What’s Working for 

Bed Bug Control in 

Multifamily Housing: 

Reconciling best practices 

with research and the 

realities of implementation

What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation i

What’s Working for Bed 

Bug Control in Multifamily 

Housing: 

Reconciling best practices with 

research and the realities of 

implementation

February 2010

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Pesticide Programs funded the preparation and 

publication of this report.
ii What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation iii

Table of Contents

Executive Summary..............................................................................................................................................................1

Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................................................................3

An Evaluation of Methods..................................................................................................................................................... 5

 1. Inspections ...................................................................................................................................................................5

 2. Monitors .......................................................................................................................................................................7

 3. Non-Chemical Treatment Methods................................................................................................................................ 9

 4. Unit Preparation..........................................................................................................................................................17

 5. Pesticides...................................................................................................................................................................18

Case Studies.......................................................................................................................................................................23

Solutions for Compliance.................................................................................................................................................... 27

Questions for Further Research.......................................................................................................................................... 31

References .........................................................................................................................................................................33

Final Thoughts ....................................................................................................................................................................37
iv What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 1

Executive Summary

researchers. See the Acknowledgements and References 

sections for the lists of people and works consulted. 

This document covers what they have found actually 

works. The body of the document covers the Pros, Cons, 

and Recommendations for each management method. 

References to peer reviewed and non-peer reviewed 

research are included as footnotes.

The following table is a summary of considerations for IPM 

methods for bed bugs. Each method is discussed in more 

detail in this paper.

There is no silver bullet for eliminating bed bugs. They 

present a challenge to modern pest control that the industry 

is still struggling to meet. To make up for the lack of chemical 

power we have for battling this insect, additional people 

and tools must be involved. Bed bug success stories usually 

involve people who live and work in a building (including a 

pest management professional) coming together as a team 

to battle this pest. Throughout this paper you will see how 

communication and cooperation among residents, staff, and 

the pest control service provider are keys to success.

This report is designed for health professionals, housing 

professionals, and pest management professionals seeking 

to plan for or respond to a bed bug infestation in multi-family 

housing. It is not a best management practices document 

and does not comprehensively address the biology, behavior, 

or health implications of this pest. For information on these 

topics, contact your local cooperative extension program, 

university entomology department, or department of health. 

It is a summary and evaluation of the methods used to 

control bed bugs based on published research, trade 

magazine articles, and interviews with practitioners and 

Bed bugs at various stages of growth.

Unfed

Fed

Summary of Bed Bug Management Methods

 Management Primary Retail Cost Commentary Compatibility with 

 Method Responsibility per System other methods

 Laundering Resident Dissolvable Laundered fabrics will be free of Include in every control

Bag: $22 for 10 bed bugs as long as they are kept effort.

isolated from infested areas.

 Unit Preparation Resident Varies Poor housekeeping, sanitation, Include in every area so

etc., are not necessarily conducive that the Pest Management

to bed bug infestations, but bed Professional (PMP) can

bugs are more likely to remain properly inspect the

undetected and pest control property.

efforts are more likely to fail in a 

cluttered home. 
2 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

 Management Primary Retail Cost Commentary Compatibility with 

 Method Responsibility per System other methods

 Encasements Resident $80 for Bed bugs that are trapped in an Use encasements either

mattress encasement designed for use in after treatment or before

and $50 for bed bug control will not be able to an infestation is found.

box spring feed or escape and will eventually 

die. Encasements keep bed bugs 

from infesting mattresses and box 

springs.

 Monitors PMP, resident, 4 interceptors for Monitors will catch bed bugs, but Monitors can be used

or staff $8. Carbon are not meant to control alone or in combination

dioxide attractant infestations. with other detection and

attractant devices control methods to

$15–$950 initial confirm active bed bug

cost. infestations.

 Vacuuming PMP, trained HEPA Vacuum for Vacuuming is not reliable as an PMPs, staff, and residents

staff, or trained $250–$500 exclusive control method. should use a vacuum to

resident remove bed bugs during 

inspections and unit 

preparation.

 Steam PMP or trained $500–$1500 Steam wand must be moved at a Use with other methods

staff rate that heats the area to a lethal such as insecticidal dust

temperature. for voids that steam cannot penetrate. Mattresses 

and box springs must be 

dry prior to encasement. 

 Thermal PMP or trained $330 for luggage- Lethal temperatures must Heat treatment is a good

 Remediation staff sized container. penetrate all items for the option for cluttered homes 

 Using Ambient $90,000 for whole treatment to kill all stages of bed where preparation is a 

 Heat unit heater. $800– bugs. struggle.

$2,000 to treat an 

apartment.

 Bed Bug PMP $10,000 to Dogs are effective and effecient Use with visual inspection.

 Detecting purchase. $1,300 for large-scale (multi-unit) Treat in areas where the

 Canine per team per day. inspections. dog alerts.

 Pesticides PMP Varies by product. See analysis in the following Pesticides are used as

report. Consider the residual and needed in combination

ovicidal properties of each product with other treatment

before selecting it. methods.

 Freezing Using PMP $6,900 for a Not widely used in the US, but More research is needed

 Dry Ice machine widely used in Europe. Insufficient comparing the penetration

information to assess at this time. of both heat and cold.
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 3

Acknowledgements

Principal Author: Allison A. Taisey

bedbugworks@gmail.com

On behalf of The National Center for 

Healthy Housing

Supporting Author: Tom Neltner

Director of Training and Education

National Center for Healthy Housing

 

Funding and Project Direction: Funding for this document 

was provided by the US EPA, as a collaborative effort 

between the Office of Pesticide Programs and the Office of 

Children’s Health Protection and Environmental Education, 

under the direction of Katherine J. Seikel, Project 

Manager.

Thanks to the following individuals for sharing their 

insights:

Luis Agurto, Pestec

Greg Baumann, National Pest Management Association

Gil Bloom, Standard Pest Management

Jonathan Boyar, Ecologic Entomology

Richard Berman, Waltham Services, Inc.

Renee Corea, New York vs. Bed Bugs

Jody Gangloff-Kaufmann, Cornell University

Lyn Garling, Penn State IPM Program

Tom Green, IPM Institute of North America, Inc.

Doug Hayes, Watch All Pest Management 

Kathleen Heinsohn, National Pest Management Association

Leonina Heringer, Heringer Cleaning

Dave Hickok, Public Health—Seattle and King County

Craig Hollingsworth, University of Massachusetts

Susan Jennings, Environmental Protection Agency

Jan Kasameyer, Portland Oregon Housing Authority

Elizabeth Kasameyer-Bartsch, Baltimore City Health 

 Department

Steven Kells, University of Minnesota

Bill Klein, Milwaukee Housing Authority

Marc Lame, Indiana University

Kitty Lee, Residex

Lori Luce, Boston Housing Authority

Frank Meek, Orkin Inc.

Mike Merchant, Texas A&M University

Dini Miller, Virginia Tech

Mike Peaslee, Modern Pest Services

Shelley Peterson, Franklin County Housing Authority

Bill Petersen, Seattle Housing Authority

Michael Potter, University of Kentucky

Don Rivard, Rivard’s Resources: IPM

Bill Siegel, Orkin Inc.

Changlu Wang, Rutgers University

Curtis Wegener, Yonkers Housing Authority

Jeff White, Bed Bug Central

Matt Zacarian, Minuteman Pest Control Co. Inc
4 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 5

What’s Working for Bed Bug Control?

An Evaluation of Methods

as nightstands and dressers, upholstered furniture such 

as couches and chairs, walls and ceilings, clothing, and 

appliances (Potter et al., 2008a‡; Gangloff-Kaufmann et 

al., 2006a‡). These areas should be inspected monthly in 

a building that has a history or high risk of infestation (e.g., 

buildings with frequent turnover or high visitor traffic). If 

monthly inspection is not feasible, quarterly inspection may 

be substituted, with residents taking a higher responsibility for 

detecting and reporting bed bugs. Management’s commitment 

to educating residents about pests and fronting the costs of 

all components of preparation and treatment helps ensure 

resident cooperation. 

When the PMP finds bed bugs, he should perform a thorough 

inspection1

. At a minimum, the PMP must have access and 

1. Inspections

1.1 Visual Inspections

Pros

All pest control is about site-specific problem solving. The 

pest management professional (PMP) doesn’t need to locate 

every bed bug to treat successfully, but the PMP needs to 

look for bed bugs in various locations to determine the extent 

of the infestation. In addition, a visual inspection is essential 

for understanding site-specific limitations and preparation 

needs. Conversations with the residents during inspection 

may also identify where the bed bugs came from and is an 

opportunity for educating the residents about preventing 

further introduction. Both of these are important to propertywide control efforts. Early detection and prompt professional 

treatment is the most time- and cost-effective solution for bed 

bugs, and knowing the scope helps the PMP plan for effective 

treatment. Checking hot spots for signs of bed bugs (e.g., the 

bugs themselves, eggs, and blood spots) does not take a long 

time, and a quick inspection for signs of all household pests is 

already part of many pest control companies’ routine service.

Cons 

Visual inspections may miss bed bugs in an infested area and 

often severely underestimate the actual number of bed bugs 

in apartments (Wang et al., 2009a†). Clutter in homes is a 

significant impediment to finding all bed bug harborages. 

Recommendations

Regardless of how the PMP plans to control bed bugs, 

whoever is responding to a bed bug report should start with 

visual inspection to understand the extent of the infestation. 

PMPs, cleaning contractors, landlords, and residents alike 

should look for all life stages of bed bugs in the hot spots. 

Research shows that the locations where bed bugs are 

most often found (in order of most to least often infested) 

are beds, bedding, baseboard/carpet edges, furniture such 

Bed bug crawling into a screwhole to hide.

1

 Inspecting the infested residence is a must, but inspection should 

go beyond the infested unit (Wang et al., 2010†

). Adult bed bugs can 

travel over 16 feet in five minutes (Haynes et al., 2008‡

), and adult female bed bugs tend to disperse from clusters (Pfiester et al., 2009†

). 

Early instar nymphs often cluster (Benoit et al., 2007†

), increasing the 

likelihood of detection. These nymphs also tend to stay close to food 

sources, which increases the likelihood of detection.

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
6 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

inspect all units—above, below, and on all sides (including 

across the hall)—adjoining infested units. An adjacent unit is 

often an unreported reservoir of bed bugs2. 

If the inspection finds bed bugs only in or around a bed, the 

infestation is most likely light to moderate. In this case, an 

infested bed can be isolated from the rest of the room by 

pulling it away from walls and other furniture, keeping any 

bedding from touching the floor, and putting all bed frame 

legs in an interceptor (See Section 2.1). PMPs call this process 

making the bed into an island. If the resident can make 

the bed into an island, a PMP can potentially resolve a light 

infestation with two professional treatments and minimal 

preparation of the area. 

When a resident reports bed bugs in a building with no 

history of bed bugs, management should call a PMP to 

perform a building-wide bed bug inspection. In response, 

the PMP will briefly inspect each unit within the building to 

determine the scope of the infestation and plan treatment 

accordingly. See Section 4: Unit Preparation. Even if bed 

bugs are only found in the reported unit, the immediate 

building-wide response can be used to educate other 

residents about inspection and prevention. 

1.2 Inspections Using Bed Bug 

 Detection Canine

Pros

Well-trained dogs are useful for the following tasks: 

• Building-wide inspections to identify the scope of the 

infestation (with the intention of treating every site 

where the dog finds bed bugs);

• Initial inspections to confirm whether an infestation is 

present when visual inspection cannot find a bed bug; 

• Post-treatment verification that no live bed bugs or 

viable eggs are present; and 

• At trainings or door-to-door talks as a motivator for 

residents to find out more about bed bug control. 

The last of these is worth highlighting since lack of 

adherence to the PMP’s instructions on the part of either 

management or residents is often the cause for treatment 

failures. If a trainer brings a dog to a meeting, it can serve 

as an icebreaker for discussing the responsibilities of 

residents and management vis-à-vis bed bug control. 

Cons

While bed bug detection canine providers report 98% 

accuracy, some PMPs remain concerned with false 

positives (e.g., the dog alerting to an area where bed bugs 

are not found). The dogs stay most effective with daily 

tuning and routine check-ups from the original trainer. 

Controlled training minimizes the chance of false positives. 

Options for check-ups from the original trainer include inperson visits, video conferencing, and blind test kits that 

are completed and mailed back to the trainer for scoring. 

Dogs have bad days, just like people. If the handler or 

the dog is having a bad day, the dogs may not perform 

at their highest levels. An uncomfortable or stressful 

environment also can affect the dog’s performance 

(Cooper, 2007a‡

). Like other service dogs, bed bug 

detection canines are not pets. They are living tools of the 

trade. PMPs serving as canine handlers must not forget 

this distinction at all times. 

Recommendations

Inspections using a bed bug detection canine are 

especially useful in two scenarios. The first is when a 

person reports bed bugs but the PMP can’t find any with 

visual inspection. The second is when a PMP wants to 

confirm that the area is bed bug-free, for example posttreatment. Canine inspections for bed bugs can identify 

emerging infestations in their earliest stages, helping 

property managers gain building-wide control before an 

infestation spreads to other units, saving considerable 

time and money. 

