The Natural Inquirer

A Research and Science Education Journal

USDA FOREST SERVICE

Spring 1999, Volume 1, Number 2
Barbara McDonald

Forest Service Research

CO-EDITORS

Gabriel M. Romero Florence Fernandez

New Mexico Highlands University Miami-Dade Community College

CONTRIBUTING SCIENTISTS

J. Mike Bowker E. George Kuhlman

David Dwinell Harry R. Powers, Jr.

Stephen L. Fraedrich Paula C. Spaine

Cassandra Y. Johnson

EDITORIAL BOARD

Erin Bergstrom, Age 12 Rachel Horton, Age 11

Lora Bergstrom, Age 11 Anthony Howse, Age 11

Colin Bowker, Age 13 Jessica Mou, Age 16

Rosalina Bowker, Age 10 Stephanie Mou, Age 13

Grace Chambers, Age 9 Sam Sather-Wickster, Age 11

Allison Duncan, Age 11 Shamekia Williams, Age 11

Anthony Hense, Age 11 Leonard Williams, Age 13

Produced by:

Forest Service Research, Washington, DC

Forest Service Civil Rights, Washington, DC

Forest Service Southern Research Station, Asheville, NC

Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Athens, GA

With thanks to:

Cleveland Road Elementary School, Athens-Clarke County, GA

Hispanic Association of Colleges & Universities, Washington DC

Kristen Smith, Design and Layout

Shela Mou, USDA Forest Service, SRS 4901

Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Asheville, NC

SRS 4104 - Management & Properties of SE Species

SRS 4505 - Diseases of Southern Forests

SRS 4901 - Outdoor Recreation and Wilderness Assessment

The College of Education, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
CONTENTS

Teacher's Note......................................................................................................... 2

About The Natural Inquirer .................................................................................... 3

What are Scientists? ................................................................................................. 3

ARTICLES

The Sick Seeds ......................................................................................................... 4

Whitewater Rafting Measures Up ............................................................................ 8

Spores Galore......................................................................................................... 12

There’s a Fungus Amongs Us! ................................................................................ 15

Controlling the Rust is a Must! .............................................................................. 18

Lions and Tigers and Bears, Oh My! ...................................................................... 21

Goodbye Nematodes ............................................................................................. 25

What is the Forest Service?......................................................................... back cover

The Natural Inquirer is reproduced on recycled paper
Although students will learn about natural resources by reading these articles, one

of the main purposes of the journal is to introduce the work of scientists to middle school

science students. Our goal is to stimulate an interest in natural resource and life sciences

by presenting the research activities of a variety of scientists. In the articles, reflection

questions are placed at the end of each section. These reflection questions are oriented

toward helping the teacher conduct a class discussion about the problems, methods, and

findings associated with each research article. These questions should stimulate critical

thinking about the research. Critical thinking and discussion may be encouraged by using

small groups, although entire class discussions may also be helpful. Note that the answers

to the questions should not be considered right or wrong. They are only intended to

stimulate critical thinking.

The articles themselves, as well as the journal’s overall format, are designed to

imitate the format of a professional research journal. Prior to publication, this journal’s

articles were reviewed by the primary scientist and by a young reviewer between the ages 9

and 16. When introducing the journal, the teacher may want to bring the students’

attention to the list of youth editors. A discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of

peer review is suggested. Again, there are no right or wrong answers. The purpose of this

discussion would be to consider one of the many activities and procedures of science—In

this case using other scientists to review the completed research.

On first page of each article, we have included three additional sections. The first

section highlights an item having to do with scientific methods or concerns. The second

section presents a Discovery activity, which provides the teacher with a hands-on activity

related in some way to the article. A list of vocabulary words follow the Discovery

activity. Understanding these words will be crucial to the student’s comprehension of the

article.

This journal was created by the Urban Tree House, an education program of the

USDA Forest Service. It was produced as a summer project for college interns, sponsored

by the Forest Service and the Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities. We want

your comments and suggestions. Also, if you are interested in having your class

participate in research to understand the effectiveness of this journal, please contact

Dr. Barbara McDonald

Social Scientist, USDA Forest Service

320 Green St.

Athens, GA 30602-2044

TEACHER’S NOTE

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 2
Why? Whatifwe...

?

?

?

Scientists report their research in journals, which

are special booklets that enable scientists to share

information with one another. This journal, The

Natural Inquirer, was created so that scientists can

share their information with you and with other

middle school science students. Each article tells

you about scientific research conducted by

scientists in the USDA Forest Service. All of the

research in this journal is concerned with natural

resources, such as trees, forests, wildlife, and

outdoor activities. First, the article will tell you

about a scientific principle, technique, or special

concern of scientists. Then, YOU are the scientist

as you do the Discovery activity. The vocabulary

section will help you understand the article.

At the end of each section of the article, there are

Reflection boxes, questions to help you think

about the research. These questions are not a test!

They are intended to help you think more about

what the scientists did. Your teacher may also use

the questions in a class discussion.

The research in this journal is just a small part of

what scientists study in natural resources. Other

things that are studied are water, soils, wildlife,

and insects. Scientists also study how the various

parts of the forest interact and depend on one

another. In the Forest Service, scientists study

natural resources throughout the United States.

They try to solve problems and advance our

understanding of how to take better care of our

natural resources.

What are Scientists?

Scientists are people who collect and evaluate

information about a wide range of topics.

Scientists have some qualities that you may

have also. To be a successful natural resource

scientist, you must:

Be curious

— You must want to know something, and

be interested in learning.

Be enthusiastic

— You must be very interested in a particular

subject.

Be careful

— You must be accurate in everything you

do.

Be open-minded

— You must be willing to listen to new ideas.

Question everything

— You must think about ideas and what you

read. You must not be willing to accept what

you read without thinking about it yourself.

You must be a reflective person!

Care about the environment

— You must have interest in and respect for

the natural world. You must want to protect

the environment.

