Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Nigeria, June 2006 

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COUNTRY PROFILE: NIGERIA 

June 2006 

COUNTRY 

Forma Name: Federal Republic of Nigeria. 

Short Form: Nigeria. 

Term for Citizen(s): Nigerian(s). 

Capital: Abuja has been the capital of Nigeria since December 12, 1991. Previously, the capital 

was Lagos. 

Major Cities: The most populous cities in Nigeria are Lagos (12 million), Ibadan (5 million), 

Abuja (2 million), Kano (1 million), and Enugu (500,000). 

Independence: Nigeria achieved independence from the United Kingdom on October 1, 1960. 

Public Holidays: A national holiday commemorating independence is celebrated on October 1. 

Other holidays are New Year’s (January 1), Eid al Kabir (Feast of the Sacrifice—movable date 

based on the Islamic calendar), Eid al Maulud (Birth of the Prophet—movable date based on the 

Islamic calendar), Easter (movable date in March or April), Workers’ Day (May 1), Eid al Fitr 

(End of Ramadan—movable date based on the Islamic calendar), Christmas (December 25), and 

Boxing Day (December 26). 

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Flag: Nigeria’s flag consists of three equal vertical bands of green, white, 

and green. 

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Several dominant themes in Nigerian history are essential for understanding contemporary 

Nigerian politics and society. First, the spread of Islam, predominantly in the north but later in 

southwestern Nigeria as well, began a millennium ago. The creation of the Sokoto Caliphate in 

the jihad (holy war) of 1804–8 brought most of the northern region and adjacent parts of Niger 

and Cameroon under a single Islamic government. The great extension of Islam within the area 

of present-day Nigeria dates from the nineteenth century and the consolidation of the caliphate. 

This history helps account for the dichotomy between north and south and the divisions within 

the north that have been so pronounced during the colonial and postcolonial eras. Second, the 

slave trade across both the Sahara Desert and the Atlantic Ocean had a profound influence on 

virtually all parts of Nigeria. The transatlantic trade in particular accounted for the forced 

migration of perhaps 3.5 million people between the 1650s and the 1860s, while a steady stream 

of slaves flowed north across the Sahara for a millennium, ending only at the beginning of the 
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twentieth century. Within Nigeria slavery was widespread and bore social implications that are 

still evident. Conversion to Islam and the spread of Christianity were intricately associated with 

issues relating to slavery and with efforts to promote political and cultural autonomy. Third, the 

colonial era was relatively brief, lasting only six decades or so depending on the part of Nigeria, 

but it unleashed such rapid change that the full impact is still felt in the contemporary period. 

Early History: All evidence suggests the early settlement of Nigeria millennia before the spread 

of agriculture 3,000 years ago. The earliest culture in Nigeria is identifiable by the distinctive 

artifacts of the Nok people. These skilled artisans and ironworkers flourished between the fourth 

century B.C. and the second century A.D. in a large area above the confluence of the Niger and 

Benue rivers. The Nok achieved a level of material development not repeated in the region for 

nearly 1,000 years. 

Long before 1500, much of present-day Nigeria was divided into states, which can still be linked 

to the modern ethnic groups that trace their history to the origins of these states. These early 

states included the Yoruba kingdoms, the Edo kingdom of Benin, the Hausa cities, and Nupe. In 

addition, numerous small states to the west and south of Lake Chad were absorbed or displaced 

in the course of the expansion of Kanem, centered to the northeast of Lake Chad. Borno, initially 

the western province of Kanem, became independent in the late fourteenth century. 

The sixteenth century marked a high point in the political history of northern Nigeria. During this 

period, the Songhai Empire reached its greatest limits, stretching from the Senegal and Gambia 

rivers in the far west and incorporating part of Hausaland in the east. At the same time, the 

Sayfawa Dynasty of Borno asserted itself, conquering Kanem and extending its control westward 

to Hausa cities that were not under Songhai imperial rule. For almost a century, much of northern 

Nigeria was part of one or the other of these empires, and after the 1590s, Borno dominated the 

region for 200 years. Despite Borno’s hegemony, the Hausa states wrestled for ascendancy 

among themselves for much of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 

European Slave Trade in West Africa: By 1471 Portuguese ships had reconnoitered the West 

African coast south as far as the Niger Delta. Portugal's lasting legacy for Nigeria was its 

initiation of the transatlantic slave trade. The Portuguese monopoly on West African trade was 

broken at the end of the sixteenth century when Portugal's influence was challenged by the rising 

naval power of the Netherlands. The Dutch took over Portuguese trading stations on the coast 

that were the source of slaves for the Americas. French and British competition later undermined 

the Dutch position, and Britain became the dominant slaving power in the eighteenth century. 

By the end of the eighteenth century, the area that was to become Nigeria was far from a unified 

country. Furthermore, the orientation of the north and the south was entirely different. The 

savanna states of Hausaland and Borno in the north had experienced a difficult century of 

political insecurity and ecological disaster but otherwise continued in a centuries-long tradition 

of slow political and economic change that was similar to other parts of the savanna. The 

southern areas near the coast, by contrast, had been swept up in the transatlantic slave trade. 

Political and economic change had been rapid and dramatic. By 1800 Oyo, a constitutional 

monarchy, governed much of southwestern Nigeria, while the Aro, another polity, had 
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consolidated southeastern Nigeria into a confederation. Both Oyo and the Aro confederacy were 

major trading partners of the slave traders from Europe and North America. 

In the first decade of the nineteenth century, two unrelated developments that were to have a 

major influence on virtually all of the area that is now Nigeria ushered in a period of radical 

change. First, between 1804 and 1808 the Islamic holy war of Usman dan Fodio established the 

Sokoto Caliphate, a loose confederation of emirates centered in northwestern Nigeria. By the 

middle of the nineteenth century, when the Sokoto Caliphate was at is greatest extent, it 

comprised 30 emirates and the capital district of Sokoto. All the important Hausa emirates, 

including Kano, the wealthiest and most populous, were directly under Sokoto. Second, in 1807 

Britain declared the transatlantic slave trade to be illegal, an action that occurred at a time when 

Britain itself was responsible for shipping more slaves to the Americas than any other country. 

Although the transatlantic slave trade did not end until the 1860s, other commodities, especially 

palm oil, gradually replaced it. The shift in trade had serious economic and political 

consequences in the interior, which led to increasing British intervention in the affairs of 

Yorubaland and the Niger Delta. 

Colonial Nigeria: In 1885 at the Berlin Conference, the European powers attempted to resolve 

their conflicts of interest in Africa by allotting areas of exploitation. The conferees also 

enunciated the principle, known as the “dual mandate,” that the interests of both Europe and 

Africa would best be served by maintaining free access to the African continent for trade and by 

providing Africa with the benefits of Europe's civilizing mission. Britain's claims to a sphere of 

influence in the Niger Basin were acknowledged formally, but it was stipulated that only 

effective occupation would secure full international recognition. In the end, pressure from France 

and Germany hastened the establishment of effective British occupation and the creation of 

protectorates in northern and southern Nigeria. 

Frederick Lugard, who assumed the position of high commissioner of the Protectorate of 

Northern Nigeria in 1900, was occupied with transforming the commercial sphere of influence 

inherited from the Royal Niger Company into a viable territorial unit under effective British 

political control. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the 

British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the Fulani emirs of the Sokoto Caliphate. 

Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic 

measures failed. Lugard's success in northern Nigeria has been attributed to his policy of indirect 

rule, which called for governing the protectorate through the rulers who had been defeated. If the 

emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials 

in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. 

Lugard's immediate successor, Hugh Clifford (1919–25), introduced a diametrically opposed 

approach emphasizing Western values. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford restricted the power of the 

northern emirs by scaling back indirect rule, while in the south he saw the possibility of building 

an elite educated in European-style schools. 

British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political 

entity with little sense of a common Nigerian nationality. Inconsistencies in British policy 

reinforced cleavages based on regional animosities by attempting simultaneously to preserve the 

indigenous cultures of each area and to introduce modern technology and Western political and 
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social concepts. In the north, appeals to Islamic legitimacy upheld the rule of the emirs, so that 

nationalist sentiments there were decidedly anti-Western. Modern nationalists in the south, 

whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, which had entrenched 

what was considered to be an anachronistic ruling class in power and shut out the Westernized 

Nigerian elite. 

