Number 20

The

EDITION

WHAT’S INSIDE

8 Cave Conundrum

22 Tropic Topic

34 The Whole Kit ’n’ Kaboodle

46 A Tale of Two Caves
Natural Inquirer

Caves & Karst Edition • Number 20 • Spring 2020

Produced by

Forest Service, an agency of the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Cradle of Forestry in America 

Interpretive Association

Production Staff

Babs McDonald, Forest Service

Jessica Nickelsen, Cradle of 

Forestry in America Interpretive 

Association

Brian Cooke, Cradle of Forestry in 

America Interpretive Association

Michelle Andrews, University of 

Georgia

Rebecca Parsons, University of 

Georgia

Stephanie Pfeiffer, SMP 

Illustration

Carey Burda, Cartographer

USDA Forest Service 

Scientists Highlighted in 

the Journal

Sybill Amelon, Northern 

Research Station

Joel Despain, Mendocino 

National Forest

Ariel Lugo, International 

Institute of Tropical Forestry

Collaborating Scientists 

Elvira Cuevas, University of 

Puerto Rico

Thomas Ingersoll, National 

Institute of Mathematical and 

Biological Synthesis

Ernesto Medina, University of 

Puerto Rico

Madonna Moss, University of 

Oregon

Brent Sewall, Temple University

Greg Stock, National Park Service

Benjamin Tobin, National Park 

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Victoria Christiansen, Chief

Alex L. Friend, Deputy Chief, 

Research and Development

Patricia Hirami, Acting Deputy 

Chief, State and Private 

Forestry

Wendy Zirngibl, Acting 

Staff Director, Knowledge 

Management and 

Communications

Johanna Kovarik, National 

Cave and Karst Program 

Lead, Minerals and Geology 

Management

Tinelle Bustam, Acting Director, 

Conservation Education

Tony Ferguson, Station Director, 

Northern Research Station

Randy Moore, Regional Forester, 

Pacific Southwest Region

Ariel Lugo, Director, International 

Institute of Tropical Forestry

Cradle of Forestry in 

America Interpretive 

Association

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Education

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Natural Inquirer is reproduced 

on recycled paper with soybased inks.

Please pass this journal along 

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1

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Contents

Editorial Review Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

About Natural Inquirer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Who Are Scientists? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Welcome to the Caves & Karst Edition of Natural Inquirer! . . . . . .4

Features

Cave Conundrum: Is White-Nose Syndrome 

 Responsible For All Declining Bat Populations? . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Tropic Topic: What Is Known About 

 the Limestone Zone? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

The Whole Kit and Kaboodle: Exploring 

 the Relationship Between Land Otters, 

 Tlingit People, and Kit’n’Kaboodle Cave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

A Tale of Two Caves: How Is Hurricane Crawl 

 Cave Different From Crystal Cave? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Caves and Karst Crossword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Caves and Karst eyeChallenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

National Education Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

What Is the Forest Service? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

What Is the Cradle of Forestry in 

 America Interpretive Association? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Editorial Review Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Back Cover

Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Back Cover

Join us in being green! The following Educator 

Resources are now available exclusively on 

the Natural Inquirer website at http://www.

naturalinquirer.org. 

These resources can be found with the “Caves and 

Karst” journal and on the “For Educators” pages:

• Note to Educators

• Lesson Plan

•	 Reflection Section Answer Guides

• National Education Standards 

8

Photo courtesy of Pete Pattavina, U .S . Fish and 

Wildlife	Service,	via	https://www.flickr.com/.

22

Photo courtesy of Ernesto Medina, University of 

Puerto Rico .

34

Photo courtesy of stephanjezek, istockphoto .com .

46

Photo courtesy of Dave Bunnell, Under Earth 

Images .
2

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Editorial Review Board

Natural Inquirer editorial review boards hard at work.

Editorial Review Board Comments

Mrs. Anna Moates - 8th Grade English/Language Arts Class, World Language Academy, Georgia

I believe you did a good job, but some of the pictures 

are a little dark.

The most important thing I learned is what a 

hydrologist is.

I learned that it is important for a scientist to have 

safety glasses etc in order for them to be safe.

I learned that karst covers about 20 percent of the 

earth’s surface.

I loved that you put reflection section but you could 

have put more fun facts. It makes the reader interested.

The most important thing I learned was WNS and 

how it affects bats.
3

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

About Natural Inquirer

Scientists report their research in journals, 

which are special booklets that enable 

scientists to share information with one 

another. This journal, Natural Inquirer, was created 

so that scientists can share their research with 

you and with other middle school students. This 

journal presents the research of scientists with 

USDA Forest Service and other cooperating 

organizations. The USDA Forest Service is an 

agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. If 

you want to know more about the USDA Forest 

Service, you can read about it on the inside back 

cover of this journal. Information is also available at 

http://www.fs.fed.us. 

All of the research in Natural Inquirer concerns 

nature, such as trees, forests, animals, insects, 

outdoor activities, and water. First, you will “Meet 

the Scientists” who conducted the research. Then, 

you will read something special about science and 

about the natural environment. You will also read 

about a specific research project, which is written 

in the format that scientists use when they publish 

their research in journals. Then, YOU will become 

the scientist when you conduct the FACTivity 

associated with each article. Don’t forget to look 

at the glossary and the special sections highlighted 

in each article. At the end of each section of the 

article, you will find a few questions to help you 

think about what you have read. Your teacher may 

use these questions in a class discussion.

Be sure to try the Caves and Karst Crossword 

and eyeChallenge on pages 59 and 60!

Who Are Scientists?

Photo courtesy of 

Janice Reid, 

USDA Forest Service

Photo courtesy of 

Cassandra Johnson 

Gaither, 

USDA Forest Service

Photo courtesy of 

Johnny Boggs, 

USDA Forest Service

Photo courtesy of 

Andrew Graves, 

USDA Forest Service

Photo courtesy of 

Sara McAllister, 

USDA Forest Service

Photo courtesy of 

Shyh-Chin Chen, 

USDA Forest Service

Scientists collect and evaluate 

information about a wide range 

of topics. Some scientists study 

the natural environment. To be 

a successful scientist, you must:

b Be curious—Are you interested in learning?

b Be enthusiastic—Are you excited about a 

particular topic?

b Be careful—Are you accurate in everything you do?

b Be open-minded—Are you willing to listen to new 

ideas?

b Question everything—Do you think about what 

you read and observe?

To learn more about your favorite scientists and their work, you can view and order scientist cards and 

print your own posters online at http://www.naturalinquirer.org.
4

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Welcome

to the Natural Inquirer Caves and Karst Edition! 

 Areas of Karst and features 

similar to karst

 Karst on Federal Lands

 Federal Lands

Figure 1. Map of karst features in the United 

States . Map courtesy of the National Cave and 

Karst Research Institute . 

You probably have heard about 

caves before, but you may not 

have heard of karst. So what 

does karst mean? Karst refers to a type 

of landscape or topography that is formed 

when rocks are dissolved by a weak acid. 

Over time, groundwater that is acidic 

wears away rock and creates tunnels and 

open spaces. Approximately 20-25 percent 

of the United States is karst landscapes 

(figure 1). Karst landscapes usually have 

sinkholes, caves, streams that seem to 

disappear or sink, and springs (figures 2-5).

Figure 2. A sinkhole is a hole or depression in 

the landscape that is created when layers of 

dirt and soil are washed down into the cracks

and crevices in a karst landscape . Illustration by 

Stephanie Pfeiffer .
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Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Figure 3.	A	sinkhole	on	a	flat	plain	in	Grand	

Canyon-Parashant National Monument . Photo 

courtesy of National Park Service, via https://

www.flickr.com.	

Figure 5. A karst spring on the Ozark-St . Francis 

National Forest in Arkansas . Photo courtesy of 

Dave Bunnell, Under Earth Images . 

Figure 4. A karst spring in Utah . Photo courtesy 

of Dale L . Pate, National Park Service, via https://

www.flickr.com.

Karst landscapes vary in size from very 

large to very small areas. Additionally, some 

karst cannot be seen easily because it is buried 

beneath other kinds of rocks or deep layers 

of sediment or covered with vegetation. 

In the United States, a large amount of 

drinking water comes from karst aquifers—

approximately 40 percent! Aquifers are 

underground areas that hold water. Karst 

aquifers are areas of dissolvable rock that are 

water-bearing and can also absorb water. The 

largest karst aquifer in the United States is the 

Floridan aquifer, which extends from Florida 

into South Carolina (figure 6). 

Caves are found in karst landscapes, but 

also found in other areas. Generally, caves 

are defined as naturally occurring cavities or 
6

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

openings in the earth (figure 7). Scientists 

who study caves are called speleologists 

(spē lē ä lə jists). Caves are fascinating for 

multiple reasons. One reason caves are 

fascinating is because they are home to 

unique ecosystems. The lack of light and 

other extreme conditions result in interesting 

animal adaptations and rock formations. 

Caves are also fascinating because they 

often contain fossils. 

Some examples of animals that live in 

caves are Texas blind salamanders, cave fish, 

crayfish, tooth cave spiders, and bats (figure 

9). Some of these animals are endangered 

species and need extra protection. 

Bats that live in caves are facing a 

particularly difficult challenge with a fungus 

known as white-nose syndrome (WNS). 

You will learn about WNS in “Cave 

Conundrum.” In “Tropic Topic,” you will 

South Carolina

Alabama

Florida

Georgia

Mississippi

Figure 6. The Floridan Aquifer extends from 

Florida into South Carolina . It is one of the most 

productive aquifers in the world . A productive 

aquifer provides a large amount of freshwater . Map 

courtesy of Carey Burda and Stephanie Pfeiffer .

Figure 7. This cave has an opening high above the land below . This cave entrance has a beautiful 

view . Photo courtesy of Johanna Kovarik, USDA Forest Service . 
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Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Did You Know?

Did you know the world’s longest known cave is Mammoth Cave in Kentucky? 

The cave is over 400 miles of connected 

passageways! 

Figure 8. Visitors walk through the Main Cave, known as Broadway, in Mammoth Cave . Photo 

courtesy of National Park Service . 

learn about karst landscapes in tropical forest 

areas. Through reading “The Whole Kit and 

Kaboodle” you will gain an understanding 

about an Alaska Native Tribe and their unique 

connection to coastal cave areas. The final 

article, “A Tale of Two Caves,” will explore how 

caves develop and how caves near each other 

can develop differently. These articles represent 

just a few of the cool science topics that are 

studied in karst and cave areas.

Figure 9. Cave	crayfish	live	in	Mammoth	Cave,	

Kentucky . Photo courtesy of National Park 

Service . 
8

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Cave Conundrum: 

Is White-Nose Syndrome 

Responsible For All 

Declining Bat Populations?

Photo courtesy of Marvin Moriarty, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
9

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Meet the Scientist

 Sybill Amelon, Wildlife Ecologist:

My most exciting science experience was

discovering that even very small bats that

weigh only 10 grams (about one third of an

ounce) travel long distances every night.

We found some species will travel 30 or

more miles, one way, in their quest for food.

This includes mother bats that have to feed

themselves and return to their roost to feed

their young periodically through the night.

 Brent Sewall, Biologist: My favorite science

experience is discovering the secret worlds

of animals. Many animals, like bats, are hard

to find - they often are small, fly fast, move

around in the dark, vocalize in frequencies

beyond what we can hear, and hide in difficultto-reach places like caves. With research,

though, we can gain new insights into animals'

amazing abilities and how they live their lives.

Such insights inevitably lead to a greater

understanding and appreciation of the incredible

species with which we share the Earth.

