside as insignificant. It probably

contains elements of excessive mental workload, information

overload, and cognitive processing involving inferences, judgement, and decision-making, for which the data bases are insufficient. For instance, Sheridan et ale (1983) noted: "For human

supervision to be really effective, a detailed understanding of

how the human controller grasps a complex system at any moment in

time and updates it over time is necessary." Elucidating the

mental processes involved in the overloaded operator will require

substantial additional research in such areas as cognitive systems

(Landman and Hunt, 1982; Navon and Gopher, 1979; Posner, 1978,

1980), mental workload, inferencing, reasoning, and decisionmaking, and the interaction of stress, emotions, attention and

cognitive processes (Bower, 1981; Posner and Rothbart, 1980).

LSRO is aware that NASA employs a systematic procedure

for investigating operational incidents. Careful analysis of such

incidents may offer a valuable approach to improving flight

safety, operator performance, and development of preventive techniques. For example, in the Air Force, flight safety, crew performance, and human engineering design of workspaces, displays,

and controls have benefited from critical incident reporting and

analysis (Fitts and Jones, 1947a,b; Sinaiko, 1961).

c. Perceptual-motor Function

Experience with manned space flight and extravehicular activity (EVA) suggests that, for the tasks performed to

date, no serious impairments of perceptual-motor functions have

occurred. This includes extensive Soviet experience, American EVA

experience on the Moon (288 man-hours), 10 EVAs (82 man-hours) to

20
repair the Skylab Orbiter Workshop, and a considerable accumulation of EVA experience in the Shuttle Program. Rapid adaptation

of perceptual-motor functions in weightlessness has evidently

occurred in all space flights. On the other hand, impaired motor

function has been common after long missions, and vigorous inflight

exercises have failed to prevent it. Atrophy of skeletal muscle

accompanied by a decrease in muscle strength has been documented

in the Skylab Program and other long-term flights (Gazenko et al.,

1981; Herbison and Talbot, 1984; Thornton and Rummel, 1977).

Whether degradation in neuromuscular control of fine movements of

the hands and fingers may occur in these circumstances is not

known, but should be investigated despite the generally accepted

conclusion that spacecrew performance has been equal to the

operational requirements of given missions.

d. Psychological Stability

Psychological stability, a mandatory characteristic of candidates for spacecrews (Kubis and McLaughlin, 1967;

Loftus et al., 1975), is generally considered a part of the makeup of a normal individual. In space flight, as in other more or

less stressful endeavors, maintaining psychological stability

depends upon such factors as intelligence, physical and mental

adaptability, physiologic homeostasis, motivation, training, experience, and'maturity. The physical environment, workload, mission

duration, and emotional responses to interpersonal annoyances,

hazardous incidents, environmental monotony, physical discomfort,

and other elements all can influence psychological stability.

Personality traits considered desirable in members of

spacecrews have been identified and are taken into account in the

selection process (Chambers and Fried, 1963; Epstein, 1980; Leonov

and Lebedev, 1973; McGuire, 1984a; Ruff and Levy, 1959; Trego and

Sells, 1970). With regard to the psychological aspects of selection, NASA currently relies on the results of expert psychiatric

interviews to identify persons with appropriate psychological characteristics and to eliminate from consideration those with psychopathology.

In the opinion of the ad hoc Working Group, available

knowledge is adequate for optimal psychological selection of individuals for space- and groundcrews. On the other hand, despite

some progress in identifying favorable personality characteristics

and procedural influences (Brady and Emurian, 1979; Emurian and

Brady, 1984; Helmreich, 1983; Helmreich et al., 1980a,b), currently available information is insufficient on how to select persons who will be the most compatible in dyads, triads, or larger

groups. For the space station, as an example, crew selection and

high technical proficiency will not guarantee a cohesive, smoothly

functioning group. In the past, a valuable means of demonstrating

the probability of crew compatibility involved years or months of

21
intimate, premission association in training and recreation. This

may be a feasible part of the crew familiarization process for the

space station. In addition to the customary intensive training

programs for each space system and careful organization of the

crew in terms of leadership, functional structure, and allocation

of responsibilities, plans should include social sensitivity training and sufficient cross-training in specialized technical skills

to permit some rotation of members in and out of the more interesting mission activities. Such role sharing has been shown to

improve group cohesiveness and productivity (Helmreich, 1972;

Helmreich and Radloff, 1973).

Fatigue has proved to be a particularly important negative influence on psychological stability, human reliability, and

productivity. Means for its prevention have been identified from

cumulative space flight experience, adequate sleep being the most

significant element (Loftus et al., 1975). Space station design

and mission planning will, no doubt, emphasize provisions for

adequate sleep.

e. Motivation

The powerful influence of motivation as a prime

mover of human accomplishment is widely recognized. It will be a

keystone of productivity in the space station as well as in future

Shuttle missions. Expert opinion suggests that developing and

maintaining good motivation may prove difficult for long, relatively routine mis~ions that may lack the glamour and pioneering

interest and stimulation of earlier manned space programs. If

this supposition is correct, the need for identifying and implementing methods of assuring proper motivation appears essential.

Involved are such issues as space system organization, command and

control, space station autonomy, role sharing, psychological support, career development, growth potential, and incentives.

Assistance in these areas is available from a number of disciplines

in the behavioral and social sciences including the following

branches of the broad field of psychology: clinical, counseling,

community, engineering, environmental, experimental, industrial/

organizational, and social.

f. Performance

Two aspects of the subject of crew performance

were emphasized by the ad hoc Working Group: lack of expert

assessment by behavioral scientists during preflight training,

simulations, and inflight; and the inadequate state of knowledge

of group performance under conditions of emotional stress such as

in emergencies. Despite the impressive records of achievement in

the American and Soviet manned space programs, questions have

arisen on whether crew performance has generally been optimal and~

22
if not, what were the causes? No data from actual performance

assessments of spacecrew members were available to the Working

Group.

In view of the current planning emphasis on productivity

of the future space station crews (Cramer, 1984), and in the Shuttle Program, a need for performance assessment appears clear.

Here, the objective would be to improve operator performance, not

to test personnel on a pass-or-fail basis. The introduction of

performance assessment would offer substantial gains in the quest

for optimal productivity. Some suggested methods are treated in

Section IV B (see pages 27-29).

Reliable predictive data based on actual space flights

are not available on the likelihood of significant performance

degradation from possible adverse behavioral effects of long-term

occupancy of a multi-crew space station. Moreover, insufficient

information is available accurately to predict whether crews will

take effective, coordinated action in inflight emergencies or situations requiring improvisation. Some evidence suggests that failure of coordinated action by crews in large transport aircraft has

been responsible for accidents and serious inflight incidents

(Cooper, 1982). Whether well-trained crews may be expected to

react as decisively and effectively to an inflight emergency as

did the crew of Apollo 13 (Johnston et al., 1975) is problematical. To improve crew coordination in airliners, some airlines

have recently added formal crew coordination indoctrination and

full mission simulation to their training programs, but their

potential effectiveness has yet to be demonstrated. In NASA, validation of such techniques would require access of behavioral

scientists to observe spacecrew members during their training and

inflight.

A major potential contributor to successful spacecrew

composition and productivity is psychological, as distinguished

from psychiatric, appraisal. Refinements in the potential of

psychological selection may be expected because of recent advances

in understanding relationships between individual and group performance, certain personality traits, and real-life situations

that influence behavior. For instance, two major clusters of

personality traits have been shown to correlate strongly with

individual and group interactions and performance. One cluster

involves individual or group achievement, the other, concern for

others, empathy, and emotional reactivity (Helmreich, 1984; Spence

and Helmreich, 1978). Superior performance has been shown to be

associated with the two groups of traits. Generally, individuals

possessing both clusters of traits appear advantaged in, " •••self

esteem, life satisfaction, marital adjustment, general achievement, and ability to perform in group settings" (Helmreich, 1984).

23
Moreover, they tend not to become neurotic or to require therapeutic assistance. Achievement motivation has revealed some weakness as a predictor of successful performance in real-world situations. Three of its measurable components, mastery, work, and

competitiveness, have been shown to relate differentially and frequently interactively with a variety of criterion measures (Helmreich and Spence, 1978; Helmreich, et al., 1980a; Spence and Helmreich, 1983). For example, in multi-person air transport crews,

work was unrelated, mastery was positively related, and competitiveness negatively related to crew performance (Spence and Helmreich, 1978).

g. Small Group Dynamics

An opinion that has often been expressed by

authorities in astronautics and the space life sciences holds that

the feasibility of future long-duration space missions will depend

upon solution of the associated psychosocial problems of heterogeneous crews living and working in isolation and confinement

(Bell, 1981; Berry, 1973; Brady, 1983; Novikov, 1979; Vorob'yev

et al., 1984). One Skylab astronaut was convinced of this when he

noted that the sociological problems will prove more difficult to

solve than the technical ones (Bell, 1981). One veteran Cosmonaut

stated, with regard to interpersonal relations on a 6-mo Salyut

mission:

We must now adjust to living together. Away

from the rest of the world ••• We have to solve

ours (problems) together, taking into account

the feelings of the other. True, we had prepared for this long and hard together, rehearsing every anticipated problem, but this was

done in an environment of other people. Here

we are totally alone. Each uttered word

assumes added importance. One must bear in

mind constantly the other's good and bad sides,

anticipate his thinking, the ramifications of a

wrong utterance blown out of proportion.

