Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: South Korea, May 2005 

COUNTRY PROFILE: SOUTH KOREA 

May 2005 

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COUNTRY 

Formal Name: Republic of Korea (Taehan Min’guk). 대한 민국

Short Form: South Korea (Han’guk, the term South Koreans use to 

refer to their country). 한 국

Term for Citizen(s): Korean(s) (Han’gugin). 한 국 인

Capital: Seoul. 서울

Major Cities: The largest cities are Seoul (11 million), Pusan (3.9 million), Taegu (2.5 million), 

Inch’4n (2.4 million), Kwangju (1.4 million), and Taej4n (1.3 million). 

Independence: August 15, 1945, from Japanese occupation; Republic of Korea founded August 

15, 1948. 

Public Holidays: New Year’s Day (January 1), Lunar New Year (movable date in January or 

February), Independence Movement Day (March 1), Arbor Day (April 5), Children’s Day (May 

5), Birth of Buddha (movable date in April or May), Memorial Day (June 6), Constitution Day 

(July 17), Independence Day (August 15), Ch’us4k (an autumnal harvest festival and day of 

thanksgiving, movable date in September or October), National Foundation Day (October 3), and 

Christmas Day (December 25). 

Flag: 

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A white rectangle with a red (top) and blue T’aeguk (Great Absolute) 

symbol in the center. The white background symbolizes light and purity 

and reflects a traditional affinity for peace. The yin-yang circle, divided 

equally into a blue portion below and a red portion above, represents the 

dual cosmic forces of yin (blue) and yang (red), which symbolize universal 

harmony. The circle is surrounded by four black kwe (or trigrams) from the 

Yi Ching (Book of Changes). At the upper left and lower right are heaven and earth, and at lower 

left and upper right are fire and water. Collectively, the circle and trigrams represent universal 

harmony and unity. 

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Early History: The Korean people share a common heritage in spite of the modern-day split 

between North and South Korea. Human habitation of the Korean Peninsula dates back 500,000 

years. Excavations have found pottery and stone tools from Neolithic-age settlements ca. 4000 

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B.C. and evidence that by 2000 B.C. a pottery culture had spread to the peninsula from China. 

Starting in about 1100 B.C., migration from China into the Korean Peninsula established the city 

of P’y4ngyang. By the fourth century B.C., a number of walled-town states had been noted in 

Korea by Chinese officials. The most illustrious site, known to historians as Old Chos4n, was 

located in what today is the southern part of northeastern China and northwestern Korea. Old 

Chos4n civilization was based on bronze culture and consisted of a political federation of walled 

towns. 

Three Kingdoms: With the rise of the power and expansion of the Han empire in China (206 

B.C.–A.D. 220), Old Chos4n declined. A new iron culture gradually emerged on the Korean 

Peninsula, and in the first three centuries A.D. a large number of walled-town states developed in 

southern Korea. Among them, the state of Paekche was the most important as it conquered its 

southern neighboring states and expanded northward to the area around present-day Seoul. To 

the north, near the Amokgang (Yalu), the state of Kogury4 had emerged by the first century A.D. 

and expanded in all directions up through 313 A.D. A third state—Silla—developed in the 

central part of the peninsula. These three states give name to the Three Kingdoms Period (first–

seventh centuries A.D.). Eventually Silla, allied with China, defeated both Paekche and Kogury4

to unify the peninsula by 668. During the Three Kingdoms Period, Confucian statecraft and 

Buddhism were introduced to the Korean Peninsula and served as unifying factors. By 671 Silla 

had seized Chinese-held territories in the south and pushed the remnants of Kogury4 farther 

northward; Chinese commandaries (which dated back at least to the second century B.C.) had 

been driven off the peninsula by 676, thereby guaranteeing that the Korean people would 

develop independently, largely without outside influences. 

Kory4 Dynasty: Silla’s indigenous civilization flourished. Its aristocracy, centered in the capital, 

Ky4ngju, located in southeastern Korea near the modern-day port of Pusan, was renowned for its 

high level of culture. Among its most notable artifacts is the world’s oldest example of 

woodblock printing, the Dharani sutra, dating back to 751. As Silla declined, a new state, known 

to historians as Later Kogury4, emerged in the central peninsula. When Wang K4n, the founder 

of the new state, assumed the throne in 918, he shortened the dynastic name from Kogury4 to 

Kory4, the word from which the modern name Korea emerged. In 930 Kory4 defeated the forces

of Later Paekche (which also had emerged as Silla declined) and the remnants of Silla. The 

Kory4 dynasty (918–1392), with its capital at Kaes4ng, forged a tradition of aristocratic 

continuity that lasted well beyond the Kory4 dynasty into the modern era. The Kory4 elite 

admired the civilization that emerged from the Song dynasty China (618–1279), and an active 

exchange of trade goods and artistic styles took place during this period. In the thirteenth 

century, Kory4 was subjected to invasions by the Mongols. Once defeated, Kory4’s armies, 

using Korean ships, participated in the ill-fated Mongol invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281. 

The Mongols continued to hold domains in Kory4 even after their defeat by China’s Ming 

dynasty (1368–1644), and the Kory4 court divided into pro-Mongol and pro-Ming factions. 

Chos4n Dynasty: The pro-Ming faction at the Kory4 court was victorious, and its leader, Yi 

S4ng-gye, founded Korea’s longest dynasty, the Chos4n (1392–1910), with its capital at Seoul. 

Yi S4ng-gye initiated land reforms, declared state ownership of property, and built a new tax 

base. Although some traditional class structures were uniquely Korean, Chos4n society became

deeply influenced by Confucianism; a new secular society developed, and a new Korean mass 

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culture emerged. A phonetic-based alphabet—Han’gßl (Korean script)—was promulgated in 

1446 at the direction of King Sejong (reigned 1418–50), who also fostered the extensive use of 

movable metal type for book publications 50 years before Gutenberg. Scholars persisted in the 

use of Chinese characters (Hanja), however, and Han’gßl did not come into general use until the 

early twentieth century. North Korea now uses the same system (which it calls Chos4n’gßl), with 

some variations, exclusively, whereas in the South, Hanja occasionally still are used separately 

and along with Han’gßl.

Chos4n was faced with major Japanese invasions and warfare between 1592 and 1598 that 

brought widespread devastation to the peninsula. A notable achievement in warfare occurred 

during this period when Admiral Yi Sun-shin and his fleet of ironclad “turtle boats” defeated 

Japanese naval forces. Although the Japanese were defeated by combined Korea and Ming forces 

and Chos4n began to recover, a new emerging force—the Manchu—invaded both Korea and 

China. The Manchu established a new dynasty in China—the Qing (1644–1911)—and 

established tributary relations with Chos4n. Chos4n then experienced a long period of peace. 

However, as China declined and Japan emerged as a modernizing regional power in the late 

nineteenth century, Seoul began reforms in an effort to keep the foreign powers at bay. 

Nevertheless, in 1876 Japan imposed an unequal treaty on the Chos4n court that opened three 

Korean ports to Japanese commerce and gave Japanese nationals extraterritorial rights. China’s 

influence over Korea came to a definitive end as a result of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95. 

At the same time, a large peasant rebellion—led by Tonghak (Eastern Learning) Movement 

advocates—broke out, and the Chos4n court invited in Chinese troops. By 1900 the Korean 

Peninsula had become the focus of an intense rivalry between the foreign powers then seeking to 

carve out spheres of influence in East Asia. Japan and Russia sought to divide their interests in 

Korea by dividing the kingdom in two at the thirty-eighth parallel. Following the Russo-Japanese 

War of 1904–05, in which Japan was victorious, Russia recognized Japan’s paramount rights in 

Korea. Unchallenged internationally, Japan turned Korea into its colony in 1910. 