Independence and Civil War: By an act of the British Parliament, Nigeria became an 

independent country within the Commonwealth on October 1, 1960. In 1963 Nigeria became a 

republic within the Commonwealth. The change in status called for no practical alteration of the 

constitutional system. The president, elected to a five-year term by a joint session of the 

parliament, replaced the crown as the symbol of national sovereignty and the British monarchy 

as head of state. Nnamdi Azikiwe became the republic's first president. 

Although the first postindependence parliamentary elections were held in December 1964, the 

nation’s leadership in the several decades following independence was determined by coup, not 

by election, and by military, rather than civilian government. One of the most important 

developments during the 1960s was the declaration of independence by the Eastern Region in 

1967, followed by a 30-month civil war. In the face of increased sectarian violence, the Eastern 

Region's military governor, Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, was under 

pressure from Igbo (also seen as Ibo) officers to assert greater independence from the Federal 

Military Government (FMG). Ultimately, on May 30, 1967, Ojukwu proclaimed the independent 

Republic of Biafra, named after the Bight of Biafra. He cited as the principal cause for this action 

the government's inability to protect the lives of predominantly Igbo easterners and suggested its 

culpability in genocide. 

Initially, the FMG launched "police measures" to restore the authority of Lagos in the Eastern 

Region, but soon full-scale civil war broke out. Finally, in January 1970 Biafran resistance 

collapsed, and the FMG reasserted its authority over the area. An estimated 1 to 3 million died 

from hostilities, disease, and starvation during the civil war, and more than 3 million Igbo 

became refugees. The economy of the region was shattered. In several years, however, the state 

government achieved the rehabilitation of 70 percent of the industry incapacitated during the 

war. The federal government granted funds to cover the state's operating expenses for an interim 

period, and much of the war damage was repaired. 

Coups and Mostly Military Government: In the postwar period, all significant political power 

remained concentrated in the FMG. The influence of Yakubu (Jack) Gowon, who had come to 

power in a 1966 coup, depended on his position as chairman of the Supreme Military Council, 

which was created in March 1967. The regime ruled by decree. In October 1970, Gowon 

announced his intention of staying in power until 1976, the target year for completion of the 

military’s political program and return to an elected civilian government. But many Nigerians 

feared that the military planned to retain power indefinitely. In 1972 Gowon partially lifted the 

ban on political activity that had been in force since 1966 in order to permit a discussion of a 

new constitution that would pave the way for civilian rule. The debate that followed was 

ideologically charged, and Gowon abruptly terminated the discussion. 
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The Gowon regime came under fire because of widespread and obvious corruption at every level 

of national life. Inefficiencies compounded the effect of corruption. Crime also posed a threat to 

national security and had a seriously negative impact on efforts to bring about economic 

development. The political atmosphere deteriorated to the point where Gowon was deposed in a 

bloodless military coup in July 1975. The armed forces chose as Gowon’s successor Brigadier 

(later General) Murtala Ramat Muhammad, a Muslim northerner. Muhammad was assassinated 

during an unsuccessful coup in February 1976, but in a short time his policies had won him 

broad popular support, and his decisiveness elevated him to the status of national hero. He had 

sought to restore public confidence in the federal government, reduce government expenditures 

on public works, and encourage the expansion of the private sector. He also set in motion the 

stalled machinery of devolution to civilian rule by a commitment to hand over power to a 

democratically elected government by October 1979. 

Lieutenant General Olusegun Obasanjo, a Yoruba, succeeded Muhammad. Keeping the 

established chain of command in place, Obasanjo pledged to continue the program for the 

restoration of civilian government in 1979 and to carry forward the reform program to improve 

the quality of public service. In 1979 under Obasanjo’s leadership, Nigeria adopted a constitution 

based on the Constitution of the United States that provided for a separation of powers among 

the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The country was now ready for local elections, 

to be followed by national elections that would return Nigeria to civilian rule. Obasanjo also 

initiated plans to move the federal capital from Lagos to a more central location in the interior at 

Abuja. Ultimately, Abuja became the country’s capital in December 1991. 

The Second Republic, 1979–83: In 1979 five revamped parties competed in national elections, 

marking the beginning of the Second Republic. The presidential succession from Obasanjo to a 

civilian, President Alhaji Shehu Shagari, was the first peaceful transfer of power since 

independence. Nigeria’s Second Republic was born amid great expectations. Oil prices were 

high, and revenues were on the increase. It appeared that unlimited development was possible. 

Unfortunately, the euphoria was short-lived. A number of weaknesses beset the Second 

Republic. First, the coalition that dominated federal politics was not strong, and in effect the 

victorious National Party of Nigeria (NPN) led by Shagari governed as a minority. Second, there 

was a lack of cooperation between the NPN-dominated federal government and the 12 states 

controlled by opposition parties. Third, and perhaps most importantly, the oil boom ended in 

mid-1981, precisely when expectations of continuous growth and prosperity were at a height. 

The recession that set in put severe strains on the Second Republic. 

Return to Military Rule: On December 31, 1983, the military seized power once again, 

primarily because there was virtually no confidence in the civilian regime. Allegations of fraud 

associated with Shagari’s re-election in 1983 served as a pretext for the takeover, although the 

military was in fact closely associated with the ousted government. Ominously, the economy was 

in chaos. The true cost of the failure to use earlier revenues and foreign reserves to good effect 

now became apparent. The leader of the coup d'état was Major General Muhammadu Buhari, a 

Hausa whose background and political loyalties tied him closely to the Muslim north and the 

deposed government. The military regime tried to achieve two goals. First, it attempted to secure 

public support by reducing the level of corruption; second, it demonstrated its commitment to 

austerity by trimming the federal budget. In a further effort to mobilize the country, Buhari 
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launched a “War Against Indiscipline” in the spring of 1984. This national campaign, which 

lasted 15 months, preached the work ethic, emphasized patriotism, decried corruption, and 

promoted environmental sanitation. However, the campaign achieved few of its aims. 

The economic crisis, the campaign against corruption, and civilian criticism of the military 

undermined Buhari's position, and in August 1985 a group of officers under Major General 

Ibrahim Babangida removed Buhari from power. The Babangida regime had a rocky start. A 

countercoup in December 1985 failed but made it clear that not everyone in the military sided 

with the Armed Forces Ruling Council, which succeeded the Supreme Military Council. The 

most serious opposition centered in the labor movement and on university campuses. There was 

also considerable controversy over Nigeria's entry into the Organization of the Islamic 

Conference, an international body of Muslim states, in 1986. Buhari's regime had initiated the 

application, which Babangida allowed to stand. The strong reaction among many Christians 

proved to be an embarrassment to the regime. 

Babangida addressed the worsening recession through the structural adjustment program of 

1986. However, despite US$4.2 billion of support from the World Bank and the rescheduling of 

foreign debt, the recession led to a series of currency devaluations, a decline in real income, and 

rising unemployment during the second half of the 1980s. Babangida remained in power until 

1993, when he ushered in an Interim National Government under the leadership of Chief Ernest 

Shonekan. This step followed the military’s annulment of election results in June 1993. 

In November 1993, General Sani Abacha seized control from the caretaker government and 

served as military dictator until his death in 1998. During his rule, Abacha suppressed dissent 

and failed to follow through with a promised transition to civilian government. In 1995, as a 

result of various human rights violations, the European Union, which already had imposed 

sanctions in 1993, suspended development aid, and Nigeria was temporarily expelled from the 

Commonwealth. Corruption also flourished, and Abacha was later found to have siphoned off oil 

revenues into personal bank accounts in Switzerland. In 2005 Nigeria began to recover US$458 

million of illicit funds deposited in Swiss banks during the Abacha regime. 

Transition to Civilian Government: Upon Abacha’s death in June 1998, his chief of defense 

staff, Major General Abdulsalami Abubakar, assumed control and began to release political 

prisoners, including the former leader Obasanjo. Local government elections were held in 

December 1998, state legislative elections followed in January 1999, and federal legislative and 

presidential elections completed the transition to civilian government in February 1999. 

