# EUR-Lex - 52007DC0049 - EN

Important legal notice

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# 52007DC0049

**Report from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on equality between women and men – 2007 **

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[pic] | COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES |

Brussels, 7.2.2007

COM(2007)49 final

REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS

on equality between women and men – 2007

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction 3

2. Main developments 3

2.1 Policies and legislation 3

2.2 Gender gaps 5

3. Challenges and policy orientations 6

3.1 Eliminating gender gaps on the labour market 7

3.2 Encouraging a better balance of private and family responsibilitiesbetween women and men 7

3.3 Ensuring that policies on gender equality have the full supportof cohesion and rural development policies 8

3.4 Ensuring effective implementation of the legislative framework 9

4. Conclusions 9

ANNEX 10

1. Introduction

The Spring European Council of March 2003 asked the Commission to report annually on developments towards gender equality and orientations for gender mainstreaming of policy areas. This report is the fourth to comply with that request.

2006 saw two major events with a bearing on gender equality in the EU: the adoption by the Commission of the Roadmap for equality between women and men for the period 2006-2010, and the adoption by the European Council of the Pact for Gender Equality. These two key initiatives testify to the EU's continued commitment to achieving genuine equality between women and men.

The European Union, which has now been enlarged to 27 Member States, is about to celebrate the 50th anniversary of gender equality policy and the European Year of Equal Opportunities for All. Moreover, equality policy is at the centre of two areas of concern: growth and employment, and demographic change. It will need the full support of the cohesion policy, the new programming period for which begins in 2007.

2. Main developments

2.1 Policies and legislation

With the adoption of the Roadmap for equality between women and men [1] on 1 March 2006, the Commission defined its priorities and its framework of action for promoting equality in the period to 2010, thus continuing its task of promoting gender equality and ensuring that all its policies contribute to that objective. The Roadmap represents the Commission's commitment to continuing and intensifying its actions in this area. Detailed follow-up reports will be compiled annually.

At the European Council of 23 and 24 March 2006, the Member States approved a European Pact for Gender Equality [2]. The Pact demonstrates the Member States' determination to implement policies aimed at promoting the employment of women and guaranteeing a better balance between professional and private life in order to meet the challenges of demographic change. In this context, it would appear essential to develop childcare services in order to achieve the Barcelona objectives[3].

The ageing of the population, combined with declining birth rates, raises considerable challenges for our societies, as demonstrated in the Communication on the demographic future of Europe [4], which was adopted by the Commission on 12 October 2006. It is clear that policies on gender equality will contribute significantly to meeting those challenges: on the one hand, by stimulating the employment of women, thus compensating for the forecast decline in the working population; and, on the other, by supporting the individual choices of women and men, including decisions on the number of children they wish to have.

At the same time, the Commission launched a formal consultation among the social partners [5] on the possible thrust of Community action regarding the reconciliation of professional, private and family life, including the promotion of flexible working arrangements, the development of crèche and care services and the possible revision of existing provisions regarding maternity leave and parental leave[6].

The legislative framework for gender equality improved considerably with the adoption in June 2006 of a Directive[7] which simplifies and updates existing Community legislation on the equal treatment of women and men as regards employment. The greater clarity of the legal texts should facilitate better application of the law, thus contributing to the objective of "better regulation". The Member States must ensure that the Directive is transposed in their national legislation by August 2008. As regards transposition of the Directive of 2002 on equal treatment[8], procedures for failure to fulfil an obligation were initiated against nine Member States, four of which were still open as at the end of 2006.

The Regulation creating a European Institute for Gender Equality was adopted in December 2006[9]. The Institute is required to provide significant technical support for the development of policies on equality between women and men.

2006 saw the adoption of the new regulation of the Structural Funds [10] and of the Community strategic guidelines on cohesion[11] for the period 2007-2013, which foresee both specific measures and the integration of the gender perspective in all actions[12]. Their implementation will primarily be the task of the Member States, in the form of National strategic reference frameworks and operational programmes. The remit of the European Rural Development Fund also includes the principle of equality between men and women[13] in rural development support policy. In addition, the Community's "PROGRESS" programme[14] contains a section dedicated to gender equality which will support the implementation of Community policy on equality between women and men in the areas of employment and social solidarity.

Poverty often affects women, particularly the elderly and single-parent households. Moreover, health and social welfare systems are not always attuned to the different needs of women and men. This is why the promotion of equality between women and men is among the overarching objectives of the new framework for the open coordination of social protection and inclusion policies adopted by the European Council in March 2006[15]. Its implementation should help to implement policies aimed at reducing the disparities between women and men in these fields.

As regards violence and human trafficking , in a Communication of August 2006, the Commission put forward a strategy to measure crime (including human trafficking, violence against women and domestic violence) and criminal justice[16]. It will help to improve appreciably our understanding of these evils, the principal victims of which are women.

Gender equality is also recognised as a factor in economic development in the framework of the EU's External Affairs. By the beginning of 2007, the Commission will prepare a Communication on the integration of gender equality in development cooperation . In addition, a five-year Action Plan designed to strengthen the role of women in Mediterranean societies was adopted in November 2006 as part of the Euromed partnership. This Plan provides a framework in which the EU and Mediterranean countries can cooperate in strengthening the role of women in the social, political, economic and cultural spheres.

2.2 Gender gaps

The employment of women, including older women, has continued to make solid advances in recent years. That should not obscure the clearly unfavourable situation of women on the labour market in relation to men. Major gaps remain, and they are always to women's disadvantage. Labour market segregation and inequalities in working arrangements are proving to be persistent, and this is reflected in a significant and stable gender pay gap.

The female labour force continues to be the engine of employment growth in Europe. Since the launch of the Lisbon Strategy in 2000, six of the eight million jobs created in the EU have been taken by women. In 2005, the rate of female employment rose for the twelfth consecutive year, to stand at 56.3%, i.e. 2.7 points above its 2000 level, compared with a 0.1 point rise in the rate of male employment. If this favourable trend continues[17], the Lisbon objective of 60% female employment by 2010 will be attained. Similarly, the rise in the rate of employment of women over the age of 55 has been significantly faster than that of men, and now stands at 33.7%, i.e. almost 7 points more than in 2000.

