FEBRUARY 2013

Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology

National Science and Technology Council

SCIENCE FOR A N OCEA N 

NATION: U PDATE OF 

THE OCEA N R ESEARCH 

PRIORITIES PLAN

FEBRUARY 2013

Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology

National Science and Technology Council

SCIENCE FOR A N OCEA N 

NATION: U PDATE OF 

THE OCEA N R ESEARCH 

PRIORITIES PLAN
★ i ★

National Science and Technology Council

Committee on Environment, Natural Resources, and Sustainability

Department of State

Department of the Treasury

Department of Defense

Department of Justice

Department of the Interior

Department of Agriculture

Department of Commerce

Department of Labor

Department of Health and Human Services

Department of Homeland Security

Department of Transportation

Department of Energy

Department of Education

Department of Veterans Affairs

Environmental Protection Agency

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Central Intelligence Agency

National Institutes of Health

National Science Foundation

Office of Management and Budget

Office of Science and Technology Policy

Council of Economic Advisors

Council on Environmental Quality

Domestic Policy Council

National Economic Council

National Security Council

Smithsonian Institution

Domestic Policy Office of the Vice President

Department of Agriculture

Department of Commerce

Department of Defense

Department of Energy

Department of Health and Human Services

Department of Homeland Security

Department of the Interior

Department of Justice

Department of State

Department of Transportation

Environmental Protection Agency

Federal Emergency Management Agency

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Science Foundation

Smithsonian Institution

Also represented:

Council of Economic Advisors

Council on Environmental Quality

Domestic Policy Council

National Economic Council

Office of Management and Budget

Office of Science and Technology Policy
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

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Subcommittee on Ocean Science 

and Technology

Arctic Research Commission

Department of Agriculture

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Office of Naval Research

Department of Energy

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Food and Drug Administration

National Institutes of Health

U.S. Coast Guard

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

United States Geological Survey

Department of Justice

Department of State

Maritime Administration

Environmental Protection Agency

Council on Environmental Quality

Domestic Policy Council

Office of Management and Budget

Office of Science and Technology Policy

Joint Chiefs of Staff

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Science Foundation

Marine Mammal Commission

Smithsonian Institution
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EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT 

NATIONAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL 

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20502 

February, 2013 

Dear Colleague: 

I am pleased to transmit this document, Science for an Ocean Nation: An Update of the 

Ocean Research Priorities Plan, which presents national research priorities in key areas of 

interaction between society and the ocean.

Our Nation’s first ocean research priorities plan, Charting the Course for Ocean Sciences 

in the United States, was developed during 2005-06 and published in January 2007. Although it 

remains useful for many purposes, a number of issues not thoroughly addressed in that report 

have since risen in importance, including ocean acidification and rapidly changing conditions in 

the Arctic Ocean. Further, in July 2010 President Obama signed Executive Order 13547 

establishing America’s first National Ocean Policy, which calls for science-based decisionmaking as the Nation works to manage our ocean resources. For these and other reasons, the 

interagency National Science and Technology Council has crafted this update.

Structured around six societal themes, this report recommends research priorities 

designed to advance our understanding of critical ocean processes and phenomena that are 

relevant to human health, economic well-being, environmental sustainability, adaptation to 

climate and other environmental change, and national and homeland security. The report also 

provides updates on research progress in a number of these areas. 

I am confident that the full spectrum of stakeholders with interests in the health of the 

global ocean and the importance of the ocean to society will find this report to be of great value. 

Sincerely,

John P. Holdren 

Assistant to the President for Science and Technology 

Director, Office of Science and Technology Policy 

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In this Report

Numbered superscripts indicate endnotes

Additional Photo Information

Appendix 2

Contact

http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/ostp/nstc/oceans

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Why Now? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Revisiting the Ocean Research Priorities 3

The Need for Fundamental Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Ocean Science in Support of National Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Addressing National Challenges 7

Informing National Ocean Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Understanding Emerging Topics 9

Ocean Acidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Changing Conditions in the Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Societal Themes 15

Theme 1: Stewardship of Natural and Cultural Ocean Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Theme 2: Increasing Resilience to Natural Hazards and Environmental Disasters . . . . . . 25

Theme 3: Maritime Operations and the Marine Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Theme 4: The Ocean’s Role in Climate 40

Theme 5: Improving Ecosystem Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Theme 6: Enhancing Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Cross-cutting Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Foundational Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Global Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Social Sciences 64

Ocean Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

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Elements of Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Ocean Observations and Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Ocean Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Collaborative Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Mechanisms for Collaboration 78

International Communication and Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Achieving National Ocean Policy Priorities: Progress through Ocean Research . . . . . . . . 83

Ecosystem Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Coastal Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Climate Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Sensors for Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Looking Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Photo Descriptions and Credits 91

Abbreviations and Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
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Text Boxes

Box 1: Community Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Box 2: Priority Objectives of the National Ocean Policy 8

Box 3: Ocean Acidification 11

Box 4: Arctic Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Box 5: Deepwater BP Oil Spill 33

Box 6: Supporting the National Ocean Policy: Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Box 7: Supporting the National Ocean Policy: Social Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Box 8: Supporting the National Ocean Policy: Ocean Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Box 9: Supporting the National Ocean Policy: Observations and Infrastructure . . . . . . . . 73

Box 10: Supporting the National Ocean Policy: Predictive Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Box 11: Supporting the National Ocean Policy: Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Box 12: Supporting the National Ocean Policy: International Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . 81

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Executive Summary

The environmental integrity and sustainable productivity of the ocean, our coasts and coastal watersheds, and the Great Lakes play a central role in the well-being of all Americans. Every day, the marine 

environment supplies a multitude of products and services that enhance and support the lives and 

livelihoods of citizens. In 2011, Americans, on average, ate 15 pounds of fish and shellfish per person 

– 4.7 billion pounds all together – making the United States second in the world in total seafood consumption.1

 Offshore oil production in Federal waters accounts for fully 24 percent of total U.S. crude 

oil production. More than half of the United States population lives in coastal watershed counties, and 

these counties generate 58 percent ($8.3 trillion) of the Nation’s gross domestic product (GDP)—even 

though they comprise only 25 percent of the Nation’s land area.2 If American coastal watershed counties were considered an individual country, that country would have a GDP higher than that of China.3

Recognizing the central role these environments and their resources play, and the many sometimescompeting demands placed on them, President Obama issued Executive Order 13547, Stewardship of the 

Ocean, Our Coasts, and the Great Lakes, on July 19, 2010.4 The Executive Order established a comprehensive National Ocean Policy to improve the Nation’s stewardship of the ocean, our coasts, and the Great 

Lakes. The Policy, which adopts the Final Recommendations of the Interagency Ocean Policy Task Force,

5

calls for use of the best available science to inform decisions affecting these essential ecosystems as 

well as to enhance humanity’s capacity to understand and respond to a changing global environment. 

Full implementation of the National Ocean Policy will require significant progress in ocean science and 

more effective application of research results to aid decision-making. These two important concepts 

drove the selection of issues that frame this document, Science for an Ocean Nation.

Science for an Ocean Nation sets priorities for scientific research that support the National Ocean Policy 

goal of balancing the productive use of the marine environment with its stewardship and protection. It 

represents the consensus view of 25 Federal agencies regarding key ocean science research areas and 

incorporates extensive input from outside the Federal Government. 6 This report is constructed around 

six societal themes that frame ocean research in terms of the needs of Americans. Within these societal 

themes, Science for an Ocean Nation presents research priorities with the greatest potential to provide 

benefits to the Nation.

This report builds on its predecessor, Charting the Course for Ocean Science in the United States for the Next 

Decade (“Charting the Course”),

7

 by updating research priorities, addressing emerging areas of research, 

and highlighting accomplishments resulting from Charting the Course. It also highlights cross-cutting 

capabilities and approaches that can help provide the technological advancements, broad perspective, 

and community structure needed to address the research priorities.

The themes that frame Science for an Ocean Nation represent key areas of interaction between human 

society and the ocean. The research priorities within each societal theme draw upon both natural and social 

sciences and aim to improve the tools required not only to carry out research but also to translate, disseminate, and apply the results of that research to address pressing issues facing the Nation and the world.
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

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Theme 1: Stewardship of Natural and Cultural Ocean Resources

Stewardship is at the core of the National Ocean Policy. The Policy calls for ecosystem-based management (EBM) as a guiding principle and approach, and coastal and marine spatial planning (marine 

planning) as a tool for achieving it. Ecosystem-based management requires intricate knowledge of 

ecosystems and consideration of the interactions within and between them. It also recognizes humans 

as integral parts of the equation. Research priorities within this theme focus on understanding changes 

in resource abundance and distribution, habitat–species and interspecies relationships, and interactions 

among human use patterns, resource stability, and sustainability. They also aim to enhance the societal 

benefits of ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes natural resources.

Priorities:

• Understand the status and trends of resource abundance and distribution through more accurate, timely, and synoptic assessments;

• Understand interspecies and habitat–species relationships to support forecasting of resource 

stability and sustainability;

• Understand human-use patterns that may influence resource stability and sustainability; and

• Conduct applied research using advanced understanding to enhance the benefits of various 

natural resources from the ocean, coasts, coastal watersheds, and Great Lakes.

Theme 2: Increasing Resilience to Natural Hazards and Environmental Disasters

Impacts to coastal and Great Lakes ecosystems and communities from natural hazards and environmental disasters range from disruption of processes and services to destruction of homes and habitats. 

Assessments of risk, vulnerability, and resilience are necessary to fully implement ecosystem-based 

management and restoration, planning, and recovery activities, and are required elements for marine 

planning. Development in areas at risk (e.g., from wind and floods) is the most significant contributor 

to the impact on humans of natural disasters, and it is likely that climate change will cause an increase 

in losses. The amplified changes taking place in the Arctic are of special concern. Research priorities 

under this theme focus on understanding and forecasting natural hazards; assessing community and 

ecosystem risks; and supporting development of models and other decision-support tools, policies, 

and strategies for hazard mitigation.

Priorities:

• Understand how hazard events initiate and evolve, and apply that understanding to improve 

forecasts of hazard events;

• Understand the response of coastal and marine systems to natural hazards and apply that 

understanding to assessments of future vulnerability to natural hazards, including the increased 

vulnerability caused by climate change; and

• Develop multi-hazard risk assessments and support development of models, policies, and 

strategies for hazard mitigation.
Execu tive Summary

★ xiii ★

Theme 3: Maritime Operations and the Marine Environment

Recreational boating, commercial and recreational fishing, shipping, military operations, and energy 

exploration and development provide critical benefits to society while also having impacts on ocean, 

coastal, and Great Lakes environments. At the same time, fleets of ships and other marine systems serve 

as platforms for scientific observation that can return data on changing conditions worldwide. Priorities 

under this theme focus on understanding the interactions between maritime operations and the environment, and using that understanding to predict changing conditions in the marine environment.

Priorities:

• Understand the interactions between marine operations and the environment; and

• Improve understanding of environmental factors affecting marine operations to better characterize and predict conditions in the maritime domain.

Theme 4: The Ocean’s Role in Climate

The National Ocean Policy emphasizes the importance of better integrating ocean and coastal science 

with the broader domain of climate observations and climate modeling to assess vulnerabilities, develop 

adaptation strategies, and make policy and management decisions. Research priorities under this 

theme focus on understanding ocean–climate interactions within and across regions, understanding 

the impact of climate change and changing ocean biogeochemistry (including ocean acidification) on 

marine ecosystems, and projecting future climate change and its impacts, particularly in the Arctic. Such 

projections of changing conditions form the foundation for the adaptive management and planning 

efforts espoused by the National Ocean Policy.

Priorities:

• Understand ocean–climate interactions within and across regions;

• Understand the impact of climate variability and change on the biogeochemistry of the ocean 

and the implications for ocean ecosystems; and

• Apply understanding of the oceans to help project future global climate changes and their 

impacts.
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ xiv ★

Theme 5: Improving Ecosystem Health

The National Ocean Policy sets forth broad goals for ecosystem protection and restoration. Understanding 

ecosystems is a necessary step toward being able to improve their health. Data and research insights 

are needed to articulate requirements for ecosystem assessments and forecasts; address vulnerabilities 

and risks; increase resilience; and inform tradeoffs and priorities. The research priorities under this theme 

emphasize understanding and predicting the impact of natural and human-caused processes on ecosystems, including ocean acidification; developing socioeconomic assessments and models of human 

impact on ecosystems; developing appropriate metrics for sustainable management; and ensuring 

adequate restoration measures following major natural or human-induced catastrophes.

Priorities:

• Understand and predict the impact of natural and anthropogenic processes on ecosystems;

• Apply understanding of natural and anthropogenic processes to develop socioeconomic 

assessments and models to evaluate the impact of multiple human uses on ecosystems; and

• Apply understanding of marine ecosystems to develop appropriate indicators and metrics for 

effective management and sustainable use.

Theme 6: Enhancing Human Health

Human health is linked to the health of ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes environments. This theme 

includes priorities to use knowledge of ocean ecosystems and biodiversity to understand ocean 

processes that create risks or benefits to human health, as well as how ocean-borne human health 

threats affect the use and valuation of ocean resources. It also recognizes that decision making and 

coordinated action at local to global levels to protect human health requires science-based information, 

research on community adaptation and resilience, and increased public awareness of both concerns 

and opportunities.

Priorities:

• Understand sources and processes contributing to ocean-related risks to human health;

• Understand human health risks associated with the ocean and the potential benefits of ocean 

resources to human health;

• Understand how human use and valuation of ocean resources can be affected by ocean-borne 

human health threats and how human activities can influence these threats; and

• Apply understanding of ocean ecosystems and biodiversity to develop products and biological 

models to improve human well-being.
★ xv ★

Preface

In 2007, the 25 Federal agencies represented on the National Science and Technology Council 

Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology (SOST – then named the Joint Subcommittee on 

Ocean Science and Technology) published Charting the Course for Ocean Science in the United States for 

the Next Decade (“Charting the Course”). This community-based national plan described what were, at 

that time, the most urgent ocean research issues at the intersection of society and the ocean. It pointed 

to areas in need of attention to better understand the ocean and its resources and to shape decisions 

regarding their use and protection.

In the six years since Charting the Course was released, much has changed. Most significantly, a National 

Ocean Policy and associated governance structure have been created for ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes 

stewardship. Furthermore, significant scientific progress has led to new insights, and new research areas 

have emerged. In this document, the SOST presents updated ocean research priorities that reflect events 

and accomplishments that have occurred since Charting the Course was published. It more fully incorporates what were, in 2007, newly emerging issues, such as changing ocean chemistry and decreasing 
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ xvi ★

ice cover in the Arctic related to global change. Science for an Ocean Nation builds on new knowledge 

of the ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes, and improvements in our ability to gain access to these 

environments. It acknowledges the growing importance of human-caused and natural disasters, which 

make clear the need for sound science to inform difficult decisions regarding the use and protection of 

resources. This document also more prominently recognizes the important role of social and behavioral 

sciences in decision-making and in implementing change to better understand and manage ocean, 

coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes resources.

Science for an Ocean Nation is informed by our current state of knowledge, but also looks ahead to a 

future in which our understanding of the ocean and our interactions with it reaches new heights. This 

updated plan presents shared agency priorities to achieve that future – one endowed with the robust 

scientific foundation needed to guide society’s wise use, stewardship, and enjoyment of the ocean and 

ocean-related resources.
★ 1 ★

Introduction

America has been a maritime nation since its inception, when shipping and commerce, maritime security, 

and fishing were critical to our fledgling country. As our country and population have grown, maritime 

commerce and ocean and coastal resources have become more important to our national prosperity, 

while ocean and coastal hazards and disasters have become more damaging.

In recognition of the ocean’s vast wealth of resources, vulnerable health, and our responsibility to be 

informed stewards, Presidential Executive Order 13547, Stewardship of the Ocean, Our Coasts, and the 

Great Lakes, was issued on July 19, 2010, adopting the Final Recommendations of the Interagency Ocean 

Policy Task Force8 and providing for a comprehensive and integrated National Ocean Policy designed 

to improve the Nation’s stewardship of the ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes. A unifying theme 

throughout the National Ocean Policy is that responsible use and stewardship of resources should be 

informed by and consistent with the best available science.
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

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Together, Science for an Ocean Nation and the National Ocean Policy seek to dramatically change the 

way we understand, use, manage, and protect the ocean, our coasts and coastal watersheds, and the 

Great Lakes. Science for an Ocean Nation establishes priorities to guide science that supports the National 

Ocean Policy’s goal of balancing the use of the 

marine environment with its stewardship and 

protection.

As a country, we already are making decisions 

about resource use, whether balancing oil exploration and fisheries, developing shipping strategies for the Arctic, or setting aside areas for conservation. In the future, we will face increasingly 

multifaceted choices regarding the fate of coastal 

cities threatened by rising sea level, the health 

of marine ecosystems that are changing due to 

climate and other influences, and the use of areas 

and resources to accommodate new and emerging industries and technologies. Moving forward, the 

decisions and trade-offs that accompany these choices likely will become more complex and more 

consequential to our Nation’s security and prosperity.

Coping with change of the magnitude envisioned requires both significant progress in ocean science 

and transformation of how ocean scientists connect with the larger world. These two requirements 

informed the societal themes and cross-cutting topics that underpin this document. Success in bringing 

about change will require new intellectual partnerships, particularly between natural scientists who can 

model environmental change, economists who can assess trade-off options, and social and behavioural 

scientists who can address motivations for and consequences of change. Effective decision making and 

adaptation will also require an engaged public and broader and stronger partnerships among scientists, 

policy makers, and managers at all levels, both domestically and abroad.

Preparing for and addressing change will require significant improvement in ocean observations and 

models scaled to both societal and scientific needs. Meeting these needs will cause ocean science to 

move rapidly toward solutions, regardless of the theme or topic under consideration. These requirements for success are common to all the societal themes and are further developed in the discussion 

of cross-cutting topics.

Why Now?

Charting the Course, which was drafted during 2005 and 2006 and published in early 2007, was developed as a prioritized decadal plan for interdisciplinary research to better manage the ocean challenges 

known at the time and those expected over the next decade. It called for revisiting the plan on a regular 

basis. This report responds to that call by addressing emergent priorities and several events that have 

taken place since 2007.

In March 2009, the Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009 (Public Law 111-11) was enacted, 

calling attention, again, to the importance of understanding and properly managing ocean, coastal, 

coastal watershed, and Great Lakes resources. The law includes five sections on critical ocean and coastal 
Introduction

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issues including exploration, observations, ocean acidification, and mapping, spurring further action 

in these areas. The legislation also reenlists the Subcommittee on Ocean Science & Technology (SOST) 

and its member agencies to work with the wider ocean community toward progress.

In June 2009, the President established the Interagency Ocean Policy Task Force to develop our Nation’s 

first National Ocean Policy. The National Ocean Policy strongly identifies the integral role of science in 

meeting its goals and specifically includes policy points, principles, and objectives that call for scientific 

understanding, education, and technological advancement. Science for an Ocean Nation links this science 

to societal needs and provides a framework that will allow ocean research priorities to be quickly and 

effectively implemented to advance the National Ocean Policy’s objectives.

The Deepwater BP oil spill highlighted the wide and reverberating impacts that the loss of ocean and 

coastal resources can have on our country, and the critical importance of effective stewardship. It also 

emphasized the complex interplay of society and human health with chemical, physical, and biological 

aspects of the ocean and our coasts. It revealed significant areas in need of improvement, including our 

ability to monitor and observe the ocean in real time; to rapidly share information; to understand, model, 

and predict the consequences of extreme events in the context of a changing ocean; and to apply those 

insights to a rapid and effective response.

Revisiting the Ocean Research Priorities

In updating priorities for ocean research, the SOST undertook considerable outreach to the ocean 

community as a whole (see Box 1). Input from the wider community and extensive internal discussion 

revealed that the six societal themes presented in Charting the Course remain timely and relevant today. 

Thus, they were retained as the basis of Science for an Ocean Nation:

• Stewardship of Natural and Cultural Ocean Resources

• Increasing Resilience to Natural Hazards

• Maritime Operations and the Marine Environment

• The Ocean’s Role in Climate

• Improving Ecosystem Health

• Enhancing Human Health

In addition, the SOST considered external input in its review of the 20 individual priorities that were 

designed to advance science in support of the six societal themes. While progress has been made on 

these areas, the SOST determined that additional progress would provide significant benefits toward 

societal needs.
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ 4 ★

The updated document adds a set of cross-cutting topics that address prominent issues and priorities 

that influence every societal theme:

• Global Climate Change

• Social Sciences

• Ocean Literacy

• Ocean Observations and Infrastructure

• Ocean Modeling

• Mechanisms for Collaboration

• International Communication and Cooperation

This new report also updates the societal themes, notably with an increased 

focus on global change and an emphasis on the Arctic, and highlights both 

progress and remaining priorities. It 

also illustrates the direct link between 

the research priorities and National 

Ocean Policy priority objectives, noting 

the foundational relationship of basic 

research to sound policy and management decisions.

With progress supported by Federal 

agencies, the research priorities defined 

in this report form a strong framework 

for tackling urgent issues that may 

change through time.

Box 1: Community Input

In updating the ocean research priorities, the SOST worked 

closely with stakeholders from many sectors. Science for an 

Ocean Nation:

• Incorporates community comments received through:

− Town hall meetings at national meetings and 

conferences

− Dear Colleague Letter in a national publication

• Addresses public comments solicited through the Federal 

Register on accomplishments and gaps in the original 

plan and its implementation, and on new needs

• Considers public comments and agency perspectives 

highlighting sustained priorities and new needs

• Addresses input from:

− Subcommittee on Integrated Management of Ocean 

Resources

− Ocean Research Advisory Panel
Introduction

★ 5 ★

The Need for Fundamental Research

Scientific discovery, driven mostly by competitive, peer-reviewed investigations, is a major part of the 

Nation’s research enterprise and is essential for informing the National Ocean Policy. Fundamental 

research that expands the scientific frontier enhances and deepens our understanding of the ocean 

and its role in the Earth system. To make progress, it is essential to cultivate and investigate new ideas 

about the ocean and new approaches for exploring the marine environment that may challenge existing 

interpretations. In doing so, society should recognize and even encourage risk-taking in supporting the 

most exciting and promising ideas for making progress in understanding the ocean. Progress requires 

the continued support of both systematic measurements of the ocean’s properties and the freedom to 

pursue new ideas and technology.

Better access to ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes ecosystems made possible by scientific and technological innovation will continue to enable breakthroughs in basic understanding of biology, chemistry, 

geology, and physics in these ecosystems, as well as the connections among them. Improved access 

to the ocean, coasts, coastal watersheds, and Great Lakes depends on advances in infrastructure and 

technology such as advanced sensors, satellites, and unmanned vehicles. The reach of ocean science 

research can be significantly expanded by leveraging the capabilities of other disciplines, including 

nanotechnology, robotics, genomics, and other areas to enable new access to and perspectives on the 

ocean environment. A workforce that is eager to push the limits of scientific knowledge and technological innovation will support the scientific discoveries necessary to address fundamental scientific 

questions and advance the use of science to support operational activities to meet national needs.

By definition, unforeseen breakthroughs and paradigm shifts cannot be planned. Therefore, this document focuses on underscoring—rather than attempting to define or comprehensively enumerate—the 

fundamental research efforts that provide the foundation for understanding the ocean. It emphasizes 

the research efforts with particular anticipated societal applications, while invoking the fundamental 

research that provides the foundation for those applications.

★ 7 ★

Ocean Science in Support 

of National Interests 

Addressing National Challenges

Our national agenda of social, economic, and environmental goals is focused on ensuring the health, 

prosperity, safety, and security of all citizens. Progress on this agenda has become more challenging 

in recent years with the emergence of a series of global issues with national implications and local 

repercussions. Primary among these are climate change and energy independence, which feed into 

issues of sustainable economic well-being and national and homeland security. The magnitude, reach, 

and level of interconnection among these issues require significant and sustained attention. Decisions 

on how to manage, mitigate, and adapt to the challenges caused by these issues have the potential to 

alter our economy, our security, our environment, and our daily lives.
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ 8 ★

In light of these challenges, essential aspects of protecting lives, enhancing livelihoods, and improving 

quality of life depend on healthy ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes ecosystems and 

resources; a secure maritime domain; and prosperous marine-based economic sectors. This reliance is 

apparent when the direct link between the marine environment and climate, sustainable development, 

and energy is stated in hard numbers. Fifty-two percent of the Nation’s total population lives in our 673 

coastal counties. In 2007, these coastal counties contributed $7.9 trillion to the Nation’s GDP, more than 

half of the total. Eight-and-a-half million people reside in the 100-year coastal flood hazard area, 16 

percent of whom were below poverty level in 2009.9 Changing global climate may add to the economic 

impact of coastal erosion and inundation as sea level rise makes these events even more severe. Over 

$3 trillion in real estate investments along 

the Atlantic and Gulf coasts could be better protected through improved building 

codes and land management practices.10

Coastal storms account for 71 percent of 

recent annual disaster losses totaling $7 

billion per year, 11 but coastal wetlands 

provide an estimated $23.2 billion in storm 

protection services each year.12 The ocean 

represents an immense resource for 

renewable energy that could revolutionize 

energy production and job creation in the 

United States. Some estimates indicate 

that harnessing 1/1,000th of the energy 

contained in the Gulf Stream’s current 

would supply Florida with 35 percent of its 

electrical needs.13

The success or failure of our response to 

national challenges lies in the information 

on which we base our decisions. In turn, 

the quality of that information relies on the 

science underlying it. Strengthening our 

understanding of ocean, coastal, coastal 

watershed, and Great Lakes ecosystems 

is urgent and essential. Progress on the 

research priorities outlined in this report 

will offer powerful support for informed 

action on our Nation’s environmental, economic, and social challenges.

