Source Water Protection 

Best Management Practices and Other 

Measures for Protecting Drinking Water 

Supplies 
Acknowledgements 

The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency would like to acknowledge 

the contributions of the members of the Source Water Protection Best 

Management Practices Advisory Group, under the leadership of Steven 

Ainsworth of the Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water. 

• Robert Goo 

• Richard Gullick 

• Denise Hawkins 

• Joyce Hudson 

• Elizabeth Hunt 

• Paul Jehn 

• Joseph Lee 

• Marty Link 

• Ryan McReynolds 

• Karen Metchis 

• Douglas Minter 

• Beatriz Oliveira 

• Bruce Olsen 

• Roberta Parry 

• Kenneth Pelletier 

• Art Persons 

• Shari Ring 

• Andrea Ryon 

• Chi Ho Sham 

• Paul Shriner 

• Stephanie Vap-Morrow 

• Hal White 

• Pamla Wood 

• Rita Bair 

• James Bourne 

• Ross Brennan 

• Hamilton Brown 

• Richard Cobb 

• James Crawford 

• Anthony Dulka 

• Jack Falk 

• MaryJo Feuerbach 

• Nancy Fitz 

• Claire Gesalman 

The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency would like to acknowledge the contributions of 

the members of the Source Water Protection Best Management Practices Advisory Group, 

under the leadership of Steven Ainsworth of the Office of Ground Water and Drinking 

Water. The members are Rita Bair, U.S. EPA, Region 5; James Bourne, U.S. EPA, Office 

of Ground Water and Drinking Water; Ross Brennan, U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater 

Management; Hamilton Brown, State Services Organization; Richard Cobb, Illinois 

Environmental Protection Agency; James Crawford, Mississippi Department of 

Environmental Quality; Anthony Dulka, Illinois Environmental Protection Agency; Jay 

Evans, U.S. EPA, Office of Underground Storage Tanks; Jack Falk, U.S. EPA, Office of 

Wastewater Management; MaryJo Feuerbach, U.S. EPA, Region 1; Nancy Fitz, U.S. EPA, 

Office of Pesticide Programs; Claire Gesalman, U.S. EPA, Office of Pesticide Programs; 

Robert Goo, U.S. EPA, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds; Richard Gullick, 

American Water Works Company, Inc.; Denise Hawkins, The Cadmus Group, Inc.; Joyce 

Hudson, U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management; Elizabeth Hunt, Vermont 

Department of Environmental Conservation; Paul Jehn, Ground Water Protection Council; 

Joseph Lee, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection; Marty Link, Nebraska 

Department of Environmental Quality; Ryan McReynolds, U.S. EPA, Office of Ground 

Water and Drinking Water; Karen Metchis, U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management; 

Douglas Minter, U.S. EPA, Region 8; Beatriz Oliveira, U.S. EPA, Office of Emergency and 

Remedial Response; Bruce Olsen, Minnesota Department of Health; Roberta Parry, U.S. 

EPA, Office of Policy; Kenneth Pelletier, Massachusetts Department of Environmental 

Protection; Art Persons, Minnesota Department of Health; Shari Ring, The Cadmus Group, 

Inc.; Andrea Ryon, Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments; Chi Ho Sham, The 

Cadmus Group, Inc.; Paul Shriner, U.S. EPA, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water; 

Stephanie Vap-Morrow, Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality; Hal White U.S. 

EPA, Office of Underground Storage Tanks; and Pamla Wood, Kentucky Department for 

Environmental Protection. 
Drinking Water Academy 

• The mission of the Drinking Water Academy (DWA) is to enhance the 

capabilities of State, Tribal and EPA staff to implement Safe Drinking Water 

Act (SDWA) requirements. Through classroom instruction, Web-based 

training, and the availability of training modules and other information, the 

DWA works to bring new personnel up to speed and enhance the skills of 

current drinking water staff. 

• The DWA provides training in SDWA’s three major program areas: 

o Public water system supervision; 

o Underground injection control; and 

o Source water protection. 

• The DWA provides an introductory course in each of these three areas, as 

well as an introductory overview of SDWA. It also provides regulatory 

training and technical training on specific topics such as sanitary surveys. 

• This course builds on the introductory source water protection course. The 

purpose of this course is to provide information on source water 

contamination prevention measures to technical assistance providers who, in 

turn, will assist local level water suppliers and communities who are 

responsible for implementing such measures. 
Objectives 

• Define source water and explain its 

importance 

• Describe potential threats to source water 

• Discuss SDWA’s major source water 

protection programs 

• Define source water protection measures 

• This training will cover a number of topics. By the end of the session, you 

should be able to: 

o Define source water and explain its importance; 

o Describe potential threats to source water; 

o Discuss SDWA’s major source water protection programs; and 

o Define source water protection measures. 
Objectives 

• Discuss types of prevention measures 

• Describe measures for specific sources 

• Discuss what individuals and 

organizations can do to foster source 

water protection 

• In addition, you should be able to: 

o Discuss types of prevention measures; 

o Describe measures for specific sources; and 

o Discuss what individuals and organizations can do to foster source 

water protection. 
Introduction to 

Source Water 

Protection 
Definition and Importance 

of Source Water Protection 

• Source water protection is defined as efforts 

to protect drinking water sources 

– Surface water 

– Ground water 

• Why protect source water? 

– Public health protection 

– Economic benefits 

– Environmental benefits 

– Public confidence 

• Whether a public water system relies on surface water, ground water, or a 

combination of the two, protection of a water system’s source is important. 

o If source water becomes contaminated, threats to public health are 

increased. 

o In addition, expensive treatment or replacement or relocation ofthe 

water supply may be required. Treatment or relocation costs are 

passed on to every user served by the public water system and local 

property values may be reduced. 

o Water is a limited resource. If a source becomes contaminated, there 

may not be another source available that can be developed. 

• Protection of existing sources of water is a prudent way to protect public 

health and keep treatment costs to a minimum. 

• Existing Federal laws have tended to focus on specific sources, pollutants, or 

land uses that may affect water quality, and have not addressed the need for 

an integrated, multi-disciplinary approach to environmental management. 

Historically, successes in controlling water pollution have been most 

widespread in surface water through control of point sources and in ground 

water by preventing contamination from hazardous waste sites. 
Benefits of Source 

Water Protection 

• "An Ounce of Prevention Is Worth a Pound of Cure." 

• Many communities are implementing protection efforts to prevent 

contamination of their drinking water supplies. These communities, 

counties, and locally financed water districts have found that the less 

polluted water is before it reaches the treatment plant, the less extensive and 

expensive the efforts needed to safeguard the public's health. 

• Studies have shown that the cost of dealing with contaminated ground water 

supplies for the communities studied was, on average, 30 to 40 times more 

(and up to 200 times greater) than preventing their contamination. 

• Further, clean water and healthy ecosystems offer other unquantifiable 

benefits, in terms of the quality of our lives. 

• This section describes the benefits of preventing drinking water 

contamination. It describes and compares the costs of contamination and the 

benefits or costs-avoided due to preventive measures. 
Avoid Costs of 

Contamination 

• Quantifiable costs – treatment and 

remediation; finding and replacing water 

supplies; public information campaigns; 

regulatory compliance; loss of property 

value and tax revenue 

• Less quantifiable costs – health costs; lost 

productivity; lost economic development 

opportunities; lost consumer confidence 

• The benefits to communities of protecting their drinking water supplies might best be understood 

by describing the costs of failing to protect them. These costs include those that are relatively ea

to capture in monetary or economic terms and those that are not. Easily quantifiable costs of 

drinking water supply contamination include: 

o treatment and/or remediation, 

o finding and developing new supplies and/or providing emergency replacement water, 

o abandoning a drinking water supply due to contamination, 

o paying for consulting services and staff time, 

o litigating against responsible parties, 

o conducting public information campaigns when incidents arouse public and media interest 

source water pollution, 

o meeting the regulations of the Safe Drinking Water Act, such as the Disinfection Byproduc

and monitoring requirements, 

o loss of property value or tax revenue, and 

o loss of revenue from boating or fishing when a lake or reservoir is used as a drinking water 

supply. 

• Costs that are not easily quantified include: 

o health related costs from exposure to contaminated water, 

o lost production of individuals and businesses, interruption of fire protection, loss of econom

development opportunities, and 

o lack of community acceptance of treated drinking water. 
Contamination 

Is Expensive 

• A community may 

spend millions of 

dollars responding 

to contamination 

• One basic truth is that dealing with contamination is expensive. Consider the 

following communities’ experiences. 

o In Perryton, TX, carbon tetrachloride was detected in the ground 

water supply. Remediation cost this small community an estimated 

$250,000. 

o Pesticides and solvents in Mililani, HI’s ground water required the 

system to build and operate a new treatment plant. The plant cost $2.5 

million, and annual operation costs are $154,000. 

o The towns of Coeur d'Alene, ID and Atlanta, MI have experienced 

contamination of their ground water supplies. Each had to replace its 

water supply, at costs of approximately $500,000. 

o Solvents and Freon in the ground water serving Montgomery County, 

MD are requiring the county to install water lines and provide free 

water to its customers. This has cost the County over $3 million, plus 

$45,000 per year for 50 years. 

o Cryptosporidium in Milwaukee’s river water sickened hundreds of 

people and required the city to upgrade its water system. The cost of 

the system improvements, along with costs to the water utility, city, 

and Health Department associated with the disease outbreak were $89 

million. 

• Preventing drinking water contamination can save communities similar 

response costs. 
Saving Money 

Through Prevention 

• Cost savings via 

complying with 

standards 

• Monitoring waivers 

• Water as a 

commodity or raw 

material -- quality 

matters 

• Prevention can save communities money in other ways. 

• Communities with effective drinking water contamination prevention 

programs may enjoy substantial savings in the costs of complying with 

SDWA or similar state regulations. For example, water purveyors that 

minimize algae growth by implementing programs that prevent nutrients 

from entering water supply reservoirs will likely minimize the cost for 

treating the water to remove total organic carbon in compliance with the 

Disinfection Byproducts Rule. 

• Water suppliers with programs in place to prevent contamination of drinking 

water also may be eligible for waivers from some monitoring requirements, 

thereby reducing monitoring costs. Such waivers have already saved 

Massachusetts water systems approximately $22 million over the three-year 

compliance cycle, while Texas water systems saved $49 million over two 

and one-half years. 

• In addition, water can be thought of as a commodity that water systems 

sell and farmers use as a raw material. Once it becomes contaminated, it 

loses value because it cannot be sold to customers, or it must be treated prior 

to being sold or used. Uncontaminated water has value to the PWS, 

determined by the price of water its customers are willing to pay. 
Other 

Economic Benefits 

• Real estate values 

• Business 

development 

– Tax revenues 

– Jobs 

• Recreation and 

tourism revenue 

• Preventing contamination of drinking water can also help to maintain real 

estate values in areas served by protected water supplies. In regions affected 

by water supply contamination, declines in real estate values have been 

clearly documented, such as in Cape Cod, Massachusetts. 

• Protecting water supplies may also prevent the loss of existing or potential 

tax revenues and jobs when businesses refuse to locate or remain near 

places with known or suspected problems. For example, a survey by the 

Freshwater Foundation found that five Minnesota cities collectively lost over 

$8 million in tax revenues because of real estate devaluation as a result of 

ground water pollution. 

• Preventing contamination of a water supply that serves as a major scenic or 

tourist attraction can safeguard local tourism and recreation revenues. 

For example, the annual value of tourism and recreation in the Keuka Lake 

watershed in upstate New York was conservatively estimated at $15 million 

in 1996. Keuka Lake provides drinking water for the villages of Penn Yan, 

Hammondsport, Keuka Park, and Dresden. 

“The integrity of a town's water reflects upon the integrity of the 

companies within that town.” 

Sam Rowse, President of Veryfine Products in Westford, MA, 

on businesses’ preference for communities with protected water 

supplies. 
Still More 

Economic Benefits 

• BMPs are standard 

operating procedures 

that can reduce the 

threats that activities at 

homes, businesses, 

agriculture, and industry 

can pose to water 

supplies 

• BMPs can increase the 

aesthetic beauty and 

value of residential and 

Detention pond commercial properties

• Some best management practices, such as aesthetically designed runoff controls 

offer financial benefits in addition to their environmental benefits. When 

designed and sited correctly and safely, artificial lakes or wetlands can increase 

the value of surrounding property (and the tax revenue they generate). 