Accordingly, the gap in employment rates between women and men was reduced to 15.0 points in 2005, i.e. by 2.6 points over five years. It should be pointed out that the gap varies widely between age groups: it is only 5.9 points among young people (15-24 years of age), 16.7 points for workers aged between 25 and 54, and no less than 18.1 points for those above 55. The positive trend in the employment of women is also reflected in the proportionally faster decline in their unemployment rate , the gender gap having declined from 2.8 in 2000 to 2.0 in 2005.

Despite this positive trend, the increased difficulty which women are facing in reconciling their professional and private lives, and the unequal division of domestic and family responsibilities, remain very marked. It is striking that the rate of employment of women between the ages of 20 and 49 falls by 15 points when they have a child, while that of men increases by six points. Moreover, increasing demands for labour flexibility are having a disproportionately large impact on women. Almost one-third of women work part-time (32.9% in 2006), compared with just 7.7% of men; 14.8% of female employees had a fixed-term contract, i.e. one point more than their male counterparts. The extent to which use is made of flexible arrangements for working time can reflect personal preferences, but the marked difference between the sexes underlines the imbalance between men and women in the use of time.

In addition, the labour market remains largely partitioned. Occupational and sectoral segregation indices by sex show no sign of a significant decline. It would therefore appear that the increase in female employment is being achieved mainly in sectors of activity and in professions which are already dominated by women. Nearly four women salary earners in ten work in the civil service, education, health or social work, and nearly half are clerical workers, sales persons, or unskilled or low-skilled workers.

Moreover, there continues to be an imbalance between women and men in decision-making positions , both political and economic. Fewer than one-third of managers are women, and the management boards of the 50 biggest listed European companies had only one woman for every ten men in 2005. In national Parliaments, the average proportion of women is only 24%. It is 33% in the European Parliament.

Segregation is a factor in education . Although women now represent the majority of new higher education graduates (59%), their fields of study remain strongly stereotyped. Teaching, the social sciences, the arts and health account for nearly half of all female graduates but less than one-quarter of their male counterparts. Conversely, technical studies attract only one female graduate in ten, compared with four male graduates in ten.

One of the consequences of the differences and inequalities which women face on the labour market is the persistent gender pay gap . Women earn an average of 15% less than men for every hour worked[18].

At the social level, women, especially elderly women and single mothers, are at greater risk of exclusion and poverty. The risk of poverty among women over the age of 65 is 20%, i.e. 5 points more than for men, while that among single-parent households[19] is 34%. In addition, long-term unemployment affects 4.5% of women, i.e. 1 point more than men. Women also constitute the majority of the economically inactive and are therefore particularly vulnerable to poverty.

3. CHALLENGES AND POLICY ORIENTATIONS

THE SPRING EUROPEAN COUNCIL OF 2006 STRESSED THAT POLICIES ON GENDER EQUALITY ARE ESSENTIAL INSTRUMENTS FOR ECONOMIC GROWTH, PROSPERITY AND COMPETITIVENESS. THE EUROPEAN STRATEGY FOR GROWTH AND EMPLOYMENT ALSO RECOGNISES THE CONTRIBUTION OF GENDER EQUALITY TO meeting the Lisbon objectives. In order fully to exploit the potential of European workforce productivity, it is essential to promote women's long-term participation in the labour market and to eliminate the disparities between men and women right across the board. To meet these challenges, equality policies will need the active support of cohesion policy and effective implementation of legislation on equal treatment. The Commission will support the Member States' actions in a number of key areas where significant progress has yet to be achieved, in line with the priorities set out in the Roadmap for gender equality.

3.1 Eliminating gender gaps on the labour market

Access to high-quality paid employment is the guarantor of the economic independence of both women and men. Nevertheless, some very major disparities persist between the sexes, in particular regarding arrangements for working time (part-time work, temporary contracts) and sectors and professions. It is essential to analyse and tackle the factors underlying these disparities.

- The causes of labour market segregation, which essentially originates in stereotype choices of education, training and careers, should be actively combated;

- Efforts aimed at eliminating obstacles to women's access to decision-making and managerial positions need to be intensified;

- The efforts which have been made to reduce the gender pay gap should be continued, in cooperation with all concerned. Particular attention should be given to the low level of wages in professions and sectors which tend to be dominated by women and to the reasons which lead to reduced earnings in professions and sectors in which women become more prominent;

- The development, implementation and monitoring of flexicurity policies[20] should take account of their different impacts on women and men and should avoid stressing the "flexibility" aspect for women and the "security" aspect for men;

- Policies and measures aimed at increasing employment among specific target groups, such as the young, older workers, the long-term unemployed, ethnic minorities, migrant workers or the disabled, should take account of the particular circumstances of men and women in each of these groups and the specific obstacles with which they are confronted.

3.2 Encouraging a better balance of private and family responsibilities between women and men

Numerous constraints restrict the free choice of individuals to reconcile their professional and private lives, for example, the lack of childcare services, financial factors, career setbacks, the risk of losing one's skills, the difficulties of returning to employment and the pressure to conform to stereotypes. Arrangements for leave should be reviewed in order to contribute to a better distribution of private and family responsibilities between men and women, thereby enhancing children's quality of life and well-being.

- It is important to ensure that parental leave is targeted at both men and women and is, in particular, individual (non-transferable) and financially attractive, that it can be taken over several periods, and that its duration is not a barrier to returning to work;

- Given the EU's ageing population, it is crucial to continue the development of accessible and affordable care services for dependants. Consideration could also be given to creating "filial leave", encouraging both men and women to care for elderly parents;

- It is opportune to promote paternity leave which makes it possible to involve fathers in domestic and family responsibilities from the day their children are born;

- The fight against stereotypes should be intensified at all levels by all parties involved and should be aimed, in particular, at men and companies;

- It is important to maintain the employability of employees who take on parental leave by means of support measures during and after their leave. This includes measures to ensure that employees maintain their skills and have access to training and a guarantee of continued career advancement;

- Companies, particularly SMEs, should be given help in making it easier for their employees to reconcile their professional, private and family lives.