What Kinds 

of Scientists 

Did This 

Research?

wildlife ecologist: This scientist studies 

the relationship of different kind of wildlife 

with each other and with their living and 

nonliving environment.

Biologist: This scientist studies living 

organisms and living systems.

Thinking 

About Science

Research questions in science often 

require a large amount of information to get 

an accurate answer. Sometimes, scientists 

discover that there is not enough information 

to get an accurate answer to a research 

question. To solve this problem, some 

scientists begin long-term research studies. 

For instance, scientists may want to 

know how drought affects pine tree growth. 

First, they would want to know how pine 

trees grow in both non-drought years and 

drought years. They would need many 

years’ worth of data to understand normal 
10

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Alaska

Puerto Rico

& the U.S. Virgin Islands

Experimental Forests

& Ranges

Legend

Alaska, Hawai’i, and Puerto Rico

are not drawn to scale.

Puerto

Rico

Hawai’i

Alaska

Hawai’i

Figure 1. Today, 80 experimental forests and ranges are spread across the United States . Map by 

Carey Burda and Stephanie Pfeiffer .

pine tree growth before determining how 

drought might change that growth.

In 1908, the Forest Service recognized the 

need for long-term research sites. The Forest 

Service established a system of Experimental 

Forests and Ranges (EFRs) (figure 1). 

At these sites, scientists regularly collect 

information about the rainfall, soil, plant and 

animal populations, and other environmental 

conditions of the area. By recording these 

data over many years, EFRs provide a broad 

range of information that can help scientists 

answer complex, long-term research questions. 

Similarly, in this research about white nose 

syndrome, scientists needed to gather research 

over a longer period of time.

Thinking About the 

Environment

White-nose syndrome (WNS) is a disease 

affecting hibernating bat populations. The 

disease is named for the white fungus that 

collects on the muzzle and other parts of 

infected bats (figure 2). 

The disease was first introduced in New York 

in winter of 2006. Since the time WNS was first 

introduced, the disease has spread to caves and 

Figure 2. Scientists can identify WNS on bats 

from the white fungus that develops on the 

bat’s nose and damaged skin on the bat’s 

body . Photo courtesy of Jonathan Mays, Maine 

Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife, via 

U .S . Fish and Wildlife Service .
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Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Figure 3. Since its introduction in New York in 2006, WNS has spread across the Eastern United 

States as well as other areas . Map courtesy of U .S . Fish and Wildlife Service, via https://www .

whitenosesyndrome .org .

mines across 33 States and 7 Canadian provinces. 

WNS has killed an estimated 6 million bats in the 

Eastern United States and Canada (figure 3). At 

some sites, 90 to 100 percent of bats have died 

from WNS infection.

Scientists are dedicated to understanding and 

combatting WNS because bats are important 

to the ecosystems in which they live. In some 

ecosystems, plants rely on bats to pollinate 

flowers or spread seeds. Bats, the only freeflying mammal, are also an important indicator 

species that signal changing conditions in an 

ecosystem. Some bat species are insectivores, 

and act as a natural method of pest control in 

their environment. 

Introduction

Hibernating bat populations across the 

Eastern United States have suffered declines 

since the 2000s. Little brown bat populations 

have declined 70 percent or more. Populations 

of the northern long-eared bat and tricolored 

bat have declined by 30 percent (figures 4, 5, 

and 6). The scientists studied these three bat 

species in their research.

The cause of bat population declines is often 

assumed to be WNS, a deadly disease caused 

by a fungal pathogen. Evidence suggests 

WNS is a serious threat to bat populations. 

However, research has not yet supported 

WNS as the only cause of bat population 

Number Crunches

 How many years has it been since 

WNS was first introduced in New 

York? 

 Write out 6 million in numeric form.
12

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Figure 4. The little brown bat is small, usually 

weighing less than half an ounce . Photo 

courtesy of Marvin Moriarty, U .S . Fish and 

Wildlife Service .

Figure 5. Northern long-eared bats are known 

for their especially long ears . Photo courtesy of 

U .S . Fish and Wildlife Service .

declines. Therefore, the scientists in this study 

asked: Is WNS the sole cause of these bat 

population declines, or is there something else 

causing bat populations to decline? 

The scientists hypothesized that if WNS is 

the sole cause of decline in bat populations, then 

the following conditions will be true:

X Only bat populations infected with WNS will 

experience declines;

X Declines in bat populations will happen later 

at caves farther from where WNS was 

discovered; and

X Bat populations will begin declining shortly 

after WNS infects a colony.

Figure 6. Tricolored bats, like the one pictured, 

rest in dead leaves or the needles of trees . 

Photo courtesy of Pete Pattavina, U .S . Fish and 

Wildlife	Service,	via	https://www.flickr.com/.

Reflection Section

 Diseases like WNS are one 

cause of decline in animal 

populations. What are some 

other things that might cause 

an animal’s population to decline? 

 WNS is caused by a fungus. What are 

some other types of fungi you know of? 

 How do you think WNS spreads 

between bats?
13

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Figure 7. Many species of bats hibernate throughout winter in caves, mines, and other cold, dark 

places . These sites are called hibernacula (hī bər na kyə lə). Photo courtesy of Keith Shannon, U .S . 

Fish	and	Wildlife	Service,	via	http://www.flickr.com.

Methods

To test their ideas, the scientists needed to 

know how bat populations have changed before 

and after WNS was introduced. They needed a 

large amount of information about bat populations 

over a period of many years to understand 

population trends. They used data collected by 

State wildlife agencies in New York, Pennsylvania, 

West Virginia, and Tennessee. These data 

were gathered during regular surveys of bat 

hibernacula during winter every 2 years between 

1999 and 2011 (figure 7). Biologists visited the 

same hibernacula to collect data on the location 

of caves, the number of bats, and presence or 

absence of WNS (figure 8)

Figure 8. During the surveys, biologists found 

WNS present in approximately 44-48 percent

of the routes they surveyed for all three species . 

Photo	courtesy	of	Gary	Peeples,	U.S.	Fish	and	

Wildlife	Service,	via	http://www.flickr.com.

Reflection Section

 Biologists collected the same data every 2 years. Why is it important to have routine 

methods in an experiment? 

 Why do you think the scientists used scientific models in this study instead of designing 

an experiment to do in the field or in a lab? 

 If the scientists’ models were different from the real trends in bat populations, what might that 

tell you about the relationship between bat population declines and WNS? 
14

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

The scientists graphed the population trends 

of each bat species in each State using the data. 

They also graphed the expected scenarios, or 

models. These models illustrated how the bat 

populations would change over time if all three 

of the hypothesized WNS conditions were 

present. By comparing the results of the models 

with the graphs of actual population trends, the 

scientists were able to evaluate whether the 

hypothesized conditions were true. 

How Do Scientists Detect WNS?

When scientists survey caves, they look for 

signs of WNS. Visible signs of WNS include skin 

damage, white fungus on the bats’ noses, and 

the number of dead bats in the cave. However, 

these visual methods are not always an accurate 

way to detect WNS. New research has found 

a way to detect a WNS infection using a certain 

range of light. Ultraviolet light, which is invisible 

to the human eye, makes the skin damage 

caused by WNS glow an orange-yellow color. 

A study showed this method was 98.8 percent 

effective at positively detecting WNS, and it 

provides a new, reliable way to identify WNS 

on bats. 

Source: “Black-Light Detects WhiteNose Syndrome in Bats,” by U.S. Geological 

Survey. For more information, visit 

https://www2.usgs.gov/envirohealth/cbp/

headlines/2014-09-11-uv_tool.html 

How Do Scientists Make Models? 

You probably have seen toy cars and 

airplanes that look just like the real thing, 

only smaller. These toys are actually models, 

or simplified representations of a larger 

item. Models are used frequently in our 

day-to-day lives to help people see and 

understand large objects, concepts, and 

processes.

Scientists also use models when a 

scientific research question is too big or too 

complicated to answer. In these situations, 

scientists may use scientific modeling. A 

scientific model uses data to represent 

complex scientific concepts in a simpler way. 

In the case of this study, the scientists used 

models to better understand how a disease, 

like WNS, affects bat populations. 

Models are useful tools for scientists, but 

they are only as good as the data that are 

put into them. The scientists in this study 

used data taken from four States across 11 

years. Using this quantity of data helped 

the scientists increase the likelihood that 

their model would give them an accurate 

representation of the bat populations they 

were studying. In the table below, the total 

numbers of surveys conducted, routes 

traveled, and individual bats counted are 

shown. The scientists used this information 

to build their model (table 1). 

Table 1. This table shows the set of data the 

scientists in this study used to make their model.

Number 

of Surveys 

Conducted

Number 

of Routes 

Traveled 

Number of 

Individual 

Bats

Little brown 

bat 577 145 982,974

Northern 

long-eared 

bat

460 109 5,206

Tricolored 

bat 576 145 68,148
15

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Findings

The scientists compared the modeled and real 

population patterns. The data showed all three 

of the bat species met at least one of the three 

hypothesized conditions. However, none of the 

species met all three conditions (table 2).

Results indicate that certain bat populations 

were declining before WNS was discovered 

in those populations. Other bat populations 

were experiencing a population increase that 

continued despite WNS infection.

Table 2. This table shows whether or not the modeled bat populations met the three hypothesized conditions.

Hypothesized Condition Little brown bat Northern long-eared bat Tricolored bat

1. Only bat populations infected 

with WNS will experience 

declines

No; Bat colonies with and 

without WNS experiences 

similar population changes

No; Bat colonies with and 

without WNS experiences 

similar population changes

Yes; Bat colonies with WNS 

declined more severely than 

bat colonies without WNS 

2. Declines in bat populations 

will happen later at caves 

farther from where WNS was 

discovered

No; Patterns varied greatly 

by region, though most areas 

experienced declines

Yes; Declines were slower 

and less severe further 

from the point of WNS 

introduction

No; Declines did not vary with 

distance from the point of 

WNS introduction

3. Bat populations will begin 

declining shortly after WNS 

infects a colony

Yes; Onset of bat population 

declines matched local 

detection of WNS within 1 

year 

No; Bat population declines 

began before local detection 

of WNS by 10+ years

No; Bat population declines 

began before local detection 

of WNS by 3-7 years

Reflection Section

 The results for two populations 

of northern long-eared bat 

showed little or no negative 

impact since WNS was detected 

in those areas. What do you 

think are some potential explanations 

for these results? 

 Think about the methods the scientists 

used to get these results. What are 

some potential sources of error that 

could affect the results? 

 What do you think it means that several 

of the populations were experiencing 

declines for years before WNS was 

discovered near them? 
16

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Discussion

The results of the study support the idea 

that WNS is an important cause of decline of 

bat populations in the Eastern United States. 

However, the results indicate that WNS is not 

the only cause of decline. Most efforts to aid 

bat populations have focused on preventing 

transmission of WNS by humans (figure 

9). However, WNS also is often transmitted 

through non-human means, like one bat 

contacting and infecting another bat.

The findings in this research also suggest 

that there are other important causes of decline 

that may be overlooked. Other potential 

sources of mortality include agricultural 

pesticides and chemicals, climate change, 

collisions with human-built structures and 

vehicles, and habitat loss or degradation of 

habitat. These results suggest that scientists 

should continue to combat WNS while also 

addressing other threats to bat populations. 

degradation (de grə dā shən): The act of 

impairing or bringing to a lower level of quality.

hibernacula (hī bər na kyə lə): Shelters occupied 

during the winter by a hibernating animal.

indicator species (in də kā tər spē shēz): Type 

of plant or animal that serves as a measure of 

the environmental health of an area.

insectivore (in sek tə vȯr): An organism that 

feeds mainly on insects. 

mortality (mȯr ta lə tē): Death of an organism 

or organisms.

pathogen (pa thə jən): An organism or other 

agent that causes disease.

representation (re pri zen tā shən): A likeness, 

picture, image, etc.

route (rau̇t): An established, selected, or 

assigned course of travel.

transmission (tran(t)s mi shən): The process 

of transferring from one person, animal, or 

place, to another.