(Quoted in Bluth, 1981.)

According to Novikov (1979) development of fundamental

data on psychological compatibility and criteria for the selection

of groups such as those contemplated for the space station are outstanding examples of unsolved problems of group psychology. He

noted the difficulty of analyzing motivation and the contemporary

absence of scientific methodology for this (however, for examples

of progress in this area, see page 23). He emphasized the importance of studying the social-psychological mobility of personality, that is, the ability to adapt to group "isolation, the role of

self-regulation, and the need to develop methods of group psychological training and skills of joint action. He stressed as well

24
the essentiality of clear assignments of reponsibilities and

duties in order to avoid conflict tension (Novikov, 1979). The

importance of avoiding role ambiguity and conflict was amply demonstrated in the Spacelab Mission Development Tests III (SMD III)

simulation of the Spacelab mission (Helmreich et al., 1979). For

instance, a potential for conflict was identified between spacecrew members and ground controllers and between ground-based

scientists in charge of inflight experiments and their spaceborne

scientific collaborators (Bluth and McNeal, 1981; Helmreich

et al., 1979).

Interviews with experienced cosmonauts and astronauts and

reviews of their writings confirmed the occurrence of psychological and psychosocial problems in highly selected, well-trained

spacecrews with rather homogeneous backgrounds. When cultural

backgrounds of crew members and members of other groups operating

in isolation and confinement were quite different, the behavioral

reactions were further complicated (Bluth, 1984).

While the data and principles pertaining to group behavior derived from space flight experience, space flight simulations, and analogous activities are extremely valuable, they are

not always well enough developed in certain domains to provide the

degree of confidence needed for specific planning and design of

space systems; nor has the available information been put to

optimal use in such critical areas as selection and training.

h. Environmental Considerations

The biomedical effects of exposures of up to

6 mo of continuous space flight in the Salyut-6-Soyuz program have

been reported (Gazenko et al., 1981; Vorob'yev et al., 1984). In

addition, Gazenko (1983) summed up the 211-d mission of Salyut-7,

flown in 1982, with the words, "In comparison with flights of

shorter duration, space flights lasting up to 7 months do not lead

to any qualitatively new biological changes in the human organism." No medical or psychological data from the recent 8-mo

Russian mission have come to the attention of the Working Group,

but, considering the Soviet capabilities for inflight medical and

psychological assessment of the crew, one may assume that this mission was also a success from the point of view of the involved

life scientists and flight surgeons.

Except for space sickness and transient illusions of

spatial disorientation, all of which disappeared after the first

few days in orbit, no inflight psychophysiological impairment was

reported by the Soviet scientists. Behavioral disturbances in the

long Soviet missions have apparently been infrequent and nondisruptive. Temporary postflight disturbances of vestibular function,

posture, gastrointestinal stability, and locomotion have commonly

occurred in cosmonauts and astronauts (Homick, 1979; Yakovleva

et al., 1981).

25
As a result of the successes of the space missions and

the apparent lack of irreversible biological effects in the crews,

estimates by space medical authorities are generally optimistic

about extending the missions to greater and greater durations

(Berry, 1973; Gazenko et al., 1981; Vorob I yev etal., 1984). The

achievements in the Soviet long-term flights have been credited in

part to the contributions of the behavioral sciences in such areas

as psychological criteria for crew selection, psychological methods

of training and preparing crews for space missions, inflight psychological monitoring and support, and the use of behavioral

science principles and techniques to maintain motivation and

productivity.

In general, the biobehavioral effects of human exposure

to near-Earth and Earth-Moon space for missions of varying length

have been within acceptable limits and, except for the unpredictability of solar particle events, the nominal 90-d space station

mission should present no exceptional problems from the point of

view of the space environment. Within the space station however,

environmental factors will have a marked influence on individual

and group behavior. Provision of state-of-the-art habitability in

all its manifold ramifications, will be a major determinant of

success in the space station as will expert selection, organization, and training of the crew and allocation of functions.

The Soviet practice of permitting spacecrew members some latitude

with respect to designing their flight suits, selecting some of

their favorite items for onboard recreation, and requesting favorite foods via the resupply flights reportedly has helped to maintain morale and productivity (Bluth, 1981). While some useful

information is available about human needs for contact, privacy,

and personal space and about crowding (Altman, 1975; Baum and

Valins, 1977; Worchel, 1977), the data base is limited in terms of

privacy needs and methods of meeting them in confined environments. Moreover, data are lacking on some of the more subtle

psychological aspects of habitability.

In the Salyut-6 station, cosmonauts have managed some

degree of psychological privacy by writing their impressions and

feelings in their diaries (Bluth, 1981). Other relatively simple

means for improving onboard privacy, or its perception, might

include back-to-back work stations and limitation of video monitoring to a single work station rather than all occupied parts of the

space station (Bluth and McNeal, 1981). However, the capability

for video and audio monitoring of all habitable spaces in the

space station may be required for non-biomedical reasons, and it

would be highly desirable as a means of expert observation of crew

behavior and l>erformance, particularly in the "shake down" phases of space station operation.

The need for privacy of space-ground radio communication

for crew members with their families, flight surgeons, fellow

astronauts in mission control, and others has been repeatedly

26
emphasized by American and Soviet space medical authorities as

essential for maintaining morale, solving personal problems, and

reducing emotional stress. It is understood that the privacy of

the personal radio link has been so undependable that spacecrew

members do not trust it. Extraordinary effort should be expended

to provide secure means of private communication between spacecraft and ground.

B. METHODOLOGY AND MODELS

NASA's documented objectives in Psychology (see Section

IV C) clearly point toward a need for employing the most appropriate available investigative methodology and developing improved

methods, equipment, and models for use in studying behavior and

performance. Discussion of these topics suggested that certain

applicable methods and equipment are available but not being used

in NASA research, as well as lack of suitable methodology for

exploring some problems of interest to NASA. With respect to

models of human behavior, one of NASA's stated goals is to develop

a model relating behavior and performance to the environmental

influences and performance requirements of a space system. The

opinions of the Working Group on these subjects are presented in

the following paragraphs.

1. Methodology

As was already mentioned, the most serious lack of

data pertains to the performance of astronauts and other crew members during training, simulations, and actual space flight. To

acquire the means of improving inflight performance of operators

as individuals or members of crews, data from the "real world" of

training and space flight derived from expert observations and

measurements of actual crew members are essential.

A technique that has proved valuable in assessing workload in Air Force aircrew members is the embedded secondary task

method. The basic concept of this technique is to use as the measuring instrument a function which the crew member must perform as

part of the mission. For example, radio communications, which

normally must be performed in any case, can be quantified with

respect to workload or performance parameters. Messages could

then be introduced to the operator at specific times in the mission which require known responses. In this way, the well-recognized advantages of secondary task methodology in assessing workload are obtained without the intrusiveness or artificiality typically experienced with that method. The Air Force has quantified

communication tasks in the A-10 aircraft, and has shown good reliability for the technique (Shingledecker and Crabtree, 1982).

Using this model, one could select a number of mission subelements, quantify them with respect to workload or performance

27
expectation, and use them as embedded secondary tasks. Other

approaches to workload assessment are described in Kerr (1973) and

Wickens (1984).

The extremely limited information available on details of

spacecrew performance inflight was regarded as a pivotal gap in

essential knowledge for identifying clues for improving design,

operational procedures, training, and formulation of research plans.

The Working Group advocated crew performance assessment in all

space flights as well as in ground training and simulations including participation by expert behavioral scientists--even a behaviorally trained professional "just to be there and look" would be a

valuable step forward. As a beginning, NASA needs a carefully

recorded but protected cataloging of psychological events in training, simulations, and inflight.

Techniques for identifying reactions to stress in Navy

divers have been developed and refined for research and operational use. These include observation by video or sequential photography, voice analysis, measurement of intention tremor, and

pencil and paper devices for examining types and characteristics

of personality and attitudes in divers. Use of the pencil and

paper devices has helped to distinguish, for example, successful

high-risk personnel who, no matter what the stress situation,

appear to have elements in common. Examples of such elements

include a low, generalized anxiety level, a strong sense of selfconfidence, and of being in control, and a strong potential for

social support, for example via help, advice, and cooperation, as

well as the capacity to receive social support in a similar fashion. The potential for social support is important in view of

certain sterotypes pertaining to "heroes". The loner or the

"macho" performer is not as successful in overall high-risk performance, especially in view of increasing requirements for team

performance.