Obasanjo was elected president, and his party, the People’s Democratic Party, won a majority of 

the seats in both the Senate and House of Representatives, amidst ever-present allegations of 

election irregularities. Fifteen years of military rule had come to an end, and Nigeria entered the 

longest period of civilian rule since independence. In 2003 Obasanjo and his party won reelection, and speculation mounted that the Nigerian leader might seek a constitutional change 

that would permit him to run for a third term in 2007. (In May 2006, the Nigerian Senate rejected 

a constitutional amendment that would have permitted a third term.) 

Obasanjo succeeded in establishing civilian rule based on a multiparty democracy and launched 

a campaign against corruption, but despite a surge in oil revenues that buoyed the federal coffers, 
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his administration faced a number of serious challenges. In 2000 religious tensions spiked 

following the imposition of sharia, or Islamic law, in 12 northern, predominantly Muslim states. 

These tensions hindered cooperation between the president and the National Assembly, among 

the states, and between the states and the federal government. In 2004 religious strife forced the 

government to declare a state of emergency in centrally located Plateau State. Ethnic strife 

further complicated matters, notably in the southeastern state of Benue, where tribal warfare 

broke out in 2001, and in the oil-rich Niger Delta, where the Ijaw tribe continues to conduct an 

insurgency against international energy facilities and workers. Nigeria’s image of playing a 

constructive role in regional stability was tarnished in 2002 when the International Criminal 

Court granted Cameroon control over the disputed Bakasi Peninsula, but Nigeria refused to 

comply with the ruling. 

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GEOGRAPHY 

Location: Nigeria is located in West Africa on the Gulf of Guinea 

between Benin and Cameroon. 

Size: Nigeria has an area of 923,768 square kilometers, including 

about 13,000 square kilometers of water. 

Land Boundaries: Nigeria shares borders with Cameroon (1,690 kilometers) in the east, Niger 

(1,497 kilometers) in the north, Benin (773 kilometers) in the west, and Chad (87 kilometers) in 

the northeast. 

Disputed Territory: Nigeria and Cameroon have held bilateral meetings to resolve disputes 

concerning the two countries’ shared land and maritime boundary. Nigeria has not fulfilled its 

pledge to cede the Bakasi Peninsula, which juts into the Gulf of Guinea, to Cameroon, despite 

the International Court of Justice’s ruling in favor of Cameroon in 2002. 

Length of Coastline: Nigeria’s coastline along the Gulf of Guinea totals 853 kilometers. 

Maritime Claims: Nigeria claims a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles, an exclusive economic 

zone of 200 nautical miles, and a continental shelf to a depth of 200 meters or to the depth of 

exploitation. 

Topography: Nigeria has five major geographic regions: a low coastal zone along the Gulf of 

Guinea; hills and low plateaus north of the coastal zone; the Niger-Benue river valley; a broad 

stepped plateau stretching to the northern border that has elevations exceeding 1,200 meters; and 

a mountainous zone along the eastern border, which includes the country’s highest point, 

Chappal Waddi (2,419 meters). 

Principal Rivers: Nigeria has two principal river systems: the Niger-Benue and the Chad. The 

Niger River, the largest in West Africa, flows 4,000 kilometers from Guinea through Mali, 

Niger, Benin, and Nigeria before emptying into the Gulf of Guinea. The Benue, the Niger’s 

largest tributary, flows 1,400 kilometers from Cameroon into Nigeria, where it empties into the 
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Niger River. The country’s other river system involves various rivers that merge into the Yobe 

River, which then flows along the border with Niger and empties into Lake Chad. 

Climate: Nigeria’s climate is arid in the north, tropical in the center, and equatorial in the south. 

Variations are governed by the interaction of moist southwest monsoon and dry northeast winds. 

Mean maximum temperatures are 30o C–32o C in the south and 33o C–35o C in the north. High 

humidity is characteristic from February to November in the south and from June to September 

in the north. Low humidity coincides with the dry season. Annual rainfall decreases northward; 

rainfall ranges from about 2,000 millimeters in the coastal zone (averaging more than 3,550 

millimeters in the Niger Delta) to 500–750 millimeters in the north. 

Natural Resources: Nigeria’s primary natural resources consist of natural gas, petroleum, tin, 

iron ore, coal, limestone, niobium, lead, and zinc. Nigeria has proven oil reserves of 35.9 billion 

barrels, the tenth largest reserves in the world. Proven natural gas reserves are estimated at 185 

trillion cubic feet, the seventh largest reserves in the world and the largest in Africa. Estimates 

for oil and natural gas reserves are as of January 2006. The country also has an abundance of 

arable land. 

Land Use: In 2005 Nigeria’s land use was as follows: arable land, 33 percent; permanent crops, 

3 percent; and other, 64 percent. 

Environmental Factors: In Nigeria urbanization and industrialization have led to a waste 

management crisis, resulting in widespread air, water, and soil pollution. Oil spills, natural gas 

flaring, automobile emissions, the open burning and dumping of waste, and improperly 

constructed landfills all contribute to serious environmental damage. Nigeria plans to phase out 

natural gas flaring by 2008 by converting natural gas into liquefied natural gas. Another major 

environmental issue is deforestation and the attendant loss of arable land as a result of logging, 

burning, and overgrazing by livestock. The area occupied by forests has been cut roughly in half 

since 1990. 

Time Zone: Nigeria observes Nigeria Standard Time, which is Greenwich Mean Time plus one 

hour. 

SOCIETY 

Population: As of mid-2006, Nigeria’s population was estimated at 131.9 million, and the 

population growth rate was nearly 2.4 percent. When the last census was held in 1991, Nigeria’s 

population was only 88.5 million. The next census, which is planned for 2006, is bound to be 

controversial, given ethnic and religious rivalries. Nigeria’s overall population density in 2006 

was about 139 people per square kilometer. Much of the population is concentrated along the 

coast and in the north around Kano. While Nigeria is slightly below average for the level of 

urbanization (about 45 percent), it nevertheless has one of the world’s highest urbanization rates: 

an estimated 5.3 percent per year. The estimated net migration rate in 2006 was 0.27 migrants 

per 1,000 people. 
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Demography: In 2006 Nigeria’s age distribution was estimated as follows: 0–14 years, 42.3 

percent; 15–64 years, 54.6 percent; and 65 years and older, 3.1 percent. The birth rate was 40.4 

births, and the death rate was 6.9 deaths per 1,000 people. The infant mortality rate was 97.1 

deaths per 1,000 live births. Life expectancy was about 47.2 years on average or 46.5 years for 

males and 47.7 years for females. The fertility rate was nearly 5.5 children per woman. The sex 

ratio at birth was 1.03 males per female. 

Ethnic Groups: Nigeria has more than 250 ethnic groups. The most significant groups are 

Hausa and Fulani (29 percent), Yoruba (21 percent), Igbo (also seen as Ibo, 18 percent), and Ijaw 

(10 percent). Hausa and Fulani have traditionally dominated in the north, Yoruba in the 

southwest, Igbo in the east, and Ijaw in the Niger Delta. Rivalries among ethnic groups are a 

source of instability. 

Languages: The official language is English. Other widely used languages are Edo, Efik, Fulani, 

Adamawa Fulfulde, Hausa, Idoma, Igbo (Ibo), Central Kanuri, Yoniba, and Yoruba. 

Religion: Nigeria’s population is split primarily between Islam (50 percent) and Christianity (40 

percent). Muslims are the majority in the north and Christians the majority in the south. The 

remaining 10 percent of the population adheres to indigenous beliefs such as animism. In early 

2006, following news of the publication of derogatory caricatures of the Prophet Muhammad in a 

Danish newspaper, anti-Christian riots broke out in Nigeria, and anti-Muslim reprisals followed. 

Churches and mosques were destroyed, numerous people were injured, and more than 100 were 

killed during the violence. 