Box 2: Priority Objectives of the 

National Ocean Policy

1. Ecosystem-based Management

2. Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning

3. Inform Decisions and Improve Understanding

4. Coordinate and Support (Management)

5. Resiliency and Adaptation to Climate Change and 

Ocean Acidification

6. Regional Ecosystem Protection and Restoration

7. Water Quality and Sustainable Practices on Land

8. Changing Conditions in the Arctic

9. Ocean, Coastal, and Great Lakes Observations, 

Mapping, and Infrastructure
Ocean Science in Support of National Interests

★ 9 ★

Informing National Ocean Policy

The National Ocean Policy sets out nine national priority objectives (see Box 2). The first four speak to how 

we as a country go about using and protecting the ocean, Great Lakes, and U.S. coasts and resources. 

The remaining five highlight areas where new science, technology, and decision support are especially 

urgent. Together, they form a general strategy for government and non-governmental stakeholders at 

all levels to implement the National Ocean Policy. It is a strategy founded on gathering, interpreting, 

and sharing science-based information to guide actions.

The National Ocean Policy addresses the direct link between stewardship of natural systems and human 

health, economic well-being, environmental sustainability, national prosperity, adaptation to climate 

and other environmental change, social justice, foreign policy, and national and homeland security. 

Its nine priority objectives constitute an initial strategy to address some of the most pressing ocean, 

coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes challenges, and provide a bridge between the policy on 

paper and action on the ground.

Underscoring the need for the Nation to continue pursuit of the research priorities highlighted in Science 

for an Ocean Nation is the link between these priorities and the National Ocean Policy. The National 

Ocean Policy repeatedly emphasizes the need for and importance of science in implementing policy and 

supporting management decisions. One of the overarching policy principles is “support of disciplinary 

and interdisciplinary science, research, monitoring, mapping, modeling, forecasting, exploration and 

assessment” and one of the priority objectives is “Inform Decisions and Improve Understanding.” These 

specific references illustrate the strong, overarching connection between research and policy. Progress 

on the ocean research priorities not only advances understanding, but also provides critical support for 

moving forward on the policy objectives.

As a result of Charting the Course, Federal agencies have made particular progress in the four areas 

identified in that document as Near-term Priorities for initiating rapid progress. Accomplishments in 

these areas contributed to the priority objectives outlined in the National Ocean Policy. Details on 

these efforts and their role in advancing the National Ocean Policy are provided in a following section, 

“Achieving National Ocean Policy Priorities: Progress through Ocean Research.”

Understanding Emerging Topics

Two significant scientific priorities were just emerging as Charting the Course was being developed. 

Their full impact on both ocean science and policy is now being recognized. Research priorities related 

to these two emerging topics are noted in the societal themes on The Ocean’s Role in Climate and 

Improving Ecosystem Health.

Ocean Acidification

Increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere results in increased CO2 in the ocean, where it lowers 

pH and changes fundamental ocean chemistry. Organisms that build their shells and skeletons from 

calcium carbonate are particularly affected. Resulting impacts include increased stress on coral reefs, 

changes in food chains for commercial fisheries, and disruption of the natural processes that transport 

and store carbon in the deep ocean. An even more acidic ocean of the future will have a profound 
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ 10 ★

impact on marine biodiversity, species viability and distribution, and food webs, but understanding 

the form those changes will take or their net effect on marine ecosystems is a considerable challenge 

for adaptation and mitigation.

Science for an Ocean Nation expands the preliminary view of ocean acidification included in Charting the 

Course and builds on a number of recent events, including inclusion of this topic in the National Ocean 

Policy and passage of the Federal Ocean Acidification Research and Monitoring Act of 2009. As directed 

in this legislation, the SOST has established an Interagency Working Group on Ocean Acidification 

(IWG-OA), which has completed an inventory of agency activities. The IWG-OA is preparing a Strategic 

Plan for Ocean Acidification Research and Monitoring, which will incorporate science priorities from a 

growing number of national and international assessments, including one by the National Academy of 

Sciences, Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean14 (see Box 3).

Over the past several years, the SOST agencies have accelerated their support for research on ocean 

acidification in recognition of its growing threat and the lack of basic understanding of biological and 

chemical responses to acidification of the ocean. Current activities undertaken to advance the understanding of ocean acidification include:

• Research funding announcements with ocean acidification components;

• Increased coastal and ocean monitoring of ocean acidification;

• Research to determine the impacts of ocean acidification on living marine resources, including individual, population, and ecosystem level effects; and research on corals, economically 

important fishery species, and other ecologically important species;

• Development of advanced remote and in situ ocean acidification sensing technologies; and

• Examination of the relationship between ocean acidification and the Clean Water Act.

These activities are identifying areas, species, and ecosystems of concern, as well as potential ecosystem impacts. This will enable assessment of socioeconomic impacts, development of adaptation and 

mitigation strategies, and ultimately, improved conservation and management of natural resources.
Ocean Science in Support of National Interests

★ 11 ★

Box 3: Ocean Acidification

The 2010 National Academy of Sciences report Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the 

Challenges of a Changing Ocean noted the overarching need for a “National Program” and highlighted 

eleven recommendations:

• Create an adequate and adaptive chemical monitoring program.

• Support consistent and clear data acquisition via inter-calibration and standards development.

• Review existing and emergent observing networks to identify and fill critical gaps.

• Plan for long-term sustainability of an integrated ocean acidification observation network.

• Focus on eight unranked priorities:

− Understand processes affecting acidification in coastal waters.

− Understand the physiological mechanisms of biological responses.

− Assess the potential for acclimation and adaptation.

− Investigate the response of individuals, populations, and communities.

− Understand ecosystem-level consequences.

− Investigate the interactive effects of multiple stressors.

− Understand the implications for biogeochemical cycles.

− Understand the socioeconomic impacts and inform decisions.

• Identify, engage, and respond to stakeholders to develop a broad strategy for decision support.

• Create a data management office and provide it with adequate resources.

• Establish an Ocean Acidification 

Information Exchange to provide timely 

research results, syntheses, and assessments that are of value to managers, policy 

makers, and the general public.

• Assess facilities and human resource needs.

• Create a detailed implementation plan with 

community input.

• Create a program office with the resources 

to ensure successful coordination and 

integration of all the elements outlined in 

the Federal Ocean Acidification Research 

and Monitoring Act of 2009 and this report.
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ 12 ★

Changing Conditions in the Arctic

The National Ocean Policy recognizes that changing conditions in the Arctic create a special focus area 

for the Nation’s research agenda.

The Arctic has vast untapped strategic natural resources in some of the most pristine and vulnerable 

ecosystems on Earth. Though seemingly isolated, this unique region has global influence on both human 

activities and the natural environment. Changes in the Arctic can have profound implications for global 

climate change. Fresh meltwater flowing into the ocean can change the ocean circulation system. 

Melting permafrost releases greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Diminishing ice cover increases 

planetary warming as less solar energy is reflected away from the planet. As summer sea ice diminishes, 

access to the Arctic for tourism, resource extraction, shipping, and other potential activities will increase, 

enhancing economic prospects and increasing environmental risks.

The potential for a significant increase in human 

activity in the Arctic, coupled with a shifting environment, raises many 

policy questions. Science 

is essential to answering 

such questions but, as 

noted by the U.S. Arctic 

Research Commission 

in its Report on Goals 

and Objectives for Arctic 

Research 2009–2010,

15 we 

are greatly hampered by 

the lack of observational 

capability, data, studies, 

and models in the Arctic 

(see Box 4).

The U.S. Arctic Research 

Commission’s report, the 

National Ocean Policy, 

and ongoing agency 

activities all support a 

more focused U.S. Arctic 

policy. Reviewed and 

revised in 2009, the U.S 

Arctic Policy is to meet 

national security and 

homeland security needs 

Box 4: Arctic Research

Supported by multiple Federal agencies with responsibilities in the Arctic, 

the U.S. Arctic Research Commission calls on the U.S. Arctic Research 

Program to strengthen efforts in five areas:

• Environmental change of the Arctic, 

Arctic Ocean, and Bering Sea;

• Arctic human health;

• Civil infrastructure;

• Natural resource assessment and 

earth science; and

• Indigenous languages, cultures, and 

identities.

The Commission’s Report on Goals 

and Objectives for Arctic Research 

2009–2010 highlights the need for:

• Continued development of an Arctic 

observing network;

• Further research on urgent environmental change;

• Establishment of baseline oceanographic data;

• Planning for oil spill response in ice-covered waters;

• Addressing impacts and opportunities of increased shipping and 

energy development; and

• Research infrastructure and human capital.
Ocean Science in Support of National Interests

★ 13 ★

while protecting the environment, ensuring sustainable development, and practicing precautionary 

resource management. It highlights the need to “enhance scientific monitoring and research into local, 

regional, and global environmental issues. ”16 Progress being made to address research challenges for 

Arctic issues includes:

• Ongoing acquisition of data, catalyzed by research activities during the first International Polar 

Year (2007);

• Continuing development of the Arctic Observing Network;

• Construction of a modern research vessel capable of working at the ice edge; and

• Involving local native stakeholders and their traditional knowledge in environmental assessments and decision making.

A number of agencies are undertaking comprehensive reviews of their Arctic programs and policies, 

which will feed into strategic actions developed under the National Ocean Policy. Environmental stewardship of the Arctic will require strong collaboration and international partnerships. Research to improve 

scientific information, assess short- and long-term environmental trends, develop early warning systems, 

develop systems to respond to pollution incidents, and promote sustainable resource management will 

be a major component of the strategy.

★ 15 ★

Societal Themes

Science for an Ocean Nation presents ocean research priorities grouped under six societal themes that 

encompass significant and compelling issues in key areas of interaction between society and the ocean. 

Chosen because of their impact across economic, environmental, security, health, and societal concerns, 

the societal themes present ocean research in terms of societal needs. The research priorities for each 

theme address the most pressing issues–those that are in need of focused attention to make progress. 

They include both natural and social sciences and the tools required for carrying out research and 

translating and disseminating research results. While these research priorities are presented in terms 

of U.S. needs, it should be noted that many of our national issues are inherently global in nature in that 

they extend beyond U.S. coasts and waters in their scope and influence. Addressing the full scale of such 

priorities will necessarily require a global approach in terms of the geographic extent of research and 

the partnering likely needed to conduct this research and distribute its results.
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ 16 ★

This report carries forward the research priorities laid out in Charting the Course, identified according 

to the following criteria:

• Is the proposed research transformational (e.g., will the proposed research enable significant 

advances for insight and application, even with potentially high risk for its success; would success provide dramatic benefits for the Nation)?

• Does the proposed research impact many societal thematic areas?

• Does the research address high-priority needs of resource managers?

• Would the research provide understanding of high value to the broader scientific community?

• Will the research promote partnerships to expand the Nation’s capabilities (e.g., contributions 

from other partners, including communities outside of ocean science, such as health science; 

unique timing of activities)?

• Does the research serve to contribute to or enhance the leadership of the United States in 

ocean science?

• Does the research contribute to a greater understanding of ocean issues at local to global scales?

• Does the research address mandates of governing entities (Federal agencies, state, tribal, and 

local governments)?
S o c i e ta l Themes

★ 17 ★

Theme 1: 

Stewardship of Natural and 

Cultural Ocean Resources

Effective stewardship of the tremendous resources provided by the ocean, continental shelves, coastal 

areas and watersheds, and Great Lakes will ensure that these resources and benefits are available for 

future generations. These areas provide us with food, water, chemicals, minerals, materials for medical 

advances, energy, means of transportation, recreation, and tourism. The ocean preserves a record of 

the world’s cultural past in shipwrecks and other archaeological sites, while forming an integral part of 

America’s cultural landscape. The ocean remains a vast, largely unexplored realm with the capacity to 

provide new pharmaceuticals, industrial products, and renewable energy. At the same time, its resources 

are subject to many pressures, such as overfishing and bycatch, habitat disturbance and loss, pollution, 

and competition from invasive species. To unlock the full resource potential of the ocean, continental 

shelves, coastal areas and watersheds, and Great Lakes, society should improve understanding of these 

areas and find an appropriate and sustainable balance between resource conservation and use.

Rationale

The U.S. has the largest Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of any nation.17,18 Our EEZ provides numerous 

ecosystem services to society. Commercial fisheries within the EEZ and contiguous inshore waters 

support about $100 billion in annual sales for the seafood industry.19 Fishery resources also support 

the $80 billion recreational fishing industry.20 Recent advances in aquaculture are increasingly contributing to the seafood supply. While very little of current aquaculture production occurs in the U.S. EEZ 

there is substantial potential for future development. The total current market value of the oil and gas 

inventory in our EEZ is approximately $11 trillion, including an estimated $10 trillion in undiscovered, 

technically recoverable resources.21 Total gross wind resources off the U.S. coasts are estimated at more 

than 4,000 gigawatts, or approximately four times the current generating capacity of the U.S. electric 
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ 18 ★

grid.22 Developing wind resources in shallow waters, which are the most likely to be technically and 

commercially feasible at this time, could provide at least 20 percent of the electricity needs of almost 

all our coastal States, which use about 80 percent of total U.S. demand.23 Approximately 200,000 trillion 

cubic feet of gas hydrate are present on land and the U.S. outer continental shelf (OCS).24, 25 The Great 

Lakes are the largest source of fresh water in the world.26 Healthy natural and cultural resources in our 

ocean and coastal areas are the foundation of a huge coastal tourism and recreation industry that is the 

fastest growing area of the ocean economy.27 Marine protected areas, sanctuaries, and designated critical 

habitats help conserve natural and cultural marine resources as well as attracting tourists. Prehistoric 

landscapes, shipwrecks, and historic and living waterfronts along the Nation’s coasts and Great Lakes 

all contribute to the national cultural heritage.

The scale and diversity of ocean resources is immense; however, resource use, exploration, and development often compete with other societal needs and values. Overexploitation of many fish stocks and 

alteration of habitats due to natural and anthropogenic causes have had profound consequences for 

many ecosystems and fishing communities. Increasing domestic energy production in the EEZ, both 

renewable and non-renewable, is critical to energy independence but brings with it concerns about 

environmental impacts. Increasing populations near the coasts and Great Lakes impact freshwater supplies, and can lead to degradation of water quality if wastewater disposal methods are not adequate. 

Evaluating and addressing the environmental consequences of resource use and extraction, combined 

with increased understanding of the social and economic value of natural and cultural resources and the 

factors that influence ecosystem and cultural resilience and health, can help balance the pressures being 

placed on coastal ecosystems, enable restoration of degraded habitats, and, ultimately, support robust, 

coordinated ecosystem-based management and governance strategies for sustainable resource use.

Resource management will need to be adaptive in the face of one of the largest challenges facing this 

generation—a changing global climate. Changing climate conditions are predicted to cause shifts in 

species distribution, reproductive timing, food webs, sea levels, weather patterns, and ocean chemistry. 

Thresholds and resilience are unknown for most ecosystems, although scientists know that different 

environments and species display unique sensitivities to climate variability. The current structure and 

function of ecosystems and the marine communities they support may change. The immediate impacts 

of climate change may be most evident in the Polar regions. In the Arctic, melting sea ice and retreating 

glaciers are changing the physical environment, opening of the Northwest Passage and increasing access 

to fossil fuels under the Arctic seabed, some of which may exist in commercial quantities adjacent to 

our EEZ. Fragile coral reef systems are threatened by coral bleaching and ocean acidification. Coastal 

wetlands and island communities are threatened by sea-level rise. New scientific research is needed to 

understand, predict, and adapt to the changes in ocean resources and the consequent effects on our 

economic and social activities.

The National Ocean Policy identifies ecosystem-based management (EBM) as crucial to stewardship of 

the Nation’s ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes resources. Compared to conventional 

resource management, EBM takes a more comprehensive, holistic approach. The key to success of an 

EBM approach is accurate assessment of the current condition of natural and cultural resources over 

various spatial and temporal scales, in the context of changing stresses. This ability and knowledge will 

provide the foundation for understanding the complex relationships between humans and living and 
S o c i e ta l Themes

★ 19 ★

non-living resources. Understanding these connections and the incremental and cumulative impacts 

of change on environment and human activity can help determine the likely outcomes of various 

management strategies. Research into issues of resource development, use, extraction, and regional 

variability will help society prevent major impacts to ecosystems, promote sound development and use 

of resources, preserve cultural sites and traditions, and support management efforts to restore depleted 

populations to healthy and sustainable levels. The research should be integrated into a comprehensive, 

scalable planning approach that balances the principles of EBM with societal uses of ocean resources.

Research Priorities

Progress to Date

Recent progress in scientific understanding of the structure and function of ecosystems is laying a better 

foundation for sound stewardship. For example, the Comparative Analysis of Marine Ecosystem 

Organization (CAMEO) program (named a Near-term Priority by Charting the Course) is helping to 

elucidate key ecosystem processes and the effects of such things as harvesting strategies and climate 

change on living marine resources. The Census of Marine Life, a ten-year global initiative, has made great 

strides in assessing and explaining the diversity, distribution, and abundance of marine life. Technological 

advances, such as the Critter Cam and Hab Cam, radar tracking of seabirds, and more robust marine 

mammal tags have furthered our understanding of migration patterns, habitat use, and behavior. Capital 

investments have been made in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) seagoing fleet including the commissioning and development of new acoustically quiet vessels to improve 

fish stock assessments and the only Federal vessel devoted exclusively to ocean exploration. Progress 

has also been made in our ability to assess energy and mineral resources and in the development of 

environmentally safe, renewable energy technologies. These scientific and technological advances have 

been bolstered by recently enacted legislation that supports stewardship of marine resources.
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ 20 ★

Updated Priorities

There has been recent progress in the stewardship of natural and cultural resources, but there is still 

need for continued efforts.

Research Priority 1: Understand the status and trends of resource abundance and distribution 

through more accurate, timely, and synoptic assessments.

• Assessing the coupled impacts of resource use and extraction (e.g., fisheries, ocean mining, 

tourism, energy) and systemic change, we should first measure the abundance and distribution of living and non-living resources in the open ocean, continental shelves, coastal areas and 

watersheds, and Great Lakes. To make these measurements, we need the tools and capabilities 

that will allow us to:

• Assess the status and health of fish stocks and protected resources;

• Monitor living resources (at multiple trophic levels) using both fishery-independent and fisherydependent data collected nearly continuously over wide swaths of ocean at appropriate levels 

of species resolution;

• Assess the spatial and temporal variability (both natural and use-induced) of resources (e.g., 

biota biodiversity, energy, minerals, pharmaceuticals), including in deep-water settings; and

• Provide sustained monitoring and mapping of natural and cultural resources to understand 

and better identify physical, biological, and social thresholds and shifts.

Developing and implementing these tools and capabilities in a systematic, proactive manner will 

not only improve the protection of resources, but may be more cost-effective compared to reactive 

and curative responses after disturbances or losses have already occurred. For example, consider the 

tremendous expense and economic dislocation associated with rebuilding depleted fish populations. 

Improved assessments will not only increase our capability to proactively reduce these costs, but 

also increase understanding of and our ability to minimize the secondary effects of harvesting, such 

as fisheries-induced changes to genetic diversity and population structure, loss of biodiversity, and 

bycatch of non-target species. Climate change necessitates that systematic observation of the status 

and trends of resources begin quickly to allow for the determination of system resilience and response 

as well as thresholds. This approach will enable adaptive long-term management of natural and cultural 

resources, using empirical evidence to design and modify management and marine planning strategies 

(e.g., individual harvest quotas, special use areas, marine protected areas).

Research Priority 2: Understand interspecies and habitat–species relationships to support 

forecasting of resource stability and sustainability.

Understanding the individual, incremental, and cumulative impacts of an ever-widening array of 

human activities (e.g., transportation, recreation, land use, fishing, energy exploration and development, increased food production from aquaculture) on water quality, habitat, and the ocean’s ability 

to support marine life and biodiversity is a necessary foundation for ecosystem-based management. 

Often the data necessary for these assessments are difficult to obtain because of practical limitations 
S o c i e ta l Themes

★ 21 ★

on controlled experimentation and replication in natural systems. Investing in observations, habitat 

characterization and mapping, process studies, and advanced modeling will expand current understanding of impacts at appropriate temporal and spatial scales, and help identify crucial data and gaps 

in process-understanding so that appropriate resource-management techniques can be developed 

and implemented.

Priorities to enable improved natural-resource forecasting include:

• Collection of necessary data (observational and experimental) to support robust models;

• Development and validation of ecosystem and species interaction models at appropriate scales 

that incorporate feedback mechanisms among trophic levels;

• Assessments of regional and local models of environmental changes (e.g., responses to annual, 

decadal, and longer-term climate drivers; rapid regime shifts; hydrodynamic circulation; watershed discharge) to help determine how these changes impact resources; and

• Development of approaches and scenarios to understand and integrate the specific and cumulative impacts of various natural resource policies on living resources and human communities; 

e.g., incorporating improved assessments of impacts on ecosystems (see Theme 5, Improving 

Ecosystem Health).

Research Priority 3: Understand human-use patterns that may influence resource stability and 

sustainability.

Determining the value of natural and cultural resources and evaluating the effects of alternative management scenarios require consideration of economic (market and non-market), sociological, and cultural 

knowledge, including potential competing uses. These assessments, coupled to the scientific evidence 

developed through other research priorities, will also support evaluations of the socioeconomic tradeoffs inherent in management efforts. Human-use data can be acquired through surveys and analysis of 

economic and sociological factors associated with a broad range of resource activities in the open ocean, 

continental shelves, coastal areas and watersheds, and Great Lakes. Socioeconomic data (e.g., resource 

cost and earning, demographics, income) that is geocoded (linked to geographical locations) can be 

combined with new methods of assessing non-market valuation (see Theme 5, Improving Ecosystem 

Health) to integrate socioeconomic and natural processes in models to determine their interactions. 

Social, cultural, and economic research, combined with resource-use assessment and modeling, will 

support effective evaluation of how various management options will impact resource use and sustainability. As management options can be more accurately evaluated, the balance points between resource 

use and conservation can be better determined. Improving outcomes of resource management through 

the effective application of marine planning is unequivocally linked to both public education and the 

education of the next generation of scientists and planners. The effectiveness of current educational 

approaches used to promote stewardship and achieve sustainable use of resources should be evaluated.
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ 22 ★

Research Priority 4: Conduct applied research using advanced understanding to enhance the 

benefits of various natural resources from the ocean, coasts, coastal watersheds, and Great Lakes.

Key technological advances are required to facilitate long-term and effective resource development 

and management; to make more responsible use of available renewable and non-renewable resources, 

such as energy, minerals (including sand), and pharmaceuticals; and to support alternatives to resource 

extraction (e.g., aquaculture, renewable energy), along with efforts to improve the efficacy of marine 

operations while simultaneously limiting their impacts. Areas of focus include, but are not limited to: 

Development of sustainable approaches to aquaculture that consider the implications for surrounding 

ecosystems, wild genetic resources, and impacts on coastal economies;

• Advancement of new sustainable energy technologies from the ocean, including efficient 

methods of power generation (e.g., wind and tidal power) and scientific information to fully 

consider impacts on marine life and marine processes;

• Development of a new generation of military subsurface detection systems that are less deleterious to species possessing sensitivities to acoustic emissions in certain sound ranges;

• Development of bycatch-reduction technologies for fisheries and protected resources (e.g., 

seabirds);

• Development of innovative economic and social research techniques and methodologies 

applicable to ocean and coastal industries and communities; and

• Use of advances in exploration technologies (e.g., geospatial, acoustic, bio-optical) to map and 

characterize the U.S. EEZ and continental shelf, and establish the outer limits of the U.S. continental shelf where it extends beyond the limits of the EEZ and assess important ecological and 

economic resources found there.
S o c i e ta l Themes

★ 23 ★

Tools to be Emphasized

Continued advancement in technologies and procedures would enable rapid, efficient, and synoptic 

assessment of ocean resources (including inventories and alterations). Right-sizing and improving the 

capabilities of the U.S. domestic fleet, including opportunities for covering all regions, would improve 

our ability to provide important information on the status of managed populations and the ecosystem 

effects of human activities. Additionally, improved in situ and remote-sensing tools would obtain necessary biological (e.g., species composition, abundance, and movements) and physical (e.g., current direction, wave height) parameters; track living marine resources throughout their ranges; detect changes 

in ocean character and biodiversity; and survey deep waters, particularly as energy exploration moves 

to the edges of the OCS and into previously inaccessible regions of the Arctic. Advances in unmanned 

aerial and autonomous underwater vehicles, as well as the use of marine animals as living platforms 

for data collection, will aid in collecting synoptic resource information. In addition to monitoring and 

assessment with existing technologies, new and improved technologies and protocols will expand the 

capabilities of fixed and mobile observing platforms to include biological and chemical sensors and 

advanced acoustics and mapping capabilities.

Improved ecosystem models would improve understanding of complex ecosystem dynamics and 

forecast the effects on ecosystems of resource use, exploration, and development. Improving these 

capabilities will further knowledge of the effects of climate change, habitat alteration, resource extraction, and the interactions of ecosystem components. Refining models will enable the prediction of 

emergent properties such as resilience and thresholds, as well as possible future states of ecosystems 

given current trajectories. Decision-support tools based on scientific research will assist in evaluating 

the impacts of human actions and the potential outcomes of different management strategies. There is 

a pressing need for “end-to-end” applications of science that translate sound scientific knowledge into 

a format that can be used as a basis for management decisions including visualization and valuation 

capabilities. Such applications will allow resource managers and stakeholders to make informed decisions in marine planning and in allocating space for competing uses. Partnering with various marine 

industries to undertake competitive and collaborative research is also important, particularly given the 

expense of marine research.