3.3 Ensuring that policies on gender equality have the full support of cohesion and rural development policies

2007 is the first year of the new programming period for cohesion and rural development policies. The policies have been redesigned so as to contribute more fully to the Lisbon objectives and thus promote economic growth, productivity, and job creation. The Funds' potential as a catalyst for policies on equality between women and men needs to be exploited to the full.

- Member States should ensure the promotion of equality between women and men, and integration of the gender aspect at each stage of the use of the Funds, particularly by means of partnerships with bodies responsible for promoting equality between women and men[21];

- The programming documents of the Funds should promote and implement the twin-track approach to equality policy by means of specific measures aimed at promoting equality and by taking careful account of how other projects and the management of the Funds may affect men and women[22];

- Funds should contribute to improving access to employment, increasing women's participation in employment and career advancement, supporting the attainment of the objectives on childcare and other care structures and facilitating access to them[23]. Funds should also support female entrepreneurship, inter alia by means of services to businesses and access to finance[24];

- Actions to disseminate and exchange good practices, and public awareness campaigns on gender equality should be promoted, and the dialogue between stakeholders should be strengthened[25].

3.4 Ensuring effective implementation of the legislative framework

The 'acquis communautaire' relating to gender equality has made a significant contribution to the progress achieved over the last 50 years and continues to be developed and updated in order to make it clearer and more effective. It is nevertheless important to guarantee effective implementation of the legislation which goes beyond mere transposition of the 'acquis'. It is the task of the national actors to actively support full implementation of this legislation.

- It is important to take measures aimed at increasing the capacities of those involved in the legal system, particularly judges and lawyers, in terms of gender equality, in order that they have the training and technical assistance necessary to deal with gender equality issues in their work;

- The Member States and the social partners should actively support effective implementation of the legislation on the equal treatment of women and men and create the conditions which facilitate its enforcement;

- Organisations involved in the promotion of equality provided for in Directive 2002/73[26] can play an active role in the implementation of legislation. They should be supported by guaranteeing them the necessary financial and human resources and by ensuring that they possess the competences listed in the Directive.

4. Conclusions

Building on this report and in line with the priorities set out in the Roadmap and the European Pact for equality between women and men, the European Council is invited to urge the Member States to urgently take up the challenges described above, in cooperation with the various stakeholders. Particular emphasis will need to be placed on:

- taking all possible steps to eliminate the gender pay gap;

- strengthening gender mainstreaming in the implementation of employment policies;

- continuing the efforts aimed at allowing men and women to reconcile their professional, private and family lives, and supporting the social partners in implementing measures in that area;

- adopting an approach to issues of demographic change which takes account of and supports gender equality;

- making full use of the potential offered by the Cohesion and Rural Development Policy to support the promotion of equality between women and men through programmes cofinanced by the Funds;

- acting promptly to transpose Directives 2006/54/EC on the equal treatment of men and women (recast) and 2004/113/EC on the equal treatment of women and men in the access to and supply of goods and services.

ANNEX

This statistical annex provides an overview of the situation of women and men in the EU, its evolution over time and remaining gender gaps in different fields such as the labour market, education, presence in decision making positions and social inclusion. Indicators have been chosen according to their relevance in covering aspects of the lives of women and men and the availability of comparable and reliable data. These indicators were already presented in the previous reports in order to facilitate the follow-up from one year to another.

Employment rates

Over the last few years, progress has been achieved towards the Lisbon target of reaching an employment rate for women of 60% by 2010. Female employment rate has risen from 53.6% in 2000 to 56.3% in 2005 whereas over the same period male employment rate has remained stable (from 71.2% to 71.3%). As a result, the gap between women's and men's employment rates decreased from 17.6 percentage points (p.p.) in 2000 to 15 p.p. in 2005. At national level, significant differences exist across the EU, with an employment rate gap below 10 p.p. in Finland, Sweden, Denmark, the Baltic countries, Bulgaria and Slovenia but exceeding 20 p.p. in Cyprus, Spain, Italy, Greece and Malta. The gap between female and male employment rates remains much higher amongst older workers (55 to 64 years) at 18.1 p.p. in 2005, down from 20 p.p. in 2000. This reduction was due to a strong rise in the employment rate of older female workers, from 26.9% in 2000 to 33.7% in 2005.

Unemployment rates

The positive evolution of female employment was reflected in unemployment figures, as the gap between women's and men's unemployment rates narrowed from 2.8 p.p. in 2000 to 2.0 p.p. in 2005. This decrease occurred notably in countries where the gap was the highest in 2000 (Spain, Italy, Cyprus, Germany, France and Poland). Nevertheless women were still more likely to be unemployed than men as the unemployment rate was 9.9% among women in 2005 whereas it was 7.9% among men.

Part-time work

Women's participation in the labour market is still largely characterised by a high share of part-time work. In 2006, the share of women employees working part-time was 32.9% in the EU while the corresponding figure for men was 7.7%. The share of female part-timers exceeded 30% in France, Denmark and Luxembourg, 40% in Sweden, Austria, Belgium, United Kingdom and Germany and even reached 75% in the Netherlands. Conversely, the share of part-timers among female workers was very low in Bulgaria, Slovakia, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Latvia.

Reconciliation of professional , private and family life

Women's participation to employment is affected by their predominant role in the care of children and other dependant persons, such as elderly or disabled persons. The difficulties faced by women in reconciling their professional and private life are evidenced by the strong impact of parenthood on employment rates. Participation in employment and the amount of time worked by women between 20 and 49 years are closely linked to the number and age of their children, which is less the case for men. In 2005, the employment rate for women aged 20-49 was 61.1% when they had children under 12, compared with 76% when they did not. For men with children under 12, however, the employment rate was higher (91.5%) than for those without children (85.6%).

Education and research

In most Member States, more women than men reach a high level of education. However, once graduated, the presence of women clearly decreases at each step of the typical academic career. Indeed, women are more numerous and more successful than men at first degree level (59% of ISCED5a graduates), but their share decreases amongst PhDs (43% of ISCED6 graduates), and reaches a minimum amongst full professors (15% of Grade A full professors). Moreover, study fields continue to be greatly segmented with a low presence of women in engineering or science and technology and a high one in health, education or the humanities.