• Developers often realize higher (and quicker) sales from homes adjacent to a wet 

pond; walking paths and fitness equipment can add to the aesthetics of the area 

and provide recreational uses, further increasing property value s. In general, the 

proximity to water raises the value of a home, by up to 28 percent, according to a 

1993 study conducted by the National Association of Home Builders. 

• A few cases illustrate this point: 

o In the Sale Lake subdivision of Boulder, CO, lots surrounding a constructed 

wetland drew a 30 percent price premium over those with no water view. 

o In the Hybernia community of Highland Park, IL, waterfront lots 

surrounding a constructed detention pond/stream system draw a 10 percent 

premium above those with no water view. 

o BMPs can increase rental values as well. At the Lynne Lake Arms in St. 

Petersburg, FL, apartments or townhouses facing detention ponds on the 

property return rents of $15 to $35 more per month than those that do not. 

Similar trends are seen in rental fees for commercial property, such as office 

space in Fairfax County, VA. 
Non-Monetary Benefits 

• In addition to the monetary benefits of preventing contamination of drinking 

water supplies, there are benefits that are difficult (or controversial) to assign 

a dollar value. While difficult to quantify monetarily, they ha ve a direct link 

to quality of life. Their importance may rival or exceed that of monetary 

benefits. For example, protection of human health is the driving force 

behind the Nation's water supply protection programs. 

• Other quality of life benefits include safeguarding resources for future 

generations, building confidence in the water supply, and maintaining 

healthy ecosystems and opportunities for recreation. 
Health Benefits 

• Reduce risk to human 

health 

– illnesses and death 

– productivity and 

wages 

– medical expenses 

• Preventing contamination of drinking water supplies should result in reduced 

risk to human health from both acute and chronic ailments. Overall, the U.S. 

is doing a good job delivering safe drinking water to the public, but 

challenges remain and may increase as new waterborne disease age nts and 

chemicals are found in water supplies. Although most people experience 

only mild illnesses from waterborne microbes, pathogenic organisms such as 

Cryptosporidium and some strains of E. coli can be transmitted to people 

through drinking water and cause serious illness or even death. 

• In addition to threats posed by microbial contaminants, other substances can 

contaminate water supplies. Metals, volatile organic carbons, synthetic 

organic chemicals, and pesticides can cause serious health problems for 

persons exposed to them over long periods of time at levels exceeding 

health-based drinking water standards. Potential health effects of long-term 

exposure to these pollutants include cancer, birth defects, and organ, nervous 

system, and blood damage. 

• The health-related costs of contamination can include lost wages, hospital 

and doctor bills, and in extreme cases, death. 
Quality of Life Benefits 

• Safeguarding 

resources for future 

generations 

• Building confidence in 

the water supply 

• Healthy ecosystems 

and recreational 

benefits 

• Stewardship of water resources is an important goal for people in a 

community who care about the fate of their children and grand children. 

Protecting water supplies for future generations brings with it a sense of 

accomplishment and legacy, and generates an attitude of pride in the 

community. 

• Effective communities often exhibit a prevailing attitude of trust toward the 

local government structure. If residents have a high level of confidence in 

the ability and commitment of the people on whom they depend for clean 

water, they are much more likely to be supportive of these departments on a 

day-to-day basis, as well as at town or city council meetings when programs 

and budgets are presented. This attitude is critical to continued success in 

providing high quality water. 

• By ensuring clean water resources, a community helps to support the 

biological systems on which life depends. Plant and wildlife ecosystems 

benefit from clean water as much as people do. In addition to providing 

drinking water, clean water resources often enhance recreational activities, 

such as swimming, fishing, and boating. These and other activities, in 

addition to enhancing the quality of life for people who engage in them, may 

provide enormous tourism or other economic benefits to local economies. 
The Costs of Prevention 

• Vary based on the prevention 

measure(s) selected 

• Differ from community to community 

• Of course, there are costs associated with preventing contamination of 

drinking water supplies. 

• The cost to an individual supplier or community greatly depends on the 

types of preventive measures it chooses to implement. Protective measures 

can be relatively simple and inexpensive (such as public education 

programs) to expensive (such as purchasing land or easements). Program 

costs include staffing; program planning, development, and administration; 

land or easement purchases; and structural management measures. 

o Constructed management devices such as wetlands and retention 

basins, can cost approximately $100,000 for a 50-acre site, plus the 

value of the land they occupy. 

o Housekeeping measures such as street sweeping cost public works 

departments depending on the frequency at which they are performed. 

• These costs may vary greatly from community to community and place to 

place, and will depend on such factors as the value of real estate in a 

particular area and the measures the community selects to protect its water 

supplies. 
Comparing 

Costs and Benefits 

• Responding to 

contamination can 

be as much as 200 

times as costly as 

prevention 

• EPA studied the contamination and prevention costs to six small- and 

medium-sized communities that experienced contamination of their ground 

water supplies and subsequently developed a wellhead protection program. 

o Costs of contamination included costs of remediation activities, 

replacing water supplies, and providing water. 

o Prevention costs include basic program costs for delineating a 

protection area, identifying potential sources of contamination, 

developing an initial management plan, and planning for alternative 

water supplies and other responses in case of an emergency. 

o The ratio of the benefits of avoiding contamination to the costs of the 

wellhead programs ranged from 5 to 1 to 200 to 1. 
SWP Is Worth It 

• Comparing the costs of contamination to the costs to prevention reveals that 

prevention programs are generally well worth the cost and effort as an 

effective “insurance” against contamination and its associated costs. 

• If you add the considerable quality of life benefits that are potentially 

provided by a source water protection program, the program may prove to be 

a bargain. 
•••• 

Contamination Pathways 

• Surface water is vulnerable to contamination from direct discharges, runoff and ground 

water inflow. Chemical and microbiological contaminants (represented by the red 

diamonds) may enter surface water through runoff, or through direct disposal into rivers or 

streams; acid rain may affect surface water sources; and contaminated ground water may 

interact with surface water and spread contamination. Surface water is vulnerable to both 

chemical and microbiological contamination and in most cases requires treatment, 

filtration and/or disinfection before it is safe to drink. Runoff from surface areas in a 

watershed, either near a drinking water supply intake or in upstream tributaries, may 

contain contaminants, including human or animal wastes (represented by the yellow 

circles). In addition, contaminated ground water may recharge streams or lakes spreading 

the contamination to a surface water source. 

• Ground water, which is protected by layers of soils and other subsurface materials, 

sometimes does not require treatment prior to use. However, ground water can become 

contaminated through infiltration from the surface, injection of contaminants through 

improperly constructed or defective injection wells (including septic systems), or by 

naturally occurring substances in the soil or rock through which it flows. Depending on 

the hydrogeologic setting, contaminants in ground water may migrate from the source and 

pollute water supplies far away. The properties of the aquifer (i.e.,ground water within the 

subsurface zone of saturation in sufficient quantities to support a well or spring) and 

overlying soils affect contaminant movement. For example, highly permeable aquifers 

conduct ground water flow quickly, allowing little time to detect a contamination plume 

before it reaches a drinking water supply. 

• Ground water under the direct influence of surface water (GWUDI) faces the same risks 

as surface water and the same treatment should be used before using GWUDI as a source 

of drinking water. 
What Health Effects Can 

Contaminated Source Water 

Cause? 

• Acute health effects 

• Chronic health effects 

• There are two major types of health effects—acute and chronic. 

o Acute health effects are immediate (appearing within hours or days) effects 

that may result from exposure to certain contaminants such as pathogens 

(disease causing organisms) or nitrate that may be in drinking water. 

– Pathogens are usually associated with gastrointestinal illness and, in 

extreme cases, death, especially among immuno-compromised 

individuals, such as AIDS patients. 

– Nitrate in drinking water also poses an acute health threat to infants. 

High levels can interfere with the ability of an infant’s blood to carry 

oxygen. This potentially fatal condition is called methemoglobinemia or 

“blue baby syndrome.” Nitrates may also indicate the possible presence 

of other more serious residential or agricultural contaminants such as 

bacteria. 

o Chronic health effects are the possible result of exposure over many years to 

a drinking water contaminant, especially at levels above its maximum level 

established by EPA. Chronic health effects include birth defects, cancer, and 

other long-term health effects. Contaminants causing chronic health effects 

are mostly chemical contaminants and include, among others, byproducts of 

disinfection, lead and other metals, pesticides, and solvents. For example, 

some disinfection byproducts are toxic and some are probably carcinogens. 

Exposure to lead can impair the mental development of children. However, 

there is usually little risk from short-term exposure to these contaminants at 

levels typically found in drinking water. 
What Contaminants Cause 

Acute Health Effects? 

• Viruses (e.g., Norwalk virus) 

• Bacteria (e.g., Shigella, 

E.Coli) 

Parasite -

Giardia lamblia 

• Parasites, protozoa or cysts 

• Nitrate 

Parasite -

Cryptosporidium 

Warning Sign About 

Dangers of Nitrate 

• Pathogens , which can cause acute health effects, are microorganisms that can cause disease in humans, 

animals and plants. They may be bacteria, viruses, or parasites and are found in sewage, in runoff from 

animal farms or rural areas populated with domestic and/or wild animals, and in water used for 

swimming. Fish and shellfish contaminated by pathogens, or the contaminated water itself, can cause 

serious illnesses. 

o A virus is the smallest form of microorganism capable of causing disease. A virus of fecal origin 

is called an enterovirus and is infectious to humans by waterborne transmission. These viruses, 

such as the Norwalk virus and a group of Norwalk-like viruses, are of special concern for 

drinking water regulators. Many waterborne viruses can cause gastroenteritis, with symptoms 

that include diarrhea, nausea, and/or stomach cramps. Gastroenteritis can be fatal for people with 

compromised immune systems. The World Health Organization counts waterborne viruses as 

second only to malaria in lost work time and dollars in the global economy. 

o Bacteria are microscopic living organisms usually consisting of a single cell. Waterborne 

disease-causing bacteria include E. coli and Shigella . 

o Protozoa or parasites are also single cell organisms. Examples include Giardia lamblia and 

Cryptosporidium. Giardia lamblia was only recognized as being a human pathogen capable of 

causing waterborne disease outbreaks in the late 1970s. During the past 15 years, Giardia 

lamblia has become recognized as one of the most common causes of waterborne disease in 

humans in the United States. The protozoa Cryptosporidium (often called “crypto”) is commonly 

found in lakes and rivers and is highly resistant to disinfection used in chlorine. Cryptosporidium 

has caused several large outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness. 

o Nitrate in drinking water at levels above 10 ppm is a health risk for infants less than six months 

old. High nitrate levels in drinking water can cause blue baby syndrome. Nitrate levels may rise 

quickly for short periods of time because of rainfall or agricultural activity. 
What Contaminants Cause 

Chronic Health Effects? 

• Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) 

• Inorganic chemicals (IOCs) 

• Synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs) 

• Contaminants that can cause chronic health effects include byproducts of disinfection, lead and other 

metals, pesticides, and solvents. Sources of these contaminants include: 

o Commercial activities such as automotive repair facilities, laundromats and dry cleaners, 

airports, gas stations, photographic processors, and construction sites often use materials that are 

toxic. 

o Industrial activities such as chemical manufacturing and storage, machine or metalworking 

shops, and mining operations often use substances that can contaminate drinking water supplies. 

o Petroleum product storage in underground tanks is one of the greatest threats to ground water 

quality. 

o Agricultural activities such as use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers applied to crops on 

farmland may be highly toxic and can remain in soil and water for many months or years. 

These same substances are used by millions of homeowners as well. 

o Urban activities such as improper disposal or leaks of household hazardous wastes, can seep 

into the ground or run into storm drains and contaminate ground water. 

o Other sources of water contamination include chemicals used for road de-icing and 

maintenance, landfills, and surface impoundments. 

• Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) vaporize at relatively low temperatures. They include mostly 

industrial and chemical solvents such as benzene and toluene. Benzene has the potential to cause 

chromosome aberrations and cancer from a lifetime exposure at levels above the maximum 

contaminant level. Toluene has the potential to cause pronounced nervous disorders such as spasms, 

tremors, impairment of speech, hearing, vision, memory, and coordination; and liver and kidney 

damage from a lifetime exposure, especially at levels above the MCL. 

• Inorganic chemicals (IOCs) include metals and minerals. Some of these have the potential to cause 

chronic health effects. For example, lead has the potential to cause stroke, kidney disease, and cancer 

from a lifetime exposure, especially at levels above the MCL. 

• Synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs) are man-made and include pesticides such as atrazine and 

alachlor. Atrazine has the potential to cause weight loss; cardiovascular damage; retinal and some 

muscle degeneration; and cancer from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL. Alachlor can 

cause eye, liver, kidney, or spleen problems; anemia; and an increased risk of cancer from life-time 

exposure, especially at levels above the MCL. 
SDWA’s Major 

Source Water 

Protection 

Programs 
Historical Basis -

Early State Approach 

• Multiple barrier approach used by 

States since early 1900s included 

source selection and protection 

• Sanitary surveys to check system from 

source to tap 

• In the 19th century, State public health agencies began to protect sources of 

drinking water in response to widespread epidemics attributed to drinking 

water contamination from pathogens. By the mid-1900s, State public health 

departments were well-established regulatory agencies. 

• The predominant philosophy in these State programs was a multiple barrier 

approach to prevent or treat drinking water contamination. The first barrier 

was selection and protection of an appropriate source. For surface sources, 

this meant locating and constructing water intakes to ensure little or no 

contamination from fecal bacteria. For ground water sources, this meant 

constructing wells in appropriate locations, at appropriate depths, and with 

approved construction methods (e.g., casing and grouting). 

• Other barriers included treatment (selected to be appropriate to the quality of 

the source water) and distribution (to promote full circulation and avoid 

stagnant water conditions that might facilitate microbial contamination). The 

integrity of distribution systems was periodically checked to avoid any type of 

cross-connection whereby untreated or contaminated water might enter the 

system. 

• One method to implement the multiple barrier approach was to conduct 

routine sanitary surveys where State sanitarians or engineers inspected water 

systems and checked all components of the system from source to tap. 

Sanitary surveys identified problems and potential problems thereby 

preventing contamination of water supplies. 
SDWA Source Water 

Protection Programs 

• 1974 SDWA 

– Sole Source Aquifer program 

– Underground Injection Control program 

• 1986 SDWA Amendments: 

Protection program 

• 1996 SDWA Amendments 

– Source Water Petition program 

– Source Water Assessment program 

Wellhead 

• The Federal government began a limited role in protecting drinking water with the creation of 

the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) in 1912 and the PHS’s subsequent regulation of drinking 

water in interstate commerce (e.g., on interstate carriers). Prior to 1974, States were 

responsible for protecting drinking water and ground and surface water sources. 

• SDWA, first enacted in 1974, included provisions for a program to protect ground water 

sources -- the Sole Source Aquifer program. This program prohibits Federal financial 

assistance for projects that might contaminate an aquifer that has been designated by EPA as a 

sole or principal source of drinking water for an area. 

• The 1974 SDWA also included provisions for the Underground Injection Control (UIC) 

program. This program protects Underground Sources of Drinking Water (USDWs) from 

contamination through injection wells. 

• The 1986 SDWA Amendments established the Wellhead Protection (WHP) Program in 

Section 1428. This non-regulatory program includes provisions to protect the surface and 

subsurface areas around public drinking water wells and offers communities a cost-effective 

means of protecting vulnerable ground water supplies. 

• The 1996 Amendments established the Source Water Assessment Program (discussed later) and 

the Source Water Petition Program.This program, authorized by SDWA Section 1454, is 

voluntary for States, and is intended to support locally-driven efforts designed to address a 

limited number of contaminants identified in the statute. See the State Source Water Protection 

Programs Guidance (August 1997) at www.epa.gov/safewater/swp/swp.pdf for additional 

information. 

• Except for the UIC program, EPA’s ground water and source water programs are not 

regulatory. There are no enforceable national ground water standards. These programs 

typically educate, facilitate, coordinate, and assist with protection of ground water. 
What Is the Sole Source 

Aquifer Program? 

• A sole source aquifer: 

– Supplies at least 50% of 

drinking water 

– Is the only feasible 

drinking water source that 

exists 

• Any person may petition 

EPA 

• 70 designated sole 

source aquifers 

• The Sole Source Aquifer Protection Program is authorized by Section 1424 

of the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. The program provides for EPA 

review of proposed Federal financially-assisted projects, such as highway 

improvements, wastewater treatment facilities, or agricultural projects that 

can potentially contaminate a designated sole source aquifer. 

• A sole source aquifer, or principal source aquifer: 

o Supplies at least 50 percent of the drinking water consumed in the area 

overlying the aquifer; and 

o Is the only physically, legally, and economically feasible water source 

for all those who depend on the aquifer for drinking water. 

• Any person or organization may apply to designate an aquifer as a sole 

source by submitting a petition to EPA. As of February 2000, there are 70 

designated sole source aquifers in the U.S. 
Significance of the Sole 

Source Aquifer Program 

• EPA reviews Federally-funded projects 

• Information from SSA designation can 

help delineate SWPAs 

• SSAs can raise community awareness 

• SWAPs can help evaluate candidate 

SSAs 

• Proposed projects with Federal financial assistance that have the potential to contaminate SSAs 

are subject to EPA review by a ground water specialist. This review may be coordinated with 

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) reviews and with relevant Federal, State and local 

agencies. Examples of projects that might be subject to review include highways, wastewater 

treatment facilities, construction projects that involve storm water disposal, public water supply 

wells and transmission lines, agricultural projects that involve the management of animal waste, 

and projects funded through Community Development Block Grants. Project reviews can result 

in: 

o EPA requirements for design improvements, ground water monitoring programs, 

maintenance and educational activities that would not otherwise occur; or 

o Direct technical assistance, by identifying specific activities that may lead to ground water 

contamination. In addition, technical assistance usually involves site-specific coordination 

of ground water protection activities among State and local environmental and public health 

protection agencies. 

• The hydrogeologic and water usage information required by EPA during the process of 

designating a sole source aquifer can help define source water protection areas and determine the 

susceptibility of water supplies. Sole source aquifer project reviews can be a valuable source of 

information on potential contaminant sources in source water protection areas. 

• A sole source aquifer designation can also increase community awareness on the use, value, and 

vulnerability of aquifers and build support for implementing various ground water protection 

efforts at the local level. 

• The information from source water assessments can be used to help evaluate whether an area 

meets SSA designation criteria, and can provide useful information for project reviews, such as 

the location of delineated source water protection areas, potential or existing sources of 

contamination, and local variations in aquifer susceptibility. 

• Some States have chosen to regulate activities in SSAs to provide additional ground water 

protection. 
WATER TABLE 

Brine - Salt Water (>10,000 TDS) 

DRY 

AQUIFER 

USDW 

BRINE 

Underground Source of Drinking Water 

<10,000 TDS 

What is the UIC Program and 

Why is it Significant? 

• The UIC program mission is to protect underground sources of drinking water from 

contamination by regulating the construction and operation of injection wells. 

• Injection is defined as subsurface emplacement of fluids through a bored, drilled, or driven 

well or through a dug well where the depth of the dug well is greater than the largest surface 

dimension; or a dug hole whose depth is greater than the largest surface dimension; or an 

improved sinkhole; or a subsurface fluid distribution system. 

• Protection of ground water from this potential source of contamination is significant since 

there are estimated to be more than 600,000 injection wells in the U.S. that dispose of a 

variety of wastes including hazardous waste. (Only a small portion of injection wells inject 

hazardous waste.) 

• Underground sources of drinking water (USDWs) are important sources of drinking water. 

In order to understand the definition of a USDW, there are some basic concepts that must be 

understood. 

o Water contains dissolved minerals, especially salt. The salinity of water is expressed 

as Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), measured as parts per million (ppm) or the 

equivalent milligrams per liter (mg/L). 

o Water with between 0 and 500 mg/L TDS is considered to be suitable for human 

consumption. Water that has a higher salinity than drinking water may be used for 

many other purposes (e.g., agricultural and industrial uses). In addition, water 

containing up to 10,000 mg/L TDS can potentially be treated to reduce TDS to 

drinkable quality levels. Waters containing in excess of 10,000 mg/L TDS are called 

brine, or simply salt water. 

• Thus, Underground Sources of Drinking Water are aquifers (geologic formations where 

water collects in quantities sufficient to support a well or spring) with less than 10,000 mg/L 

TDS. 

• The graphic is a simplified picture of this. Whether there is a layer of fresh water with high 

TDS water underneath depends on the location. 

• EPA regulates underground injection control wells in order to protect USDWs. 
Source: 

Class II 

EOR 

Well 

Oil 

Reservoir 

USDWs 

Mineralized 

Ore Body 

Exempt 

Aquifer 

Base of the 

Lowermost 

USDW 

Water 

Table 

Class III 

Uranium 

Solution 

Mining 

Class V 

Agricul -

tural 

Well 

Class I 

Industrial 

Well 

GWPC 

• Injection wells may be used to purposefully inject fluid; they may also serve as a conduit 

for fluids to drain or seep into the subsurface. 

• Injection wells are used to put fluid into the subsurface versus drinking water wells which 

are used to take water out of the subsurface. 

• There are many types of injection wells. In order to regulate the universe of wells, EPA 

established five classes of injection wells. 

o Class I wells are technologically sophisticated wells that inject large volumes of 

hazardous or non-hazardous wastes into deep, isolated rock formations. 

o Class II wells inject fluids associated with oil and natural gas production. 

o Class III wells inject super-hot steam, water, or other fluid into mineral formations, 

which is then pumped to the surface and the minerals are extracted. 

o Class IV wells inject hazardous or radioactive wastes into or above underground 

sources of drinking water. These wells are banned. All existing Class IV wells were 

approved under State and Federal cleanup programs, such as those under RCRA or 

CERCLA. 

o Class V wells use injection practices that are not included in the other classes. Class 

V wells vary widely. Some are technologically advanced wastewater disposal systems 

used by industry, and others are "low-tech" holes in the ground. 
What Is Wellhead 

Protection? 

• Protection of ground water 

sources 

• Authorized by SDWA Section 

1428 of the 1986 Amendments 

• EPA-approved, State-designed 

wellhead protection plans can 

receive Federal funding to protect 

ground water sources 

• Requirements for Federal 

compliance 

• Section 1428 of the 1986 SDWA Amendments created the Wellhead 

Protection (WHP) Program, which offered communities a cost-effective 

means of protecting vulnerable ground water supplies. This program does 

not address surface water supplies. 

• The 1986 Amendments required each State to submit a comprehensive State 

wellhead protection plan to EPA within three years. EPA reviewed the Stateproposed wellhead protection programs; if a program was disapproved, the 

State could not receive Federal funds to implement its program. Congress 

believed that this enabled EPA to direct the use of scarce Federal dollars in 

the most effective way, while letting States continue to pursue their 

preventative programs. Currently, 49 States and two Territories have EPAapproved WHP programs. 

• To establish wellhead protection programs, communities delineate 

vulnerable areas and identify sources of contamination. Through regulatory 

or non-regulatory controls, local officials and volunteers manage 

contamination sources and protect their water supply, as well as plan for 

contamination incidents or other water supply emergencies. 
WHP Significance -

Most CWSs Use Ground Water 

80 

20 

0 

20 

40 

60 

80 

100 

% OF CWS 

Ground Water Systems 

Surface Water Systems 

• Wellhead protection efforts are significant because many water systems use 

ground water as their primary source of drinking water. 

• Of all community water systems (i.e., a public water system that serves at 

least 15 service connections used by year-round residents or regularly serves 

at least 25 year-round residents), just over 80 percent rely on ground water as 

their primary source. Most of these systems are small systems. (Of 

community water systems, 93 percent serve fewer than 10,000 people.) 

Smaller water systems are more likely to choose ground water sources, 

which usually require less treatment and usually involve smaller capital 

expenditures. 