Accented syllables are in bold. Marks and definitions 

are from http://www.merriam-webster.com. 

Definitions are limited to the word’s meaning in the 

article.

Adapted from Ingersoll, Thomas E.; Sewall, Brent J.; Amelon, Sybill K. 2016. Effects of white-nose 

syndrome on regional population patterns of 3 hibernating bat species. Conservation Biology. 30(5): 

1048-1059.

Figure 9. Federal and State agencies close caves 

where endangered bats hibernate to prevent 

disturbance from human visitors . Photo courtesy 

of Ann Froschauer, U .S . Fish and Wildlife Service, 

via	https://www.flickr.com/.

Glossary 

Reflection Section

 How might humans contribute to 

the spread of WNS? 

 How does habitat degradation 

affect hibernating bats? 

 What are some ways scientists could 

combat the other threats to bat 

populations? 
17

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

FACTivity

Time Needed

One class period

Materials

(for each student or group of students)

• Cave Conundrum Graphic Organizer

• Writing utensil

In this FACTivity, you will predict and 

observe how diseases spread in populations.

Over one class period, you will simulate the 

spread of the “flu” in your class over 5 days

of school.

Methods

Your teacher will divide the class into 

small groups of four to five students. Your

teacher will select one student to “have 

the flu,” and designate a “sick” area where

students will go if they become “sick.” You

will participate in two simulations with five

rounds each. In each simulation, you will 

predict and simulate how the flu will spread

throughout your class over the course of 1 

“week.” When a classmate becomes “sick,”

he or she should move to the designated 

“sick” area of the room at the beginning of

the next round. Cross out each day on the 

chart as the round ends.

Before you begin, discuss how you think 

the “flu” will spread throughout the class over

the course of 1 week. How many and which 

students will be left in class by Friday? We 

can hypothesize what will happen using these 

three assumptions: 

1. Only students who interact with the “sick”

student will get the “flu,”

2. The students who sit nearest to the “flu”

student will contract the “flu” first, and

3. Students who interact with the “sick”

student will have the “flu” the next day.

Write your predictions about how the “flu”

will spread in your class in the “Simulation 

One” section of the graphic organizer before

each round. As the activity progresses, 

remember to write down what did happen in 

each round.

Simulation 1

1. Monday (Round 1): The student with the 

“flu” will shake hands with two students

nearest them, “infecting” them. The original

“sick” student should go to the designated

“sick” area.

2. Tuesday (Round 2): The students who shook 

hands with the original “sick” student with the

“flu” are “infected.” These two “sick” students

should shake hands with two more students 

closest to them, then go to the designated 

“sick” area with the original student.

3. Wednesday and Thursday (Rounds 3 

and 4): Repeat the process for these two 

rounds. The “sick” students from previous

rounds will stay in the designated “sick”

area. The newly “infected” students should

shake hands with the two students nearest 

them, then go join others in the designated 

“sick” area.

4. Friday (Round 5): Repeat the process one 

more time. Those four students “infected”

in this last round can go immediately to the 

“sick” area.

At the end of Round 5, observe how many 

students are in the designated “sick” area

and where they sat in relation to the original 

“sick” student. Record these observations in

the “Simulation One” section of your graphic

organizer. Write down what happened in each 

round. 
18

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

FACTivity Continued

Simulation 2

Before starting Simulation Two, all students 

will close their eyes. Your teacher will secretly 

tap five students on the head, and if you are

selected, you need to keep it a secret from 

other students. If you were tapped on the 

head, you received a “flu shot.”

What do you think will happen during 

Simulation Two if some students have a 

“flu shot?” 

Repeat the steps of Simulation One.

However, in Simulation Two the kids with 

“flu shots” do not get “sick” or go to the

“sick” area when they shake hands with an

“infected” student. Instead, these students will

remain in the game as if nothing happened.

Also, “sick” students can now choose to

infect any student in the room, not just those 

nearest to them.

Once again, keep track of the results of 

each round in your graphic organizer. How 

many kids are “sick” at the end of the last

round? Where did those “sick” students sit in

relation to the original “sick” student?

Now, compare and contrast the results 

of Simulation One with those of Simulation 

Two. Were there more healthy students in 

one simulation than in the other? Did you 

notice any different patterns between the 

two simulations? Write your answers and 

observations in the graphic organizer.

This simulation is similar to how scientists 

create and use models. They use known facts 

to create logical predictions about a situation, 

the spreading of disease in this case, to 

predict what will likely happen. However, 

like the students with “flu shots,” exceptions

create differences between the modeled 

result and the actual result. We would expect 

students who sit near the “sick” students to

be “infected” first, but a sick student may

choose to go visit and “infect” a friend who

doesn’t sit close by in class. This interaction 

creates another difference between the 

assumption we used to make our predictions 

and the real number of students left at the 

end of the simulation.

What does this activity tell you about the 

use of models in science? How can models 

be helpful? What are some challenges of 

using models? How does this FACTivity 

compare with what you learned in the “Cave 

Conundrum” article?
19

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Name: ______________________________________

Cave Conundrum Graphic Organizer

Simulation One Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5

What do you 

think will 

happen?

What 

happened?

Simulation Two Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5

What do you 

think will 

happen?

What 

happened?

Compare and contrast the results of Simulation One and Simulation Two:
20

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

What's in a Name?

This article’s title, “Cave Conundrum,” 

refers to the conundrum WNS presents to 

scientists. A conundrum is a confusing or 

difficult problem. 

Web Resources

Science News for Students: An 

enemy in the cave https://www.

sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/

enemy-cave

USDA Forest Service: Fighting the Battle for the 

Bats Story Map https://usfs.maps.arcgis.com/apps/

MapJournal/index.html?appid=82d483795c1e45c89f

3378554e062ad2

USDA Forest Service: Battle For Bats: Surviving 

White-Nose Syndrome (video) https://vimeo.

com/76705033 

National Geographic: These Bats Mysteriously 

Survived a Killer Fungus (video) http://video.

nationalgeographic.com/video/news/150527-batswhitenose-survivors-vin

Natural Inquirer 

Connections

That’s

Growth!

NATURAL VOLUME 3, NUMBER 1 • USDA FOREST SERVICE

INQUIRER

Swimming

Leaf Me

Some Things

Will

The Trees Are I’ll Huff and I’ll

Puff and I’ll Blow

Your Trees Down!

Page 6

Page 13

O o o o o h !

Page 19

It’s a

Page 25

Please

Page 31

Page 37

Page 43

Page 50

Gas! Always Change

ALONE!

Join Us

for Dinner

Going Batty!

Without a Ladder

Tropical 

Forest 

Edition

That’s

Growth! Growth!

Upstream

Swimming

Without a Ladder

Please

Always Change

You may want to reference these Natural 

Inquirer resources for additional information 

and FACTivities: 

X For more information on bats, read “The 

Trees Have Gone Batty! How Bat Scat 

Helped Restore a Tropical Forest” in the 

Natural Inquirer Tropical edition. 

X For more on fungal pathogens, read 

“Moving Spore-adically: The Spread of 

Sudden Oak Death in California Forests” 

in the Natural Inquirer Invasive Species 

edition. 

These resources, along with others, can 

be found at http://www.naturalinquirer.org/

all-issues.html.

If you are a trained Project 

Learning Tree educator, 

you may use “Life on the 

Edge,” “Dynamic Duos,” 

“Our Changing World,” and “Earth 

Manners” as additional resources. 
Tropic Topic: 

What Is Known 

About the 

Limestone Zone?

Photo courtesy of Ernesto Medina
22

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Meet the Scientists

 Ernesto Medina, Plant Ecophysiologist: 

My favorite science experience is being 

outside in the field, observing how 

plants respond physiologically to their 

environment. I like designing experiments 

to answer the questions that arise from 

observations, and then working with the data 

and writing the manuscript that explains it all. 

Photo courtesy of Ernesto Medina, University 

of Puerto Rico. 

 Elvira Cuevas, Ecologist: My favorite 

science experience is working outside in 

the field. I can see how the vegetation 

is interacting with the environment and 

measure those interactions. It is fascinating to 

be able to put numbers on those interactions. 

Photo courtesy of Elvira Cuevas, University 

of Puerto Rico.

 Ariel Lugo, Tropical Ecologist: My 

favorite science experience was conducting 

science camps for high school students in the 

karst zone of Puerto Rico. We had a fabulous 

time and conducted cool research that we 

published in science journals. Photo courtesy 

of Ariel Lugo, USDA Forest Service. 

Glossary words are bold and are defined on page 30.
23

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Thinking About 

Science

Plants receive nutrients from 

air, water, and soil. Chemicals 

move throughout the air, water, 

and soil, and then into plants. Plants absorb 

14 nutrients from the soil. Plants have a 

disadvantage when faced with unfavorable 

conditions, such as poor soil conditions. They 

cannot move quickly to a new environment 

when conditions are unfavorable. When soil 

or rainfall conditions are not optimum for 

plant growth, plants must adapt to thrive. 

When conditions are not favorable for plants, 

one way they may adapt is to increase the 

percentage of their root structure compared 

with the rest of the plant’s aboveground 

structure. They may grow their roots deeper 

and spread them out farther away from the 

main root stem. 

The scientists in this study were interested 

in how trees growing in similar soil types, but 

living in different rainfall conditions, adapt 

so they can thrive. To understand such tree 

adaptation, the scientists compared the 

soil’s chemical content with the tree leaves’ 

chemical content. Studying the chemical 

content of soil and leaves helps 

scientists understand how plants 

adapt to their environment.

Thinking 

About the 

Environment

Karst is a geochemical landform from 

which caves and sinkholes are formed (figures 

1 and 2). Karst is made up of limestone and 

other soluble rocks. Limestone erodes easily, 

especially when groundwater or rainfall is slightly 

acidic. As limestone erodes, water seeps into 

the ground and further erodes the limestone 

underneath. This erosion forms sinkholes, caves, 

and underground streams and lakes.

What Kinds of 

Scientists Did 

This Research?

ecologist: This scientist studies the 

relationship of living things with their living 

and nonliving environment . 

tropical ecologist: A tropical ecologist 

studies the relationship of living things with 

their environment in the tropics . The tropics 

make up the region between the Tropic of 

Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn (see 

Figure 5) . 

plant ecophysiologist (ē kō fi zē ä lǝ jist):

A plant ecophysiologist studies how the 

environment, both physical and biological, 

interacts with the physiology of an 

organism . It includes the effects of climate 

and nutrients on physiological processes, 

or normal functioning, in plants .

Figure 1. Karst is mainly a carbonate landform 

from which caves and underground waterways 

are formed . Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer . 
24

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Karst landscapes are found worldwide, 

covering about 20 percent of Earth’s land 

surface. All of Florida, for example, is karst 

(figure 3). Karst landscapes are an important 

source of drinking water, provide wildlife 

habitat, and provide outdoor recreation 

opportunities such as caving. In this study, the 

scientists were interested in learning about 

forests growing on karst in Puerto Rico.

Introduction

Puerto Rico is an island in the Caribbean 

and is located in Earth’s tropical region (figures 

4 and 5). The northern region of Puerto Rico 

experiences a lot of rainfall. The southern 

region of Puerto Rico, in contrast, is semi-arid, 

an area with light rainfall (figure 6). 