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Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 2
Vocabulary

Vocabulary in article indicated in italics

Colonize

To establish or form a colony

Fertile

Capable of producing offspring

Fungus

Organisms which contain no chlorophyll

and are parasitic

Germination

Beginning of growth; sprouting

Infestation

A large amount of parasites swarmed in

one area

Moisture content

The amount of moisture an object

contains

Organic matter

Substance which breaks down naturally

and which comes from either plants or

animals

Seed orchards

A place where trees are planted to

harvest seeds

Specimen

An individual or part considered

representative of group as a whole

Adapted from:

Fraedrich, S. W., T. Miller, and S. J.

Zarnoch. 1994. Factors affecting the

incidence of black seed rot in slash pine.

Canadian Journal of Forest Resources,

24:1717-1725

Scientists often study things using a particular research design.

That means that they plan in advance what they will do, and

they follow their plans carefully. In this study, the scientists

wanted to be able to compare the germination of seeds that

were collected at three different times and in two different

ways. Therefore, they carefully planned how and when the

seeds would be collected. When scientists carefully follow

their plans, they can have more confidence in their results.

Discovery

You are a scientist trying to discover what conditions are most

favorable for seed germination. Obtain lima beans from a

seed store. Get five clear plastic cups, five pieces of dark

blotter paper, and a bag of cotton balls. Soak the lima beans

in water overnight. Line the cups with the blotter paper and

stuff the centers with the cottonballs. Place ten lima beans in

each tumbler between the blotter paper and the plastic so that

you can see the beans throught the plastic. Moisten the

cotton balls in four of the cups, so that the blotter paper

becomes moist. Put the dry cup on a table in the classroom,

along with two other cups. Cover one of these two "wet"

cups tightly with plastic wrap. Put the fourth "wet" cup in

the dark and the fifth in a refrigerator. Make sure the blotter

paper stays moist (except for the dry cup and the plastic

covered "wet" cup) by adding water to the cotton every few

days. Observe and record the germination that occurs in each

cup. Which conditions are favorable and not favorable for

seed germination?

Introduction

Just like you and me, trees can get sick. This can happen in

many different ways. One way trees become ill is through an

infestation of insects or fungi. This is what happens to a

certain type of tree called slash pine. In this case though, it is

not the actual tree which is affected, but the seeds. When

seeds are infected with black seed rot, a type of fungus, they

become damaged. What happens is that the black seed rot

The Sick Seeds

Black Seed Rot and Slash Pines

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 4
Reflection

1 Why is it important that the scientists study black seed rot?

2 Who will benefit from the results of this study?

does exactly what the name says--it rots the

seeds and gives them black spots! Sometimes

they are damaged so badly that the seeds will

never be able to

grow into a tree.

The reason this

happens is that the

rot affects the

seed's ability to

germinate. This is

especially bad news

to seed orchards

where they grow

trees specifically for

selling the seeds.

For people who

manage seed

orchards, losing

seeds to black seed

rot means losing

money. And for us, that means fewer trees.

Three scientists, S.W. Fraedrich, T. Miller, and

S.J. Zarnoch, decided to investigate why black

seed rot occurs and what its effects are. This is

what they did and what they found out....

Methods

First, the scientists traveled to a slash pine

seed orchard in Florida. They then began

to collect cones, which contain the pine

seeds, for their experiment. Three cones

were taken directly from the tree and put

into storage bags. Three more cones were

hand-picked off the trees and dropped to

the ground. Three days later, these cones

were gathered off the ground and put into

bags. The scientists repeated this

procedure at three different times of the

month.

After the scientists collected all the

cones, they stored them as normally done

by seed orchard managers. After storage,

the scientists opened the cones and took

out the seeds.

Three tests were performed on the

seeds:

Fungus test

First, the seeds were examined for any

fungus specimens. The fungus test would

show the scientists exactly which seeds

were diseased.

Moisture test

Cones were weighed and tested for

moisture content. Because unopened (or

younger) cones have more moisture, they

are heavier. This test determined the

cone's maturity.

Germination test

The purpose of this test was to find out

what percentage of the seeds would

germinate.

A loblolly pine seed orchard.

Cones in

storage at a

seed orchard

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 5
Results

After the seeds went through all the tests,

the scientists studied the information they

obtained. The scientists concluded that the

cones that were picked later were the

healthiest. If the cones are removed from

the tree too early, and they have contact

with the ground, the seeds have a greater

chance of becomming sick. This is because

more fungus can get on them when this

happens. Collecting cones later greatly

decreases the chances that the seeds will get

sick. They found that the cones that were

collected later have less moisture in them

than those collected earlier, and, therefore,

are less likely to have fungi develop in them.

The scientists believe that the reasons

fungi were growing on the seeds include:

1.Organic matter on the ground, such as

twigs and fallen branches, help fungi

colonize cones. Because fungus already

existed on the organic matter on the ground,

the cones that had fallen may have been an

easy target.

2. Picking the cones off the trees sometimes

Reflection

1 When do you think would be the best time to

harvest the seeds?

2 If you were a scientist doing this experiment, what

would you tell the seed orchard owners to do to

increase the amount of healthy seeds?

made little wounds on the surface of the

cones. Some of these wounds were caused as

the cones were falling from the tree. On their

way down, most cones bump against branches.

When they hit the ground they almost always

become damaged. These openings can

become infected with fungi.

3. Fungus needs a moist environment to grow.

At the beginning of the harvest season the

cones have more moisture than at the end.

Further Discovery

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5

10

15

20

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Ground contact–storage

No ground contact–storage

No ground contact–no storage

Fungus–damaged seeds/cone (%)

31

August

14

September

26

September

Dates of cone collections

Fig. 1 Can you tell which month was more favorable for germinations?

What kind of effects did ground contact or storage have?

In the activity that you did at the beginning of

this article, you carried out an experiment by

following plans. You tested seed germination:

1) at room temperature with no water, 2) at

room temperature with no air and with

moisture, 3) at room temperature with no light

and with moisture, 4) at a cold temperature

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 6
Reflection

1 Why do you think the scientists picked cones at different times and under different conditions?

2 Which cones do you think had the most fungus? Why?

with moisture, and 5) at room temperature with light, with air, and with moisture. Because you

followed these plans, you can report, with some confidence, which conditions are more and less

favorable for lima bean seed germination. When you report your findings, do you think you

should explain how you did your experiment? Why or why not?