Segregation

The choice of study fields certainly impacts on the gender segregation of the labour markets evidenced both for occupations and economic sectors. Estonia, Cyprus, Slovakia, Finland and Hungary face high segregation in occupations whilst sectoral segregation is the highest in Estonia, Slovakia, Lithuania, Ireland, Finland and Sweden. In consequence of segregated labour markets there is an under-representation of women in sectors crucial for economic development and usually well remunerated. For example, only 29% of scientists and engineers in the EU are women.

Decision-making

The average number of female members of national parliaments (single/lower houses) was 24% in 2006, just 1 p.p. above the 2004 level. This share exceeds 30% in Germany, Austria, Spain and Belgium and 40% in Finland, the Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden. However, it was below 15% in Greece, France, Slovenia, Ireland and Romania and did not exceed 10% in Malta and Hungary. Regarding decision-making in the economic sphere, women's share among managers in enterprises and administrations was 32% in 2005, just 1 p.p. above the 2000 level. This share exceeded 35% in Baltic countries and France while it was lower than 15% in Malta and Cyprus.

At risk of poverty rate for older people

The consequence of the disadvantaged position of women on the labour market was visible in the gender gap in poverty risk, especially among older persons (aged 65 and over). The share of people being at risk of poverty (having an income below the threshold set at 60% of the national median income) is significantly higher for women than for men in the EU (20% vs. 15%) in almost all Member States. The gap exceeds 10 p.p. in five countries: Romania, Bulgaria, Ireland, Slovenia and Estonia.

Average age of women at first child

The average age of women at child bearing is still increasing, reaching 28.3 years in 2004. It is under 25 years for Bulgaria, Romania and the Baltic countries but was the highest in Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and the United Kingdom.

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Employment rates (women and men aged 15-64) in EU Member States – 2000 and 2005

Women | Men | Gender gap |

2000 | 2005 | 2000 | 2005 | 2000 | 2005 |

EU (25 countries) | 53.6 | 56.3 | 71.2 | 71.3 | 17.6 | 15 |

Belgium | 51.5 | 53.8 | 69.5 | 68.3 | 18 | 14.5 |

Czech Republic | 56.9 | 56.3 | 73.2 | 73.3 | 16.3 | 17 |

Denmark | 71.6 | 71.9 | 80.8 | 79.8 | 9.2 | 7.9 |

Germany | 58.1 | 59.6 | 72.9 | 71.2 | 14.8 | 11.6 |

Estonia | 56.9 | 62.1 | 64.3 | 67 | 7.4 | 4.9 |

Greece | 41.7 | 46.1 | 71.5 | 74.2 | 29.8 | 28.1 |

Spain | 41.3 | 51.2 | 71.2 | 75.2 | 29.9 | 24 |

France | 55.2 | 57.6 | 69.2 | 68.8 | 14 | 11.2 |

Ireland | 53.9 | 58.3 | 76.3 | 76.9 | 22.4 | 18.6 |

Italy | 39.6 | 45.3 | 68 | 69.9 | 28.4 | 24.6 |

Cyprus | 53.5 | 58.4 | 78.7 | 79.2 | 25.2 | 20.8 |

Latvia | 53.8 | 59.3 | 61.5 | 67.6 | 7.7 | 8.3 |

Lithuania | 57.7 | 59.4 | 60.5 | 66.1 | 2.8 | 6.7 |

Luxembourg | 50.1 | 53.7 | 75 | 73.3 | 24.9 | 19.6 |

Hungary | 49.7 | 51 | 63.1 | 63.1 | 13.4 | 12.1 |

Malta | 33.1 | 33.7 | 75 | 73.8 | 41.9 | 40.1 |

Netherlands | 63.5 | 66.4 | 82.1 | 79.9 | 18.6 | 13.5 |

Austria | 59.6 | 62 | 77.3 | 75.4 | 17.7 | 13.4 |

Poland | 48.9 | 46.8 | 61.2 | 58.9 | 12.3 | 12.1 |

Portugal | 60.5 | 61.7 | 76.5 | 73.4 | 16 | 11.7 |

Slovenia | 58.4 | 61.3 | 67.2 | 70.4 | 8.8 | 9.1 |

Slovakia | 51.5 | 50.9 | 62.2 | 64.6 | 10.7 | 13.7 |

Finland | 64.2 | 66.5 | 70.1 | 70.3 | 5.9 | 3.8 |

Sweden | 70.9 | 70.4 | 75.1 | 74.4 | 4.2 | 4 |

United Kingdom | 64.7 | 65.9 | 77.8 | 77.6 | 13.1 | 11.7 |

Bulgaria | 46.3 | 51.7 | 54.7 | 60 | 8.4 | 8.3 |

Romania | 57.5 | 51.5 | 68.6 | 63.7 | 11.1 | 12.2 |

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages

Employment rates of older workers (women and men aged 55-64) in EU Member States – 2000 and 2005