Japanese Occupation: The first three decades of Japanese occupation alternated between cycles 

of strict repression and periods of relative openness. In the first decade of occupation, Koreans 

were not allowed to publish newspapers or form political groups. Korean resentment of such 

treatment led in the spring of 1919 to a series of protests that became known as the March First 

Independence Movement. The colonial authorities responded with violence, killing an estimated 

7,000 Koreans. In the aftermath of the protest movement, Japanese colonial policy underwent a 

period of liberalization, and a new “cultural policy” allowed Koreans to publish newspapers, 

organize labor unions, and partake in limited freedom of expression. These reforms come to a 

halt in the 1930s when Japan’s military leaders made Korea a staging ground for the second 

Sino-Japanese War (1937–45), and later World War II. Koreans were conscripted as laborers and 

later soldiers in the Japanese Imperial Army, and a period of unprecedented repression followed. 

Japan established assimilation policies forbidding use of the Korean language, shut down 

Korean-language newspapers, and built ShintÇ shrines throughout the country. Koreans were 

encouraged to take Japanese names, acknowledge the divinity of the emperor, and otherwise 

deny their own long and rich heritage. The “36 years” of occupation, as they came to be known, 

remain an obstacle in Korean-Japanese relations, and the subject of Korean collaboration with 

the occupying Japanese forces remains extremely sensitive. 

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Divided Nation and the Korean War: When Allied leaders discussed the fate of Korea during 

World War II at Cairo (December 1943) and Yalta (February 1945), they reached no conclusion 

about its postwar status beyond deciding that it should be allowed to gain freedom and 

independence “in due course,” and that an international trusteeship—vehemently opposed by 

most Koreans—might be necessary to facilitate such a transition. At the war’s end, the Korean 

Peninsula, although liberated from Japan, was once again occupied by foreign forces. The day of 

Japan’s surrender—August 15, 1945—became Korea’s liberation day. However, the United 

States and the Soviet Union had agreed to the division of the peninsula at the thirty-eighth 

parallel, with the Soviets assuming authority over the northern half and the United States over 

the southern half. 

Japan’s colonial authority was replaced by the division of the Cold War, a division that would 

last far longer than the hated Japanese occupation. In the first years after the division, the 

communists built a formidable political and military structure in North Korea under the aegis of 

the Soviet command. The Republic of Korea (ROK, or South Korea) was established on August 

15, 1948, in the South; on September 9, 1948, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea 

(DPRK, or North Korea) was established in the North. This uneasy division erupted in conflict 

on June 25, 1950, when the North Koreans, under the leadership of Kim Il Sung, sent troops 

across the thirty-eighth parallel in what the South Koreans refer to as the “6–25 War.” The North 

Korean forces, larger and better equipped than their South Korean counterparts, advanced 

quickly, overtaking Seoul in three days. By early August, South Korean forces were confined in 

the southeastern corner of the peninsula to a territory 140 kilometers long and 90 kilometers 

wide. The rest of the territory was completely in the hands of the North Korean army. The 

United States, fearing that inaction in Korea would be interpreted as appeasement of communist 

aggression elsewhere in the world, was determined that South Korea should not be overwhelmed 

and asked the United Nations (UN) Security Council to intervene. 

When General Douglas MacArthur, the commander of the UN forces in Korea, launched his 

amphibious attack and landed at Inch’4n on September 15, 1950, the course of the war changed 

abruptly. Within weeks, much of North Korea had been taken by U.S. and South Korean forces 

before China’s military entered the war in October, eventually enabling North Korea to restore 

its authority over its domain. The fighting lasted until July 27, 1953, when a cease-fire agreement 

was signed at P’anmunj4m. The war left indelible marks on the Korean Peninsula and the world 

surrounding it. The entire peninsula was reduced to rubble; casualties on both sides were 

enormous. The chances for peaceful unification had been remote even before 1950, but the war 

dashed all such hopes. 

Postwar South Korea: In 1952 Syngman Rhee, who had assumed the presidency of South 

Korea in 1948 after election by the National Assembly, was elected president by popular vote. 

Rhee’s presidency was characterized by efforts to cling to power, and the 1950s were a time of 

economic and social hardship in South Korea. Rhee’s increasingly corrupt efforts to remain in 

office reached their nadir in the 1960 elections. The obvious malfeasance at work in that vote led 

to widespread protest, known today as the April 19 Student Revolution. Rhee was forced, at last, 

to step down. In the interim until new elections, political instability and the absence of a clear 

successor to Rhee, among other factors, laid the foundations for the military coup that followed. 

In 1961 a group of military officers loyal to Major General Park Chung Hee carried out a coup 

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d’état. The years between 1961 and 1987 were characterized by increasing domestic political 

repression and power struggles, including the assassination of President Park in 1979 by the 

chief of the South Korean Central Intelligence Agency. Political leadership during this time was 

almost exclusively in the hands of the military and former military leaders. At the same time, by 

the 1970s the South Korean economy was experiencing a period of unprecedented growth. 

Although democratic growth was constrained, standards of living rose. 

Rising prosperity did not quell democratic aspirations, however, and by the 1980s student 

protests against the prevailing regime had become endemic. These demonstrations gained a 

widespread following, and, bowing to pressure, the government held elections in 1987. These 

were the first free elections in 16 years. In the following election, in 1992, South Koreans voted 

into office Kim Young-sam, the nation’s first nonmilitary chief executive in 30 years. The 1990s 

and early years of the twenty-first century were a time of political stability, with a peaceful, 

democratic transition of power taking place. In 1997 Kim Dae-jung was elected president, 

followed by Roh Moo-hyun in 2002. Paradoxically, the South Korean economy in the late 1990s 

underwent a period of instability, from which it had still had not recovered entirely in 2004. 

GEOGRAPHY

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Location: The Republic of Korea occupies the southern half of the 

Korean Peninsula on the northeastern corner of the Asian continent. 

North Korea lies to the north, and Japan is located to the southeast, 

across the Korea Strait. 

Size: South Korea occupies nearly 45 percent of the land area of the 

Korean Peninsula, or 98,190 square kilometers of land area and 290 

square kilometers of water area. 

Land Boundaries: The border with North Korea is marked by a 

4-kilometer-wide Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), at the center of which 

 is the Military Demarcation Line. The DMZ extends 238 kilometers 

over land and three kilometers over the sea. 

Disputed Territory: A long-standing dispute with Japan continues concerning which nation 

exercises sovereignty over a group of tiny islands located off the east coast of South Korea. The 

South Korean government refers to these islands as Tokto (or Dokdo), but other sources refer to 

them variously as the Liancourt Rocks, the Hornet Rocks, or Takeshima (the name the Japanese 

colonial government used). 

Length of Coastline: The total coastline measures 2,413 kilometers. The west coast is on Korea 

Bay and the Yellow Sea (sometimes referred to as the West Sea). The east coast is on what 

Koreans call the East Sea but which is recognized by the United Nations and the U.S. Board on 

Geographic Names as the Sea of Japan. 

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Maritime Claims: South Korea claims an exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles and a 

12-nautical-mile territorial sea. As an extension of the concept of the land-bound Demilitarized 

Zone (DMZ) between South and North Korea, the Northern Limit Line serves as a maritime 

boundary established by the United Nations Command in 1954 to ensure access to islands 

controlled by South Korea north of the thirty-eighth parallel and to maintain a separation 

between naval forces. 