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 7
VOCABULARY

Vocabulary in article indicated in italics

Consumer surplus

The extra price people are willing to

pay for something, above its actual

cost

Guided rafting trip

A whitewater rafting trip that is led by

a professional guide

Monetary value

How much money something is worth

Non-commodity value

A monetary value (see above) placed

on something, although it is something that cannot be bought or sold

Quantify

To measure something and assign a

number to it

The scientists in this study wanted to quantify the value of

people’s vacations. For most scientists, numbers are necessary

to evaluate and compare the results of their research. For

some things, discovering the correct number is easy. For

example, it is easy to measure how tall a tree is, or how many

insects you find in a particular area. For social scientists,

measuring things like people’s attitudes or values is much

harder. In this study, you will learn how the scientists put

numbers on the value of a whitewater rafting trip.

Whitewater Rafting Measures Up!

The Value of Guided Rafting on Southern

Rivers

Adapted from:

Bowker, Mike J., D. B. K. English,

J. A. Donovan. 1996. Toward a value

forguided rafting on southern rivers.

Journal of Agricultural and Applied

Economics, 28:423-432.

Discovery

Bring a special toy, stuffed animal, or book to school. Share

it with your classmates. Pretend that you are auctioning it

off. Ask for prices until you reach the highest bidder. Is the

price higher or lower than what you think it is worth? Why

do you think that the value is higher or lower than you

think it is worth?

Introduction

People have many different kinds of values. They might

value their family, home, and country, as well as their

favorite t-shirt or place to play. Almost everything has some

kind of value, from an old teddy bear to your parents’ car.

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 8
Some values are easy to quantify, such as the

value of a new car. This is because the car can

be bought or sold for a price. Other values,

such as the value of your old teddy bear, cannot

be easily quantified. That is because you

probably would not sell your teddy bear, and no

one else might not want to buy it anyway.

Nevertheless, that teddy bear has a value, which

would be called its non-commodity value.

Many kinds of activities are done outside,

such as hiking, birdwatching, and canoeing.

You may not pay to do these activities, but they

still have a value to you. If forest managers

have to decide between two options, they want

to know how much people value the two

options, even if one of the options has a

non-commodity value. For example, if a river is

dammed for electric power, the electricity has

value to some people. However, the river can

then no longer be used for canoeing and

rafting, which also has a value to some people.

Economists are social scientists who try to

identify the monetary value of

non-commodity resources, as well as

commodity resources. For example, they

try to compare the value of things that are

not bought and sold, but are nevertheless

important to people. Economists call the

value of something, especially the value

that people are willing to pay for something

over its actual cost, consumer surplus. They

try to estimate consumer surplus so that

decisions can be made according to the best

understanding of what people value.

Scientists Mike Bowker, D. B. K.

English, and J. A. Donovan, wanted to

understand the value of whitewater rafting.

They felt that if they could identify a

consumer surplus value for whitewater

rafting, decision-makers could make better

decisions in the future about how to

manage free flowing rivers.

Reflection

1 Why do you think it is important (or not important) to understand non-commodity and consumer surplus values?

2 What are things that have a non-commodity value in your life?

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page9
Methods

Dr. Bowker and his colleagues studied

people who rafted on two rivers, the

Chattooga River in Georgia, and the

Nantahala river in North Carolina. They

created a questionnaire, and mailed it to

people who had taken a guided rafting trip

on either of the two rivers. The scientists

asked people how far they traveled to get to

the river, how much money they spent to

go rafting, and how often they went rafting.

They also asked people what their income

was. They calculated the value of the

rafting trip by adding up actual costs and

estimating other costs and values. For

example, they multiplied the number of

miles each person said they traveled by

$.09, and added that to the actual cost of

going rafting. Economists believe that

people’s time is worth something, so the

scientists added an estimate for the amount

of time spent traveling and rafting. This

estimate was based on the amount of their

income, or how much they are paid to

work. Because economists do not agree on

how best to estimate the value of a person’s

time, Dr. Bowker and his colleagues used a

range of values. They, therefore, ended up

with a range of values for guided rafting on

the two rivers.

Reflection

1 Think about taking a day trip with your family to go

boating on a nearby lake. Would you be willing to

give up playing with your friends to do that?

2 Now think about taking a day trip with your mom or

dad so they can visit the dentist. Would you want to

give up playing with your friends to do that? What

is the difference between the two day trips?

3 Do you think that using a person’s income is a good

way to estimate the value of his/her time? Why or

why not?

Think about your favorite thing in the world, for

example, a toy or a book. How much do you value it? Would you

sell it if given the chance? Chances are if you did sell it, it would

be for a lot more than the original price. This is because the object

is special to you. Perhaps other people wouldn’t place the same

price on it, because it probably has a different meaning to them.

As you can see, placing a price on things can get tricky.

Whatwouldyoudo?

Not for

Show me

Sale!

the money!

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 10
Results

Dr. Bowker and his colleagues found that guided rafting on the Chattooga River had a consumer

surplus of between $119 and $286, depending on how the value of people’s time was computed.

They found that the Nantahala River’s consumer surplus value was between $89 and $191. Why

do you think the Chattooga River’s rafting value was higher? The scientists believe it is because

the rapids on the Chattooga River are more exciting to raft than the Nantahala River, and

people are willing to pay more for the experience. With information like this, decision-makers

can better compare the value of different management options on free flowing rivers. Then,

when they make decisions, even experiences that cannot be bought or sold can be considered.

Reflection

1 Has your mother or father ever told you that you could not go outside to play until a household chore or your

homework was done? In what way is your mother or father putting a value on your after-school time?

2 Do you think you could put a monetary value on your afterschool free time? Why or why not?

$

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page11
The scientists in this study conducted basic research to

understand the reproduction of spores. Basic research is

research that is not aimed at solving a particular problem.