Inspection with canines is useful for detection, but as 

with inspection by humans, there is potential for error. 

The dog’s effectiveness depends upon the quality of its 

2‡ PMPs report migration resulting from dense bed bug infestations 

and the use of foggers. Building-wide policies against the use of 

foggers can prevent both migration and the risk of an explosion. At 

minimum, property management should offer information on proper 

label use and product selection.

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 7

Many PMPs also use common sticky traps for bed 

bug monitoring5. Research has not been published on 

the efficacy of sticky traps as bed bug monitors, but 

professionals report that the monitors do catch bed bugs 

if they place enough around hot spots. A heat lure in the 

center of a sticky trap or placement of several traps may 

improve performance.

Monitors are without a doubt a valuable addition to the 

options available for bed bug control. Monitors using 

carbon dioxide, heat, and a chemical lure have great 

potential, but are not yet widely used in multifamily 

housing because they are expensive and have not 

been on the market for very long. Until more research 

emerges, the different types of monitors should not 

be considered as equivalents to each other (or canine 

inspection) for indentifying a bed bug infestation6.

training, the ability and consistency of its trainer, and 

the conditions in the area of inspection. In addition, 

companies should know exactly what their dog can and 

cannot be expected to do. For instance, not every dog is 

trained to detect viable versus unviable eggs. If trained 

and handled properly, bed bug-sniffing dogs can inspect 

much more effectively and in a much shorter time than 

a human3

.

The National Pest Management Association (NPMA) 

is starting a canine scent detection division to bring 

together stakeholders such as the National Entomology 

Scent Detection Canine Association (NESDCA) to 

develop national standards and procedures. Properties 

looking to use a canine for inspection should consult 

recommendations put forth by this group.

2. Monitors

Monitors are an important tool for bed bug control, 

which pest control companies may offer as a detection 

option in place of a visual inspection4. Currently, PMPs 

use two types of bed bug-specific monitors: moatstyle interceptors (Climbup®) Insect Interceptors); and 

portable devices that use heat, carbon dioxide, and 

kairomones as lures (CDC 3000 and NightWatchTM). 

Unpublished research from Dr. Wang’s lab at Rutgers 

University showed their homemade portable monitor 

was more effective than those commercially available. 

3 Research indicates that dogs are able to discriminate bed 

bugs from Camponotus floridanus, Blattella germanica, and

Reticulitermes flavipes, with a 97.5% positive indication rate 

(correct indication of bed bugs when present) and 0% false 

positives (incorrect indication of bed bugs when not present). 

Dogs also were able to discriminate live bed bugs and viable bed 

bug eggs from dead bed bugs, cast skins, and feces with a 95% 

positive indication rate and a 3% false positive rate on bed bug 

feces. In a controlled experiment in hotel rooms, dogs were 98% 

accurate in locating live bed bugs (Pfiester et al., 2008†

). 

4 The only peer-reviewed study on a bed bug monitor reported 

on the effectiveness of the moat-style interceptor for monitoring 

bed bugs. This study found interceptors are more effective 

than visual inspection for estimating numbers and detecting 

infestations (Wang et al., 2009a†

).

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed

5 A survey of PMPs found that fewer than 50% use glue boards, 

steamers, fumigation, or freezing for bed bug treatment, and 

53% routinely use sticky traps to monitor and detect bed bug 

activity. Pest control companies also report using doublesided sticky tape around the legs of bed frames (Potter et al., 

2008a‡

).

6 The only peer-reviewed study on a bed bug monitor 

reported on the effectiveness of the moat-style interceptor for 

monitoring bed bugs. This study found interceptors are more 

effective than visual inspection for estimating numbers and 

detecting infestations (Wang et al., 2009a†

).

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed

Center 

Well

Outer 

Pitfall
8 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

2.1 Moat-Style Interceptors

Pros 

When users place a bed frame leg in the center of the 

interceptor, the device makes a moat around the leg. 

Talcum powder applied to the walls of the moats causes 

bed bugs to slip and fall in, where they remain trapped. 

These devices are cost effective and PMPs can use them 

to help confirm complete elimination, show where bed 

bugs are coming from (an inner and outer moat shows 

whether the bed bugs came from the floor or the bed), 

detect an infestation early on, and give residents some 

reassurance that bed bugs won’t get on their bed. While 

moat-style interceptors are not a complete control tool, 

they do trap bed bugs in addition to monitoring. Most 

PMPs consider interceptors worthwhile.

Interceptors are an effective tool for determining the 

presence of bed bugs and the need for action. Residents 

often contact experts (e.g., cooperative extension staff) 

when they suspect they have bed bugs. Experts can save 

time by giving monitors to residents who suspect they 

have bed bugs but lack evidence. Asking the resident to 

use the interceptors to catch a bed bug before asking for 

a full consultation can save valuable time and help put the 

person at ease.

Cons

Moat-style interceptors use a sleeping human as the lure 

and catch bed bugs when they try to crawl up (or down) 

the bed legs. Their effectiveness can be compromised in 

several ways: 

1. Bed bugs can crawl in and out of the device if the 

talcum powder that coats the inner-sides of the moat is 

not kept fresh. Residents or maintenance staff need to 

maintain the devices.

2. Alternative “bridges” from the floor to the mattress 

(such as a blanket, bed skirt, or headboard touching 

the wall) will reduce effectiveness. 

3. They cannot be used where furniture does not have 

legs or the legs cannot fit into the device.

4. The device should be placed on a solid surface to 

prevent cracking. If there is doubt, a square of 1/4” 

plywood should be put under the interceptor.

Recommendations

Interceptors are recommended for bed bug monitoring. As 

passive monitors, interceptors don’t share some of the faults 

associated with canine and visual inspection because their 

success isn’t contingent upon training or thoroughness. PMPs 

or property managers should use interceptors to monitor 

for bed bugs. When published research becomes available 

comparing interceptors to sticky traps for bed bug monitoring, 

the latter may also be a defensible option. 

2.2 Portable Monitoring Devices7

Portable monitors attract bed bugs using heat, carbon 

dioxide, and a pheromone lure and then trap the insects 

in a compartment where they die. While effective, use of 

these interceptors is limited by their cost and availability. 

The monitors commercially available use the same 

concepts, but differ in design. For a comparison of the 

monitors on the market and how to make a low-cost 

alternative watch for published research by Wan-Tien 

Tsai in the Wang lab at Rutgers University.

7 Existing monitors marketed specifically for bed bugs take 

advantage of the bed bugs’ attraction to heat, carbon dioxide, 

and a chemical lure to mimic their communication pheromone, 

usually in some combination. The research supporting these bed 

bug behavioral triggers is as follows:

• Heat above ambient was found to be overwhelmingly 

attractive when compared with humidity, blood, carbon 

dioxide, muscle and subcutaneous tissue, liver, bile, skin, 

hair, perspiration, sebum, and cerumen (Rivnay, 1930; 

Marx, 1955; Aboul-Nasr and Erakey, 1967, in Siljander, 

2006‡

). These studies also show that the upper limit of heat 

attractiveness is 110o F. Higher temperatures are repellent 

(Rivnay, 1930, in Siljander, 2006‡

). These finding should be 

kept in mind when setting the temperature of monitoring 

devices, monitoring, and conducting heat treatments.

• The results reported by Siljander are in conflict with two 

studies that found carbon dioxide to be more attractive than 

heat and chemical lure (Anderson et al., 2009†

; and Wang 

et al., 2009c†

). All studies show that bed bugs are attracted 

to carbon dioxide and heat, regardless of which is more 

attractive.

• Traps baited with chemical lure attract more bed bugs than 

the control, but not at a statistically significant level (Wang et 

al., 2009c†

).

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 9

Pros

This alternative monitoring and inspection option should 

work better than interceptors in the following situations:

1. To help confirm that the unit does not have bed bugs 

when it is vacant. This can also be achieved by canine 

inspection.

2. To keep bed bugs from migrating from a vacant unit to find 

an alternative host until the PMP does a bed bug service. 

3. To confirm the presence of bed bugs in areas not 

inhabited by humans at night (such as a laundry room or 

office space). Canine inspection can also achieve this.

4. To monitor when there is a bed frame without legs 

such as a captain’s bed (platform bed with drawers 

under the mattress) or a mattress directly on the floor.

Cons

Commercially available portable devices that use 

heat, carbon dioxide, and kairomones as lures can are 

expensive (over $500). Researchers are experimenting to 

determine their effectiveness. This will help justify their 

cost and give guidance to operators (PMPs) on how often 

they need to replace carbon dioxide canisters and lures.

Recommendations

PMPs who have done their own field tests on portable 

devices report good results, especially in vacant areas. 

Peer-reviewed research is needed to confirm the efficacy 

of portable devices and identify the situations in which 

they are most effectively used. Until then, the only situation 

for which it appears that portable devices are uniquely 

qualified is for use in vacant, infested units awaiting 

treatment. A portable device used in such a situation may 

minimize the chance of bed bug migration to adjoining 

units.

3. Non-Chemical Treatment 

 Methods

3.1 Clutter Removal

Pros 

The bed bug’s ability to hide is one of the main reasons 

why it is such a formidable opponent. Reducing the 

harborage available to bed bugs increases the chance that 

a PMP will find (and thus be able to kill) the insects8.

Cons

It is important to be sensitive to the time and financial 

limitations of residents and property staff. PMPs also need 

to accommodate residents’ desire to keep sentimental 

belongings as well as handicaps that may impede 

residents’ ability to control clutter. If the PMP asks more 

than is necessary of the residents and/or management or 

if those doing prep work do not understand the rationale 

behind the preparation requirements, then the task may 

seem daunting and they may be less likely to attempt to 

prepare the unit. In addition, any disruption to the area 

may cause bed bugs to spread. 

Recommendations

Experts often tout clutter removal as an essential part 

of bed bug elimination. When an effort to eradicate an 

infestation fails, it is almost always due to clutter and 

lack of cooperation with the pest control company’s 

preparation and follow-up instructions. The most complex 

environment for bed bug eradication is in multifamily 

housing, especially in low-income housing. The complexity 

comes from the number of people involved and limited 

resources for costly preparation materials, such as 

mattress encasements. 

Before the initial visit, the pest control company should 

only request that residents do a basic clean up of the 

bedroom and other suspect locations. Residents should 

pick up items strewn on the floor and vacuum as they 

ideally would for a landlord inspection. The property 

8 No unit preparation was required of the residents in Moore 

and Miller’s study which evaluated pesticides commonly used 

for bed bug control. Their traditional treatment (pyrethroid and 

insect growth regulator [IGR]) reduced bed bugs by 95% by the 

end of eight weeks (having been treated four times) and isolated 

the bed bug infestation to the mattress and bed area. The novel 

treatment (pyrrole, alcohol, dust, and IGR) reduced bed bugs by 

86%, but did not isolate the infestation to the bed (Moore and 

Miller, 2008†

). In this study, bed bug infestations were reduced, 

but not eliminated. The researchers state that this is due in part 

to the fact that no cleaning or preparation was done.

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
10 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

manager should include instructions for this basic clean 

up with the notice of service. Minimal preparation avoids 

disrupting the bed bugs and limits the burden on staff and 

residents. To expedite inspection and minimize the chance 

of PMPs chipping paint, maintenance personnel are 

sometimes asked to loosen the screws and plates on any 

switch or outlet plates in the vicinity of the bed.

If the infestation is light and the bed can be isolated as 

an island, the PMP may treat during the initial visit and 

schedule the follow-up treatment. Alternatively, the PMP 

should leave detailed preparation instructions for the 

resident and schedule his next visit (at which time he will 

treat). Regardless of the level of preparation needed, any 

time a PMP finds a bed bug, he should kill and remove it.

If correct room preparation is essential to the effective and 

efficient elimination of a bed bug infestation, then PMPs 

should plan this aspect of control as carefully as they do 

chemical choices. At first, property management will not 

have the knowledge to determine the level of preparation 

necessary and must rely on the PMP for education and 

instructions. Once management and the PMP work 

together on a few successful eliminations, management 

may be able to begin to predict the level of preparation 

necessary in a given situation and advise the residents 

accordingly before the PMP’s first visit. 

3.2 Disposal of Infested Items

Pros

Although it seems logical to get rid of bed bugs by getting 

rid of the things they hide in, the number of items thrown 

away does not seem to correlate with the success of the 

control effort. In most cases, infested items do not have 

to be thrown away. In fact, in multifamily settings, the risk 

of spreading the infestation (by bed bugs falling off the 

furniture during transport and by others scavenging the 

items) is often greater than the benefit to the control effort. 

Two scenarios that may warrant removal are the following: 

1. Disposal may be the most sanitary option when a wellestablished infestation exists on a piece of furniture. 

2. Disposal may be the most practical option if the PMP 

finds a heavily infested, complex piece of furniture (one 

that offers lots of harborage to bed bugs) for which 

encasements are not available.