Topography: Approximately 70 percent of the land area of South Korea is composed of 

mountains and hills. Low hills in the south and west lead to increasingly higher mountains in the 

north and east. The T’aebaek (“Spine of Korea”) range runs north-to-south along the east coast, 

while the other major range, the Sobaek in the southwest of the country, runs northeast-tosouthwest. The highest mountain is Mount Hallasan, a volcanic cone located on Cheju Island off 

the southeastern coast of the peninsula, at 1,950 meters above sea level. 

Principal Rivers: South Korea’s longest river is the Naktonggang (the suffix –gang means river 

in Korean), which is 525 kilometers long. The Han’gang, which runs through Seoul, is 514 

kilometers long, and the Kumgang is 401 kilometers long. These rivers are navigable, and they 

played a major role in the development of port cities like Seoul. Roughly 70 percent of all rice 

fields in South Korea depend on rivers for irrigation. 

Climate: The weather in South Korea is characterized by long, cold, dry winters and short, hot, 

humid summers that can bring late monsoon rains and flooding. Seoul’s January mean 

temperature is –3.5° C. July in Seoul averages 25° C. Cheju Island has warmer and milder 

weather than other parts of South Korea. Annual rainfall varies from year to year but usually 

averages more than 1,000 millimeters; two-thirds of precipitation falls between June and 

September. Droughts, particularly in the southwest, occur approximately once every eight years. 

Natural Resources: South Korea possesses few mineral resources. There are small deposits of 

anthracite coal, uranium, tungsten, iron ore, limestone, kaolinite, and graphite. South Korea also 

has hydropower potential. 

Land Use: In 2001 about 17 percent of South Korea’s land was classified as arable, and some 2 

percent was planted to permanent crops. The remainder was classified as “other.”

Environmental Factors: With 8.4 tons of carbon dioxide emissions per capita, air pollution is a 

serious concern, particularly in major cities, because more than 80 percent of all South Koreans 

live in urban areas. Although far behind first-place China, South Korea’s much smaller 

population is the second largest consumer of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons. City sewer 

systems are overtaxed. Other issues include water pollution from sewer discharge and industrial 

effluents, acid rain, drift net fishing, and wasteful packaging of consumer goods. Transboundary 

pollution concerns spurred the creation of a joint commission among South Korea, Japan, and 

China to address environmental problems. 

Time Zone: South Korea has one time zone. It is nine hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time. 

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SOCIETY

Population: In July 2004, South Korea’s population was estimated to be 48,598,175. The 

official growth rate estimate is 0.6 percent, and this rate is expected to decline to zero by 2028. 

In the twentieth century, there has been significant emigration to China (1.9 million) and the 

United States (1.5 million), and about 1 million Koreans live in Japan and the countries of the 

former Soviet Union. More than 80 percent of all South Koreans live in urban areas. Population 

density is very high, with approximately 480 persons per square kilometer. 

Demography: South Korea’s age structure has changed significantly since the 1950s, driven 

largely by falling birthrates and rising life expectancies. According to a 2004 estimate, 20.4 

percent of the population is less than 15 years of age, 71.4 percent is 15–64, and 8.2 percent of 

the population is aged 65 or older. By 2030 it is expected that more than 20 percent of the 

population will be 65 or older. 

In the population, men slightly outnumber women, with 101 males for every 100 females. The 

social preference for male children, although less pronounced than in the past, remains. The 

widening disparity between the birthrates of males and females has occasioned expressions of 

concern from the South Korean government. The fertility rate is 1.6 children born for every 

woman, the birthrate is 12.3 births per 1,000, the death rate is 6.1 deaths per 1,000, and the infant 

mortality rate is 7.2 deaths per 1,000. In 2004 overall life expectancy was 75.6 years: 71.9 years 

for men and 79.5 years for women. 

Ethnic Groups: With the exception of a very small minority of ethnic Chinese (about 20,000), 

the Korean population is homogeneous. 

Language: Korean is the national language and is spoken in a variety of local dialects generally 

coinciding with provincial boundaries. The Seoul dialect is the basis for modern standard 

Korean. Written Korean uses Han’gßl, the Korean phonetic alphabet developed in the fifteenth 

century. The McCune-Reischauer System of romanization for Korean has been used widely 

since its development in 1939. However, in 2000 the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, in an 

effort to make the language more compatible with computer and Internet usage, promulgated the 

Revised Romanization System of Korean, which is used widely in South Korea today. Chinese 

characters (Hanja), once used exclusively by the literati, occasionally still are used. English is 

also widely taught in junior and high schools. 

Religion: Just more than 50 percent of Koreans profess religious affiliation. That affiliation is 

spread among a great variety of traditions, including Buddhism (25 percent), Christianity (25 

percent), Confucianism (2 percent), and shamanism. These numbers should be treated with some

caution, however, as (with the exception of Christianity) there are few if any meaningful 

distinctions between believers and nonbelievers in Buddhism and Confucianism, which is more 

of a set of ethical values than a religion. The cultural impact of these movements is far more 

widespread than the number of formal adherents suggests. A variety of “new religions” have 

emerged since the mid-nineteenth century, including Ch’4ndogyo. A very small Muslim 

minority also exists. 

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Education and Literacy: Korean society historically has prized learning and the well educated, 

yet education was not widely available to all until after the Korean War. As late as 1945, less 

than 20 percent of Koreans had received formal education of any kind. The modern education 

system is based on a 1968 charter that identifies education as an important aspect of citizenship 

and defines the government’s role in providing all Korean children with access to education. 

South Korea has compulsory education through the ninth grade, with 95 percent of school-age 

children attending high school. Approximately 25 percent of all high-school students attend one 

of 350 public and private postsecondary institutions, the most prestigious of which are Seoul 

National, Yonsei, Koryo, and Ewha universities. Many observers regard students as the “national 

conscience” of South Korea, especially given their important role in democratic reform 

movements since 1960. The literacy rate is 98 percent. 

Health: Although life expectancy has increased significantly since 1950, South Korea faces a 

number of important health-care issues. Foremost is the impact of environmental pollution and 

poor sanitation on an increasingly urbanized population. According to the Ministry of Health and 

Welfare, chronic diseases account for the majority of diseases in South Korea, a condition 

exacerbated by the health care system’s focus on treatment rather than prevention. The incidence 

of chronic disease in South Korea hovers around 24 percent. Approximately 33 percent of all 

adults smoke. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) rate of prevalence at the end of 2003 

was less than 0.1 percent. In 2001 central government expenditures on health care accounted for 

about 6 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). 

Welfare: Responsibility for maintaining and promoting national welfare and health programs 

falls to the Ministry of Health and Welfare. The present social welfare system administers the 

National Health Insurance System (NHIS), the National Pension Scheme, and a variety of other 

social welfare services such as programs for the disabled, the elderly, women, and children. 

Industrial injury compensation programs were begun in the early 1960s, and by 2000 they, along 

with unemployment insurance, were available to all workers, according to government sources. 

Health insurance programs have increased steadily in availability; in 2003, 30.7 million adult 

South Koreans were enrolled in the NHIS, as were 15.4 million dependents. A minimum wage, 

which is adjusted annually, was established in 1998, and in 2003 legislation authorized a fiveday workweek. The incidence of work-related deaths and injuries in South Korea remains high 

by international standards. 

ECONOMY

Overview: The South Korean market economy underwent a profound transformation in the last 

half of the twentieth century, one perhaps unmatched by any nation during that time. It emerged 

from the Korean War devastated and remained a poor nation well into the 1960s, when an 

unprecedented period of growth, modernization, and industrialization transformed the economic 

and physical landscape of South Korea. In a mere four decades, per capita income in South 

Korea grew 100-fold. At the same time, the country’s cities, where economic opportunities 

abounded, grew at an unprecedented rate. Once an isolated nation of farmers, South Korea is 

now a nation with the highest rate of Internet access, a leader in semiconductor production, and a 

global innovator in consumer electronics. 