It is feasible to embed the intention tremor device so

that its use is unobtrusive. In addition, changes in rate and

pattern of respiration are useful and virtually universal indicators of impending stress in all situations and should be considered as another practical means of monitoring psychophysiological status and assessing reactions to the environmental and

situational influences of space flight.

Although NASA has supported the development of several

performance tests, and is currently supporting development of a

series of tests at Johnson Space Center, the ad hoc Working Group

feels that there is a need to utilize a more coherent, comprehensive, and theoretically defensible performance assessment battery

in the program. One such battery, which is nearing completion of

its developmental phase for the military services in connection

with defense against chemical warfare agents is regarded by members

of the ad hoc Working Group as superior to any other available

28

..
system for its intended uses. This type of system is discussed in

Thorne et ale (1983). It would be an excellent means of assessing

some of the behavioral effects of space flight on a before-andafter basis, and it appears to have potential for modification for

onboard use. A metqod that has facilitated the timely introduction of psychological and human factors expertise into the early

design phases of Air Force weapon systems is known as the Cockpit

Automation Technology Program (CAT), whose purpose is to assure

that cockpit design is optimal for human performance. A system of

this sort may offer some advantages in designing work stations or

other crew spaces of the space station.

An excellent opportunity apparently exists for acquiring

abundant data unobtrusively on spacecrew behavior and performance

via the video and audio systems on the Shuttle Orbiter. Similar

opportunities should obtain for the space station. For example,

with approval by NASA, one could video- and audio-tape the spacecrew during representative segments of a mission, not merely brief

transient recordings. Very good, sophisticated techniques are

available for analyzing unobtrusive data in such areas as performance parameters, social interactions, and nonverbal behavior.

From such information could come a series of descriptive

analyses of doing ordinary things such as brushing teeth, washing,

and other basic tasks of living onboard as well as the more complex tasks of operating and maintaining the space vehicle, communicating, and functioning in the scientific and technical

spheres. Moreover, experience with unobtrusive behavioral observations of this sort should lead to improved means of monitoring

spacecrews for psychophysiological stability and detection of maladaptive trends or events requiring intervention.

Numerous applied methods of research, test, and analysis

are available. For instance, one aerospace company that has an

outstanding human factors capability uses 45 techniques and methods. However, fundamental information regarding such criteria as

reliability, validity, sensitivity, and generalizability of the

methods is usually lacking; hence, the practitioner must rely heavily on his past experience and treat each new applied problem very

much on an ad hoc basis. Indeed, most human factors practitioners

actually use a very restricted number of the available techniques.

Task analysis, functions allocation, timelines, sequence diagrams,

interviews, questionnaires, rating scales, mock-ups, and computerbased simulation are among those most in favor.

There is clearly a need to develop thorough, descriptive

information and criterion-based data that will enable the human

factors practitioners to select and properly to employ the most

appropriate methods in their attempts to assure that people are

employed so as to maximize systems effectiveness (as measured by

the criteria established for a particular system).

29
Another area of great practical interest involving a need

for progress in methodology concerns identification and classification of stress-tolerant people and means of preparing individuals

and groups for coping with the stresses of space flights. Examples include methods for self-control such as relaxation techniques, control of autonomic responses using biofeedback, and

psychological self-defense. Pertinent references include Benson

(1984), Henry and Stephens (1977), Mason (1975), McGuire (1984b),

Orne· (1980), Schultz and Luthe (1959), Selye (1974), and Wolpe

(1973). In this general area belong, as well, methods for teaching elements of group dynamics such as social sensitivity, awareness of each other's needs, and how to interact with other members

of the space and groundcrews to achieve the mission objectives

cooperatively and efficiently.

2. Models

Conceptual Model of Program. It might prove beneficial to organize the factors identified in Table 1, and other

potentially important variables, into a preliminary conceptual

model of space crew performance. The model could identify the

major categories of variables or factors that influence performance along with the principal dimensions of each category as presently known or hypothesized. Appropriate theory and empirical

research findings could be used to develop the variables and relationships reflected in the initial version of the model. Such a

model could provide: (1) a coherent blueprint of the research

arena and principal variables under investigation; (2) a framework

or foundation for classifying important variables, reflecting known

or hypothesized relationships, developing research propositions,

identifying variables for multivariate experimental investigations,

and prioritizing research; and (3) a taxonomy for cataloging

research findings, incorporating new knowledge, refining theory,

and identifying knowledge gaps.

Development of another potentially useful conceptual

model, based on the notion of generic human effectiveness, reached

preliminary stages in the mid-1970s. It concerned the influence

of personal, organizational, and environmental (physical environment) variables on performance (particularly that of scientists

and engineers). The original reports are voluminous and not

directly applicable to NASA's needs; however, summaries of portions of this work are available (Secrist, 1983a,b). For example,

the total spectrum generic model of human effectiveness identifies

certain dimensions of the organizational and physical environments

that also apply to space crews. The dimensions (Secrist, 1983a)

and efforts to develop measures of those with satisfactory psychometric characteristics (Secrist, 1983b) have been described.

30
Other models that have proved useful in the behavioral

sciences may be divided, albeit somewhat arbitrarily, into three

classes: physical, manual control, and perceptual-cognitive.

a. Physical. Fairly sophisticated models have been

developed for use in workplace design. Table 3, taken from Roebuck, et ale (1975), shows some of the unique requirements engendered by operations in space. Specific models are available for

examining such parameters as reach, physical clearances, effects

of selected encumbrances, and vision. Adaptation of some models

for computer treatment has greatly facilitated their application.

(See, for example, Kroemer, 1972; McDaniel, 1980). We are unaware

of studies that examined the significant parameters over extended

periods of time.

b. Manual Control. The pioneering efforts of Askenas

and McReur (1962) are a classic example of where brilliant insight

and well-conducted experiments led to what many consider the most

comprehensive program of modeling in the human factors area.

Sophisticated treatments were required to deal with control problems involving six degrees of freedom and such factors as the nonlinearities of the human controller.

Those engaged in this area of research and applications

became almost a fraternal organization, meeting once a year in

what came to be known as the "Annual Manual". The 20th Annual

Manual was held in 1984 and featured for the first time "annual

mental" sessions--a clear recognition of the intimate interrelationships between the motor and cognitive; these sessions addressed such topics as evoked potentials, workload, communications,

diagnostics, and supervisory control (Anonymous, 1984). Manual

control models, supported by simulator test, are available to

solve a wide variety of human-machine problems.

c. Perceptual-cognitive. The extension of the manual

control conference into the perceptual-cognitive area is clear

recognition of the fact that the human organism, in and of itself,

is a complex system. While selected sub-systems such as the physical and the motor have yielded much information to the systematic

inquiry of the modelers, only a very preliminary understanding has

developed with respect to the cognitive sub-systems. Adequate

treatment of the entire human performance system is not foreseeable at this time. Interaction of the human system with complex

technological systems will necessarily remain largely ad hoc for

the foreseeable future. However, significant information is available with respect to the design of controls and displays, information processing, and effects of selected environmental parameters.

31
Table 3. Spacecraft Design Areas with Unique Anthropometric

Considerations

Design Area

Crew couch and body supports

Controls, latches, and hand

holds

Personal equipment

Hatches and tunnels

Portable environmental

control systems

Tool design

Restraints and tethers

Personal maneuvering units

Clothing

Emergency ground egress and

rescue

Unique Considerations

Reentry and launch loads, supine

position, space-suit mobility

and bulk, landing impact, weightlessness, astronaut population

dimensions.

Space-suit glove bulk, mobility

limitations. Space-suit reduction of tactile sensation. Suit

lead and abrasion sensitivity.

Astronaut population strength.

Space-suit interface shape,

connections, mobility limits,

visibility limits.

Space-suit bulk and limited

mobility, zero-G locomotion,

vacuum environment, metabolic

costs, suit safety.

Zero-G, need for suit support,

suit mobility and vision. Metabolic requirements for suits.

Space-suit glove: limited

mobility and bulk. Weightlessness. Loss of traction, use of

tethers for restraints.

Weightlessness requirements.

Six degrees of freedom--no friction. Weightlessness, spacesuit bulk, contour, and mobility

limits. Lighting and vision.

Space suit, helmet, gloves,

boots. Astronaut population.

Space-suit bulk, weight, and

mobility limits. Supine position, pressurized vessel.

Oxygen environment fire hazard.

Umbilical tower environment.

Astronaut training and agility.

Source: Roebuck et al., 1975, (with permission).