Education and Literacy: Nigeria’s literacy rate is 68 percent on average, with a higher rate for 

men (75.7 percent) than women (60.6 percent), according to a 2003 estimate. Nigeria provides 

free, government-supported education, but attendance is not compulsory at any level, and certain 

groups, such as nomads and the handicapped, are underserved. The education system consists of 

six years of primary school, three years of junior secondary school, three years of senior 

secondary school, and four years of university education leading to a bachelor’s degree. The rate 

of secondary school attendance is 32 percent for males and 27 percent for females. In 2004 the 

Nigerian National Planning Commission described the country’s education system as 

“dysfunctional.” Reasons for this characterization included decaying institutions and ill-prepared 

graduates. 

Health: The poor condition of health and health care in Nigeria is one of the factors responsible 

for an average life expectancy of only 47 years. Poor overall living conditions are another factor. 

In 2000 only 57 percent of the population had access to safe drinking water, and a slightly lower 

percentage had access to adequate sanitation. Many Nigerians devote one to three hours of their 

day to the chore of collecting water for domestic use. Although improvements have been noted 

in infant mortality and immunization rates, the under-five mortality rate has risen from an 

average of 147 per 1,000 in 1990 to 200 per 1,000 males and 197 per 1,000 females in 2003. 

In addition, the incidence of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency 

syndrome (HIV/AIDS) has been rising. As of the end of 2003, about 3.6 million Nigerian adults 

were infected with HIV/AIDS, representing a prevalence rate of 5.4 percent. During 2003, about 
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310,000 Nigerians died from HIV/AIDS. Polio, tuberculosis (TB), and malaria also pose 

challenges but are less widespread. In 2002 Nigeria had 367,836 estimated cases of tuberculosis, 

the fourth highest burden in the world and the highest in Africa. In 2003 polio immunization 

efforts suffered a setback when the Muslim state of Kano halted vaccinations out of 

unsubstantiated fears of a Western conspiracy to sterilize the Muslim world and spread 

HIV/AIDS. Perhaps as a result, in 2004 some 792 Nigerian children were paralyzed by polio, up 

from 355 cases in 2003. However, as of May 6, 2005, the World Health Organization had 

evidence of progress in reducing the incidence of polio infections and paralysis through 

vaccinations. According to the latest available information, the malaria incidence rate is 30 cases 

per 100,000. 

Compounding long-standing health-related problems, in February 2006 the Nigerian government 

confirmed that the H5N1 avian influenza, commonly known as the “bird flu,” had spread from 

Kaduna State to neighboring states. To date no human cases have been identified, however. 

Welfare: From July 1994 until June 2004, private-sector employers and their workers were 

required to contribute to the Nigeria Social Insurance Trust Fund, which supported a defined 

benefit pension. The total contribution was 10 percent of an individual’s wages: 6.5 percent from 

the employer and 3.5 percent from the employee. A separate pay-as-you-go plan, which suffered 

from poor administration, inadequate funding, and fraud, covered public-sector employees. 

Beginning on June 25, 2004, a new social insurance system based on the defined contribution 

approach replaced the prior arrangements in accordance with the Pension Reform Act of 2004. 

Under the new system, which is managed by the National Pension Commission, members of the 

military contribute 2.5 percent of their wages, and the military contributes 12.5 percent on their 

behalf, while public- and private-sector workers and their employers each contribute 7.5 percent. 

ECONOMY 

Overview: Nigeria’s economy is struggling to leverage the country’s vast wealth in fossil fuels 

in order to displace the crushing poverty that affects about 57 percent of its population. 

Economists refer to the coexistence of vast natural resources wealth and extreme personal 

poverty in developing countries like Nigeria as the “paradox of plenty” or the “curse of oil.” 

Nigeria’s exports of oil and natural gas—at a time of peak prices—have enabled the country to 

post merchandise trade and current account surpluses in recent years. Reportedly, 80 percent of 

Nigeria’s energy revenues flow to the government, 16 percent cover operational costs, and the 

remaining 4 percent go to investors. However, the World Bank has estimated that as a result of 

corruption 80 percent of energy revenues benefit only 1 percent of the population. During 2005 

Nigeria achieved a milestone agreement with the Paris Club of lending nations to eliminate all of 

its bilateral external debt. Under the agreement, the lenders will forgive most of the debt, and 

Nigeria will pay off the remainder with a portion of its energy revenues. Outside of the energy 

sector, Nigeria’s economy is highly inefficient. Moreover, human capital is underdeveloped—

Nigeria ranked 151 out of 177 countries in the United Nations Development Index in 2004—and 

non-energy-related infrastructure is inadequate. 
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During 2003–7 Nigeria is attempting to implement an economic reform program called the 

National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS). The purpose of NEEDS is 

to raise the country’s standard of living through a variety of reforms, including macroeconomic 

stability, deregulation, liberalization, privatization, transparency, and accountability. NEEDS 

addresses basic deficiencies, such as the lack of freshwater for household use and irrigation, 

unreliable power supplies, decaying infrastructure, impediments to private enterprise, and 

corruption. The government hopes that NEEDS will create 7 million new jobs, diversify the 

economy, boost non-energy exports, increase industrial capacity utilization, and improve 

agricultural productivity. A related initiative on the state level is the State Economic 

Empowerment Development Strategy (SEEDS). 

A longer-term economic development program is the United Nations (UN)-sponsored National 

Millennium Goals for Nigeria. Under the program, which covers the years from 2000 to 2015, 

Nigeria is committed to achieve a wide range of ambitious objectives involving poverty 

reduction, education, gender equality, health, the environment, and international development 

cooperation. In an update released in 2004, the UN found that Nigeria was making progress 

toward achieving several goals but was falling short on others. Specifically, Nigeria had 

advanced efforts to provide universal primary education, protect the environment, and develop a 

global development partnership. However, the country lagged behind on the goals of eliminating 

extreme poverty and hunger, reducing child and maternal mortality, and combating diseases such 

as human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) and 

malaria. 

A prerequisite for achieving many of these worthwhile objectives is curtailing endemic 

corruption, which stymies development and taints Nigeria’s business environment. President 

Olusegun Obansanjo’s campaign against corruption, which includes the arrest of officials 

accused of misdeeds and recovering stolen funds, has won praise from the World Bank. In 

September 2005, Nigeria, with the assistance of the World Bank, began to recover US$458 

million of illicit funds that had been deposited in Swiss banks by the late military dictator Sani 

Abacha, who ruled Nigeria from 1993 to 1998. However, broad-based progress has been elusive 

and has not yet become evident in international surveys of corruption. In fact, Nigeria ranked 

152 out of 159 countries in Transparency International’s 2005 Corruption Perceptions Index and 

placed 94 out of 155 countries in the World Bank’s 2006 Ease of Doing Business Index. 

Corruption mostly harms Nigerians themselves, but the country is widely known around the 

world for a fraudulent activity known as the “419” scam, which seeks to extort money from 

foreign recipients of letters and emails with the promise to transfer a nonexistent windfall sum of 

money. 

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): In 2005 Nigeria had a gross domestic product (GDP) of 

US$132.9 billion. GDP rose by 5.6 percent in real terms over the previous year. GDP per capita 

was about US$1,000, using the purchasing power parity method. Using the Atlas method based 

on a three-year moving average exchange rate, however, per capita GDP was US$390, lower 

than in 1960 when Nigeria declared independence. About 57 percent of the population lives on 

less than US$1 per day. In 2005 the GDP was composed of the following sectors: agriculture, 

26.8 percent; industry, 48.8 percent; and services, 24.4 percent. 
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12

Government Budget: In 2005 Nigeria’s central government had expenditures of US$13.54 

billion but revenues of only US$12.86 billion, resulting in a budget deficit of 5 percent. Nigerian 

tax authorities face the challenge of widespread tax evasion, which is motivated by complaints 

about corruption and the poor quality of services. 

Inflation: In 2005 Nigeria’s inflation rate was an estimated 15.6 percent. Nigeria’s goal under 

the National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS) program is to reduce 

inflation to the single digits. 

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing: The agriculture, forestry, and fishing sector constitutes 

about 26.8 percent of gross domestic product but employs 63–70 percent of the workforce. 