Instead, the scientist designs a study that advances

knowledge in a particular area of interest, with the hope that

the information can be useful to other scientists in the

future.

Discovery

This paper is about fungi. You might be wondering what

fungi are. The following paper will describe fungi, but first

let’s see what a fungus looks like. Bring a fresh, watery fruit

such as grapes or strawberries and a plastic bag from home.

Put the fruit in the bag with a few drops of water and place

in a warm area. Observe the fruit every day, and notice the

changes that occur as mold begins to form. Why do you

think the mold appeared?

Spores Galore!

A Look into the World of Fungi & How they

Reproduce

VOCABULARY

Vocabulary in article indicated in italics

Asexual reproduction

Act of reproducing without a mate

Agar (aw' gur)

Jelly-like substance made from

seaweed; used as a thickener in foods

Basidiospores

(bah sid' ee oh spors)Spores associated with spreading plant disease

Chlorophyll (klor' oh fil)

substance which helps produce food

(carbohydrates) for plants; this is what

gives plants their green color

Direct germination

To germinate (sprout) under favorable

conditions

Dormant

An inactive, yet live state

Exudation (ex oo day' shun)

The process of the oozing out of

matter

Germination (jer min ay' shun)

To sprout; development

Hydrate

To combine with water

Spores

Microscopic bodies which alter

germination and develop into fungi

Adapted from:

Spaine, Paula C., and S. Kaneko. 1993.

Spore exudates and other factors affecting

germination type of Cronartium quercuum

f. sp.fusiform basidiospores. Mycologia.

85:51-61.

The spore is

forming a

seconday case

where it will

remain for a

certain period of

time to ensure

that the spore

germinates when

the environment

is most

favorable.

Introduction

Fungi are very distinct among the plant and animal

kingdoms. They are neither plant nor animal. Since they

do not contain chlorophyll, they cannot be considered plants.

And because they lack certain animal characteristics, like

mobility, they cannot be considered a part of the animal

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 12
The spores contain fats and carbohydrates

that nourish them while they are dormant.

If the environment becomes favorable in a

short period of time, the spore can begin

germination again.

Studies have shown that the primary

reason for this dormant state is that in this

way a spore can continue to live while

waiting until the time is right to germinate.

You might be asking yourself how the spore

“knows” when to directly germinate and

when to go dormant. That is a very good

question. In fact, it is a question that

scientists Paula Spaine and S. Kaneko asked

themselves. This question, in turn, led to a

research study on germination factors that

affect spores.

kingdom. Because fungi are immobile, they

cannot hunt or gather food. Therefore, in

order for a fungus to survive, it must feed off a

host.

Not only are their eating habits different,

but they reproduce in a very strange and

fascinating way. As you may already know,

there are many types of fungi. While some can

reproduce sexually, they are all asexual

reproducers. In other words, they do not need

a partner to produce offspring. Asexual

reproduction is carried out by cell division.

Fungi do this by forming spores, a microscopic

body which is somewhat like an egg because it

contains DNA and nutrients. However, they

are unlike eggs because they do not need to be

fertilized by sperm. What is inside the spore’s

protective wall is all it needs to become a

fungus!

How many spores do you think a fungus

can produce? The answer is millions! When

the environment is favorable, the fungus

releases its spores. Since spores need a lot of

moisture, the most favorable environment

would be one that is humid or rainy. After the

spores are released they are carried either by

wind or rain. When they land they do

something very curious. You see, the spores can

only germinate under certain conditions.

These conditions are: plenty of water,

humidity, and food in the environment. Also,

the surface onto which they land has to be just

right in order for the spore to continue its

germination process. So, the spores “sense” the

environment and “make a decision” as to

whether or not they should continue to

germinate. If they “decide” it is favorable, they

begin cell division. This is called direct

germination.

If the spores do not find the conditions

favorable, they stop the germination process.

They do this by going into a dormant state.

They are considered dormant because the spores

do not need to obtain nutrients externally.

Reflection

1 Some animals, such as bears, are also able to

live in a dormant state. This dormant state is

called:

2 Why do you think the spores might “decide” to

go dormant?

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page13
Methods

The spores were put in different conditions

to see which conditions are most favorable

for germination. The experiment

conducted involved the following tests:

Agar Concentration

This test used agar, a jelly-like substance

made from seaweed, to simulate leaf

hardness. In other words, Drs. Spaine and

Kaneko wanted to find out what level of

leaf hardness is more favorable for spore

germination.

Agar pH

This test determined which pH level, or

acidity level, is ideal for both direct and

indirect germination. Drs. Spaine and

Kaneko used agar with different

concentrations of acidity to see which

concentration is most favorable for

germination.

Washing Time

In this test, spores were washed with water

for different amounts of time. The purpose

of this test was to find how much washing

had to occur before the spores lost their

ability to germinate after being dormant.

Results

Agar hardness did not affect the spores

significantly. As for pH level, Drs. Spaine

and Kaneko found that higher acidity

produced higher direct germination rates.

The washing time test concluded that all

washing treatments resulted in more direct

germination. Almost all (99%) of the spores

that had been washed germinated directly.

But, only 4-11% of unwashed spores

germinated directly.

Further Discovery

For fun: Imagine you are a spore... After

being released from a fungus you are swept

away by the wind. It carries you about a mile

away. You land on a dead leaf. This leaf

hardly has any moisture in it. The air around

you is dry and cold. What will you do?

Reflection

1 On the basis of the three tests, which factor is least

important for spore reproduction?

2 What do you think is the most important factor?

Why?

Youarehere

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 14
Sometimes a study is done that completely changes how

scientists study or understand a problem. This is called

seminal research. That is what happened with this research.