32
However, adequate models for handling such matters as

cognitive workload, decision making, and supervisory control are

yet to be developed, although considerable promising work is being

conducted. Sheridan et al. (1983) summarize very well the research

needs in the area of supervisory control systems: (1) computeroperator communication; (2) discovering cognitive models of operator-controlled processes; (3) computer-based aids to cognition;

(4) system reliability and reasons for human error; (5) definition

of mental workload and its effects on human error; (6) division of

authority between human operator and computer; (7) coordination of

supervisory control teams; (8) extracting knowledge from experience with large, complex, interactive systems; and (9) improving

communication between designers and operators of supervisory

control systems.

C. NASA-SPONSORED RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

NASA supports intra- and extramural research and development in the psychological aspects of space flight (Research and

Technology Objective and Plan [RTOP] No. 199-22-62, Psychology)

and in aeronautical and space human factors. In addition, several

tasks with implications for human behavior and performance are

parts of other NASA RTOPs, such as studies of the space adaptation

syndrome, the effects of certain foods and nutrients on behavior,

and the behavioral effects of altering normal circadian rhythms.

NASA's formal Human Factors Program, while outside the scope of

this study, is closely related and would benefit from results of

basic research suggested in Section V. To improve awareness and

essential interactions, the ad hoc Working group believes that

close and sustained coordination should be continued among all

NASA activities that are involved in research and development in

the behavioral and closely related sciences.

NASA relies primarily on unsolicited research proposals

to meet its research program needs in psychology; however, only a

limited number of high-quality, relevant proposals have been submitted, and the system for announcing NASA's needs for groundbased investigations in the behavioral sciences apparently needs

modification to assure that specific research requirements couched

in appropriate scientific language reach the intended target

audience.

The stated objectives of NASA's research program in the

psychological aspects of manned space flight are to: (1) increase

the data base, where needed, concerning human psychological

response to specific stresses related to the space station environment and operation; (2) develop methods for identification of individual susceptibility to such stresses and for nonintrusive measurement and prediction of psychological problems and associated

33
performance decrements in the mission environment; and (3) develop

preventive and remedial countermeasures for breakdown in psychological health leading to performance decrement. An associated

objective is to develop a model relating stress, psychological

well-being, and task performance.

1. Description of Tasks

Currently, the program consists of the following

five tasks:

Task 199-22-62-01, short title: Cognitive Performance

and Stress. The objectives are to explore the nature of

cognitive performance in fearful situations, to determine

relationships of fear-modified performance to other

indicants of fear as assessed in both actual stress

situations and in imagination or anticipation of expected

stress. The experiments are designed to evaluate behavioral avoidance and psychophysiological responses of

subjects in a confinement stress, under both high- and

low-demand conditions to tolerate the stressor; to evaluate performance on reasoning, computational, and psychomotor tests while subjects are under confinement stress;

to assess the effects on cognitive performance of a confinement stress reduction contingency; to evaluate confinement fear behavior in subjects high and low on the

trait of sensation seeking. Attempts will be made to

develop predictors to discriminate those persons in whom

performance decrements will most probably be observed as

compared with those who will maintain or even enhance

performance.

Task 199-22-62-02, short title: Determinants of

Performance. The objective of this task is the development of techniques for the selection and training of

spacecrews and the composition and management of crews in

future space missions such as the space station. The

focus is on techniques of maximizing performance and

adjustment. A broad issue of concern is how best to

organize missions with multiple scientific and operational goals and how to develop the kind of cooperative

collaboration necessary for effective performance in an

interdependent environment. The investigations include

the construct validity of psychometric tests of a number

of subtle attributes of normal personality functioning.

Some of the tests are directly applicable to crew selection as they decompose such dimensions as masculinityfemininity, self-esteem, and need achievement into components which, in a proper pattern, appear capable of

predicting high levels of performance and adjustment

under conditions of prolonged social intimacy within a

continuously isolated group.

34

.' I
Task 199-22-62-03, short title: Small Group Behavioral

Interactions. This task explores the performance capabilities of dyads and triads studied in a programmed environment under aversive or appetitive procedural rules for

periods lasting up to 28 d. Observed variables include

"pacing", social interactions, change of social structure, positive and negative motivation, and group cohesiveness. The experimental facility provides quantitative data on such parameters as stimulus input, behavioral output, location in the facility, activity, interactions, and the effects of cooperative or non-cooperative social contingencies.

Task 199-22-64-01, short title: Human Performance

Analysis Methodology. The long-term objective is to

develop noninvasive methods of measuring the effects of

weightlessness, mental workloads, and environmental

hazards of space flight on human cognitive and perceptual

processes. Near-term objectives are to determine the

physiological basis for evoked magnetic field and evoked

electric potential responses and to develop instrumentation and methods for using evoked responses for assessment of human performance in the space program.

Task 199-11-67-01, short title: Physiological Program

Planning Analysis. A part of this task is the review and

analysis of NASA's research and development needs in the

psychological aspects of space flight. It is the subtask

for providing NASA with a scientific report of the LSRO/

FASEB ad hoc Working Group on Behavior and Performance.

2. Comments of the Working Group

The members of the ad hoc Working Group did not

reach a full consensus on the relevance to NASA's needs of the

research tasks outlined on pages 34, 35. Some members were reluctant to express an opinion because they considered their familiarity with the research tasks to be inadequate for the purpose.

Consequently, the evaluative comments following on pages 35-37

represent a majority, not a unanimous opinion. In all cases, the

scientific qualifications of the principal investigators were

recognized as outstanding, and the quality of research was judged

to be high.

Some members of the Working Group questioned the relevance, in terms of NASA's operational needs, of Task 199-22-62-01,

Cognitive Performance and Stress, and recommended reorientation

toward more nearly specific space flight questions. For instance,

how should NASA plan to recognize, prepare for, and handle an

inflight, nonpsychotic panic reaction? How should NASA identify

susceptible members of flight crews and prepare them to control

35
anxieties associated with perceived hazards of space missions?

What sort of procedures should NASA consider for coping with other

emotional responses to space flight? How should NASA monitor the

inflight emotional status of spacecrew members by means of currently available knowledge and technology? Other members thought

that the broader orientation represented in the future plans for

this task would probably yield useful data applicable to NASA

needs.

Task 199-22-64-01, Human Performance Analysis Methodology, reflects exceptional scientific and technical merit and

long-term probability of advancing knowledge of central psychophysiological processes and achieving means for their objective

measurement. However, while agreeing with the objectives of the

task, the research approaches, and the need for continuation of

the task, some members of the Working Group questioned whether it

should be a part of the NASA Psychology research program, suggesting that it should probably be carried in a NASA RTOP more closely

related to neurophysiology.

Tasks 199-22-62-02 and 199-22-62-03, respectively entitled Determinants of Performance and Small Group Behavioral Interactions, were both considered relevant to NASA needs provided that

the obtained data will be put to practical use by NASA in such pertinent areas as crew selection, composition, training, and rotation,

as well as allocation of responsibility and tasks, role-sharing,

and provision of psychological support. Here again, some members

of the Working Group believed that the results to be expected from

the two tasks might be more relevant to NASA's needs if specific

questions were addressed to the principal investigators. Examples

of questions that might be appropriate are: (1) Can you produce

some data within the next 12 or 18 mo on items that could be used

in design criteria for the space station such as the value, for

psychological support and quality of life, of a shower, privacy,

minimum acceptable living space, and other factors that enrich the

habitability of the station? (2) Is there a temporal limit for

maintaining optimum psychophysiological homeostasis in long space

flights such as 15, 20, or 30 d? (3) How much autonomy should the

space station crew be given? How much flexibility in how they

accomplish their duties? (4) What are the motivational and productivity values of intimate involvement of spacecrew numbers in such

program activities as planning and development of mission requirements, job assignments, workloads, work schedules, and habitability factors? (5) What kind of intrinsic rewards will be the most

meaningful for maintaining motivation in the 90-d mission? What

are the associated personality profiles? Is it feasible to train

people to recognize and profit by their perceptions of intrinsic

rewards?

The latter two tasks appear to be somewhat complementary

in that one represents a controlled laboratory environment, the

other more nearly the situations in the "real world". Therefore,

the principal investigators should be encouraged to exchange

36
•

information at regular intervals and collaborate, where possible,

in formulating extensions of their investigations; that is, information developed in one laboratory may suggest additional hypotheses and experimental variables that could profitably be investigated in the other laboratory or on a collaborative basis.

The psychology research program may be expected to grow

moderately under the current system of unsolicited proposals.