• Although small systems relying on ground water are numerous, they serve 

only a small fraction of the population. For example, systems that serve 

3,300 people or fewer make up over 85 percent of CWSs nationwide, yet 

serve less than 10 percent of the population. 

• Wellhead protection efforts continue today and make up a significant part of 

the source water protection program. 
Source Water 

Assessment 

Program 
What is a Source 

Water Assessment? 

Public distribution of findings 

Delineation 

Contamination source inventory 

Susceptibility analysis 

• Public Water System Supervision (PWSS) primacy States (i.e., States approved by EPA to administer a 

State PWSS program in lieu of the Federal PWSS program) are required by the SDWA Amendments of 

1996, Sections 1453 and 1428(b), to complete a source water assessment for each public water system. 

These assessments can be done for each system or on an “area-wide” basis involving more than one PWS

• A source water assessment provides important information for carrying out protection programs. In fact, 

Congress intended source water assessments to serve as the basis of local source water protection 

programs. This “know your resource and system susceptibility” part of protection involves identifying the 

land that drains to the drinking water source and the most prominent potential contaminant risks 

associated with it. To be considered complete, a source water assessment must include four components: 

o Delineation of the source water protection area (SWPA), the portion of a watershed or ground 

water area that may contribute water (and, therefore, pollutants) to the water supply. 

o Identification of all significant potential sources of drinking water contamination within the SWPA. 

The resulting contamination source inventory must describe the sources (or categories of sources) 

of contamination either by specific location or by area. 

o Determination of the water supply’s susceptibility to contamination from identified sources. The 

susceptibility determination can be either an absolute measure of the potential for contamination of 

the PWS or a relative comparison between sources within the SWPA. 

o Distribution of the source water assessment results to the public. Assessments are not considered 

completed until results are communicated to the public. 

• Several agencies within a State are likely to be involved in the effort to establish a plan to assess source 

water protection areas. Usually, environmental protection agencies or health departments take the lead; 

departments of agriculture or agricultural extension programs, and soil and water conservation boards may 

also be involved. States are also encouraged to initiate interstate or international partnerships to protect 

source water protection areas that cross borders. 

• Local governments and water systems will be key partners in assessing source water and implementing 

local SWP programs. Local partners can provide input on assessments and gather local support for SWP 

management, especially where regulatory controls will be implemented. 
Source Water Assessments 

as the Basis of Protection 

• Provide important information 

• May be used to prioritize protection 

activities 

• Completed source water assessments provide important information. 

Typically, information collected during an assessment includes delineated 

protection areas, locations of wells and intakes, inventories and locations of 

potential contaminant sources, determinations of relative threats to drinking 

water sources, and hydrogeological data. 

• Source water assessment information, in conjunction with other watershed 

assessment efforts, by identifying relative threats to water qua lity, can help 

water systems and localities determine protection priorities for addressing 

these threats. 
Elements of State 

SWAPs 

• Public participation in developing SWAP 

• Plan to delineate areas, inventory 

contaminants, determine susceptibility 

• Timetable for implementation, agencies 

involved, plan to update assessments 

• Plan to make the results of 

assessments available to the public 

• According to SDWA Section 1453, each State must develop and submit to 

EPA a Source Water Assessment Program (SWAP) that includes four 

elements: 

o Public, technical, and citizen advisory group involvement in the 

development of the State-wide SWAP. 

o A plan to complete source water assessments for each public water 

system (PWS) to identify watersheds and ground water recharge areas 

that supply public drinking water systems, inventory potential 

contaminant sources, and determine the water system’s susceptibility to 

contamination. 

o A plan to implement its chosen source water assessment approach, i.e., 

a timetable for completing assessments, roles of various State and other 

agencies, and plans for updating the assessments. 

o A plan to provide the public with access to the results of the 

susceptibility determination. 

• All States were required to submit their SWAP strategies to EPA by 

February 6, 1999. EPA has since approved the States’ submittals. Each 

State has two years, plus a possible extension of up to 18 months, to 

complete all of its source water assessments after EPA approval of their 

SWAP. 

• States must implement source water assessments according to the approved 

program. 
Other Source Water 

Protection 

Programs and 

Initiatives 

• There are many programs administered by EPA and by other Federal 

agencies that can be used to protect source water, especially surface water. 

• EPA-administered programs include those under the Clean Water Act. EPA 

also uses the hazardous waste and underground storage tank programs under 

the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); the Superfund 

program under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation 

and Liability Act (CERCLA); and the pesticides program under the Federal 

Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) to enhance source water 

protection. 

• Other Federal agencies that administer relevant programs include the 

Departments of Agriculture, Transportation, and the Interior, the Army 

Corps of Engineers, and the U.S. Geological Survey. 

• In addition, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) provides an 

important opportunity to point out potential drinking water impacts and 

recommend alternative sites or mitigative measures. 

• In addition to these programs, EPA is carrying out or supporting some key 

source water protection initiatives, including a Source Water Contamination 

Prevention Strategic Plan and source water protection field projects through 

grants to the National Rural Water Association and the Environmental 

Finance Center Network. 
Source Water 

Protection Initiatives 

• Source Water Contamination 

Prevention Strategy 

• National Rural Water Association 

• Environmental Finance Center Network 

• EPA is working with the States and other partners to develop a Source Water 

Contamination Prevention Strategic Plan as a national framework for source 

water protection efforts. The goal of the plan is to protect current and 

potential drinking water sources and the health of those who rel y on those 

sources. The proposed long-term vision is that all interested stakeholders 

using a variety of tools in a coordinated fashion, establish barriers that 

significantly lower the risk of contamination entering current and potential 

drinking water resources. 

• The objectives of the plan will include enhancing coordination with Clean 

Water Act and other EPA programs and with other Federal agencies to better 

support local source water prevention priorities. 

• The National Rural Water Association has hired new field technicians to 

help water systems and localities in 27 project areas in 11 States to develop 

and implement source water protection plans through 2001. 

• The Environmental Finance Center Network is also helping water systems 

and localities develop and implement source water protection plans in eight 

project areas in eight States. 
Source Water Protection 

under the Clean Water Act 

SDWA 

Ground 

Water 

Ground Water 

Used as 

Drinking Water 

Surface 

Water 

Used as 

Drinking 

Water 

Surface Water 

Used for 

Industrial Uses, 

Recreation, 

Wildlife Habitat, 

and Fishing 

CWA 

Wastewater 

Discharges 

Water Systems 

Wastewater 

Treatment Plants 

• The Safe Drinking Water Act and the Clean Water Act intersect in 

protecting surface water used as drinking water. 
Source Water Protection 

under the Clean Water Act 

Protection 

Watershed 

• The Clean Water Action Plan (CWAP) is a 1998 Presidential initia tive. Its goal is to 

protect public health and restore the nation's waterways by emphasizing 

collaborative strategies built around all activities that affect bodies of water and the 

communities they sustain. 

o The CWAP provides for cooperation between State, Federal,Tribal, regional, 

and local governments, as well as private partners. It provides a forum to 

collaborate on strategies for protecting and restoring priority watersheds. 

o A key element of the Action Plan is the integration of public health and 

aquatic ecosystem goals when identifying priorities for watershed restoration 

and protection. The Action Plan assigns priority to drinking water source 

areas needing protection. 

• Under the CWAP, States, Tribes, local governments, organizations and the public 

will work together to conduct unified watershed assessments. This process will 

assess watershed conditions; identify watersheds where aquatic systems do not meet 

clean water and natural resource goals; identify the highest priority watersheds for 

restoration and target a subset of that group for restoration action strategies; 

determine what other issues, such as protection of drinking water, need to be 

addressed; and ensure that all the appropriate stakeholders are involved in the 

process. 

• Completed source water assessments can help Federal agencies direct protection 

programs to highest priority source waters and help guide agency decisions 

regarding placement and construction of new facilities. 

• The signatories to the CWAP agreement include: EPA, the U.S. Postal Service, the 

Department of Energy, the Department of Transportation, the Department of the 

Interior, the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Department of Defense, the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, and the Department of Commerce. 
Source Water Protection 

under the Clean Water Act 

• “Point” sources or “nonpoint” sources 

• National Pollutant 

Discharge Elimination 

System (NPDES) 

• Water quality standards 

• Total Maximum Daily 

Loads (TMDLs) 

• The CWA, SDWA’s partner in water legislation, designates surface water contamination 

sources as “point sources” or “non-point sources.” Point sources are direct discharges to a 

single point; examples include discharges from sewage treatment plants, and some industrial 

sources. Non-point sources are diffused across a broad area and their contamination cannot 

be traced to a single discharge point. Examples include runoff of excess fertilizers, 

herbicides, and insecticides from agricultural lands and residential areas; oil, grease, and 

toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production; and sediment from improperly 

managed construction sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding streambanks. 

• The primary regulatory mechanism provided by the CWA is the National Pollutant 

Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program. It requires permits for all 

discharges of pollutants to surface waters from pipes, outlets, or other discrete conveyances 

(i.e., point sources). Permits are not required, however, for non-point sources. Under the 

CWA, non-point source pollution is addressed through non-regulatory means. 

• Water quality standards are set by authorized States and Tribes to restore and maintain the 

physical, chemical and biological integrity of the nation’s waters and to meet the goal of 

“fishable/swimmable” water. A water quality standard consists of three elements: 

o The designated beneficial use of a water body; 

o The water quality criteria (i.e., the quality of the water) necessary to protect that use; 

and 

o An antidegradation policy. 

• Under CWA Section 303(d), States are required to identify waters that do not meet water 

quality standards after the implementation of nationally required levels of pollution control 

technology, and to develop Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for those waters. 

TMDLs are used to determine the maximum allowable amount of pollutants that can be 

discharged to impaired waters. Based on this determination, pollutant loadings are allocated 

among pollution sources in a water segment. TMDLs also provide a basis for identifying 

and establishing controls to reduce both point and non-point source pollutant loadings. State 

lists that identify waters needing TMDLs, and TMDLs developed for specific water bodies, 

are a useful source of information for the development of source water assessments. 
Other Federal Source 

Protection Programs 

• There are many other Federal agencies that have programs that can contribute to source water 

protection. 

• USDA’s Natural Resource Conservation Service obtains advice from State Technical Committees, 

which may include State water agencies, on source water-related activities under the Environmental 

Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). State water program officials have opportunities to integrate 

source water assessment and protection objectives with USDA conservation program concerns. 

NRCS provides technical advice and some cost-share assistance to farmers on best management 

practices. 

• USDA also sponsors the Farm*A*Syst and Home*A*Syst network of 50 State interagency 

programs that help farmers, ranchers and homeowners identify environmental and health risks on 

their property, and take voluntary actions to reduce these risks and protect drinking water. USDA 

has a number of other programs that foster source water protection, including the Cooperative State 

Research Education and Extension Service, the Forest Service, and the Rural Utilities Service. 

• USGS provides scientific information on water resources, biological resources, mapping, and 

geology, to support wise management of our natural resources. USGS will provide water-quality 

and land-use data that may be useful in drinking water source assessments. In addition, on a costshare basis, USGS can provide technical assistance on source water protection area delineation, 

including hydrogeological analyses, ground water age-dating and flow modeling, and delineation of 

ground water contributing areas using flow models. 

• EPA and the Department of Transportation have a partnership to implement the Transportation 

Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), which includes provisions to ensure environmentally 

sound transportation systems. 

• The Department of Transportation is also in the process of identifying drinking water unusually 

sensitive areas (USAs). DOT is evaluating Federal and State data sources in order to generate the 

drinking water USAs. This will allow transportation projects to be reviewed for potential drinking 

water impacts. 
Other Federal Source 

Protection Programs 

• See 

http://www.epa.gov/ 

safewater/ 

protect/feddata.html 

for a list of Federal 

data sources related 

to source water 

protection 

• The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service within the Department of the Interior (DOI) has 

a National Wetlands Inventory Project that provides maps and dig ital wetland data 

with site specific classification and location information. Land management 

agencies at DOI, including the Bureau of Land Management, the National Park 

Service, the Bureau of Reclamation, and the Office of Surface Mining, can be 

important partners in coordinating source water assessments. 