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This growth also has its downside. The Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s exposed a variety 

of structural weaknesses in the South Korean economy. Foreign reserves were insufficient, 

foreign borrowing was extensive (and by the end of 1996, 58 percent of external debt was shortterm), and corporate debt/equity ratios were extremely high. The surge in debt, a result in part of 

government policies that failed to rein in a corporate culture that favored expansion over profits, 

became a significant vulnerability. Several major bankruptcies spurred banks to tighten their 

lending policies, and the subsequent capital shortage further aggravated an already weakened 

private sector. More bankruptcies followed. Add to these factors the perception that the Ministry 

of Finance and Economy was bungling matters, and a crisis of confidence led foreign investors 

to pull out of South Korea, exacerbating the foreign reserve shortage. By the end of 1997, South 

Korea was in the midst of a full-fledged foreign exchange crisis, and in order to prevent a total 

economic collapse, it was forced to secure an emergency loan from the International Monetary 

Fund (IMF). 

South Korea’s recovery from the crisis, at least in terms of gross domestic product (GDP) 

growth, was remarkable and to an extent helped hide still present, difficult microeconomic 

conditions. GDP, which shrank by 6.7 percent in 1998, grew by 10.9 percent in 1999. In August 

2000, the IMF “graduated” South Korea from its restructuring program. The years 2001 through 

2004 saw gradually declining GDP growth figures. 

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)/Gross National Income (GNI): The GDP growth rate in 2004 

was 5.8 percent, and it is expected to slow to 4.9 percent in 2005. According to estimates, in 

2003 the services sector contributed 62.2 percent of GDP, the industrial sector 34.6 percent, and 

the agriculture sector 3.2 percent. GDP in 2003 was US$605.3 billion. According to the South 

Korean government, gross national income (formerly called gross national product) per capita in 

2003 was US$12,600, up from US$11,500 in 2002 and US$9,400 in 1999. 

Government Budget: In 2003 the government had revenues of US$135.5 billion and 

expenditures of US$128.7 billion, including capital expenditures of US$23.5 billion. In 2004 a 

modest budget surplus of 0.3 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) was expected. This would 

make the fifth consecutive year of surplus and highlight the health of the South Korean 

government’s finances. 

Inflation: Weak domestic demand and the appreciation of the w4n (South Korea’s currency) 

kept inflation in 2004 at 3.6 percent. This trend of moderate and stable inflationary pressure will 

likely continue in 2005, when inflation is expected to decline to 2.5 percent. 

Agriculture: The agricultural sector’s share of gross domestic product (GDP) in South Korea 

continues to decline, accounting for only 3.2 percent of GDP in 2003. Agriculture employs 8–12 

percent of the labor force. Price instability, particularly associated with cheap imports, is an 

increasing source of internal and external political friction. The primary crop in South Korea is 

rice; 80 percent of farms cultivate it, and domestic production sufficient to supply the nation 

remains a political priority. Other major crops include barley, wheat, soybeans, and potatoes, 

although production has declined steadily. South Korean demand for these products is satisfied 

through imports. Livestock production has increased with consumer demand and prosperity and 

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is the second largest subsector of the agricultural economy behind rice. Fruit and vegetable 

production continues to supply domestic needs. 

Forestry: South Korea’s once-rich forests were ravaged in the twentieth century by unmanaged 

logging for timber and fuel during the Japanese occupation (1910–45) and by the Korean War 

(1950–53). Reforestation policies put in place since the Korean War have had a salutary effect, 

but the process takes time. Today 70 percent of South Korea’s forests are less than 30 years old 

and are therefore largely unproductive. Timber imports far outnumber exports. 

Fishing: The depletion of fishery resources along coastal areas spurred the passage of the 

Fishery Act of 1997, which established federal oversight of offshore and deep-sea fishing. It also 

established limits on catches for eight species. In 2000 there were 95,890 fishing vessels, and 

total fisheries production reached US$3.6 billion, a slight decline from the previous year. The 

number of workers in the industry has declined since 1982. In 2000 some 82,000 households 

were involved in marine fishing, a drop of nearly 17 percent from the preceding year. Fish 

processing employs some 140,000 workers, 45.5 percent of whom are women. 

Mining and Minerals: South Korea possesses few mineral resources. There are small deposits 

of anthracite coal, uranium, tungsten, iron ore, limestone, kaolinite, and graphite. 

Industry and Manufacturing: Industry contributes nearly 35 percent of gross domestic product 

(GDP) and employs 19–20 percent of the labor force. Important subsectors of South Korea’s 

industrial and manufacturing base include computers and computer peripherals, 

telecommunications equipment, consumer electronics, automobiles, shipbuilding, 

semiconductors, petrochemicals, and steel production. Whereas the industrial production growth 

rate in 2000 and 2003 hovered between 5 and 6 percent, it appears that in 2004 it moved upward 

significantly and now approaches 13 percent for the year. 

Energy: Korea has modest internal energy resources: small deposits of anthracite coal and 

uranium and hydropower. Yet South Korea is ranked twenty-fifth in the world in electricity 

consumption per capita, and nineteenth in the world in the broader field of energy consumption 

per capita. Globally, South Korea is the seventh largest oil consumer in the world, and the fifth 

largest net oil importer. In 2001 South Korea consumed 2.1 million barrels of oil a day, and 

petroleum accounted for 55 percent of the nation’s primary energy consumption. Coal, most of it 

imported, accounts for 21 percent of South Korea’s total energy requirements. Domestic energy 

production in 2001 totaled only 5.2 million tons of oil equivalent (TOE), or 2.7 percent out of a 

total primary energy supply of 198.4 million TOE. Electricity demand, which is met through a 

combination of thermal, nuclear, and hydroelectric capacity, is expected to rise at an annual rate 

of 4 percent per year through 2015. South Korea is a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol of the 

United Nations Framework on Climate Change as a “non-Annex I state.” As part of the broader 

effort to reduce carbon emissions called for by the Kyoto Protocol, 12 new nuclear plants are 

planned to go online in South Korea before 2015. 

Services: The services sector accounts for about 62 percent of South Korea’s gross domestic 

product (GDP) and employs 68–72 percent of the labor force. Major sources of growth are 

financial services, tourism, and retail sales. 

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Banking and Finance: In the wake of the 1997 financial crisis, and in concert with restructuring 

called for by the International Monetary Fund, South Korea embarked on a variety of banking 

and finance reforms. There is, however, some debate whether these have been implemented to 

the fullest extent. Foremost among the reforms was the acquisition of sufficient foreign reserves, 

the reform of the corporate and financial sectors, and a variety of structural adjustments. 

Monetary policy was tightened, with interest rates reaching a high of 20 percent; the public 

sector was trimmed, with the government budget held to a 3.8 percent rate of growth; minimum 

standards were established for banks, and those that failed to meet them were closed; 

investigations were launched into the management of non-bank financial institutions; the 

Nonperforming Asset Resolution Fund was established to purchase US$12.3 billion in bad loans; 

and the Financial Supervisory Commission was established. In the corporate sector, stricter 

auditing and bookkeeping guidelines were established, the rights of minority shareholders were 

bolstered, and corporate cross-payment guarantees were banned. Commercial banking is 

essentially nationalized, and privatization of state-owned banks only began in the late 1990s. 