Nevertheless, the current level of effort is too restricted to

produce the research needed to meet the stated objectives of the

program. In addition, the scope of the stated program objectives,

while broad, appears too restricted to include such essential considerations as the psychological aspects of groundcrew organization, operation, and interaction with spacecrews, and development

of improved psychological selection and training criteria and techniques, all of which have significant implications in terms of systems effectiveness and psychological well-being. Accordingly, the

ad hoc Working Group has listed some additional research suggestions on these topics in Section V•

37

V. SUGGESTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND PROGRAM PLANNING

NASA has the opportunity to develop a broad program

directed at the psychological, psychosocial, and psychophysiological aspects of long-term space flight, a program directed

specifically at optimizing behavior and performance in the space

station, or both. The ad hoc Working Group believes NASA should

have two programs: a first priority program directed toward the

needs of the Space Transportation System and the space station in

the near term, using available data, and short-term research to

obtain best estimate solutions for the initial missions; and a

supporting, longer-term program seeking more optimal solutions and

addressing longer-term problems. The shorter-term program should

represent a cooperative undertaking of applicable parts of NASA's

Human Factors program and research under the Psychology RTOP and

should be an engineering design-oriented activity, not a peripheral research and consulting activity. It should be directed at

the design of, or at least the requirements for, a space station

interior, crew systems, crew operational procedures and tasks, and

the specification of crew skills, characteristics, composition,

and training requirements.

The longer-term program should explore topics in psychology and psychophysiology such as those identified in Section

IV A and B which require a substantial time commitment. Suggestions for both near- and long-term consideration are detailed on

pages 40-50.

In sUbmitting its suggestions for research and program

planning, the LSRO ad hoc Working Group on Behavior and Performance took into account several factors that have apparently influenced the status of NASA's research, development, and operational

support in the behavioral sciences: (1) the admirable history of

nearly unqualified success in the manned space programs; available

knowledge in human behavior and performance was apparently considered adequate for agency needs, and the astronauts were able to

meet the workloads, performance requirements, and timelines almost

without exception; (2) the independence that has been accorded the

astronaut group in the past in deciding the nature and level of

ground-based and flight research and test in which they would participate; and (3) the history of a relatively modest level of

effort in NASA in-house and extramural research in the behavioral

sciences except for recognizable work in human factors applied to

aeronautics.

In addition, the Working Group considered the research

implications of the fundamental changes in size, functions, responsibilities, and composition of spacecrews and ground support

staffs that have occurred in the Space Transportation SystemShuttle Program and that are contemplated in the space station,

the nominal 90-d missions with possible extensions, the emphasis

on system productivity which permeates space ,station planning, and

39
the changing character of NASA careers for the associated space

and ground personnel.

A common theme in the recommendations of expert groups

that have advised NASA on research needs in behavior and performance has been the overriding importance of establishing a

firm commitment to a well integrated, comprehensive, long-range

research and development program. Lacking these critical elements, an otherwise well-conceived program would languish. The

Working Group believes that a management strategy should be formulated that will provide for regular, joint participation of behavioral scientists with operational and planning personnel in determining short- and long-term research and development needs, integrating the approaches in the key operational activities of NASA,

and applying and evaluating the results.

Various schemes of program planning would serve to assure

comprehensive coverage. Examples range from simple checklists of

identified specific problems of behavior and performance related

to space flight and lists of behavioral elements in a missiondefined matrix of tasks and task components to sophisticated computerized, on-line, interactive data manager systems. One recognized method of planning large research programs in the psychological and social sciences is the ecological systems approach

espoused by some members of the ad hoc Working Group (Barker, 1968;

Sells and Gunderson, 1972; Wicker, 1979). Such an approach favors

a methodology for descriptive analysis of natural settings and

social interactions observed unobtrusively. Table 4 is a rough

outline of a possible ecological systems schema. The members of

the Working Group recognize that studies based on observational

methods of operational activities such as space flights are hampered in some ways by numerous uncontrolled variables and that

precise measurement of certain important behavioral characteristics requires a finely controlled laboratory setting. Nevertheless, the importance of acquiring behavioral and social data from

the real world of NASA training, simulations, and actual space

flights cannot be overemphasized.

The suggestions are divided into two main groups:

(1) near- and long-term research and development and (2) technical and other considerations.

A. NEAR- AND LONG-TERM RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Near term is defined here as research and development

whose results are expected within one to two years. The overall

objective of a near-term program should be the development and

execution of a plan of research in human behavior and performance

that emphasizes areas of immediate importance to those in NASA who

are responsible for systems planning and development and for

mission planning and execution.

40
Table 4. Schema for an Ecological Systems Approach to

Investigation of Psychological and Social Issues in Manned Space

Flight

A. Major Systems of Interest

Individual:

Social/rnterpersonal:

Socio/Cultural:

Interactions Among Systems:

8. Approaches

Elements and Issues

physiological, perceptual,

cognitive, affective, and

emotional responses

relationship formation,

conflict management,

absorption of new people,

cliques, autonomy

families, ground control

establishment, authority

structure, careers,

incentives

most of the above

Study change, process, and dynamic qualities by continual

monitoring of physiological, psychological, and social

responses to participation in space careers. Study all

phases, not just training and missions:

Phase

Baseline

Training

Mission

Postmission

Long-term

Physiological

EFFECTS

Psychological Social

PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS

Use a spectrum of methods: quantitative, qualitative

experimental, observational, self-reports, case methods,

archival methods, and expert reviews.

41
1. Performance Assessment

Selection, construction, and validation of a new

generation performance battery for use in training, in mission

simulations, onboard the space station, and, if possible, on some

future Shuttle missions should be planned and scheduled.

Embedded secondary tasks should be selected and designed

for incorporation with existing Shuttle communications and control

equipment and for the space station as a part of an evolving performance assessment and monitoring capability (see page 27).

The feasibility of using available onboard video and

audio capabilities of the Shuttle should be determined and plans

made for such use in assessing and monitoring crew performance

(see also page 29).

Development of methods of objective measurement of

psychophysiological status of human operators should be continued

along recognized lines, and periodic expert reviews of this subject should be scheduled. Correlations among evoked cortical

potentials, other measureable phenomena of the central nervous

system, and perceptual and perceptual-motor activities should be

sought.

Simulation of the space station system represents one

useful approach to evaluating behavior and performance. A basic

resource for this will be the Space Station Mockup Research

Facility planned for NASA's Ames Research Center. This facility

should lend itself to evaluation of behavior and performance of

individual members and partial or complete space-and groundcrews

operating in unison in selected segments of proposed missions.

Valuable data should be obtainable in important areas including:

(1) physical and mental limitations of individual and crew adaptability and performance; (2) methods of monitoring and measuring

individual and crew performance; (3) crew interactions and group

dynamics; (4) productivity and psychological well-being as influenced by design of work, living, and recreation areas and other

habitability factors.

Both near- and long-term support is needed for basic

laboratory studies to help advance theory in the area of

performance and its measurement.

2. Expert Concept and Position Papers

Consideration should be given to investing in a

series of special literature reviews and analyses by appropriate

experts as a method of focusing available knowledge and producing

concept or position papers on practical issues in behavior and

performance. Reviews of this sort would, in addition, identify

42
..

..

missing knowledge and would help to refine research needs. Members of the LSRO ad hoc Working Group represent informed sources

of names for such endeavors. Suggested topics include the following; they are listed without reference to priority:

(1) best methods of molding attitudes and maintaining

motivation to achieve optimum long-term performance;

what would motivate people to go on long, routine,

commercial space missions?

(2) the reversibility or irreversibility of adverse

adaptive biomedical responses to space flight and

their predictable psychophysiological, psychological, and social consequences; this is potentially

important form the standpoint of the health, wellbeing, and effectiveness of spacecrew personnel as

well as public liability for alleged or real permanent damage;

(3) types and variations of personality that are best

suited for coping with the stresses of long-term

space flight including crisis incidents;

(4) the formation of "in-groups" and "out-groups" and

means of preventing or controlling untoward results,

such as special training and establishing cooperative bonds between individual spacecrew and groundcrew members;

(5) the advantages and disadvantages of crew participation in deciding issues such as autonomy of the

spacecrew, certain inflight procedures, space station design features, equipment, and flight clothing, development and use of performance assessment

and monitoring, and the acceptability of proposed

tasks in the mission objectives; a substantial

amount of untapped information is available in the

area of worker participation;

(6) the utility of non-vocal communication as a means of

improving inflight crew interaction and preflight training;

(7) individual and group methods of coping with stress

for application inflight as well as pre-and postflight;

(8) expert performance and protocol analysis as a means

of extracting effective procedural strategies for

use in training, performance assessment, and

robotics;

43
(9) experiences in military and experimental aeronautics

on methods of eliminating or dealing with illusions

of flight, spatial disorientation and problems of

time compression; an example is preventing the

"floating instruments" illusion by increasing the

contrast between figure (instrument) and ground;

(10) time estimation as an approach to understanding the

phenomenon of time compression that has been noted

during Shuttle landing approaches and alterations of

time perception during space flight; there is a

large literature on time estimation;

(11) the formation of relationships in isolated environments and the problem of contact control to determine whether a signicant potential problem exists

for the space station and to identify needed

research; a useful but limited literature exists in

this area;

(12) techniques of intervention in emotional crises that

are suitable for use in space missions;

(13) means of providing psychological support during long

missions;

(14) work/rest cycles; during long missions, how many

days per wk should spacecrew members work and at

what fraction of their maximum work capacity? Is

the 70% of work capacity industrial rule applicable

to space flight?