Improved information technology, data-support infrastructure, and data management policies are also 

a priority. For example, biological resource databases are generally not well-integrated with physical 

and human-use data. Comprehensive environmental databases with appropriate spatial and temporal resolution that integrate information from local, regional, national, and global sources are key to 

understanding ecosystem interactions and supporting effective and adaptive resource management. 

Geographic information systems with four-dimensional (latitude, longitude, depth, and time) predictive capability can integrate diverse data sets (e.g., physical, biological, economic, social, cultural) for 

spatial analysis, static and dynamic modeling, and improved scientific collaboration. Development of 

integrated ecosystem assessments, a priority detailed in the National Ocean Policy, will, in turn, expand 

understanding of interrelationships among the physical environment, ecosystems, and human activities 

and allow development of end-to-end applications for applying that understanding to decision making.
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ 24 ★

Implementation of these new approaches requires more technical and scientific personnel skilled 

in diverse disciplines including natural sciences, social sciences, and information technology for the 

operation, maintenance, and interpretation of information. Investment in training and maintaining this 

next-generation workforce is a key priority.

Regional Applicability

Open ocean, continental shelves, coastal areas and watersheds, and Great Lakes regions in the United 

States support a diverse set of living and non-living resources. Societal views of these resources often 

vary regionally, necessitating regionally different approaches to management. For example, the Gulf 

Coast is a major supplier of oil and natural gas, and marine planning there will have to balance energy 

production and exploration, habitat for commercially and ecologically important fisheries, sustainable 

development, and increasing resilience to natural disasters. The Pacific Islands and Caribbean are home 

to coral reefs threatened by rising water temperatures, overfishing, and ocean acidification. The Arctic 

region contains a variety of largely untapped resources in a changing physical environment, which is 

becoming more accessible every day. Additionally, native Arctic communities survive largely on subsistence harvesting of marine species. Differences between regions are not restricted to ecosystems but 

extend to management structures and cultures as well. Certain agencies may lead in one region, but 

not in others. In spite of this, the overarching need for comprehensive cooperation and collaboration 

is consistent throughout the Nation. All invested stakeholder groups need to be incorporated into the 

decision-making framework. The Puget Sound Partnership in Washington State is an excellent example 

of Federal and State governments, scientists, local tribes, and other citizens working together to improve 

the health of a regional ecosystem.
S o c i e ta l Themes

★ 25 ★

Theme 2:

Increasing Resilience to Natural Hazards 

and Environmental Disasters

Impacts of natural hazards and environmental disasters have enormous economic, environmental, 

social, public health, and homeland and international security consequences. With over 50 percent 

of the U.S. population living in coastal counties and that number rising each year,28 the United States 

should be adequately prepared for coastal disasters. Even as the Nation continues to direct significant 

Federal funding toward science and technology to assist in reducing the impacts of natural hazards, we 

face enormous losses each year from ocean and coastal hazards, including:

• Severe storms, hurricanes, tornadoes, and associated coastal and offshore wind, wave, and 

current damage;

• Coastal inundation and flooding from storms and regional meteorological events;

• Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, and resulting tsunamis; and

• Catastrophic pollution events, such as oil spills.

Not to be forgotten are the substantial costs of ecological degradation and public health threats associated with secondary impacts, notably the mobilization of contaminants, disease organisms, and debris 

materials following hazard events.

Rationale

Every natural disaster provides an opportunity to examine and improve capacity to forecast, assess, and 

mitigate, and respond to hazard events. Since the completion of Charting the Course, several natural 

disasters have provided devastating and deadly reminders of the continuing need for improved tools 

and technologies to prepare for, mitigate, and respond to hazard events. In 2008, Hurricanes Ike and 

Gustav struck the highly developed, highly vulnerable U.S. Gulf Coast. In 2009, the Samoan earthquake 
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ 26 ★

generated a tsunami that devastated a community and the ocean and coastal ecosystems on which that 

community relied. In 2010, earthquakes in Haiti and offshore of Chile took thousands of lives and forever 

changed communities, including those with marginal capacity to effectively respond and rebuild. That 

same year, the Deepwater BP oil spill in the United States caused one of the most severe environmental 

disasters that has ever occurred in this country (see inset). The substantial cost of these events, in lives lost 

and communities devastated, coupled with the long-term over-development of coastal communities, 

highlight the need for continued efforts to assess risk and vulnerability and to use that information to 

prioritize, develop, and implement effective and tailored community awareness programs and warning systems. As the pace of economic, ecological, and social recovery efforts subsequent to the above 

events shows, the resilience of impacted communities depends on the resilience of critical social and 

ecological services. Scientific assessments of hazards should include impacts beyond the immediate 

loss of life and infrastructure in order to fully grasp both the vulnerability and the resilience of at-risk 

communities and ecosystems.

Effective response to natural hazards is impeded by limitations in our ability to comprehensively assess 

hazard potential, vulnerability, and risk. Human and natural processes (e.g., land development, sea-level 

rise) constantly alter system vulnerability and risks to coastal communities. Comprehensive risk and 

vulnerability assessments should now consider climate change impacts including sea-level rise and 

resulting inundation, changes in coastal storm pattern and severity, sea ice loss, and degradation of coral 

reefs due to ocean acidification. This direct connection between a changing natural environment and 

the safety of coastal communities, infrastructure, operations, and ecosystems—and what this means to 

economic, social, health, and environmental security—is increasingly recognized among citizens and 

decision makers. These elements comprise the concept of coastal resilience and focus our attention on 

its importance. To reduce the social and economic impact of natural hazards, the public and decision 

makers should be educated about the risks, associated impacts, opportunities for mitigation, and the 

costs of responding to and not preparing for natural hazards. A sound scientific and technological 

basis for making decisions, such as that created through marine planning, should include improved 

models of hazard impacts, more accurate and timely forecasts, and thorough assessments of future 

hazard potential, vulnerability, and risk. In-depth scientific evaluation and classification of current social 

institutions will allow decision makers to build on successful efforts while identifying critical gaps in 

community resilience.

Engineering, insurance, and preparedness solutions to coastal hazard mitigation begin with consistent, 

state-of-the art forecasting and observation. Hazard assessments should be comprehensive, reflecting 

multiple hazards on very different timescales and their impacts on diverse economic, social, and ecosystem sectors. Assessments of physical processes should be coupled with improved understanding of the 

role of human behavior and social systems, especially in view of existing institutions and infrastructure. 

This calls for information on ecosystem health (e.g., response to resource and land use), impacts of 

climate change (e.g., sea-level rise, storm intensification and/or concentration), and direct and indirect 

risks to public health, including from secondary dangers and loss of public sanitation infrastructure. The 

infrastructure and activities necessary for a range of marine operations are at risk from hazard events. 

Maintaining or reestablishing marine operations, including those that are seaborne or seafloor-based, 

during the course of and after a hazard event is critical to every aspect of the Nation’s security. Improved 
S o c i e ta l Themes

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hazard understanding, effective research translation, communication, and education are integral for 

developing a “risk-wise” population, supporting cost-effective strategies designed to increase resistance, 

enhancing resilience to hazards, and promoting 

avoidance.

The National Ocean Policy sets forth nine priority objectives—covering topics ranging from 

ecosystem-based management to changing 

conditions in the Arctic—as a cornerstone 

for initiating implementation of the policy. 

Increasing resilience to natural hazards directly 

intersects all of these nine objectives.

Research Priorities

Progress to Date

Since the release of Charting the Course, advances in scientific understanding, technology, and tool 

development have helped the Nation make great strides toward increasing resilience to natural hazards. 

These advances include probabilistic tsunami assessments for certain locales, an improved tsunami 

warning system observations, hurricane vulnerability assessments, improved inundation framework 

(observations and models) at local and regional scales, improved understanding of tsunami and 

earthquake hazards in the Caribbean and along the U.S. east coast, and improved unified earthquake 

probability and shaking hazard calculations for California.

Through the Charting the Course Near-term Priority Forecasting the Response of Coastal Ecosystems to 

Persistent Forcing and Extreme Events, progress has been made both in research and decision-support 

tools. A partnership among Federal agencies and private entities is supporting research to address 

climate and natural hazard resilience. Another Federal partnership is developing visualization tools that 

support decisions regarding inundation of the Delaware and Alabama/Mississippi coasts. Yet another 

partnership is developing tools to support sustainable development and site selection for public housing. This Near-term Priority is also serving as a focal point for improving and leveraging relevant sea-level 

rise and inundation efforts across the U.S. Gulf region.

Progress has also been made through the “Great Shakeout,” an annual hazard-scenario event that 

engages Federal, state, and local agencies and millions of citizens. This exercise highlights the complex 

interactions among hazard events, resulting secondary hazards (e.g., fires, mobilization of contaminants), 

critical infrastructure and services, and public and private response; and helps to identify improvements 

and continuing needs in addressing hazard events.

Legislative actions since Charting the Course was released also look to provide avenues for increasing 

resilience to natural hazards. The Ocean and Coastal Mapping Integration Act calls for a coordinated 

ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes mapping plan to assist with decision making and inform the siting 

of research and other platforms. This will provide valuable support to marine planning efforts. The 

Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System Act calls for the establishment of an integrated 

national observing system to provide plentiful and diverse information to improve assessments of 

hazard risk, vulnerability, and resilience.
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

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Updated Priorities

Despite these advances, much remains to be done in achieving timely, reliable assessments and forecasts 

of risk and vulnerability, and increased community awareness and ability to prepare for and rebound 

from natural hazards, including protecting and rehabilitating ecosystems. Research priorities should 

consider the temporal scales of hazards, their spatial distribution relative to population, and overall 

expected losses. Recent hurricane and extreme storm losses have been somewhat offset by the insurance industry, whereas strong shaking and tsunami losses would be borne almost entirely by society 

as a whole. Loss of life and property would likely be greatest from a large coastal earthquake, but the 

repeat intervals of such events can be on the order of hundreds of years.

Research Priority 1: Understand how hazard events initiate and evolve, and apply that 

understanding to improve forecasts of hazard events.

Quantifying future hazard potential requires understanding the generation of hazards (e.g., storms, 

submarine and coastal landslides, tsunamis, flooding) and past hazard occurrences. Improved hazard 

forecasts, particularly of storm formation, track, intensity, and associated waves, surge, and flooding, will 

support more effective mitigation planning for and response to hazard events. Priorities for acquiring 

the necessary basic understanding and applying it to improved forecasting include:

• Identifying, mapping, and monitoring active submarine faults to help assess potential offshore 

sources of quakes;

• Mapping and coring submarine landslides to determine their volumes, ages, and geotechnical 

parameters, and to evaluate their potential to cause tsunamis;

• Detailed mapping of near-shore bathymetry, essential for creating models of tsunami run-up;

• Analysis of the geological record of tsunami and storm deposits, an important tool for assessing 

the recurrence interval of these hazards;

• Creation of kinetic and dynamic models of the interactions between tectonic blocks and faults to 

provide a framework in which earthquake, tsunami, and landslide hazards may be evaluated; and

• New methods of calculating the probability of earthquake sources that better reflect current 

knowledge of rupture processes and that incorporate space-based geodesy (earth measurement), as well as quantitative analysis of high-resolution bathymetry and coastal topography 

to more accurately quantify the odds of strong shaking and tsunami inundation.

Research in this area should focus on process studies and the development and validation of hazard 

models, including hazard generation (e.g., tsunami sources, seafloor stability, storm formation) and evolution (e.g., tsunami propagation, storms, inundation). The interagency Hurricane Forecast Improvement 

Plan seeks to provide improved forecast skill. Probabilistic models and assessments of hazard potential 

and vulnerability should include the effects of land subsidence and future climate change (e.g., changes 

in storm intensity or frequency, sea-level rise, landscape change) and better characterization of uncertainty in their frequency and severity.
S o c i e ta l Themes

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Research Priority 2: Understand the response of coastal and marine systems to natural hazards 

and apply that understanding to assessments of future vulnerability to natural hazards, 

including the increased vulnerability caused by climate change.

Coastal ground is often formed from recently deposited, poorly consolidated, highly saturated sediment. 

It is therefore especially vulnerable to strong shaking, liquefaction, landslides, debris flows, wave forcing, 

and erosion. As coastal populations grow, it is necessary that better hazard and risk modeling specific 

to coastal settings be conducted. Natural hazards impact infrastructure directly through alterations 

to the underlying landscape and through secondary processes (e.g., slope failures, shoreline change, 

inlet formation, coastal erosion, sediment transport, flooding). Natural hazards also have significant 

impacts on coastal features, such as shorelines, as well as cascading and nonlinear impacts throughout 

ecosystems, during and after the hazard event. Natural systems, such as wetlands, reefs, and mangrove 

forests, play a significant role in coastal resilience and surge attenuation. Understanding the capacity 

of these systems to mitigate the effects of natural hazards, how altering the system (i.e., through physical destruction and sediment diversion) affects this capacity, and how the dynamics and processes of 

altered ecosystems will improve our ability to facilitate recovery of ecosystem functions and to undertake 

appropriate restoration efforts. Priorities include:

• Understanding and modeling landscape change associated with coastal hazards, including 

impacts across the adjacent watershed;

• Understanding how the hydrodynamics of extreme flooding events (e.g., tsunamis) are affected 

by vegetation;

• Understanding resilience of both natural structure and built infrastructure; and

• Assessing vulnerability of coastal communities, public health, infrastructure, marine operations, 

and ecosystems to primary and secondary hazard processes.

Models of response and vulnerability should be relevant to future conditions, reflecting landscape, ecosystem, and community responses to climate change and the consequences of evolving development 

and resource use. Models based on observations of pre-event conditions and post-event impacts are 

required to forecast the magnitude and nature of impacts, the changing vulnerability of altered landscapes (e.g., the influence of land use and restoration on a system’s ability to resist or adapt to hazards), 

and long-term impacts on ecosystem functions and health.

Research Priority 3: Develop multi-hazard risk assessments and support development of 

models, policies, and strategies for hazard mitigation.

Integrating observations, data, and models will improve understanding of hazard potential and vulnerability, and improve risk assessments for coastal communities, as well as public health and safety, 

infrastructure, marine operations, and ecosystems. Research efforts should identify vulnerable ecosystem 

functions and infrastructure components, determine the potential for cascading component failure, 

and assess the efficacy of natural systems (e.g., barrier islands, coastal wetlands) and engineered systems 

(e.g., hurricane barriers, levees) in hazard mitigation. Cascading failure initiated by earthquakes can 

involve severe coastal ground shaking, liquefaction, submarine landslides, failures of coastal cliffs, and 
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ 30 ★

the generation of tsunamis and tsunami-like waves. Similarly, sudden magmatic injection events and 

volcanic eruptions can be accompanied by significant seismic activity and the destabilization of coastal 

regions, which can act as secondary triggers for tsunamis. Probabilistic frameworks for multi-hazard 

assessments need to be better developed to encompass these multiple component failures and be 

integrated with improved understanding of system responses to hazards and incorporated into comprehensive risk assessments. The degree to which multiple components of hazards are linked physically 

(rather than simply overlapping spatially) should be formalized and expressed in usable terms. Such risk 

assessments will support the identification of effective and affordable systems, materials, and technologies for hazard-resilient and resistant communities, infrastructure, and ecosystems, as well as supporting 

development and management approaches that minimize hazard impacts.

Models of resilience and resistance to hazards 

should also address social and economic drivers 

that influence pre-hazard activities (e.g., land use, 

shoreline development) and responses to hazards (e.g., warning responses, community development, economic restructuring). Integration 

of models and risk assessments into decisionsupport tools will inform short- and long-term 

public and policy responses to hazards, minimizing the economic, social, and environmental 

costs of natural hazards. Integrating natural and 

social sciences will ensure that hazard products 

and policies address public perceptions of risk, communicate the consequences of community and 

individual responses to immediate and long-term hazards, and encourage appropriate public response 

to hazard assessments and warnings (“risk-wise” behavior).

Research is required to develop the methods and tools necessary to create consistent regional-scale 

integrated assessments that effectively translate scientific understanding, including uncertainty, to 

management decision-making. This will ensure that risk and vulnerability assessments reflect current 

conditions and anticipate the impacts of climate change and development decisions. Efforts are also 

needed to make site-specific assessments of the risk to, and vulnerability of, critical infrastructure, 

adjacent communities, and natural resources. This will advance an integrated multi-hazard perspective 

including both global and local processes spanning extreme (e.g., storms, earthquakes, tsunamis, slope 

failures) to persistent (e.g., erosion, sea-level rise) hazards acting on the seabed, shoreline, and coast.

Tools to be Emphasized

Reducing hazard impacts and increasing hazard resilience will require continued expansion of existing 

observation systems, data-delivery systems, and modeling capabilities at regional, national, and global 

scales. Sustained and integrated marine and coastal observations, including technological improvements in remote and in situ sensing of multiple time-sensitive parameters (oceanographic, geophysical, 

hydrological, chemical, biological, geographic, and anthropogenic) and comprehensive geospatial 

characterization combined with sustained and reactive-deployment modes of operation are required 

to acquire baseline (pre-impact) and post-hazard data.
S o c i e ta l Themes

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These deployments should be capable of assessing diverse hazard processes and impacts, such as 

coastal and inland inundation and water quality. 

These deployments would support the development of improved models of (for example) storm 

evolution and coastal response. The capability 

to provide up-to-date characterization of coastal 

vulnerability and pre-storm conditions (including 

topography and bathymetry, land use and cover, 

and riverine and coastal water levels) should be 

maintained. Multi-hazard assessments will require an 

information infrastructure that supports a geographic information system (GIS) that includes all hazards, 

and has defined standards for information integration and application. Advanced data-integration and 

computational resources and the establishment of community computational standards are required 

for data-assimilation systems, coupled land–ocean–atmosphere models, and data management and 

delivery systems.

Ocean literacy is perhaps the most critical aspect of increasing resilience to natural hazards. Building 

community awareness through appropriately-packaged information products is key. Increasing resilience hinges on understanding community needs and enabling community members to act. Social 

science data on topics such as economic reliance on resources and habitats, existing social structures, 

and avenues to ensure robust communication are a necessity.

The design and implementation of robust, reliable, and widely available notification systems will help 

enable more effective communication of warnings. This will require an end-to-end process for moving from data to tools. Data collection should include social, economic, and educational information 

to understand at-risk communities, and traditional and historic knowledge from the community to 

augment scientific observations and provide information on frequency of events. Deterministic and 

probabilistic forecast models, time-dependent hazard models (including models on timescales relevant 

to climate change), multi-hazard models, and models of cascading effects are then needed to forecast 

hazard events and their impacts. There is an essential requirement for a workforce capable of obtaining and blending the physical, mathematical, and social data into decision-making tools, including 

regionally-appropriate assessments of risk for decision making by the public (coastal and resource 

managers) and private sectors (insurance, reinsurance, and marine operations), and forecast tools that 

translate warnings into effective responses at local, regional, national, and international levels.

Research communities that address hazards currently focus on single hazards, single elements of the 

hazard cycle (e.g., generation, impact, policy), or single research disciplines (e.g., physical, ecological, 

social, and engineering sciences). These diverse communities should be coordinated and integrated 

to allow the broadest consideration of costs and effectiveness (i.e., on economic, sociological, and 

ecological levels) to inform risk reduction strategies. This integrated approach will lead to more effective translation of research results and development of tools for informed and comprehensive decision 

making by public and private sectors.
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Given the global prevalence of hazard events, international cooperation is key to understanding risk, 

vulnerability, and capacity for resilience, and to improving warning systems and coastal communities’ 

ability to appropriately respond to warnings. International cooperation is also critical in mobilizing and 

funding humanitarian aid following hazard events. The need for cooperation extends to mechanisms 

for interaction across Federal agencies and among different levels of government. A broad and comprehensive hazards research enterprise depends on partnerships across the natural and social sciences 

and with policy-makers and representatives of communities at risk. The SOST has engaged the National 

Science and Technology Council (NSTC) Subcommittee for Disaster Reduction (SDR) to assist in developing a joint focus on coastal inundation. This partnership is critical to ensuring a coordinated and effective 

Federal endeavor. The SDR has also produced Grand Challenges for Disaster Reduction,

29 which discusses 

coastal inundation as well as hurricanes and tsunamis.

Regional Applicability

Hazard potential, vulnerability, and capacity for resilience vary across regions depending on the natural 

and built environments, the social infrastructure of at-risk communities, and the extent to which at-risk 

communities rely on the natural environment. Each region has unique ecological, social, economic, and 

educational factors to consider, resulting in the need for diverse approaches across regions to address 

risk and mitigate impacts. Among the primary considerations in developing response and mitigation 

strategies is the way in which climate change influences hazard events. Understanding ocean–climate 

interactions within and across regional scales directly supports our ability to better understand and 

forecast hazard risk and vulnerability. We require national protocols with regional implementation and 

prioritization. Since Charting the Course was released, existing regional alliances have matured and others have been established. This regional structure should be mobilized in determining and addressing 

regional needs.
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Box 5: Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

On April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon drill rig exploded, burned, and eventually sank to the bottom of the Gulf of 

Mexico, resulting in the loss of 11 lives. Damage to the well it was drilling, located in over 1,500 meters of water, 

resulted in the largest United States oil spill in history, liberating over 200 million gallons of light Louisiana crude oil. 

The massive response, clean up, natural resource damage assessment, and restoration process highlight many of the 

societal themes and points of emphasis in Science for an Ocean Nation:

• The limited ocean observing capability in 

the Gulf of Mexico at the time of the explosion required the shifting of substantial 

observing resources (ships, aircraft, gliders, 

and autonomous underwater vehicles) 

from other high-priority tasks within the 

Gulf and around the Nation. These other 

high-priority science missions thus went 

unaccomplished. The spill response highlights the importance of a robust deployed 

ocean observing capability (including all 

the assets previously noted).

• Ocean trajectory models for surface and 

sub-surface oil tracking were useful in 

short-term response efforts, but less so for 

medium- to longer-term spill trajectories 

and impacts. More realistic models of 

sub-surface trajectories would result from 

understanding of the size and buoyancy 

of oil particles, their rates of microbial 

degradation, and ocean dynamics including mixing.

• Impacts on living marine resources include 

direct effects on abundance and contamination, as well as indirect impacts on reproduction, fate of eggs and larvae, and sub-lethal damage due to the oil 

and the use of dispersants. New approaches are needed for sampling and rapidly assessing living marine resource 

populations and impacts of a wide variety of anthropogenic stressors, including synoptic surveys, use of animalborne sensors, and new sensing technologies.

• The loss of ecosystem services (fishing, tourism, and recreation) resulted in large and consequential impacts on 

communities. Application of economic, cultural, and behavioral sciences is appropriate to gauge the degree of 

resilience of these communities to such events, and to underpin compensation of the public for damages under the 

Natural Resources Damage Assessment process.

• The death of 11 offshore oil industry workers is a reminder of the inherent dangers involved in many fields of 

marine work. Improved safety for maritime operations is a critical outcome of the oil spill investigations.

• The extensive media coverage of the oil spill, including descriptions of ecosystems, oceanographic processes, and 

the role of oil production in the local community and the Nation, presented an opportunity to educate the public 

not only regarding ocean processes but on the trade-offs in decisions on resource use and management.

• The oil spill is one of a number of significant, simultaneous stressors affecting the Gulf of Mexico Large Marine 

Ecosystem. Restoration of the ecosystem and understanding the interplay of nutrient enrichment, habitat loss, 

effects of hypoxic conditions, effects on fisheries, and the impacts of oil and gas development require a quantitative 

framework. Ecosystem modeling leading to quantitative decision-support tools could have important benefits in 

prioritizing recovery investments.
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

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Theme 3: 

Maritime Operations and the Marine Environment

Priorities under this theme focus on understanding the interactions between maritime operations and 

the marine environment, and using that understanding to predict changing conditions in the maritime 

environment. Maritime operations are essential services that support vital elements of economic prosperity, national security, and homeland defense as well as the global economy.30 Maritime operations 

require freedom of navigation in the global ocean; ability to conduct mapping and charting activities; 

use of ocean resources; and collection, modeling, and presentation of environmental data. Maritime 

operations also encompass more narrow issues such as ballast water discharge and assessing ice coverage. Forward-thinking, innovative research, coupled with technological advances, will permit marine 

operations to address environmental concerns and to meet challenging requirements for increased 

levels of transportation and commerce in the maritime domain. These must be accomplished while 

balancing sustainable use and protection of the environment as it undergoes global change.

Rationale

Maritime operations comprise a broad set of activities that occur in the ocean, coasts, coastal waterways, 

and Great Lakes. These include merchant ship traffic, military operations, fishing, aquaculture, oil and 

gas drilling, pipeline construction, public transportation, offshore renewable energy projects, seabed 

mineral extraction, and placement of underwater communication cables. Each of these operations 

can create adverse interaction with the environment if not performed safely and with consideration of 

environmental sensitivities. Reliable weather and sea-state forecasts and up-to-date maps , charts, and 

navigation capabilities to support safe and effective operations and to foster improved maritime domain 

awareness, will preserve public health, economic security, and the marine environment.