The implementation of these reforms under President Kim Dae-jung is widely credited for South 

Korea’s relatively quick recovery from the Asian financial crisis. Today the benchmark 

overnight rate in South Korea is 3.5 percent. South Korean banks are making an effort to 

implement the Basel II framework of the Bank for International Settlements. Foreign reserves, 

which at one point during the crisis fell to US$8.9 billion, now exceed liabilities at US$174.5 

billion, making South Korea the fourth largest holder of foreign reserves in the world. 

Tourism: Tourism has grown steadily since 1970, when approximately 170,000 people visited 

South Korea. In 2002, the most recent year for which figures are available, some 5.3 million 

visitors traveled to the country, without doubt drawn in part by the Fédération Internationale de 

Football Association (FIFA) World Cup that South Korea co-hosted with Japan. It was the first 

time the event was hosted in Asia, and an accumulated global television audience of 42 billion 

watched the games, providing major exposure for the nation. Short-term foreign visitors to South 

Korea are permitted to enter with no visa according to the principles of reciprocity or priority of

national interest. In 2002 visitors from Japan accounted for 43 percent of all tourists to South 

Korea. In 2001 visitors from China were the second largest group, reflecting the growing 

closeness of relations between the two nations. 

Labor: The labor force in South Korea in 2004 was 22.8 million individuals. Although there is 

some slight variation in statistics, the majority of South Koreans are employed in the services 

sector (68–72 percent), while a much smaller number work in industry (19–20 percent), and only 

8–12 percent are employed in agriculture. Unemployment in 2003 was recorded at 3.4 percent. 

The minimum wage (which is reviewed annually) in 2003 was US$2.09 per hour, US$16.73 per 

day, or US$472.17 per month; companies with fewer than 10 employees are exempted from

minimum wage regulations. The Ministry of Health and Welfare estimates that some 1.4 million 

persons (or 2.9 percent of the population) live below the poverty level, and another 3.2 million 

persons are classified as living in “potential extreme poverty.” Collective bargaining is practiced 

extensively, even among unions that are not recognized by the government. According to the 

Ministry of Labor, there were 6,506 unions in 2003, representing 1.6 million workers, or 11.6 

percent of all employed workers. The government has come under criticism for failing to 

recognize new trade unions in the public sector, and for arresting and imprisoning trade unionists 

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who engage in strikes under the charge of “obstruction of business.” In 2003 there were 319 

strikes and 49 lockouts involving some 137,000 workers and resulting in the loss of some 1.3 

million workdays. The majority of unions in South Korea are enterprise-based. Nonetheless, 

there are 44 industrial trade unions in two national federations: the Federation of Korean Trade 

Unions and the Korean Confederation of Trade Unions. About 50 percent of South Korean 

women are economically active, and the 1999 Equal Employment Act was amended to prohibit 

sexual discrimination in the private sector. 

Foreign Economic Relations: South Korea joined the World Trade Organization in 1995 and 

the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1996. Trade and by extension 

all foreign economic relations are key elements of South Korean politics and foreign relations in 

general. Merchandise exports in the early 1970s were valued at only 10 percent of gross 

domestic product (GDP); by 2001, they were equal to 37.7 percent of GDP. South Korea’s main 

economic partners are China, the European Union, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and the United States. 

Free-trade negotiations with Japan are expected to conclude with an agreement by the end of 

2005. 

Imports: Imports in 2003 were valued at US$178.8 billion. Major imports include crude oil, 

food, machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, and base metals and articles thereof. In 

2003 goods from Japan accounted for 20.1 percent of all imports, followed by goods from the 

United States (13.9 percent), China (12.3 percent), the European Union (10.6 percent), and Saudi 

Arabia (5.1 percent). 

Exports: Exports in 2003 were valued at US$193.8 billion. Major exports include 

semiconductors, wireless telecommunications equipment, motor vehicles, computers, steel, 

ships, petrochemicals, and textiles. The major market for South Korean exports is China 

(including Hong Kong), which accounted for 20.7 percent of all exports in 2003. The other 

important markets for South Korean goods were the United States (20.2 percent), European 

Union (12.8 percent), and Japan 9.3 percent. 

Trade Balance: In 2002 South Korea had a trade surplus of US$14.2 billion, an increase of 5.9 

percent over the previous year. In 2003 that surplus grew to US$15 billion. 

Balance of Payments: In 2003 South Korea had a current account balance of US$12.3 billion. 

From 1998 to 2002, the current account balance as a percentage of gross domestic product 

(GDP) averaged 4.9 percent. 

External Debt: In 2003 external debt was estimated at US$130.3 billion. 

Foreign Investment: Foreign investment in 2001 accounted for 10 percent of gross domestic 

product (GDP); in 2002 it totaled US$84.6 billion. The United States is the largest foreign 

investor in South Korea, accounting for nearly 50 percent of the total in 2002. Japan, the 

Netherlands, Germany, Hong Kong, the United Kingdom, and France round out the top seven, 

respectively. American investments are heavily concentrated in services, while Japanese 

investors focus largely on manufacturing. Concerns about corruption, political stability, and 

unfavorable trade practices continue to limit the scope and extent of foreign investment. 

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Foreign Aid: South Korea, as a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and 

Development, has an annual budget for Official Development Assistance. In 2002 that amount 

was US$278.8 million, up from US$265 million the previous year. 

Currency and Exchange Rate: The unit of currency in South Korea is the w4n (KRW). As of 

May 1, 2005, the frequently fluctuating interbank exchange rate was US$1 = 997.36 w4n. 

Fiscal Year: Calendar year. 

TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Transportation System Overview: Although South Korea has a fairly extensive network of 

highways and efficient subways in both Seoul and Pusan, most observers believe the 

transportation system is currently operating well above capacity. Vehicular traffic, particularly in 

urban areas, is notoriously bad. Expansions of both the highway and subway systems are 

underway. Train and bus service is widely available both in urban and rural areas. 

Roads: In 2002, the most recent year for which government figures are available, South Korea 

had 96,037 kilometers of roadway, 76.7 percent of which was paved. There were 2,778 

kilometers of paved expressways. Expansion of the expressway system throughout the nation is 

underway. In 2001 expressways were renumbered in a fashion similar to the interstate highway 

system in the United States. North-south routes have odd numbers, and east-west routes have 

even numbers. South Korea’s first expressway, the Ky4ngbu Expressway, is Route 1. Route 

numbers 70 through 99 are reserved in the event of Korean unification. 

Railroads: In 2004 the state-run Korean National Railroad (KNR) had 3,388 kilometers of 

1.435-meter gauge rail (2,113 kilometers of single track and 1,274 kilometers of double track), of 

which 661 kilometers were electrified. Established in 1963, and under the jurisdiction of the 

Ministry of Construction and Transportation (MOCT), the KNR in 2004 operated 20,000 trains 

in South Korea, including diesel and electric locomotives and railcars, passenger coaches, and 

freight cars. South Korean rail density (length/area) is only one-half of Japan’s and a quarter of 

Germany’s. About 20 percent of locomotives and freight cars exceed the normal service life of 

20 years, and outdated facilities and signal systems need updating. In response, the MOCT 

established a National Inter-Modal Transportation Plan, whose ambitious goals include 

increasing the rail lines to nearly 5,000 kilometers by 2019. 

Ports: The major ports are Chinhae, Inch’4n, Kßnsan, Masan, Mokp’o, P’ohang, Pusan, 

Tonghae-hang, Ulsan, and Y4su. Various steamship lines provide passenger service to Korea. 