Cons

PMPs must be sensitive to the potential for disrupting the 

bed bugs when asking residents to dispose of items. Also, 

PMPs must take the limited resources of the residents into 

consideration when recommending disposal. The mattress 

and box spring are usually the most heavily infested items. 

Replacing them can be a significant financial burden on the 

resident. If a company delivers the new mattress and takes 

away the old one in the same truck, there is potential for 

spread. Residents may also unintentionally re-introduce bed 

bugs with replacement mattresses because the cheapest 

mattresses are often from the curb or refurbished. Residents 

bringing home infested items they find outside the building are 

often blamed for building-wide infestations.

Recommendations

Disposal of items should never be part of a control effort before 

the PMP visits the home unless the building staff members 

have experience with successful bed bug control and think it is 

necessary. The PMP should identify what needs to be thrown 

away and give specific instructions for disposal. If the budget 

allows, treating the infested item (at least to significantly 

reduce the population) before removing it is recommended as 

a part of reinfestation prevention. Staff or PMPs should wrap 

identified items (so that bed bugs don’t fall off and migrate to 

new locations during transport and storage) and immediately 

bring them to a secure location where others cannot pick 

them up and bring them home. Inspection and treatment of 

vehicles and locations involved in disposal can be included as 

part of the bed bug service. If there is any chance of passers 

by seeing the item, whoever is responsible for disposal should 

make it unusable by breaking it or cutting open the fabric 

on all sides. Marking the item with a picture of a bed bug or 

writing “Bed Bugs Chinches” may also deter passers by from 

bringing the item back in the building.

In low-income housing settings, management should give 

residents bed bug-proof encasements for mattresses and 

box springs when the PMP finds bed bugs. Encasements 

eliminate the need to apply pesticides on bedding, make 

inspection easier, and trap bed bugs inside where they 

eventually die. 
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 11

3.3 Isolation in Plastic Containers or Bags

Pros 

Containing items in containers or bags simplifies the 

habitat for treatment, keeps items that do not have bed 

bugs from becoming infested, and contains infested items 

for later treatment. Knowing that items sealed in bags are 

protected from future infestation may comfort residents.

Cons

Containment efforts kill bed bugs only if the insects have no 

chance for escape and the items are either left enclosed for a 

long enough time to starve the bed bugs9

 or if the PMP uses a 

chemical in the bag or sealed container10.

Recommendations

As discussed previously, PMPs should determine the 

extent of the infestation and take resident time and 

financial limitations into consideration before requiring this 

type of preparation. If plastic containers are used, the PMP 

or resident should treat items in containers so that the bed 

bugs die. Laundry, carbon dioxide, heat, and fumigation 

are all options for treatment. Freezing the container and its 

contents in a freezer is unreliable11. 

3.4 Petroleum Jelly as a Barrier

Pros 

Residents can use a barrier of petroleum jelly for a variety 

of situations. Building a barrier on a table around a 

television may be an effective way of protecting hard-totreat items from infestation12.

Cons

Petroleum jelly is messy and could damage surfaces on 

which it is left. In addition, any break in the barrier would 

significantly reduce the chance of it working. We do not know 

the specifications for the width and height of an effective 

barrier. One staff member at a shelter in Pennsylvania (see 

Case Studies) said that when they used this strategy (around 

bed legs) bed bugs were found stuck in the petroleum jelly 

(see Case Studies section). It is unclear whether the barrier 

discourages the bed bugs, traps them, or simply catches an 

unlucky few that don’t make it across.

Recommendations

This practice is popular on discussion boards, but 

professionals do not include it in their control programs. 

When possible, residents should use more vetted barriers 

such as interceptors.

3.5 Metal Furniture

Pros

Bed bugs can travel on metal and plastic, but not as well 

as on wood, cloth, or other rough surfaces. Loudon at the 

University of California-Irvine analyzed( the movement of 

bed bugs on different surfaces and found that bed bugs slip 

often and struggle to move forward on plastic and glass, 

even on a horizontal surface. The links between metal and 

bed bug behavior need research. The greatest benefit of 

metal furniture is that it often has fewer locations where 

bed bugs can hide compared to wood or wicker. If a piece 

of metal furniture does have gaps through which a bed bug 

could crawl to find harborage, the resident should seal up 

the gaps. Smooth surfaces and lack of hiding places makes 

inspection and treatment easier.

Cons

If residents do not keep the metal clean, rust-free, with 

holes sealed, bed bugs will be able to travel on the surface 

as easily as they would on wood.

Recommendations

Because early detection is the goal of a proactive bed bug 

program, management could advise residents purchase 

metal furniture. Plastic furniture may also help prevent 

9‡ Unpublished research by Andrea Polanco out of the Miller lab 

at Virginia Tech has shown that starved bed bugs die faster than 

previously thought. Whereas existing recommendations (based 

on old research) tout that bed bugs can live over a year without a 

meal, bed bugs used for this research died within three months.

10 The latter option will be more available in the near future (see 

discussion of dichlorvos).

11 Specifications for temperature and time have not been 

confirmed by research. 

12 Research has not been performed on this strategy.

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
12 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

bed bug movement on to furniture because of the slippery 

surfaces. Regardless of construction material, residents 

should avoid purchasing complex platform beds (such 

as captains’ beds). The staff at a homeless shelter that 

successfully eliminated bed bugs stated that replacing 

all of their existing furniture with metal furniture was one 

of the most essential parts of the process. See the Case 

Studies section for the shelter’s procedure.

3.6 Cleaners

Pros

By cleaning up blood spots on infested furniture, PMPs 

can help provide the most sanitary living conditions 

possible and detect new evidence of bed bugs. In the 

process of removing blood spots, the PMP can also 

distinguish between cockroach frass and bed bug 

blood spots. The latter will smear reddish-brown before 

washing away. Although PMPs do not consider it a 

control method per se, keeping objects clean will help 

with early detection and treatment.

Cons 

A solution of isopropyl alcohol will kill bed bugs (Harrison 

and Lawrence, 2009() and sanitize the area, but no 

research has been done on its efficacy. Since isopropyl 

alcohol does not have an EPA pesticide label listing bed 

bugs, users should check with their state’s pesticide 

program before recommending its use.

Recommendations

Cleaning with soap and water should be used as a 

supplement to control methods when an infested item 

requires special care. This cleaning will remove bed 

bugs and eggs, but not necessarily kill them. The key to 

this control is detail-oriented cleaning; simply dousing 

an area with soapy water will not control bed bugs. Soap 

and water should only be used where electrical shock 

is not an issue and where water damage cannot occur 

to cleaned surfaces including electrical and electronic 

equipment.

3.7 Laundry

Pros

Laundering is probably the best bed bug control method 

when evaluating options in terms of both practicality and 

effectiveness. The heat in a clothes dryer is extremely 

effective at killing bed bugs and eggs. Clothes dryers are 

accessible to almost everyone. Dissolvable laundry bags 

are recommended for transporting infested items to the 

laundry room.

Cons

Laundering takes time and (unless the machines are 

in the home) can be expensive. Some items cannot be 

laundered. There is also potential for disrupting the bed 

bugs if residents launder everything before consulting 

a PMP. When management recommends laundry, the 

resident needs to understand they cannot transport 

the laundry to and from the infested area in the same 

container.

Recommendations

Ideally the resident, PMP, or preparation contractor will:

1. Take all fabrics to the laundry room (or facility) in 

dissolvable bags (bags that dissolve in the wash such 

as Green Clean Dissolvable Laundry Bags).

1. Wash them using the hottest setting the fabric can 

stand.

2. Dry them for a full cycle on the hottest setting that the 

fabric can stand. 

3. Place them in a new clean plastic sealed bag to prevent 

re-infestation of the items. To optimize effectiveness of 

treatment, residents should keep all but essential items 

in the sealed bags for as long as practical or at least 

during the treatment period.

While this is an ideal plan (because it almost guarantees 

that bed bugs will not be in or on fabric), laundering 

every fabric item in a home is rarely a practical 

recommendation. In most cases, this extensive work is 

not even necessary for bed bug control. After doing an 

initial inspection and treatment, the PMP should make 
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 13

site-specific recommendations for what residents need 

to launder13. Residents can avoid the possibility of reinfestation by using dissolvable bags, transporting clothes 

in cloth bags that get washed with the clothes, or using 

two sets of bags (preferably different colors) for infested 

and clean items14.

What is the most practical recommendation for using 

laundering to kill bed bugs? Residents should take fabrics 

the PMP determines need laundering to the facility in 

one bag, place items directly into a dryer, run the dryer 

on the hottest cycle for 30 minutes (or a full cycle at a 

lower heat setting if high heat will damage the fabric), and 

bring items home in a bed bug-free bag. Note that this 

recommendation does not involve washing and that fabric 

put into the dryer is already dry. This is effective for killing 

bed bugs, minimizes cost and time, and can usually be 

done with dry clean-only items15. 

3.8 Steam

Pros 

Steam kills bed bugs and eggs with a short period of 

exposure and leaves no chemical residue. The user moves 

the nozzle over the bed bugs at a rate of 20 seconds 

per linear foot. Where PMPs can’t use pesticides, steam 

is invaluable. Steam is less costly than dry heat or 

fumigation that achieve the same results, but are generally 

used on a larger scale.

Cons

Faults with steam are that it does not penetrate materials 

very deeply and if applied with too much pressure may 

blow bed bugs away. Steam treatment leaves moisture 

behind that may damage treated surfaces that must 

dry. Steam may damage materials and can conduct 

electricity16. One PMP indicated that it is best to use a 

“dry” steam unit (one that produces 5% or less moisture). 

Steaming has no residual effect.

Recommendations

PMPs have found that an upholstery nozzle wrapped 

in a piece of fabric diffuses the pressurized air so 

that bed bugs are not blown from the treatment area. 

Although lack of residual is a downside of steaming, 

most professionals admit they don’t rely on the action of 

residual products much anyway. In an ideal world, the 

PMP would use steam to kill each bed bug seen during 

inspection and a thorough steam treatment would be the 

source of initial population knock down17. This is not the 

common practice because steaming takes a long time. 

Many companies make steam units available to their 

PMPs, but few PMPs routinely use them as part of their 

standard bed bug service18.

13 In the article, “The Business of Bed Bugs,” Michael Potter reports on a survey conducted with PMPs from across the country. 

He asked, “Which of the following methods do you routinely use 

to control bed bugs?” and 86% had their clients launder clothes 

(Potter, 2008a‡

).

14 One PMP alleviated some worry about infested laundromats. 

He believes lack of infestation at these sites (in his experience, 

with his clients) is due in part to the fact that they are so well lit 

and he applies insecticide dust to the underside of the tables. 

He does warn laundromat owners about allowing people to store 

bags of clothes in the facility overnight. 

15 If using a dry cleaner, residents need to take precautions to 

avoid spreading bed bugs to the facility (Kells, 2006 b‡ & c‡

).

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed

16 Experts advise PMPs steam items with low moisture, “dry” 

steam using a commercial unit and a floor/upholstery attachment 

(Harrison and Lawrence, 2009‡

; Kells, 2006 b‡ & c‡; and Miller, 

2009‡

).

17 The only study with steam as a variable was not peer-reviewed, 

but the observed results were promising. PMPs treated one hotel 

with conventional techniques using dust material under the carpet 

at the floor/wall junction and in the wall voids. PMPs treated the 

mattresses per the pesticide label directions with a liquid residual 

and encased them. PMPs treated the second hotel with residual 

dust materials in the same fashion as the first, but they treated the 

mattress and box spring with steam instead of pesticide. The PMP 

monitored for recurrences. In both hotels, the bed bug population 

crashed after 60 days. Within 90 days, the company received callbacks from the first hotel. The second hotel remained controlled for 

the duration of the monitored time (12-plus months) (Meek, 2003‡

).

18 In the article “The Business of Bed Bugs,” Michael Potter 

reports on a survey done with PMPs from across the country. 

He asked, “Which of the following methods do you routinely use 

to control bed bugs?” Of PMPs surveyed, 25% used steamers 

(Potter, 2008a‡

). 

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
14 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

3.9 Mattresses and Box Spring Encasements

Pros

Mattress and box spring encasements simplify the habitat 

around the bed. From the perspective of a bed bug, a 

mattress and (even more so) a box spring offers endless 

locations to hide and wait until the next meal, especially if 

there is a hole in the fabric. Encasements eliminate hiding 

spots and make it easier to detect an infestation early on. 

They make the daunting task of eliminating a bed bug 

infestation a little bit easier. When encasements are used, 

the PMP does not need to use pesticides on the bedding. 

Since there are many concerns with using pesticides on 

bedding, encasements are an invaluable control tool. An 

added benefit comes to residents with asthma from using 

encasements because encasements limit exposure to 

dust mites.

Cons

Mattress and box spring encasements generally cost more 

than $50. This cost is prohibitive for many low-income 

residents19. To be used for control, the encasement must 

remain on and intact for over a year to ensure starvation of 

all trapped bed bugs20. Cheaper mattress covers, such as 

those made of vinyl, can be uncomfortable and usually rip 

before a year.