Agricultural products include cassava (tapioca), corn, cocoa, millet, palm oil, peanuts, rice, 

rubber, sorghum, and yams. In 2003 livestock production, in order of metric tonnage, featured 

eggs, milk, beef and veal, poultry, and pork, respectively. In the same year, the total fishing 

catch was 505.8 metric tons. Roundwood removals totaled slightly less than 70 million cubic 

meters, and sawnwood production was estimated at 2 million cubic meters. The agricultural 

sector suffers from extremely low productivity, reflecting reliance on antiquated methods. 

Although overall agricultural production rose by 28 percent during the 1990s, per capita output 

rose by only 8.5 percent during the same decade. Agriculture has failed to keep pace with 

Nigeria’s rapid population growth, so that the country, which once exported food, now relies on 

imports to sustain itself. 

Mining and Minerals: Nigeria has abundant deposits of solid minerals, including barites, coal, 

columbite, gemstones, gold, graphite, gypsum, kaolin, marble, ore, salt, soda, sulfur, tantalite, 

tin, and uranium. Nevertheless, the mining industry, which exported significant amounts of coal 

and tin until the 1960s, has declined as publicly controlled infrastructure has deteriorated and the 

petroleum industry has grown in importance. Today mining accounts for only 1 percent of gross 

domestic product and is a minor employer. Mining suffers from extremely low productivity and 

high production costs. Annual coal production is only about 100,000 tons, well below an 

estimated capacity of 5,000 tons per day. Furthermore, it is sporadic. Nigeria is seeking to 

reinvigorate its mining industry through privatization and deregulation. 

Industry and Manufacturing: Industry accounts for 48.8 percent of Nigeria’s gross domestic 

product (GDP), much of which is attributable to the lucrative energy sector, and it employs about 

10 percent of the labor force. In 2004 oil’s share of exports was 95 percent, compared with only 

1 percent for manufacturing. By contrast, manufactured goods constitute the largest category of 

imports. Also in 2004, the capacity utilization rate of industry stood at 50 percent, a relatively 

low rate that policy makers hoped to increase by reversing capital flight and removing 

impediments to private-sector activity. 

Energy: A member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Nigeria 

has proven oil reserves of 35.9 billion barrels, the tenth largest reserves in the world. Most of the 

reserves are located in the Niger River Delta. In 2005 Nigeria produced about 2.5 million barrels 

per day (bpd) of oil, approximately 2.2 million bpd of which were exported. Nigeria ranks as the 

world’s eighth largest exporter of oil and the United States’ fifth largest source of imported oil. 

Nigeria hopes to increase production over the next five years but faces pressure from OPEC not 
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13

to exceed its quota, which is set at 2.3 million bpd. In February 2006, the steady flow of Nigerian 

exports was hampered by attacks against oil facilities and kidnappings of oil workers staged by 

militants upset with the distribution of oil profits within Nigerian society. In fact, damage to one 

of Royal Dutch Shell’s export terminals led to a temporary 25 percent reduction in Nigeria’s oil 

exports. Continued violence could pose another impediment—in addition to OPEC’s concerns—

to Nigeria’s plans to boost production. 

Proven natural gas reserves are estimated at 185 trillion cubic feet, the seventh largest reserves in 

the world and the largest in Africa. In 2002, the latest year for which reliable data are available, 

Nigeria produced 501 billion cubic feet (bcf) of natural gas, 276 bcf of which were exported. 

Recoverable coal reserves amount to 209 million short tons (mmst). In 2003 Nigeria produced 

0.1 mmst, all of which was consumed domestically. Nigeria’s coal industry suffers from 

extremely low productivity and high transportation costs. 

Only 40 percent of Nigeria’s population has access to electricity, although the government plans 

to expand access to 85 percent of the population by 2010 through a rural electrification program. 

In 2003 Nigeria produced 15.59 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity, exceeding domestic 

consumption of 14.46 billion kilowatt-hours. Nigeria’s electric network operates well below its 

capacity of 5,900 megawatts, and power outages are commonplace. Foreign electric power 

companies have been encouraged to build independent power plants to help meet the demand for 

electricity. 

Services: Services accounted for an estimated 24.4 percent of gross domestic product and 

employed roughly one in five workers in 2005. The most important branch of the services sector 

is banking and finance. 

Banking and Finance: Nigeria’s banking sector is undergoing consolidation under the 

supervision of the Central Bank of Nigeria, which has regulatory authority over the entire 

financial sector. Marginal banks have been closed, and 25 relatively well capitalized deposit 

banks have emerged. Even before the consolidation, loan assets and deposit liabilities were 

highly concentrated. In addition to deposit banks, Nigeria has hundreds of community banks and 

a small number of specialized development and mortgage banks. A similar consolidation is 

planned for the insurance sector. Contrary to modern practice, many financial transactions in 

Nigeria are conducted in cash rather than with bank letters of credit. 

Tourism: In 2003 Nigeria received 2.4 million tourists. The largest contingents came from Niger 

(503,066), Benin (318,716), and Ghana (167,167). In 2002 tourism receipts totaled US$263 

million. The Nigerian government encourages its citizens to visit tourism destinations within the 

country through various financial incentives. Concerns exist regarding the quality of amenities 

and personal safety. 

Labor: In 2005 Nigeria had a labor force of 57.2 million. In 2003 the unemployment rate was 

10.8 percent overall; urban unemployment of 12.3 percent exceeded rural unemployment of 7.4 

percent. According to the latest available information from 1999, labor force employment by 

sector was as follows: 70 percent in agriculture, 20 percent in services, and 10 percent in 

industry. Labor unions, which have undergone periods of militancy and quiescence, reemerged 
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14

as a force in 1998 when they regained independence from the government. Since 1999 the 

Nigerian Labor Congress (NLC), a union umbrella organization, has called six general strikes to 

protest domestic fuel price increases. However, in March 2005 the government introduced 

legislation ending the NLC’s monopoly over union organizing. In December 2005, the NLC was 

lobbying for an increase in the minimum wage for federal workers. The existing minimum wage, 

which was introduced six years earlier but has not been adjusted since, has been whittled away 

by inflation to only US$42.80 per month. 

Foreign Economic Relations: Nigeria’s foreign economic relations revolve around its role in 

supplying the world economy with oil and natural gas, even as the country seeks to diversify its 

exports, harmonize tariffs in line with a potential customs union sought by the Economic 

Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and encourage inflows of foreign portfolio and 

direct investment. In October 2005, Nigeria implemented the ECOWAS Common External 

Tariff, which reduced the number of tariff bands. Prior to this revision, tariffs constituted 

Nigeria’s second largest source of revenue after oil exports. In 2005 Nigeria achieved a major 

breakthrough when it reached an agreement with the Paris Club to eliminate its bilateral debt 

through a combination of write-downs and buybacks. Nigeria joined the Organization of the 

Petroleum Exporting Countries in July 1971 and the World Trade Organization in January 1995. 

Imports: In 2005 Nigeria imported about US$26 billion of goods. In 2004 the leading sources of 

imports were China (9.4 percent), the United States (8.4 percent), the United Kingdom (7.8 

percent), the Netherlands (5.9 percent), France (5.4 percent), Germany (4.8 percent), and Italy (4 

percent). Principal imports were manufactured goods, machinery and transport equipment, 

chemicals, and food and live animals. 

Exports: In 2005 Nigeria exported about US$52 billion of goods. In 2004 the leading 

destinations for exports were the United States (47.4 percent), Brazil (10.7 percent), and Spain 

(7.1 percent). In 2004 oil accounted for 95 percent of merchandise exports, and cocoa and rubber 

accounted for almost 60 percent of the remainder. 

Trade Balance: In 2005 Nigeria posted a US$26 billion trade surplus, corresponding to almost 

20 percent of gross domestic product. 

Balance of Payments: In 2005 Nigeria achieved a positive current account balance of US$9.6 

billion. 

External Debt: In 2005 Nigeria’s external debt was an estimated US$37.5 billion, but at 

midyear Nigeria and a group of international creditors known as the Paris Club agreed to 

eliminate all US$31 billion of the country’s bilateral debt. Under the agreement, the Paris Club 

would write off US$18 billion of bilateral debt, and Nigeria would pay back the remainder. 