About 27 percent of Puerto Rico contains 

karst landscapes (see “Thinking About the 

Environment”). Karst is found in both Puerto 

Figure 2. Mogotes are an unusual karst 

landform . Mogotes are found in tropical and 

subtropical regions, including Puerto Rico, Cuba, 

and parts of China . The sides of some mogotes 

are almost vertical . Photo courtesy of Ernesto 

Medina, University of Puerto Rico .

Figure 3. Karst landscapes are found across the United States . Map by Carey Burda and 

Stephanie Pfeiffer .
25

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Rico’s northern wet region and its southern 

dry region. Karst soils are shallow, and most 

karst soil is built from the leaves that fall 

from forest trees (figure 7). Soils in Puerto 

Rico’s southern dry karst forests build slowly 

in the crevices between the pavement sections 

(figures 8 and 9). 

The scientists in this study wanted to 

compare the chemistry of soils and leaves in 

Puerto Rico’s northern wet and southern dry 

karst forests. The northern wet karst forests 

receive an average of between 1,000 and 1,500 

mm of rainfall every year. The southern dry karst 

forests receive an average of less than 1,000 mm 

of rainfall every year. The scientists wondered 

whether southern dry karst forests, since they 

grow in a semi-arid region, use water more 

efficiently than northern wet karst forests. 

Puerto Rico

United States

of America

Figure 4. Puerto Rico is a United States territory . 

Map by Carey Burda and Stephanie Pfeiffer . 

Figure 5. Puerto Rico is located in Earth’s warm tropical region . Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer .

Number Crunch

 How many inches of rain do each of the 

karst regions receive on average every 

year? 

Hint: Multiply the amounts in millimeters by 

0.039 to find out.
26

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Figure 6. Puerto Rico is wet in the north and dry in the south due to the rain shadow effect . The rain 

shadow effect is the result of a large barrier, like a mountain range, that causes rain to fall on one side of 

the mountain range while the other side of the mountain remains dry . Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer .

Figure 7. In some karst areas with mogotes, 

most of the soil is found in the valleys between 

the steep mogote hills . Photo courtesy of 

Ernesto Medina, University of Puerto Rico . 

Figure 8. Soil is thin in the southern dry karst 

forests of Puerto Rico . Photo courtesy of Clare 

McFadden .
27

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Figure 9.	Exposed	limestone	karst	pavement	is	flat	and	looks	similar	to	concrete	pavement.	In	

karst pavement areas, soil is built in the crevices between the pavement blocks . Photo courtesy of 

Ernesto Medina .

Reflection Section

 Examine figures 7-9. The 

northern wet karst forests 

contains mogote landforms, and 

the southern dry karst forests 

have ridges and pavement landforms. 

Do you think the soil chemistry is similar 

between these two karst areas? Why 

or why not? 

 Do you think that trees in the 

southern dry karst forests use water 

more efficiently than the trees in the 

northern wet karst forests? Why or 

why not? 

Methods

The scientists collected leaves from trees 

growing in both the northern wet and southern 

dry karst forests. Leaves from the northern 

wet karst forest were collected from trees on 

the mogote tops. Leaves from the southern dry 

karst forest were collected from trees growing 

on the ridges and pavement. All leaves were 

collected from tree canopies. 
28

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Recall that the scientists were also interested 

in the differences in how trees use water in 

northern wet and southern dry karst forests. 

After the scientists collected the leaves, they 

dried the leaves in an oven for 3 to 7 days and 

then finely ground the leaves. The scientists 

used specialized equipment to determine which 

chemicals were found in the leaves collected 

from the two karst regions. Measuring the 

chemical content of leaves enabled the scientists 

to compare leaf chemistry with the chemical 

content of the soil. This comparison helped 

the scientists to determine how trees growing 

in similar soils, but different environmental 

conditions, adapted to those conditions. The 

scientists tested leaves for the presence of:

X Carbon

X Nitrogen

X Phosphorus

X Sulfur

X Potassium

X Calcium

X Magnesium

X Aluminum

X Manganese

X Iron

The scientists were also interested in 

stomatal conductance. The word stomatal 

comes from the fact that leaves have small 

openings, called stomata, through which gases 

enter and exit the leaf (figure 10). You can 

see in Figure 10 that carbon enters the leaf as 

carbon dioxide gas. 

Carbon atoms have different atomic masses. 

Carbon atoms are either Carbon 12, a lighter 

atom, or Carbon 13, a heavier atom. Carbon 

12 atoms are the most plentiful on Earth, 

making up 98.93 percent of all carbon atoms. 

When plants have plenty of water, they open 

their stomata completely. The plant enzyme 

responsible for the uptake of CO2 in most plants 

readily takes up the more plentiful Carbon 12 

atoms entering the leaf, preferring Carbon 12 

atoms to the heavier Carbon 13 atoms. 

When plants have a limited supply of water, 

the stomata do not open completely. In this 

case, the plant enzyme responsible for the 

uptake of CO2 will take up all available carbon 

atoms. Plants in water-restricted environments, 

therefore, may be more likely to have a greater 

amount of Carbon 13. The scientists measured 

the proportion of Carbon 13 to that of Carbon 

12 in the leaf tissues. The ratio of Carbon 13 to 

Carbon 12 (Carbon 13/Carbon 12), therefore, is 

related to how well a plant efficiently uses water.

Figure 10. Small 

openings that open 

and close, called 

stomata, allow gases 

to enter and exit 

leaves . Illustration by 

Stephanie Pfeiffer . 
29

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Reflection Section

 Leaves have small openings 

called stomata. Gases, including 

water vapor, exit leaves through 

the stomatal openings. How 

do you think stomata respond in drier 

environmental conditions? 

 Why do you think soil is built slowly in 

the southern dry karst forest of Puerto 

Rico in figure 9? 

Findings

For the most part, leaves were similar 

in Puerto Rico’s two karst regions. Leaves 

from the northern wet and southern dry 

karst forests contained similar amounts 

of magnesium, phosphorus, and nitrogen. 

Leaves in both the northern wet and 

southern dry karst forests contained large 

amounts of calcium. The scientists also 

found that leaves in both Puerto Rico’s 

northern wet and southern dry karst forests 

are limited in phosphorus. Leaves in the 

southern dry karst forests, however, contain 

more potassium than leaves in the northern 

wet karst forests. The scientists believe this 

difference is because higher rainfall in the 

northern wet karst region leaches potassium 

from the soil.

The scientists found that leaves in the 

southern dry karst forests contained more 

carbon-13 than leaves in the northern wet 

karst forests. Leaves that use water more 

efficiently contain higher levels of carbon-13. 

Therefore, the leaves from the southern 

dry karst forests use water more efficiently, 

meaning that leaf stomata do not completely 

open, and less water vapor exits the leaves. 

Reflection Section

 Based on the findings, what 

are the two main differences 

between the chemical content 

of leaves in Puerto Rico’s 

northern wet and southern dry karst 

forests? 

 How are the differences you identified 

in the first “Findings” reflection 

question above advantageous to 

southern dry karst forests? 

Why Do Plants Need 

Potassium? 

Potassium is one of 17 

essential plant nutrients. Plants 

absorb potassium from the 

soil through their root hairs 

and root tips. Among other uses, plants 

use potassium in photosynthesis. During 

photosynthesis, potassium regulates the 

opening and closing of stomata, and therefore 

regulates carbon dioxide uptake and water 

vapor loss.

Discussion

The soils in northern wet and southern dry 

karst forests were similar. Soils from both regions 

contained limited phosphorus. Low phosphorus 

levels limit the growth of karst forests in Puerto 

Rico. The soil in both regions contained high 

amounts of calcium. Calcium aids plants by holding 

cell walls together. The southern dry karst forest 

soils contained more potassium than northern wet 

karst forest soils. Northern wet and southern dry 

karst forests can primarily be distinguished by the 

amount of rainfall they receive. 
30

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Reflection Section

 Puerto Rico has a rainforest in its 

northeastern region. The Puerto 

Rican rainforest contains large 

trees and thick vegetation. Based 

on this research, what might be 

one difference between the northern 

wet karst region and the rainforest of 

Puerto Rico? 

 Plants adapt to their environmental 

conditions. Do you think the presence 

of more carbon-13 in the southern dry 

karst region is an adaptation? If so, to 

what environmental condition are the 

trees adapting? 

Glossary

acidic (a si dik): Containing acid.

advantageous (ad van tā jǝs): Giving an advantage.

canopy (ka nə pē): (1) Anything that covers like a 

roof; (2) On a tree, the upper area of leaves that 

cover the ground.

conductance (kən dək tən(t)s): The readiness with 

which gases pass into and out of a leaf’s surface.

crevice (kre vəs): A narrow opening caused by a 

crack or a split.

erode (i rōd): (1) To wear away; (2) To wear away 

by water or wind.

geochemical (jē ō ke mi kəl): Having to do the 

chemical composition of and chemical changes 

in the solid matter of the earth or a celestial body 

(such as the moon).

leach (lēch): To draw out from the soil.

nutrient (nü trē ənt): (1) Any of the substances 

found in food that are needed for the life and 

growth of plants and animals.

optimum (äp tǝ mǝm): The amount or degree of 

something that is most favorable to some end.

physiologically (fi zē ə lä ji kə lē): Related to an 

organism’s healthy or normal functioning.

semi-arid (se mī a rəd): An area that receives 

very little rainfall.

sinkhole (siŋk hōl): A hollow in a limestone 

region that is related to a cave or 

underground passage.

soluble (säl yə bəl): Capable of being dissolved in 

or as if in a liquid, especially water.

Accented syllables are in bold. Marks and definitions 

are from http://www.merriam-webster.com. 

Definitions are limited to the word’s meaning in the 

article.

Adapted from Medina, E., Cuevas, E., and Lugo, A. E. Substrate chemistry and rainfall regime 

regulate elemental composition of tree leaves in karst forests. Forests, 8, 182, https://www.fs.usda.

gov/treesearch/pubs/54455.
31

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

FACTivity

Note: This FACTivity was 

adapted from the USDA Natural 

Resources Conservation Service 

and Project Learning Tree.

Time Needed

2 class periods (20 minutes of each class 

period, 24 hours apart)

Materials

(for each student or group of students)

• One small succulent (sǝ kyǝ lǝnt) house plant 

for each student pair (figures 11a and 11b)

• One small philodendron house plant for 

each student pair

• One quart-size “zippable” plastic bag for

each plant

• Permanent marker

Leaves take in carbon dioxide and release 

water vapor and oxygen through small holes 

on their surface. In dry environments, trees 

have adapted to conserve the lesser amount 

of water available to them. In this research, 

the scientists were interested in the 

difference between karst forests growing 

in the wet North and the dry South of 

Puerto Rico. One of the primary differences 

between the forests is the amount of 

average rainfall.

In this FACTivity, you will answer the 

question: What is the difference between how 

much water is transpired by different types 

of plant leaves during the day? Transpiration 

happens when the water that entered a tree’s 

roots travels up the tree’s trunk, through its 

branches, to its leaves, and out of the leaves 

through small pores called stomata. 

Methods

Preparation

You or your teacher will water all of the 

plants using an equal amounts of water on 

the day before beginning the FACTivity.

Figures 11a and 11b.	Two	easy-to-find	succulent	house	plants	are	mother-in-law’s	tongue	and	

aloe . Photos courtesy of Babs McDonald . 
32

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

FACTivity Continued

Day One 

Your teacher will divide your class into 

pairs of students and will give each pair two 

plastic bags that can be tightly closed. Write

your name on the plastic bags. Your teacher 

will give you one of each type of plant.