• EPA and the Army Corps of Engineers jointly administer Section 404 of the Clean 

Water Act, which regulates the discharge of dredged or fill material into waters of 

the U.S. This program can be used for watershed and special area management 

planning. 

• The Council on Environmental Quality implements the National Environmental 

Policy Act (NEPA), which requires environmental assessments or environmental 

impact statements for Federally-funded activities. NEPA ensures that adverse 

environmental impacts will be avoided or mitigated through the assessment process. 
Who Ultimately 

Protects the Source? 

• States are uniquely positioned and qualified to foster comprehensive source 

water protection programs because they implement most existing water and 

natural resource programs. 

• However, in order to be effective, source water protection ultimately has to be 

implemented as a community-based program. While Federal and State 

programs can guide source protection programs, source water protection 

activities are largely the responsibility of local jurisdictions. 

• Implementing a source water protection program involves community 

support, public education, land use planning, and planning for emergencies — 

all locally-based concepts. It may also involve many localities cooperating 

with support from regional, State or Federal entities. 

• The remainder of this course discusses source water contamination prevention 

measures that can be implemented at the local level. 
Introduction to 

Source Water 

Contamination 

Protection 

Measures 
What are Source Water 

Protection Measures? 

• Practices to prevent contamination of 

ground water and surface water that are 

used or potentially used as sources of 

drinking water 

• Protection measures form the first 

barrier to drinking water protection 

• Protection of drinking water sources is important to prevent contamination. The 

cost of cleaning up often exceeds the cost of prevention. 

• Many types of management measures are available to address threats identified 

within a watershed. These include land use controls, such as subdivision and zoning 

regulations; regulations, permits, and inspections; constructed or vegetative 

systems; and good housekeeping practices for proper use of equip ment and 

chemical products or wastes; and other tools, such as public education. 

• Protection measures are part of a multi-barrier approach to drinking water 

protection, along with treatment, monitoring, operator capacity, and maintenance of 

the distribution system. 

• The following slides present measures that communities, businesses, and 

individuals can take to protect source water. 
How Can Protection 

Measures Fit into a SWPP? 

• Impose by regulation 

• Encourage through non-regulatory 

means 

• Combine approaches as appropriate 

given site-specific considerations 

• Depending on their situation, local government officials can choose from a variety of 

regulatory and non-regulatory measures to address identified or potential threats to 

their water supplies. 

• Regulatory controls include zoning ordinances and subdivision controls, construction 

and operating standards, health regulations (such as storage tank and septic tank 

requirements), and permitting or inspections. 

o Examples of local zoning ordinances to protect ground water and surface water 

sources of drinking water can be found at http://www.epa.gov/r5water/ordcom/ 

and http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/. 

• Non-regulatory controls include purchase of property or development rights, 

encouraging the use of best management practices, public education, household 

hazardous waste collection programs, and economic incentives such as agricultural 

cost-share programs. 

• A combination of these methods is usually necessary for an effective management 

plan. In addition, the same end can usually be achieved through different means. For 

example, setbacks can be achieved through permits or local ordinances. The range of 

feasible tools will depend on the local authority to regulate land uses, and the nature of 

the contamination threats. 

• To see how communities are combining protection measures to protect their drinking 

water supplies, go to EPA’s compilation of local case studies in source water protection 

at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/protect/casesty/casestudy.html. The local contacts 

listed at the end of each case study should be able to provide you with some tips on 

how to put together your own protection plan. 
What are BMPs? 

• Many of the available management measures are known as best management 

practices (BMPs). BMPs are standard operating procedures that can reduce 

the threat that normal activities at homes, businesses, agricultural lands or 

industry can pose to water supplies. BMPs have been developed for many 

activities and industries that store, handle, or transport hazardous or toxic 

substances. They can help prevent the release of these substances or control 

these releases in an environmentally sound manner, and encourage the 

adoption of voluntary design or procedural standards. 
Selecting Management 

Measures 

• Land use controls 

• Regulations and permits 

• Structural measures 

• Good housekeeping practices 

• Public education 

• Land management 

• Emergency response planning 

• Many management measures are available to prevent pollution, control 

contaminants at the source, or treat wastewater. One alone usua lly is not 

sufficient, and combinations of measures work best. 

• In choosing the most appropriate measures, local government officials and 

water system operators should consider their situations, and may need to 

prioritize the implementation of specific measures to make the most of the 

resources available to them. 

• Local government officials should look creatively at existing ordinances and 

regulations. They may be able to use rules passed for other reasons to 

address source water issues. For example, if special permits are allowed 

when necessary to protect public safety or health, it is possible that they 

could be used for source water protection. 

• Selection of management measures will be based on a variety of factors, 

including the physical properties of the watershed (annual precipitation, soil 

type and drainage, ground water and surface water hydrology, and space 

limitations), land uses and potential contaminants, type of contamination 

problem (e.g., point source or non-point source), public acceptance of 

measures, cost, maintenance needs, and aesthetics. 
Land Use Controls 

• Subdivision growth controls 

• Zoning 

• Land purchase 

• Acquisition of development rights 

• Land use prohibitions 

• Land uses that pose risks to source water can be controlled or moved from 

sensitive areas. Local government officials can use subdivisionand growth 

controls to reduce population density, or zoning ordinances to prohibit or 

restrict certain activities in SWPAs. 

• By acquiring the rights to development on parcels of land through purchase 

or donation of the land, local government officials have complete control 

over the activities in critical areas. 

• The high cost of purchasing property or development rights makes this 

impractical for many communities. Some States have grants for acquiring 

environmentally sensitive lands and non-profit organizations such as local or 

regional land trusts can assist communities by acquiring land within SWPAs. 

The American Farmland Trust and the Nature Conservancy are examples of 

non-profit organizations that focus on protection of water resources through 

land acquisition. USDA’s Conservation Reserve Program also manages a 

program to obtain easements on environmentally sensitive land. 

• Often, the greatest consideration in passing regulatory land use controls is 

the political acceptability of limiting certain activities. However, most 

people consider passing zoning ordinances to be the right and responsibility 

of local governments, and public education about the importance of 

protecting water supplies can increase the acceptance of land use controls. 

• The next few slides describe land use controls for managing SWPAs. 
Subdivision 

Growth Controls 

• Primary purpose is to control division of 

land into lots suitable for building 

• Can protect drinking water supplies 

from 

– Septic system effluent 

– Storm water runoff 

• As the nation’s population increases, sprawl and the proliferation of homes, 

businesses, and associated activities such as pesticide and fertilizer use, and 

septic systems, can threaten drinking water supplies. 

• Subdivision regulations govern the process by which individual lots of land 

are created out of larger tracts. Subdivision regulations are intended to 

ensure that subdivisions are appropriately related to their surroundings. 

General site design standards, such as preservation of environmentally 

sensitive areas, are one example of subdivision regulations. 

• Ways in which subdivision requirements can protect water supplies include: 

o Ensuring that septic systems and storm water infiltration structures do 

not contaminate ground water; and 

o Managing drainage (e.g., using erosion controls) to ensure that runoff 

does not become excessive as the area of paved surfaces increases and 

to provide recharge to aquifers. 
Zoning 

• Zoning is the division of a municipality or county into districts for the 

purpose of regulating land use. Communities traditionally use zoning to 

separate potentially conflicting land uses from one another. Exa mples of 

how zoning can be used to protect drinking water sources include 

requirements that limit impervious surfaces, encourage open space, locate 

high risk activities away form drinking water sources, or encourage cluster 

development to reduce runoff. For example, Brunswick, Maine, adopted a 

threshold that no more than 5 percent of a site to be developed in its Coastal 

Protection Zone may be impervious area. 

• Zoning is an effective regulatory tool for preventing threats to water sources 

from new development, and zoning ordinances are usually well-accepted as 

the prerogative of local governments. Unfortunately, zoning is of limited use 

in addressing threats from existing land uses, because they are 

"grandfathered" (i.e., exempt from new zoning requirements) when zoning 

laws take effect. Zoning ordinances may be difficult to pass where citizens 

want to encourage growth and economic development. 

• Examples of local zoning ordinances to protect ground water and surface 

water sources of drinking water can be found at 

http://www.epa.gov/r5water/ordcom/ and 

http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/. 
Land Purchase and 

Development Rights 

• Land purchases 

• Conservation 

easements 

• Land trusts and 

conservancies 

• The best way to control activities within sensitive areas is to purchase land 

and/or development rights to that land. Communities may purchase land 

outright or obtain conservation easements, which are voluntary arrangements 

preventing a landowner from performing certain activities or prohibiting 

certain kinds or densities of development. The easements become attached to 

the deed for the property, and remain in effect when it is sold or transferred. 

Restrictions in the deed make it clear that the land cannot be developed 

based on the rights that have been purchased. 

• The primary disadvantage to purchasing property or development rights is 

the high cost, so it is impractical for many communities. Land trusts or 

conservancies can purchase land outright, or be recipients of conservation 

easements or land donations. Land owners can also gain tax benefits from 

donating their land for environmental protection. Some States offer grants or 

loans to communities for acquiring environmentally sensitive lands. Certain 

non-profit organizations such as local or regional land trusts, can assist 

communities by acquiring land. 
Land Use Prohibitions 

• Effective way to remove threats from 

sensitive areas 

• Source-specific and chemical-specific 

standards 

• Hazardous chemicals that are caustic, toxic, or volatile can endanger public 

health or water supplies. Authorities can opt to prohibit or limit the storage 

or use of large supplies of dangerous substances in sensitive areas. 

• Land use prohibitions can be very effective ways to remove potential 

contamination sources from water supply areas. Because they are very 

restrictive, local government officials should use hydrologic studies to verify 

their necessity. If potentially threatening land uses already exist in the area, a 

phased-in approach may be more acceptable. For example, a ban on 

underground storage tanks could ban new USTs immediately, and phase out 

existing tanks as their service lives expire by requiring replacement tanks to 

be above ground. 
Land Use Prohibitions 

• Land use prohibitions can be aimed at controlling either activities that use 

dangerous substances (source-specific standards) or the materials themselves 

(contaminant-specific standards). 

• Examples of source-specific standards include: 

o Prohibiting gas stations in sensitive areas, or requiring double-hulled or 

corrosion-resistant design of underground storage tanks. 

o Septic system requirements, such as minimum setbacks from surface 

water or separations from the water table, or mandatory maintena nce 

and inspections schedules. 

• Contaminant-specific standards may prohibit the use of heavy metals, 

petroleum products, solvents, or radioactive materials in source water 

protection areas. Regulations on the application of pesticides, fertilizer, 

manure, and sludge are also examples of contaminant-specific standards. 
Regulations and 

Permits 

• Construction and operating standards 

• Permit requirements 

• Land use prohibitions 

• Public health regulations 

• Management measures can be imposed by regulation or through permit 

requirements. Local government officials can require owners of facilities that 

can endanger drinking water supplies to comply with standards for proper 

design, operation, or maintenance. 

• In some communities, local government officials may encounter public 

resistance to regulations, and the cost to administer permitting or inspection 

programs can be high. However, regulations can be an effective way to 

control certain activities in source water protection areas. Most regulatory 

controls are subject to the provisions of State enabling legisla tion, and 

require careful drafting to avoid potential legal challenges. 

• The next few slides describe regulatory options available to local 

government officials. 
Construction and 

Operating Standards 

• Construction and operating standards may be imposed to reduce threats to 

water supplies from some activities. For example: 

o Storage tanks may be required to have a double-hulled construction 

and leak detection systems. 

o Homeowners with septic systems may be required to construct them 

using approved designs or maintain their systems regularly. 

• Construction and operating standards may require some of the constructed 

devices, operating and maintenance practices, or product and waste disposal 

procedures described later in this section. 
Permit Requirements 

• Local authorities can require permits 

• Permit fees can help recover program 

costs 

• Permits can be site-specific 

• Inspections enforce permit requirements 

• Municipalities can require owners or operators of facilities tha t can pose a 

potential risk to water supplies to obtain permits. Permits allow authorities to 

maintain an inventory of potential contamination sources, periodically 

inspect facilities for compliance with ordinances, require minimum 

construction or operating standards (see previous slide), and periodically 

reexamine the appropriateness of the source or activity to determine if 

revisions (or discontinuance) are necessary. 