Nonbilateral debt owed to multilateral development banks and commercial banks was not 

affected by the agreement. The significance of this breakthrough is illustrated by the fact that 

prior to the agreement, external and domestic debt combined constituted 70 percent of gross 

domestic product. 
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15

Foreign Investment: In 2003 Nigeria received a net inflow of US$1.2 billion of foreign direct 

investment (FDI), much of which came from the United States. Most FDI is directed toward the 

energy sector. 

Foreign Aid: As of October 2005, World Bank assistance to Nigeria involved 19 active projects 

with a total commitment value of about US$1.87 billion. Since Nigeria joined the World Bank in 

1961, the World Bank has assisted it on 120 projects. In October 2005, the International 

Monetary Fund approved a two-year “policy support instrument” designed to promote the 

growth of the non-oil sector and to reduce poverty. 

Currency and Exchange Rate: The Nigerian currency is the naira (NGN). As of mid-June 

2006, the exchange rate was about US$1=NGN128.4. 

Fiscal Year: Calendar year. 

TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS 

Overview: Decaying infrastructure is one of the deficiencies that Nigeria’s National Economic 

Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS) seeks to address. The government has begun to 

repair the country’s poorly maintained road network. Because Nigeria’s railroads are in a parlous 

condition, the government is trying to rectify the situation by privatizing the Nigerian Railroad 

Corporation. Similarly, the government is pursuing a strategy of partial port privatization by 

granting concessions to private port operators so that they can improve the quality of port 

facilities and operations. Nigeria’s airports and civil aviation system have a poor reputation for 

efficiency and safety, and government-owned Nigerian Airways is struggling. In the 

telecommunications sector, mobile telephones are more widely disseminated than landline 

phones, and Internet use revolves mainly around cybercafés. 

Roads: Nigeria has roughly 113,000 kilometers of surfaced roads, but they are poorly 

maintained and are even cited as a cause for the country’s high rate of traffic fatalities. However, 

in 2004 Nigeria’s Federal Roads Maintenance Agency (FERMA) began to patch the 32,000-

kilometer federal roads network, and in 2005 FERMA initiated a more substantial rehabilitation. 

The rainy season and poor equipment pose challenges to road maintenance. 

Railroads: As of 2003, Nigeria’s poorly maintained rail system had 3,557 kilometers of track, 

3,505 kilometers of which were narrow gauge and the remainder, standard gauge. The country 

has two major rail lines: one connects Lagos on the Bight of Benin and Nguru in the northern 

state of Yobe; the other connects Port Harcourt in the Niger Delta and Maiduguri in the 

northeastern state of Borno. As of March 2006, Nigeria and Niger expected to move forward 

with plans to establish a rail link between the two countries. Nigeria is also seeking a rail link 

with Cameroon, but discussions are more contentious in the aftermath of the International Court 

of Justice’s October 2002 verdict in favor of Cameroon on the issue of control of the Bakasi 

Peninsula. In order to remedy the poor condition, efficiency, and profitability of the nation’s 

railroads, the government is seeking to privatize the Nigerian Railroad Corporation. Under the 
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16

privatization plan, three separate concessions of 25–30 years would be granted to private-sector 

companies to run railroads in the western, central, and eastern regions. 

Ports: The Nigerian Port Authority (NPA) is responsible for managing Nigeria’s ports, which 

have fallen behind international standards in terms of the quality of facilities and operational 

efficiency. Recognizing that the government lacks the funding and expertise to modernize 

facilities and run the ports efficiently, the NPA is pursuing partial port privatization by means of 

granting concessions to private port operators. Under the terms of concession agreements, the 

government would transfer operating rights to private companies for a finite number of years 

without forgoing ownership of the port land. Nigeria’s principal container port is the port of 

Lagos, which handles about 5.75 million tons of cargo each year. The port, which consists of 

separate facilities at Apapa and Tin Can Island, has a rail connection to points inland. Port 

Harcourt, a transshipment port located 66 kilometers from the Gulf of Guinea along the Bonny 

River in the Niger Delta, handles about 815,000 tons of cargo each year and also has a railroad 

connection. Both ports are not only responsible for Nigeria’s seaborne trade but also serve inland 

countries such as Niger and Chad. A new port is under construction at Onne about 25 kilometers 

south of Port Harcourt. Relatively modern and efficient terminals managed by multinational oil 

companies handle most oil and gas exports. 

Inland Waterways: Nigeria has 8,600 kilometers of inland waterways. The most important are 

the Niger River and its tributary, the Benue River. 

Civil Aviation and Airports: Nigeria’s principal airports are Murtala Muhammad Airport in 

Lagos and Mallam Aminu International in the northern state of Kano. Three other international 

airports are located in Abuja, Kaduna, and Port Harcourt. Overall, Nigeria’s airports, whether 

international or regional, suffer from a poor reputation for operational efficiency and safety. 

Private domestic air carriers have won business at the expense of Nigerian Airways, which is 

government-owned and suffers from financial and management problems. 

Pipelines: In 2004 Nigeria had 105 kilometers of pipelines for condensates, 1,896 kilometers for 

natural gas, 3,638 kilometers for oil, and 3,626 kilometers for refined products. Various pipeline 

projects are planned to expand the domestic distribution of natural gas and to export natural gas 

to Benin, Ghana, Togo, and, potentially, even to Algeria (where a Mediterranean export terminal 

is located). Energy pipelines are subject to sabotage by militant groups or siphoning by thieves. 

Telecommunications: Television and radio broadcast stations currently operational in Nigeria 

are as follows: 83 AM, 36 FM, and 11 short-wave radio stations and three television stations. 

Recent information on the number of radios and televisions is not available. In 2005 Nigeria had 

only about 1.8 million Internet users, many of whom relied on equipment at cybercafés. Internet 

hosts totaled 1,535. In 2004 more than 9.1 million mobile cellular telephones and 1 million 

mainline telephones were in use. 
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17

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 

Political System: Nigeria is a federal republic with a presidential system. The constitution 

provides for a separation of powers among the three branches of government. General elections 

held in February 1999 marked the end of 15 years of military rule and the beginning of civilian 

rule based on a multiparty democracy. General elections were held for the second consecutive 

time in April 2003. In both elections, President Olusegun Obasanjo and his party, the People’s 

Democratic Party (PDP), were victorious. Despite the consolidation of democratic rule following 

years of military dictatorship, some feared that in the absence of a clear successor, the incumbent 

president might seek to amend the constitution so that he could run for a third term in 2007. 

Obasanjo was reputed to have a variety of motives for seeking a third term or at least leaving the 

issue open: aspirations to see his economic and political reforms through to completion, concerns 

about being impaired by the perception of lame-duck status, and a desire to block his rival, Vice 

President Atiku Abubakar, from assuming power. U.S. government officials expressed concerns 

about the potential destabilizing impact of such a move. In May 2006, however, the Nigerian 

Senate rejected a constitutional amendment that would have permitted a third term. 

Constitution: Nigeria’s current constitution, the fourth since independence, went into effect on 

May 29, 1999. Modeled after the U.S. Constitution, it provides for a separation of powers among 

a strong executive, an elected legislature, and an independent judiciary. Critics of the constitution 

complain that the federal government retains too much power at the expense of the states. 

Although the constitution proclaims personal freedom and a secular state, it also permits 

Muslims to follow sharia, or Islamic law. 

Branches of Government: Executive power is vested in the president, who is simultaneously 

chief of state and head of government. The president is eligible for two four-year terms. The 

president’s Federal Executive Council, or cabinet, includes representatives from all 36 states. 

The National Assembly, consisting of a 109-member Senate and a 360-member House of 

Representatives, constitutes the country’s legislative branch. Three senators represent each of 

Nigeria’s 36 states, and one additional senator represents the capital city of Abuja. Seats in the 

House of Representatives are allocated according to population. Therefore, the number of House 

members from each state differs. Members of the National Assembly are elected to a maximum 

of two four-year terms. The judicial branch comprises the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, 

the Federal High Court, and, on the state level, high courts, sharia courts, and customary courts. 

The president appoints members of the Supreme Court subject to confirmation by the Senate. 