Note that one of the plants is a succulent.

Succulent plants require less water because 

they hold water in their leaves. Succulent 

plants are found in dry environments.

Place the plastic bag on a leaf of each 

plant and seal the bag as tight as possible.

The leaf should be inside of the plastic bag.

The bag must be applied as early as possible 

in the day (figure 12). Place the plants with 

the plastic bags in a sunny location.

Allow the plastic bag to stay on the leaf 

the remainder of the day. Leaves do not 

transpire at night, however, you may leave 

the plastic bags on overnight.

Day Two 

Being careful not to spill any water that 

you might find, remove the plastic bags from

the leaves. Compare the amount of water 

transpired from the succulent plant with that of 

the philodendron. Is there a difference? Why 

do you think you found the results you did?

As a class, discuss how this FACTivity 

relates to the article you just read. Which type 

of house plant would be most likely to be 

found in either the dry karst forest or the wet 

karst forest?

Figure 12. Place the plastic bag on a 

leaf . Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer . 
33

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Web Resources

Karst for Kids

https://wiki.kidzsearch.com/wiki/

Karst

Public Broadcasting Service: Karst Topography and 

Mammoth Cave

https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ket09.

sci.ess.structure.karst/karst-topography-and-mammoth-cave/#.WsuoMIjwaUk

National Geographic Kids: Rocks and Minerals 

Quiz Whiz

https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/kids/activities/

funscience/rock-on/

Natural Inquirer 

Connections

You may want to reference these Natural 

Inquirer resources for additional information 

and FACTivities: 

X For more information about tree leaf 

chemistry, read “Leaf Me Alone!” in 

the Natural Inquirer Tropical edition and 

“Don’t Litter the Stream” in the Natural 

Inquirer Hawai’i-Pacific Islands edition. 

These resources, along with others, can 

be found at http://www.naturalinquirer.org/

all-issues.html.

If you are a trained Project 

Learning Tree educator, 

you may use “Every Tree 

For Itself,” “Rain Reasons,” 

“How Plants Grow,” “Field, Forest 

and Stream,” and “Soil Stories” as 

additional resources.
34

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

The Whole Kit 

and Kaboodle: 

Exploring the 

Relationship 

Between Land 

Otters, Tlingit 

People, and 

Kit’n’Kaboodle Site 

Photo courtesy of stephanjezek, istockphoto.com.
35

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Meet the Scientist

 Madonna Moss, Anthropological

Archaeologist: One of my favorite science

experiences was when I worked at the

archaeological site of Nunalleq in 2015. At

Nanalleq, wood artifact preservation is

fantastic. As I was digging, I found what

looked like a toy kayak, but when I rotated

it, I saw a deeply incised face. Rotating it

again, I could see the face of a walrus. It was

described by a Quinhagak elder as a spirit

figure and combined the three images into

one carving.

What Kind of 

Scientist Did 

This Research?

anthropological (an(t) thrə pə lä ji kəl) 

archaeologist (är kē ä lə jist): This scientist

studies the ancient and recent human past 

through material remains . Material remains 

are things left behind like bones, ceramics, 

shells, and other artifacts .

Thinking 

About Science

The world of science is made 

up of many different disciplines. 

In this research, the scientist is an 

anthropological archaeologist. Anthropology is 

the study of human cultures or learned behavior 

patterns of humans. Archaeology is the study 

of the ancient and recent human past through 

items that have been left behind. Archaeology 

is a part of the larger field of anthropology. In 

Did You Know?

Tlingit is the language of coastal 

Southeastern Alaska from Yakutat south 

to Ketchikan. The total Tlingit population 

in Alaska is about 10,000 people, who live 

in 16 communities. Approximately 500 of 

these people speak the Tlingit language.

Tlingit Language

Glossary words are bold and are defined on page 43.
36

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Figure 1. Sinkholes are large depressions in 

the ground . They are often found in karst areas 

where underground areas made of limestone 

and other soluble rocks are eroded away . 

Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer .

this research, the scientist studied the long-term 

history of Native Americans and First Nations of 

the Northwest Coast of North America, with 

a special focus on Tlingit (tliŋ kət) people. The 

Tlingit people lived along the Pacific Northwest 

coast and are an indigenous tribe of Alaska. 

Because science incorporates many diverse 

research areas, many new and interesting 

ways are used to examine something. In this 

research, the scientist applied her knowledge 

of Tlingit people, anthropology, archaeology, 

and animals to a cave that was discovered in 

southeast Alaska. 

Thinking About the 

Environment

Caves are a unique formation that are 

often found in karst landscapes. Karst is a

geochemical landform from which caves 

and sinkholes are formed (figure 1). Karst 

is made up of limestone and other soluble

rocks. Limestone erodes easily, especially when 

groundwater or rainfall is slightly acidic. As 

limestone erodes, water seeps into the ground 

and further erodes the limestone underneath. 

This erosion forms caves as well as other 

features such as sinkholes and underground 

streams (figure 2a-2d). a

b c

Figure 2a-2c. Caves have many unique features . Photos courtesy of Dave Bunnell, Under Earth Images .
37

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Figure 2d. Caves have many unique features . Photo 

courtesy of Dave Bunnell, Under Earth Images .

In this study, the scientist was interested in 

a particular site, called Kit’n’Kaboodle, located 

on Western Dall Island in the Alexander 

Archipelago (är kə pe lə gō) (figure 3). An 

archipelago is a group of islands. The cave is 

located in the Tongass National Forest and 

protected under Federal laws (figure 4).

Kit’n’Kaboodle Cave was discovered in 1992 

by a team from the USDA Forest Service. 

This cave and others in this area contain 

remains that interest many different types 

of scientists. For example, paleontologists, 

biologists, and archaeologists all have interest 

in the remains left in these caves. Since 1993, 

the Tongass National Forest has supported 

interdisciplinary research to document the 

caves and the resources they contain. 

Alaska

Prince of Wales

Island

Kit’n’Kaboodle

Cave

Figure 3. Kit’n’Kaboodle Cave is in the 

Alexander Archipelago . Map by Carey Burda and 

Stephanie Pfeiffer .

Tongass National Forest

Alaska

Canada

Figure 4. Tongass National Forest is in Alaska 

and encompasses Kit’n’Kaboodle Cave . Map by 

Carey Burda and Stephanie Pfeiffer . 
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Introduction

The Tlingit people have many stories and 

beliefs about the land otter. The land otter, 

also known as the North American river otter, 

is a member of the weasel family (figure 

5). Traditionally, the Tlingit people believed 

that all animals had souls and were once 

people. They believed that land otters had 

supernatural power. Some Tlingit people 

believed that land otters could transform into 

people, and people could transform into land 

otters. The land otters were deeply respected 

and feared. The Tlingit people primarily 

avoided the land otter. However, the spiritual 

leaders of the Tribe, shamans, sought out the 

land otters. The land otter was a strong spirit 

helper for the shaman.

The scientist in this study was interested 

in learning about whether the Kit’n’Kaboodle 

site was occupied by land otters at times when 

people were not present. The scientist also 

wanted to know if the shells and animal bones 

left by people differ from the shells and animal 

bones left by land otters. Additionally, the 

scientist studied whether land otter behavior 

affected the beliefs of Tlingit people about the 

land otter.

Figure 5. North American river otter is a 

member of the weasel family . The Tlingit people 

called this animal a land otter . Photo courtesy of 

stephanjezek, istockphoto .com .

Reflection Section

 All people have stories and 

traditions that are passed down 

from generation to generation. 

What is one story or tradition that 

has been passed down in your 

family? 

 State in your own words what the 

scientist was interested in learning. 
39

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Method

The Kit’n’Kaboodle site is located at the 

head of Gold Harbor. Gold Harbor is a bay on 

Dall Island that is largely sheltered from the 

heavy storms and surf that are present on the 

outer coast of the island. The cave has at least 

four entrances. Three of these entrances show 

evidence of humans having lived there, including 

the remains of large fish like halibut or salmon, 

larger mammals, and bird remains (figure 6). 

During 3 field trips to the cave in 1994, 1996, 

and 1998, the scientist and her team collected 11 

samples from 3 different areas in the site. The 

samples were about 1 gallon in size and contained 

shells, bones, and other material. These samples 

were taken to a lab for analysis.

A total of 5,035 bones were analyzed. The 

scientist identified which bones belonged to 

which animal. Living things are classified in 

the following way: Kingdom - Phylum - Class 

- Order - Family - Genus - Species (figure 

7). For some of the bones, the scientist could 

make identifications to the genus or species 

level. She counted, weighed, and noted 

the age and any damage or modification to 

the bones. The scientist and her team took 

fine sediment and sifted it over fine-mesh 

screens. From this, they gathered small bones 

to be identified. 

Figure 6. Salmon are found in many places in 

the	Pacific	Northwest.	Photo	courtesy	of	U.S.	Fish	

and Wildlife Service . 

Figure 7.	Examine	the	way	living	things	are	classified.	What	is	the	genus	and	species	for	a	dog?	

Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer .
40

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Figure 8. Steep, vegetated shorelines provide 

areas for land otters to hide from predators . 

Photo	courtesy	of	U.S.	Forest	Service	Pacific	

Northwest Region, via Flickr . 

The team also observed land otter scat, 

remains of fish and birds, mussel shells, and 

physical evidence for the presence of land otters. 

The scientist knew that land otters like to be in 

areas that have steep, vegetated shorelines (figure 

8). Land otters like to be close to water but 

minimize exposure to predators by hiding in steep 

vegetated shoreline areas. In terms of food, land 

otters in this area ate fish and mussels (figure 9). 

Since 1978, the scientist has worked with 

Tlingit people in Southeast Alaska. They taught 

her a lot about Tlingit culture, but she also 

studied many books and research papers about 

this culture. Additionally, the scientist learned 

from her colleagues who are also students of 

Tlingit culture. 

Figure 9. Mussels are a common source of food 

for land otters . Photo courtesy of Dr . Andrew 

Rypel .

Findings 

Out of the 5,035 bones, the scientists 

identified bones from 71 vertebrate taxa 

including 44 fish, 18 birds, and 9 mammals. 

The bones were identified to the family, genus, 

or species level. From the samples, the most 

commonly identified animals were rockfish and 

Sitka black-tailed deer (figure 10). However, 

harbor seal, sea otter, black bear, Pacific cod, 

lingcod, halibut, tufted puffin, common murre, 

and pelagic cormorant were also identified 

(figures 11 a-d). Some of these remains, such 

as halibut and harbor seal, would have been 

from humans using the cave as a shelter. Some 

of the smaller fish that occupy tidepools in the 

Reflection Section

 Material was collected from 

three different areas of the 

site. Why do you think it was 

important for the scientist to 

collect information from multiple 

locations? 

 Think about the last time you did 

research on a specific topic at school. 

Did you use books, the Internet, 

information from teachers to learn 

about the topic, or another method? 

If so, what method of gathering 

information did you find most useful? 

Why? 
41

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Figure 10. Sitka-black tailed deer are found 

in coastal rainforests of southeast Alaska and 

north coastal British Columbia . Photo courtesy of 

Tongass National Forest, MacDougall . 

Figure 11a. Pelagic cormorant is a bird that is 

found along shorelines . The bird prefers inland 

shorelines as opposed to open water areas . 

Photo courtesy of U .S . Fish and Wildlife Service, 

via Flickr .

Figure 11b. A Common Murre is a bird 

that is found near oceans . This bird’s 

diet	largely	consists	of	fish	and	small	

marine invertebrates . Photo courtesy 

of U .S . Fish and Wildlife Service, Lowe, 

via Flickr . 