Women | Men | Gender gap |

2000 | 2005 | 2000 | 2005 | 2000 | 2005 |

EU (25 countries) | 26.9 | 33.7 | 46.9 | 51.8 | 20 | 18.1 |

Belgium | 16.6 | 22.1 | 36.4 | 41.7 | 19.8 | 19.6 |

Czech Republic | 22.4 | 30.9 | 51.7 | 59.3 | 29.3 | 28.4 |

Denmark | 46.6 | 53.5 | 64.1 | 65.6 | 17.5 | 12.1 |

Germany | 29 | 37.5 | 46.4 | 53.5 | 17.4 | 16 |

Estonia | 39 | 53.7 | 55.9 | 59.3 | 16.9 | 5.6 |

Greece | 24.3 | 25.8 | 55.2 | 58.8 | 30.9 | 33 |

Spain | 20.2 | 27.4 | 54.9 | 59.7 | 34.7 | 32.3 |

France | 26.3 | 35.2 | 33.6 | 40.7 | 7.3 | 5.5 |

Ireland | 27.2 | 37.3 | 63.2 | 65.7 | 36 | 28.4 |

Italy | 15.3 | 20.8 | 40.9 | 42.7 | 25.6 | 21.9 |

Cyprus | 32.1 | 31.5 | 67.3 | 70.8 | 35.2 | 39.3 |

Latvia | 26.7 | 45.3 | 48.4 | 55.2 | 21.7 | 9.9 |

Lithuania | 32.6 | 41.7 | 50.6 | 59.1 | 18 | 17.4 |

Luxembourg | 16.4 | 24.9 | 37.2 | 38.3 | 20.8 | 13.4 |

Hungary | 13.3 | 26.7 | 33.2 | 40.6 | 19.9 | 13.9 |

Malta | 8.4 | 12.4 | 50.8 | 50.8 | 42.4 | 38.4 |

Netherlands | 26.1 | 35.2 | 50.2 | 56.9 | 24.1 | 21.7 |

Austria | 17.2 | 22.9 | 41.2 | 41.3 | 24 | 18.4 |

Poland | 21.4 | 19.7 | 36.7 | 35.9 | 15.3 | 16.2 |

Portugal | 40.6 | 43.7 | 62.1 | 58.1 | 21.5 | 14.4 |

Slovenia | 13.8 | 18.5 | 32.3 | 43.1 | 18.5 | 24.6 |

Slovakia | 9.8 | 15.6 | 35.4 | 47.8 | 25.6 | 32.2 |

Finland | 40.4 | 52.7 | 42.9 | 52.8 | 2.5 | 0.1 |

Sweden | 62.1 | 66.7 | 67.8 | 72 | 5.7 | 5.3 |

United Kingdom | 41.7 | 48.1 | 60.1 | 66 | 18.4 | 17.9 |

Bulgaria | 10.3 | 25.5 | 33.2 | 45.5 | 22.9 | 20 |

Romania | 43.8 | 33.1 | 56 | 46.7 | 12.2 | 13.6 |

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages

Unemployment rates (women and men aged 15 and over) in EU Member States – 2000 and 2005

In this table, the gender gap is calculated as women's unemployment rate minus men's unemployment rate

Women | Men | Gender gap |

2000 | 2005 | 2000 | 2005 | 2000 | 2005 |

EU (25 countries) | 10.2 | 9.9 | 7.4 | 7.9 | 2.8 | 2 |

Belgium | 8.5 | 9.5 | 5.6 | 7.6 | 2.9 | 1.9 |

Czech Republic | 10.3 | 9.8 | 7.3 | 6.5 | 3 | 3.3 |

Denmark | 4.8 | 5.3 | 3.9 | 4.4 | 0.9 | 0.9 |

Germany | 8.7 | 10.3 | 6 | 8.9 | 2.7 | 1.4 |

Estonia | 11.8 | 7.1 | 13.8 | 8.8 | -2 | -1.7 |

Greece | 17.2 | 15.3 | 7.5 | 6.1 | 9.7 | 9.2 |

Spain | 16 | 12.2 | 7.9 | 7 | 8.1 | 5.2 |

France | 10.9 | 10.9 | 7.6 | 9 | 3.3 | 1.9 |

Ireland | 4.2 | 4 | 4.3 | 4.6 | -0.1 | -0.6 |

Italy | 13.6 | 10.1 | 7.8 | 6.2 | 5.8 | 3.9 |

Cyprus | 7.2 | 6.5 | 3.2 | 4.3 | 4 | 2.2 |

Latvia | 12.9 | 8.7 | 14.4 | 9.1 | -1.5 | -0.4 |

Lithuania | 14.1 | 8.3 | 18.6 | 8.2 | -4.5 | 0.1 |

Luxembourg | 3.1 | 5.9 | 1.8 | 3.5 | 1.3 | 2.4 |

Hungary | 5.6 | 7.4 | 7 | 7 | -1.4 | 0.4 |

Malta | 7.4 | 9 | 6.4 | 6.5 | 1 | 2.5 |

Netherlands | 3.6 | 5.1 | 2.2 | 4.4 | 1.4 | 0.7 |

Austria | 4.3 | 5.5 | 3.1 | 4.9 | 1.2 | 0.6 |

Poland | 18.1 | 19.1 | 14.4 | 16.6 | 3.7 | 2.5 |

Portugal | 4.9 | 8.7 | 3.2 | 6.7 | 1.7 | 2 |

Slovenia | 7 | 7 | 6.5 | 6.1 | 0.5 | 0.9 |

Slovakia | 18.6 | 17.2 | 18.9 | 15.5 | -0.3 | 1.7 |

Finland | 10.6 | 8.6 | 9.1 | 8.2 | 1.5 | 0.4 |

Sweden | 5.3 | 7.7 | 5.9 | 7.9 | -0.6 | -0.2 |

United Kingdom | 4.8 | 4.3 | 5.8 | 5.1 | -1 | -0.8 |

Bulgaria | 16.2 | 9.8 | 16.7 | 10.3 | -0.5 | -0.5 |

Romania | 6.3 | 7.6 | 7.2 | 8.3 | -0.9 | -0.7 |

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages

Share of part-time workers in total employment, in EU Member States - 2001 and 2006