Administrative Divisions: Nigeria is divided administratively into the Federal Capital Territory 

(Abuja) and 36 states, which are organized into the following six zones: South-West Zone—

Lagos, Ekiti, Ogun, Ondo, Oshun, and Oyo; South-South Zone—Akwa, Bayelsa, Cross River, 

Delta, Edo, Ibom, and Rivers; South-East Zone—Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo; 

North-West Zone—Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Jigawa, Kebbi, Sokoto, and Zamfara; North-Central 

Zone—Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nassarawa, Niger, and Plateau; and North-East Zone—Adamawa, 

Bauchi, Bornue, Gomber, Taraba, and Yobe. 

Provincial and Local Government: Each of Nigeria’s 36 states has an elected governor and a 

House of Assembly. The governor is elected to a maximum of two four-year terms. The number 
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18

of delegates to the House of Assembly is based on population (three to four times the number of 

delegates each state sends to the federal House of Representatives) and therefore varies from 

state to state within the range of 24 to 40. Nigeria’s states are subdivided into 774 local 

government areas, each of which is governed by a council that is responsible for supplying basic 

needs. The local government councils, which are regarded as the third tier of government below 

the federal and state levels, receive monthly subsidies from a national “federation account.” 

Critics contend that the division of the country into so many districts is a vestige of military rule 

that is arbitrary, wasteful, and inefficient. 

Judicial and Legal System: Nigeria’s legal system is based on a combination of statutory 

(legislative) law, English common law, customary law, and, in the north, Islamic law (sharia). 

Nigeria’s federal and state courts apply statutory and English common law, whereas local courts 

recognize the legitimacy of customary and Islamic law. Bribes paid to influence judges and 

delays in bringing cases to trial sometimes impair the fair and efficient administration of justice. 

These deficiencies partially explain the popularity of Islamic law in the 12 northern states. Sharia 

is criticized for the imposition of draconian penalties, although no death penalties have been 

carried out in recent years. Testimony from women and non-Muslims also carries less weight in 

Islamic courts. 

Electoral System: The president and members of the bicameral National Assembly, consisting 

of a 109-member Senate and a 360-member House of Representatives, are elected to a maximum 

of two four-year terms. Universal suffrage at age 18 applies to all elections. Winning candidates 

are determined according to the British first-past-the-post system, whereby a plurality of the 

votes ensures victory. Also under this system, members of the National Assembly represent 

distinct geographic constituencies. International observers and several Nigerian parties alleged 

procedural improprieties in the most recent elections in 2003. The Independent National Election 

Commission, which was responsible for administering the elections, was criticized for a lack of 

transparency. 

Politics and Political Parties: Presidential and legislative elections were last held on separate 

days in April 2003. On April 19, 2003, President Olusegun Obasanjo was re-elected to a fouryear term with 61.9 percent of the vote. Obasanjo’s party, the People’s Democratic Party (PDP), 

also won a majority of the votes in elections to the Senate and House of Representatives held on 

April 12, 2003. The most successful opposition party was the All Nigeria People’s Party 

(ANPP), whose leading candidate, Buhari Muhammadu, filed a court challenge contesting the 

presidential election results. Also participating were the All Progressives Grand Alliance 

(APGA), the Alliance for Democracy (AD), the National Democratic Party (NDP), the People’s 

Redemption Party (PRP), and the United Nigeria People’s Party (UNPP). 

Mass Media: The government controls and regulates most of Nigeria’s broadcast media through 

the National Broadcasting Commission. Radio is the most important mass medium for reaching 

general audiences because it is inexpensive and does not require literacy. The federal 

government owns stations affiliated with the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria, individual 

states control other stations, and still others are privately owned. The Voice of Nigeria broadcasts 

in Arabic, English, French, and five indigenous languages. Some Voice of Nigeria broadcasts are 

aimed at domestic audiences; others, primarily shortwave, are transmitted around the globe. 
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19

Similar to the market for radio broadcasts, the federal government owns two stations affiliated 

with the National Television Authority, various states have their own stations, and private 

operators broadcast by satellite. Nigerians also obtain news via Voice of America, the British 

Broadcasting Company (BBC), and Deutsche Welle. In contrast to the broadcast media, the print 

media are dominated by private publications, a situation that is more amenable to criticism of the 

government. Nigeria has 14 major daily newspapers, but only one—the New Nigerian—is 

government-owned. The country also has six newsweeklies and various tabloids. The 

government does not restrict access to the Internet, which is most widely available at cybercafés. 

Foreign Relations: Nigeria’s foreign policy revolves primarily around African affairs and 

emphasizes political and economic cooperation, peaceful dispute resolution, and global 

nonalignment. Regionally, Nigeria pursues tariff harmonization and the long-term goal of a 

customs union via the Economic Community of West African States, which it was instrumental 

in founding. Nigeria is also active in the New Partnership for Africa’s Development, which seeks 

to improve economic conditions in Africa by eliminating trade barriers to exports and attracting 

investment and development aid. Despite generally good relations with its neighbors, Nigeria has 

yet not complied with the 2002 decision of the International Court of Justice in favor of 

Cameroon over control of the Bakasi Peninsula. Since mid-1998, Nigeria’s relations with the 

United States have improved steadily in accordance with Nigeria’s transition from military rule 

to democracy. Nigeria has also supported the United States-led war on terrorism. In March 2006, 

Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo met with President George W. Bush in Washington, DC, 

to discuss the U.S.-Nigerian relationship. With a touch of drama immediately before the meeting, 

Nigeria turned over the exiled former Liberian leader Charles Taylor to a United Nations court in 

Sierra Leone to face allegations of war crimes. Nigeria is seeking a permanent seat on the United 

Nations Security Council. 

Membership in International Organizations: Nigeria belongs to the following international 

organizations: African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States; African Development Bank; 

African Union; Commonwealth; Economic Community of West African States; Food and 

Agriculture Organization; Group of 15; Group of 24; Group of 77; International Atomic Energy 

Agency; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank); International 

Chamber of Commerce; International Civil Aviation Organization; International Confederation 

of Free Trade Unions; International Criminal Court; International Criminal Police Organization; 

International Development Association; International Finance Corporation; International Fund 

for Agricultural Development; International Hydrographic Organization; International Labor 

Organization; International Olympic Committee; International Maritime Organization; 

International Monetary Fund; International Organization for Migration; International 

Organization for Standardization; International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement; 

International Telecommunication Union; Multilateral Investment Geographic Agency; 

Nonaligned Movement; Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons; Organization of 

the Islamic Conference; Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries; Permanent Court of 

Arbitration; United Nations; Universal Postal Union; World Customs Organization; World 

Federation of Trade Unions; World Health Organization; World Intellectual Property 

Organization; World Meteorological Organization; World Tourism Organization; and World 

Trade Organization. 
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Major International Treaties: Nigeria is a party to the following nonproliferation agreements: 

Biological Weapons Convention, Chemical Weapons Convention, Nuclear Non-proliferation 

Treaty, and Partial Test Ban Treaty. Regarding the environment, Nigeria is a party to the 

following agreements: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, 

Hazardous Wastes, Kyoto Protocol, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life 

Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, and Wetlands. Shortly after September 11, 2001, Nigeria 

ratified a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty with the United States. The treaty, whose ratification 

had been held up for 12 years, includes provisions for cooperation on anticrime, antidrug, and 

counterterrorism initiatives. 

NATIONAL SECURITY 

Armed Forces Overview: The military, which ruled Nigeria for all but four years during the 

period 1966–99, is now subject to civilian rule. Internal divisions, public support for democratic 

rule, and the armed forces’ poor image are all factors militating against a coup in the current 

environment. Nigeria’s military is primarily used in international peacekeeping operations. 

Foreign Military Relations: Nigeria’s military has participated in several peacekeeping 

operations in sub-Saharan Africa to help raise the country’s profile as a regional power. Nigeria 

remains committed to this policy despite the death of two Nigerian soldiers assigned to the 

African Union’s peacekeeping mission in Darfur, Sudan, in October 2005. The United States and 

China are vying for military influence in Nigeria. In February 2006, Nigeria’s vice president 

criticized the United States for not protecting Nigeria’s oil industry from attacks by insurgents 

affiliated with the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND). Although the 

U.S. government had provided military technical assistance and training, it had not followed 

through completely with the promised delivery of high-speed patrol boats, apparently out of 

concern that the Nigerian military was involved in the sale of stolen oil to criminal gangs. As a 

result, Nigeria was turning to China to supply patrol boats. China has been ramping up its 

military presence in the oil-rich Niger Delta to safeguard its own energy-related investments. 