Prior to this research, scientists looked for the causes of tree

disease. This research was different—it looked at how some

trees are naturally resistant to disease. Following this

research, other scientists began looking at how to encourage

the growth of trees that are resistant to disease, rather than at

the cause of the disease

Discovery

Your job is to gather spores that cause tree disease. First

gather 2-3 red oak leaves and put them aside. Then, find a

tree with a gall, which is a swelling in the trunk or limb. Lay

a piece of newspaper under the gall. Brush the gall with a

broom. Although you will not see them, spores from the gall

will fall onto the paper. The spores are so small that you

cannot see them without a microscope. Carefully brush the

spores into a plastic bottle (pick one that has a large lid). Put

some talc in with the spores, and shake the bottle up to mix

the talc and the spores. Dust the underside of the red oak

leaves. Keep the leaves moist for 24 hours by wrapping them

in moist paper towels. Removed the moist paper towels in 24

hours. Within two weeks, the Fusiform Rust Disease will

appear as spots on the red oak leaves

There’s a Fungus Among Us!

Developing Fusiform Rust-Resistant Loblolly

& Slash Pines

VOCABULARY

Vocabulary in article indicated in italics

Basidiospore(bah sid e o spor)

A spore responsible for causing

Fusiform Rust Disease by infecting

pines

Fungus

Organism which contains no chlorophyll

and is parasitic

Galls

A swelling of plant tissue caused by

fungi, parasites, or insects

Genes

Small sections of DNA containing

hereditary information

Susceptible

Can easily be affected by a disease

Inoculation

The introduction of a harmful disease

agent into a host

Mortality

Death of an organism or organisms

Orchards

Places where many tree selections are

planted for the harvesting of their seeds

Resistance

Able to withstand the infections by a

disease agent

Seedlings

Small, young trees

Adapted from:

Powers, H.R., Jr., and J. F. Kraus. 1983.

Developing fusiform rust-resistant loblolly

and slash pines. Plant Disease. 67:187-189. A fusiform rust gall on a branch.

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 15
Introduction

We need trees for many important

activities. Trees reduce soil erosion, reduce

noise, lower temperatures, and provide

habitat for animals. Trees also provide

wood and paper products, such as lumber,

furniture, writing paper, and baseball bats.

Trees may be found in orchards and in

natural forests. Natural forests contain

trees that grow naturally while orchards

contain trees that are raised and cared for

by humans.

Trees get diseases just like humans do.

That is why scientists Harry R. Powers and

J. F. Kraus study trees. They hope to

prevent diseases to maintain a healthy

supply of trees. One of these diseases is

Reflection

1 What problem are the scientists trying to solve?

2 Why do you think that resistance is the most practical means of controlling the disease?

Fusiform (fusé a form)Rust Disease. This

disease is considered one of the most deadly

diseases of forest trees and affects loblolly and

slash pines throughout the southeastern

United States.

This disease is caused by a fungus that

forms galls, which are growths on the stems of

trees. These growths cause early mortality in

the tree and an increase in the chances of

storm breakage. That is, the tree becomes so

weak that it may break in half when severe

winds or storms occur. Stem galls can also

cause seedlings, or small trees, to die at a very

early age. Resistance, the ability to avoid the

disease, is the most practical means of

controlling the disease.

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 16
Methods

The procedure Drs. Powers and

Kraus used involved inoculation,

or spraying trees with

basidiospore spray, to determine

if the trees were resistant to the

disease. Basidiospore spray is an

agent that contains basidiospores,

or the spores responsible for

spreading Fusiform Rust

Disease to pine trees. The

scientist sprayed seedlings from

trees that had never showed

symptoms of developing the

disease. They inoculated the

seedlings and picked out those

that survived the spray. These

trees were then planted in 60-acre orchards where seeds were to be produced. Trees showing

symptoms of the disease were removed from the orchard.

The basidiospore spray is used to determine if trees are resistant to Fusiform Rust disease.

Trees that are resistant will not get the disease. Some trees are more susceptible to the disease

than others, and those trees will get the disease after being sprayed with basidiospores.

Transfer of Fusiform Rust Disease

Fig. 1

Illustration of how

fusiform rust disease is spread

to pine seedlings. Red oak trees

must be present for the cycle of

the disease to continue.

Fusiform rust hazard for loblobby pine

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 17
Reflection

1 Why do you think the scientists chose to inoculate

seedlings from suspected healthy trees?

2 Why do you think we need to plant disease resistant

seedlings?

Reflection

1 Why should trees showing symptoms of developing the disease be removed from an orchard?

2 Do you think trees in an orchard are more susceptible to Fusiform Rust Disease than trees in a natural forest? Why

or why not?

Results

As a result of Dr. Powers’ and Dr. Kraus’

research, there has been a great increase in

the number of healthy seedlings raised in

nurseries and orchards. Since beginning this

project, millions of healthy tree seedlings

have been produced. The seeds which

produced these seedlings were harvested in

an 85-acre orchard which is now estimated

to produce at least 12 million seedlings per

year. Any trees showing symptoms of

developing the disease are removed form the

orchard to eliminate any susceptible trees.

Most trees are then sold to small forest

landowners who have never before had trees

that are resistant to Fusiform Rust Disease.

The results from this research have led to

other studies. Some studies involve finding

the genes responsible for resisting the disease.

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 18
Some scientists conduct longitudinal (lon' ja tude in ul)

research. This is research that occurs over a long period

of time. Some research may even take years to complete.

The scientists in this study were interested in breeding

trees that are resistant to disease. In order to understand

how successful the research is, the scientist will have to do

this study with successive generations of trees.

Discovery

In this experiment, you will purposely germinate pollen

from a flower. Fill 3 cups with boiling water (BE

CAREFUL!!). Add 1 teaspoon of sugar to the first cup, 2

teaspoons of sugar to the second cup, and 3 teaspoons to

the third cup. Mix well to dissolve the sugar. Now pour

a small amount from each solution into three seperate

saucers. With the help of your teacher, shake the pollen

from different kinds of flowers onto the surfaces of the

sugar solutions. Pollen comes from the stamens, which

grow in a ring around the flower's center. Cover each

saucer with a piece of glass and let them stand at room

temperature for at least three hours. Examine the pollen

grains with a magnifying glass (or on a microscope slide)

to see whether tubes are growing from them. Which

sugar solution produced the most germination?