The predicted significant impacts of climate change on the marine environment (e.g., frequent and 

severe coastal storms, an ice-diminished Arctic, and accelerated sea-level rise) point out the importance 

of improved observation and modeling of environmental factors and their potential effects on safe and 
S o c i e ta l Themes

★ 35 ★

effective marine operations. While we can anticipate some of the likely impacts that these changes will 

have on maritime operations (e.g., impeded shoreline transit, possible reduction of fish catch due to 

ocean acidification), more research is needed to determine their long-term impacts.

Particularly in the Arctic, where changing conditions have already diminished ice, a greater understanding of current and potential changes in navigable passages will allow us to predict new shipping patterns 

and assess their impacts on the natural environment. Research is needed to improve forecasts necessary 

for safe maritime operations, including atmospheric and ocean conditions, such as sea height, wind, ice 

conditions, albedo, and severe storm forecasts. This will require more refined climate monitoring, data 

collection, modeling, and presentation to the mariner.

Maritime operations are also changing with the emergence of new uses and expansion of existing ones. 

The majority (by tonnage) of the Nation’s commerce travels through our maritime ports. Projections 

state that trade will increase, ships will become 

larger, and populations along coasts will continue 

to grow. It is anticipated that offshore oil and natural gas development, with appropriate regulatory, 

technical, and safety improvements, will continue 

in the Gulf of Mexico. At the same time, technology 

is improving to allow new uses of U.S. waters, 

including ocean renewable energy projects and 

offshore aquaculture, as the Nation tries to engage 

in more sustainable energy and fishing practices. 

Each of these will have impacts on the marine environment and the Nation’s ability to conduct marine 

operations.

To effectively use the results of the research outlined below requires improved communication 

and collaboration among the diverse stakeholders involved in marine operations, including industry; 

local, tribal, state, and Federal governments; and researchers. Avenues for this coordination are suggested in the National Ocean Policy.

The increases in data collection, modeling, and forecasting that will facilitate maritime operations are 

also necessary components of several priority objectives in the National Ocean Policy: marine planning; 

informed decisions and improved understanding; and ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great 

Lakes observations and infrastructure.

Both the Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System Act (ICOOSA) and the National Ocean 

Policy emphasize the need for better ocean observation and infrastructure to guide science-based 

decision-making. Many of the nine priority objectives in the National Ocean Policy (e.g., marine planning, resilience and adaptation to climate change and ocean acidification, and changing conditions in 

the Arctic) will require the use of in situ observations and modeling.

Increased understanding of the effects of the environment on maritime operations, and vice versa, 

will facilitate finding a balance between operations and environmental protection. Additionally, more 

effective collection, processing, and modeling of environmental data will ensure safer and more secure 

operations
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Research Priorities

Progress to Date

Since the original publication of Charting the Course, significant progress has been made toward 

the research and Near-term Priorities related to marine operations. Many of the activities are being 

undertaken by the Committee on the Marine Transportation System (CMTS), a partnership of Federal 

agencies that coordinates with the National Ocean Council and addresses issues pertaining to the 

marine transportation system (MTS). The CMTS has been addressing research and development and 

advances in navigation technologies through two integrated action teams. The first of these teams, the 

Research and Development Integrated Action Team (IAT), co-led by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

and NOAA, is developing an inventory of Federal MTS research and development activities as a step 

toward completing a report on Federal priorities for MTS research and development to complement 

Charting the Course. The second team, the Navigation Technology Coordination and Integration IAT, led 

by NOAA, is pursuing applications for electronic navigation. Under the Energy Policy Act of 2005, the 

Minerals Management Service (MMS, now BOEMRE), NOAA and the Department of Defense developed 

the Multipurpose Marine Cadastre, an integrated information system on submerged lands consisting 

of legal (property ownership or cadastre), physical, biological, and cultural information in a common 

reference framework. It identifies outer continental shelf (OCS) locations of federally-permitted activities; obstructions to navigation; submerged cultural resources; undersea cables; offshore aquaculture 

projects; and areas designated for the purpose of safety, national security, environmental protection, 

or conservation and management of living marine resources.

Specific efforts are already underway to improve maritime operations. These include:

• Utilizing unmanned vehicles to provide volumetric and bottom sampling data for various 

industries;

• Improvements in autonomous underwater vehicle design by NOAA and the U.S. Navy;

• Improvement of the integrated ocean observing system and other observing advances, such 

as implementation of the Ocean Observatories Initiative; and

• Fusing environmental observing and prediction systems with multi-use marine operations 

prediction and simulation systems to promote economically efficient, environmentally sound, 

and successful operations across the broad spectrum of marine operations.

There is increased scientific, governmental, and societal attention on the effects of climate change and 

the need to understand and predict the impacts of change on marine operations. Possible ramifications 

include necessary changes to ports, harbors, and coastal platforms as sea levels rise and coastal storms 

escalate in frequency and intensity.

Updated Priorities

Despite this progress, additional attention is needed on the interaction between maritime operations 

and the environment and predicting conditions in the marine domain.
S o c i e ta l Themes

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Research Priority 1: Understand the interactions between marine operations and the 

environment.

Determining how marine operations (including port development and vessel maintenance and operations) affect the environment, and how environmental conditions affect operations, is central to enabling 

effective and environmentally sound marine operations. This understanding will be particularly important in environmentally sensitive areas, such as the Great Lakes, coastal areas with low tidal exchange, 

and coral reef systems. Areas of study pertaining to effects of marine operations on the environment 

should include:

• Release, dispersion, cycling, and cumulative ecological impacts of contaminants (e.g., from oil 

spills and releases, air emissions, non-point sources of pollution);

• Interactions with marine life (e.g., bird migration, impacts of ship strikes and ocean sound on 

megafauna such as whales);

• Impacts of aquaculture development and production (e.g. increased nutrient loading, invasive 

species);

• Factors contributing to the introduction and persistence of invasive species (e.g., ballast water);

• Influence of fuel choice on emissions (e.g., black carbon); and

• Effects of expanding transportation routes (e.g., in the Arctic).

These research efforts will build upon investigations into factors that influence ecosystem dynamics (e.g., 

invasive species, contaminants) and sustainable resource use (e.g., impacts on wild stocks from aquaculture). They will also enable the development of mitigation strategies and technologies (e.g., passive 

sonar, spill prevention and containment, ballast-water treatment, vessel routing to avoid ship strikes).

Research is also needed to address the feedback effects of environmental conditions on marine operations. Areas of study should include, for example, refining models of sediment transport to enable rapid, 

efficient, and environmentally sustainable dredging and dredged-material management. Investigations 

of environmental changes related to climate change (e.g., sea-level rise, sea-ice abatement, lake-level 

decreases, ocean acidification) can inform the development of alternative transportation routes, 

necessary changes to ports and harbors, shifts in fishing patterns, and the design of energy-extraction 

platforms to maximize stability and safety.

Interactions between marine operations and the environment will vary by region, so the type and 

geographic scope of sampling will necessarily need to be adjusted by location. Since the volume and 

diversity of marine operations increases closer to shore, finer-scale modeling is needed there, and is 

likely more feasible as well, as sensing capabilities are typically denser in the nearshore. The cumulative 

impact of land-based activities upon the natural environment also renders nearshore areas a priority.

Research Priority 2: Improve understanding of environmental factors affecting marine 

operations to better characterize and predict conditions in the maritime domain.

Better environmental observation, characterization, and forecasting of ocean and waterway conditions 

(e.g., winds, currents, turbidity, surface waves, sea-ice extent, lake levels, water temperature, biogeochemical conditions) are necessary for safe and efficient marine operations, including transportation, 
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

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military operations, offshore energy projects, and search-and-rescue efforts. Increased precision in 

forecasting marine conditions (e.g., improved real-time ocean current models; storm-surge projections), 

in conjunction with efforts to address natural hazards, can help minimize negative interaction between 

marine operations and the environment. Technologies (e.g., robust sensors, autonomous vehicles) 

should be developed to improve data collection in all weather conditions, to support high-spatialresolution and near-real-time forecasting 

throughout the ocean and coastal zone. These 

observing systems need to be integrated with 

one another to support more comprehensive 

models and other tools for decision making. 

Increased observation capabilities will also facilitate long-term forecasting, allowing maritime 

operations to anticipate changes that will occur 

with climate change (e.g. the opening of Arctic 

sea routes).

Areas of particular focus should be safely 

expanding Arctic transportation routes and 

“greening” the marine transportation system. Changing patterns of ice formation will allow for more 

regular surface transit through the Arctic. Close monitoring and forecasting of atmospheric and ocean 

conditions such as sea height, wind, ice, and severe storms are necessary to ensure safe transit.

Tools to be Emphasized

Achieving safe, effective, efficient, and secure marine operations that support environmental protection 

requires development of an end-to-end process that moves from data collection to modeling to design 

of user-support tools. This includes a diverse suite of infrastructure and technology, ranging from assessment methodologies (e.g., rapid-assessment methods for detecting marine contaminants/pollutants, 

pathogens, and both harmful and non-indigenous species) to observing systems and information networks. Providing accurate environmental information depends upon robust observational networks to 

monitor, record, and present real-time surface-monitoring data (e.g., high-frequency, coastal-based radar 

facilities, Vessel Monitoring Systems, Automatic Identification Systems, GPS-based deliveries). In addition to maintaining the continuity of the global ocean observing satellite capability, priorities include:

• Advancing sensor and technology development, particularly for autonomous and persistent 

observations, as well as for long-term observing systems;

• Real-time or near-real-time data collection on environmental variables by incorporating; 

observational capabilities of ships of opportunity (e.g., fishing, cargo, and passenger vessels)

• Automated and autonomous bottom-mapping capabilities for detecting changes, to improve 

scheduling of rapid, full-scale surveys; and

Management of data is as important as its collection. Data collected by the observing systems should 

be accessible through a comprehensive national data network, either through a single system31 or a 

coordinated distributed network. Developing this data network will require new ways to address gaps in 

data collection, sharing, and interoperability of technologies, and should permit integration of existing 

research into operational systems (e.g., systems that provide real-time navigation data to vessels). This 
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data network should be able to link with other databases, such as those focusing on ecosystem data, and 

developed in accordance with international standards for data exchange. If constructed, the national 

data network will also provide the data needed for models that simulate various scenarios to help us 

understand potential impacts of weather events or man-made disruptions on marine operations, and 

to support restoration plans for operations.

Steps have been taken to establish key elements of a data network through several avenues including 

the National Ocean Policy, ICOOSA, and the CMTS Navigation Technology Coordination and Integration 

Team. Integration of existing regional observing systems and the building and integration of new sensor 

networks are envisioned under the National Ocean Policy.

Concurrent with improvements in data collection and management, it is a priority to incorporate data 

into predictive models. Data become increasingly useful as they are interpreted and applied as decisionmaking criteria. An appropriate workforce should be trained in model and forecast development, 

distribution of products to appropriate users, and interpretation of the impact of those products on 

various sectors of marine operations. Such developments will be particularly challenging in the Arctic 

as communication infrastructure is notably weak in that region and there is a paucity of ocean weather 

observation stations.

A well-trained workforce – along with an educated public – is a priority for facilitating coordination of 

marine operations. This workforce will be needed both in the lab, developing models and forecasting 

tools, as well as on the water, working in various marine operation sectors. Frequently marine uses 

are isolated from one another, with users in one sector relatively unaware of needs and operations in 

another. For the most effective marine planning, it is a priority to close this information gap. In addition, 

greater emphasis needs to be placed upon including the public in education efforts, especially concerning how their actions affect marine operations and the environment.

Regional Applicability

Dominant considerations regarding marine operations will vary by region, and thus, the environmental, 

technical, and social data that are relevant will likely differ. For example, on the Gulf Coast, monitoring 

of oil discharge and fate might be emphasized while in the Northeast, commercial shipping impacts 

could be a primary focus. The impacts of climate change upon marine operations also vary by region, so 

modeling should be tailored by region. This is particularly relevant to the issue of sea-level rise; dramatic 

loss of land is being seen in low-lying and subsiding coastal areas. Both scenarios have the potential to 

significantly impact ports and inshore marine operations.

While there is an emphasis upon the collection of physical science data needed to conduct marine 

operations, knowledge gathered through the social sciences regarding economics and human use, 

conflict, and perceptions is also necessary to avoid conflict between various marine operations and to 

understand human use patterns. For example, information about the location and seasonality of fishing practices is important when considering the placement of offshore energy projects. Collaboration 

across sectors is also vitally important. The environmental data collected and processed by academic 

researchers should be available to meet the needs of industry and the legal regulations of local, tribal, 

state, and Federal governments. A successful demonstration of this type of collaboration was seen in 

the 2007 shifting of the Boston traffic separation scheme to reduce whale strikes in Stellwagen Bank 

National Marine Sanctuary.
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Theme 4:

The Ocean’s Role in Climate

The global ocean plays a fundamental role in governing the planet’s climate through its capacity to store 

and distribute heat, its major role in the carbon cycle (including storing CO2 from the atmosphere), its 

exchange of trace gases with the atmosphere, and its role as both source and sink of some atmospheric 

particulates. Our scientific challenge is to accurately assess the ocean’s past and present state, processes, 

and phenomena that influence climate, and society’s influence on them. Predictions and projections 

of climate variability and change over a range of spatial scales from global to regional and local, and at 

timescales from centennial to interannual and intra-seasonal, are necessary. These predictions and projections will improve society’s ability to respond to and reduce, where feasible, climate-related hazards; 

to adapt to global climate change and variation (e.g., sea-level rise, changing weather patterns); and 

to inform management and policy decisions addressing human and environmental impacts. Indeed, 

improvements in our predictive capability and understanding of ocean climate will improve our ability 

to deal with all of the other themes discussed in this report.

Rationale

The ocean covers more than 70 percent of the planet, and it is Earth’s second largest reservoir of anthropogenic CO2

. It absorbs a significant amount of the excess gas emitted into the atmosphere. In doing so 

the ocean buffers our climate from the greater temperature increases that would occur if all the added 

CO2 remained in the atmosphere. Potential changes in the rate at which the ocean absorbs this added 

CO2 could have significant impacts on future global climate change. Changes in ocean conditions have 

been demonstrated to affect marine ecosystems, causing, for example, large changes in marine populations that support fisheries, changes in seabird population distributions, and an increase in coral-reef 

bleaching events. The quantity of greenhouse gases, such as CO2 and methane, in our future atmosphere 
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will depend, in part, on the exchange of these gases in ocean and coastal systems (e.g., wetlands). 

Rising atmospheric CO2 levels lead to increased uptake of this gas by ocean waters, resulting in ocean 

acidification. Substantial changes in ocean chemistry will further influence ecosystems and their health. 

A more acidic ocean leads to decalcification of carbonate organisms, such as corals, microscopic plants, 

and animals critical for supporting life both in the ocean and on land. These pH changes are taking place 

along with temperature changes, and the connections between the two should be understood. The 

growing body of knowledge about the impact of climate on marine chemistry and ecosystems will be 

critical for informing ecosystem-based management efforts.

The ocean is also a great storage facility for the planet’s heat. To date, imbalances in the planetary energy 

budget are manifested in changing ice conditions, sea level, and ocean biogeochemical composition, 

ecology, and temperatures. Rising sea level as a result of runoff from melting ice sheets and glaciers 

and also of expanding ocean volume due to higher temperatures is a major threat to coastal communities. Over the past few decades, global sea level has risen faster than before, resulting in a challenge 

for climate modeling. Ocean circulation dynamics cause uneven and relatively unknown geographical 

variation, with sea level rising and falling at different locations. In addition to the obvious threat from 

episodic events (e.g., storm surges, coastal flooding), low-lying coastal regions are particularly impacted 

by gradual sea-level rise. A more complete understanding of how changing sea level impacts coastal 

communities and ecosystems is needed at regional, state, and local levels. The importance of this 

understanding is increasing as the already large fraction of the world’s population living in coastal 

regions continues to grow. Given the particular vulnerability of coastal residents of developing countries, 

climate-change-induced sea-level rise is an issue with enormous potential for human impact and thus 

has implications for both humanitarian and national security concerns.

The polar oceans are under a particularly large threat from climate change. As demonstrated by the 

decrease in extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice over the past 30 years, they are changing rapidly. 

These decreases will, in turn, accelerate global warming, as highly reflective ice is replaced by much less 

reflective liquid water. Ocean biology also responds to the change in sea ice distribution, as photosynthetic productivity can take place in regions where it was previously limited by opaque ice cover. More 

importantly, increased stratification of high-latitude waters due to increased temperature and incoming 

solar radiation can lead to major shifts in high latitude ecology, shifts from benthic- to pelagic-based 

food webs, and broad habitat changes. These can have a cascading effect upon global fisheries.

The ocean is important in other planet-regulation processes as well. The tropical ocean is a vital component of climate variability, at scales from seasonal to interannual. For example, sea-surface temperature 

variability associated with the El Niño and La Niña phenomena has a substantial impact on many regions 

of the world, influencing agricultural yields, hurricane intensity, and droughts. The global ocean is also a 

significant component of the planetary water cycle. It receives and redistributes freshwater from rivers 

and ice discharge, and provides moisture (through evaporation) to the atmosphere that precipitates 

over the ocean and continents. Alterations in large-scale ocean circulation can influence long-term 

global climate change, and possibly short-term or abrupt changes.

The ocean also has a controlling influence on the path and intensity of major storm systems, such as hurricanes, mid-latitude winter storms, and intraseasonal atmospheric oscillations. Improved understanding 
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of the drivers of these systems, resulting in improved predictive capability, will help society to prepare 

and adapt cities and other public infrastructure for the inevitable arrival of severe events as well as to 

take advantage of opportunities presented by climate change.

Ocean phenomena that contribute to global climate change and variability include large-scale, longterm coherent processes such as the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), 

and Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC); large-scale, nonlinear behavior (e.g., abrupt 

changes in large-scale ocean circulation); and ocean–atmosphere chemical and biogeochemical fluxes 

and process interactions (of carbon, momentum, heat, trace gases, and aerosol precursors). A broad 

understanding of the ways that major ocean ecosystems interact with climate through these phenomena should be developed so as to include this knowledge in climate models. Also, applying improved 

understanding of the ocean’s past and present role in global climate change and variability will enable 

better predictions and projections of climate effects on ocean processes and components (e.g., species, 

ecosystems), as well as of ecosystems’ feedbacks to climate variability and change. This will help to inform 

current and future management efforts, including coastal land use and development, and alternative 

energy use and development (e.g., wind and tidal power).

The National Ocean Policy highlights the importance of understanding and adapting to climate change, 

one of nine priority objectives. This objective specifically singles out the impact of ocean acidification 

as an area of particular focus in research and adaption planning efforts. The Arctic ecosystem is also 

noted as being particularly vulnerable and therefore requiring prioritized attention. The ocean’s role 

in regulating climate and the impact of increasing CO2 on the ocean will be necessary components in 

implementing the National Ocean Policy.

Research Priorities

Progress to Date

In terms of advancing understanding, the National Science 

Foundation has implemented a number of climate-related 

research programs. Topics include water sustainability, ocean 

acidification, biodiversity, and climate prediction. Investments 

are also being made in partnerships for climate change 

education.

It has only recently become possible to map ocean biomes 

(major types of ecological community) from space in near-realtime and synthesize causes of human-induced change and 

human impact on over 50 marine ecosystems. This provides 

the basis for detecting and quantifying changes in ecosystems 

resulting from human impacts and climate change.32 There is also new documentation of acceleration 

in sea-level rise, and newly-improved understanding of the components of sea-level rise, the way the 

ocean functions as a carbon sink and its implications for ocean acidification, the sensitivity of Arctic Sea 

ice to small changes in climate, and the limitations of current models. The Department of the Interior 

has established climate adaptation centers and regional landscape cooperatives to better understand 

and coordinate efforts to adapt living resources and ecosystems to climate change.
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Research on the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), a near-term priority of Charting 

the Course, has yielded progress on understanding the role of AMOC in global climate. Recent studies 

indicate that temperature variations in the North Atlantic on decadal to multidecadal scales are caused 

by variations in AMOC. In addition, modeling indicates that an intensifying AMOC, in addition to 

anthropogenic greenhouse-gas–induced global warming, may have contributed to the recent decline 

in Arctic sea ice. There is also increasing evidence that changes in the upper, warm limb of the AMOC 

are affecting the mass of the Greenland ice sheet.33

Consistent with the scientific challenges identified by the USGCRP, it is essential to improve understanding of the ocean’s role in past, present, and future global climate and to educate decision makers and the 

public about this role. As the USGCRP evolves, there will be improved focus on adaptation, vulnerability, 

impacts, and mitigation. Developing these areas will require synergy between ocean research and the 

broader climate program.

Offering the public more information, including regarding how individual actions cumulatively affect the 

oceans and climate, will improve ocean literacy and ideally result in behavior modification. Steps taken to 

improve ocean literacy as it relates to climate change include establishment of the Communication and 

Education Program of NOAA’s Climate Program Office and the newly launched Climate Service portal.

Updated Priorities

Research Priority 1: Understand ocean–climate interactions within and across regions.

Ocean regions, such as tropical, polar, and deep sea, can exert powerful influences on, and in turn be 

influenced by, global climate change. Current understanding of the type or temporal and spatial extent 

of this influence is limited. Improved short-term climate predictions require a more complete understanding of the influence of global tropical ocean phenomena (as demonstrated by El Niño, AMOC, PDO, 

and NAO events, and monsoons in the Indian and eastern Pacific Oceans). Attention to changes in the 

Arctic is especially critical. Increasing global temperatures will eventually lead to an ice-free Arctic Ocean 

in summer, with potentially widespread impacts such 

as changes in polar albedo (reflective power) and 

ocean–atmosphere heat exchange, alterations in sensitive Arctic ecosystems, and development of new 

shipping routes (see Theme 3 Maritime Operations 

and the Marine Environment). Recent data indicate 

that these impacts are materializing more rapidly than 

imagined just a few years ago. A warmer Arctic can 

contribute to coastal flooding due to melting ice 

sheets, and may influence abrupt or longer-term climate change. The Southern Ocean, one of the most poorly observed and hostile environments of the 

Earth, is a region of significant biological productivity and CO2 uptake, and is influenced by large-scale 

ocean circulation with significant climate implications. Finally, the role of the deep ocean should be 

ascertained, particularly with regard to the ways it mitigates climate change (e.g., via carbon sequestra-
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tion and heat storage). Processes within these regions (e.g., ocean circulation, air–sea interaction, convection, water-mass formation) can have a variety of individual and compounded impacts over many 

spatial and temporal scales, ranging from the regional effects of diminishing sea ice on Arctic ecosystems 

to global effects of sea-level rise.

Research Priority 2: Understand the impact of climate variability and change on the 

biogeochemistry of the ocean and the implications for ocean ecosystems.

Changes in the ocean’s physical properties (e.g., heat, circulation) and biogeochemical properties (e.g., 

carbon, nitrogen, dust, trace elements, pollutants) can have a variety of impacts on ecosystems ranging 

from coastal watersheds to shallow- and deep-water coral reefs to open-ocean systems. Of particular 

concern is the impact of ocean acidification on ecosystem function. In addition, altered biogeochemistry, changing current patterns, loss of sea ice, rising sea levels, and modified salinity and sea-surface 

temperature may irreversibly alter ecosystems. Sustained observations (e.g., from global and coastal 

observatories), research on processes (e.g., air–sea exchange, ecosystem interactions), and modeling 

(e.g., ocean–atmosphere–land models integrating global and regional biological, chemical, and physical 

data) will help determine fluxes and cycling of biogeochemical variables and help identify and quantify 

impacts on ecosystems of the greatest importance. These efforts will also help identify subsequent 

feedbacks regarding the influence of ecosystems on climate (e.g., the influence of ocean acidification 

on carbon uptake and sequestration, desertification, increasing iron dust and subsequent oceanic algal 

blooms). The knowledge gained, in conjunction with understanding of impacts to ecosystem health, 

will support effective management of these ecosystems so that they remain healthy and viable.

Research Priority 3: Apply understanding of the oceans to help project future global climate 

changes and their impacts.

The oceans are getting warmer, more freshwater is being added by melting ice sheets, and more CO2 is 

being absorbed from the atmosphere. Melting sea ice provides the potential for a significant feedback 

for high-latitude warming, as well as affecting ocean productivity, leading to changes in high-latitude 

oceanic ecosystems. The ability to predict the timing and magnitude of regional climate change due to 

these and other processes, and to understand how such change will impact society, will be improved 

by quantifying the predictability of these processes and by increasing the temporal and spatial resolution and dynamic complexity of global ocean–atmosphere–land models. Integrating a robust set of 

global and regional ocean observations, coordinated paleoceanographic data and assessments, and 

the results of improved process research into such models will help determine the past and present 

influence of ocean processes on climate change, including the potential for rapid or abrupt change (at 

“tipping points”). Coupled climate models will support improved short-term predictions (e.g., hurricane 

intensity) and long-term projections (e.g., sea-level rise) that will enable local, tribal, state, regional, 

and Federal policy and decision makers to plan for and adapt to effects of climate change. The science 

community’s overall interest in “seamless weather-to-climate prediction” suggests that future models 

should have more accurate representation of the key processes that couple the ocean and atmosphere.
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Tools to be Emphasized

A continuing challenge for U.S. climate-related ocean research is the lack of a robust, integrated system 

of global and coastal ocean observation, including in situ and space-based sensors, that is sustainable 

and connected with international observing efforts. Particular emphasis should go to establishing the 

validity of remote sensing methods in coastal regions and other areas of high complexity and gradients. 