Recommendations

Both mattress and box spring encasements purchased for 

use in a bed bug program (including the early detection 

part of a program) should be both escape-proof and 

rip-resistant. Where most products fail is in their being 

escape-proof. The zipper area is the common site of 

escape. At this time, two encasements recommended 

by experts are Protect-A-Bed and ActiveGuardTM. Before 

purchasing mattress encasements, consumers should 

make sure the product has been tested with bed bugs. 

Based on observation and opinion, quality mattress 

encasements on both the box spring and mattress are an 

essential part of bed bug control.

Ideally, when a bed bug infestation is discovered, 

encasements would be put on the box spring and mattress 

immediately after the first visit by the PMP. Shelters, 

hotels, and multifamily housing with high turnover rates 

should consider encasements before a problem arises to 

help with early detection. The reality is, the majority of 

residents in low-income housing will not be able to afford 

encasements. Managers may need to be creative and find 

supplemental funding for the purchase of encasements for 

low-income residents. Box springs are structurally more 

complex and more difficult to treat than are mattresses, so 

if only one encasement can be purchased, the box springs 

should be encased.

Experts rarely mention pesticide-impregnated mattress 

encasements. The main concern with these is that, in theory, 

they will expedite the already-evolving problem of resistance 

in bed bug populations. Secondly, residents would be in 

close contact with pesticides as they sleep which raises 

health concerns. Because of the resistance concerns, if the 

PMP recommends a pesticide-impregnated encasement for 

a control effort, someone should remove and replace it with 

an untreated encasement after the bed bugs die. Without 

overlooking the risks of exposure implicit any time a person is 

near pesticides, PMPs should consider pesticide-impregnated 

mattress encasements where the bed bug population is 

susceptible and either the resident wants to keep a heavily 

19 Wang et al. used mattress encasements as part of their IPM 

treatment, but as part of every IPM treatment, not a variable 

(Wang et al., 2009a†

). The mattress encasements, along with 

time spent steaming, were the costliest components of their 

control program. 

20‡ Personal communication regarding unpublished research 

by Andrea Polaneo out of the Miller lab at Virginia Tech has 

shown that starved bed bugs die faster than previously thought. 

Whereas existing recommendations (based on old research) 

tout that bed bugs can live over a year without a meal, it seems 

modern bed bugs die within three months.

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 15

Recommendations

Time and temperature varies between freezing 

recommendations, but no peer-reviewed research exists 

that defines the correct temperature. One recommendation 

maintained by all is that the cooling has to be quick. If 

given time to adjust, bed bugs can survive extremely cold 

temperatures. Simply putting items outside in the winter 

won’t work because an item may not cool to a killing 

temperature or a passer-by might pick up and bring it home. 

If a prevention program uses public freezers, management 

needs to develop a communication and coordination 

system so that residents transport belongings in a way 

that minimizes the chance of spreading bed bugs. There is 

no guarantee for control using this method. A chest freezer 

was used in the prevention efforts of a shelter described in 

the Case Studies section.

3.11 Vacuums

Pros

When trying to minimize pesticide exposure, vacuuming 

is preferable to contact pesticides as a way of eliminating 

bed bugs that the inspector spots. When the PMP removes 

bed bugs, the findings of his follow-up inspections are 

more relevant because the evidence is new. 

Cons

“Normal vacuuming by clients is generally of little 

benefit in bed bug management because the bugs 

reside in places where housecleaning efforts normally 

do not reach” (Potter, 2006‡). Experts’ main concern 

with vacuuming is that it does not reliably get the eggs. 

Whoever is vacuuming must take precautions to avoid 

re-infestation from live bed bugs in the vacuum. There 

is also the possibility of re-infestation (or spreading an 

infestation) from the vacuum.

Recommendations

Where vacuums may realistically play a role in bed bug 

control is during a PMP’s inspection. As with cockroach 

control, use of a HEPA vacuum to suck up any insects 

found upon inspection is recommended from the 

perspective of pesticide use reduction. Steam will have 

a greater impact on eggs (than vacuuming or most 

pesticides), but steam doesn’t remove the evidence.

infested mattress or management wants to treat the mattress 

(or box spring) before transporting it to the garbage21. Before 

recommending the latter, industry needs research on how 

long these encasements need to be in place in order to kill 

bed bugs. 

3.10 Freezing

Pros

The two options for freezing are: place items in a freezer 

or use solid carbon dioxide (which is exempt from FIFRA 

registration requirements) to flash-freeze the bed bugs 

and eggs. Solid carbon dioxide is more commonly known 

as dry ice. One company that mainly offers non-chemical 

treatment options uses dry ice in a container for infested 

items that are sensitive to heat. Due to the lack of 

research and the variability of home freezer temperatures, 

this method cannot be recommended at this time. 

Cons

The lack of penetration achieved with the frozen carbon 

dioxide method, along with the time and its expense, often 

dissuades companies from using it. Those who have tried 

the application marketed specifically for bed bugs also 

report that the solid carbon dioxide comes out at such 

a high rate that it often blows the bed bugs away rather 

than killing them. Steam is thought to be more effective, 

practical, and can be used in most of the same situations.

Using a freezer may fail for a number of reasons. The 

freezer will not be effective at killing the bugs if the item 

is not frozen to a sufficiently cold temperature for a long 

enough period of time. Current research has not been 

done to determine these thresholds. 

21‡ One PMP reported second-hand on a field study on pesticide-impregnated encasements. The PMP who did the study 

replicated the results twice. For each, in the control infested unit 

he put mattress encasements on both the mattress and the box 

spring; in the treatment unit he put a pesticide encasement on 

the box spring and an untreated encasement on the mattress. 

The encasements were the only treatment used. One week later, 

in both trials, the units with the pesticide encasements had a few 

crawling bed bugs, but most were dead. The other units had bed 

bugs crawling all over the encasements. 

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
16 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

Cleaning contractors who use the same vacuum 

throughout a building should know to look for bed 

bugs. They can help detect infestations early and the 

knowledge will help them prevent spreading bed bugs. 

Experts recommend using a vacuum with a removable 

bag and putting talcum powder or insecticidal dust in the 

bag according to the label instructions. See Section 5.3 

for a discussion of insecticidal dusts.

3.12 Ambient Heat Treatments

Pros

Ambient heat treatments use fans and a heat source to 

heat a space to 130°F to 140°F and hold that temperature 

for a sufficient enough time to heat all areas within 

the space to 120°F. These treatments are popular for 

scenarios where unit preparation cannot (or will not) be 

done. Clients who do not want the PMP to use pesticides 

will usually opt for a heat treatment. This chemical-free 

control method can either provide complete control, 

or significant knock down depending on the quality of 

preparation and treatment. 

Cons

Although the process of heating a space sounds simple, 

companies are learning the hard way that ambient heat 

treatments can fail in a number of ways. Most failures 

come from an area not reaching 120°F. PMPs must open 

drawers and peel carpet away from baseboards, as they 

are two areas that often fail to reach 120°F. Someone 

must prepare the unit to minimize areas of insulation 

(such as piles of fabric) and heat sinks where the heat 

can escape. Because the PMPs need to be in the unit 

rearranging fans and heaters anyway, they can do the 

necessary preparation with a resident’s permission. 

Southern companies who have been using heat 

treatments for termites and cockroaches can be mentors 

for Northern companies who are new to the technology 

and don’t know about building variables associated with 

heat treatments.

Recommendations

Ambient heat treatments heat a space to 130°F to 140°F 

and hold that temperature for a sufficient enough time 

to heat all areas within the space to 120°F22. PMPs may 

choose to heat up a whole room or heat items contained 

in an insulated compartment (see Pereira et al. 2009† for a 

description of a compartment for heating). Containing items 

in an insulated area has great potential because it may 

be more cost effective than heating an entire unit. In this 

treatment, a group of items is isolated in the unit with an 

insulated five-sided box23. Heaters raise the temperature in 

the box while the PMP treats the surrounding unit. 

Propane, infrared, and electric (usually from a generator) 

are all options for heat sources. Each has its limitations, 

especially for use in a multifamily building. Propanepowered heaters generate large volumes of heated air 

blown in through flexible ducts from outside the building. 

While propane heaters are efficient, they are not always 

able to force hot air to the upper levels of multi-story 

buildings (Potter et al., 2008a‡

) and may not be allowed 

by local housing codes. All have potential to work, but 

the PMP has to regulate heat throughout the space 

using thermometers and fans. A PMP must be on hand 

during the entire course of the heat treatment to monitor 

temperatures and make adjustments, as necessary. As 

with all bed bug control efforts, a system must be in place 

for preventing re-infestation after treatment.

22 Heaters have been shown to work to heat a home to 130°F, 

killing all bed bugs and eggs exposed to the heat for three hours 

(Getty et al., 2008‡

).

23 Among all heat-treatment trials where an insulated box was 

placed over objects on the unit floor and the contents heated, 

those in rooms with carpeted floors produced lethal temperatures for the bed bugs in the shortest times (2.4-3.1 hours), 

compared with treatment times between 4.9 and 7.3 hours for 

rooms with tile floors. Temperatures at different locations within 

the treatment envelope varied depending on the position of the 

heaters and fans, amount of furniture and other materials within 

the envelope being heat-treated, and level of insulation between 

the temperature monitor and the heated air inside the treatment envelope. In order for heat to penetrate all objects in the 

compartment in the shortest amount of time, heaters must be 

placed at opposite corners of the treatment envelope and fans 

placed so that the circulation of heated air is maximized (Pereira 

et al., 2009†

).

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 17

If the landlord is responsible for re-housing residents 

displaced for treatment, the total treatment time is an 

important consideration24. One housing authority switched 

from infrared heaters to heaters that are wired into the 

electrical panel because infrared heating took too long 

to heat up the entire unit. Heat works, if done correctly, 

but management should consider the factors tied to each 

method of heat treatment (such as expense for personnel, 

carbon monoxide poisoning, and local codes pertaining to 

propane) before investing.

3.13 Ineffective Non-Chemical Alternatives

3.13.1 Increasing Heat in the Infested Area with 

 a Thermostat

Pest control companies that supply preparation instructions 

before determining the extent of the infestation sometimes 

have this as part of the protocol. They rationalize that 

increased heat will increase the activity of bed bugs and 

thus have them walk over pesticide residuals. No research 

exists that determines whether this increases treatment 

success, but research has shown that dry residuals of 

most liquid pesticides are not effective at killing bed bugs. 

Increased heat will dry the liquid pesticide products faster. 

This recommendation should not be used in the preparation 

instructions for a bed bug treatment.

3.13.2 Putting Items in Black Plastic Bags and Leaving 

 Them in the Sun for a Day

In one study, the maximum-recorded temperature on 

the upper (sun-exposed) sides of mattresses placed in 

black plastic in the sun was 185°F, whereas lower side 

temperatures for the thick mattress never exceeded 95°F. 

Since bed bugs need to be exposed to temperatures 

above 100°F for an extended period of time to be killed, 

and because areas of sub-lethal temperature exist within 

the bed at any given time, this technique seems to be not 

suitable for bed bug management (Doggett et al., 2006†

).

4. Unit Preparation

Proper preparation makes a treatment successful. Even 

with the best preparation, bed bug treatments will fail 

if management doesn’t hire an experienced company. 

Property management can use the following process to 

minimize inconvenience for the resident and property 

staff while maximizing the chance that the PMP’s efforts 

will be effective:

1. A pest control company receives a call to do a bed bug 

treatment.

2. The company gives instructions to the property 

manager requesting the residents of the reportedly 

infested unit and units adjacent to the infested unit 

to clean and organize the room as they would for a 

housekeeping inspection. No further preparation is 

required so that the infestation is not disrupted before 

the PMP has a chance to evaluate the situation. This 

also minimizes the burden of unnecessary preparation. 

With this plan of action the PMP does not depend on 

management to pass on crucial information about 

extensive unit preparation to the resident. The manager 

then delivers the instructions by hand. 

3. One or two PMPs (accompanied by property 

management or maintenance) visit the unit equipped to 

do a treatment (whether that be with pesticides, steam, 

vacuum, monitors, or a combination thereof). 

a. First, they perform a thorough inspection of the 

infested unit and adjacent units to identify the 

extent of the infestation. If a bed bug is found, they 

use the least toxic option to kill and remove the bed 

bug. As the inspection is done, every effort should 

be made to educate both the resident and the 

accompanying staff person. 

b. Once the thorough inspection is complete, the PMP 

has two options:

i. Not treat, give site-specific preparation 

instructions, and schedule the next treatment. 

PMPs should choose this option when there is 

extensive clutter or a widespread infestation. 