Introduction

Fusiform Rust Disease is a disease that affects trees.

Research on Fusiform Rust Disease has progressed over

the years. Technology has become more advanced and

many new studies are used to find out more about the

disease. There is no treatment for infected trees, but a

huge step is being taken to find out what makes a tree

resistant to the disease. Scientists George E. Kuhlman,

H. V. Amerson, and W. D. Pepper, have studied the

disease for a very long time. They have not found a cure

for the disease, but are working on finding the secret to

resistance.

Controlling the Rust is a Must!

Detection of a Major Gene for

Rust Resistance to Fusiform Rust Disease

VOCABULARY

Vocabulary marked in article in italics

Genes

Small sections of DNA which contain

hereditary information

Genetic Code

Specific genes that are the same for

forms of life

Offspring

The product or result of something or

someone; like a child

Pathogen (path’ oh jen)

An organism or other agent that causes

disease

Pollen

Particles containing genetic material for

reproduction of plants

Resistance

Able to withstand an effect

Spores

Microscopic bodies which alter germination and develop into fungi

Susceptible

Can easily be affected by something,

such as disease

Technology

Mechanical improvements intended to

aid human activities

Adapted from:

Kuhlman, George E., H. V. Amerson,

and W. D. Pepper. 1997. Inoculum

densityand expression of major genes

resistant to fusiform rust disease in loblolly

pines. Plant Disease, 81:1-4.

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page19
Methods

Dr. Kuhlman and his colleagues used the

offspring from loblolly pine trees to conduct

their experiment. Some of the trees that they

used were resistant to the disease as far back as

three generations. The resistant loblolly pines

were then bred with other pine trees that were

susceptible to Fusiform Rust Disease. The

susceptibility passes on to other trees through

pollen, which contains genetic material that is

passed on the seeds which eventually sprout

into seedlings.

Pollen is usually transported to the other

trees by wind, rain, or by simply falling off one

tree to another. Dr. Kuhlman purposely

cross-bred the trees to determine which genes

played a major factor in the resistance of

Fusiform Rust Disease. When humans control

plant pollination, it is called selective breeding.

Scientists use selective breeding in plants to

grow larger tomatoes or sweeter watermelons,

for example.

Dr. Kuhlman was able to look at the DNA

of loblolly pine trees by removing it from

seedlings that had just sprouted. DNA is

responsible for carrying the genes which are

inherited from parents. Dr. Kuhlman looked at

the genetic codes in the cells taken out of the

trees. The codes show whether the tree is

resistant or not. This complicated research is

done with the use of advanced technology.

A fusiform rust gall on a branch.

Reflection

1 What are the scientists trying to accomplish with

their research?

2 What other types of genetic information do you

think trees can inherit? What other types of genes

do you think you inherit?

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 20
Reflection

1 Why do you think the scientist tried breeding healthy

trees with sick trees?

2 Why do you think the scientist is studying the genes

rather than the symptoms of the disease?

Results

Dr. Kuhlman and his colleagues came up

with some interesting results. They found

that half of the tree’s offspring were resistant

to the disease. Dr. Kuhlman found that trees

are resistant to the disease primarily because

of one gene, even though other genes

contributed to resistance. Dr. Kuhlman and

other scientists had previously believed that

resistance to the disease was caused by an

equal combination of genes.

The scientists concluded that purposely

breeding trees with a particular mixture of

genes, and especially those with the primary

gene, could produce healthier trees.

Reflection

1 Can you think of other ways that purposeful or selective breeding is used by scientists? What are selective breeding’s

advantages? It’s disadvantages?

2 Do you think trees in natural forests have the same problems as trees in orchards? Why or why not?

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 21
Lions and Tigers and Bears – Oh My!

Understanding Wildland Visitation

VOCABULARY

Vocabulary in article indicated in italics

Demographic

Physical characteristics of people, such

as their age, sex, or race

Hypothesis (hi poth' eh sis)

An educated guess about the solution

to a question or problem based on

existing knowledge

Meaning

In this study, different meanings of

wildlands are predicted by the

attitudes people have toward those

wildlands

Outdoor recreation

Activities done outdoors for fun and

enjoyment

Quantify

To measure something and assign a

number to it

Rural

Outside of the city

Scale

A special kind of questionnaire that

social scientists use to understand

people’s opinions or attitudes

Wildland

Forested or other natural environment

that does not contain buildings or

other human construction

Adapted from:

Johnson, Cassandra Y., P. M. Horn and W.

D. Pepper. 1997. Race, rural residence, and

wildland visitation: Examining the influence

of sociocultural meaning. Journal of Rural

Sociology. 62:89-107.

The scientists in this study conducted basic research to better

understand why some people do not visit some natural areas,

such as national forests and parks. Basic research is not always

aimed at solving a particular problem, but serves to advance

knowledge in a particular area of interest. In this study,

however, the findings could be used by forest and park

managers to improve the opportunities for all people to visit

forests and parks.

Introduction

National forests, parks, and other wildland areas are provided

by state and federal governments for the use and enjoyment of

all Americans. Not all people, however, use these areas for

outdoor recreation. Outdoor recreation enables people to see

and enjoy the great outdoors. Therefore, it is important that

all Americans have an opportunity to visit wildlands if they

want. When people do not visit wildlands and other outdoor

areas, forest and park managers want to know why. In this

research, social scientists Cassandra Johnson, Pat Horn, and

William Pepper wanted to compare visitation to wildland

areas for rural African Americans and White Americans.

The scientists had a hypothesis that wildland visitation is

related to the meaning that wildlands have for different people.

In the past, scientists discovered that their race, age, gender,

and other characteristics might explain why some people do

not visit wildlands. The scientists wanted to test the hypothesis

that a person’s race, age, or gender are not the only factors

involved with wildland visitation. They hypothesized

(guessed) that the meaning of wildland areas plays a large part

in whether a person will want to visit wildland areas for

outdoor recreation.