South Korea’s merchant fleet comprises 601 ships of 1,000 gross registered tons or more. By 

type, they include 125 bulk carriers, 196 cargo ships, 88 chemical tankers, 71 container ships, 20 

liquefied gas carriers, 5 passenger ships, 22 passenger/cargo ships, 51 petroleum tankers, 15 

refrigerated cargo carriers, 5 roll on/roll off ships, and 3 vehicle carriers. 

Inland Waterways: South Korea has 1,068 kilometers of inland waterways restricted to small 

craft. 

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Civil Aviation and Airports: South Korea has eight international airports. The largest is 

Inch’4n (Incheon) International Airport in Inch’4n, 49 kilometers west of Seoul and served by 

expressway and, under construction in 2005, rail service. It began operations in 2001 (replacing 

Seoul’s Kimp’o International Airport). In 2005, 62 national and foreign airlines served Inch’4n. 

Other international airports are located at Kimhae, Cheju, Ch’4ngju, Kimp’o, Yangyang, Taegu, 

and Kwangju. Kimp’o, Kimhae, and Cheju operate direct flights to and from Tokyo, Fukuoka, 

Nagoya, and Æsaka in Japan. Altogether, South Korea has 88 airports with paved runways and 

91 airports with unpaved runways, as well as 206 heliports. South Korea is connected by air to 

every major capital in the world, either through direct flights or by connecting flights from major 

international airports in the Asia-Pacific region. South Korea’s major airlines are Korean Air 

(KAL) with a fleet of 117 passenger and cargo planes, and Asiana Airlines, with a fleet of 61 

passenger and cargo planes. 

Pipelines: In 2004 South Korea had 1,433 kilometers of gas and 827 kilometers of refined 

products pipelines. Plans are underway to build a pipeline that would supply South Korea and 

China with natural gas from the region of Eastern Siberia. 

Telecommunications: South Korea had 22.8 million landline telephones and 33,591,800 cellular 

phones in use in 2003. According to 2002 estimates, the country had 42 million radios. South 

Korea leads all nations in broadband access and in 2003 had 29.2 million Internet users and 11 

Internet service providers. In the late 1990s, South Koreans had access to some 121 television 

broadcast stations and 55.9 million television sets. 

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Government Overview: South Korea is a republic governed by a directly elected president and 

a unicameral legislature, the National Assembly. Although today South Korea is recognized as a 

democracy, for several decades following the Korean War it was ruled by a succession of leaders 

who assumed office under less than democratic circumstances. Fair elections in 1952 were 

followed by corrupt ones later that decade. A succession of military leaders assumed power in 

South Korea starting in 1961 with a coup led by army officers. Growing frustration with 

repressive rule among South Koreans led to demonstrations in May 1980 in the city of Kwangju. 

These demonstrations were violently suppressed, killing hundreds of civilians. Whereas the 

South Korean economy flourished, democratic institutions and a free press often did not. In spite 

of political violence in the form of brutal crackdowns against civilian protests and the 

assassination of government leaders, a civil society emerged to lead the South Korean democracy 

movement. In 1987, after years of regular protests, the military leaders of South Korea were 

forced to hold free and democratic elections. Their handpicked successor, Roh Tae-woo, won, as 

opposition parties failed to unite around a single candidate and split the vote. In 1992 Kim

Young-sam was elected, followed in 1997 by longtime opposition leader Kim Dae-jung. In 2002 

South Koreans elected a human rights lawyer and relative political newcomer, Roh Moo-hyun 

president. 

Constitution: The current constitution was adopted on July 17, 1948. It was last revised in 1987. 

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Executive Branch: The president is the head of state and commander in chief of the armed 

forces. The prime minister is appointed by the president and approved by the National Assembly. 

The president also appoints the heads of the 17 ministries that direct public policy and affairs of 

state. The main advisory agencies to the presidency are the National Security Council, the 

Advisory Council on Democratic and Peaceful Reunification, the Presidential Council on 

Science and Technology, the Presidential Commission on Small and Medium Business, the Civil 

Service Commission, the Korean Independent Commission Against Corruption, and the Truth 

Commission on Suspicious Deaths. The president also directs the National Intelligence Service 

and the Board of Audit and Inspection. The current president is Roh Moo-hyun, who was elected 

in 2002 (and took office in February 2003). The current prime minister is Lee Hae-chan, who 

assumed office in 2004. 

Legislative Branch: The unicameral National Assembly is the legislative body of the South 

Korean government. It has 273 members elected to four-year terms and meets in regular 100-day 

sessions from September to December every year. The president can request that the assembly 

meet in a special session of up to 30 days. The constitution charges the assembly with 

responsibility for making the nation’s laws, as well as approving the national budget, declaring 

war, and impeachment, among others. The assembly elects a speaker and two vice speakers, who 

serve two-year terms. The current speaker is Kim Won-Ki. 

Judicial Branch: The judicial branch is composed of the Supreme Court, appellate courts, local 

courts, and the Constitutional Court. It is an independent branch and is increasingly willing to 

exercise that independence: in 2004 the Supreme Court handed down a controversial ruling 

quashing President Roh’s plan to relocate the national capital from Seoul to a new city in South 

Ch’ungch’4ng Province. 

Administrative Divisions: South Korea has nine provinces (do): Kangwon, Ky4nggi, North 

Ch’ungch’4ng, South Ch’ungch’4ng, North Cholla, South Cholla, North Ky4ngsang, South 

Ky4ngsang, and Cheju. There are also seven separately administered metropolitan cities: Seoul, 

Pusan, Taegu, Inch’4n, Kwangju, Taej4n, and Ulsan. 

Provincial and Local Government: South Korea has a long and established tradition of strong 

central governance, dating back to the early years of the Chos4n dynasty (1392–1910). Although 

Article 117 of the constitution established provisions for local government at the provincial and 

municipal level, the elections held in 1995 for governors and mayors were the first in more than 

30 years. A second round of local elections was held in 1998, with subsequent elections 

scheduled every four years. Provincial and local government is divided into 16 provincial-level 

governments and 235 municipal governments, including 72 si (or shi, city) governments, 94 gun

(county) governments, and 69 gu (autonomous district) governments. Provincial and local 

governments may be elected independently of the central government, but their primary purpose 

is to implement policies and programs created and directed by central government ministries. 

The central government also provides much of the funding for provisional and local 

governments. 

Judicial and Legal System: The South Korean legal system contains elements of AngloAmerican law, continental European civil law, and Chinese classical thought. The president 

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appoints the chief justice and most justices of the Constitutional Court. Although judges do not 

receive lifetime appointments, they cannot be fired for political reasons. Judges preside over 

local courts and also render verdicts, as there is no trial by jury. Both defendants and prosecutors 

can appeal first to the district appellate court and then to the Supreme Court. Constitutional 

challenges are made to the Constitutional Court. Constitutional provisions that call for the 

presumption of innocence, protection against self-incrimination, freedom from double jeopardy, 

the right to speedy trial, and the right of appeal generally are observed. 

Electoral System: Suffrage is universal, and the voting age is 20. The president is elected by 

direct popular vote and serves one five-year term. The 273 members of the National Assembly 

are directly elected to four-year terms. The most recent presidential election was held in 

December 2002; the next is scheduled for 2007. The most recent National Assembly election 

was held on April 15, 2004; the next is scheduled for 2008. 

Political Parties: South Korea is a multiparty state. In the most recent round of general elections

to the National Assembly in 2004, the majority party was the Uri Party (the party of President 

Roh Moo-hyun) with 152 seats, followed by the Grand National Party with 121 seats, the 

Democratic Labor Party with 10 seats, and the Millennium Democratic Party (the party of Roh’s 

predecessor, Kim Dae-jung) with 9 seats. Other parties include the United Liberal Democrats 

and the Democratic People’s Party. 