Preparation instructions will include laundering, 

installing mattress encasements, and organizing 

24 PMPs need to consider the rate of heating since some items 

(such as wood laminates) run a greater risk of damage if heated 

too quickly. No faster than 15°F per hour is recommended (Potter 

et al., 2008a‡

). † = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
18 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

clutter. Resident cooperation is key to clutter 

reduction. For a discussion of this, see the 

Solutions for Compliance section.

ii. Perform an initial treatment, give site-specific 

follow-up instructions (which may be as simple 

as installing a mattress encasement and keeping 

the bed isolated from the rest of the room), and 

schedule the next visit. PMPs should choose this 

option when the infestation is light or if the room 

does not have much clutter.

4. The PMP returns for a follow-up inspection and possible 

treatment in the units where he found bed bugs. This 

treatment may be more extensive (in terms of PMP 

time and tools used) than the first if he left site-specific 

preparation instructions. Alternatively, it may simply be 

an inspection if the initial inspection and treatment was 

thorough. The timing will depend on what the PMP did 

during the first visit. If the first visit was a full treatment, 

the follow-up should be two to three weeks later.

5. Pesticides

Pros

In general, the message coming from pest control experts 

is that if you can find bed bugs, you can kill them with a 

pesticide. Although nontoxic options exist that are equally 

or more effective than pesticides, PMPs usually use 

pesticides because they can be a quicker and cheaper 

way to eliminate bed bugs. All of the active ingredients 

below are either labeled for bed bugs or are in the process 

of having the label revised (by EPA) to include bed bugs.

Cons

Bed bug resistance to pesticides is well documented, and 

the levels of resistance vary between populations. Despite 

resistance concerns, none of the PMPs interviewed thought 

it factored in to why their control efforts failed. PMPs plan 

their chemical treatments so that they don’t rely too heavily 

on residuals and they are constantly on the lookout for bed 

bugs that are so resistant that a direct spray does not kill 

them. “Despite the fact that many of the registered products 

have residual properties, few if any of the current residual 

liquids appear to be very effective against bed bugs once 

they have dried” (Pinto et al., 2007†). 

Total release foggers are detrimental to bed bug control. 

Setting off one of these “bug bombs” does not kill most 

bed bugs, and significantly increases their migration. 

PMPs attribute bed bugs moving into adjacent rooms to 

the use of foggers. In a number of cases, residents’ use 

of foggers disrupts the bed bugs before the PMP gets 

involved and they (like any pesticide) can be unsafe if the 

residents don’t follow the label instructions.

Recommendations

The key is to involve an experienced PMP who will find as 

many bed bugs as possible before he treats. Pesticides 

should only be used for bed bug treatment by a licensed 

applicator. Pest control companies need continuing 

education and special certification options to help ensure 

that their PMPs do a thorough job. 

Before trying an all-pesticide control plan, managers should 

seriously weigh all options in terms of probability of success 

given the conditions and people in the area. When there 

is lack of cooperation from people involved, resistance 

to products, or a PMP with limited experience, multiple 

pesticide treatments may be unsuccessful. An alternative 

control plan may be faster and cheaper in the long run.

The vast majority of PMPs chooses pesticides carefully 

and applies them judiciously based on the factors present 

in each infestation. Some residents and landlords use 

pesticides ineffectively—and even illegally. The impact 

of the use of over-the-counter products on bed bug 

control success has not been documented, but one can 

deduce the effectiveness of the active ingredients in the 

products available to both consumers and professionals 

from research. Experts warn against pesticide application 

by unlicensed and inexperienced individuals because of 

the potential for disrupting the bed bugs and making the 

problem worse. There is no silver bullet for bed bug control. 

For more general pesticide questions not addressed in this 

paper, contact the National Pesticide Information Center at 

http://npic.orst.edu/ or by calling 1–800–858–7378.
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 19

5.1 Pyrethroids

Pyrethroids are the principal category of chemical pesticides 

used for bed bug control, despite research that regularly 

finds bed bug resistance to pyrethroids25. PMPs are using 

pyrethroids for the majority of their treatments because 

only a few other chemistries exist that can be legally used 

for bed bugs and PMPs report that pyrethroid products do 

quickly kill bed bugs coming in contact with the pesticide 

while it is still wet26. Once the liquid pesticide is dry, it 

usually won’t be effective for control and may contribute 

to resistance. Most companies are not depending on 

pyrethroids for ovicidal properties, but unpublished tests 

show that some of the contact products labeled for use 

on mattresses will kill eggs. PMPs reported no major 

differences between pyrethroid products in the field27. 

5.1.1 D-Phenothrin with an Alcohol

This product provided control when used to reduce a 

population of bed bugs on a mattress. There is no residue, 

so efficacy is based on thoroughness of application (Moore 

and Miller, 2008†, Romero et al., 2007b‡). These products 

also kill eggs on contact (Pinto et al., 2007†). 

5.1.2 Permethrin

An agricultural study showed insecticide with permethrin 

worked as a contact insecticide at low concentrations 

but exhibited residual activity only on metal and wood 

(not cardboard, cotton cloth, or cotton-polyester blend) 

(Fletcher and Axtell, 1993†). These findings are at odds 

with the reported efficacy of permethrin-impregnated 

mattress encasements marketed for residual control. 

These insecticidal liners are tested (see Ballard, 2008‡

; 

Snell, 2008‡), but peer-reviewed, published research does 

not exist. A study using Olyset net (a polyethylene net used 

mainly for mosquito control with two percent permethrin 

incorporated within fibers) found only 25 percent mortality 

after 24 hours when the bed bugs crawled on the net for 

30 minutes (Sharma et al., 2006†).

5.1.3 Beta-Cyfluthrin

Research by Miller found resistance to beta-cyfluthrin, 

but the researchers used a product with cyfluthrin along 

with deltamethrin and hydroprene to reduce a bed 

bug infestation successfully by 95 percent. Although 

the control was not 100 percent, in situations where 

clutter and lack of resident cooperation severely hinders 

treatment, 95 percent is a considerable improvement. 

Moore and Miller attribute the success to the thoroughness 

of the applicators more than the residual toxicity of the 

product (Miller, 2009‡

; Moore and Miller, 2008†).

5.1.4 Deltamethrin

As with other pyrethroids, researchers find resistance in 

field-collected populations to deltamethrin, particularly 

the dry residues. Two studies found that bed bugs 

avoided areas treated with deltamethrin. When there 

was an attractant on the other side of a treated strip or 

the treated area had bed bug eggs and feces, bed bugs 

readily traveled through the product (Haynes et al., 2008‡; 

Romero et al., 2009a†). In the study done by Romero et al., 

deltamethrin caused low mortality and increased activity, 

which could lead to increased exposure or migration to a 

new location (Romero et al., 2009a†). In contrast, Moore 

and Miller found that deltamethrin was not repellant 

(Moore and Miller, 2006†

).

5.1.5 Lambda-Cyhalothrin

On susceptible populations lambda-cyhalothrin is the fastest 

acting of the pyrethroid active ingredients (Moore and 

Miller, 2006†). An agricultural product containing lambdacyhalothrin was active at low concentrations on all surfaces 

and exhibited relatively long-lasting residual activity (12 

weeks) on wood, cardboard, metal, cotton cloth, and cottonpolyester blend, with the shortest residual life on metal 

(Fletcher and Axtell, 1993†

). Researchers find resistance in 

the lab, but the products still perform in the field.

25 In addition to the usual process of resistant population 

development due to selection, cross-resistance may be at play 

(Romero et al., 2007a† & b‡

; Yoon et al., 2008†).

26 Pyrethroid-based products gave good (>60 percent) residual 

control, but mortality was not 100 percent in a study done by 

Todd. No contact pyrethroid products tested by Todd exhibited 

significant flushing action, but did give fair knockdown and good 

kill (Todd, 2006‡

).

27 In their 2006 study, Moore and Miller found that pyrethroids 

work faster than chlorfenapyr. In terms of LT50, the order 

(fastest to slowest) was: lambda-cyhalothrin, bifenthrin, 

deltamethrin, and then permethrin (Moore and Miller, 2006†

).

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
20 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

5.2 Chlorfenapyr

This pyrrole is the main alternative chemistry to 

pyrethroids. PMPs use it as a nonrepellant residual and are 

reporting success, but it may take more than a week28,29,30. 

As with pyrethroids, PMPs are not relying heavily on the 

residual provided by chlorfenapyr-containing products. 

The experience with pyrethroids shook the industry’s trust 

in all liquid residual products for bed bugs. In addition to 

its residual potential, this pesticide also kills eggs. As with 

any treatment, a professional follow-up inspection and 

possible retreatment is necessary.

5.3 Dusts

Sometimes boric acid is mistakenly used for bed bug 

control. Boric acid is commonly used for cockroaches. The 

powder is abrasive to the insect’s cuticle, but the main 

mode of action is as a stomach poison. Bed bugs would 

have to ingest this stomach poison for it to be effective, and 

since they only suck blood, this will not happen. Residents 

and PMPs should not use boric acid for bed bug control. 

There are three active ingredients in insecticidal dusts 

available for bed bug control. These are pyrethroids, 

diatomaceous earth, and limestone. Diatomaceous earth and 

pyrethroid dusts have the best reputation. PMPs use both as 

dependable residuals. When the user applies it according to 

label directions pyrethroid dust remains effective as a residual 

(whereas liquid pyrethroid sprays don’t). The pyrethroid in 

the dust does not break down readily in dark hidden areas 

where it isn’t exposed to UV light or cleaning products and 

remains effective for many weeks.

As with any bed bug control method, the key to success is 

in the user. Of all treatment options, dusts are most often 

incorrectly employed. This jeopardizes the success of the 

overall treatment. As always, experts advise all users to 

read the labels and to adhere strictly to the manufacturer’s 

instructions for each product. 

5.3.1 Silica with Pyrethrins

Benoit et al. found pyrethroid-containing silica dusts to 

be more effective (higher water loss after 10 minutes of 

exposure) than diatomaceous earth. One study showed 

that an addition of pheromone to the dust increased 

activity over silica dust, enhancing its efficacy (Benoit et 

al., 2009†

). No dusts with an attractant are commercially 

available, but the topic deserves further research.

5.3.2 Diatomaceous Earth (DE)

Diatomaceous earth takes up to two weeks to kill bed 

bugs. This is too long for most residents to wait to see 

the effects of the PMP’s visit. PMPs use it as a backup 

to other faster products. Because of its mode of action, 

DE does kill resistant bed bugs, but it (and other dusts) 

can’t be applied as widely as other products, and it takes 

some time to kill (Romero et al., 2007b‡; Benoit et al., 

2009†). 

5.3.3 Limestone

Most PMPs report that limestone dust is not very effective 

in the field; however, a few PMPs do think it works. Dust 

with limestone as the active ingredient killed only 20 

percent of continuously exposed bed bugs after five days 

(Todd, 2006‡

). Moore and Miller found that it took eight 

weeks to get high mortality using limestone dusts (Moore 

and Miller, 2008†).

5.4 Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) 

PMPs almost always use insect growth regulators in 

combination with other products when treating bed bugs. 

Although no obvious positive results of using IGRs have 

28 Chlorfenapyr can take more than a week to kill bed bugs (Moore 

and Miller, 2006†

; Haynes et al., 2008‡; Romero et al., 2007b‡) 

making it one of the slower-acting products. In one contrasting 

study, live bed bugs were treated directly with liquid and many 

died within three days (Moore and Miller, 2008†

). Another study 

found that bed bugs exposed to chlorfenapyr mated and laid viable 

eggs (Moore and Miller, 2006†

). Chlorfenapyr is not repellant 

(Haynes et al., 2008‡

; Romero et al., 2009a†; Moore and Miller, 

2006†

). 

29 Wang et al. used it as the primary pesticide in an IPM study 

and found that it successfully reduced (but did not eliminate) 

populations (Wang et al., 2009a†

).

30 Using it along with other non-pyrethroids as the pesticides 

in a control effort may require the application of more active 

ingredient than if the PMP relied on pyrethroids (Moore and 

Miller, 2008†

).

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 21

been seen in the field, PMPs still use them because the 

risks are low and companies often want to try everything 

available. Two pest control companies went from using 

IGRs to not using IGRs without noticeable change in treatment 

efficacy. Researchers find that IGRs kill older nymphs, but not 

adults, and may significantly affect the mortality of nymphs 

hatched from the eggs of treated females. 

No published research or observations report on IGRs being 

used alone to eliminate a bed bug infestation. Based on their 

actions on other insects, IGRs should cause water stress in 

bed bugs, prolong the juvenile stage, and affect the cuticle. 

Although IGRs have delayed effects, they could play a role in 

killing the few remaining bed bugs in treated locations. 

5.4.1 Pyriproxifen

Boase found very substantial reduction in reproduction by 

female bed bugs exposed to the IGR pyriproxifen (Boase, 

2001‡

), but PMPs are not using it for bed bug control.

5.4.2 Hydroprene

Hydroprene does not work on bed bugs with the same 

efficacy that it does with other insects. It does not delay 

molting, but once nymphs reached adulthood, many die. 

Some adults that survive produce offspring (Todd, 2006‡; 

Miller, 2009‡). Since PMPs apply hydroprene in combination 

with other products for bed bug control, it is hard to 

determine how much of a successful eradication is due to 

its effect. Despite its unconfirmed efficacy, 65 percent of 

PMPs questioned by Potter reported incorporating IGR into 

their spray treatments (Potter, 2008a‡).