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 22
Methods

The scientists mailed a questionnaire to people

living in a rural area. People who received the

questionnaire were asked to give their age, sex,

and other demographic characteristics. But they

also used a special kind of a questionnaire to

collect information on wildland meaning. This

kind of questionnaire is called a scale. The

scientists’ scale consisted of many statements

about wildlands, and people were asked how

much they agreed or disagreed with each

statement. If a person did not agree with the

statement at all, the scientist gave that

statement a score of one for that person. If

they agreed completely with the statement, the

scientist gave them a score of five. In this way,

the scientists were able to quantify the

responses. For example, the scientists might

have asked people if they thought wildland

areas were safe places to visit. If the person did

not think wildland areas were safe to visit, they

would get a score of one for that statement.

The scientists also asked people whether they

visited wildland areas. They compiled answers

from 124 African Americans and 303 White

Americans living in the rural Florida

panhandle. The Apalachicola National Forest

is located within this area.

Reflection

1 How do you feel when you think of your favorite

outdoor place?

2 What does your favorite place mean to you?

3 Do you think that your favorite outdoor place would

be different if you were a member of the opposite

sex? Why or why not?

4 Would your favorite outdoor place be different if you

grew up in a country other than the United States?

Why or why not?

Dothediscoveryactivityonpage24!

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 23
Results

Ms. Johnson and her colleagues found that

rural African Americans visited wildlands

less than rural White Americans. They also

found that when people’s attitudes toward

wildlands were less favorable, they visited

less--regardless of their race.

The scientists also found that older

people and women visited wildlands less

than younger people and men--regardless of

their race. They concluded that

demographic characteristics such as race, age,

and sex helped them to understand some

things about wildland visitation (see Fig. 1).

Based on the results of the scale,

however, the scientists now believe that a

person’s attitude toward wildlands may be

one of the most important things

determining whether he or she visits a

wildland. In particular, Ms. Johnson thinks

that when a person feels that wildlands are

not safe places for them to go, they are not

likely to visit.

This research is important because it

helps managers to understand that

visitation may be more related to the

meanings outdoor places have for a person,

rather than to the person's race, age, or sex.

With this information, forest and park

managers may be able to take actions that

would welcome more people to wildlands.

This way more people can enjoy wildland

outdoor recreation.

Factors Affecting Wildland Meaning

Reflection

1 What do you think the advantages are to assigning numbers to people’s responses? What are the

disadvantages?

2 What do you think the scientists found out about

wildland visitation and a person’s age, race, and

gender?

3 Do you think wildland meaning was more

important than age, reace, and gender for people

who did not visit wildlands?

Fig. 1

This model illustrates how race, gender and

age contribute to the overall meaning of wildlands.

Wildland meaning, then, has an effect on visitation.

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 24
Discovery

Respond to the following statements by circling the number on the right that corresponds to how

much you agree with the statement:

Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly

Disagree A Little Bit A Little Bit Agree

1. Wildland areas are dangerous because

 of animals. 1234

2. Six Flags over Georgia is safer

 than most wildland areas. 1234

3. I have an outdoor hang-out where I feel safe. 1234

4. I like going to parks and outdoor areas where I

 can only see trees and other vegetation around me. 1234

Reflection

1 If you were a forest manager, what would you do to encourage more people to visit your forest?

2 How might your actions have been different before you read this research?

2 What other ways could a scientist discover people’s attitudes and the meanings they have toward wetlands?

You have just completed a scale, assessing your attitudes towards safety in wildland areas. To get

your total score, you will need to reverse the numbers in statements 3 and 4. For statements 3

and 4, take your pen and cross out the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4. Write 4, 3, 2, and 1 in their place

(1 becomes 4, 2 becomes 3, and so on). Add all of the numbers that you circled for all four

statements (substituting the new numbers for statements 3 and 4). If your score is between 1

and 8, move to one side of the room. If your score is between 9 and 16, move to the opposite

side of the room. With the help of your teacher, hold a class discussion about how each group

feels about being in wildlands. What is the difference?

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 25
Goodbye Nematodes

Heat-Treating Southern Pine Lumber

VOCABULARY

Vocabulary in article indicated in italics

Bolts

Short, round sections of logs

Conifers

Evergreen trees containing pine needles

or true cones

Infestation

Large amount of parasites swarming an

area

Kilns

Oven used for burning, firing, or drying

substances

Lumber

Boards sawed from logs

Moisture content

The amount of moisture an object

contains

Nematodes

Parasitic, microscopic eel worms

Sapwood

The soft wood beneath the bark of a tree

Stem

The main trunk of a tree

Some scientists are interested in solving problems that involve

international policy. When the United States tries to sell, or

export, goods abroad, we must respect the policies, or

regulations, of the other countries. In some cases, the policies

of other countries can make exporting goods very difficult or

expensive. The scientist in this study wanted to show people

who export lumber how to prevent the spread of destructive

organisms that live in the lumber. He wanted other countries

to feel comfortable about using lumber from the United States

so that their policies would not cause lumber exporters to

spend too much money unnecessarily. Therefore, he studied

ways to kill the organisms using the least amount of time and

money.

Adapted from:

Dwinell, David L. 1990. “Heat-treating

and drying southern pine lumber infested

with pinewood nematodes.” Journal of

Forest Products. 40:53-56.

Here’s the head of a pinewood nematode, magnified

13,000 times. This worm is actually so small, it can

only be seen through an electron microscope.

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 26
Introduction

Lumber is an important product produced

from trees. The production of quality lumber

is very important, especially when two

countries are involved in exporting goods to

one another. The European Union acquires

lumber from the United States. They are now

making it mandatory that the United States

put the lumber into kilns, which are ovens.

This kills any organisms that may damage the

lumber and spread diseases to the European

forests. Lumber mills are now responsible for

using kilns due to the regulations, or policies,

of other countries. Dave Dwinell is a scientist

who studies harmful organisms on lumber.

His studies include ways of treating the lumber

after it has been infested with organisms such

as the pinewood nematode, which is a small

Reflection

1 What problem is the scientist trying to solve?

2 Why is this problem important to people who export lumber?

microscopic worm, to assure that the

European Union receives healthy wood.