• Permitting fees can help recover the costs associated with tracking and 

maintaining source-specific information. 

• Existing Class V motor vehicle waste disposal wells are an example of a use 

for which a permit may be required. 

• One provision of a permit may be periodic inspections. Inspections can 

identify people who are not complying with standards, and can also provide 

an opportunity to educate them about proper procedures and make sure they 

are following them. 

• Permits can also be site-specific, and permit requirements can be tailored to 

the specific location or activity. 
Public Health Regulations 

• Underground storage tanks 

– Construction standards 

– Leak testing 

• Septic systems 

– Number and size in a given area 

– Siting, setback distances and construction 

– Maintenance standards 

• Floor drains 

• Regulation by a local health department can help protect source waters. 

Examples of areas that health departments typically regulate are 

underground storage tanks, septic systems and floor drains. 

o Prohibition or registration of residential underground storage tanks, 

leak testing, ground water monitoring, and construction standards can 

help to reduce the risk from these tanks. 

o Regulations addressing the number and size of septic systems allowed 

in an area, construction and siting standards, bans on certain solvent 

cleaners, maintenance standards, and setback distances can help to 

ensure that septic systems do not contaminate source water. 

o Towns may implement controls prohibiting any floor drain that 

discharges to ground water when the drain is located in an area where 

pollutants may enter the drain. 

• Health departments may regulate numerous other activities that could 

contribute to contamination of source waters. Coordination at the local level 

to ensure that the appropriate departments are involved in source water 

protection efforts is important. 

• Health regulations are usually an accepted regulatory option for local 

governments. Although implementing a new program of inspections and 

enforcement may require significant resources, this infrastructure often 

already exists within local government. Local officials can direct or 

coordinate these resources to work on source water priorities. 
Structural Measures 

• Constructed systems or devices 

• Vegetative measures 

• Structural BMPs refer to man-made systems or devices designed to prevent 

contamination. They may work by preventing leaks or contamination, or 

stopping them at the source; collecting or diverting hazardous or toxic 

components of a waste stream; or encouraging filtration or infiltration of 

wastewater to allow natural processes to remove contaminants. 

• Where they are not imposed by local regulations or ordinances (see above), 

land owners should be encouraged to adopt these BMPs. 

• The next few slides describe and give examples of constructed and 

vegetative BMPs. 
Constructed Systems 

or Devices 

• Automatic shut-off and 

leak detection devices 

on USTS 

• Secondary containment 

• Drainage diversion 

• Segregated floor drains 

• Waste collection 

devices 

• Constructed devices or retrofits to existing machinery or operations can 

detect equipment failures or leaks, contain contaminants at the source, or 

catch spilled chemicals. Examples include: 

o Secondary containment structures, such as oil-retaining catch basins, 

containment berms for above ground storage tanks, or impervious 

surfaces for tank placement. 

o At animal feeding operations, earthen ridges or diversion terraces to 

direct surface flow away from animal waste. 

o Leak detection devices on storage tanks, including automatic tank 

gauges, vapor monitoring, interstitial monitoring, and ground water 

monitoring. 

o Segregating floor drains from wastewater carrying hazardous or toxic 

wastes, such as photography development fluids. 

o Devices to collect and store wastewater for proper disposal. 
Vegetative Measures 

Swales 

Photo: Texas Chapter, APWA 

• Natural vegetation is remarkably effective at filtering contaminants before 

they reach water bodies or seep into the ground water. It can also slow the 

speed of runoff to prevent erosion. 

• Vegetative measures capitalize on these abilities to promote filtering or 

infiltration of waste water. They are often used to mitigate the damage 

caused by runoff over farm land, roads, or in urban areas. 

• Examples include constructed wetlands, vegetated buffer strips along shore 

lines, or grassed swales or depressions that collect runoff, encourage 

infiltration, or reduce erosion. 

• They often require little maintenance, other than proper management of 

runoff they collect, and can improve land values. For example, in residential 

areas real estate values may be higher for properties surrounding a 

constructed wetland. However, these vegetative measures also require 

proper management of runoff. 
Good Housekeeping 

Practices 

• Equipment operation and 

maintenance 

• Product storage, use and handling 

• Waste storage and disposal 

• May be required by local ordinances 

or health regulations 

• Homeowners and business owners should be made aware that careful 

handling of potentially dangerous substances and proper use of the 

equipment and chemicals they use every day can go a long way to protecting 

their water supply. These “good housekeeping” practices typically do not 

require significant expenditures or drastic changes to customary activities, 

and can often save money by eliminating waste of the products they buy. 

• People should be encouraged to limit fertilizer applications to lawns and 

gardens, and properly store chemicals to prevent contamination of storm 

water runoff. Chemicals and oil should not be poured into sewers. Pet 

wastes, a significant source of nutrient contamination, should be disposed of 

properly. 

• Employees should be trained in the use of BMP devices and safe use and 

storage of chemicals at the workplace. 

• Some of these practices may be imposed by local ordinances or he alth 

regulations (such as maintenance requirements for septic systems). If not, 

their use should be encouraged through public education. 
Equipment Operation 

and Maintenance 

• Proper maintenance of vehicles and household, farm, construction, and 

industrial equipment prevents accidents, leaks, and breakdown of pollution 

preventing design. It also extends their service lives, saving owners money. 

o Septic system maintenance reduces the threat of leakage of the tank 

and possible contamination of ground water by pathogens. It canalso 

save home and business owners money by avoiding costly repairs. 

o Vehicle maintenance increases the life span of cars and trucks, 

construction vehicles, and farm equipment. Properly maintained 

equipment reduces the likelihood of spills and accidents, and offers 

other environmental benefits, such as reducing air pollution. 

o Washing vehicles before they leave a construction site keeps sediment 

on the site and out of roadway storm sewers. 

o Inspecting storage tanks for potential leaks helps to ensure that 

chemicals do not spill on the ground or seep into the ground water. 

Avoiding leaks saves the tank owner money on the purchase of the 

substance stored. 

o Keeping equipment properly calibrated (e.g., for fertilizer and pesticide 

application) is also important. 
Product Storage, Use 

and Handling 

• Properly used, most chemical products available to homeowners are safe for 

the environment. One of the most basic aspects of proper product storage and 

use is following the manufacturer’s directions. Land and busine ss owners 

should understand that reading and following the directions on the label of 

pesticides, fertilizers, and automotive products can protect the ir drinking 

water supply. Other safe product use and handling practices include the 

following: 

o Pesticide and fertilizer application equipment should be loaded over 

impervious surfaces, so that any spills can be cleaned without seeping 

into ground water. Farmers and homeowners should purchase only 

what they need, and store and apply excess product to plants or crops 

during subsequent applications, or give leftovers to a neighbor instead 

of throwing them out. 

o Selecting appropriate low sudsing, low phosphate, biodegradable 

detergents at vehicle washing operations maximizes the effectiveness 

of oil/water separation and retention in control devices. 
Proper Waste Storage 

and Disposal 

Photos: Texas Chapter, APWA 

• Relatively small amounts of waste from leaking containers and dumping 

dangerous substances (which may be illegal) can contaminate large volumes 

of water. 

• Proper storage of products and disposal of wastes is important to protecting 

water supplies. For example: 

o Recycling used oil and automotive fluids, batteries, pesticides and 

fertilizers, and household hazardous materials can be encouraged with 

community hazardous waste collection days. 

o Absorbent pads should be kept at facilities where chemicals are used to 

quickly clean and contain spills. 

o Storage above ground is preferred to underground storage, as this 

makes it easier to discover leaks. 

o Motor vehicle fluids such as oil and gasoline, and pesticides should be 

stored in a covered structure, away from the elements to prevent 

damage to containers. 
Other Tools 

• Public education 

• Environmentally responsible land 

management 

• Financial incentives 

• Emergency response planning 

• Public education is critical to a drinking water supply management program. 

As people become aware of the importance of protecting their water supply 

and how easily this can be accomplished, management measures have a 

greater chance of success. 

• Encouraging homeowners and farmers to manage their land in an 

environmentally responsible manner reduces risks due to contaminated 

runoff. 

• Governments may provide financial incentives to encourage activities that 

protect sources of drinking water. For example, payments to farmers are 

available under the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Conservation Reserve 

Program for constructing vegetated buffer strips, and under the 

Environmental Quality Incentives Program for constructing animal waste 

control structures. 

• Emergency response planning is the last step in the process: if protective 

measures should fail or disaster strikes, a response plan is keyto mitigating 

adverse effects. 

• These tools for source water protection are described on the next few slides. 
Public Education 

• Many people inadvertently contribute to pollution simply because they do not realize 

that their activities can contaminate water supplies. A public education campaign can 

explain how each business and household can protect drinking water sources. 

• Appropriate topics for households include environmentally responsible landscaping 

and lawn care; safe use of pesticides, herbicides, and motor vehicle fluids; care of 

septic systems; proper disposal of chemicals and used oil (never to sewers or septic 

tanks); and water conservation techniques. 

• Many communities have developed public education programs designed to encourage 

adoption of BMPs and waste minimization strategies. 

• Public education can also build support for regulatory initiatives. 
Responsible Land 

Management 

• Land owners should be encouraged to conduct activities in a manner that 

reduces threats to drinking water supplies. Environmentally responsible land 

management does not mean that people must cease certain activities or make 

drastic changes to their businesses, rather that they re-think the way they go 

about their activities. For example: 

o Environmentally sensitive landscaping relies on native plants that grow 

dense root systems to encourage infiltration and reduce erosion. These 

plants have the best chance for survival with the least amount of 

watering, pesticides, and fertilizers, saving the land owner money. 

o Proper lawn maintenance involves aerating soils and planting climateappropriate species of grasses that need the least chemical assistance to 

thrive. 

o Conservation tillage, crop rotation, contour strip farming (shown 

above), and animal grazing management can protect valuable farm 

land and reduce loss of pesticides and nutrients to the environment and 

sediment. 

o Integrated pest management is the coordinated use of pest and 

environmental information with available pest control methods to 

prevent unacceptable levels of pest damage by the most economical 

means and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the 

environment. 

• Financial incentives are available from the U.S. Department of Agriculture 

for some of these agricultural measures. 
Emergency 

Response Planning 

What if..? 

• Despite the best management measures, accidents or disasters can happen. 

Local government officials should be prepared for unforseen circumstances. 

Emergency response planning or contingency planning is the process of 

identifying potential threats and formulating response scenarios. 

• An emergency response plan is a set of “what ifs” about things that can 

adversely affect water supplies, and how local government officials would 

respond. 

• Elements of municipal emergency response plans should include information 

about the water system, potential contamination sources and their locations, 

fire-fighting plans, needed equipment and supplies, surface spill reporting 

forms and names and phone numbers of emergency response contacts, and 

short- and long-term water supply options. 

• Business owners may also be required to have emergency response plans on 

file if, for example, they handle or use hazardous materials and are subject to 

the Emergency Preparedness and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) 

or the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). 

• Municipalities should have written emergency response plans on file, and 

responding parties such as police and fire departments, health officials, and 

response contractors and public water suppliers should be aware of them. 
Source Water 

Protection 

Measures for 

Specific Sources 

• This section will discuss protection measures for specific sources: 

o Storm water runoff; 

o Septic systems; 

o Above and underground storage tanks; 

o Vehicle washing; 

o Small quantity chemical use, storage and disposal; 

o Animal waste from livestock, pets, and wildlife; 

o Agricultural application of fertilizers; 

o Turf grass and garden application of fertilizers; 

o Large-scale application of pesticides; 

o Small-scale application of pesticides; 

o Combined and sanitary sewer overflows; 

o Aircraft and airfield deicing operations; 

o Highway deicing operations; and 

o Abandoned wells. 

• For each source, we will discuss places where the source can be found; why 

it should be managed; and best or most-used protection measures. 
Storm Water Runoff 

Erosion from runoff 

• Storm water runoff is rain or snow melt that flows off the land, from streets, roof tops, and lawns. 