In addition to collecting physical, biological, and biogeochemical data, the observing system effort 

should be able to integrate new technologies and incorporate new contributions without compromising climate records (which will become increasingly important as more countries contribute in a 

significant way to observational databases). Incorporating proxy ocean data (e.g., paleoceanographic 

data from sediment and ice cores) into the larger ocean–climate information system is also needed. 

Such an information system should have the capability to develop climate-data records for physical, 

biogeochemical, and ecological datasets; to reconstruct past ocean states; and to assist in developing 

and refining climate proxies.

Another barrier to improved understanding is insufficient knowledge of how biological, chemical, and 

physical ocean processes interact through a variety of space and time scales. Obtaining this knowledge 

will require that ocean field campaigns become increasingly interdisciplinary, combining physical and 

biological/biogeochemical research far more intimately than in the past. Ship-based research should 

also more fully incorporate global in situ and space-based measurements and modeling as a context 

for field campaigns, and allow results to be applied generally. Ship-based research should utilize newly 

capable platforms, such as gliders and floats.

Improvements in ocean and coupled climate model and data assimilation will be necessary to integrate 

large volumes of observational data, reconstruct past ocean states, and predict future states. Increased 

computational capabilities, including versatile software, efficient algorithms, focused resolution, and 

capacity, are required to support these advances in data and modeling capabilities and allow for providing results to the research and relevant operational communities. An end-to-end system in which 

observations feed modeling, which in turn produces forecasts for use as input to decision tools, is a 

necessity.

Sustained and improved satellite and in situ

sensors are necessary to collect information 

over a sufficient time period so they can detect 

subtle background climate trends in a broader 

range of climate parameters, such as currents, 

salinity, and sea-ice thickness, to draw a more 

complete picture of fundamental climate 

processes. Next-generation, in situ chemical 

and biological sensors that collect a variety 

of information, including data on sentinel 

organisms and habitats, will also be important. 

Improvements in data collection should be 

accomplished while maintaining long-term climate records of key variables. Advances in methods of 

ocean data assimilation are required to allow for true integration of in situ and remotely sensed data, 

especially satellite-based column and surface measurements and in situ vertical profile measurements.
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The scientific community required to address the ocean–climate connection will thus need to be more 

interdisciplinary than ever before, and able to work with a variety of data sources (both in situ and remote 

sensing), utilize models for prediction and/or dataset production, and work effectively in a far more 

international environment than ever before. This will place significant burdens on the training of scientific 

personnel in this area, given the need for additional breadth and ability to focus as part of a large team.

In addition, the social sciences are an important source of information for describing ocean–climate 

interaction and anticipating changes such as location and importance of local fishing communities as 

resource locations shift with climate change; and offer social, behavioral, and economic data, as well as 

supporting local ecological knowledge. Such knowledge can be especially important in remote areas 

and can provide vital facts about ecosystem changes. It is vital that these commonly untapped resources 

be utilized in order to capture a more complete picture of climate change.

Regional Applicability

The effects of climate change are not uniform across space, and therefore planning to address its impacts 

should necessarily be tailored to specific regions. Sea-level change is a particularly poignant example of 

regional variability. Sea-level rise in low-lying coastal areas have made land loss a significant problem 

on the Gulf Coast. Differences also occur with fish stocks, where the range of certain species is shifting 

due to changing ocean conditions. Changes in the Arctic have particularly significant implications for 

changes in ocean circulation, greenhouse gas accumulation, planetary warming, and human activity.

The large areas involved, and the multitude of agencies with regulatory authority over the ocean, our 

coasts and coastal watersheds, and the Great Lakes, mean that coordination among research institutions 

and management entities is essential to success. Regional bodies have already formed across the coastal 

states to address ocean issues in a more holistic fashion. Coordination with international partners is also 

crucial, since climate change is a global phenomenon, unconstrained by national boundaries.
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Theme 5:

Improving Ecosystem Health

Human society reaps enormous and diverse benefits from the complex marine ecosystems that exist off 

our shores. Food production, clean drinking water, climate regulation, intangible aesthetic value, and 

protection of life and property from storm damage are only a few of the many benefits provided by the 

ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes areas. In the past century the impact of humans on 

ecosystems has intensified. As human populations grow, they draw more and more on natural resources 

to produce net short-term gains at the expense of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Diminished 

water and habitat quality, enlarged dead zones, new water-borne diseases, decline in habitat quality, 

and fisheries collapse are a few of the effects of reduced marine and freshwater ecosystem health and 

the resulting degradation in diverse ecological services. Addressing the cumulative effects of human 

impacts in order to minimize and reverse detrimental effects will require a more holistic, ecosystembased approach to management.34

Rationale

The services provided by an ecosystem are inextricably linked to its overall health. Degradation of ecosystem health can have non-linear and unforeseen consequences that current management actions 

may not be able to mitigate. Accurate valuation of the full range of provisioning, regulating, cultural, and 

supporting services provided by natural ecosystems is a key component necessary for consideration 

in the management of human activities at the coasts and in the oceans. Provisioning services include 

the goods supplied by coastal and marine ecosystems, such as fishery catches, oil and gas, renewable 

energy, and food from aquaculture. Regulating services include regulation of climate and water quality, 

storm mitigation, and pollution absorption. Cultural services include recreational, spiritual, aesthetic, 

educational, and cultural heritage activities; supporting services include carbon sequestration and 

primary production. To effectively improve ecosystem health there should be a rigorous scientific 
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understanding of the structure and function of marine ecosystems that are responsible for providing 

ecosystem services and an ability to apply that understanding to develop a comprehensive ecosystembased management framework.

Climate change and its many ramifications, such as ocean acidification and sea-level rise, can potentially 

have extreme, abrupt, and/or irreversible impacts on ecosystems. In general, ecosystem degradation 

happens slowly and somewhat predictably, resulting in a gradual loss of services rather than rapid, and 

therefore more noticeable, changes in ecosystem structure and function. However, it is possible that 

ecosystems may degrade slowly through a number of mechanisms but then reach a tipping point at 

which a sudden change occurs, moving the ecosystem into a different, semi-permanent state. Though 

our capability to predict change is improving, predicting the thresholds at which cascade effects can 

occur is still very difficult.

The National Ocean Policy includes a precautionary management approach when, for example, existing 

information is insufficient to address second-order effects of interactions among ecosystem components. Robust decision-making will result when decisions are informed by timely, specific, and pertinent 

information. While much remains to be learned, much can be accomplished with the present level of 

knowledge to proactively conserve and improve ecosystem health, thereby ensuring the delivery of 

ecosystem services.

To reverse declining ecosystem health, the National Ocean Policy calls for integrated conservation and 

management of ecosystems through regional marine planning. The emphasis on ecosystem-based 

management and marine planning implies a supporting suite of observation, research, and assessment 

activities. The research priorities outlined in this section seek to address some of the highest priorities 

in assessing and addressing ecosystem health concerns and helping to support valuation of ecosystem 

services.

Research Priorities

Progress to Date

The Comparative Analysis of Marine Ecosystem Organization (CAMEO), named by Charting the Course as 

a Near-term Priority, is playing an important role in increasing our understanding of ecosystem structure 

and function, by enabling the gathering and integration of data related to ecosystem production and 

organization at the regional level. For example, the Puget Sound Partnership in Washington State is using 

ecosystem health metrics and modeling to provide stakeholders and managers with a framework for 

decisions. The Partnership uses Integrated Ecosystem Assessments (IEAs) as a tool to help identify what 

ecosystem restoration activities will have the greatest impact on the improvement of ecosystem services. 

An IEA both integrates and analyzes diverse scientific information, and requires cooperation across a 

spectrum of partners ranging from Federal Government to state and local governments as well as academic, non-governmental organizations, and industry partners. The goal of an IEA is to inform decisions 

that support an ecosystem-based approach to managing marine resources and achieve environmental, 

economic, and societal objectives. An IEA is dynamic, iterative, and adaptive. The IEA program for the 

California Current is working to develop visualization tools designed to provide easy access to multiple 

sources of environmental, economic, and social science data. The program works across Federal, State, 
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and local agencies as well as with stakeholders to address pressing coastal and marine management 

goals in that large marine ecosystem. This effort has achieved better understanding among the whole 

spectrum of stakeholders of how ecosystem-based management should assess ecosystem services, as 

well as the methods of valuation that underpin those assessments. IEAs also provide the basis for an 

adaptive approach to management, which acknowledges uncertainties in how complex ecosystems 

will respond to changes in human activities.

Updated Priorities

Research priorities for improving ecosystem health should focus on the most important uncertainties, 

and work to fill gaps in knowledge most needed for both near-term decision-making and long-term 

understanding. The inclusion of current research results is essential for improving the effectiveness and 

adaptability of ecosystem-based management.

Research Priority 1: Understand and predict the impact of natural and anthropogenic 

processes on ecosystems.

The complex relationships that determine ecosystem structure and function vary in scale both spatially 

(e.g., local, regional, basin-wide, global) and temporally (e.g., seasonal, annual, decadal, centennial), and 

incorporate various feedback effects. Shifts in ecosystem structure can be induced by climate–ecosystem 

interactions (e.g., impacts of El Niño/La Niña, increases in ocean temperature), human activities (e.g., 

watershed activities, sediment/nutrient/contaminant flux, fishing), and productivity-driven or predationdriven trophic mechanisms (e.g., invasive species). Among these, increasing ocean acidity is an especially 

critical issue in need of focused research. Understanding climate–ecosystem relationships requires 

incorporating new and existing knowledge and observations at appropriate temporal and spatial scales 

to explore the full range of physical, chemical, biological, and ecological mechanisms that determine 

observed ecosystem structure, function, and variation. Improved ecosystem decision-making requires:

• Comprehensive analyses of natural and anthropogenic changes in physical, biological, and 

chemical properties and their individual and cumulative impacts on productivity and overall 

ecosystem health;

• Assessment of dispersal mechanisms for marine organisms;

• Development of next-generation trophic dynamics models, spanning multiple trophic levels; and

• Process studies and model development to assess impact (loss) and recovery responses to 

natural and anthropogenic declines. For example, linking the extent and effects of the hypoxic 

zones in the northern Gulf of Mexico to land-use practices in the Mississippi River drainage 

requires complex models.
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Research Priority 2: Apply understanding of natural and anthropogenic processes to develop 

socioeconomic assessments and models to evaluate the impact of multiple human uses on 

ecosystems.

Understanding human impacts on marine ecosystems, whether positive (restoration) or negative 

(degradation), will require integrating traditional ocean science with socioeconomic science. This is 

especially true in the Arctic because of the rapid changes in this region. Restoration science as a body 

of principles and best practices is rapidly growing in importance and relevance to our Nation’s coastal 

resilience and sustainability.35,36 To determine and predict society’s impact on marine ecosystems, social 

and economic factors (e.g., land, water, and energy use; coastal and watershed development; resourceuse perception; cultural history) that determine how society views and uses marine ecosystems should 

be assessed and modeled. Existing non-market valuations of ecosystem services and processes are often 

geographically and topically fragmented, making temporal and spatial analysis difficult. Efforts should 

include developing new methods for evaluating non-consumptive use of ecosystem services and 

characterizing the values society places on competing uses. To ensure the sustainability of ecosystem goods and services, those methods should 

consider the rights of future generations and 

include a discount rate for adjusting cost-benefit 

analyses over time.

Research Priority 3: Apply understanding of 

marine ecosystems to develop appropriate 

indicators and metrics for effective 

management and sustainable use.

A robust suite of indicators of ecosystem structure, function, productivity, and services should 

be used and evaluated and implemented at multiple scales (local, regional, basin-wide). These indicators 

will help in assessing factors that stress and degrade ecosystems (e.g., ocean acidification, eutrophication 

and harmful algal blooms; loss of coastal wetlands; shoreline development; overuse of harvested species; 

invasive species; introduction and cycling of contaminants; changes in biodiversity, ecosystem productivity, and resilience). Additionally, indicators and metrics are needed to help monitor the restoration and 

recovery of degraded ecosystems. Input from a range of scientific disciplines is needed to identify such 

indicators, or to develop them where existing ones are insufficient or where gaps are identified. Metrics 

and indicators should evolve based on new scientific understanding and management needs and goals 

and be evaluated through integrated ecosystem assessments. In this manner they will provide feedback 

for assessing management efficacy and a basis for incorporating new information and understanding 

to adapt and improve management practices. The development of ecosystem approaches to marine 

planning will require four-dimensional models of ecosystem response to alternative use scenarios. This 

type of system will allow projections of climate effects on long term changes in ecosystem productivity 

and the geographic extent of ramifications of decisions or lack thereof. Planning decisions will require 

understanding of the sources and sinks (fate) of marine animal larvae, valuation tools to assess tradeoffs 

among various potential use sectors, and visualization tools to comprehend the likely impacts of planning decisions on ecosystems.
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Tools to be Emphasized

Effective observing capabilities should provide essential physical, chemical, and biological data on various ecosystem types ranging from terrestrial watersheds to productive coastal and continental shelf 

regions to the deep, pelagic realms. Collection of such data will require extensive infrastructure including research vessels, automated buoys, and autonomous vehicles for short- and long-term sampling 

of water-column properties; satellite-based assessment of surface characteristics (e.g., temperature, 

biogeochemical properties, ocean color, surface currents, wave heights); in situ observatories in the 

ocean and across the land–water interface; shore-based facilities for sample analysis, experimental 

manipulation, and observing system maintenance; and a range of survey (e.g., mapping) capabilities.

Improvements in, and maintenance of, information technology and infrastructure are essential to 

ensure that data assimilation, analysis, and modeling tools are available to accommodate and enable 

the integration of ecosystem and socioeconomic data. For example, ocean color is an important ocean 

parameter, which contributes to information on a variety of ocean-related issues, including sea surface 

temperature and ocean acidification. Maintaining capabilities for satellite observations of ocean color 

and other parameters is a priority, even when national and international commitments to satellite 

coverage are uncertain.

Understanding the causality of observed changes in ecosystems informs an adaptive management 

approach. Implementing adaptive management measures in response to observed changes will improve 

success and enable stronger linkages between science and the beneficial social outcomes of ecosystembased management. It is critical that we develop end-to-end systems, based on collaboration between 

academic and operational agencies, to develop tools (such as the IEA program) to support ecosystem 

decision relative to local and regional issues, such as nutrient management, fisheries management, and 

marine planning. Four-dimensional visualization tools are needed to provide geospatial information 

supporting decisions based in science and a thorough understanding of the “downstream” consequences 

of action or inaction. Such tools are data-intense, with particular emphasis on time series as key to model 

validation. Effective management of vast amount of data from multiple sources and with variable levels 

of sophistication is a key element in the inter-operation and functionality of ecosystem-based models.

Fundamental to all research progress is human capital. Ensuring an effective and adaptive ecosystembased research and management approach 

requires an investment not only in technology and infrastructure, but also in education 

systems to produce the scientists and managers needed to implement this approach. 

Collecting and analyzing data, conducting 

monitoring and assessments, and observing changes in ecosystems are all tasks that 

should be accomplished by a dedicated 

and knowledgeable workforce. Ecosystem 

research requires collaboration between 
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aquatic and terrestrial natural sciences (e.g., biogeochemistry, taxonomy, systematics37) and social 

sciences (e.g., sociology, economics) as well as individuals who can transform data into information 

products for end users.

Regional Applicability

The impact of humans on ecosystems is mostly at local to regional scales. Each region faces different anthropogenic and natural stressors that should be considered at the appropriate scale. Scaling 

models to the appropriate levels will be central to assessing and forecasting ecosystem health. In 

many situations ecosystem models will need to be scaled up so they are portable to other geographic 

areas, while climate models will need to be scaled down to improve regional forecasting abilities. The 

consequences of climate change will vary by region, necessitating regional approaches to management (e.g. melting Artic sea ice, ocean acidification, sea-level rise). The National Ocean Policy proposes 

nine ecosystem planning regions that provide a framework for addressing scale in the implementation 

of ecosystem-based management. Within each region there is likely to be a hierarchy of smaller-scale 

ecosystem-management issues.

Ecosystem health also has global implications, as an ecosystem impaired in one country can have 

downstream impacts on others. Ecosystems are not confined by geopolitical boundaries, but they often 

are intersected by jurisdictional lines which may dictate management action or inaction. Challenges 

to recovering and sustaining healthy ecosystems in developing countries are different than in similar 

recovery efforts in the United States, possibly requiring different techniques and solutions; collaboration among stakeholders across boundaries is often critical. The many programs organized around 

the concept of Large Marine Ecosystems (LME), many coordinated through the World Bank and Global 

Environment Facility, offer an example of successful establishment of science-based conservation and 

management strategies at regional scale around the world. The LME programs build technical capacity 

and allow countries to take ownership of their successes and failures relative to ecosystem health. In 

the long run, healthy ecosystems that deliver necessary services contribute to political stability as well 

as human health.
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Theme 6:

Enhancing Human Health

The ocean, our coasts and coastal watersheds, and the Great Lakes hold vast resources that convey 

health benefits by providing food, oxygen, waste recycling, climate moderation, carbon sequestration, 

recreation, and energy. In addition, exploration of extreme habitats and the discovery of new species 

and novel chemicals, combined with emerging biochemical and biotechnical techniques, promote the 

development of bioproducts that promote human health. Environmental change puts these benefits 

at risk through the depletion of ocean and coastal resources, degradation of environmental quality, 

the loss of ecosystem services, and increased threats to human health and livelihoods.38 Direct health 

hazards include catastrophic hurricanes, flooding, tsunamis, contaminated seafood, polluted waters, 

disease-causing microbes, and harmful algal blooms (HABs). Understanding the causes of health hazards 

and how they can be mitigated or managed can decrease the numbers of resulting illnesses. In the next 

decade, efforts to improve our understanding of oceans and human health will focus on explaining 

the causes and emergence of diseases and new techniques and products to prevent and treat disease. 

Enhancing human health will ultimately depend on translating research results into policies that reverse 

trends in ecosystem degradation and curb losses in biodiversity.

Rationale

The ocean, our coasts and coastal watersheds, and the Great Lakes present health risks to people through 

the consumption of water or seafood containing pathogens, toxins, or chemical contaminants; direct 

contact through recreation, work, and weather events; and indirect contact (e.g., breathing salt air that 

contains algal toxin aerosols). The frequency and distribution of marine HABs is increasing39 in U.S. waters 
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and worldwide. Every coastal state in the U.S. has experienced HABs over the last several years, and new 

species have been found in locations not previously known to have problems.40 The most severe impact 

to human health is shellfish and finfish poisoning from consuming seafood contaminated with HAB 

toxins. Public warnings of threats from swimming, eating seafood, and playing in beach sand help curb 

health impacts, but illnesses often have complex, poorly understood interrelationships with land use 

practices, water quality, nutrient concentrations, and ecosystem degradation. The emphasis on seafood 

safety associated with the Deepwater BP oil spill illustrates the risk to the food supply from catastrophic 

pollution events and the need for robust monitoring and research. Climate change has the potential to 

cause additional stress on already degraded habitats and at-risk species and change the distribution of 

microbes, parasites, and invasive species, including some that cause disease. Increasing temperatures, 

sea-level rise, and ocean acidification are predicted to have major impacts on the structure and function 

of ecosystems and thereby alter where people can live and work and what they can eat.

Effectively managed and protected, the oceans will provide resources for medical advances. Marine 

microbes, plants, and animals are sources of thousands of unique chemicals with the potential to treat 

human diseases. In recent decades, scientists have discovered ecological communities in the ocean with 

unique biochemical systems, such as those associated with thermal vents and hydrocarbon seeps. These 

communities, along with ones yet to be discovered, hold huge possibilities for studying biochemical 

adaptations, pathogen resistance, and the control of disease using genomics. Prior discoveries that 

now have practical application include pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, molecular probes, and nutritional 

supplements.41 Substantial economic benefits have been realized from such “biodiscovery.”

Research Priorities

Progress to Date

Efforts in recent years to support research in the ocean sciences, biomedical sciences, and management communities have been stimulated by a joint program of the National Science Foundation and 

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences to fund four Centers for Oceans and Human Health. 

Also, NOAA’s Oceans and Human Health Initiative has funded three Centers of Excellence and oversees 

an external grants program to develop multi-institutional research partnerships with academia, other 

Federal and state agencies, and the private sector. In addition, the SOST Interagency Working Group on 

Harmful Algal Blooms, Hypoxia and Human Health (IWG-4H) released the reports Interagency Oceans and 

Human Health Research Implementation Plan: A Prescription for the Future (2007) and Interagency Oceans 

and Human Health Annual Report Fiscal Years: 2007–2008 (2009).

Member Federal agencies are making significant progress with:

• Better detection methods and forecasting capabilities for pathogens and toxins;

• Improved surveillance for HAB-related diseases;

• Improved sensors for rapid identification and quantification of HAB species and development 

of early warning systems;

• More thorough monitoring of chemical contaminants, including pharmaceuticals;
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• Satellite surveillance that improves risk assessments relating to disease-causing microbes;

• Understanding the biogeochemistry of mercury methylation in freshwater and marine 

environments;

• Techniques that use seabirds, marine mammals, and other marine organisms as sentinels of 

health threats;

• Beach forecast models that predict recreational beach conditions for the coasts and Great Lakes;

• Testing of new marine-based pharmaceuticals and natural products, including some that hold 

promise as potential pain medications, skin-care additives, and drugs to treat cancer, AIDS, and 

Alzheimer’s; and

• Improved educational and outreach materials, made available through public Web sites and 

local Centers for Ocean Sciences Education Excellence (COSEE).

Updated Priorities

Many challenges still exist in understanding the relationship between the ocean and human health. 

Research needs are multidisciplinary, and studies of human health are strongly dependent on interfacing 

with complementary research priorities involving stewardship, ecosystem health, climate change, and natural 

hazards. Substantive improvements in human health will 

require a more coherent strategy of targeted monitoring 

with strong linkages to ocean observing systems, 

advanced sensors, process studies leading to better 

information dissemination and decision support, and 

improved disease surveillance to identify trends in disease occurrence (e.g., the Harmful Algal Bloom-related 

Illness Surveillance System, HABISS). We should prioritize 

increasing our capacity to assimilate and integrate available data and promote modeling and forecasting that 

will reduce the uncertainties associated with the occurrence and spread of disease under alternative climate 

and management scenarios. These efforts should be 

conducted in concert with multiple partners and stakeholders, including international groups, working collaboratively to resolve mutually identified priorities. We 

should emphasize better ocean literacy and outreach to 

inform people about the benefits of clean oceans and coasts and high quality, healthful seafood, the 

threats of pollutants and contaminants, and the risks of eating fish and shellfish that are tainted with 

harmful chemicals, viruses, and bacteria. The updated research priorities below incorporate information 

and proposed actions from the two IWG-4-H reports mentioned above.
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Research Priority 1: Understand sources and processes contributing to ocean-related risks to 

human health.

Climate change and its impacts have the potential to become the dominant driver of biodiversity loss 

and changes in ecosystem services. Climate change affects oceans by warming waters, melting sea 

and land ice (thereby reducing ocean salinity), increasing sea level, increasing ocean acidification, and 

changing the availability of metals and other essential nutrients required by microbes, plants, and animals. In addition, changes in precipitation, alteration of inland uses, and increased demand for water 

to serve public and industrial needs may, in some regions, reduce the availability of surface water and 

groundwater and ultimately impact coastal watershed, estuarine, and coastal ecosystems. Climate 

change is affecting the Arctic environment more rapidly than other regions. Hence, an important subset 

of coordinated ocean, climate, and health research should specifically address the Arctic region. Climate 

change is likely to result in rapid increases in ocean-related human health threats in the Arctic, and 

these may be exacerbated by social and economic effects of climate and ocean interactions. Assessing 

changing health risks for Arctic communities and ecosystems will also help us understand, anticipate, 

and adapt to future changes in other regions.

Robust observations and improved monitoring systems are necessary to rapidly detect the sources, 

track the spread, and explain the biogeochemical cycling of current and emerging pathogens, toxins, 

and contaminants in coastal watersheds, shorelines, oceans, and Great Lakes environments. Improved 

disease surveillance efforts will help to explain current and emerging health threats from exposure to 

contaminated water, sediments, air, and seafood. Increased knowledge of species interactions and food 

webs can help track pathogens and chemical contaminants (e.g., through disease transmission, bioaccumulation, biotransformation, biomagnification). The flux of water, chemicals, and microbes through 

coastal watersheds, and mechanisms that stimulate, transport, and sustain HABs and contaminants, 

should also be determined. Identifying, developing, and implementing new and improved rapid assays 

and models, in conjunction with disease surveillance, will enable assessment, monitoring, and prediction 

of human health risks. Expanded methods and new sensors will also provide crucial information related 

to the health of ocean, coasts, and Great Lakes wildlife populations and their role as environmental 

sentinels and biomedical models for human conditions. The resulting improved understanding will 

enable development of mitigation strategies and technologies for managing stormwater runoff and 

wastewater discharge, and lead to new approaches to minimizing the health-related impacts of hurricanes and other natural hazards.

A new effort is needed to combine current and anticipated advances in detection, indicators, and 

warning systems for ocean and human health threats with actual data on disease occurrence. A Health 

Early Warning System (HEWS) approach would better provide a new level of understanding of environment–disease interactions. Public health needs would be served by use of selected species (including 

microbes) and habitats in early warning systems through collection, validation, and dissemination of 

environmental measurements and integration of earth observations, oceanographic, epidemiologic, 

and socioeconomic data. However, such trans-disciplinary data collection and analyses are not currently 

taking place; indeed, much of the data needed for such an approach do not exist. Issues of particular 

concern, which require multidisciplinary data to facilitate public health protection, include microbial 
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and chemical contamination of coastal waters and fisheries; impacts of HABs on coastal communities; 

and effects of climate change on human health, storm frequency and intensity, and the prevalence of 

HABs and pathogenic microorganisms.