5.5 Fumigation

5.5.1 Sulfuryl Fluoride

Fumigation is almost always prohibitively expensive, 

but it kills all life stages of bed bugs and can be a lastresort solution to a bed bug infestation31. In multifamily 

settings, property managers usually have PMPs perform 

offsite container fumigation (as opposed to wholebuilding). Compartment treatments can be cost effective 

when combined with other treatments for the items 

not fumigated. Whole-building fumigation is rarely an 

option for multifamily housing because, in addition to 

the expense of the treatment, management may be left 

with the expense of finding alternative housing for their 

residents during treatment. 

Hiring a qualified and experienced PMP to perform the 

fumigation is important. It is a risky treatment. Procedures 

for minimizing resident exposure to residual chemicals 

and preventing re-infestation of bed bugs must be in place 

before undertaking fumigation. See the Case Studies 

section to read how a shelter used fumigation as part of 

their control effort. 

5.5.2 Dichlorvos

Small-scale fumigation using the organophosphate 

dichlorvos is currently in limited use, but it has great 

potential for effectiveness (and misuse). These treatments 

are effective for items that can be contained for two 

or three days in a plastic bag or container. Ideally this 

chemical would be used only as a last resort, when other 

less toxic options cannot do the job.

Potential for misuse of this highly toxic chemical includes 

using more than necessary in a given area, and using it as 

an area-wide treatment (such as using the product under 

a bed). PMPs observe this misuse in the field. When these 

products become available, reformulated and labeled for 

bed bugs, retailers must stress that the user follow the 

label directions.

5.6 Essential Oils

There is no published peer-reviewed research on the 

effectiveness of these chemistries on bed bugs. Many of 

them are exempt from FIFRA registration under Section 

25b. PMPs who use the botanical-based EcoSmart line 

of pesticides report that they are effective at killing on 

contact.

31 Fumigation with sulfuryl fluoride can be done either for a whole 

structure or within a compartment. It is expensive, but does provide 100 percent kill of both adults and eggs (Miller and Fisher, 

2008‡

; Walker et al., 2008‡).

† = source has undergone peer review ‡ = source is not peer reviewed
22 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

5.7 Chemistries Being Registered for 

 Bed Bugs

In addition to the dichlorvos mentioned above, EPA is in 

the process of re-registering a few products for bed bugs. 

These chemistries are welcome additions to the limited 

options available now. None will be a silver bullet, but 

having alternatives to pyrethroids will better arm PMPs to 

battle bed bugs.

5.7.1 Acetamiprid (with Bifenthrin)

Data from preliminary university testing shows that this 

neonicotinoid insecticide is effective as a residual. It 

comes in various formulations, but the wettable powder 

seems to be the most effective. It may also be a repellant. 

PMPs use repellant products on the outer perimeter of an 

infestation to drive the bed bugs into an area treated with 

a non-repellant residual. 

5.7.2 Imidacloprid (with Beta-Cyfluthrin)

Data from preliminary university testing shows that this 

neonicotinoid insecticide is effective as a residual. 

5.7.3 Indoxacarb

PMPs expect products with this oxadiazine active 

ingredient to have bed bugs added to their label.

5.7.4 Dinotefuran

Expect to see more research on and use of this guanidine 

insecticide in the upcoming year.

5.7.5 Propoxur

At the request of more than 12 states, EPA is considering 

adding bed bugs to the label of this carbamate. University 

of Kentucky tests show propoxur residual kills bed bugs 

more consistently than other pesticides currently available, 

so it could potentially be a useful option for battling bad 

infestations. 
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 23

Case Studies

and the PMP applied a large quantity of pesticides during 

these unsuccessful efforts.

1.2 What Worked

Management weighed the options available for complete 

elimination. Tenting and fumigating the entire building 

would have cost $80,000. The alternative plan, described 

below, cost $32,000 (including expenses for all control 

methods employed).

The effort began with a series of five daily meetings 

that management required all 39 residents to attend. 

Representatives presented specific aspects of bed bug 

control from the perspectives of the health department, 

shelter staff, pest control company, and shelter 

management. The fifth meeting was a question-and-answer 

session. Inevitably, not all residents made all five meetings, 

but by the end of the week every person knew the plan of 

action for the treatment and his or her responsibilities.

On the day of elimination, all residents received boxes 

into which they put all of their belongings. The PMP 

took the boxes and put them into an 18’ truck for offsite 

fumigation. Only wooden and upholstered furniture 

remained in the townhouses. Shelter staff wrapped 

all the furniture (including mattresses) in plastic and 

immediately took items to an incinerator. Meanwhile, the 

PMPs inspected and thoroughly treated the now-empty 

rooms during a four-hour window. After treatment, staff 

brought in new furniture to re-furnish the rooms and 

applied petroleum jelly around the bottom of each of 

the bed and couch legs. All new furniture was metal or 

plastic-coated fabric. Although the new furniture looked 

institutional, shelter staff attributes much of the success 

of the program to the furniture’s metal construction. 

Immediately after the 24-hour control program, staff 

found bed bugs stuck in the petroleum jelly, but by 

the time of the PMP’s follow-up, no live bed bugs were 

detected.

1. Pennsylvania Homeless 

 Shelter: Procedure for 

 Complete Elimination

A homeless shelter in Pennsylvania had two options-solve 

their bed bug problem or have the program shut down 

by the health department. To avoid losing the community 

resource and having bed bugs spread to other lowincome housing when the residents moved, the shelter 

staff (in cooperation with the residents and a pest control 

contractor) took on the challenge of eliminating bed bugs 

on the property. The shelter consists of three townhouses 

connected by shared walls. Thirty-nine people lived in 12 

bedrooms within the townhouses at the time of treatment. 

To prevent re-infestation, property management developed 

protocols for admitting new residents. Their bed bug 

elimination program was successful. 

1.1 What Didn’t Work

Prior to embarking on the program that eventually 

succeeded in eliminating bed bugs, the shelter tried to 

eliminate bed bugs using their PMPs and partial resident 

cooperation. The PMPs inspected, applied pesticides, and 

vacuumed and steamed each unit’s mattresses, curtains, 

dressers, and bed frames. Management asked residents 

to keep all clothes and personal belongings in plastic 

totes (which management provided) and do laundry as 

much as possible. Management also provided mattress 

encasements and made a chest freezer available for all 

resident belongings that a dryer would damage.

Although the PMPs did their part, resident cooperation 

was not sufficient to knock down the population of 

bed bugs property-wide. Residents did not keep their 

belongings in the totes, they tore mattress covers and 

never replaced them, and the freezer had a limited 

capacity. Management spent significant time and money 
24 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

During this four-hour period of time, residents brought 

one bag with clothes they would need for the day to 

a laundromat that the shelter had rented for the day. 

Residents washed and dried their clothes, put them in 

news bags, and returned to the shelter. After the 24-hour 

fumigation, the PMPs returned all belongings and the 

residents restocked their homes.

To maintain this level of control, procedures are strictly 

followed for the coming and going of people and their 

belongings. Every person who comes to stay at the 

property must wash and dry all items that can be 

laundered (in the shelter’s machines) and place nonwashables in the chest freezer for 48 hours. The shelter 

still provides plastic totes to the residents, but this is 

more of a precaution than an essential part of control. 

Since the turnover of people is only about one person 

per day, a single freezer and one washer and dryer set 

are sufficient. The PMP comes regularly and thoroughly 

inspects (including the undersides of drawers and behind 

electrical outlet plates).

2. Massachusetts Housing 

 Authority: Preventing Spread 

 during Renovation

Since a significant amount of economic stimulus funding 

has been directed towards renovation projects in lowincome housing, it is worth mentioning the procedure 

used by one housing authority for residents who have to 

be relocated during renovation. 

The housing authority has a contract that includes pest 

control with a relocation company. Four weeks before a 

resident move-out, the relocation company inspects the 

resident’s home. If t bed bugs are found, the relocation 

company hires a PMP to treat. If the PMP requests that 

the residents launder potentially infested clothing,, the 

housing authority provides tenants with dissolvable bags. 

Each temporary housing location has an onsite dryer 

dedicated to bed bug prevention. Incoming residents must 

put fabrics in the dryer for 30 minutes before they are 

allowed to move into their temporary home. In addition, 

interceptor monitors are in place at the temporary site 

so that staff can detect infestations and deal with them 

early. Each temporary unit has a seven day vacancy in 

between occupancies during which time the contractor 

cleans, inspects, and uses portable monitoring devices 

for bed bugs.

3. Oregon Section 8 Property: 

 Reducing Incidences of Bed 

 Bugs with Building-Wide 

 Policies

In Oregon, property staff noticed a trend in a projectbased Section 8 property with elderly/disabled residents: 

bed bug infestations. One staff member estimates that 

one-third of the building’s units had bed bugs. Tenants 

and management were not cooperating with instructions 

from the PMP. Management did not understand why they 

couldn’t rely on the PMP for the entirety of a bed bug 

control effort. Residents did not report bed bugs because 

they knew that they would be responsible for buying costly 

mattress encasements and possibly the PMP’s services. 

This approach of PMP-only bed bug control did not work 

and the building-wide infestation level grew. With the 

goal of early detection and intervention based on a zerotolerance for bed bugs, property management and the 

pest control company developed a new protocol. 

The process for each bed bug infestation at the property 

is now:

1. The resident reports bed bugs to management. 

2. A housing staff employee who has experience with bed 

bugs inspects and verifies the infestation visually.

3. The housing staff member develops a trusting 

relationship with the resident to determine what 

outside help the resident will need in order to do 

his or her part in pest control. The staff member 

prescribes individualized preparation instructions for 

the unit. (This is not left to the PMP because staff 

has become very experienced with the process and 

rationale of unit preparation.)
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 25

4. Property management, social services, and residents 

work together to prepare the unit (all paid for by 

management). When residents can’t or (sometimes) 

won’t prepare, a contracted preparation team services 

the unit. The prep team does the physical work for 

preparation and reassembly of the room. The prep 

team personnel are educated about bed bugs and 

communicate well with the residents.

5. The PMP treats the unit when (and only when) the 

resident or preparation team has fully prepared it.

Education of staff and residents helped them understand 

the pest and how to prevent it. Two of management’s 

goals for education were to remove the stigma associated 

with bed bugs, and inform everyone of the procedure 

in place for bed bug control. Management encouraged 

education with written materials, group education (with 

translators if needed), and one-on-one interventions. 

Education increased communication and invested 

everyone in the program.

Because early detection by residents and prompt 

intervention by the PMP is the ultimate goal of this 

program, management carries the financial burden 

associated with bed bug control (including preparation 

contractors and mattress encasements). This asset 

management is feasible from a business sense. Before, 

management was continuously paying for service 

that never fully eliminated the problem; now the costs 

associated with bed bug control are mostly upfront and 

do not occur very frequently. Under this strategy, in six 

months, number of treatments per week was reduced 

from an average of ten to less than one. What was once a 

building-wide infestation has been reduced to a few sites 

in need of treatment and surveillance.
26 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 27

Compliance Solutions

handbooks, housekeeping standards, and pest control 

policies to endure these documents contain language 

articulating tenant and property management roles and 

responsibilities for pest control. Management should use 

unambiguous language to describe pests of concern and 

what constitutes an “infestation” that must be reported 

to management.. Documents should contain clear 

language about pest prevention and the requirement 

for tenant cooperation with PMPs. In addition to helping 

residents understand their responsibilities regarding pest 

management, such clear written language in leases and 

other key documents can be useful should enforcement 

action be required in the face of tenant non-compliance. 

It is important that written materials be easily accessible 

to property managers, tenants and any other parties who 

may need them. Currently, many property managers 

develop their own materials based on what they read 

online. There is a need for professionally developed 

written materials about bed bugs that communicate the 

major messages at a third-grade reading level or lower. 

Educational materials should be translated into a variety 

of languages as well as Braille. As new documents 

are developed, they should be noted to indicate the 

importance of the information and need for translation 

for local audiences. All-visual materials for illiterate 

populations should also be developed. Materials should 

communicate what residents should do if they think they 

or someone they know in the building has bed bugs. This 

may help in early detection.

1.2 Group Training

Training led by a bed bug expert in a group setting is 

the most time- and cost-effective way of educating, but 

only if the people whose participation is necessary to 

ensure program success are willing and able to attend 

the training. Unfortunately, it is often the residents that 

don’t attend such training session who are housing 

1. Options for Education

Three educational approaches used by management in 

affordable housing are: 

• Community-wide distribution of educational materials; 

• Training in group settings; and 

• One-on-one communication. 

The goal of education campaigns is to educate everyone 

working and living in a particular facility about both bed 

bugs and building-specific procedures for controlling them. 

Trying to resolve isolated bed bug infestations reactively 

is neither sustainable nor effective. Management must 

motivate staff, residents, and contractors to do their part 

in the process—and they must be patient in enlisting 

this support. Management should base the building-wide 

plan on national models but keep site-specific factors in 

mind. As soon as there is a suspected bed bug infestation, 

management should act quickly and consider the control 

effort an urgent need.