Urban and suburban areas are predominated by impervious cover including rooftops of buildings and 

other structures; pavement on roads, sidewalks, and parking lots; and impaired pervious surfaces 

(compacted soils) such as dirt parking lots, walking paths, baseball fields and suburban lawns. 

Storm water can also be a problem in rural areas if there is not sufficient vegetation or other means 

of controlling erosion. 

• Storm water runoff is a major contamination pathway for many of the specific sources we will 

discuss in this section. Oil, gasoline, and automotive fluids drip from vehicles onto roads and 

parking lots. Storm water runoff from shopping malls and retail centers also contains hydrocarbons 

from automobiles. Landscaping by homeowners, around businesses, and on public grounds 

contributes pesticides, fertilizers, and nutrients to runoff. Construction of roads and buildings is 

another large contributor of sediment loads to waterways. In addition, any uncovered materials such 

as improperly stored hazardous substances (e.g., household cleaners, pool chemicals, or lawn care 

products), pet and wildlife wastes, and litter can be carried in runoff to streams or ground water. 

Illicit discharges to storm drains (of used motor oil, for example), can also contaminate water 

supplies. 

• All of this impervious area prohibits the natural infiltration of rainfall through the soil, which could 

filter some contaminants before they reach ground water, or slow runoff. Development also reduces 

the amount of land available for vegetation, which can mitigate the effects of rapid runoff and filter 

contaminants. When the percentage of impervious cover reaches 10 to 20 percent of a watershed 

area, degraded water quality becomes apparent. 

• When runoff is confined to narrow spaces, such as streets, the velocity at which water flows 

increases greatly. This contributes to erosion and increased flooding (especially in areas without 

vegetative cover), sedimentation into surface water bodies, and reduced ground water recharge. 

Sediment deposited in streams can increase turbidity; provide a pathway for pathogens and viruses; 

decrease reservoir capacity; smother aquatic species, and lead to habitat loss and decreased 

biodiversity of aquatic species. 

• The protection measures that follow can be used to control runoff from the many urban and rural 

sources of potential source water contamination. 
Storm Water Runoff 

• Nonstructural 

measures to control 

runoff 

– Good housekeeping 

– Public education 

– Roadway 

maintenance 

– Erosion and 

sedimentation 

control measures Sewer stenciling 

• Nonstructural pollution source control and protection measures include public education to 

homeowners and business owners on good housekeeping, proper use and storage of 

household toxic materials, and responsible lawn care and landscaping; storm drain stenciling; 

hazardous materials collection; and eliminating illegal discharges. Building and sitedevelopment codes should encourage best management practices. 

• On roadways, proper maintenance of rights-of-way, including chemical and nutrient control, 

street cleaning or sweeping, storm drain cleaning, and use of alternative or reduced de-icing 

products can reduce the pollutant content of runoff. 

• Without appropriate erosion and sedimentation control (ESC) measures, construction 

activities can contribute large amounts of sediment to storm water runoff. Erosion can be 

controlled by planting temporary fast-growing vegetation, such as grasses and wild flowers. 

Covering top soil with geotextiles or impervious covers will protect it from rainfall. Good 

housekeeping measures for construction sites include construction entrance pads and vehicle 

washing to keep sediment and soil on-site. Construction should be staged to reduce soil 

exposure, or timed to coincide with periods of low rainfall and low erosion potential, such as 

in the fall, rather than during spring rains. Other measures include sediment traps and basins; 

sediment fences; wind erosion controls; and sediment, chemical, and nutrient control. 

Ordinances can require plan reviews of construction activities to ensure that erosion is 

minimized, or require ESC measures during construction. Inspections and repairs will 

maintain the working order of ESC measures. 

• Local governments can use a variety of land use controls to reduce the flow of contaminants 

into storm water. For example, subdivision controls help to ensure that expected development 

will not compromise protection of drinking water. Requiring proper drainage management 

(e.g., erosion control) in new developments will ensure that runoff does not become excessive 

as areas of paved surfaces increase. Low impact development incorporates maintaining predevelopment hydrology, considering infiltration technology, re-routing water to recharge the 

aquifer, and minimize disturbances from development. 
Storm Water Runoff 

• Engineered devices to 

control runoff 

– Grassed swales 

– Buffer strips 

– Filter strips 

– Wet ponds 

– Constructed wetlands 

– Infiltration practices 

– BMPs for Class V wells 

Porous design minimizes 

impervious area 

• Constructed devices work by encouraging infiltration, or filtration and 

settling of suspended particles, or a combination of these processes. 

• For example, minimizing directly connected impervious areas is important 

to reducing the flow and volume of runoff. Planners should direct runoff 

from roofs, sidewalks, and other surfaces over grassed areas to promote 

infiltration and filtration of pollutants prior to surface water deposition. 

• Porous design of parking lots also provides places for storm water to 

infiltrate to soils. Concrete grid pavement is typically placed on a sand or 

gravel base with void areas filled with pervious materials such as sand, 

gravel, or grass. Storm water percolates through the voids into the subsoil. 

• Planting landscaped areas lower than the street level encourages drainage. 

• It is important when designing these devices to use the right materials and, 

after construction, to conduct appropriate maintenance. 
Storm Water Runoff 

Grassed swale Filter strip

Photo: Texas Chapter, APWA Photo: Texas Chapter, APWA 

• Structural designs are used to control runoff or temporarily store storm water on site. A 

number of structural devices have been developed to encourage filtration, infiltration, or 

settling of suspended particles. 

• Grassed swales (shown on the left) are shallow, vegetated ditches that reduce the speed 

and volume of runoff. Soil removes contaminants by infiltration and filtration. 

Vegetation, or turf, prevents erosion, filters out sediment, and provides some nutrient 

uptake. Maintenance involves regular mowing, re-seeding, and weed control, along with 

inspections to check for erosion and ensure the integrity of the vegetative cover. To 

function appropriately, the inflow to the swale must be sheet flow from a filter strip or 

impervious surface (not at the end of a pipe). Swales have demonstrated solids removals 

exceeding 80 percent. Swales should preferably be planted with native plants and regularly 

maintained to ensure continued proper operation. 

• Grassed waterways are wide, shallow channels lined with sod, used as an outlet for runoff 

from terraces. They are used to prevent gully erosion, rather than for filtering pollutants. 

Like swales, they require regular maintenance and should be planted be native plants. 

• Buffer strips are combinations of trees, shrubs, and grasses planted parallel to a stream. 

Buffer strips should consist of three zones—about four or five rows of trees closest to the 

stream, one or two rows of shrubs, and a 20 to 24 foot wide grass zone on the outer edge. 

They decrease the velocity of runoff to moderate flooding and prevent stream bank 

erosion, but do not necessarily increase infiltration. 

• Filter strips (shown in the right photograph) are areas of close-growing vegetation on 

gently sloped land surfaces bordering a surface water body. They work by holding soil in 

place, allowing some infiltration, and filtering solid particles out of the runoff from small 

storms. 
Photo: 

Wet Ponds and Constructed Wetlands 

Storm Water Runoff 

Texas Chapter, APWA 

• Storm water ponds, or wet ponds (shown above), consist of a permanent 

pond, where solids settle during and between storms, and a zone of emergent 

wetland vegetation where dissolved contaminants are removed through 

biochemical processes. 

• Constructed wetlands are similar to wet ponds, with more emergent aquatic 

vegetation and a smaller open water area. Storm water wetlands are 

fundamentally different from natural wetlands in that they are designed to 

treat storm water runoff, and typically have less biodiversity than natural 

wetlands. A wetland should have a settling pond, or forebay, if significant 

upstream soil erosion is anticipated. Coarse particles remain trapped in the 

forebay, and maintenance is performed on this smaller pool. Wetlands 

remove the same pollutants as wet ponds though settling of solids and 

biochemical processes, with about the same efficiency. 
Photo: 

Storm Water Runoff 

Infiltration Practices Texas Chapter, APWA 

• Infiltration practices (basins and trenches) are long, narrow stone-filled 

excavated trenches, three to 12 feet deep. Runoff is stored in the basin or in 

voids between the stones in a trench and slowly infiltrates into the soil 

matrix below, where filtering removes pollutants. Infiltration devices alone 

do not remove contaminants, and should be combined with a pretreatment 

practice such as a swale or sediment basin to prevent premature clogging. 

Maintenance consists of inspections annually and after major rain storms and 

debris removal, especially in inlets and overflow channels. Infiltration 

devices and associated practices can achieve up to 70 to 98 percent 

contaminant removal. 

• Infiltration chambers can also be used for septic and storm water 

management. Infiltration septic chambers replace conventional stone and 

pipe leach fields. A subsurface infiltration storm water system replaces 

retention ponds, large diameter pipe and stone, and other storm water 

designs. Infiltration chambers have been used in drainfield, leach field, 

mound, and sand filter applications. However, maintenance can be difficult. 

They are sometimes hard to monitor and to dig up. 

• Swirl-type concentrators are underground vaults designed to create a 

circular motion to encourage sedimentation and oil and grease removal. The 

currents rapidly separate out settleable grit and floatable matter, which are 

concentrated for treatment, while the cleaner, treated flow discharges to 

receiving waters. Swirl concentrators have demonstrated total suspended 

solids and BOD removal efficiencies exceeding 60 percent. 
Storm Water Runoff 

• Storm water 

drainage wells 

(Class V) 

• Protection measures 

for Class V wells 

– Siting 

– Design 

– Operation 

Storm drain 

• Protection measures for Class V storm water drainage wells address siting, 

design, and operation of these wells. 

o Siting measures for storm water drainage wells include minimum 

setbacks from surface waters, drinking water wells, or the water table. 

Storm water drainage wells may also be prohibited from areas of 

critical concern, such as source water protection areas, or from areas 

where the engineering properties of the soil are not ideal for their 

performance. 

o Available design measures for storm water drainage wells include 

sediment removal devices (such as oil/grit separators or filter strips), 

oil and grease separators, and pretreatment devices such as infiltration 

trenches or wetlands. Maintenance of these BMPs is crucial to their 

proper operation. 

o Management measures related to operation include spill response, 

monitoring, and maintenance procedures. Source separation, or 

keeping runoff from industrial areas away from storm water drainage 

wells, involves using containment devices such as berms or curbs. 
Storm Water Runoff 

• Municipal separate 

storm sewer 

systems (MS4s) 

– Regulated under the 

NPDES Program 

– Over 5,000 

nationwide 

• EPA’s National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) 

Permitting Program regulates storm water runoff from municipal separate 

storm sewer systems (MS4s) and industrial activity (including construction). 

The current rules establish permit requirements for more than 5,000 MS4s 

nationwide. NPDES storm water permits issued to MS4s require these MS4s 

to develop the necessary legal authority to reduce the discharge of pollutants 

in storm water to the maximum extent practicable and to develop and 

implement a storm water management program that includes: 

o Structural and source control measures to reduce pollutants from runoff 

from commercial and residential areas, including maintenance, 

monitoring, and planning activities; 

o The detection and removal of illicit discharges and improper disposal 

into the storm sewer; 

o Monitoring and control of storm water discharges from certain 

industrial activities; and 

o Construction site storm water control. 

• In addition, the storm water rule for certain small MS4s requires postconstruction storm water management controls. These local controls are in 

addition to existing federal regulations that require NPDES permits of all 

construction activities disturbing greater than one acre. 

• Recently, EPA developed a menu of BMPs that provides more than 100 fact 

sheets on measures that small MS4s could use to control urban storm water 

runoff. The menu is available from EPA’s website at www.epa.gov/npdes. 
Septic Systems 

Ground water 

• Septic systems are used to treat and dispose of sanitary waste, that is, wastewater from 

kitchens, clothes washing machines, and bathrooms. When properly sited, designed, 

constructed, and operated, they pose a minimal threat to drinking water sources. On the 

other hand, improperly used or operated septic systems can be a significant source of 

ground water contamination that can lead to waterborne disease outbreaks and other 

adverse health effects. [Note that large capacity cesspools are not septic systems.] 

• A typical household septic system consists of a septic tank, a distribution box, and a 

drain field. The septic tank is a rectangular or cylindrical container made of concrete, 

fiberglass, or polyethylene. Wastewater flows into the tank, where it is held for a period 

of time to allow suspended solids to separate out. The heavier solids collect in the 

bottom of the tank and are partially decomposed by microbial activity. Grease, oil, and 

fat, along with some digested solids, float to the surface to form a scum layer. 