Figure 11c. Lingcod is found only off the west coast 

of North America . Photo courtesy of Eduardo Baena, 

istockphoto .com . 

Figure 11d. Harbor seals spend half their time in water and 

half their time on land . Photo courtesy of U .S . Fish and 

Wildlife Service, Lowe, via Flickr . 
42

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intertidal zone were only found in the areas 

with evidence of land otters.

The team found evidence of land otters 

at the site. The scat had broken down over 

time leaving mostly bones and shell fragments 

that the animal could not digest. They found 

scattered fish and bird bones as well as pieces 

of mussel shells. The scientists also noted the 

physical characteristics of the area surrounding 

the site. Steep vegetated slopes and overstory

vegetation were found near the cave. Land 

otters would prefer the area because there 

were places to hide from predators, but still be 

close to the water. 

Reflection Section

 In the first paragraph of 

the Findings section, the last 

sentence states “Some of these 

remains would have been due 

to humans using the cave as a 

shelter.” What remains do you think 

would indicate the presence of humans? 

Why? 

 Observation is an important 

characteristic of a scientist. Why was 

observation important in this study? 

 Think of a time that you closely 

observed something. What did you 

learn that surprised you?

Discussion

The scientist and her team found evidence 

of both humans and land otters at the 

Kit’n’Kaboodle site. Based on what the team 

found at the site and the information gathered 

about the Tlingit people and land otters, the 

scientist made some inferences. The scientist 

inferred that the Tlingit people’s beliefs about 

the land otter may in part be due to the fact that 

the Tlingit people and the land otter shared the 

same living space, although occupied the space at 

different times. The Tlingit people developed a lot 

of knowledge of land otter behavior and activities. 

This knowledge helped form some of the Tlingit 

ideas and beliefs surrounding the land otter. 

Reflection Section

 The scientist in this study is an 

anthropological archaeologist. 

After having read about the 

study and what the scientist 

did, what things did you notice that 

support the fact that the scientist is an 

anthropological archaeologist? 

 The scientist inferred that sharing space 

helped the Tlingit people understand 

land otters better and contributed 

to the land otter’s presence in Tlingit 

stories and beliefs. Think about a person 

or animal you share space with, like a 

cat, dog, or family member. Do you 

think by sharing common space with 

this animal or person, even though 

you may not be in the space at the 

same time, helps you to understand 

the person or animal better? What are 

some examples?
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Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Glossary 

acidic (a si dik): Containing acid.

artifact (är ti fakt): An object made by a 

human being, typically an item of cultural or 

historical interest.

geochemical (jē ō ke mi kəl): Having to do with 

the chemical composition of and chemical changes 

in the solid matter of the earth or a celestial body 

(such as the moon).

incised (in sīzd): Cut in or engraved.

indigenous (in di jə nəs): Living naturally in a 

particular region or environment.

inference (in f(ə-)rən(t)s): A conclusion or 

opinion that is formed because of known facts or 

evidence. 

interdisciplinary (in tər di sə plə ner ē): Involving 

two or more academic, scientific, or artistic 

disciplines.

overstory (ō vər stȯr ē): The layer of leaves in a 

forest canopy. 

paleontologist (pā lē än tä lə jist): A scientist who 

studies the life of past geological periods as known 

from fossil remains. 

pelagic (pə la jik): Relating to the open sea.

scat (skat): An animal fecal dropping.

sediment (se də mənt): Material deposited by 

water, wind, or glaciers.

shaman (shä mən): Someone who is believed 

in some cultures to be able to use magic to cure 

people who are sick, to control future events, etc.

sinkhole (siŋk hōl): A hollow in a limestone region 

that is related to a cave or underground passage.

soluble (säl yə bəl): Capable of being dissolved in 

or as if in a liquid, especially water.

supernatural (sü pər na chə rəl): Something 

attributed to some force beyond scientific 

understanding or the laws of nature.

taxa (tak sə): The name applied to a taxonomic 

group in a formal system of naming.

vertebrate (vər tə brət): An animal that has a 

backbone. 

Accented syllables are in bold. Marks and definitions 

are from http://www.merriam-webster.com. 

Definitions are limited to the word’s meaning in the 

article.

Adapted from Moss, M. 2015. An Ethnozooarchaeological Study of Land Otters and People at 

Kit’n’Kaboodle (49-DIX-46), Dall Island, Alaska. B.C. Studies 187: 21-51.
44

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

FACTivity

Note: This FACTivity was 

adapted from the National Park 

Service Junior Ranger/Junior 

Archeologist book. For more

information, visit https://www.nps.

gov/kids/pdf/jrarcheologistandparentguide.pdf.

Time Needed

2 class periods

Materials

(for each student or group of students)

• A container for time capsule materials

• Blank paper

• Time Capsule Graphic Organizer

• Writing utensil

In this FACTivity, you will think about how 

you live and what artifacts you would like an 

archeologist to find one day to help explain

the time period you live in now. 

Methods

1. Your teacher will put you in pairs or small 

groups. Once you have been divided up, 

your pair or group needs to brainstorm a 

list of items you could put in a time capsule.

Your pair or group will need to imagine that 

an archeologist would find this time capsule

200 years from now. Think about what 

items would best help the archeologist to 

understand how you live now and what your 

culture is about. You also need to think about 

what kind of materials may be able to last for 

200 years in a time capsule. Your teacher will 

give you 20-25 minutes to brainstorm a list.

2. After the brainstorming is complete, your pair 

or group will need to narrow down the list 

to only five items. After you choose the five

items, complete the Time Capsule Graphic

Organizer. You will share the information in 

the graphic organizer with your class during 

the next class.

3. During the next class period, your pair or 

group will share with the class the five items

they chose and why. Your teacher will keep a 

list on chart paper or the board, so everyone 

can see what items have been proposed.

4. Once all pairs or groups have shared, your 

teacher will have each student vote for their 

top five items from the class list. Once your

teacher tallies the votes, your teacher will 

share them with the class.

5. As a concluding activity, the class can 

create one time capsule with the five items

identified.

If you are a trained Project 

Learning Tree educator, 

you may use “People of the 

Forest,” “Tale of the Sun,” 

“Environmental Exchange Box,” “Tipi 

Talk,” “The Native Way,” and “A Look At 

Lifestyles” as additional resources.

Web Resources

Tlingit – Alaska Native Language Center 

https://www.uaf.edu/anlc/languages/tl/

Tlingit – Smithsonian National 

Museum of Natural History

https://naturalhistory.si.edu/Arctic/features/croads/

tlingit.html#tlingit

Indigenous People and Languages of Alaska – 

Alaska Native Language Center

http://www.uaf.edu/anla/collections/map/anlmap.png

Kit ‘n’ Kaboodle Cave 

http://apps.usd.edu/esci/alaska/kitkab.html
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Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Name: ______________________________________ FACTivity

Time Capsule Graphic Organizer

Item Chosen Why?
A Tale of Two Caves:

How Is Hurricane 

Crawl Cave Different 

From Crystal Cave?

Photo courtesy of Dave Bunnell, Under Earth Images.
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Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Meet the Scientists

 Joel D. Despain, Hydrologist: My favorite scientific 

experiences involve understanding the geomorphic history 

of a given cave or cave area. Some geomorphic questions 

are, “Why did the cave form, and why did it form with these 

particular shapes and patterns? Is it random?”

It turns out that caves form in specific ways that tell us 

about past conditions. The history of the cave, the structure 

of the rock, the hydrology of the region, the gradient, 

and other factors all play big roles. Cave geologists are 

determining different types of caves and how they develop 

with greater precision every year. They do this through a 

better understanding of the shapes, forms, and patterns 

found within caves. This research is creating a much better 

understanding of caves that then informs our understanding 

and knowledge of regional geology and geologic history.

 Benjamin W. Tobin, Hydrologist: Each 

science experience is amazing, interesting, 

and fun in its own way. If I had to choose, 

however, my favorite would be conducting 

dye traces at the Grand Canyon. This work 

involves dumping a colored non-harmful dye 

into the ground up on the plateau above the 

canyon, then monitoring springs in the canyon 

to determine where the dye showed up. This 

is simple science. But the results tell us an 

incredible amount about how water moves 

below our feet and it never seems to do what 

we expect.

 Greg M. Stock, Geologist: My favorite 

science experience was mapping caves 

in Sequoia with Mr. Despain. We used 

those maps, along with dated sediment

in the caves, to determine long-term river 

downcutting rates. The downcutting rate 

told us the speed at which erosion deepens 

a channel by removing material from a 

streambed or valley. It was the perfect mix 

of field, lab, and computer work, with a 

neat result. 

Glossary words are bold and are defined on page 55.
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What Kinds of 

Scientists Did 

This Research?

hydrologist: A scientist who studies water 

and the water cycle .

geologist: A scientist who studies Earth, 

the materials of which Earth is made, 

the structure of those materials, and the 

processes acting upon them .

Thinking About 

Science

Science, whether conducted 

indoors or outdoors, requires some 

safety precautions. For example, 

scientists use gloves and safety glasses when 

using chemicals in a laboratory. A forester may 

use safety glasses, a hard hat, and boots when 

working outside in the forest (figure 1). Before 

starting any activity in science, scientists first 

evaluate whether they need special equipment 

to ensure their safety.

The scientists in this study conducted their 

research in a cave. They needed safety gear 

specific to the cave environment, such as warm 

clothes, hard hats, gloves, headlights, and boots. 

As you read this article, remember to look at 

the photos of scientists in caves. What safety 

equipment are they wearing? 

Safety, however, is more than just about 

equipment. Good communication also is 

important to safety. Whether inside or outside, 

scientists must communicate when, where, 

and how they are conducting an experiment. 

To safely conduct the study described in 

this monograph, the scientists needed to 

communicate where and when they were going 

into the cave. This basic information ensured 

that the scientists could be helped if a problem 

occurred. 

Figure 1. A forester may use many pieces of 

equipment to be safe when conducting research . 

What pieces of safety equipment can you identify 

in this photo? Photo courtesy of Natalie Van

Doorn, USDA Forest Service . 

Thinking 

About the 

Environment

Water moves through and 

across Earth in a cycle, called 

the water cycle (figure 2). 

Water can change as it moves through the 

water cycle. Water may change forms between 

a liquid, a solid, and a gas. 

Water also can change when it interacts with 

chemicals within the environment. For example, 

interactions between water and chemicals 

can result in the development of caves. Many 

caves in the United States are formed when 

groundwater or rainfall absorbs carbon dioxide. 

The combination of water and carbon dioxide 

forms carbonic acid, which is slightly acidic. 

Over time, the water enters cavities in the 
49

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Figure 2. Water moves through and across Earth 

in the water cycle . Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer .

rock and slowly dissolves the cavities creating 

larger open areas. 

This process also contributes to the 

formation of speleothems (figures 3a-3c). 

The slightly acidic water moves through rocks, 

dissolving calcite. The water has large amounts 

of carbon dioxide in it when it enters the cave. 

The cave air, however, only has a small amount 

of carbon dioxide, so some or all of carbon 

dioxide from water is released into the air. This 

process is similar to when you open a can of 

soda and the carbon dioxide creates bubbles as 

it leaves the liquid. The calcite is unable to stay 

in the water without carbon dioxide, so it is 

deposited onto cave floors, ceilings, and walls 

forming speleothems. 

The scientists in this study found many 

different speleothems during their research, 

including large shields, rimstone pools, folia, spar 

crystals, curtains, and helictites. Some of the 

speleothems grew so large that they affected 

the movement of water and sediments through 

the cave. Speleothems illustrate a portion of 

the water cycle, as well as how chemicals, like 

calcium, cycle through the environment.