Achieving a sustainable solution may require going 

outside of the building to the community, especially if reinfestation is occurring from a known reservoir in another 

building. Some experts suspect that housing complexes 

run by property management companies without a 

zero-tolerance policy for bed bugs are reservoirs for bed 

bugs that can lead to community-wide infestations.. 

Communication, prevention, early intervention, and 

the integration of multiple control methods are the 

cornerstones of an effective bed bug control strategy.

1.1 Written Materials

Written materials can be distributed through monthly 

rent bill mailings, newsletters, move-in materials, 

postings in public places, and door-to-door delivery. 

Property managers should review leases, tenant 
28 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

the reservoirs of bed bugs in a building. Nevertheless, 

group education is an excellent means for informing 

tenant advocates, social service workers, maintenance 

staff, and management, and serves as a starting point 

for collaborative efforts to identify and resolve bed bug 

infestations. Moreover, holding group meetings is a clear 

demonstration of landlord support of the issue and may 

be a more comfortable environment than one-on-one 

interventions for people who are squeamish or ashamed.

Trainers use a combination of written materials, samples, 

and inspection exercises (using either a real or mock unit). 

Content should include where and how bed bugs live, 

nontoxic control measures, what to expect from a PMP, 

and what the procedures are for the building that hosts 

the training. If the attendees understand where and how 

bed bugs live, they are more likely to see the importance 

of recommendations for preparation made by the PMP. 

Almost all pest control companies are willing to lead group 

training at no additional charge. Management should 

schedule these sessions at various times (including the 

evening) to accommodate everyone’s schedules. A bed 

bug-themed tenant council meeting is often effective 

as well. An excellent one-day training program for IPM 

in affordable housing, which includes a module on bed 

bugs, was developed jointly by EPA, CDC, HUD, USDA, the 

Northeast Regional IPM Center, the National Center for 

Healthy Housing, NPMA, and Penn State University. This 

training can be viewed on-line at www.stoppests.org/

or www.healthyhomestraining.org/ipm/training.htm. For 

further information on this course, contact Allison Taisey at 

aat25@cornell.edu or Tom Neltner at tneltner@nchh.org. 

1.3 One-on-One Education

One-on-one education is time intensive, but is the best 

for residents who have severe bed bug infestations in 

their homes. This form of education is more personal and 

involves a meaningful, personalized investment of time from 

both the trainer and the trainee. Trainers should attempt to 

determine how bed bugs began so that steps can be taken 

to avoid reinfestation during and after the treatments. 

The person administering the one-on-one education 

must know about bed bug control and building-specific 

procedures for pest control. Attending one of the group 

education sessions should be a minimum standard for 

those working one-on-one with residents. Management, 

maintenance, resident support services, the PMP, or 

outside agencies all have opportunities to educate 

residents when they visit a unit (whether it be for pest 

control or not). There is a great need for multilingual 

educators. Every door that opens should be seen as an 

opportunity for pest control education. The personnel 

and resources needed for one-on-one training should 

be available to communicate effectively with whoever is 

behind the door.

2. Solutions for Difficult Residents

2.1 Residents Who Can’t 

Those who provider input on this report suggested the 

following options for accommodating residents who can’t 

prepare their homes for bed bug treatment. People in the 

pest control profession need to network with social service 

groups to identify other options available.

• Early in a bed bug control effort, identify residents who 

cannot do unit preparation so that support services can 

be employed. 

• Contact the families of residents who are unable to 

prepare their homes to ask if they can dedicate time or 

money to the effort.

• Utilize social service agencies to help residents who do 

not have family to help.

• Have the PMP, building maintenance, or hired 

preparation contractor prepare the physical unit.

• When residents are hoarding, PMPs should try 

to make the bed an island and make as much of 

an impact as possible with contact treatments. 

Sustainable control will not be achieved without the 

help of a therapist.
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 29

2.2 Residents Who Won’t 

Those who gave input on this report suggested the 

following options for dealing with residents who refuse to 

prepare their homes for bed bug treatment. People in the 

pest control business may need to network with social 

services and law enforcement groups to identify other 

options available. 

• Management gives notices requesting cooperation and 

detailing consequences.

• Management charges the resident for lack of 

compliance with PMP’s instructions.

• Management proceeds to lease enforcement. 

(Management should try to avoid eviction since the 

resident will likely both take the problem to the next 

residence and cause migration due to disruption during 

the moving process.)
30 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 31

Questions for Further Research

• What impact does the use of dissolvable bags have on 

the success of building-wide bed bug control efforts? 

• What specific impact did laundering have on a 

successful bed bug control program?

Non-Chemical Treatment Methods

• What impact do mattress encasements have on a 

building-wide bed bug control program? (This research 

may also consider the fact that encasements help 

control dust mites.)

• How much of an impact can steam have on a 

population when compared to other non-residual 

treatments?

• What triggers the dispersal behavior of adult female 

bed bugs and how far do the (potentially fertilized) 

females travel?

• Which is more effective at killing bed bugs and eggs on 

upholstered furniture: steam or frozen carbon dioxide? 

(What is the penetrating ability of each of these?)

• What is the temperature of the freezer (household, 

deep, and container truck) and for how long must the 

item stay in the freezer to kill adult bed bugs and eggs 

if they are in the center of a bag full of fabric?

• Does petroleum jelly work as a barrier? If so, what is 

the width of the barrier needed to guarantee that bed 

bugs won’t make it across? 

• Does double-sided tape work as a barrier? 

Pesticides

• At what threshold of clutter and infestation level should 

a PMP refuse to apply a chemical treatment?

• Do pheromone lures make insecticidal dusts more 

effective?

Researchers should strive to test every tool and active 

ingredient available for bed bug control as an independent 

variable. Ideally, studies would follow comparing efficacy 

of tools and products that can be used together in various 

types of infestations (e.g., different buildings and levels 

of infestation). In this way, peer-reviewed research can 

support PMPs’ plans that involve multiple control methods. 

Questions posed for research are:

Inspections

• Which is more effective at identifying a light bed bug 

infestation in vacant units: dogs, sticky traps, moatstyle interceptors, or portable monitors? In occupied 

units?

• What visual inspection procedure is most effective 

at detecting a light infestation when done by a nonprofessional? 

Monitors

• Are interceptors more effective at monitoring for bed 

bugs than sticky traps?

• Which chemicals are most attractive as lures?

Unit Preparation

• What are design specifications for the furnishing and 

organization of a bedroom that is least conducive to 

bed bug infestations?

• What is the best way to work with residents who can’t 

cooperate with pest control efforts?

• What is the best way to work with residents who won’t 

cooperate with pest control efforts?

• What impact does metal furniture have on bed bug 

control efforts?
32 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

• Do foggers or pesticide sprays interfere with the ability 

of bed bug detection canines to detect bed bugs?

• Why is there a difference between pyrethroid efficacies 

in the lab versus the field?

• How long do pesticide-impregnated encasements 

need to be in place in order to kill bed bugs and eggs 

trapped inside?
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 33

References Updated February 7, 2010

Hwang, S.W., T.J. Svoboda, I.J. De Jong, K.J. Kabasele, 

and E. Gogosis. 2005. Bed bug infestations in an urban 

environment. Journal of Emerging Infectious Disease. 

11(4): 533–538.

Moore, D.J., and D.M. Miller. 2006. Laboratory evaluations 

of insecticide product efficacy for control of Cimex 

lectularius. Journal of Economic Entomology. 99(6): 

2080–2086.

Moore, D.J., and D.M. Miller. 2008. Field evaluations 

of insecticide treatment regimens for control of 

the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius (L.). Pest 

Management Science. 65(3): 332–338.

Myamba, J., C.A. Maxwell, A. Asidi, and C.F. Curtis. 2002. 

Pyrethroid resistance in tropical bedbugs, Cimex 

hemipterus, associated with use of treated bednets. 

Journal of Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 16(4): 

448–451.

Olson, J.F., R.D. Moon, S.A. Kells. 2009. Off-host 

aggregation behavior and sensory basis of arrestment 

by Cimex lectularius (Heteroptera: Cimicidae). Journal 

of Insect Physiology. 55(6): 580–587.

Pereira, R.M., P.G. Koehler, M. Pfiester, and W. Walker. 

2009. Lethal effects of heat and use of localized heat 

treatment for control of bed bug infestations. Journal of 

Economic Entomology. 102(3): 1182–1188.

Pfiester, M. 2009. Effect of population structure and 

size on aggregation behavior of Cimex lectularius

(Hemiptera: Cimicidae). Journal of Medical Entomology. 

46(5): 1015.

Pfiester, M., P. Koehler, and R.M. Pereira. 2008. Ability of 

bed bug-detecting canines to locate live bed bugs and 

viable bed bug eggs. Journal of Economic Entomology. 

101(4): 1389–1396.

Pinto, L.J., R. Cooper, and S.K. Kraft. 2007. Bed bug 

handbook: the complete guide to bed bugs and their 

control. Pinto and Associates, Mechanicsville, MD.

Peer Reviewed and Book Sources

Anderson, J.F., F.J. Ferrandino, S. McKnight, J. Nolen, 

and J. Miller. 2009. A carbon dioxide, heat and 

chemical lure trap for the bedbug, Cimex lectularius. 

Journal of Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 23(2): 

99–105.

Benoit, J.B., N.A Grosso, J.A. Yoder, D.L. Denlinger. 2007. 

Resistance to dehydration between bouts of blood 

feeding in the bed bug, Cimex lectularius, is enhanced 

by water conservation, aggregation, and quiescence. 

The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and 

Hygiene. 76(5): 987.

Benoit, J.B., S.A. Phillips, T.J. Croxall, B.S. Christensen, 

J.A. Yoder, and D.L. Denlinger. 2009. Addition of alarm 

pheromone components improves the effectiveness of 

desiccant dusts against Cimex lectularius. Journal of 

Medical Entomology. 46(3): 572–579.

Cooper, R. and H. Harlan. 2004. Ectoparasites, part 3: 

bed bugs & kissing bugs, pp. 494–529. In S. Hedges 

[Ed.]. 9th ed., Mallis’ handbook of pest control. GIE 

Publishing, Cleveland, OH.

Doggett, S., M. Geary, and R. Russell. 2004. The 

resurgence of bed bugs in Australia: with notes on their 

ecology and control. Journal of Environmental Health. 

4(2): 30–38.

Doggett, S., M. Geary, R. Russell. 2006. Encasing 

mattresses in black plastic will not provide thermal 

control of bed bugs, Cimex spp. (Hemiptera: 

Cimicidae). Journal of Economic Entomology. 99(6): 

2132–2135.

Fletcher, M. G., R.C. Axtell. 1993. Susceptibility of the 

bedbug, Cimex lectularius, to selected insecticides 

and various treated surfaces. Journal of Medical and 

Veterinary Entomology. 7(1):69–72.
34 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

Reinhardt, K., A. Harder, S. Holland, J. Hooper, and 

C. Leake-Lyall. 2008. Who knows the bed bug? 

Knowledge of adult bed bug appearance increases with 

people’s age in three counties of Great Britain. Journal 

of Medical Entomology. 45(5): 956–958.

Romero, A., M.F. Potter, D.A. Potter, and K.F. Haynes. 

2007a. Insecticide resistance in the bed bug: a factor 

in the pest’s sudden resurgence? Journal of Medical 

Entomology. 44(2): 175–178.

Romero, A., M.F. Potter, D.A. Potter, and K.F. Haynes. 

2009a. Behavioral responses of the bed bug to 

insecticide residues. Journal of Medical Entomology. 

46(1): 51–57.

Sharma, S.K., A.K. Upadhyay, M.A. Haque, K. Padhan, 

P.K. Tyagi, M.A. Ansari, and A.P. Dash. 2006. Wash 

resistance and bioefficacy of olyset net—a long-lasting 

insecticide-treated mosquito net against malaria 

vectors and nontarget household pests. Journal of 

Medical Entomology. 43(5): 884–888.

Snetsinger, R. 1997. Bed bugs & other bugs, pp. 392–424. 

In S. Hedges [Ed.]. 9th ed., Mallis’ handbook of pest 

control. GIE Publishing, Cleveland.

Steelman, C.D., A.L. Szalanski, R. Trout, J.A. McKern, 

C. Solorzano, and J.W. Austin. 2008. Susceptibility 

of the bed bug Cimex lectularius L. (Heteroptera: 

Cimicidae) collected in poultry production facilities to 

selected insecticides. Journal of Agricultural and Urban 

Entomology. 25(1): 41-51.

Temu, E.A., J.N. Minjas, C.J. Shiff, A. Majala. 1999. 

Bedbug control by permethrin-impregnated bednets 

in Tanzania. Journal of Medical and Veterinary 

Entomology. 13(4): 457–459.

Wang, C., K. Saltzmann, E. Chin, G. Bennett, and T. Gibbs. 