Women | Men |

2001 | 2006 | 2001 | 2006 |

EU (25 countries) | 29.8 | 32.9 | 6.2 | 7.7 |

Belgium | 36.8 | 42.6 | 5.2 | 7.9 |

Czech Republic | 8.6 | 8.7 | 2.2 | 2.3 |

Denmark | 31.6 | 35.9 | 10.2 | 12.8 |

Germany | 39.3 | 45.8 | 5.3 | 9.3 |

Estonia | 10.4 | 11.6 | 4.7 | 4.6 |

Greece | 7.2 | 10.4 | 2.3 | 3 |

Spain | 17.3 | 23.5 | 2.8 | 4.5 |

France | 30.4 | 30.7 | 5.0 | 5.8 |

Ireland | 31.3 | : | 6.5 | : |

Italy | 17.8 | 26.7 | 3.8 | 4.7 |

Cyprus | 12.9 | 12 | 5 | 4.6 |

Latvia | 12.1 | 8.7 | 7.9 | 4.6 |

Lithuania | 10 | 11.8 | 7.6 | 6.5 |

Luxembourg | 25.6 | 38.2 | 1.8 | 2.5 |

Hungary | 5.1 | 5.7 | 2 | 2.8 |

Malta | 17.1 | 21.8 | 3.7 | 4.5 |

Netherlands | 71.3 | 74.7 | 20 | 23.2 |

Austria | 33.6 | 40.7 | 4.3 | 6.5 |

Poland | 12.6 | 13.5 | 8.2 | 7.1 |

Portugal | 16.7 | 15.9 | 6.9 | 7.5 |

Slovenia | 7.4 | 11.8 | 5 | 7.8 |

Slovakia | 3.8 | 4.8 | 1.2 | 1.2 |

Finland | 16.7 | 18.2 | 7.6 | 9.2 |

Sweden | 32.7 | 40.3 | 10.8 | 11.7 |

United Kingdom | 44.3 | 42.6 | 9 | 10.6 |

Bulgaria | 3.9 | 2.7 | 3.1 | 1.6 |

Romania | 19.1 | 10.2 | 14.7 | 9.3 |

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS) - Spring results

Pay gap between women and men in unadjusted form in EU Member States - 2005 (Difference between men’s and women’s average gross hourly earnings as a percentage of men’s average gross hourly earnings)

2005 (1) |

EU (25 countries) | 15 |

Belgium | 6 |

Czech Republic | 19 |

Denmark | 17 |

Germany | 22 |

Estonia | 24 |

Greece | 9 |

Spain | 13 |

France | 12 |

Ireland | 11 |

Italy | 7 |

Cyprus | 25 |

Latvia | 17 |

Lithuania | 15 |

Luxembourg | 14 |

Hungary | 11 |

Malta | 4 |

Netherlands | 18 |

Austria | 18 |

Poland | 10 |

Portugal | 5 |

Slovenia | 8 |

Slovakia | 24 |

Finland | 19 |

Sweden | 16 |

United Kingdom | 20 |

Bulgaria | 16 |

Romania | 13 |

Source: Eurostat. Administrative data are used for LU, Labour Force Survey for FR and MT. Provisional results of EU-SILC (Statistics on Income and Living Conditions) are used for BE, EL, ES, IE, IT, AT, PT, and UK. All other sources are national surveys. SI: Provisional results.

Exception to the reference year: (1) 2004: BE, DK, EE, FI, IE, IT, PT

NB: EU25 estimates are population weighted-averages of the latest available values.

Educational attainment (at least upper secondary school) of women and men aged 20 - 24, in EU Member States – 2005

Women | Men |

EU (25 countries) | 80.3 | 74.7 |

Belgium | 85.3 | 78.4 |

Czech Republic | 91.1 | 91.3 |

Denmark | 80.5 | 73.8 |

Germany | 72.5 | 70.4 |

Estonia | 87.6 | 77.6 |

Greece | 88.5 | 79.7 |

Spain | 68.5 | 55.4 |

France | 85 | 80.1 |

Ireland | 88.9 | 82.6 |

Italy | 78.1 | 69.2 |

Cyprus | 89.1 | 71.1 |

Latvia | 85.2 | 74.7 |

Lithuania | 91.8 | 83.9 |

Luxembourg | 75.8 | 66.6 |

Hungary | 84.9 | 81.9 |

Malta | 57 | 50.5 |

Netherlands | 79.9 | 71.4 |

Austria | 87.3 | 84.6 |

Poland | 93.3 | 88.9 |

Portugal | 57.5 | 40.8 |

Slovenia | 93.2 | 88 |

Slovakia | 92.6 | 91 |

Finland | 85.7 | 81 |

Sweden | 88.7 | 86.4 |

United Kingdom | 78.9 | 77.4 |

Bulgaria | 77.1 | 75.9 |

Romania | 76.8 | 75.2 |

Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), annual averages.

NB: IE: Provisional value. Students living abroad for one year or more and conscripts on compulsory military service are not covered by the EU Labour Force Survey, which may imply lower rates than those available at national level. This is especially relevant for CY.

Members of single/lower houses of national parliaments in EU Member States - Distribution by sex 2004 and 2006

2004 | 2006 |

Women | Men | Women | Men |

EU (25 countries) | 23 | 77 | 24 | 76 |

Belgium | 33 | 67 | 36 | 64 |

Czech Republic | 15 | 85 | 16 | 84 |

Denmark | 38 | 62 | 39 | 61 |

Germany | 32 | 68 | 33 | 67 |

Estonia | 15 | 85 | 20 | 80 |

Greece | 13 | 87 | 13 | 87 |

Spain | 35 | 65 | 36 | 64 |

France | 13 | 87 | 13 | 87 |

Ireland | 12 | 88 | 12 | 88 |

Italy | 12 | 88 | 17 | 83 |

Cyprus | 9 | 91 | 16 | 84 |

Latvia | 17 | 83 | 21 | 79 |

Lithuania | 22 | 78 | 23 | 77 |

Luxembourg | 24 | 76 | 24 | 76 |

Hungary | 9 | 91 | 10 | 90 |

Malta | 9 | 91 | 9 | 91 |

Netherlands | 38 | 62 | 39 | 61 |

Austria | 36 | 64 | 33 | 67 |

Poland | 21 | 79 | 19 | 81 |

Portugal | 20 | 80 | 25 | 75 |

Slovenia | 13 | 87 | 13 | 87 |

Slovakia | 17 | 83 | 21 | 79 |

Finland | 40 | 60 | 38 | 62 |

Sweden | 48 | 52 | 48 | 52 |

United Kingdom | 18 | 82 | 20 | 80 |

Bulgaria | : | : | 21 | 79 |

Romania | : | : | 11 | 89 |

Source: European Commission, Employment, Social affairs and Equal opportunities DG, Database on Women and Men in Decision making. NB: The indicator has been developed within the framework of the follow-up of the Beijing Platform for Action in the EU Council of Ministers.

Data for 2004 are not available for BG and RO.