Mass Media: In the twentieth century, the successive governments of the colonial Japanese 

authorities, the U.S. military authorities, and the Republic of Korea all restricted freedom of the 

press. Today, after decades of state control and heavy censorship, the press (in print, on 

television, and online) is experiencing a period of relative freedom. The repressive Basic Press 

Law was repealed in 1987, and since 1990 the television market has expanded significantly. 

Whereas in 1980 there were only 28 national newspapers, today there are 122. In 2002 satellite 

broadcasting brought multi-channel commercial television to homes across South Korea. 

According to most outside observers, political discourse is unrestricted in South Korea; however, 

persistent concerns are worth noting. The National Security Law allows the government to limit 

the expression of ideas deemed pro-North Korean or communist; broad interpretations of this 

statute place a chill on peaceful dissent. In addition, in 2003 President Roh brought a libel suit 

against four of the major national newspapers, and the government has stated that editorials are 

subject to legal action if they are found to contain falsehoods. Outside observers have criticized 

pressure tactics used by both the South Korean government and the business community to 

influence reporting. Major newspapers include Chosun Ilbo, Dong-A Ilbo, Joong-Ang Ilbo, and 

Hankook Ilbo , all published in Seoul. The five nationwide television networks are KBS-1 and 

KBS-2 (public broadcast), MBC (run as a public organization), EBS (state-funded), and SBS (a 

commercial broadcaster). Some 70 percent of South Korean households have broadband Internet 

access, and the online media marketplace is growing rapidly. Popular news Web sites (such as 

OhMyNews.com) register as many as 15 million visits per day. 

Foreign Relations: In addition to its extensive network of trading partners, South Korea has 

diplomatic relations with more than 170 nations. Since the 1980s, relations with China have 

played an increasingly important role in South Korean politics and economics, particularly in 

relation to North Korea. South Korea maintains close military, economic, and diplomatic 

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relations with the United States, although at times those relations are strained by domestic 

opposition to the U.S. military presence on the peninsula. In spite of long-standing animosity to 

Japan during the 36-year occupation of the Korean Peninsula, economic and diplomatic relations 

between the two nations are increasingly close. 

Inter-Korean Relations: The political importance of relations between North and South Korea, 

and the impact of the division of the Korean Peninsula on the national consciousness, is difficult 

to overstate. Although many South Koreans support the concept of reunification, there are 

widespread concerns that reunification could have a significant, negative economic and social 

impact on the South, as, under the best of circumstances, it would have to absorb underskilled 

North Korean workers and upgrade the North’s outdated infrastructure. The desire for unification 

is thus balanced by concerns about any sudden collapse of the North Korean state. In 1991 North 

and South Korea signed an agreement pledging to resolve national disagreements through 

dialogue and to keep the Korean Peninsula free of nuclear weapons. Implementation has been 

stalled by continual political disagreements and proliferation issues. In 1997 Kim Dae-jung was 

elected president of South Korea and instituted a “Sunshine Policy” toward North Korea, which 

sought to increase contacts between the two nations. In 2000 Kim Jong Il and Kim Dae-jung held 

the first-ever meeting between leaders of the two sides. 

North-South unification is overseen on the South Korean side by its Ministry of Unification. The 

South Korean government’s “Policy for Peace and Prosperity” was initiated in 2003 by President 

Roh Moo-hyun with the goal of laying the foundation for peaceful unification through the 

promotion of peace on the Korean Peninsula and achieving mutual prosperity for both South and

North Korea. This policy also is seen as contributing to the development of a Northeast Asian 

business hub on the Korean Peninsula. The predecessor organization of the Ministry of 

Unification, the National Unification Board, was established in 1969. The board was raised to 

ministerial level in 1990 and in 1991 was renamed the Ministry of Unification. Seen as a 

powerful force in South Korea, the ministry provides an institutional framework for peaceful 

political, economic, and cultural exchanges with and humanitarian assistance to the North. 

Ministry projects have included education of South Koreans about North Korean developments, 

meetings of divided families, resettlement of North Korean refugees, South-North transit routes 

through the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), and the Kaes4ng joint-venture industrial zone and the 

Mount Kumgang scenic and sport-tourist zone, both just north of the DMZ. Juxtaposed with such 

goodwill overtures, is the reality of North Korea’s faltering economy, its military threat to the 

South and to the region, and the fact that a state of war technically continues to exist between the 

North and the South and its United Nations allies.

Membership in International Organizations: South Korea is a member of numerous 

international organizations, including the African Development Bank, Asia-Pacific Economic 

Cooperation, Asian Development Bank, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Australia 

Group, Bank for International Settlements, Colombo Plan, European Bank for Reconstruction 

and Development, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, International 

Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), 

International Chamber of Commerce, International Civil Aviation Organization, International 

Confederation of Free Trade Unions, International Criminal Court, International Criminal Police 

Organization, International Development Association, International Energy Agency, 

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International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, International Finance 

Corporation, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Hydrographic 

Organization, International Labour Organization, International Maritime Organization, 

International Monetary Fund, International Olympic Committee, International Organization for 

Migration, International Organization for Standardization, International Red Cross and Red 

Crescent Movement, International Telecommunication Union, Nonaligned Movement (guest), 

Nuclear Energy Agency, Nuclear Suppliers Group, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and 

Development, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Organization for Security 

and Cooperation in Europe (partner), Organization of American States (observer), Permanent 

Court of Arbitration, United Nations, Universal Postal Union, World Confederation of Labor, 

World Customs Organization, World Health Organization, World Intellectual Property 

Organization, World Meteorological Organization, World Tourism Organization, World Trade 

Organization, and Zangger Committee. 

Major International Treaties: The 1954 Mutual Defense Treaty with the United States is 

perhaps the most important of the treaties to which South Korea is a party. In addition, South 

Korea is a state party to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the 

Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, the Joint Spent Fuel Management Convention, the 

Chemical Weapons Convention, the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention, and the Geneva 

Protocol. It is also a state party to the following antiterrorism conventions: Marking of Plastic 

Explosives for the Purpose of Detection, Against the Taking of Hostages, Offences and Certain 

Other Acts Committed Onboard Aircraft, Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, 

Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, Protocol on the Suppression 

of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation, and Prevention 

and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic 

Agents. It is a signatory to the antiterrorist conventions on Suppression of the Financing of 

Terrorism and Suppression of Terrorist Bombings. South Korea is also a party to a number of 

environmental agreements: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living 

Resources, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, 

Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of 

the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical 

Timber 94, Wetlands, and Whaling. 

NATIONAL SECURITY

Armed Forces Overview: The main branches of the South Korean military are the army, navy, 

air force, and National Maritime Police (Coast Guard). There are 687,000 troops serving on 

active duty, of whom approximately 159,000 are conscripts. Another 4.5 million are in the 

reserves. The army has 560,000 personnel, the air force 64,700, the navy 63,000, and the 

maritime police 4,500. A civilian defense corps numbers 3.5 million. 

Foreign Military Relations: South Korea’s major military relationship is with the United States,

which maintains approximately 35,000 troops in South Korea. Additional U.S. forces are 

available in nearby Japan, the Seventh Fleet, and U.S. island bases in the Pacific. Since the 

Korean War (known as the “6–25 War” in South Korea, 1950–53), the United States has 

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assumed significant responsibility for assuring South Korea’s security. Since 1978, the Republic 

of Korea/United States Combined Forces Command (ROK-US CFC) has assumed primary 

responsibility for defending South Korea from outside attack. The CFC has operational control 

over more than 600,000 South Korean and U.S. troops and directs joint training exercises. It is 

under the command of a four-star U.S. general, with a four-star South Korean army general as 

deputy commander. In 2005, 93 percent of the military personnel at the DMZ were South Korean 

forces. The United Nations Command (UNC), established in 1951 with the United States as its 

executive agent and 21 allied members, continues to monitor the 1953 armistice agreement. 