Figures 3a-3c. Speleothems come in many 

different shapes and sizes . You may have 

heard of some speleothems, like stalactites 

and stalagmites . Many other speleothems have 

interesting names, like soda straws, moonmilk, 

bacon, draperies, frostwork, cave popcorn, 

snottites, and curly-fries . Photos courtesy of

Dave Bunnell, Under Earth Images .
Introduction

Caves are important natural features in 

Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks in 

California (figure 4). Past studies of caves in 

the area have focused on two of the largest 

caves, Lilburn Cave and Crystal Cave. Studies 

of these caves revealed information about the 

area’s mountains, the formation of caves, and 

the age of rocks.

Another large cave in the area is Hurricane 

Crawl Cave. Hurricane Crawl Cave was first 

explored in 1988. Scientists mapped the cave’s 

approximately 2 miles of passages between 

1988 and 1995. The cave has two entrances, 

multiple levels, two canyons, two mazes, and 

one large room (figures 5). The main stream 

that passes through the cave is a sinking stream. 

This stream starts on Earth’s surface, enters 

the cave for a period of time, and then returns 

to Earth’s surface further downhill (figure 6).

The scientists knew that Hurricane Crawl 

Cave developed under similar conditions to 

Crystal Cave because they are located near 

one another. However, the scientists noted 

that Hurricane Crawl Cave had a different 

morphology, or structure, than Crystal Cave. 

Crystal Cave has many levels and mazes, but 

few canyons. The scientists wanted to know 

why the morphology is different between 

Hurricane Crawl Cave and Crystal Cave.

Figure 5. Mazes are located near both entrances 

to Hurricane Crawl Cave . Canyons, named 

Dusted Canyon and Carotene Canyon, are 

located near the mazes . The room, called 

Pumpkin Palace, is located in the middle of the 

cave . Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer .

California

Sequoia 

National Park

Kings Canyon 

National Park

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Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Figure 4. Sequoia 

and Kings Canyon 

National Parks are 

located in the central 

part of California . Map 

by Carey Burda and 

Stephanie Pfeiffer . 
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Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Figure 6. A	sinking	stream	is	a	stream	that	flows	

below Earth’s surface for some of its length . This 

sinking stream is about to go underground at 

Russell Cave National Monument in Alabama . 

Photo courtesy of Dale L . Pate, National Park 

Service . 

Reflection Section

 Following the discovery 

of Hurricane Crawl Cave, 

scientists mapped the cave and 

its passages. Why is this an 

important first step when studying 

caves? 

 Explain in your own words the 

question the scientists wanted to 

answer in this research. 

Methods

To better understand Hurricane Crawl 

Cave, the scientists collected data regarding 

the cave’s age. A previous study estimated 

the age of a rock from inside Hurricane Crawl 

Cave. From the rock’s location, the scientists 

measured to the top of the cave and to the 

bottom of the cave. These measurements 

enabled them to estimate how long it took for 

the cave to develop both before and after the 

rock was deposited. 

The scientists also collected information 

about the past and present movement of water 

through the cave. Current information about 

the flow of water was gathered between 2010 

and 2012. Specifically, the scientists measured 

water discharge. The water discharge 

measurements were taken twice per year at the 

same location inside the cave, once during June 

and once during October (figure 7).

Figure 7. The scientists measured water 

discharge with a pygmy (pig mē) meter . A 

pygmy meter is placed in a stream and the 

water spins the bucket . The number of times 

the	bucket	spins	in	a	specific	amount	of	time	

helps	determine	the	flow	of	water.	Illustration	by	

Stephanie Pfeiffer .
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The scientists also conducted a dye trace 

(figure 8). A dye trace involves putting a nonharmful, colored dye in water. Scientists then 

track and observe the dye to understand the 

movement of water. Previous research indicated 

one stream that passed through the cave. In this 

study, the scientists used a dye trace on multiple 

streams to confirm if any other streams passed 

through the cave.

The scientists then chose four transects

within Hurricane Crawl Cave to collect 

data about past water discharge (figure 9). 

Information about cave scallops and stream 

cobbles were collected at each transect (figures 

10 & 11). You may have heard of animals 

called scallops, which live in the ocean, but 

cave scallops are nonliving. Cave scallops are 

asymmetrical, scoop-like formations on cave 

surfaces formed by water. Scallops can indicate 

the direction of water flow and the velocity of 

water. Stream cobbles are rocks that are carried 

in the flow of water. A mathematical formula 

enabled the scientists to determine the velocity 

of water needed to move the stream cobbles. 

A total of 327 scallops and 157 stream cobbles 

were measured across the four transects. 

Figure 8. Scientists used a dye trace to track the 

movement	of	water.	U.S.	Geological	Survey	photo. Figure 9. The transect locations in 

Hurricane Crawl Cave as viewed from the 

side . Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer .

Water Filled Middle Level
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Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Figure 10. Scallops, like the ones pictured here 

on the ceiling and wall of the cave, can indicate 

the water velocity . Large scallops indicate slower

flow	of	water,	while	small	scallops	indicate	faster	

flow	of	water.	Photo	courtesy	of	Dave	Bunnell,	

Under Earth Images .

Figure 11. Stream cobbles, like those at this 

person’s feet, are often carried into and through

a cave by water . The scientists measured the 

largest cobbles along each transect because they 

suggest the maximum velocity of the water . Photo

courtesy of Dave Bunnell, Under Earth Images . 

Reflection Section

 The scientists repeated a dye 

trace. How can scientists benefit 

from confirming the results of a 

previous study? What did they do 

to gather new information? 

 Review figure 9, focusing specifically 

on the four transects. What do you 

notice about these transects? How are 

they similar or different? Why would 

the scientists choose these areas for 

transects to collect data? 

Results

The scientists’ observations, combined with 

the estimated age of the rocks, indicated that 

Hurricane Crawl Cave is approximately 1.4 

million years old. Recall that the scientists also 

wanted to compare past and present water 

discharge in the cave. 

Scallop measurements at the four transects 

indicated that the direction of water flow is 

similar between the past and present. Scallop 

measurements and stream cobbles both 

indicated that past discharge of water was 

greater than current discharge (table 1 and

figure 12). Past discharge did not vary across 

the four transects. Instead, past discharge 

varied by passage type. Specifically, the wide, 

upper passages of the cave had very high 

discharge in the past. 

When the scientists completed the dye 

trace, they found that one sinking stream 

could be traced through the cave. This finding 

confirmed previous research results. However, 

they also found other streams that began in 

the cave. 
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Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Table 1. Mean past discharge was different 

depending on the type of passage being 

measured. However, mean past discharge in all 

passages was higher than current discharge. The 

scientists measured the water discharge in meters 

cubed per second, or m3 s-1.

Current 0 .002 – 0 .042 m3 s-1

Discharge

2 .7 m3 s-1 (canyons) Past Discharge 27 m3 s-1 (wide, upper (Mean) passages)

Figure 12. The scientists measured discharge 

in meters cubed per second . One meter cubed 

is equal to about 264 gallons . Illustration by 

Stephanie Pfeiffer .

Reflection Section

 The scientists found additional 

streams that began inside the 

cave. How do you think streams 

form inside the cave? Do you 

think these streams contributed to the 

cave development? Why? (Hint: Think 

about the water cycle.) 

 Are you surprised that the direction of 

water flow is similar between the past 

and present? Why or why not?

Discussion

The scientists determined that Hurricane 

Crawl Cave likely formed under two different 

conditions over the past approximately 1.4 

million years. First, the wide, upper passages 

were formed at a time when the cave passages 

were full of water. The slightly acidic water 

sloshed like water in a pool, slowly enlarging the 

passages. Second, the narrow parts of the cave, 

like canyons and mazes, were formed as water 

moved downhill under the influence of gravity. 

The slightly acidic water and the stream cobbles 

also helped to enlarge the passages. This 

condition is most similar to what is occurring in 

the cave today. 

In both of these past conditions, the highwater discharge was likely because climate 

conditions were different than current climate 

conditions. Past climate was cooler and wetter 

than at the present.

Although Hurricane Crawl Cave and 

Crystal Cave are located near one another 

and developed under similar conditions, their 

morphologies differ. The scientists concluded 

that the differences in morphology are likely 

a result of differing amounts of sediment 

transported through the caves.

Reflection Section

 The scientists determined that 

sediment was a major factor in 

differences between Hurricane 

Crawl and Crystal Caves. Do 

you think sediment has a role in the 

formation of caves? If so, how?

 Why do you believe it is important to 

know about how caves formed? 
55

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Number Crunches

0.002 m3 s-1 = 0.528 gallons per second

0.042 m3

 s-1 = ____ gallons per second

2.7 m3

 s-1 = ____ gallons per second

27 m3

 s-1 = ____ gallons per second

(Hint: Filling each blank requires that 

you first divide, then multiply. For example, 

divide 0.042 by 0.002, then multiply the 

result by 0.528.)

Glossary

acidic (a si dik): Containing acid.

asymmetrical (ā sə me tri kəl): Having two sides 

or halves that are not the same.

cavity (ka və tē): A hollowed-out space. 

climate (klī mət): The average condition of the 

weather over large areas, over a long time, or both.

deposit (de pə zit): To let fall (something, such 

as sediment).

discharge (dis chärj): To give forth fluid or other 

contents.

geomorphic (jē ə mȯr fik): Relating to the form 

of the landscape and other natural features of 

the earth’s surface.

gradient (grā dē ənt): A part sloping upward or 

downward.

morphology (mȯr fä lə jē): (1) Structure; (2) Form.

precaution (pri kȯ shən): A measure taken 

beforehand to prevent harm or to bring about a 

good result.

sediment (se də mənt): Matter set down by 

wind or water, such as sand or soil.

speleothem (spē lē ō thǝm): A cave formation 

formed by groundwater. 

transect (tran(t) sekt): A sample area usually in 

the form of a long continuous strip.

velocity (və lä sə tē): Speed of movement. 

Accented syllables are in bold. Marks and definitions 

are from http://www.merriam-webster.com. 

Definitions are limited to the word’s meaning in the 

article.

Adapted from Despain, J.D., Tobin, B.W., and Stock, G.M. 2016. Geomorphology and 

paleohydrology of Hurricane Crawl Cave, Sequoia National Park, California. Journal of Cave and 

Karst Studies. 78, 2: 72-84.
56

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

FACTivity

Note: This FACTivity was 

adapted from the National 

Park Service “Grow Your Own

Stalactite” Lesson Plan. For more

information, visit: https://www.

nps.gov/ozar/learn/education/

growown.htm.

Time Needed

Set-up: One class period

Follow-up: 5-10 minutes per day for 4 days

Materials

(for each student or group of students)

• Pictures of decorated cave passages

• Epsom salts, washing soda, or baking soda 

(Epsom salts and washing soda are more 

likely to form larger formations)

• Warm water

• 2 plastic cups the same size (preferably 

clear/see-through)

• 1 piece of aluminum foil to make a “tray” or

a small plate/saucer

• 1 spoon 

• 1 piece of cotton string or yarn (30-50 cm 

in length)

• 2 paper clips

• Permanent markers

Caves are well known for the formations 

that grow inside of them, called speleothems.

In “A Tale of Two Caves,” the scientists noted

that speleothems were common and diverse in 

Hurricane Crawl Cave. They were so common, 

in fact, that some speleothems blocked the 

movement of water and sediment through the 

cave. Review the images of the speleothems 

from the “Thinking About the Environment”

section.

Speleothems are formed when groundwater 

and rainwater absorb carbon dioxide, making 

the water slightly acidic. The acidic water 

dissolves calcite from nearby rocks as it moves 

through the Earth into the cave. When the 

water enters a cave, the carbon dioxide moves 

from the water, and the calcite is deposited on 

cave surfaces. This process is an important 

reminder of the natural cycling of water and 

chemicals through the environment.