3. Small Group Dynamics

Issues in group dynamics are reviewed on pages 24, 25.

Key areas needing additional work include: (1) definition of the

components of individual and group motivation and their impact on

behavior of space- and groundcrews; (2) the effects of heterogeneity of crews (astronaut/nonastronaut, mixed genders, different

cultural backgrounds, different levels of responsibility, etc.)

on behavioral and social interaction and productivity; (3) development of training methodology for social sensitivity, intracrew and

space-ground communication, cooperation, and coordination in normal and emergency operational conditions; (4) organization for

optimal productivity, including leadership, command and control,

role sharing, crew participation in mission planning and decisions; and (5) best methods for crew rotation in the space station.

44
•

Analysis of available data in the foregoing subjects may

be facilitated via concept and position papers produced as suggested on page 42. In addition, NASA should request its scientific investigators who are working on small group dynamics to provide their best estimates on issues listed in the preceding paragraph and to address others as they relate to space station planning. Examples are: (1) crew composition in terms of personality

characteristics; (2) factors abetting successful partial rotation

of crews; (3) prediction of duration of optimal productivity; (4)

optimal organization of spacecrews for cohesiveness and cooperation; and (5) methods of controlling excessive "in-group" autonomy

and preserving space-ground cooperation.

Basic studies of the interactions of individual personality factors and group performance should be accorded a high

priority. Effort should focus on personality characteristics that

favor compatibility and cohesiveness of small groups and should

emphasize the real world of the physical and operational environment of the space station. In addition, the effects of group

training in modulating individual personality characteristics

toward improving group cohesiveness and productivity should be

investigated.

Research on the psychological aspects of selection

criteria for demanding environments should emphasize specification, measurement, and validation of personality traits associated with superior individual and group effectiveness and adaptability as influenced by the operational environment (Helmreich,

1984). Further investigation of the components of achievement

motivation and their separate or interactive effects on the types

of behavior that are desirable for successful participation in a

space station crew would probably yield improvements in selection

criteria.

4. Perceptual, Cognitive, and Motor Effects

More nearly precise inflight evaluations than were

heretofore feasible, of the possible effects of space flight on

the sensory systems should be planned for both the near and long

terms including exploitation of opportunitites in the Shuttle missions. The coverage should be comprehensive: the special senses

and a selection of somatic senses inclUding touch, pain, heat,

cold, and kinesthetic. The relative priority of such evaluations

is low except for those related to the sensory systems putatively

involved in space sickness and possible alterations in olfaction

and gustation as they may relate to the acceptability of food,

water, and breathing mixtures.

Acquisition and evaluation of inflight data on all spacerelated perceptual phenomena not considered operationally acceptable should be a continuing process of relatively high priority.

45
Such phenomena include visual and other sensory illusions, spatial

disorientation, "reentry vertigo", disturbed time sense, and "time

compression" •

The question whether an operationally significant functional degradation accompanies the skeletal muscle atrophy in long

space flight should be addressed. For instance, is there an

impairment of neuromuscular control that affects smooth control

performance and fine movements of the hands and fingers? Is there

excessive intention tremor? This is a question of both near- and

long-term interest.

A question of great interest is whether Shuttle flights

impair psychomotor fine tuning in the pilots so that they tend to

over- or under-control in critical phases of flight. If operational analyses suggest that a problem exists, postflight simulator tests might offer a useful approach for performance assessment. An associated subject is the absence of customary perceptual-motor linkages in weightlessness and identification of possible short- and long-term behavioral consequences. Both animal

and human studies should be considered, including long-term followup of spacecrew personnel.

Investigations of the effects of simulated space station

missions on perception, cognition, and psychomotor performance

should be planned for both the near and long terms. Planning

should take advantage where possible of integrating studies with

other planned experimental (Ames Research Center) and training

(Johnson Space Center) simulations. Where feasible, the studies

should include observations and tests of skill maintenance, workrest patterns, task allocation, group processes, and the behavioral effects of monotony of environmental stimulation.

The data base on complex perceptual and cognitive skills

needs major augment~tion in order to improve matching the human

operator and the machine, man-system reliability, and capabilities

for supervisory control of space systems. Basic research needs in

these areas are identified in Pew (1983). Examples of research

that should be supported are: (1) theories of human inference and

associated cognitive models (Collins and Loftus, 1975; Newell and

Simon, 1972); (2) theories and definition of the concept of human

error (Sheridan et al., 1983); (3) refining the concept of mental

workload (Sheridan et al., 1983); (4) determining operator capabilities and limitations for sustained, long-duration, mental workloads with fluctuating levels of demand (Boff et al., 1985); (5)

defining psychophysiological correlates of mental workload (Boff

et al., 1985); (6) the definition, separability, and coordination

of cognitive systems and subsystems (Kinsbourne and Hicks, 1978;

Navon and Gopher, 1979; Posner, 1978); (7 ) self-regulation of

behavior in stressful situations (Sheridan etal., 1983); and (8)

relations among cognitive processes, stress, and emotional

repsonses (Bower, 1981; Posner and Rothbart, 1980).

46
5. Psychosocial Considerations

Items that should be considered in planning, in

addition to those already mentioned in connection with group

interactions may be addressed using an "ecological systems"

approach such as is outlined on page 40. More work is needed in

the near term on conflict management, crisis intervention, psychological support, absorption of new people into formed groups, and

the question of optimal authority structure in spacecrews and

ground control groups. The data base on person-environment linkages is adequate in a number of areas such as spatial attachment,

appropriation, and territorial control (Altman, 1975; Stokols and

Altman, 1985), but more work is needed on privacy needs and

methods of meeting them in confined environments (Bluth and

McNeal, 1981).

Another useful approach could be based on a confidential

survey of the experiences and career expectations of NASA's mission and payload specialists in the STS-Shuttle Program, focusing

on attitudes regarding the importance of their work, effects on

their professional growth, effects of separation from families,

incentives, and long-term career opportunities and commitments

(Helmreich, 1984). Knowledge for understanding and dealing with

psychosocial problems in various social systems is available (for

instance, see Deaux and Wrightsman, 1983).

Unobtrusive expert observation of space- and groundcrews

during training and space operations offers opportunities for

acquiring valuable data and descriptive analyses on behavior,

performance, and social interactions. Direct observations and/or

observation via video and audio monitors are primary means.

During space flight, attention should be given not only to operator performance and communications, but also to ordinary activities of onboard living such as hygiene, eating, leisure, sleeping,

and routine station maintenance. Methods for using data acquired

in this manner are discussed on page 49.

6. Methodology and Models

A high priority should be accorded the development

and operational employment of improved, noninvasive methods of

monitoring indicators of psychophysiological status, estimating

task workloads, and observing and assessing crew performance.

Proposed developments and operational tests should be planned in

coordination With appropriate NASA operational personnel including

flight crews and, where pertinent, the operational medical support

staff. Participation of both flight- and groundcrew personnel in

planning and testing devices and techniques should be sought, the

underlying objective being improvement in operational proficiency

and flight safety.

47
Methods of stress-response analysis that have proved to

be practical in field situations include voice analysis, measures

of intention tremor, respiratory rate and pattern, blood pressure,

and observation by behavioral scientists via video or sequential

photography. Voice analysis has been used for assessing stress

response in space flight (Simonov, 1975; Simonov et al., 1980),

experimental and operational diving, and in a variety of other

stressful situations (Hollien, 1980).

Plans should be made to integrate voice analysis as a

means of psychophysiological monitoring during space station

mission simulations for ultimate use inflight. Moreover, additional studies of the effects of mental and physical stress and

combinations of these on voice charcteristics should be done to

improve theory and advance the state-of-the-art.

Devices to measure intention tremor have been developed

for laboratory and field use. It may be feasible to embed such

devices in operator-controlled equipment so as to provide unobtrusive data. Use of such embedded equipment should be with the knowledge and consent of the operator. Methods for measuring intention

tremor are described in such representative reports as: Bachrach

and Bennett (1973), Bachrach et ale (1971), Tresansky (1973), and

Spencer et ale (1979). By means of current microprocessor technology, the strain gauge devices treated in the foregoing references could be improved or replaced.

For measuring workloads in various operator tasks including inflight use, the embedded secondary task methods should be

considered (see page 27). Further development of such techniques

should lead to practical methods of performance assessment featuring only trivial additions to procedures to be performed in simulation and inflight. Additional information on this methodology is

available from the Workload and Ergonomics Branch (HEG) , Human

Engineering Division, Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory,

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433. Successful employment of such methods will require knowledge, consent, and cooperation of the tested personnel. Here again, the ultimate objective

is improvement in individual operator proficiency, better equipment design and layout, more efficient task allocation, and crew

productivity.