Fifteen of the original 21 members participated in the UNC Military Armistice Commission in 

2005. 

External Threat: The South Korean government regards North Korea as the major threat to 

peninsular stability. North Korea has the fourth largest military force in the world, and the largest 

special operations, submarine, and artillery forces in the world. Whereas in 1981 North Korea 

had 40 percent of its armed forces deployed in an offensive mode between the Demilitarized 

Zone (DMZ) and P’y4ngyang, by 1998 that level had risen to 65 percent, and it stood at 70 

percent in 2005. Military planners in South Korea expect no more than two days’ warning of an 

imminent attack by North Korea. In 1998 and 2003, North Korea launched missiles over the Sea 

of Japan (or East Sea), an act that raised serious concerns in South Korea, Japan, and the United 

States. In February 2005, North Korea admitted it had nuclear weapons capability, and it is 

estimated that North Korea might have one or two actual nuclear weapons and enough plutonium

harvested for about nine weapons. In May 2005, another missile test was conducted over the Sea 

of Japan. The difficulty of predicting the actions of the North Korean leadership, the lack of 

reliable information from North Korea, and shifts in U.S. policy regarding the North remain 

stumbling blocks to reducing tensions on the peninsula. 

Defense Budget: In 2004 South Korea’s defense budget was US$16.4 billion, which represents 

approximately 3 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) and 16 percent of the total budget 

(roughly in line with the previous two years). Defense spending for 2004 is up from US$14.6 

billion in 2003, US$13.2 billion in 2002, US$11.8 billion in 2001, US$12.8 billion in 2000, and 

US$11.6 billion in 1999. 

Major Military Units: The army has 3 mechanized infantry divisions, 19 infantry divisions, 2 

independent infantry brigades, 7 special forces brigades, 3 counter-infiltration brigades, 3 

surface-to-surface missile battalions, 3 airborne artillery brigades, 5 surface-to-air missile 

battalions, and 1 aviation command with 1 air assault brigade. The reserves have one army

headquarters with 23 infantry divisions. The navy has three commands: Tonghae (East Sea), 

P’y4ngt’aek (Yellow Sea), and Chinhae (Korea Strait) and bases in Chinhae (Headquarters), 

Cheju, Mokp’o, Mukho, P’ohang, Pusan, P’y4ngt’aek, and Tonghae. The marines (part of the 

navy) have two divisions. The air force has four commands, a tactical airlift wing, and a 

composite wing. 

Major Military Equipment: The army has 1,000 main battle tanks, 40 armored infantry 

fighting vehicles, 2,480 armored personnel carriers, approximately 4,500 towed and selfpropelled artillery pieces, 185 multiple rocket launchers, 6,000 mortars, 58 antitank guns, 600 air 

defense guns, 2 surface-to-surface missiles, 1,090 surface-to-air missiles, 117 attack helicopters, 

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18 transport helicopters, and 283 utility helicopters. The navy has 20 diesel submarines, 6 

destroyers, 9 frigates, 28 corvettes, 5 missile craft, 15 mine warfare vessels, 12 amphibious 

vessels, 75 inshore patrol boats, 16 combat aircraft, and 43 armed helicopters. The marines (part 

of the navy) have 60 main battle tanks and 60 assault amphibian vehicles. The air force has a 

total of 538 combat aircraft with 153 F–16C/D, 185 F–5E/F, 130 F–4D/E, 22 combat-capable 

trainers, 20 forward air control aircraft, 27 reconnaissance aircraft, 25 helicopters, 34 tactical 

airlift aircraft, 203 training aircraft, and 103 unmanned aerial vehicles. The air force has no 

armed helicopters. 

Military Service: Military service is mandatory for all South Korean males, with conscription at 

18 years of age. The term of service in the army is 26 months and 30 in the navy and air force. 

The presence of women in the South Korean military since the end of the Korean War has been 

limited, both by constitutional and cultural restraints. In the early 1990s, the separate Women’s 

Army Corps was abolished, and women were integrated into the various branches of the armed 

forces. The South Korean armed forces plan to recruit women to a level of 5 percent of the total 

officers and noncommissioned officers (NCOs) in the three services by 2020.

Paramilitary Forces: South Korea has a National Maritime Police (Coast Guard) force of 

approximately 4,500 on active duty. Another 3.5 million South Korean reserves form the civilian 

defense corps. 

Foreign Military Forces: Approximately 35,000 U.S. troops are stationed in South Korea. 

Foreign Military Forces Abroad: In August 2004, the 2,800-strong Korea Zaytun Division for 

Peace and Reconstruction in Iraq arrived in Irbil, in northern Iraq. There are also 205 South 

Korean troops participating in Operation Enduring Freedom in Kyrgyzstan. South Korean troops 

also have taken part in United Nations (UN) Peacekeeping missions in Afghanistan (UNAMA),

East Timor (UNMISET), Georgia (UNOMIG), India/Pakistan (UNMOGIP), Liberia (UNMIL), 

and Western Sahara (MINURSO). 

Police: The National Korean Police Force is composed of the Headquarters of the National 

Police Agency, the Central Police Organization, 14 provincial police agencies, 231 police 

stations, 2,930 branch offices, and other affiliated institutes, including the National Police 

College, Police Comprehensive Academy, Central Police Training School, Driver's Licensing 

Agency, and National Police Hospital. In 2003 the National Police Force had 92,165 employees. 

The police commissioner serves under the Ministry of Government Administration and Home

Affairs. 

Internal Threat: The National Security Law continues to define as a threat to domestic security 

acts such as listening to North Korean radio broadcasts or reading books published in North 

Korea, suggesting that North Korean interference and propaganda efforts in South Korean affairs 

are still regarded as a major internal threat. 

Terrorism: Historically, some of the worst acts of terrorism in South Korea have been the work 

of North Korea and the military dictatorships that ruled South Korea for large portions of the 

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Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: South Korea, May 2005 

post-Korean War era. In 1987 North Korea was accused of being behind the bombing of Korean 

Airlines (KAL) Flight 858. 

Human Rights: The South Korean government generally respects the human rights of its 

citizens. However, it bears noting that physical and verbal abuse of detainees continues among 

police and prison personnel. Human rights organizations also have argued that the National 

Security Law (NSL) continues to be used to curtail freedom of speech and of the press, peaceful 

assembly and association, and free travel. Currently, some 800 conscientious objectors convicted 

under the NSL, mostly Jehovah’s Witnesses, remain imprisoned. Many public-sector employees 

do not enjoy the right of association, and efforts to organize unions have met with harassment 

and arrest. Incidences of domestic violence remain high. Sexual harassment and disparities in 

pay between men and women exist. Rape and child abuse also continue to be serious problems. 

The Republic of Korea is still a significant country of origin, transit, and destination for 

trafficking in persons, particularly women and children, for the sex trade and domestic servitude. 

Although illegal, prostitution remains widespread. No executions have been carried out in South 

Korea since 1998; a bill was introduced in 2001 to abolish the death penalty, but despite fairly 

widespread and bipartisan support in the legislature, the bill stalled in deliberations. At the end of 

2003, there were 1,670 refugees and asylum seekers in South Korea, most North Korean. 

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