The pinewood nematode may cause

weaknesses in many different types of

coniferous trees. The nematodes rarely affect

living trees, but are usually found in wood

chips or in trees that have recently been cut

down. For this reason, Dr. Dwinell has

begun studying heat-treating techniques to

kill the pinewood nematodes in the lumber.

He wants to find out if high temperatures

will kill the nematodes without having a

major effect on the moisture content of the

wood. This is very important due to the fact

that if lumber dries out, it may split and

become unusable.

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 27
Reflection

1 Why do you think the scientist also studied pines

from natural infestations?

2 What do you think will happen to the namatodes on

the lumber placed inside of the kiln?

3 What do you think will happen to the nematodes in

the air-drying process?

Methods

To determine if heat-treating techniques

could be used to kill pinewood

nematodes, two 12-year old slash pines

were cut down at the Baldwin State

Forest near Milledgeville, Georgia.

The stems, or the main trunks of the

trees, were cut into 5-foot-long bolts, or

sections, and stacked up. To make sure

that the bolts were infested with

nematodes, 0.5 inch holes were drilled on

one side of each of the sections, and

nematodes were placed in each of the

holes. The bolts were cut into lumber

three weeks later at a sawmill. In

addition to the slash pines, three 16-foot

loblolly pines and two other slash pines

collected from a previous natural

infestation were also sawed into lumber.

The boards were weighed so that the

amount of moisture lost in the kilns

could be monitored at the end of the

heat-treating procedures. Because wood

is heavier when it has a lot of moisture,

the loss of moisture can be determined

by subtracting the weight recorded after

heat-treating.

Many tests were conducted to

determine which temperatures would be

most effective for killing nematodes and

protecting the lumber as well. Heat

sensor probes were inserted into the

boards. These were placed in the kilns to

determine how much time it would take

for the temperature inside of the wood to

reach 60 ̊ C, 71 ̊ C, and 97.6 ̊ C. Other

boards were allowed to air-dry in

buildings so that a different drying

method could also be evaluated.

Results

The scientist found that all procedures

used were effective in killing the

nematodes. The boards placed in a kiln for 24

hours at a temperature of 97.6 ̊ C contained no

nematodes. The moisture content of the wood

did drop, however. Before drying, the wood

contained 25 percent moisture. After drying,

the wood contained 7 to 9 percent moisture.

This means that 64 percent of the moisture was

lost (Fig.1).

The pine lumber that was dried in the kiln at

71 ̊ C was also free of nematodes. Moisture

content dropped slightly from 34.3 percent to

30.3 percent. This meant that the wood only

lost 12 percent of the moisture.

Dr. Dwinell found that it took one hour to

kill nematodes at a temperature of 60 ̊ C. He

tried lower temperatures, but they were not as

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 28
Discovery

Divide into teams of four. Each team selects

one tree at the school. You will perform a

similar experiment to Dr. Dwinnell’s heat

treatment experiment. Carefully break off two

twigs from your tree. Make sure that they are

approximately the same size. One will be the

experimental twig and the other will be the

control. Study the twigs carefully and record

your observations carefully on a seperate sheet.

Weigh each twig and record the weight, time

and air temperature. Set the control twig

aside. Place the experimental twig in a

microwave for three and a half minutes.

(That's the time it takes one cup of water to

Moisture Content Losses

(Percent moisture lost)

Fig. 1 Notice that moisture content decreases at

higher temperatures. Therefore, 60 ̊ C is

the ideal temperature to use

 60 ̊ C 71 ̊ C 97.6 ̊ C

20%

Temperature in Degrees Centigrade

0%

30%

40%

50%

70%

60%

64%

1%

12%

10%

effective. He determined that treatment at 60 ̊

C was most effective because the nematodes were

destroyed quickly and very little moisture was

lost from the lumber. Dr. Dwinell also found

that moisture loss was responsible for killing the

nematodes in the air-drying process. The

problem with this method was that it took the

nematodes two months to die.

boil in a microwave). Record the

temperature (212 degrees F) and the time

(3 1/2 minutes). CAREFULLY remove the

twig and allow to cool. Record the weight

of your twig. Does it weigh less than it did

before? If so, why do you think that is?

Compare to the control twig.

Wait several more days. Record the air

temperature and the time, and measure

the control twig. Does it weigh less than it

did before? If so, why do you think that is?

If not, why not? Does it weigh less than it

did the second day? If so, why do you

think that is? If not, why not? Compare it

to the experimental twig.

Reflection

1 What factors determined the death of nematodes

in the heat-treating procedures?

2 Both heat-treating and air-drying were effective in

controlling pinewood nematodes. What are the

advantages and disadvantages of each method?

3 What method of pinewood nematode control

would you recommend? Why?

Natural Inquirer P Spring 1999 P Vol. 1, Number 2, P page 29
The Forest Service is part of the federal government.

It is made up of thousands of people who care for

the nation’s forest land. The Forest Service manages over

150 National Forests and almost 20 National Grasslands.

National Forests are similar in some ways to National Parks,

except that unlike National Parks, National Forests are used

for many purposes. These purposes include providing clean

water, places for wildlife and fish, places for people to hike,

camp, and do other outdoor activities, healthy soil, trees for

lumber, minerals, and many other uses. Some people in the

Forest Service are natural resource scientists, whose research

is presented in this journal. Forest Service scientists work

to solve problems and provide new information about

natural resources so that we can make sure our environment

is healthy, now and into the future.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)

prohibits discrimination in its programs on the basis of

race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability,

political beliefs, and marital or familial status. (Not all

prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with

disabilities who require alternative means of

communication of program information (braille, large

print, audiotape, etc.) should contact the

USDA Office of Communications at (202) 720-2791.

To file a complaint, write the Secretary of Agriculture, U.S.

Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250,

or call (202) 720-7327 (voice) or (202) 720-1127 (TDD).

USDA is an equal employment opportunity employer.

What is the Forest Service?