To protect health and enable epidemiological analyses in the future, the Federal Government should 

prioritize making the collection of human and animal health surveillance data integral parts of ocean 

observing. Following recommendations of the international Group on Earth Observations, Federal 

agencies need to collaborate with the World Meteorological Organization and other international bodies to explore how observing systems may respond to public health community needs by collecting, 

providing, and validating remotely sensed environmental measurements relevant to human health.

Research Priority 2: Understand human health risks associated with the ocean and the 

potential benefits of ocean resources to human health.

While many ocean-based benefits and risks to human health are known, most are poorly understood 

and their direct health effects on humans are inadequately documented.42 Benefits to humans associated with consumption of seafood (e.g., improved cardiovascular health, cognition) should be better 

characterized. Investigations should also quantify risks and impacts of exposure to health hazards (e.g., 

contaminants, pathogens, toxins) via various pathways, including skin contact, respiration (inhalation 

of airborne materials), and consumption of food or water; and determine the incidence and severity of 

associated human illnesses. For example, understanding the trade-offs between the health benefits of 

seafood consumption and the risks of mercury exposure to certain population groups would be valuable 

to consumers. Efforts to quantify risks and benefits require improving assessment methods as well as the 

accuracy and sophistication of epidemiological studies. New epidemiological studies focusing on risks 

should focus on the most vulnerable human populations (children and pregnant women), individuals 

with compromised respiratory or immune systems, people who spend a large amount of time on or 

in the ocean, coasts and Great Lakes (e.g., commercial, recreational, and subsistence fishers), and on 

diseases in species that may serve as sentinels for new or ongoing threats. Ocean data and modeling 

should be integrated with assessments and epidemiological studies to define exposures and focus risk 

assessments.

Research Priority 3: Understand how human use and valuation of ocean resources can be 

affected by ocean-borne human health threats and how human activities can influence these 

threats.

Economic and social studies are needed on how humans use and value the health benefits provided 

by the ocean. Coastal, ocean, and Great Lakes environments are highly attractive places for recreation 

and they play major roles in the Nation’s diverse culture and economic vitality. However, the use and 

value of these environments and their resources may be significantly impacted by water-borne threats. 

These impacts include, but are not limited to, beach closures, constraints on resource use (e.g., fishery 

and shellfish harvest area closures), reduced marine operations and recreation due to contamination 

by pathogens, toxins, or pollutants, and other human health threats (real and perceived). Human activities, such as intensive agricultural operations and coastal development, contribute to the onset and 

persistence of many of health threats. Understanding and predicting the relationship between social 
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and economic drivers (e.g., shoreline development, tourism, recreational and subsistence fishing) and 

threats to human health and quality of life will require integration of socioeconomic data and investigations with ecosystem-based studies of health threats at appropriate temporal and spatial scales. This 

integration will, in turn, help support management and mitigation efforts. There is a need for more 

social, behavioral, and economic research that encompasses both positive and negative economic and 

socio-cultural outcomes related to ocean health risks and benefits.

Research Priority 4: Apply understanding of ocean ecosystems and biodiversity to develop 

products and biological models to improve human well-being.

The intricacies and diversity of ocean ecosystems provide unparalleled opportunities for discovery and 

development of useful products and technologies. The discovery and development of new pharmaceutical and other beneficial products have great potential. Collaborative research efforts that incorporate 

multiple disciplines (e.g., evolution, ecology, pharmacology) should focus on expanded assessments 

(e.g., functional genomics, advanced non-culture-based methods), and development (e.g., biosynthesis) 

of ocean bioproducts (e.g., pharmaceuticals, nutrients, diagnostic tools, reagents, enzymes). Research 

efforts should also include developing the capability to use marine species as models for the study of 

diseases, toxicology, and biochemical processes relevant to human health; and identifying and using 

appropriate sentinel species (e.g., aquatic, avian, mammalian) and habitats that may serve to give early 

warning of potential ocean risks to humans.

Tools to be Emphasized

A comprehensive HEWS should be prioritized to integrate near-real-time physical, chemical, and biological data with records of illness due to pathogens, biotoxins, and chemical pollutants. For example, 

monitoring marine mammal health and mortality patterns is an excellent way to screen for potential 

human disease vectors. Integral to this system is an improved program of environmental surveillance 

that is well-coordinated with ocean observing infrastructure through the Integrated Ocean Observing 

System. Such a warning system would encompass collected human, habitat, and animal health data, as 

well as relevant environmental data (sea surface temperature, salinity, chlorophyll, nutrients, pH, aragonite saturation) via remote, satellite, moored, and mobile platforms and sensors as part of an integrated 

ocean-observing system. These efforts should be coupled with new data integration and interpretation 

capabilities and rapid data-communication plans. Once in place, the system could monitor, forecast, and 
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respond quickly, issuing public advisories when ocean conditions occur that place people, domestic 

animals, and wildlife at risk from pollutants, contaminants, HABs, or disease. We should improve or 

develop sensors and diagnostic tools that are capable of rapidly detecting and identifying biological 

and chemical parameters, including microbe and pathogen densities, biotoxins, and contaminant concentrations. Remote sensing of ecological changes and real-time, high-frequency (temporal and spatial) 

in situ monitoring combined with statistical-empirical and mechanistic modeling are necessary to inform 

understanding of ecosystems and to track and predict outbreaks and other impacts. We need improved 

coordination of toxic algal-bloom monitoring, pathogen-source tracking, marine-disease surveillance, 

and illness reporting. A national suite of contaminant standards (e.g. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 

dispersant products) and standards for monitoring and screening should be cooperatively developed 

and implemented by Federal agencies, States, and regional ocean alliances.

Development and incorporation of sensors for pathogens, indicator microorganisms, harmful algae, toxins and other contaminants, and water quality into observing systems at local to regional scales will allow 

acquisition of data essential to support public health applications and decision making. There should 

be a focus on collecting data in nearshore environments, where the majority of the public’s interaction 

with coastal waters occurs, and on recording environmental observations at appropriate temporal and 

spatial scales, particularly those relevant to the population dynamics of waterborne pathogens and 

harmful algae. In addition, statistical and bioinformatic43 tools need to be developed to link existing and 

new oceanographic models with less well-developed models of human health exposure and disease.

Designing advanced sensors and collecting devices for hostile and extreme (e.g., deep water) ocean 

environments will enable more extensive exploration of habitats and associated species, including 

bacteria, fungi, and viruses, and the discovery of potentially novel compounds and biochemical 

pathways. Developing, improving, and applying new methods and tools at shore-based marine laboratories and other facilities with specialized instrumentation (e.g., for large-scale gene sequencing) and 

computational resources in areas such as genomics, proteomics, and bioinformatics will expand survey 

and screening capabilities. Tools such as microarrays, genetic bar-coding, and rapid DNA sequencing 

provide the means to identify previously unknown pathogenic species and identify incipient disease 

processes at cellular and molecular levels. Federal agencies should prioritize cyberinfrastructure that 

enables efficient data flow among stakeholders, information integration and synthesis, and complex 

modeling. We should continue to develop models that couple observations of environmental change 

with social and economic valuations, along with new visualization tools and decision-support techniques 

that effectively communicate complex information in ways that the public and policy makers can 

understand and use. These new technologies should be transferred into social management programs 

that advise the public and protect public health and the health of ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, 

and Great Lakes ecosystems.

Regional Applicability

The coastlines and offshore areas of our oceans and Great Lakes vary greatly in their physical, chemical, 

and ecological attributes and their living and non-living resources. States have recognized the need to 

cooperatively study and manage their shared coastal assets and watersheds and address common social, 

economic, and environmental issues that cross political boundaries. This recognition has prompted the 
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formation of regional ocean alliances that now include coalitions among states that border the Great 

Lakes, northeast, mid-Atlantic, southeast, Gulf of Mexico, and west coasts. A similar strategy of shared 

regional environmental issues is driving the creation of Landscape Conservation Cooperatives (LCCs) 

among Federal agencies and States. These cooperatives are envisioned as a network of self-directed 

partnerships that will inform resource management decisions relating to broad-scale environmental 

stressors, including climate change, within an overarching framework of adaptive management. The 

formation of regional alliances and LCCs is evidence that the necessary science and management needs 

of our coasts are not “one size fits all.” Each region has a unique suite of natural, social, cultural, and economic characteristics and priorities that influence the health of ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and 

Great Lakes fish and wildlife resources, and ultimately the well-being of their citizens who depend on 

those resources. For example, temperature change in the Arctic is expected to be large relative to other 

regions. Shorelines are shifting, homes are being undermined, and the distribution and abundances of 

marine resources are changing. Significant impacts are expected on subsistence fishing and the livelihoods of Native Alaskans. In the Gulf of Mexico, nutrient dynamics, HABs, shellfish contamination, and 

hypoxia may change significantly—for better or for worse—under different future climate scenarios. In 

the southeast, the potential demise of coral reef ecosystems caused by high temperatures and ocean 

acidification may have detrimental impacts to recreation and tourism in Florida and the Caribbean. 

Environmental, social, and cultural changes are occurring and affecting human health and the economic 

well-being variably by region.
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Cross-cutting Topics

In this report, Science for an Ocean Nation, the list of recommended tools and mechanisms for change 

outlined in Charting the Course has been expanded into a larger set of cross-cutting topics. These 

are so named because they cut across the societal themes and have significant bearing on all of the 

research priorities. They are discussed here in terms of Foundational Issues, Elements of Capacity, and 

Collaborative Approaches. Attention to the cross-cutting topics will be essential for addressing the 

research priorities in the societal themes and the priority objectives in the National Ocean Policy.

Foundational Issues

Global Climate Change

Central to Science for an Ocean Nation is the recognition that climate change is having a pervasive impact 

on ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes ecosystems. Climate change stressors are likely 

to make ecosystems more vulnerable to the effects of human activities, which together could create 
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abrupt changes that are disruptive to coastal communities and economies. The first foundational issue 

is that developing the observations, insight, and modeling capability needed to forecast the effects of 

climate change on ecosystems and the services they provide is essential to both sustained use and wise 

stewardship.

Overview of Status

Earth’s life-support systems are threatened by global climate change. The effects of climate change, including 

increasing water temperature, rising sea level, altered 

hydrologic patterns, loss of sea ice, and ocean acidification, are expected to further degrade vital ecosystem 

services, putting at risk lives and livelihoods. Scientists 

are challenged to reduce uncertainty about the causes 

and impacts of environmental change, whether natural 

or anthropogenic, and to communicate such knowledge broadly in effective ways. The strength of our 

Nation depends on a robust economy, sustainable development, human health, national and homeland 

security, and energy independence. Each of these priorities may be affected by the potentially destabilizing impacts of global climate change.

Climate change science is inherently multidisciplinary and crosscutting. It is inspired by the recognition 

that the Earth’s ecosystems and the services they provide are complex, interdependent, and increasingly 

dominated and threatened by human activity. Our influence on the mobilization and flux of carbon, 

as well as nitrogen and other elements within the biosphere, impacts the capacity of natural recycling 

processes, resulting in, for instance, dead zones in the Gulf of Mexico and Chesapeake Bay. Changes in 

air and water temperatures, sea levels, precipitation patterns, ocean chemistry, storm intensity, flooding, and ice melting are expected to continue impacting our water resources, food production, fish and 

wildlife habitats, endangered species, homes, industries, recreation, essential infrastructure, and public 

health and safety.44

We are making progress in addressing some of these complex issues. We are beginning to comprehend 

the full nature and extent of climate change. We are refining our understanding of how water, carbon, 

and nitrogen cycles and ocean productivity are influenced by climate. Strategies to reduce and mitigate 

the accumulation of atmospheric CO2 using alternative energy sources, energy conservation, and carbon 

sequestration in biological and geological reservoirs are being studied intensively. There is increasing 

public recognition that Earth’s ecosystems are interconnected and interdependent. People understand 

that choices made about such things as cutting forests, conserving energy, using sustainable energy 

sources, recycling, and reducing carbon emissions, all play a role. The ocean research and resource 

management communities are speaking with one mind about how science should inform management 

and how decision-support tools should encompass the explicit objectives of multiple stakeholders. 

There is agreement over the need for integrated, multidisciplinary observations, monitoring, research, 

and downscaled modeling, along with effective assessment, synthesis, translation, and communication 

of information among all stakeholders. Improving science and ocean literacy is a critical overarching 

goal. Ultimately, the stewardship of our freshwater and marine environments and the persistence of 
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biologically diverse, healthy ecosystems that support healthy people and a vibrant economy will depend 

on how we collectively view and respond to a world of changing environmental, social, and economic 

knowledge, values, and priorities.

Supporting National Priorities

Administration priorities include sustainable 

development, economic growth, energy independence, human health, and national and 

homeland security. Achievement of these goals 

requires the recognition that our livelihoods 

and wellbeing depend on the vital goods and 

services provided by natural ecosystems; that 

human activities are changing climate by altering the characteristics of the ocean, air, and land 

and their interactions, thereby degrading ecosystem life-support functions; and that changes 

in human attitudes and behaviors should go 

hand-in-hand with informed and effective 

management of our environmental, social, and 

economic resources (see Box 6).

Making Progress

While we have made important strides in understanding how, why, and in what ways the ocean, 

our coasts and coastal watersheds, and the Great 

Lakes are changing, we still lack fundamental 

knowledge about how climate factors alone, 

and in interaction with other stressors, will 

impact the viability of ecosystem functions and 

services. Many questions remain. How much of 

our coastal landscapes and seascapes should be 

maintained in a natural state to sustain essential 

ecosystem services? How will climate change 

affect biodiversity and ecosystem function and 

resilience? What priority management actions 

are necessary at local, regional, and global levels to conserve ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great 

Lakes resources; protect shoreline infrastructure; and sustain our health, safety, security, and wellbeing? How will increasing human populations respond proactively and adapt to impending, irreversible 

climate change? How will ocean acidification impact the structure and function of marine ecosystems? 

What are the current ecosystem thresholds for irreversible change?

Box 6: Supporting the National Ocean 

Policy: Climate Change

A central message of the National Ocean Policy is 

better coordination among institutions at all levels 

to improve understanding and inform decisions 

about the open ocean, coasts, coastal watersheds, 

and Great Lakes. This will allow effective response to 

the challenges of mitigating and adapting to global 

climate change and ocean acidification with 

comprehensive marine planning and ecosystembased management. Stewardship of our resources 

will depend on strengthened and integrated 

observing systems, effective information dissemination, new tools to model and forecast change, and 

policies that improve land use and water quality 

and that build resiliency, enabling the wise use, 

protection, and sustainability of our resources.
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Climate change is pervasive, cumulative, multi-dimensional, and difficult to measure and quantify. The 

physical, chemical, and biological drivers of ecosystem dynamics are complex; various environmental stressors may interact in poorly known, non-linear ways. To continue making progress Federal agencies should:

• Establish reliable baselines for analyzing variability in many system states (differentiating 

between natural and anthropogenic change is often problematic);

• Describe global trends and inform managers about changes that will occur at local levels, for 

example, relative sea-level rise that varies regionally with geological uplift/subsidence, winds, 

currents, temperature, salinity, and in wetlands, plant growth;

• Improve decision-support tools to enable decision makers to envision future environmental, 

social, and economic conditions at global to local scales, and allow them to test various management options and priorities;

• Provide decision makers with analyses of impacts based on the best available scientific information, including a range of likely conditions. Multiple stakeholders will need to be involved early 

in defining needs and in the information gathering and analysis process; and

• Engage and inform the public. Human behaviors and attitudes are not easily understood or 

changed. Regardless of our level of scientific understanding, our ability to effectively mitigate, 

build resilience, and adapt to climate change, while minimizing social disruption, will depend 

on public engagement.

Social Sciences

Adaptation to, and mitigation of, the coupled effects of climate change and human use on ocean, 

coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes environments will require far more than the integration of 

physical and biological sciences. Making the difficult trade-off decisions that are certain to come will 

require entirely new ways of valuing ecosystem services, understanding decision-making with respect 

to risks, and fostering individual and collective change. These are issues that can be usefully addressed 

by the social sciences, including economics, sociology, psychology, and anthropology. Therefore a 

second foundational issue is realizing effective solutions to environmental challenges by seamlessly 

integrating social sciences with the natural sciences, and developing a larger workforce committed to 

working at this interface.

Overview of Status

Economic prosperity, human health, and societal well-being are intrinsically tied to the health of our 

ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes ecosystems. The National Ocean Policy identifies 

eight major categories of commercial use of these resources: oil and gas, renewable energy, mining, 

ports and harbors, commerce and transportation, tourism, aquaculture, and fishing. This report also 

notes that these ecosystems provide a range of other services including scientific, recreational, cultural, 

conservation, and homeland national security activities; and are home to unique national trust resources 

valued by the public, such as protected species, wetlands, and corals.
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Social, behavioral, and economic sciences help us to understand ecosystem use patterns as well as 

societal preferences on the provision of ecosystem services. Collectively, these disciplines can inform 

us about the magnitude of the benefits derived from ocean, coastal and coastal watershed, and Great 

Lakes ecosystems, clarify the costs and benefits of proposed management actions; and assist in forecasting future use patterns, including responses to management measures and changes in environmental 

conditions. Major Federal mandates that cover ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes resources include but are 

not limited to the National Environmental Protection Act, Executive Orders 12866 (Regulatory Planning 

and Review) and 12898 (Environmental Justice), the Endangered Species Act, the Regulatory Flexibility 

Act, the Clean Water Act, and the Marine Mammal Protection Act. To comply with these Acts, a suite of 

socioeconomic assessments is required that includes cost-benefit analysis, social impact assessment, 

cumulative impact assessment, small business impacts, and social justice assessment.

The principal threats to our ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes ecosystems stem from 

anthropogenic causes; hence any action taken to protect or restore ecosystem health should consider 

human drivers as well as environmental information. Social sciences help us understand the drivers of 

human action and evaluate societal tradeoffs and predict responses to change in policies, environmental 

conditions, and incentives (e.g., changes in prices or income). A wide range of methods and models is 

used by social scientists. At a minimum, we need social and economic information on ecosystem use 

patterns. This information suite ranges from basic economic performance measures, such as profits, 

productivity, and value added, to gross domestic product, to improved social indicators of well-being 

including vulnerability and resilience metrics.

Policy makers, however, require more than descriptive information on status and trends of ecosystem 

use.45 To ensure sustainable policies and use of our ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes 

ecosystems, the social sciences should provide information on societal values of ecosystem services, the 

impact of human uses on ecosystem function, and the social and economic trade-offs and time horizons 

of benefits associated with alternative use patterns. Emerging methods such as integrated ecosystem 

assessments provide a rich characterization of the linkages and feedback mechanisms among a broad 

range of ecosystem components, based on models of biological, ecological, and oceanographic processes coupled with economic models of human use patterns and preferences.46 In addition, economic 

models of spatial choices are increasingly incorporating biological and ecological information, including 

water quality. These models can be used to assess the value associated with activities in an area; estimate 
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changes in values due to perturbations of environmental factors or changes in allowed uses in that area; 

and predict how users will respond to environmental or management changes. Importantly, the models 

can also incorporate risk preferences and environmental uncertainty, a defining ecosystem feature.

Valuation surveys are useful tools for valuing goods that are not traded, such as threatened and endangered species, cultural resources, and habitats, such as corals and wetlands. While these methodologies 

are not new and have a lengthy history in the peer-reviewed literature, they have not been extensively 

used. Consequently, relatively few resources 

have actually been valued. In a regulatory setting, this often means that while the cost to 

industry of recovering an endangered species 

can be estimated and provided to decision makers, a value has not been set on the benefits to 

society from rebuilding stocks. More recently, 

public and stakeholder surveys have been used 

to determine societal preferences for proposed 

management actions. Often referred to as “conjoint surveys,” these have been used in ocean and 

coastal settings to assess angler preferences for 

management alternatives as well as to assess 

public preferences for allowed uses in marine 

managed areas.

Increasingly, sound social, behavioral, and economic science-based approaches are needed 

to understand how households, communities, 

and regions can become more resilient under 

the threat of natural hazards. An understanding 

of how decision makers respond to uncertain 

information should inform the kinds of information products to be produced. Additionally, 

knowledge of the community and economic 

drivers that fuel resilience and recovery after 

a destructive event should be used to direct 

resources to further strengthen an affected 

region. Quantifiable measures are needed to gauge progress. Resilience and vulnerability indices of 

infrastructure, community, and economic fitness can be used as performance measures. Regional 

economic models serve to identify the local engines of economic recovery. Survey techniques can be 

used to value important cultural and recreational amenities and to develop a better understanding of 

individual risk perceptions that lead to adaptation actions.

Box 7: Supporting the National Ocean 

Policy: Social Sciences

Strong social science capabilities are necessary to 

implement the National Ocean Policy. A foundational principle of the Policy is that current and 

future use of ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes 

ecosystems should be managed and effectively 

balanced (i.e., considering trade-offs) in a way that 

maintains and enhances the environmental 

sustainability of multiple uses, including those that 

contribute to the economy, commerce, recreation, 

security, and human health. Social science research 

is uniquely capable of identifying management 

options that provide the greatest societal benefits 

while achieving conservation goals.
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Supporting National Priorities

The National Ocean Policy provides a comprehensive and integrated framework for achieving sustainable use of our ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes ecosystems. Marine planning cannot 

be effectively implemented without substantial input from the social sciences. Marine planning requires 

cost–benefit analyses of alternative uses in spatially-defined areas; the ability to predict how affected 

users will respond to changes in allowable uses within an area; and public and stakeholder buy-in. Social 

science methods include a variety of models for conducting cost–benefit analysis and predicting user

responses to spatial management strategies. Stakeholder and public preference surveys will strengthen 

buy-in from these groups by providing a transparent process for incorporating multiple objectives and 

multiple values into decisions. As these techniques encourage and improve stakeholder input, marine 

planning processes will incorporate stakeholder values, beliefs, and concerns that it would not be aware 

of otherwise. These tools will also identify and help design necessary social products and services and 

improve prioritization of projects.

Through integrated modeling, social sciences can directly contribute to ecosystem-based management. Integrated modeling that incorporates social sciences can also identify cost-effective ecosystem 

restoration programs, assess economic and social effects of climate-induced changes in the Arctic, and 

assess and predict the economic consequences of proposed land use strategies to the benefits derived 

from our ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes ecosystems.

Incorporation of social science analysis in these efforts also will support the broader national priorities 

(see Box 7). The application of social sciences can support sustainable development in coastal and Great 

Lakes regions, thus contributing directly to the overall economy and human health. Marine planningrelated economic research will identify the costs and benefits associated with traditional and renewable 

energy use patterns in these regions, providing crucial information for the Nation’s energy security. 

Finally, climate-related research can assess the socioeconomic impacts of climate change as well as the 

cost-effectiveness of adaptation activities necessitated by climate change.

Making Progress

The significant and increasingly competitive uses of our ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great 

Lakes ecosystems suggests a level of competition for space and resources not previously considered by 

any single Federal agency. As demonstrated herein, social science can play a critical role in determining 

how best to manage and utilize our resources. To provide this information, however, requires a stronger 

social science capability underpinned by socioeconomic data. Because of rapid changes in the Arctic, 

information on communities in this region and interactions with the natural environment is especially 

critical. Requirements include:

• Economic and social information on individuals, households, communities, and coastal and 

marine-related sectors for tracking performance, understanding current use patterns, and 

predicting responses to management measures and changes in environmental conditions;

• Capability to conduct integrated ecosystem assessments, including providing richer characterization of socioeconomic interactions and feedback mechanisms;
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• Predictive models for estimating changes in ecosystem services values and trade-offs based 

upon standard climate scenarios;

• A modeling toolbox that would allow managers to evaluate changes in benefits and the distribution of benefits from proposed marine planning, for example multi-sector location choice 

models;

• Surveys of public preferences regarding coastal and marine management strategies;

• Habitat valuation surveys to determine societal preferences for habitat uses and conditions;

• Protected species valuation surveys to assess societal values and preferences for alternative 

recovery programs;

• Social capital surveys to identify social resilience networks that improve productivity and contribute to positive economic outcomes;

• Identification and assessment of community risk factors, assessment of impacts of management 

options on risk, and identification of cost-effectiveness of strategies for alleviating risk; and

• Development of community resilience indicators.

Ocean Literacy

The third foundational issue emphasizes development of a multi-disciplinary ocean workforce and an 

ocean-literate citizenry that better understand the majesty and mystery of the ocean, our coasts, and 

the Great Lakes, and make well-informed decisions about their use. Ocean educators are working at all 

levels of formal education and in informal venues such as aquaria, museums, and in the media. Rapid 

improvements in data-streaming, visualization, and cyber-enabled communications should be used for 

education as well as research. Improving education and ocean literacy will involve a long-term commitment to change, beyond tomorrow’s ocean scientists, managers, and decision makers. Public perception 

shifts with familiarity; people protect what they understand and perceive as valuable. Familiarity with 

healthy ecosystems and the tangible and intrinsic values provided by them are no exception. Education 

and understanding among the ocean workforce and the general public regarding the importance of 

ecosystem services that benefit both society and individuals will, over time, alleviate anthropogenic pressures and 

concomitant ecosystem degradation.

Overview of Status

Federal science and resource management agencies 

invest in students, educators, and the public by supporting science, technology, engineering, and mathematics 

(STEM) education as well as environmental education. 