Performance assessment should include behavioral type

performance measurement of complex perceptual motor activities and

cognitive functions. Currently, the best, most comprehensive

assembly for such use is the tri-service performance assessment

battery whose development is nearing completion. It is designed

to meet the requirements for laboratory and field use in the

military departments, and represents an attempt to combine the

best features of several existing devices including the Army

Performance Assessment Battery (Thorne et al., 1983), several Navy

batteries, and the Air Force Criterion Task Set (Shingledecker,

48
1984). Plans should be made for testing pre- and postflight performance of members of STS-Shuttle crews using this kind of sophisticated equipment. Moreover, space station planning should consider the need for onboard performance assessment as a means of

monitoring the psychophysiological condition of the crew and for

research. The feasibility of adapting the tri-service performance

assessment battery for inflight use should be addressed.

An emerging technology of potential value in assessing

and monitoring perceptual processes is measurement of central

nervous system transmission times. This can be done precisely in

the visual and aUditory systems via recording of steady state

visual evoked responses and brainstem auditory responses. For

example, variables such as perceived workload alter the temporal

patterns of the responses. This methodology should be considered

as another promising approach to the objective measurement of

central nervous system processes (Donchin, 1984; HH~tanen, 1982).

NASA should make use of techniques for unobtrusive,

noninterference collection methodology to study on-going activities inflight. Expert behavioral observations via onboard video

and audio space-ground links would provide data in important areas

such as operator performance, functional difficulty associated

with weightlessness, onboard communication, social interactions,

and changing qualities of individuals and the group as they unfold

during a mission. Proven techniques exist for qualitative and

quantitative analysis of unobtrusive data (Barker, 1968; Helmreich, 1972; LeFanand Helmreich, 1971; Radloff and Helmreich,

1968; Radloff and Mach, 1970; Wicker, 1979). Agreement should be

arranged among investigators and operational personnel including

mission participants regarding access to monitoring and the confidentiality and release of data on the behavior and performance of

individuals.

Special types of training appear prom1s1ng for the flightand groundcrews of the space station. These include "social sensitivity", "team building", cohesiveness and interpersonal communication training, and strategies for coping with the stresses of

space station occupancy such as relaxation techniques. Methods

for accomplishing and evaluating these special types of training

need improvement to establish their potential for the space

station program.

A useful process in past space system planning was the

"walk/talk through" with management and planning personnel, focusing on such features as interior design and habitability, system

performance requirements including ground and spacecrew performance, and crew composition. Such a procedure helps to identify

specific unresolved problems and to organize required decisions

which specialists in various disciplines of psychology and human

factors could then review relative to available data in order to

49
determine short- and long-term research needs and suggest prior- ities. Some such method of organizing and prioritizing research

needs and defining in detail the nature of problems to be solved,

based on specific decisions that must be made by space station

planners and designers would help to sharpen the validity of some

research needs and downgrade the importance of others.

Various methods of self-reporting should be used as components of behavioral evaluation schemes. Examples include attitude (Miller et al., 1967), emotional state (Helmreich, 1971c),

mood (LeFan and Helmreich, 1971), personality assessment (Symonds,

1931), and Subjective Workload Assessment Technique (Reid et al.,

1981). Other pertinent references in this area include: Anastasia (1969), Endler and Okada (1975), Gough (1960), and Rotter

(1966).

A plan should be f~rmulated for noninvasive tracking of

neurohormonal markers of responses to stress. Biochemical markers

exist that reflect the magnitude of perceived stress and suggest

the direction of coping behavior. For example, effective coping

leads to a decrease in pituitary-adrenal response to stress independently of adrenal corticosteroid negative feedback. Development of means to determine the point of impending failure of the

adaptation response to long-term build up of stresses preceding

and during a major space mission would have obvious value as an

operational monitoring technique and for research. Candidate

markers include urinary cortisol, testosterone, and catecholamines

(Elias, 1981; Emurian et al., 1981; Scaramella and Brown, 1978).

Optimal cognitive strategies should be developed to

improve training methods. Experience in the area of expert per~

formance suggests that extraction of performance strategies from

experts can prOVide useful data for improving training. Expert

performance information may be obtained by protocol analysis or by

experimental procedures (Hayes, 1982).

In view of the diminution of the extrinsic rewards that

characterize the earlier, pioneering manned space programs, certain psychological characteristics will assume increasing importance as determinants of success of spacecrew members on long missions; for example, intrinsic motivation to master a skill and do

it well as a basis for job satisfaction. Defining, organizing,

and assigning tasks and responsibilities, role-sharing, and leaving room for some flexibility and creativity in modifying prescribed space station activities are some of the elements for

consideration as enhancers of intrinsic rewards.

Provisions should be made for the inclusion of physiological and metabolic data with other data in evaluating behavior

and performance. Such data would normally include heart and

respiration rates, blood pressure, oxygen uptake and carbon

dioxide output, obtained by well-established space biomedical

technology.

50

.
B. TECHNICAL AND OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

•

..

The results of comprehensive, detailed space station

analyses in areas affecting tasks and performance requirements of

space- and groundcrews are needed at their earliest availability

by NASA research program planners for determining specific

research needs in behavior and performance. Such information

should include not only the tasks, performance requirements, and

timelines, but also station architecture, layouts, placement of

consoles, displays, and controls, characteristics of work stations, space allocation, and related items.

The Working Group recognizes also that the planning and

design studies for the space station will include input for interior design requirements, habitability, crew systems, tasks, operational procedures, timelines, and specifications for crew skills,

composition, and other characteristics. Questions or uncertainties arising from lack of data during space station planning and

design studies should lead to identification of critical shortterm research needs as well as problems requiring long-term investigation. The singular importance of prompt development of, at

least, provisional space station mission scenarios, systems

requirements and functions, and task analyses was stressed by the

Working Group.

Consideration should be given to widening the scope

of selection procedures to evaluate such characteristics as:

(1) ability to cooperate and work productively with flight crew

peers and ground support staff for extended periods under the

influence of the imposed environmental stresses; (2) social skills

such as the ability to provide and receive social support; (3) tolerance for acute, life-threatening stress and for life-threatening

stress extended in time; (4) routine, day-to-day productivity preflight, inflight, and postflight; (5) public image.

A psychiatric evaluation should be incorporated with the

annual medical examination of operational space and ground personnel as a routine part of the periodic evaluation.

Special behavioral training to prepare individual members

and whole flight crews for space station missions should be formulated on the basis of currently available information. Teachable

components to be considered include psychological self-defense,

psychological coping strategies, and principles of interpersonal

compatibility such as awareness of each others' needs. Teaching

in coping skills should be aimed not only toward controlling the

effects of inflight stresses but also day-to-day pre- and postflight stresses of an inter- and intrapersonal nature.

Medical contingency planning will, no doubt, include

preparation for managing incidents or abnormal psychological

reactions inflight including "worst case" situations such as

51
severe panic or a frank psychotic break. It is quite possible for

psychosis to develop on an organic basis which was too subtle to

be identified during normal medical evaluation; for example, a

parathyroid or adrenal tumor. Moreover, aggravated degrees of

physiological responses to space flight, such as electrolyte and

hormonal imbalances, could lead to psychological impairment. The

possible need to control and sustain a mentally incapacitated crew

member for several weeks aloft should be addressed in terms of

diagnosis, treatment, equipment, and preflight crew training.

Three problems that deserve high priority for prompt

action are: (1) the lack of a secure radio link for private spaceground communication; (2) the absence of a plan for monitoring and

assessing crew performance during training, simulations, and

inflight; and (3) lack of clear definition of the operational

significance of "reentry vertigo" and "time compression." The

Working Group endorses private communications as a prominent

factor for morale and quality of life, especially in long missions. Assessment of performance of actual crew members in the

real world of NASA preflight training, mission simulation, and

space flight with a view toward optimizing performance, training,

and design of workplaces, equipment, and controls is considered a

top priority action item. Some feasible technical approaches are

outlined in Section IV B.

Planning should begin as soon as possible to incorporate

performance assessment into the Shuttle and space station programs

to provide for continuous unobtrusive monitoring of sensory, cognitive, and motor performance and psychophysiological indices

employing currently available means (e.g., video and audio monitoring, ECG, blood pressure, and respiration), pre- and postflight

testing using state-of-the-art performance assessment batteries

(see page 28), and embedded secondary task techniques (see page 27).

Informal reports of disorientation during orbital insertion and reentry, time compression, and possible tendencies toward

inappropriate control inputs in the Shuttle Orbiter suggest a need

for investigation beyond what has occurred to date. It is understood that NASA has solved the time compression problem by operational means; however, the dimensions and significance of these

experiences are not clear to the Working Group. In view of their

apparent relationship to operational safety, extraordinary effort

should be directed toward problem definition, resolution, and

identification of needed research and analysis including possible

inflight expert behavioral observation.