Distribution of managers by sex in EU Member States – 2000 and 2005

2000 | 2005 |

Women | Men | Women | Men |

EU (25 countries) | 30.6 | 69.4 | 32.2 | 67.8 |

Belgium | 32.2 | 67.8 | 32.9 | 67.1 |

Czech Republic | 24.1 | 75.9 | 30.3 | 69.7 |

Denmark | 24.0 | 76.0 | 23.0 | 77.0 |

Germany | 27.1 | 72.9 | 26.3 | 73.7 |

Estonia | 39.8 | 60.2 | 37.5 | 62.5 |

Greece | 25.1 | 74.9 | 25.8 | 74.2 |

Spain | 31.7 | 68.3 | 32.3 | 67.7 |

France | 35.0 | 65.0 | 38.0 | 62.0 |

Ireland | 26.1 | 73.9 | 30.2 | 69.8 |

Italy | 17.3 | 82.7 | 31.9 | 68.1 |

Cyprus | 15.0 | 85.0 | 13.6 | 86.4 |

Latvia | 37.3 | 62.7 | 44.3 | 55.7 |

Lithuania | 43.1 | 56.9 | 42.7 | 57.3 |

Luxembourg | 27.1 | 72.9 | 23.8 | 76.2 |

Hungary | 33.1 | 66.9 | 34.3 | 65.7 |

Malta | 17.7 | 82.3 | 14.5 | 85.5 |

Netherlands | 25.3 | 74.7 | 25.6 | 74.4 |

Austria | 30.3 | 69.7 | 27.0 | 73.0 |

Poland | 32.7 | 67.3 | 32.5 | 67.5 |

Portugal | 31.3 | 68.7 | 34.2 | 65.8 |

Slovenia | 29.1 | 70.9 | 32.8 | 67.2 |

Slovakia | 30.8 | 69.2 | 31.2 | 68.8 |

Finland | 25.9 | 74.1 | 29.7 | 70.3 |

Sweden | 30.1 | 69.9 | 29.8 | 70.2 |

United Kingdom | 34.1 | 65.9 | 34.5 | 65.5 |

Bulgaria | 30.0 | 70.0 | 34.3 | 65.7 |

Romania | : | : | 30.7 | 69.3 |

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS), spring data

NB: Managers are persons classified in ISCO 12 and 13.

CY, MT: data lack reliability due to the small sample size. IT: change in data collection method.

Gender segregation in occupations and in economic sectors in EU Member States, in 2001 and 2005

Gender segregation in occupations | Gender segregation in economic sectors |

2001 | 2005 | 2001 | 2005 |

Belgium | 26.1 | 26.2 | 18.1 | 18.1 |

Czech Republic | 29.2 | 28.4 | 18.9 | 19.1 |

Denmark | 28.1 | 26.9 | 19 | 18.7 |

Germany | 27 | 26.5 | 18.2 | 18.2 |

Estonia | 32.4 | 30.8 | 24.4 | 23.7 |

Greece | 21.5 | 22.5 | 15.4 | 15.9 |

Spain | 24.9 | 26.6 | 19.3 | 20.4 |

France | 26.6 | 26.3 | 17.4 | 17.6 |

Ireland | 26.7 | 27.2 | 20.7 | 22.4 |

Italy | 21.9 | 23.9 | 15.2 | 17.9 |

Cyprus | 29.5 | 30.6 | 17.5 | 20.9 |

Latvia | 29.7 | 27.1 | 21 | 21 |

Lithuania | 28.4 | 27.4 | 20.8 | 22.4 |

Luxembourg | 26.8 | 26.4 | 19.6 | 17.4 |

Hungary | 28.3 | 28.4 | 19.3 | 19.8 |

Malta | 17.2 | 24.3 | 15.2 | 15.2 |

Netherlands | 25 | 26.2 | 18.1 | 17.5 |

Austria | 27.2 | 26 | 20.3 | 18.3 |

Poland | 25.6 | 25.5 | 13.9 | 19 |

Portugal | 26.3 | 25.9 | 21.2 | 20.5 |

Slovenia | 26.8 | 27.6 | 17.4 | 18.3 |

Slovakia | 31.2 | 29.5 | 22.8 | 22.4 |

Finland | 29.6 | 28.9 | 21.9 | 22.2 |

Sweden | 28 | 27.4 | 21.2 | 21.6 |

United Kingdom | 26.8 | 25.9 | 18.8 | 18.5 |

Bulgaria | 27.0 | 27.8 | 17.5 | 19.2 |

Romania | : | 22.3 | 13.8 | 15.0 |

Eurostat, Labour Force Survey (LFS) – Spring data

Gender segregation in sectors is calculated as the average national share of employment for women and men applied to each sector; differences are added up to produce the total amount of gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of total employment (NACE classification).

Gender segregation in occupations is calculated as the average national share of employment for women and men applied to each occupation; differences are added up to produce the total amount of gender imbalance expressed as a proportion of total employment (ISCO classification).

Employment rates of women and men (aged 25-49), depending on whether they have children (under 12) – 2005