Investments capitalize on agency assets, such as the outdoor classrooms provided by national parks, estuarine 

reserves, and marine sanctuaries, and the technological 

capabilities of ships, laboratories, and ocean observing 
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platforms. Ocean education programs contribute to the President’s Educate to Innovate Campaign and 

the Strategy for American Innovation by connecting students and teachers to world-class research and 

emerging technology that are the foundation of our future economy. Federal ocean education programs 

include teacher professional development; partnerships with aquaria and museums; student scholarships, fellowships, and internships; partnerships with minority-serving institutions; and direct contact 

with audiences at parks, sanctuaries, and reserves. For most agencies, ocean education is part of the 

larger portfolio of STEM, earth systems science, and environmental education.

A recent public survey by the Ocean Project showed that Americans continue to support ocean conservation, but rank it as a low priority and do not understand issues or underlying science concepts. Young 

people (aged 12–17) know and care more about ocean and other environmental issues, and they are 

more willing to act than adults. Furthermore, they influence the opinions of adults, who tend to view 

their children as better informed on conservation issues.47 This survey provides a baseline against which 

we can measure our impact on future public understanding of ocean issues.

In 2004, a coalition of educators and scientists joined together to develop “Ocean Literacy: The Essential 

Principles of Ocean Sciences, K-12, ”48 a defining framework for formal and informal educators. This 

framework identifies seven essential principles that ocean-literate citizens should understand. In 2009, 

a companion piece, “Climate Literacy: The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences,” was developed and 

adopted by the U.S. Global Change Research Program. Over the past several years, Federal agencies 

have successfully expanded the use of these materials across a partnership network that includes 

the Smithsonian’s Sant Ocean Hall, the Centers for Ocean Science Education Excellence, the Coastal 

Ecosystem Learning Center aquaria, and the Science-On-a-Sphere museum network, in addition to 

many other Federal and non-Federal partners.

Federal agencies also oversee a variety of programs to build our future ocean workforce. Students are 

supported through internship, fellowships, and scholarship programs. Federal agencies collectively support the National Ocean Sciences Bowl, which has grown to include 25 regional teams and 300 schools, 

involving over 2,000 high school students each year. Programs at minority-serving institutions provide 

direct student support, mentoring, and career development opportunities. Agencies also fund studies 

to track the ocean-related workforce over time.

Support for ocean education today will shape the scientific and technical workforce of the future. 

The Regional Associations of the Integrated Ocean Observing System report that 32 percent of their 

employees have a bachelor’s degree, 26 percent have a master’s, and 26 percent have a PhD.49 Although 

the numbers of PhDs awarded in the geosciences has remained steady, the numbers of Bachelor’s 

and Master’s degrees have fallen since the 1980s. One area of success has been the steady increase in 

the number of women obtaining degrees in geosciences, with approximately 43 percent of degrees 

obtained by women in 2008. Efforts to increase minority participation are still needed, as African 

Americans and Hispanics continue to make up less than 10 percent of the geosciences workforce.50
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Supporting National Priorities

Ocean education is closely linked to 

the President’s efforts on energy independence, sustainable development, 

climate, health, national and homeland 

security, and the economy. All of these 

efforts depend on an educated, diverse, 

multi-disciplinary workforce that understands the ocean and its impact on our 

society (see Box 8). This workforce should 

reflect the U.S. population in terms of 

diversity of individuals, backgrounds, 

cultures, and perspectives. The education efforts of each agency contribute 

to the President’s Educate to Innovate 

campaign and the President’s Strategy 

for American Innovation. The mission 

science agencies are committed to support the Educate to Innovate campaign, a 

nationwide effort to move American students from the middle to the top of the 

pack in science, technology, engineering, and math over the next decade. The 

President identified three overarching 

priorities for STEM education: increasing 

STEM literacy and enabling critical thinking; improving the quality of teaching in 

these fields so American students are no 

longer outperformed by those in other 

nations; and improving STEM education and career opportunities for underrepresented groups, including women 

and minorities. The Innovation Strategy 

identifies education as a cornerstone for 

future innovation and competitiveness. The strategy proposes to invest in STEM education at all levels. 

Ocean education programs contribute by linking students and teachers to exciting discoveries and 

innovative technologies.

Making Progress

To continue progress on this foundational issue, we should:

Continue to focus on educating students, educators, and the public on the essential principles of ocean 

literacy including stewardship, natural hazards, the ocean’s role in climate, ocean ecosystem health, 

Box 8: Supporting the National Ocean Policy: 

Ocean Literacy

The National Ocean Policy includes fostering a public 

understanding of the value of the ocean, coasts, and Great 

Lakes to build a foundation for improved stewardship. 

Promoting and improving ocean literacy is critical to public 

engagement in and understanding of ecosystem-based 

management, marine planning, and climate impacts and 

mitigation, including in the Arctic. Increasing knowledge 

among the public, decision makers, and stakeholder 

groups builds awareness of connections between human 

activities on land and in the water and resource health and 

availability. Undergraduate and graduate education of 

future scientists ensures continued progress in understanding ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes environments and our 

interaction with them. Use of ocean infrastructure for 

educational purposes helps promote public and K-12 

understanding.
Cross- cu tting Topics

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and the ocean’s role in human health. These programs work best on a state and regional basis, as the 

educational standards of each state and the ecosystems and natural hazards of each coastal region are 

different;

• Encourage and support students to obtain degrees in oceanography or related sciences, particularly minority students who wish to enter these fields;

• Develop pipeline programs that reach students at community colleges and that bridge transition 

points between high school and associate degree programs to college, and graduate schools. 

Mentoring programs are necessary to increase enrollment of all students in geosciences; and

• Conduct baseline studies of environmental literacy and investments in evaluation methods to 

adequately assess the effectiveness of different types of programs.

Elements of Capacity

Ocean Observations and Infrastructure

Ocean conditions are changing over the long term and being affected in the short term by humancaused and natural events. Effective adaptation and management require ocean observations on 

decision-relevant time and space scales, and the infrastructure to support those observations. Together, 

infrastructure and observations enable baseline knowledge of areas and processes ranging from microscopic to global, record changes, and document the impact of management and mitigation practices. 

Impressive new capabilities are emerging for making in situ observations from fixed and mobile ocean 

platforms. At the same time, consideration should be given to maintaining vessel and satellite capability. Both science and policy call for improving integrated ocean observing capability, across the United 

States and internationally.

Overview of Status

Steady changes such as rising sea level and ocean acidification, together with episodic events such as 

the Deepwater BP oil spill, are having profound effects on ecosystems and society. The understanding 

needed to manage, mitigate, and adapt to change requires a wide variety of coordinated observations 

and analysis using a broad range of tools. These encompass remote sensors mounted on satellites and 

shore facilities; in situ ocean-observing systems; ships and autonomous vehicles; and computers, data 

storage, and service to provide rapid data access. Advances already underway in ship technology (e.g. 

acoustically quiet vessels to monitor fish stocks), tracking devices, and in situ environmental monitoring 

systems allow for increased observation capacity. Increasingly there is movement toward automated 

or remote systems, which greatly augment the scope and breadth of information collected. Real-time 

tracking of environmental conditions, especially with the aid of satellites, facilitates rapid and targeted 

response to emerging situations, both acute, such as natural hazards, and chronic, as with climate 

change. Beyond making environmental data collection and observation possible, these tools also 

provide the foundation for resource use and management, transportation, commerce, security, and 

surveillance.
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Progress on the research priorities associated with each one of the six societal themes outlined in Science 

for an Ocean Nation depends on ocean infrastructure and observation. Existing infrastructure is already 

being leveraged to support these priorities, but as 

the recent oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico has shown, 

technological advances are continually required 

to meet the needs of researchers, managers, regulators, and policy-makers. In the National Ocean 

Policy, one of the five areas of special emphasis is 

mapping and infrastructure, which are needed to 

meet all other national priority objectives.

It is critical that Federal agencies plan cooperatively to ensure that, on both short and long timescales, the United States has sustained adaptive 

ability to gather, analyze, and deliver ocean data. 

Since Charting the Course was published, Federal 

legislation, a new National Ocean Policy, several 

new development or construction projects, and 

several coordinated planning activities are clarifying priorities. The Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009 (Public Law 111-11) directs various 

Federal agencies to establish a coordinated national ocean exploration program; develop a coordinated 

and comprehensive Federal ocean and coastal mapping plan; establish a national system of ocean, 

coastal, coastal watershed, and Great Lakes observing systems; develop a strategic research and monitoring plan to guide Federal research on ocean acidification; and create a coastal and estuarine land 

conservation program for protecting important coastal and estuarine areas.

Some noteworthy new ocean infrastructure and observing capability is coming on line or is under 

development. The global-class research vessel R/V Okeanos Explorer became available in 2009, the icestrengthened R/V Sikuliaq is under construction and is expected to begin science operations in the Arctic 

in 2014, and the Navy has announced operators for two new ocean-class ships also expected to begin 

operations in 2014. A new acoustically quiet fishing survey vessel, the FSV Shimada, began surveys on 

the West Coast in 2010 and the FSV Reuben Lasker is under construction.

Ships are now designed to be multi-use platforms able to conduct fisheries research and bathymetric 

surveys, and collect oceanographic data simultaneously. It is imperative that these platforms be able 

to “collect once, use many times” and share the data. New sensors for ocean observations using fixed or 

mobile platforms are in development, prototype, or commercial stages, partly as a result of the Nearterm Priority for Ecosystem Sensors identified in Charting the Course. Working with Federal agency and 

regional partners, NOAA is establishing a robust program for the Integrated Ocean Observing System 

to integrate existing regional observing capabilities, while construction has started on the National 

Science Foundation’s (NSF) Ocean Observatories Initiative, designed to address basic ocean research 

questions. Both are working toward coordinated data management to provide transparent information 

access and delivery. On the satellite side, new capabilities (e.g., for imaging sea-surface salinity) will be 

launched in the next several years. However, consideration should be given to maintaining satellite 

sensor capabilities and global ocean and coastal datasets (e.g., of ocean color).
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Recent planning and assessments will provide important input to the strategic action plan for observation, mapping, and infrastructure called for in the National Ocean Policy. An inventory by the SOST 

Interagency Working Group for Facilities in 2009 found that current ocean infrastructure was adequate 

to address the Near-term Priorities identified in Charting the Course, but lacked 

future capacity. Also in 2009, the National 

Research Council (NRC) published Science 

at Sea: Meeting Future Oceanographic 

Goals with a Robust Academic Research 

Fleet, calling for improved use of autonomous vehicles and further development 

of global and regional-class research vessels, with a judicious mix of general and 

special-purpose designs. A task force on 

unmanned systems has been created to 

focus on needs with respect to unmanned 

platforms, which are becoming an important tool for oceanographic data collection. A SOST-funded NRC study provides 

advice on the types of infrastructure 

needed to facilitate ocean science and 

research in 2030.51

Supporting National Priorities

To make informed and effective decisions 

regarding economic, development, and 

security activities, human and ecosystem 

health and welfare, and mitigating and 

adapting to a changing environment, 

decision makers and the public should 

have ready access to tools and information based on data gathered through 

ocean observations and infrastructure (see Box 9). This is especially critical as climate change brings 

about environmental change, globally and with particular impact in sensitive regions. The changing 

conditions in the Arctic have prompted increased efforts in the development of Arctic-class vessels 

that can safely and responsibly operate in the newly opened waters. The risks associated with offshore 

oil and gas exploration and extraction from deeper waters and new offshore areas, and development 

of renewable energy sources from the ocean, make precise real-time ocean observations critical for 

safe and efficient energy operations. Data are required to support a wide range of both commercial 

and safety decisions, including evacuations, beach and shellfish closures, establishing science-based 

annual catch limits for fisheries, and the identification of safe and efficient shipping routes to transport 

Box 9: Supporting the National Ocean Policy: 

Observations and Infrastructure

A central element of the National Ocean Policy is infrastructure to provide the data and tools necessary to support 

responsible management of the open ocean, coasts, 

coastal watersheds, and Great Lakes. The strategic action 

plan to be developed for this priority objective will address 

a nationally integrated system of observing systems, the 

use of unmanned vehicles, remote sensing platforms, and 

satellites, and the identification of capabilities and gaps of 

the national oceanographic fleet of ships and related 

facilities.
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the products we rely on each day. An integrated observing system including satellites, research ships, 

and autonomous platforms will link observations to modeling and prediction, enabling development 

of the information products needed to:

• Improve predictions of climate change and weather;

• Improve the safety and efficiency of maritime operations;

• Allow more effective mitigation of the effects of natural hazards;

• Improve national and homeland security;

• Reduce public health risks;

• Allow more effective protection and restoration of healthy coastal ecosystems; and

• Enable the sustained use of ocean and coastal resources.

The oceanographic fleet also responds to crisis events to help ensure human and environmental health, 

as seen in the response to recent natural hazards and environmental tragedies.

Making Progress

The Nation’s facilities and infrastructure are the foundation for accessing, obtaining, analyzing, and 

sharing information needed to support not only the six societal themes presented in this document but 

also resource management decisions and policy-making. Central to making progress are the needs to 

integrate multiple types of observing capabilities into a comprehensive system that can rapidly deliver 

critical data, to ensure records of change in the form of high-quality time series, and to leverage U.S. and 

international investment to provide global coverage. To accomplish the goals of Science for an Ocean 

Nation and the proposed ocean policy priorities, progress should be made in the following areas:

• Integrate and improve existing data-delivery systems and modeling capabilities at regional, 

national, and global scales. Data should be rapidly and freely accessible through a comprehensive national data network, providing transparent metadata and analysis tools for decision 

support and for research;

• Ensure a robust, integrated system of global, coastal, and Great Lake observatories in critical 

areas for monitoring ocean health, tracking climate change effects, and conducting climaterelated ocean research, as well as for hazard prediction. This includes continuation of efforts 

toward a more capable ARGO system of profiling floats, and maximizing the use of ships of 

opportunity for global observations. Sensor miniaturization and commercialization for use 

across platforms, together with sustaining infrastructure for adequate calibration and validation 

activities across such networks, are particular challenges;

• Maintain continuity of global satellite ocean measurements and high-resolution coastal measurements (including but not limited to ocean color radiometry, scatterometry, and altimetry); 

develop coordinated virtual satellite constellations involving domestic and foreign assets; and 

establish domestic and international calibration and data validation programs;
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• Ensure essential research vessel capabilities, including the appropriate mix of general and 

special purpose vehicles;

• Develop cost-effective approaches to maintain and provide access to the rapidly expanding 

fleet of ever-more-capable autonomous vehicles, perhaps comparable to the University National 

Oceanographic Laboratory Systems approach for shared use of research vessels and coordinated 

operations and maintenance; and

• Maximize impact of existing infrastructure in Arctic and Antarctic regions through improved 

operational coordination across agencies, planning and programming of infrastructure and 

shore facilities, and development of new technologies, such as under-ice navigational capabilities for floats, gliders, and autonomous vehicles for study of sea ice dynamics and ecology.

Ocean Modeling

Transforming data into knowledge is critical to understanding and managing our coasts, the Great 

Lakes, and the ocean. Modeling is an essential tool in this transformation process. Federal agencies 

are developing new abilities to model both climate and ecosystems on the scales at which decisions 

are made and implemented, and to construct more realistic approaches that integrate the chemical, 

physical, and biological processes that regulate the ocean and Great Lakes. Improved modeling and 

forecasting capabilities also require rapid and universal data access as well as automated assimilation 

of quality-controlled data.

Overview of Status

The capability to analyze and predict the state of the ocean, including physical, chemical, biological and 

ecological components, remains a key long-term goal for the Nation. This need spans space and time 

scales from local bays and estuaries out to the entire global ocean, and from short-term forecasts out to 

decadal, centennial, and even millennial climate predictions. Numerical models are essential tools that 

can be used to analyze and predict the state of the ocean and to guide our interaction with it. They can 

be used diagnostically to better understand the relationships between the physical, biogeochemical, 

and socioeconomic aspects of the ocean, or they can be used to forecast the future impacts of global 

environmental change or proposed changes in management practices. Coupling numerical modeling 

with biogeochemical and ecosystem models is particularly important to address the needs highlighted 

in the six societal themes, such as understanding the implications of ocean acidification, understanding 

the resilience of our coasts to extreme forcing from climate change or episodic natural hazards, assessing 

ocean ecosystem heath, and supporting ecosystem-based management.

The numerical tools required for simulating and predicting the ocean environment undergo constant 

upgrades, and in recent years there have been many new developments and improvements in a 

variety of ocean models and associated prediction systems. Improvements have involved the use of 

new methods for more accurately representing the physical ocean, allowing models to run at higher 

resolution, and making computer models more efficient. Other improvements have been made in the 

data assimilation techniques used to incorporate observations of the ocean into the models to improve 

predictions. Many of these data-assimilative prediction systems are now operating in coastal regions 

around the country. On larger spatial scales, there are global ocean models that assimilate observations 

from the Global Ocean Observing System to predict ocean conditions around the world.
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Supporting National Priorities

While numerical models are useful for exploring 

and understanding the relationships between 

different dynamic systems, they also are of particular utility in understanding the implications 

of policy and management decisions by serving 

as a tool to predict the potential ramifications on 

the ocean and ocean-related systems (see Box 

10). These predictive capabilities are essential 

for forecasting the response of ecosystems to 

various types of forcing, understanding marine 

ecosystem function, assessing elements of the 

ocean’s role in climate change, and understanding what ocean-related variables we should monitor (or build new sensors to observe) in order to 

accurately assess the state of the physical ocean 

and the marine ecosystem. The Federal agencies’ 

ocean modeling capability is key to forecasting 

ocean-influenced processes and phenomena, 

providing scientific support for ecosystem-based 

management, and guiding the efficient development of an ocean-observing system and related 

infrastructure that will be vital for understanding 

the ocean in our changing environment.

Box 10: Supporting the National Ocean 

Policy: Predictive Modeling

The need for a robust ocean modeling capability to 

guide ocean policy and management decisions is 

demonstrated throughout the National Ocean 

Policy. To carry out the stewardship responsibilities 

put forth in the National Ocean Policy, the impacts 

of these decisions should be understood. 

Predictive ocean models are important tools for 

estimating consequences. A broad program of 

basic and applied disciplinary and interdisciplinary 

scientific research, mapping, monitoring, observation, and assessment, coupled with development 

of forecasts, models, and other decision-support 

tools, is required to build knowledge of ocean, 

coastal, and Great Lakes ecosystems and processes 

and ensure that management and policies are 

based on sound science.
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Making Progress

To support the six societal themes and the associated research priorities, improvements will be 

needed in our modeling tools. Priorities are to:

• Integrate existing modeling capabilities into a flexible and comprehensive 

unified ocean-modeling software 

environment, building on the diverse 

existing community and developmental ocean models;

• Conduct systematic best-practice studies to develop guidance in the selection of optimal algorithms and techniques for particular modeling applications;

• Improve biogeochemical models to increase our understanding of ocean acidification issues;

• Improve ecosystem models to better understand complex ecosystem dynamics and forecast 

the effects of resource use, exploration, and development on ecosystems and individual 

components;

• Continue to develop high-resolution, global ocean model configurations for use in real-time, 

short-term forecasts out to days or months and reanalysis of historical ocean states, and multicentury climate forecasts;

• Provide regional and local models of environmental changes to help determine how these 

changes impact resources;

• Develop techniques to translate the output of ocean and climate system models, including 

probabilistic forecasts and uncertainty estimates, into information formats appropriate for input 

into decision-support tools;

• Continue to develop current computational capacity to assimilate increasing amounts of data 

provided by ocean-observing assets and to support and process model advancements that 

incorporate increased process and mechanistic understanding;

• Develop computational capabilities to support new modeling capabilities and to build and 

deliver decision-support information to relevant operational communities; and

• Conduct process-oriented research to resolve critical functional relationships encoded into 

models.
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Collaborative Approaches

Mechanisms for Collaboration

Because resources and processes are trans-jurisdictional, ecosystem-based management of the ocean, 

our coasts, and Great Lakes should engender and embrace mechanisms for collaboration across many 

scales of government, between the public and private sectors, and with academic and private research 

partners. Since release of Charting the Course, coastal states have strengthened existing regional associations and formed new ones, and are developing plans for identifying ocean and coastal priorities and 

needs. At the same time, there is an increasing emphasis on integrating climate and ecosystem models 

on the regional scale, where many policy and management decisions are made and implemented. In 

addition to strengthening partnerships across different levels of governments, Science for an Ocean 

Nation emphasizes the importance of working regionally, strengthening interactions between resource 

managers and scientists, and developing new mechanisms to promote long-term partnerships among 

industry, government, academia, and non-governmental entities.

Overview of Status

Currently, marine resources and use are managed by different authorities, under varying regulations 

and separate governance structures but nature does not obey such boundaries. Important new tools 

for improving our interactions with the marine environment, notably marine planning and ecosystembased management, require consideration of both ecosystem components and the interactions among 

them. For all marine resources to be managed under the same analytical framework, agencies with 

jurisdiction over differing ecosystem components will need improved mechanisms for collaboration 

and cooperation. Cooperation across political boundaries, including international lines, will lead to a 

more effective management framework and better understanding of the global ocean.

Currently, collaboration among Federal agencies is encouraged under the governance structure of the 

National Ocean Council. This cabinet-level body, comprised of representatives from Federal agencies 

with interests or activities in the ocean, is responsible for updating and setting national ocean priorities 

and overseeing implementation. This structure also includes two major subgroups that allow Federal 

agencies to coordinate efforts on science and technology and resource management: the Ocean Science 

and Technology Interagency Policy Committee52 and Ocean Resources Management Interagency Policy 

Committee. A governance coordinating committee consisting of representatives from States, Tribes, 

and local governance structures provides input on inter-jurisdictional issues related to the National 

Ocean Policy. Other ocean-related interagency collaborations can also facilitate ocean research priorities 

(e.g., the Committee on the Marine Transportation System, U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, and Great Lakes 

Interagency Task Force).

Mechanisms for regional collaboration exist on various scales. Regional organizations, such as the Gulf 

of Mexico Alliance and the Northeast Regional Ocean Council, are based on the needs of regions. For 

example, the Northeast Regional Ocean Council consists of six States and six Federal agencies and aims 

to promote regional protection and balanced use of resources. The Great Lakes Regional Collaboration 

includes Federal, state, tribal, local, and international groups working together to design and implement 

a strategy for preservation and restoration of the Great Lakes. The West Coast Governor’s Agreement 
Cross- cu tting Topics

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on Ocean Health brings States and Federal agencies together to protect and manage marine resources 

along the entire West Coast. These regional mechanisms allow for all levels of governments to communicate and work together for common goals.

Several mechanisms currently exist that facilitate collaboration across multiple sectors. These mechanisms include formalized interagency activities designed to promote public–private research and 

education partnerships (e.g., the National Oceanographic Partnership Program) or to pool capabilities 

among sectors to address local issues (e.g., coastal America); stakeholder focus groups and roundtables 

that bring together parties with similar vested interests; and governmental advisory groups, such as 

the Ocean Research Advisory Panel (ORAP). Marine planning efforts should also provide a significant 

new level of collaboration and coordination across multiple sectors and levels. Although many of these 

efforts are initiated at the Federal level, they represent forums for discussion and interaction among 

different groups.

Mechanisms for international collaboration including international treaties, bilateral agreements, and 

international scientific forums are also essential for the Nation to more effectively pursue global research 

efforts that extend outside our borders, both in terms of influence and impact (see International 

Cooperation, below).

Supporting National Priorities

Working together to protect and sustainably use the resources offered by the 

ocean, our coasts and coastal watersheds, 

and the Great Lakes will advance other 

national priorities, including a robust 

economy, sustainable development, 

improved human health, national and 

homeland security, and energy independence (see Box 11). Sustainable development will require the input of multiple 

agencies and sectors. The ocean is complex and its components complexly linked. 

None of these goals can be reached independently; all sectors should collaborate 

to continue moving forward. Mechanisms 

for integration and collaboration across 

agencies and private sectors will be essential in meeting national priority objectives.

Box 11: Supporting the National Ocean Policy: 

Collaboration

The importance of mechanisms for collaboration is 

highlighted in the National Ocean Policy, which states the 

need for a “comprehensive framework to coordinate efforts 

among Federal, State, tribal, and local authorities, including 

regional governance structures, non-governmental 

organizations, the private sector, and the public.” The 

proposed framework includes a means for greater participation and coordination among these groups and requires 

a process for external input. Accomplishing the National 

Ocean Policy priorities will require greater coordination 

and communication across jurisdictional lines.
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Making Progress

Although existing mechanisms for coordination should be used wherever possible, new mechanisms 

may be required to enable effective partnerships and collaboration. It is critical that mechanisms for 

collaboration at all levels remain flexible in order to address specific needs at the appropriate scale. 

Requirements include:

• Expansion of interactions with other sectors, promoting collaborations among sectors, and 

advancing regional initiatives to meet ocean research objectives;

• Development of regional mechanisms for areas where regional associations are not currently 

in place;

• Establishment of mechanisms to consistently develop broad-based regional research structures 

that provide effective, ongoing regional interaction;

• Consideration of new mechanisms, including industry-university cooperative research centers 

that promote long-term partnerships among industry, academic institutions, and government;

• Increased coordination between resource managers and scientists to help ensure that scientific 

knowledge is translated into management action; and

• Build upon the emphasis on the framework for marine planning in the National Ocean Policy.