2010. Characteristics of Cimex lectularius (Hemiptera: 

Cimicidae), Infestation and Dispersal in a High-Rise 

Apartment Building. Journal of Economic Entomology. 

103(1): 172–177.

Wang, C., T. Gibb, and G.W. Bennett. 2009a. Evaluation of 

two least toxic integrated pest management programs 

for managing bed bugs (Heteroptera: Cimicidae) with 

discussion of a bed bug intercepting device. Journal of 

Medical Entomology. 46(3): 566–571.

Wang, C., T. Gibb, G.W. Bennett, and S. McKnight. 2009c. 

Bed bug (Heteroptera: Cimicidae) attraction to pitfall traps 

baited with carbon dioxide, heat, and chemical lure. 

Journal of Economic Entomology. 102(4): 1580–1585.

Yoon, K.S., D.H. Kwon, J.P. Strycharz, C.S. Hollingsworth, 

S.H. Lee, and J.M. Clark. 2008. Biochemical and 

molecular analysis of deltamethrin resistance in the 

common bed bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae). Journal of 

Medical Entomology. 45(6): 1092–1101.

Non-Peer Reviewed Sources

Ballard, J.B. 2008. Manufacturer research update-a new 

option. Pest Control Technology. 36(10): Website: 

www.pctonline.com/articles/article.asp?ID=3316&CatI

D=6&SubCatID=86.

Boase, C. 2001. Bed bugs-back from the brink. Pesticide 

Outlook.12: 159–62.

Boase, C. 2008. Bed bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae): an 

evidence-based analysis of the current situation. In 

W.H. Robinson and D. Bajomi. Proceedings of the Sixth 

International Conference on Urban Pests. OOK-Press 

Kft., H-8200 Veszprém, Pápai út 37/a, Hungary.

Busvine, J.R. 1958. Insecticide resistance in bed bugs. 

Bulletin of the World Health Organization 19(6): 

1041–1052.

Cabrera, B.J. and C.K. Heinsohn. 2006. Instant 

symposium: not letting the bed bugs bite...bed, lab, 

and beyond. American Entomologist. 52(2): 98.

Cooper, R. 2006. Bed Bugs-still more questions than 

answers: a need for research and public awareness. 

American Entomologist. 52(2): 111–112.

Cooper, R. 2007a. Technology—are bed bug dogs up 

to snuff? PMPs must consider many factors when 

evaluating the use of canine scent detection as a bed 

bug inspection tool. Pest Control. 75(1): 49.

Cooper, R. 2007b. Technology—just encase—mattress 

and box spring encasements can serve as essential 

tools in effective bed bug management. Pest Control. 

75(4): 64.
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 35

Doggett, S. 2009. A code of practice for the control of bed 

bug infestations in Australia. 3rd Edition Draft. Website: 

http://medent.usyd.edu.au/bedbug/bedbug_cop.htm.

Donaldson, A. 2006. Bed bug service: proceed with 

caution. Pest Control. 74(1): 42.

Fournier, A., F. Whitford, T.J. Gibb, and C.Y. Oseto. 

2003. Protecting U.S. school children from pests and 

pesticides. Pesticide Outlook. 14(1): 36–39.

Gangloff-Kaufmann, J., C. Hollingsworth, J. Hahn, L. 

Hansen, B. Kard, and M. Waldvogel. 2006a. Bed bugs 

in America: a pest management industry survey. 

American Entomologist. 52(2): 105–106.

Gangloff-Kaufmann, J., C. Hollingsworth, J. Hahn, L. 

Hansen, B. Kard, and M. Waldvogel. 2006b. Bed bugs 

in America: a pest management industry survey. Pest 

Control Technology. 34(11): Website: www.pctonline.

com/articles/article.asp?MagID=1&ID=2794&Issue

ID=224.

Getty, G.M., R.L. Taylor, V.R. Lewis. 2008. University 

research-hot house. Pest Control Technology. 36(2). 

Website: www.pctonline.com/articles/article.asp?MagI

D=1&ID=3113&IssueID=239.

Harlan, H.J. 2006. Bed bugs 101: the basics of Cimex 

lectularius. American Entomologist. 52(2): 99–101.

Harrison, R. and B. Lawrence. 2009. Pulling back 

the sheets on the bed bug controversy: research, 

prevention and management in hospitals and 

long-term care facilities. American Society for 

Healthcare Environmental Services. Website: www.

healthcarepestcontrol.com/files/ashes-bedbug-whitepaper.pdf.

Haynes, K.F., A. Romero, R. Hassell, and M.F. Potter. 

2008. The secret life of bed bugs- sublethal effects of 

insecticides on bed bug behavior: a pest management 

foundation funded research project. Pest World. March/

April: 4–8.

Kells, S.A. 2006a. Bed bugs: a systemic pest within 

society. American Entomologist. 52(2): 107–108.

Kells, S.A. 2006b. Nonchemical control of bed bugs. 

American Entomologist. 52(2): 109–110.

Kells, S.A. 2006c. Control of bed bugs in residences: 

information for pest control companies. University of 

Minnesota Extension.

Lilly, D., S.L. Doggett, C.J. Orton and R.C. Russell. 2009a. 

Bed Bug Product Efficacy under the Spotlight—Part 1. 

Professional Pest Manager. 13(2): 14,19–20.

Lilly, D., S.L. Doggett, C.J. Orton and R.C. Russell. 2009b. 

Bed Bug Product Efficacy under the Spotlight—Part 2. 

Professional Pest Manager. 13(3): 14–15,18.

Meek F. 2003. Bed bugs bite back. Pest Control 

Technology. 31(7): 43,44,46,47,50,52.

Miller, D. and M.L. Fisher. 2008. Bed bug (Hemiptera: 

Cimicidae) response to fumigation using sulfuryl 

fluoride. In Proceedings of the Sixth International 

Conference on Urban Pests. William H Robinson and 

Dániel Bajomi. OOK-Press Kft., H-8200 Veszprém, 

Pápai út 37/a, Hungary.

Miller, D. 2009. Bed bugs: what you need to know part 

3-living with bed bugs. Pest Management Professional. 

77(7): 37, 39–41, 43.

Pinto, L.J. 2008. Bed bug supplement-other aspects 

of control. Pest Control Technology. 36(3). 

Website: www.pctonline.com/articles/article.

asp?ID=3147&IssueID=240.

Potter, M.F. 2005. A bed bug state of mind: emerging 

issues in bed bug management. Pest Control 

Technology. 33(10): 82–85, 88, 90, 92–93, 96–97.

Potter, M.F. 2006. The perfect storm: an extension view on 

bed bugs. American Entomologist. 52(2): 102-104.

Potter, M.F. 2008a. The business of bed bugs. Pest 

Management Professional. 76(1): 24–25, 28–32, 34, 

36–40.

Potter, M.F. 2008b. Bed bug supplement- lessons from the 

past. Pest Control Technology. 36(8): Website: http://

pct.texterity.com/pct/200808/#pg59.

Potter, M.F., A. Romero, K.F. Haynes, and W. Wickemeyer. 

2006. Battling bed bugs in apartments. Pest Control 

Technology. 34: 44–52.
36 What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation

Potter, M.F., A. Romero, K.F. Haynes, and E. Hardebeck. 

2007. Killing then softly- battling bed bugs in sensitive 

accounts. Pest Control Technology. 35(1): 24–25, 27, 

29–30, 32.

Potter, M.F., K.F. Haynes, A. Romero, E. Hardebeck, and 

T. Jarzynka. 2008a. University research-bed bugs, 

heat and hotel rooms. Pest Control Technology. 

36(10). Website: www.pctonline.com/articles/article.

asp?ID=3311&IssueID=247.

Potter, M.F., K.F. Haynes, A. Romero, E. Hardebeck, and W. 

Wickenmeyer. 2008b. Is there a new bed bug answer? 

Pest Control Technology. 36(6): 116, 118–124.

Robinson, W. 2004. Technologies—Bed bugs knock 

roaches off the list—bed bug training grows in 

importance. Pest Control. 72(10): 51.

Romero, A., M.F. Potter, D.A. Potter, and K.F. Haynes. 

2007b. University research-insecticide-resistant 

bed bugs: implications for the Industry. Pest Control 

Technology. 35(7). Website: www.pctonline.com/

articles/article.asp?ID=2954&IssueID=232.

Romero A., M.F. Potter, K.F. Haynes. 2009b. Bed bugs; are 

dusts the magic bullet? Pest Management Professional. 

77(5): 22–23, 26, 28, 30.

Rotramel, G. 2009. Bed bug service-tactical treatments for 

bed bugs. 37(1). Website: www.pctonline.com/articles/

article.asp?ID=3385&IssueID=250.

Russel, D. 2006. Evaluation of a permethrin-treated fabric 

for killing bedbugs. ICR Project No.: 0206–383–0136.

Sakamoto, J.M., and J.L. Rasgon. 2006. Endosymbiotic 

bacteria of bed bugs: evolution, ecology and genetics. 

American Entomologist. 52(2): 119–122.

Siljander, E.D. 2006. Foraging and communication 

ecology of bed bugs Cimex lectularius L. (Heteroptera: 

Cimicidae). American Entomologist. 52(2): 116–117.

Small, G. 2006. Field trial to assess the efficacy of a 

combined Cryonite/diatomaceous earth treatment 

against bed bugs, Cimex lectularius. Insect 

Investigations Ltd. Wentloog, UK.

Snell, E. 2008. Mortality of selected bed bug strains 

exposed to ActiveGuard mattress liner fabric. Trial 

report and pictures from Snell Scientifics.

Testerman, M. 2005. resources—solution center—

communication is key to bed bug service. Pest Control. 

73(9): 116.

Todd, R.G. 2006. Efficacy of bed bug control products in 

lab bioassays: do they make it past the starting gate? 

American Entomologist. 52(2): 113–116.

Walker, W., K. Glover, P. Koehler, E. Thoms and E. 

Hobelmann. 2008. Bed bug control-fumigation, 

steam, dusting and labor. Pest Control Technology. 

36(1). Website: www.pctonline.com/articles/article.

asp?ID=3085&IssueID=238.

Wang, C., M. Abou El-Nour, and G.W. Bennett. 2007. 

Controlling bed bugs in apartments: a case study. Pest 

Control Technology. 35(11): 64, 66, 68, 70.

Wang, C., T. Gibb, and G.W. Bennett. 2009b. Interceptors 

assist in bed bug monitoring. Pest Control Technology. 

37(4). Website: www.pctonline.com/articles/article.

asp?ID=3434&IssueID=255.

Wegner, G. 2007. Technology—pest spotlight—

recognition, biology and control of the bed bug. Pest 

Control. 75 (1): 52.
What’s Working for Bed Bug Control in Multifamily Housing: Reconciling best practices with research and the realities of implementation 37

Final Thoughts

The best-case scenario for dealing with bed bugs 

effectively and efficiently (complete elimination using 

minimum time and money) is when a resident reports an 

infestation early and management acts promptly based 

on established procedures that support a zero-tolerance 

policy for cockroaches, mice, rats, and bed bugs. All 

people living and working in the building must know of 

the zero-tolerance policy and everyone must understand 

his or her part. Bed bug infestations get out of hand when 

staff doesn’t know about them, does not take action, does 

not communicate preparation instructions to residents, or 

residents do not comply either because they can’t or won’t. 

Integrated pest management (IPM) is a reduced-risk 

approach to pest control that looks at pest problems as 

building-wide issues, rather than isolated incidents. An 

IPM program establishes procedures for preventing pest 

entry and limiting food, water, and shelter available to 

pests. When all members of the IPM Team (management, 

staff, contractors, and residents) know their role in pest 

management before a problem arises, a reported infestation 

(regardless of pest type) can be dealt with quickly. When 

residents understand that they will not be charged or 

penalized for reporting a pest infestation and that the 

building management and staff have committed to providing 

a pest-free home, they are more likely to report infestations 

before they get out of hand. An effective IPM program 

addresses all the reasons bed bug control efforts fail.

As part of their role in pest control, all members of the 

IPM Team should know to report cockroaches, mice, rats, 

or bed bugs as soon as one, or evidence of one, is seen 

through a pre-determined system. Communication is a 

large part of an effective IPM program. All members of the 

IPM team should be in communication about pest control 

issues and resolutions. Management will be able to hold 

everyone accountable for their part in pest control by using 

a building-specific work order system or IPM log to track 

problems from start to finish. 

Resident compliance is not a bed bug-specific issue. 

Residents who don’t comply with bed bug control efforts 

are probably the same residents who would not be doing 

their part in any IPM effort. It is worth repeating that 

these residents fall into two (very different) categories of 

can’t do their part in pest control and won’t do their part 

in pest control. Solutions need to be found for both of 

these groups. Solutions will come from experts outside 

of pest control. The IPM team must include legal and 

social service experts. Getting residents the support or 

motivation they need to do their part in pest control is an 

ongoing battle that must be fought with undiminished 

enthusiasm. A pest-free home is part of what makes a 

healthy home and every person deserves a healthy home.

Allison Taisey and Tom Neltner