Without children | With children | Difference |

Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men |

EU (25 countries) | 76 | 85.6 | 61.1 | 91.5 | -14.9 | 5.9 |

Belgium | 76.2 | 87.2 | 70.1 | 92.4 | -6.1 | 5.2 |

Czech Republic | 86.5 | 90.5 | 54.4 | 94 | -32.1 | 3.5 |

Germany | 78.9 | 82.3 | 55.7 | 89.2 | -23.2 | 6.9 |

Estonia | 87.8 | 82.8 | 59.4 | 91.4 | -28.4 | 8.6 |

Greece | 58.7 | 85.4 | 55.9 | 96.1 | -2.8 | 10.7 |

Spain | 66.5 | 89.7 | 56.5 | 93 | -10 | 3.3 |

France | 77.3 | 84.7 | 66.9 | 91.4 | -10.4 | 6.7 |

Italy | 64.7 | 90.6 | 53.4 | 93.8 | -11.3 | 3.2 |

Cyprus | 73.9 | 90.4 | 67.6 | 96.1 | -6.3 | 5.7 |

Latvia | 80.9 | 83 | 65.1 | 90.2 | -15.8 | 7.2 |

Lithuania | 83.9 | 87 | 77.3 | 90.4 | -6.6 | 3.4 |

Luxembourg | 76.6 | 93.7 | 63.7 | 97.2 | -12.9 | 3.5 |

Hungary | 78.9 | 82.7 | 48.5 | 86.2 | -30.4 | 3.5 |

Malta | 36.9 | 88.9 | 28 | 93.1 | -8.9 | 4.2 |

Netherlands | 81.5 | 88.1 | 71.3 | 94.1 | -10.2 | 6 |

Austria | 83.2 | 88.8 | 68.4 | 93.7 | -14.8 | 4.9 |

Poland | 71.5 | 80.4 | 60.5 | 87.2 | -11 | 6.8 |

Portugal | 77.3 | 90.6 | 76.6 | 94.5 | -0.7 | 3.9 |

Slovenia | 82.7 | 87.1 | 84.5 | 94.3 | 1.8 | 7.2 |

Slovakia | 79.6 | 85.4 | 55.7 | 87.7 | -23.9 | 2.3 |

Finland | 79.4 | 78.8 | 70 | 91.8 | -9.4 | 13 |

United Kingdom | 83.2 | 87.2 | 63.3 | 91.2 | -19.9 | 4 |

Bulgaria | 75.1 | 77.1 | 61.4 | 81.5 | -13.7 | 4.4 |

Romania | 70.4 | 83.1 | 64.6 | 86.2 | -5.8 | 3.1 |

Source : Eurostat, European Labour Force Survey, annual averages.

Notes: No data for DK, IE and SE.

At-risk-of-poverty rate after social transfers for older people (women and men aged 65 years and over) in EU Member States – 2003

Women | Men |

EU (25 countries) | 20 | 15 |

Belgium | 21 | 20 |

Denmark | 18 | 16 |

Germany | 18 | 10 |

Estonia | 22 | 7 |

Greece | 30 | 26 |

Spain | 32 | 27 |

France | 17 | 14 |

Ireland | 45 | 34 |

Italy | 18 | 13 |

Cyprus | 55 | 48 |

Latvia | 17 | 7 |

Lithuania | 15 | 5 |

Luxembourg | 6 | 6 |

Hungary | 12 | 6 |

Netherlands | 7 | 6 |

Austria | 20 | 13 |

Poland | 7 | 4 |

Portugal | 30 | 29 |

Slovenia | 23 | 11 |

Slovakia | 11 | 11 |

Finland | 20 | 11 |

Sweden | 18 | 9 |

United Kingdom | 27 | 21 |

Source: Eurostat. SILC and national sources.

NB: 1) At risk of poverty rate for elderly persons: The share of persons aged 65+ with an income below the risk-of-poverty threshold, which is set at 60% of the national median income. Income must be understood as equivalised disposable income (sum from all sources, adjusted for household size and composition). Gender breakdown is based on assumption of equal sharing of resources within household. It should be noted that the data is drawn from the reference European source (EU-SILC) where available, but that during the transition to data collection under the EU-SILC regulations, ex post harmonised national sources are still used for around half of the countries. In consequence, whilst every effort has been made, for this reason indicators cannot be considered to be fully comparable

EU aggregates are computed as population weighted averages of available national values. Data is presented for income reference year 2003. No data is available for CZ or MT for this reference year. NL and SK : provisional values.

Average age of women at birth of first child - 2000 and 2004

2000 | 2004 |

EU (25 countries) | 27.7 | 28.3 |

Czech Republic | 25.0 | 26.3 |

Denmark | 27.7 | 28.4 |

Germany | 28.2 | 28.8 |

Estonia | 24.0 | 24.8 |

Greece | 28.0 | 28.0 |

Spain | 29.1 | 29.2 |

France | 27.9 | 28.4 |

Ireland | 27.6 | 28.0 |

Cyprus | 26.2 | 27.2 |

Latvia | 24.4 | 24.7 |

Lithuania | 23.9 | 24.8 |

Luxembourg | 28.4 | 28.7 |

Hungary | 25.1 | 26.3 |

Netherlands | 28.6 | 28.9 |

Austria | 26.4 | 27.0 |

Poland | 24.5 | 25.5 |

Portugal | 26.5 | 27.1 |

Slovenia | 26.5 | 27.5 |

Slovakia | 24.2 | 25.3 |

Finland | 27.4 | 27.8 |

Sweden | 27.9 | 28.6 |

United Kingdom | 29.1 | 29.7 |

Bulgaria | 23.5 | 24.4 |

Romania | 23.6 | 24.5 |

Source: Eurostat, Demography statistics.

NB: No data available for BE, IT and MT for both years. UK: Scotland and Northern Ireland not included

For DE, LU, UK and BG: birth order of current marriage: the comparability with other countries is limited.

Exceptions to the reference years:

(1) DE, EE, EL and ES: 2003.

[1] COM (2006) 92 final.

[2] Conclusions of the Presidency, 7775/1/06/Rev 1.

[3] Providing childcare services for 33% of children up to the age of three and 90% of children aged between three and the compulsory schooling age by 2010.

[4] COM (2006) 571 final.

[5] SEC (2006) 1245.

[6] Directives 92/85/EEC and 96/34/EC.

[7] Directive 2006/54/EC.

[8] Directive 2002/73/EC.

[9] Regulation (EC) No 1922/2006.

[10] In particular, Regulations (EC) 1081/2006 and 1083/2006.

[11] Council Decision 2006/702/EC.

[12] Article 16 of Regulation (EC) 1083/2006.

[13] Article 8 of Regulation (EC) 1698/2005.

[14] Council Decision No. 1672/2006/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 2006.

[15] On the basis of Council Document 6801/06 of 27.02.2006.

[16] COM (2006) 437 final.

[17] According to projections by the European Commission, the rate of female employment will continue to increase, reaching 65% in 2025, at which point it will stabilise. See http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/european_economy/2006/eesp106en.pdf

[18] Relative difference in average gross hourly remuneration between men and women.

[19] The vast majority of single parents being women.

[20] Policies aimed both at making the labour market more flexible and at strengthening job security.

[21] Articles 11 and 16 of Council Regulation (EC) 1083/2006 and Articles 6 and 8 of Council Regulation (EC) 1698/2005.

[22] Point 1 of the Community strategic guidelines.

[23] Point 1.3.1 of the Community strategic guidelines.

[24] Point 1.2.4 of the Community strategic guidelines.

[25] Point 1.3.1 of the Community strategic guidelines.

[26] Article 8a of Directive 2002/73/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 September 2002.