External Threat: Nigeria’s neighbors do not pose an external threat, with the possible exception 

of Cameroon, with whom Nigeria is embroiled in a dispute over control of the oil-rich Bakasi 

Peninsula. Nigeria has not yet complied with the International Court of Justice’s 2002 ruling in 

favor of Cameroon. Foreign support for Islamist militant groups in the north and cross-border 

criminal activities may be the most acute external threats. 

Defense Budget: In 2004 Nigeria’s military budget was about US$737.6 million, representing 

0.8 percent of gross domestic product. 

Major Military Units: Nigeria’s armed forces consist of 78,500 active-duty personnel assigned 

as follows to the various services: army, 62,000; navy, 7,000; and air force 9,500. The army is 

organized into one armored division, one composite division (motorized, amphibious, and 

airborne), two mechanized divisions, and one Presidential Guard brigade. The navy’s 

headquarters is at Lagos, the western command is at Apapa (near Lagos), and the eastern 

command is at Calabar (inland along the Cross River, near the Bakasi Peninsula). In 2000 the air 

force moved its headquarters from Lagos to Abuja. 
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Major Military Equipment: The army has 150 main battle tanks (although 100 Soviet-era T–55 

tanks may not be serviceable), 100 light tanks, 250–322 reconnaissance vehicles, up to 417 

armored personnel carriers, 431 towed artillery, 27 self-propelled artillery, 25 multiple rocket 

launchers, more than 330 mortars, and unspecified numbers of antitank guided weapons, 

recoilless launchers, air defense guns, surface-to-air missiles, and surveillance vehicles. The 

navy has one principal surface combatant, eight patrol and coastal combatants, two mine warfare 

vessels, one amphibious vessel, and five support and miscellaneous vessels, but not all of these 

ships may be ready for action. Navy aviation has four helicopters of doubtful serviceability. The 

air force has 84 combat aircraft and 10 armed helicopters of doubtful serviceability. 

Military Service: The age requirement for voluntary military service is 18 years. 

Paramilitary Forces: Nigeria’s paramilitary forces, including the port security police and the 

Ministry of Internal Affairs’ security and civil defense corps, are estimated at 82,000. 

Foreign Military Forces: On December 8, 2005, the United States and Nigeria reached an 

agreement to patrol the Niger Delta jointly to prevent insurgent attacks on energy installations. 

However, implementation of the agreement has been delayed, and the Nigerians have turned to 

China, which, like the United States, is heavily invested in Nigeria’s energy industry, for security 

assistance. 

Military Forces Abroad: Nigeria has participated in United Nations (UN) operations and 

missions in Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Ivory Coast, 

Liberia, Sierra Leone, Sudan, and Western Sahara. In September 2005, Nigeria withdrew 120 

Nigerian police officers serving in the UN Congo mission because of accusations that they had 

engaged in sexual abuses. 

Police: The Nigeria Police Force, which was established in 1930 and most recently reorganized 

along more decentralized lines in 1988, now ranks as the largest police force in Africa, with 

300,000 officers, or one for every 430 citizens. The police are authorized to train 40,000 new 

officers each year until 2007. The president appoints the inspector general of police, who is 

responsible for the operational control of the force. As the ultimate police authority, the president 

may issue directives to the inspector general regarding the maintenance of public order. The 

police face the challenge of combating trans-border gang activity, human trafficking, and a wide 

variety of financial crimes, particularly the so-called 419 scam, whereby criminals persuade 

targets to advance them money in order to receive a larger payment. The police have extensive 

powers, including the power to arrest without a warrant, conduct searches and seize property, 

and detain suspects. According to a March 2006 report by the U.S. Department of State, abuses 

by the Nigerian police, including the use of lethal force against suspects, are commonplace. In 

addition, in July 2005 Human Rights Watch issued a highly critical report on police torture and 

deaths in custody in Nigeria. The report found that attempts to reform the police had been largely 

symbolic and failed to address torture adequately. 

Internal Threat: The two principal threats to domestic security are violence in the Niger Delta 

and sectarian strife between Muslims and Christians. The catalyst for violence in the Niger Delta, 

where the country’s energy sector is concentrated, is the indigenous population’s dissatisfaction 
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Nigeria, June 2006 

22

with their impoverished condition despite the wealth generated by the area’s resources and the 

environmental degradation caused by energy-related development. This disenchantment has 

spawned a militant group known as the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta 

(MEND). MEND is seeking a more equitable distribution of Nigeria’s oil wealth so that it 

benefits the local population, particularly the indigenous Ijaw tribe. In early 2006, MEND 

militias attacked oil installations and kidnapped foreign oil industry workers in an effort to press 

their demands. These actions led to a 20 percent reduction in Nigeria’s oil production. In April 

2006, MEND leaders rejected a conciliatory gambit by President Obasanjo, who promised to 

provide 20,000 new jobs and build a new highway in the delta region. 

In addition to MEND, another internal security threat is sectarian violence, which has cost the 

lives of more than 10,000 Nigerians since 1999. In the north, where Muslims predominate, 

Islamic groups have introduced sharia, or Islamic law, in 12 states, causing many Christians to 

flee. Similarly, in the south, where Christians predominate, Muslims complain about 

discrimination and treatment as second-class citizens. In early 2006, reports about derogatory 

cartoon depictions of the Prophet Muhammad in Danish newspapers led to a fresh outbreak of 

sectarian violence; more than 100 people were killed, and numerous churches and mosques were 

destroyed. According to a May 2005 report from the United States Commission on International 

Religious Freedom, Islamic extremist activities in the north are being funded by foreign sources. 

Although the report did not specify the foreign sources, it cited Libya, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan 

as funding the construction of mosques and religious schools and asserted that Nigerian clerics 

trained in Saudi Arabia had been indoctrinated to promote hatred and violence against nonMuslims. The Nigerian government is particularly concerned about an Islamist group known as 

“Hisbah” that enforces sharia in the northern state of Kano. In February 2006, the government 

alleged that Kano was training 100 militants belonging to this group in intelligence gathering and 

jihadist operations at the behest of foreign powers. 

Terrorism: The U.S. Department of State has commended Nigeria for “forging an anti-terrorism 

consensus” in sub-Saharan Africa following al Qaeda’s attacks against the United States on 

September 11, 2001. In fact, Nigeria has coordinated the United States-led Trans-Sahara 

Counterterrorism Initiative, which conducts counterterrorism exercises in the region to prevent 

extremist groups from taking root. The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta 

(MEND), which seeks to drive out foreign energy companies and force the government to share 

energy-derived wealth with its citizens, disclaims any affiliation with any external terrorist group 

such as al Qaeda. Nevertheless, it engages in acts of violence, including sabotage of energyrelated infrastructure and the kidnapping of foreign oil workers. As of October 2005, the U.S. 

Department of State did not include MEND on its official list of foreign terrorist organizations, 

so it might be more appropriate to characterize MEND as an insurgency. 

Human Rights: In its 2005 report on human rights practices around the world, the U.S. 

Department of State found that Nigeria’s human rights record was “poor.” According to the 

report, Nigerian government officials and police were responsible for “serious abuses,” including 

politically motivated killings; the use of lethal force against suspected criminals and hostageseizing militants in the Niger Delta; beatings and even torture of suspects, detainees, and 

convicts; and extortion of civilians. Other abuses included violence, discrimination, and genital 

mutilation directed against women, child labor and prostitution, and human trafficking. 
Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Nigeria, June 2006 

23

Compounding these abuses was the application of Islamic law (sharia) in 12 northern states. 

Sentences imposed under sharia included amputations, stonings, and canings, but no death 

sentences were carried out. In addition, the Department of State noted restrictions on the 

freedoms of speech, press, assembly, religion, movement, and privacy.