At the end of this FACTivity, you answer the 

following question: What does this activity tell 

us about the formation of speleothems? 

Methods

1. Using a spoon, dissolve as much of the 

chosen material (Epsom salt, washing soda, 

or baking soda) as possible into two cups 

that are filled at least halfway with very warm

water. It will be easier to see the material being 

dissolved if the cups are clear/see-through, but 

it is not necessary. Repeat this process until 

the solution is well concentrated. A 2:1 ratio of 

material to water is best. 

2. Mark the water level of each cup using a 

permanent marker. The water level should be 

similar between the two cups.

3. Tie a paperclip to each end of the piece of 

cotton string.

4. Soak the piece of string in the solution until 

it is completely saturated. Set the cup and the 

string aside.

5. Fold the piece of aluminum foil to form a 

small tray. This can be done by folding in the 

edges and molding the corners. Alternatively, 

use a small plate or saucer.

6. Your teacher will pick a couple of different 

locations within the classroom where you 

can place your tray and cups. Regardless 

of location, ensure that it is a place that will 

remain undisturbed for a few days.

7. Lay the string on the cup so that one end 

of the string (with paperclip) is well inside the 

solution in one cup and the other end of the 

string (with paperclip) is well inside the solution 

in the other cup. The middle section of the 

piece of string needs to dip below the water 

levels in the cups (figure 13).
57

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

FACTivity Continued

Figure 13. The string should be saturated, and the middle section should dip just below 

the water level of the cups . Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer . 

8. Adjust the distance between the middle 

section of the piece of string and the tray 

to minimize the amount of splattering that 

may occur. This distance will depend on the 

height of the cups being used.

9. Place a small amount of dry material 

(Epsom salt, washing soda or baking soda 

depending on the solution being used) on 

the tray directly beneath the lowest part of 

the string.

10. Leave the cups for about 4 days.

11. Revisit the experiment to compare results 

with other students or groups of students. If 

the results are different, how? Why?

12. Your teacher will discuss with you how 

speleothem growth is dependent on a 

number of factors, including air temperature 

in the cave, precipitation on Earth’s 

surface, the amount of calcium dissolved 

by groundwater, and the amount of carbon 

dioxide absorbed by groundwater.

13. How does this experiment, and the 

differences between the results, illustrate the 

potential differences in speleothem growth? 

Were there differences in the location of the 

experiments? Check the water level marked 

by permanent marker. Were the original water 

levels different between groups? Did the 

water drip or splash?
58

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

What's in a Name?

The title “A Tale of Two Caves” was 

adapted from Charles Dickens’ famous 

novel, A Tale of Two Cities, which is set in 

both London, England and Paris, France.

Web Resources

Sequoia and Kings Canyon 

National Parks

https://www.nps.gov/seki/index.htm

Speleothems (Cave Formations) – 

Great Basin National Park

https://www.nps.gov/grba/learn/nature/speleothemscave-formations.htm

Learn About Caves – National Caves Association

http://cavern.com/Learn/

Cave Safety and Techniques – National 

Speleological Society

http://caves.org/safety/

Natural Inquirer 

Connections

You may want to reference these 

Natural Inquirer resources for additional 

information and FACTivities: 

X To learn more about groundwater, 

read “Under Where” in the Natural 

Inquirer Freshwater edition.

This journal, along with others, can 

be found at: http://www.naturalinquirer.

org/all-issues.html.

If you are a trained Project 

Learning Tree educator, you 

may use “Water Wonders” 

as an additional resources.
59

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Caves and Karst 

Crossword

Across

4. An organism that causes disease.

5. Relating to the form of the landscape and other natural features of 

the earth’s surface.

7. Shelters occupied during the winter by a dormant animal.

9. Speed of movement.

10. The area of leaves that cover the ground like a roof.

11. The process of transferring from one person, animal, or place, to 

another.

16. Capable of being dissolved in or as if in a liquid, especially water.

17. A hollow in a limestone region that is related to a cave or 

underground passage.

19. Something attributed to some force beyond scientific 

understanding or the laws of nature

20. A cave formation formed by groundwater.

Complete the crossword puzzle below.

Name: 

1 2

3 4

5 6

7

8 9

10

11 12 13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Down

1. The name applied to a taxonomic group in a formal system of 

nomenclature.

2. The readiness with which gases pass into and out of a leaf’s 

surface.

3. Any of the substances found in food that are needed for the life and 

growth of plants and animals.

6. A scientist who studies the life of past geological periods as known 

from fossil remains.

8. An animal fecal dropping.

12. An organism that feeds mainly on insects.

13. The average condition of the weather over large areas, over a 

long time, or both.

14. To wear away by water or wind.

15. Material deposited by water, wind, or glaciers.

18. To draw out from the soil.

Created using the Crossword Maker on TheTeachersCorner.net

Across

4. An organism that causes disease.

5. Relating to the form of the landscape and other natural features of 

the earth’s surface.

7. Shelters occupied during the winter by a dormant animal.

9. Speed of movement.

10. The area of leaves that cover the ground like a roof.

11. The process of transferring from one person, animal, or place, to 

another.

16. Capable of being dissolved in or as if in a liquid, especially water.

17. A hollow in a limestone region that is related to a cave or 

underground passage.

19. Something attributed to some force beyond scientific 

understanding or the laws of nature

20. A cave formation formed by groundwater.

Complete the crossword puzzle below.

Name: 

1 2

3 4

5 6

7

8 9

10

11 12 13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Down

1. The name applied to a taxonomic group in a formal system of 

nomenclature.

2. The readiness with which gases pass into and out of a leaf’s 

surface.

3. Any of the substances found in food that are needed for the life and 

growth of plants and animals.

6. A scientist who studies the life of past geological periods as known 

from fossil remains.

8. An animal fecal dropping.

12. An organism that feeds mainly on insects.

13. The average condition of the weather over large areas, over a 

long time, or both.

14. To wear away by water or wind.

15. Material deposited by water, wind, or glaciers.

18. To draw out from the soil.

Created using the Crossword Maker on TheTeachersCorner.net
60

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Caves and Karst eyeChallenge

Explain what each of these photos represents. You may write your 

explanation or hold a class discussion. If you write your explanation, 

use complete sentences, proper spelling and grammar, and 

appropriate punctuation.

Photo courtesy of Marvin Morality, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Photo courtesy of Dr. Andrew Rypel.

Photo courtesy of Jonathan Mays, Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and 

Wildlife, via U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Photo courtesy of Ernesto Medina.

Photo courtesy of Dave Bunnell, Under Earth Images.
61

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer.

Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer.

Illustration by Stephanie Pfeiffer.

Photo courtesy of Ann Froschauer, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, via https://

www.flickr.com/.

Photo courtesy of stephanjezek, istockphoto.com
62

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

National Education Standards 

For more detailed correlations of this Natural Inquirer journal to National Education 

Standards, visit the Natural Inquirer website (http://www.naturalinquirer.org). Cave Conundrum Tropic Topic The Whole Kit and Kaboodle

A Tale of Two Caves

Science as Inquiry

Abilities Necessary To Do Scientific Inquiry

Understandings About Scientific Inquiry

Life Science

 Regulation and Behavior

 Populations and Ecosystems

 Diversity and Adaptations of Organisms

 Structure and Function in Living Systems

Earth Science

 Structure of Earth System

 Earth's History

Science in Personal and Social Perspectives

Risks and Benefits

 Science and Technology in Society

 Understandings about Science and Technology

History and Nature of Science

 Science as a Human Endeavor

 Nature of Science

 History of Science

Which National Science 

Education Standards Can 

These Articles Address?
63

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

Cave ConundrumTropic TopicThe Whole Kit and KaboodleA Tale of Two Caves

 Culture

 Time, Continuity, and Change

 People, Places, and Environments

 Science, Technology, and Society

Which National 

Curriculum Standards 

for Social Studies Can 

These Articles Address?

Photo courtesy of Brian Cooke
64

Caves & Karst Edition, http://www.naturalinquirer.org

What Is the Forest 

Service?

The Forest Service is part of 

the United States Department 

of Agriculture (USDA). The 

Forest Service is made up of 

thousands of people who care 

for the Nation’s forest land. The Forest 

Service manages 154 national forests and 

20 national grasslands. These are large 

areas of trees, streams, and grasslands.

National forests are similar in some ways 

to national parks. Both are public lands, 

meaning they are owned by the public and 

managed for the public’s use and benefit.

Both national forests and national parks 

provide clean water, homes for the animals 

that live in the wild, and places for people 

to do fun things in the outdoors. National 

forests also provide resources for people 

to use, such as trees for lumber, minerals, 

and plants used for medicines. Some people 

in the Forest Service are scientists whose 

work is presented in this journal. Forest 

Service scientists work to solve problems 

and provide new information about natural 

resources so that we can make sure our 

natural environment is healthy, now and into 

the future. 

http://www.fs.fed.us

What Is the Cradle of 

Forestry in America 

Interpretive 

Association?

The Cradle of Forestry 

in America Interpretive 

Association	is	a	501(c)(3)	nonprofit	

organization based in Pisgah Forest, North 

Carolina . The interpretive association 

strives to help people better understand 

ecology through recreation and education 

opportunities . Their projects include the 

following:

• Campground and recreation area 

management

• Educational programs and services, 

including Natural Inquirer, Investigator, 

Natural Inquirer Reader Series, NSI: 

Nature Science Investigator, scientist 

cards, and Leaf Prints (formerly NatureOriented Parenting)

• Sales of forest-related gifts and 

educational materials

• Workshops, newsletters, and 

publications

• Partnership with the Forest Service to 

provide programming at the Cradle of 

Forestry Historic Site

http://www.cfaia.org
65

Natural Inquirer • Number 20

In accordance with Federal civil rights law and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) civil rights regulations and policies, the USDA, its Agencies, 

offices, and employees, and institutions participating in or administering USDA programs are prohibited from discriminating based on race, color,

national origin, religion, sex, gender identity (including gender expression), sexual orientation, disability, age, marital status, family/parental status, 

income derived from a public assistance program, political beliefs, or reprisal or retaliation for prior civil rights activity, in any program or activity 

conducted or funded by USDA (not all bases apply to all programs). Remedies and complaint filing deadlines vary by program or incident.

Persons with disabilities who require alternative means of communication for program information (e.g., Braille, large print, audiotape, American Sign 

Language, etc.) should contact the responsible Agency or USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TTY) or contact USDA through the

Federal Relay Service at (800) 877-8339.

To file a program discrimination complaint, complete the USDA Program Discrimination Complaint Form, AD-3027, found online at http://www.

ascr.usda.gov/complaint_filing_cust.html and at any USDA office or write a letter addressed to USDA and provide in the letter all of the information

requested in the form. To request a copy of the complaint form, call (866) 632-9992. Submit your completed form or letter to USDA by: (1) mail: U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, D.C. 20250-9410; (2) fax:

(202) 690-7442; or (3) email: program.intake@usda.gov.

USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender.
United States 

Department 

of Agriculture

Forest Service

FS-1154

Spring 2020

Editorial Review Board—World Language Academy, Georgia: 

Mrs. Anna Moates - 8th grade English/Language Arts Class

Web Site Resources

Natural Inquirer

http://www.naturalinquirer.org

Forest Service 

http://www.fs.fed.us

USDA Forest Service Caves and Karst Program

https://www.fs.fed.us/science-technology/geology/

groundwater/caveskarst

CavesLIVE

https://www.caveslive.org

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