International Communication and Cooperation

With a single global ocean bathing the world’s shores, international communication and cooperation 

are intrinsic to both ocean science and policy. Federal agencies partner with many countries on a wide 

variety of activities and are committed to improving international partnerships on both governmentto-government and scientist-to-scientist levels; the need is particularly strong for the southern hemisphere, where regional science and management collaboration are weakest. International partnerships 

also broaden the intellectual talent pool and can leverage U.S. investments. International commitment 

to shared data standards and rapid data access are central to maximizing progress, as are increased 

coordination and integration of ocean 

observations. Federal agencies have 

entered into a variety of international 

management agreements (e.g., for fisheries management) that require science 

collaboration.

Overview of Status

Even when nations do not agree politically, 

very often their scientists continue to 

cooperate and maintain needed connections. By capitalizing on and expanding 

international efforts, nations can more 
Cross- cu tting Topics

★ 81 ★

effectively pursue global research efforts that extend beyond borders, both in terms of influence and 

impact. The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission coordinates programs in marine research, 

observation systems, hazard mitigation, and capacity development to provide information to manage 

ocean and coastal resources more effectively. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change engages 

thousands of scientists from 194 countries to assess the most current information on climate change 

and provides rigorous and balanced information to decision makers. The International Council on the 

Exploration of the Sea focuses its scientific gaze on the North Atlantic and adjacent regional seas. It promotes research on oceanography, marine ecosystems, living marine resources, and human impacts on 

the ocean and provides advice to its 20 member nations. Its sister organization, the North Pacific Marine 

Science Organization, has a similar mandate but focuses its attention on the northern North Pacific and adjacent seas. These 

are just a few examples of international 

scientific cooperation. Many other organizations, both large and small, foster international partnerships, collaborations, and 

friendships that further the goals outlined 

herein. There is a need to create and support such mechanisms to strengthen science in the southern hemisphere as well.

Supporting National Priorities

As populations grow and pressures build, 

the world continues to shrink. In this 

landscape political realms are as interconnected as ecological ones. Success in 

ensuring economic growth and stability, sustainable and ecologically sensitive 

development, providing secure borders, 

and achieving human health priorities is 

dependent upon cooperation and collaboration across national boundaries 

(see Box 12).

Box 12: Supporting the National Ocean Policy: 

International Cooperation

The National Ocean Policy calls for exercising rights and 

jurisdiction and performing duties in accordance with 

applicable international law, including respect for and 

preservation of navigational rights and freedoms, which 

are essential for the global economy and international 

peace and security. One of the objectives is to improve 

coordination and integration across the Federal 

Government, and as appropriate, engage with the international community. International cooperation across 

scientific frontiers with the exchange of information and 

ideas provides a means of making connections and 

pursuing research activities that can help ensure international cooperation in addressing complex management 

and policy issues.
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Making Progress

Progress has been made through a number of international entities, but connectivity and coordination 

is still needed in several areas:

• Integration in terms of data compatibility. The compatibility of datasets is a critical challenge;

• Connection of observations on the cryosphere, atmosphere, planetary boundary layers, land, 

and ocean in models along with ecosystems, organisms, and humans over different scales to 

better understand weather, climate, and ecosystem processes and services. This level of integration requires an interdisciplinary level of thinking beyond what exists today;

• Advocacy for more effective regional implementation of ocean policy objectives through 

internal collaboration;

• Establishment of international minimum standards for data collection to facilitate data sharing 

around the globe. Such sharing would require new capabilities to address gaps or differences in 

data collection, sharing, and interoperability of technologies, and permit integration of existing 

research into operational models; and

• Education and development of scientists, managers, and other experts capable of operating 

in this environment and able to integrate physical, ecological, mathematical, and social data 

into decision-making tools.
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Achieving National Ocean Policy Priorities:

Progress through Ocean Research

Charting the Course highlighted four targeted areas for implementation referred to as Near-term 

Priorities:

• Comparative Analysis of Marine Ecosystem Organization

• Response of Coastal Ecosystems to Persistent Forcing and Extreme Events

• Assessing Meridional Overturning Ocean Circulation Variability” Implications for Rapid Climate 

Change

• Sensors for Marine Ecosystems

As a result of Charting the Course, a number of agencies have provided funding for both the research 

priorities within the six societal themes, as well as making specific investments in the Near-term Priorities. 

The following text highlights the targeted investments made in the last three years, and provides 
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

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examples of their role in supporting the National Ocean Policy and helping to frame forthcoming 

Strategic Action Plans for the nine policy objectives. The policy objectives are the heart of the path 

ahead to further the National Ocean Policy; the 20 research priorities described in this document lend 

the science to achieve them.

Ecosystem Assessments

Ecosystem-based management and regional ecosystem protection and restoration are two objectives 

highlighted in the National Ocean Policy. They emphasize managing ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, 

and Great Lakes resources on the scale of the ecosystem rather than according to individual species 

or activities or on the basis of political jurisdictions. At the heart of these objectives is understanding 

how ecosystems work and which management practices are most effective. Charting the Course called 

for this sort of basic research, spurring investment in the Comparative Analysis of Marine Ecosystem 

Organization (CAMEO). CAMEO supports fundamental research to understand the complex dynamics 

that control ecosystem structure, productivity, behavior, resilience, and population connectivity. It also 

addresses the effects of climate variability and human pressures on living resources and their critical 

habitats. Currently, fifteen CAMEO projects and nearly 100 scientists across the Nation are evaluating the 

impacts of climate change and harvesting strategies on marine ecosystems. Projects are led by teams 

of Federal and academic scientists and are designed to bridge the gap between fundamental science 

and management needs. Selected topics include:

• Development of new statistical models to examine trophic interactions in the Bering Sea and 

Gulf of Alaska under different climate and fishing regimes;

• Comparison of global ecosystems to determine their resilience to fishing pressure;

• Examination of natural and human influences on coral reef community structure, diversity, and 

resilience;

• Integration of advanced modeling tools to examine the roles of physical oceanography, biology 

at lower trophic levels, and fish ecology in forage fish populations in the California Current and 

Oyashio/Kuroshio Current Systems; and

• Development of advanced forecasting tools to predict future states of ecosystems.

CAMEO now includes 16 projects and more than 80 researchers from 25 academic institutions and 10 

NOAA laboratories. Seven projects started in 2009 will be completed in the summer of 2011 with some 

of them extended into 2012. Nine projects started in 2010 will be completed in 2012. No new awards 

have been made in 2011. NOAA and NSF are working together on upcoming CAMEO workshops and 

meeting activities, and discussing out-year planning for the program.

Coastal Impacts

The National Ocean Policy provides a framework for marine planning that incorporates the principles of 

ecosystem-based management. Marine planning is intended to be a comprehensive, transparent public 

policy process for analyzing current and anticipated uses of ocean, coastal, coastal watershed, and Great 

Lakes areas to enable society to better determine how they should be sustainably used and protected. 
Achieving National Ocean Policy Priorities:Progress through Ocean Rese a rc h 

★ 85 ★

Charting the Course emphasized Forecasting the Response of Coastal Ecosystems to Persistent Forcing 

and Extreme Events. This effort aims to enhance and integrate observations, monitoring, and modeling 

to create routinely available information tools that enable better decisions in planning, management, 

mitigation, and safety. Action has been initiated in two regions on issues of local concern. In the Gulf 

of Mexico, the effort is focused on integrating diverse regionally-based data and models to address 

impacts of coastal inundation. In the Great Lakes, the focus is on integrating enhancements of methods, 

monitoring, and models to improve predictions of beach water quality. Progress has been made through 

this effort both in furthering research and in developing decision-support tools by

• Supporting research projects to address climate and natural hazard resilience in the Gulf of Mexico;

• Developing decision-support visualization tools for Delaware and the Alabama/Mississippi coasts;

• Developing tools to support sustainable development and site selection for public housing 

investments; and,

• Enhancing and leveraging relevant sea-level rise and inundation efforts across the U.S. Gulf region.

Recent extreme weather events underscore the importance and timeliness of this effort. The Federal 

leads, NOAA and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), remain committed to dedicating resources toward 

activities that will advance this near-term priority despite potential budgetary challenges. Charting the 

Course no longer exists as a line item within NOAA’s budget and the USGS budget outlook is uncertain; 

however, providing research, products, and services to allow coastal zone managers to anticipate and 

respond to the consequences of coastal change, including storms, inundation, erosion, and sea-level 

rise, remain high priorities for NOAA and the USGS coastal programs.

Climate Drivers

The National Ocean Policy highlights the impact of changing climate on the ocean and Great Lakes and 

along our coasts. Changing sea level and water levels in the Great Lakes, warmer water temperatures, 

decreasing ocean salinity, and increasing ocean acidification will have profound impacts on our shorelines and ecosystems, and the communities and economies that depend on them.

We now realize the importance of ocean circulation in the planet’s response to increasing atmospheric 

CO2 and warming. An interagency program53 is addressing the role in climate variability of the ocean 

circulation feature called the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, a Near-term Priority in Charting 

the Course. This effort is working toward developing an AMOC observing system; assessing our ability to reconstruct and model past AMOC changes and predict future changes; and assessing AMOC’s 

impact on regional and global climate, sea-level rise, carbon uptake, and marine ecosystems. Targeted 

investments in the United States have been strongly leveraged by European investments, in particular 

connected to a joint project with the United Kingdom. With close ties to U.S. Global Change Research 

Program activities and international research cooperation, the AMOC program is making strides toward 

better understanding this influential component of our planet’s climate system and its far-reaching 

impacts, including:
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

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• Determining the most efficient observing system design, examining satellite datasets, and 

analyzing data products to identify changes in ocean circulation and provide estimates of 

AMOC variability;

• Continuously monitoring the AMOC and defining emerging patterns and trends;

• Planning key new components of the AMOC observing system;

• Using models to show variability in Atlantic sea-surface temperature linked to AMOC variability, 

which mirrors a pattern called Atlantic Multidecadal Variability (AMV). Models indicate that 

AMOC/AMV variability impacts the global water cycle, causing droughts or extreme rainfall, 

and affecting monsoons;

• Identifying many potential mechanisms that lead to changes in the AMOC (planned model 

studies will validate these mechanisms and their “fingerprints” in observations); and

• Providing new insights about the state of the AMOC and its recent variations through novel 

approaches that combine satellite information and in situ observations.

The AMOC Science Team continues development of the AMOC Program with annual meetings and 

strong collaboration with European, South American and South African colleagues.

Sensors for Observations

A policy objective in the National Ocean Policy emphasizes the need to strengthen and integrate Federal 

and non-Federal ocean infrastructure, sensors, and data collection into a nation- and world-wide system 

that makes data quickly and widely available. Rapid development of sensor capability is fundamental 

to progress. As a result of Charting the Course, Federal agencies have made significant investments in 

developing and commercializing sensors for ecosystem observations through the Near-term Priority 

Sensors for Marine Ecosystems. The objective of this effort is to help answer questions on ocean and 

ecosystem processes by measuring biological, chemical, biogeochemical, and bio-optical properties, 

from individual cells to the global ocean. This effort stresses technological innovation, with small businesses working with scientists from academia and government. With multi-agency funding through 

the National Oceanographic Partnership 

Program, many competitive and peerreviewed projects have been funded, with 

investments put toward developing or 

commercializing unique tools with which 

to gather answers about the ocean and its 

inhabitants. Project results so far include:
Achieving National Ocean Policy Priorities:Progress through Ocean Rese a rc h 

★ 87 ★

• Automated pH sensors showing a lock-step relationship between CO2 in the atmosphere and 

the pH of seawater;

• Highly sensitive CO2 sensors improved to allow for wide-scale ocean monitoring, including float 

systems for use in dynamic ocean regions;

• An automated analyzer measuring isotopes in methane gas as it emerges from the sea floor;

• Chemical sensors in production for long-term commercial measurement of important ocean 

food web nutrients; and

• An imaging instrument to view and continuously count individual phytoplankton cells, being 

transitioned to commercial work.

Projects funded through the Sensors effort continue to provide valuable results. Agencies involved in 

this effort plan to continue working through the National Oceanographic Partnership Program to fund 

additional projects in the future.

★ 89 ★

Looking Forward

Charting the Course included an Implementation Strategy to guide a nationwide effort to make progress 

toward the research priorities. The Nation now has a comprehensive, integrated National Ocean Policy 

for the stewardship of the ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes. It sets our Nation on a path toward 

comprehensive planning for their preservation and sustainable use.

The actions in the Implementation Plan for the National Ocean Policy will incorporate the type of scientific data, observations, and collaborative actions that underlie the research priorities highlighted in 

Science for an Ocean Nation. Scientific discovery, driven by competitive, peer-reviewed investigations, is 

critical to implementing the National Ocean Policy. Progress requires the continued support of both systematic measurements of the ocean’s properties and the freedom to pursue new ideas and technology. 

Science for an Ocean Nation emphasizes the research efforts with particular anticipated societal applications, while invoking the fundamental research that provides the foundation for those applications.

This document addresses one of the actions included in the National Ocean Policy Implementation Plan. 

It makes significant progress in identifying priorities in addressing emerging issues and changes in the 

ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes, and highlighting specific scientific requirements and research 
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

★ 90 ★

needs. This report also puts in place many pieces that will be integral to informing implementation of 

the National Ocean Policy overall. The updated priorities for ocean science and technology in Science 

for and Ocean Nation cross a wide range of societal interests. Developed with input from many sectors 

of the ocean community, this document concisely gathers together the research issues recognized as 

priorities by that community and demonstrates their ties to management needs and policy decisions.

Implementing the National Ocean Policy will require effective cooperation among Federal ocean agencies. In developing and now updating the ocean research priorities, the SOST agencies have developed 

a strong cooperative network for advancing ocean science and technology, responding to Congress, 

and coordinating agency activities. This well-developed inclination toward, and mechanism for, collaboration continues in the governance structure established by the National Ocean Policy. A number 

of Interagency Working Groups contribute to the science, education and technology called for in this 

document. Some are at work developing research and other plans called for in the Omnibus Public 

Lands Management Act of 2009 (Public Law 11-11), which will expedite development of the strategic 

action plans for the National Ocean Policy. Review of this document by the ORAP has broadened the 

discussion and helped to strengthen the framework for accomplishing the actions necessary to implement the National Ocean Policy.

Charting the Course served the ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes well by immediately raising their 

visibility and focusing efforts to support programs and projects. It also guided priorities in Federal agency 

budget submissions. Since that report was released, our understanding of the ocean has improved, and 

we now have our Nation’s first National Ocean Policy. Science for an Ocean Nation reflects progress as 

well as emerging needs, and showcases the ocean science and technology that underpin the goals of 

the National Ocean Policy.
★ 91 ★

Photo Descriptions and Credits

Throughout – Text box background – Beach near the port of Galilee, Point Judith, Rhode Islands. 

Credit: Mr. William B. Folsom, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration

Page xv – Mouth of the Parker River watershed, Plum Island Long-term Ecological Research Site. Credit: 

Flown by James W. Sewall, Old Town, Maine, for the Massachusetts Department of Environmental 

Management.

Page 1 – Kelp and sardines, Anacapa Island, Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary, California. Credit: 

National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Page 2 – Lewes and Rehoboth Canal, Delaware. Credit: National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration

Page 7 – Plankton net deployed to collect near-surface plankton in Maug caldera. Credit: Pacific Ring of 

Fire 2004 Expedition. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office of Ocean Exploration; 

Dr. Bob Embley, NOAA PMEL, Chief Scientist

Page 11 – Ocean Acidification text box background – Coral Reef. Credit: National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration

Page 12 – Arctic Research text box background – Arctic ice flows. Credit: Peter West, National Science 

Foundation

Page 15 – Brown pelican sitting on top of a sign marking the boundary of the Weeks Bay National 

Estuarine Research Reserve, Alabama. Credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Page 17 – Kemp’s Ridley turtle returned to the Gulf of Mexico for release off Cedar Key, Florida, following 

rehabilitation from oil exposure resulting from the Deepwater Horizon/BP spill. Credit: National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration

Page 19 – Divers examine wreckage of 1800’s Nantucket whale ship, Two Brothers, off French Frigate 

Shoals, approximately six hundred miles northwest of Honolulu, Hawaii. Credit: National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration

Page 22 – Snapper for sale. Credit: Katie Semon

Page 25 – Damage from Hurricane Katrina in East Ship Island, Mississippi. Credit: Image courtesy H. Fritz, 

Georgia Tech Savannah

Page 27 – Deep Ocean Assessment of Tsunami (DART) Easy to Deploy (ETD) monitoring systems are 

positioned throughout the ocean for real-time tsunami forecasting. Credit: Pacific Marine Environmental 

Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Page 30 – Tsunami damage in Santa Cruz Harbor, California. Credit: National Ocean Service, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Science for an ocean nation: Update of the Ocean Research Priorities Plan

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Page 31 – Water vapor band image showing Hurricane Katrina’s weakened eyewall being further disrupted by interaction with the land. Credit: Image generated by Jeff Weber; ©University Corporation 

for Atmospheric Research

Page 33 – Deepwater Horizon site. Credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Page 34 – USS Antietam (CG 54) departs San Francisco Bay. Credit: U.S. Navy photo by Lt.j.g. Pete Lee/

Released

Page 35 – Port of Seattle. Credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Page 38 – U.S. Coast Guard Cutter Healy breaks ice in the Arctic. Credit: U.S. Coast Guard photo by Petty 

Officer Patrick Kelley

Page 40 Arctic ice flows. Credit: Peter West, National Science Foundation

Page 42 – Collecting fragments from Sarcophyton coral in the western Indian Ocean. Credit: Todd 

LaJeunesse, Pennsylvania State University

Page 43 – Example of coastline erosion in Hawaii. Credit: ©University Corporation for Atmospheric 

Research

Page 45 – Conductivity, temperature, depth (CTD) sensor deployed by researchers on the U.S. Coast 

Guard Cutter Healy. Credit: Peter West, National Science Foundation

Page 47 – Finger coral reef at Kure Atoll State Wildlife Refuge in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

Marine National Monument. Credit: Claire Fackler, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

National Marine Sanctuaries

Page 50 – Beach clean up at the Pacific Missile Range Facility, Barking Sands, Hawaii. Credit: U.S. Navy 

photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Jay C. Pugh/Released

Page 51 – Great egret in the Delmarva Peninsula, Virginia. Credit: Dr. Dwayne Meadows, National Marine 

Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Page 53 – Harvesting prohibitions due to health threats in Maine. Credit: National Ocean Service, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Page 55 – King crab being inspected. Credit: National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration

Page 58 – The algae, Lingulodinium polyedrum, often discolors water and has been associated with fish 

and shellfish mortality events. Credit: Kai Schumann, California Department of Public Health volunteer

Page 61 – Fishing gear in San Pedro, California. Credit: Mr. William Folsom, National Marine Fisheries 

Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Page 62 – Preparing sediment samples taken from Arctic waters as part of the Western Shelf-Basin 

Interactions research project. Credit: Peter West, National Science Foundation

Page 65 – Aerial photo of the Elkhorn Slough on the coast of Monterey Bay, California. Figure taken from 

Broenkow and Breaker, 2005. Credit: Michael MacWilliams, Environmental Fluid Mechanics Laboratory, 

Stanford University
Photo Descriptions and Credits

★ 93 ★

Page 68– Volunteer planting marsh grass at Big Branch National Wildlife Refuge, Louisiana. Credit: Steve 

Hillebrand, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior

Page 72 – Illustration of autonomous underwater explorers , new instruments designed to help define 

currents, temperature, salinity, pressure, and biological properties in the ocean. Credit: Scripps Institution 

of Oceanography at UC-San Diego

Page 77 – Map showing the speed of the clockwise Antarctic Circumpolar current (increasing from slowmoving blue water to dark red indicating speeds above one mile per hour). Credit: Image courtesy M. 

Mazloff, MIT; Source: San Diego Supercomputer Center, UC San Diego

Page 80 – Rainbow behind the silhouette of the derrick on the JOIDES Resolution research drillship. 

Credit: Peter Fitch, University of Leicester

Page 83 – Removing plume water from CTD bottles during the Pacific Ring of Fire Expedition in the 

Mariana Arc region, Western Pacific Ocean. Credit: Pacific Ring of Fire 2004 Expedition. National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration Office of Ocean Exploration; Dr. Bob Embley, NOAA PMEL, Chief 

Scientist

Page 86 – The remotely operated vehicle Jason II uses a temperature probe to measure the temperature 

of hydrothermal vent water. Credit: Emily M. Klein, Duke University

Page 89 – Middle- and high-school students participating in the Build IT program visit Stevens Institute 

of Technology to compete against each other in an underwater remotely operated vehicle (ROV) competition. Credit: Beth McGrath, Director, Center for Innovation in Engineering and Science Education, 

Stevens Institute of Technology
★ 94 ★

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AMOC Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation

AMV Atlantic Multidecadal Variability

BOEMRE Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement

CAMEO Comparative Analysis of Marine Ecosystem Organization

CMTS Committee on the Marine Transportation System

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

COHH Centers for Oceans and Human Health

COSEE Centers for Ocean Sciences Education Excellence

EBM ecosystem-based management

EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone

FOARAM Federal Ocean Acidification Research and Monitoring Act

FSV fisheries survey vessel

GCRP Global Change Research Program

GDP gross domestic product

GIS geographic information systems

HAB harmful algal blooms

HABISS Harmful Algal Bloom-related Illness Surveillance System

HEWS Health Early Warning System

ICOOSA Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System Act

ICES International Council on the Exploration of the Sea

IEA Integrated Ecosystem Assessment

IWG-4H Interagency Working Group on Harmful Algal Blooms, Hypoxia, and Human Health

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IWG-OA Interagency Working Group on Ocean Acidification

LCC Landscape Conservation Cooperatives

LME large marine ecosystem

MMS Minerals Management Service

MTS marine transportation system
Abbreviations and Acronyms

★ 95 ★

NAO North Atlantic Oscillation

NGO non-governmental organization

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOC National Ocean Council

NRC National Research Council

NTP near-term priority

OCS outer continental shelf

OHH ocean and human health

OHHI Oceans and Human Health Initiative

OOI Ocean Observatories Initiative

ORAP Ocean Research Advisory Panel

PCAST President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology

PDO Pacific Decadal Oscillation

PICES North Pacific Marine Science Organization

R/V research vessel

SDR Subcommittee for Disaster Reduction (of the National Science and Technology Council)

SOST Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology (of the National Science and Technology 

Council)

STEM science, technology, engineering, and math

TFUS Task Force on Unmanned Systems

UNOLS University National Oceanographic Laboratory Systems
★ 96 ★

Acknowledgments

Many individuals and groups are to be thanked for their dedication and valuable contributions to this 

report.

We are grateful to the members of the diverse ocean community who took the time to attend town hall 

meetings and respond to requests for public comment with useful input and feedback.

We recognize and give special thanks to the Ocean Research Advisory Panel whose thoughtful and 

thorough insights guided development of this document.

We specifically acknowledge the members of the National Science and Technology Council’s Committee 

on the Environment, Natural Resources, and Sustainability for their support and constructive comments.

We thank the members of the Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology for the expertise they 

provided throughout the development of this report.

We particularly thank Roxanne Nikolaus of the National Science Foundation and Office of Science and 

Technology Policy for her extraordinary efforts and unswerving dedication to completion of this project. In addition, there are several other individuals who deserve special citation and gratitude for their 

efforts and sustained contributions: Scott Barclay, Gary Brewer, Lora Clarke, Rita Curtis, Jennie Dean, 

Dave Halpern, Marlene Kaplan, Beth Lumsden, Julie Morris, Lisa Rom, David Stanton, and Geoff Wikel.

To all of these contributors we express our deepest appreciation.
★ 97 ★

Notes

1. National Marine Fisheries Service Office of Science and Technology. 2012. Fisheries in the United 

States – 2011. http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/Assets/commercial/fus/fus11/FUS2011.pdf (accessed 

November 2012).

2. NOAA stics.noaa.gov estimates of BEA GDP, 2011 (as reported on www.stateofthecoast.noaa.gov, 

accessed May 2012)

3. BLS, 2011; World Bank, 2011 (as reported on www.stateofthecoast.noaa.gov, accessed May 2012)

4. Available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=88216.

5. White House Council on Environmental Quality. 2010. Final Recommendations of the Interagency 

Ocean Policy Task Force. http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/oceans (accessed October 

2010).

6. Four listening sessions were held at major community conferences in 2009 and 2010. Forty-three sets 

of comments were received as a result of a Federal Register Notice requesting public input.

7. National Science and Technology Council, Joint Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology. 

2007. Charting the Course for Ocean Science in the United States for the Next Decade: An Ocean 

Research Priorities Plan and Implementation Strategy. http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/

microsites/ostp/nstc-orppis.pdf (accessed October 2010).

8. White House Council on Environmental Quality. 2010. Final Recommendations of the Interagency 

Ocean Policy Task Force. http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/oceans (accessed July 2010).

9. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. 2010. New NOAA website highlights economic and ecological value of America’s coast. http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2010/20100622_

stateofcoasts.html (accessed July 2010).

10. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The Economics and Social Benefits of NOAA Data 

and Products. http://economics.noaa.gov/?goal=weather&file=events/erosion (accessed December 

2010).

11. John Heinz III Center for Science Economics and the Environment. 2000. The Hidden Costs of Coastal 

Hazards: Implications for Risk Assessment and Mitigation. Washington, DC: Island Press.

12. Costanza, R., Perez-Maqueo, O., Martinez, M., Sutton, P., Anderson S., and Mulder, K. 2008. The Value 

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52. See http://www.atlanticmoc.org for more information.