Finally, the ad hoc Group believes that a majority of

recommendations for investigations in the behavioral sciences that

are referred to in Section III C are still applicable to NASA's

near- and long-term research needs.

52
C. PRIORITIES

•

It is suggested that NASA consider the suggestions for

research and other actions that are detailed in Section V, A and B

in order of priority similar to that shown in the following outline •

1. Near- and Long-term Needs

a. Near-term

• Develop a new generation performance assessment

battery for use in training, mission simulations, and flight. A suggested model is the

Tri-service Performance Assessment Battery.

• Develop appropriate embedded secondary tasks as

means of monitoring and assessing workloads and

performance in space missions.

• Plan the use of Shuttle onboard video and audio

resources for behavioral observation of crews.

• Provide near- and long-term support for basic

laboratory studies to improve theory of

performance and its measurement.

• Plan studies of behavior and performance to

take advantage of the Space Station Mockup

Research Facility contemplated for Ames

Research Center. Include perceptual, cognitive, and psychomotor parameters and group

dynamics.

• Plan near- and long-term approaches to investigating and solving crew problems such as conflict management, integration of new members,

crisis intervention, psychological support,

authority structure, and distribution of responsiblities and work.

• Plan near- and long-term expert behavioral

observation of space- and groundcrews during

training, simulations, and space flight.

• Investigate interactions of personality factors

and group performance.

53
• Develop methods of noninvasive tracking of

neurohumoral markers of reponses to stress.

Investigate means of determining indices of

impending failure of the adaptation response to

sustained or intermittent stress.

• Acquire and evaluate inflight data on space

related perceptual phenomena with potential or

demonstrated operational or psychophysiological

significance.

• Study the effects of space flight on the precision of psychomotor functions and control.

• Plan special training for flight- and groundcrews of the space station program including

social sensitivity, cohesiveness, interpersonal

communication, and strategies for coping with

operational stresses.

b. Long-term Research and Development

• Continue investigation and development of

methodology and instrumentation for objective

measurement of psychophysiological processes,

status, and performance. Examples of

approaches include:

1. Improved performance assessment battery

2. Embedded secondary tasks

3. Central nervous system transmission times

4. Intention tremor

5. Evoked cortical electric potentials and

magnetic field responses

6. Voice analysis

7. Analysis of video recordings and

sequential photographs

• Support basic studies of perceptual and

cognitive processes to improve man-machine

matching, man-system reliability, and human

supervisory control of space systems.

• Continue to develop methodology and plans for

expert, unobtrusive behavioral observation of

the activities of space- and groundcrews.

54
•

•

• Improve methodology for qualitative and quanti- tative analysis of unobtrusively obtained

behavioral data.

• Plan additional studies of factors that influence group dynamics such as motivation, heterogeneity of crews, organization for optimal

productivity and psychological stability; and

special training for social sensitivity, crew

cohesiveness, and coping strategies.

• Investigate methods of enhancing intrinsic

rewards for future spacecrew personnel including space station crews.

• Conduct studies to improve the data base on

spatial attachment, appropriation, territorial

control, and privacy needs as may be related to

space station crews.

• Develop optimal cognitive strategies to improve

training methods. One useful approach involves

extraction of performance strategies from

expert operators by protocol analysis.

• Plan investigations of the effects of space

flight on perceptual, cognitive, and motor

capabilities and limitations. Include pertinent sensory systems.

• Plan long-term follow-up studies of behavioral

and psychomotor changes that might result from

the absence of normal perceptual-motor linkages

in weightlessness.

• Include physiological and metabolic data in

developing methods of evaluating behavior and

performance.

2. Technical and Other Considerations

• Plan for monitoring and measurement of performance

of operational personnel during training, mission

simulations, and actual space missions. Expedite

coordination of this with all appropriate NASA

activities•

• Select and implement procurement of expert concept

and position papers.

55
• Define clearly the operational significance of

psychophysiological phenomena occurring on STS

missions.

• Add psychiatric evaluation to the periodic medical

evaluations of spacecrew and mission groundcrew.

• Include management of inflight emotional crises and

psychotic breaks with medical contingency plans.

• At earliest availability, provide research program

managers for RTOP 199-22-62, Psychology, with

detailed planning information for the space station

such as provisional missions, work to be accomplished, work. schedules, workloads, required skills

and design concepts for psychological support and

quality of life onboard.

56
•

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70
VII. STUDY PARTICIPANTS

A. ATTENDEES, AD HOC MEETING" August 6-8, 1984

CO-CHAIRPERSONS

Julien M. Christensen, Ph.D.

Chief Scientist

Universal Energy Systems

4401 Dayton-Xenia Road

Dayton, Ohio 45432

John M. Talbot, M.D.

Senior Medical Consultant

Life Sciences Research Office

Federation of American Societies

for Experimental Biology

9650 Rockville Pike

Bethesda, Maryland 20814

PARTICIPANTS

•

Irwin Altman, Ph.D.

Professor of Psychology

Vice President for Academic

Affairs

University of Utah

Salt Lake City, Utah 84112

Arthur J. Bachrach, Ph.D.

Director, Environmental Stress

Programs Center

Naval Medical Research

Institute

Bethesda, Maryland 20814

George E. Long, Ph.D.

Senior Scientist

A.T.C. Systems Technical

Division

ACT-200, FAA Technical Center

Atlantic City, New Jersey 08405

71

Terence F. McGuire, M.D.

NASA Consultant in Psychiatry

4499 Medical Drive

Suite 361

San Antonio, Texas 78229

Robert D. O'Donnell, Ph.D.

Colonel, U.S. Air Force

Chief of Workload and Ergonomics

Human Engineering Division

Aerospace Medical Research

Laboratory

Wright-Patterson A.F.B.

Ohio 45433

Michael I. Posner, Ph.D.

Professor of Psychology

University of Oregon

Eugene, Oregon 97403
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

D. Bryant Cramer, M.D., Ph.D.

Member Interim Space Station

Program Office

NASA Headquarters

Washington, D.C. 20546

Arnauld E. Nicogossian, M.D.

Director, Life Sciences Division

NASA Headquarters

Washington, D.C. 20546

R. Mark Patton, Ph.D.

Aerospace Human Factors

Research Division

NASA Ames Research Center

Moffett Field, California 94035

Paul C. Rambaut, Sc.D.

Chief, Space Medicine Branch

Life Sciences Division

NASA Headquarters

Washington, D.C. 20546

,

Harold Sandler, M.D.

Chief, Biomedical Research Division

NASA Ames Research Center

Moffett Field, California 94035

OTHER INVITEES

Elizabeth J. Bluth, Ph.D.

Department of Sociology

California State University

Northridge, California 91324

Joseph V. Brady, Ph.D.

Professor of Behavioral Biology

Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

Baltimore, Maryland 21205

Bruce N. Cuthbert, Ph.D.

Box J-165 JHMHC

University of Florida

Gainesville, Florida 32610

72

Robert L. Helmreich, Ph.D.

Professor of Psychology

330 Mezes Hall

University of Texas

Austin, Texas 78712

John D. Hestenes, Ph.D.

Information Systems Research

Section

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

California Institute of

Technology

4800 Oak Grove Drive

Pasadena, California 91109

Orr E. Reynolds, Ph.D.

Executive Secretary-Treasurer

American Physiological Society

9650 Rockville Pike

Bethesda, Maryland 20814
,

Derek H. Fender, Ph.D.

Professor of Biology and

Applied Science

Jorgensen Laboratory of

Information Science

California Institute of

Technology

Pasadena, California 91125

Bette Siegel, Ph.D.

Physiologist

General Electric/MATSCO

600 Maryland Avenue, S.W.

Suite 209, West Wing

Washington, D.C. 20024

LIFE SCIENCES RESEARCH OFFICE

Sue Ann Anderson, Ph.D.

Staff Scientist

Kenneth D. Fisher, Ph.D.

Director

Judith Miller

Secretary

Carol Rilley

Secretary

B.

Bernard Wortman, Ph.D.

Senior Scientific Consultant

SPECIAL CONSULTANT

Grant E. Secrist, Ph.D.

735 Barchester

San Antonio, Texas 78216

C. OTHER CONTRIBUTING LIFE SCIENCES RESEARCH OFFICE STAFF

..

Susan A. Klasing, Ph.D.

Associate Staff Scientist

Beverly Lea

Literature Retrieval/

Technical Report Specialist

Susan M. Pilch, Ph.D.

Staff Scientist

73

Frederic R. Senti, Ph.D.

Senior Scientific Consultant

Stephen Simpson

Literature Technical Assistant

Sandra Schnell

Administrative Aide


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