• The partially clarified wastewater that remains between the laye rs of scum and sludge 

flows to the distribution box, which distributes it evenly through the drain field. The 

drain field is a network of perforated pipes laid in gravel-filled trenches or beds. 

Wastewater flows out of the pipes, through the gravel, and into the surrounding soil. As 

the wastewater effluent percolates down through the soil, chemical and biological 

processes remove some of the contaminants before it reaches ground water. 

• Septic systems can be a significant source of ground water contamination leading to 

waterborne disease outbreaks and other adverse health effects. The bacteria, protozoa, 

nitrate and viruses found in sanitary wastewater can cause numerous diseases, including 

gastrointestinal illness, cholera, hepatitis A, blue baby syndrome and typhoid. 
Septic Systems 

Septic system drain field 

• Most jurisdictions require minimum horizontal setback distances from features such as buildings 

and drinking water wells and minimum vertical setback distances from impermeable soil layers 

and the seasonal high water table. Areas with high water tables and shallow impermeable layers 

should be avoided because there is insufficient unsaturated soil thickness to ensure sufficient 

treatment. Soil permeability must be adequate to ensure proper treatment of septic system effluent. 

If permeability is too low, the drain field may not be able to handle wastewater flows, and surface 

ponding (thus contributing to the contamination of surface water through runoff) or plumbing backups may result. If permeability is too high, the effluent may reach ground water before it is 

adequately treated. Well-drained loamy soils are generally the most desirable for proper septic 

system operation. 

• Septic tanks and drain fields should be of adequate size to handle anticipated wastewater flows. In 

addition, soil characteristics and topography should be taken into account in designing the drain 

field. Generally speaking, the lower the soil permeability, the larger the drain field required for 

adequate treatment. Drain fields should be located in relatively flat areas to ensure uniform effluent 

flow. 

• Effluent containing excessive amounts of grease, fats, and oils may clog the septic tank or drain 

field and lead to premature failure. The installation of grease interceptors is recommended for 

restaurants and other facilities with similar wastewater characteristics. 

• Construction should be performed by a licensed septic system installer to ensure compliance with 

applicable regulations. The infiltration capacity of the soil may be reduced if the soil is overly 

compacted. Care should be taken not to drive heavy vehicles over the drain field area during 

construction or afterward. Construction equipment should operate from upslope of the drain field 

area. Construction should not be performed when the soil is wet, or excessive soil smearing and 

soil compaction may result. 

• Local governments can use a variety of land use controls to protect source water from potential 

contamination. For example, subdivision or health regulations can specify the number and size of 

septic systems allowed in a development, construction and siting standards, maintenance standards, 

and setback distances. In making siting decisions, local health officials should also evaluate 

whether soils and receiving waters can absorb the combined effluent loadings from all of the septic 

systems in the area. 
Septic Systems 

• Inadequate septic system operation and maintenance can lead to failure even when systems are 

designed and constructed according to regulation. Homeowners associations and tenant 

associations can play an important role in educating their members about their septic systems. In 

the case of commercial establishments such as strip malls, management companies can serve a 

similar role. Septic system owners should continuously monitor the drain field area for signs of 

failure, including odors, surfacing sewage, and lush vegetation. The septic tank should be 

inspected annually to ensure that the internal structures are in good working order. 

• Many septic systems fail due to hydraulic overloading that leads to surface ponding. Reducing 

wastewater volumes through water conservation is important to extend the life of the drain field. 

Conservation measures include using water-saving devices, repairing leaky plumbing fixtures, 

taking shorter showers, and washing only full loads of dishes and laundry. Wastewater containing 

water softeners should not be discharged into the septic system to minimize hydraulic load. In 

addition, surface runoff from driveways, roofs, and patios should be directed away from the drain 

field. 

• If an excessive amount of sludge is allowed to collect in the bottom of the septic tank, wastewater 

will not spend a sufficient time in the tank before flowing into the drain field. The increased 

concentration of solids entering the drain field can reduce soil permeability and cause the drain 

field to fail. Septic tanks should be pumped out every two to five years, depending on the tank 

size, wastewater volume, and types of solids entering the system. Garbage disposals increase the 

volume of solids entering the septic tank, requiring them to be pumped more often. 

• Household chemicals such as solvents, drain cleaners, oils, paint, and pesticides can interfere with 

the proper operation of the septic system and cause ground water contamination. Grease, cooking 

fats, coffee grounds, sanitary napkins, and cigarettes do not easily decompose, and contribute to the 

build-up of solids in the tank. The use of additives has not been proven to improve the performance 

of septic systems. In fact, additives containing solvents or petrochemicals may actually reduce the 

septic system’s treatment capacity or cause ground water contamination. 

• Vehicles and heavy equipment should be kept off the drain field area to prevent soil compaction 

and damage to pipes. Trees should not be planted over the drain field because the roots can enter 

the perforated piping and lead to back-ups. Last, avoid any type of construction over the drain 

field. Impervious cover can reduce soil evaporation from the drain field, reducing its capacity to 

handle wastewater. 
Above and Underground 

Storage Tanks 

Corroded underground storage tank 

• Above ground storage tanks (ASTs) are tanks or other containers that are above ground, 

partially buried, bunkered, or in a subterranean vault. Underground storage tanks (USTs) are 

tanks and any underground piping that have at least ten percent of their combined volume 

underground. 

• The majority of storage tanks contain petroleum products (motor fuels, petroleum solvents, 

heating oil, lubricants, used oil, etc.). ASTs are typically found in marketing terminals, 

refineries, and fuel distribution centers, while most USTs are found at motor vehicle service 

stations. In fact, the U.S. EPA regulates more than 1.2 million USTs containing petroleum 

products. Storage tanks may also be found in airports, school bus barns, hospitals, automotive 

repair shops, military bases, farms, residential areas and industrial plants. Accidental releases 

of chemicals from storage tanks can contaminate source water. Materials spilled, leaked, or 

lost from storage tanks may accumulate in soil or be carried away in storm water runoff. 

• The major causes for storage tank releases are holes from corrosion, improper installation, 

failure of piping systems, and spills and overfills. Federal regulations were developed to 

prevent, detect, and correct UST releases. While most USTs were required to comply with 

these regulations by December 1998, certain storage tanks were exempted (see 40 CFR 

280.10). 

• Additionally, large capacity AST and UST owners storing oil products may need to comply 

with Federal Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) regulations (see 40 CFR 

Part 112). 

• Local governments can use land use controls to address some of the potential risks from USTs 

and ASTs. For example, zoning can restrict these activities to specific geographic areas that 

are away from drinking water sources. Prohibition of gas stations (which use USTs) in source 

water protection areas can reduce the risk that harmful contaminants may enter source water. 

Local governments may also require permits that impose additional requirements such as 

setbacks, open spaces, buffers, walls and fences; street paving and control of site access points; 

and regulation of hours and methods of operation. 
Tanks 

• Corrosion 

protection 

• Secondary 

containment 

• Monitoring 

• Periodic cleanup 

• Evaporation 

protection 

• Proper closure Sheltered above ground tank farm 

Federal AST Requirements for Tanks Storing Petroleum Products (see 40 CFR Part 112). 

• Follow standard tank filling practices when filling tanks to prevent spills and overfills. Furthermore, all 

ASTs should have a secondary containment area that contains spills and allows leaks to be more easily 

detected. The containment area surrounding the tank should hold 110 percent of the contents of the 

largest tank plus freeboard for precipitation. Secondary containment for ASTs must be impermeable to 

the materials being stored. Methods include berms, dikes, liners, vaults, and double -walled tanks. A 

manually controlled sump pump should be used to collect rain water that may accumulate in the 

secondary containment area. Any discharge should be inspected for petroleum or chemicals prior to 

being dispensed. 

• Routinely monitor ASTs to ensure they are not leaking. An audit of a newly installed tank system by a 

professional engineer can identify and correct problems such as loose fittings, poor welding, and poorly 

fit gaskets. After installation, inspect the tank system periodically to ensure it is in good condition. 

Depending on the permeability of the secondary containment area, more frequent containment area 

checks may be necessary. Areas to inspect include tank foundations, connections, coatings, tank walls, 

and the piping system. Integrity testing should be done periodically by a qualified professional and in 

accordance to applicable standards. 

• If an AST has remained out of service for more a year or more, many States require owners to maintain 

and monitor the tank, declare the tank inactive, or remove it. If the tank is declared inactive, remove all 

substances from the AST system (including pipes) and completely clean the inside. Secure tanks by 

bolting and locking all valves, as well as capping all gauge openings and fill lines. Clearly label tanks 

with the date and the words “Out of Service.” Samples may be required when removing tanks to 

determine if any contamination has occurred. Most States require out-of-service tanks to be inspected 

and meet leak detection requirements before they are put back into service. 

Additional AST Protection Measures 

• The location of the facility must be considered in relation to drinking water wells, streams, ponds and 

ditches (perennial or intermittent), storm or sanitary sewers, wetlands, mudflats, sandflats, farm drain 

tiles, or other navigable waters. The distance to drinking water wells and surface water, volume of 

material stored, worse case weather conditions, drainage patterns, land contours, soil conditions, etc., 

must also be taken into account. 

• ASTs should have corrosion protection for the tank. Options include elevating tanks, resting tanks on 

continuous concrete slabs, installing double -walled tanks, cathodically protecting the tanks, internally 

lining tanks, inspecting tanks according to American Petroleum Institute standard, or a combination of 

the options listed above. All underground piping to the tank should be double-walled or located above 

ground or cathodically protected so you can inspect it when it fails. 

• Local jurisdictions may want to implement registration programs for exempt tanks, in order to exercise 

some oversight of their construction and operation. Furthermore, most States also require inspections for 

ASTs by fire marshals. Inspection programs can be expanded to cover water contamination issues. Tier 

2 reporting to local fire departments under the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act 

(EPCRA) can be a resource to local jurisdictions. 
Underground Storage 

Tanks 

Backfilling an UST installation 

in a lined pit 

• Proper installation 

• Corrosion protection 

• Spill prevention 

• Overfill protection 

• Leak detection 

• Proper closure 

Federal UST Requirements (see 40 CFR Part 280) 

• Proper installation. USTs must be installed according to industry standards with great care to maintain 

the integrity and the corrosion protection of the tank. Tanks must also be properly sited away from 

wells, reservoirs, and floodplains. Ideally, all types of USTs should be located outside of source water 

protection areas. 

• Corrosion protection. UST systems must be made of noncorrodible material, such as fiberglass, or have 

corrosion protection provided in other ways, such as by being made of externally coated and cathodically 

protected metal, having double -walls, metal having a thick corrosion resistant cladding or jacket, or 

having an internal tank lining. 

• Spill protection. USTs must have catchment basins that can catch spills that may occur when the 

delivery hose is disconnected from the fill pipe. A catchment basin is basically a bucket sealed around 

the fill pipe. 

• Overfill protection. When an UST is overfilled, large volumes can be released at the fill pipe and 

through loose fittings on the top of the tank or a loose vent pipe. USTs must have overfill protection 

devices, such as automatic shutoff devices, overfill alarms, and ball float valves. In addition, proper 

filling procedures during fuel delivery must be followed to reduce the chance of spills or overfills. 

• Leak detection. Leak detection options include automatic tank gauging, interstitial monitoring, statistica

inventory reconciliation, vapor monitoring, and ground water monitoring. All leaks must be detected in 

timely manner, before they become big cleanup and liability problems. 

• Proper closure. The regulatory authority needs to be notified 30 days before UST closure, and a 

determination must be made if any contamination of the environment has occurred. The tank must be 

emptied and cleaned, after which it may be left underground or removed. Standard safety practices 

should always be followed when emptying, cleaning, or removing tanks. 

Additional protection Measures 

• Local governments can use land use controls to address some of the potential risks from USTs. For 

example, zoning can restrict these activities to specific geographic areas that are away from drinking 

water sources. Prohibition of gas stations (which use USTs) or residential heating oil tanks in source 

water protection areas can reduce the risk that harmful contaminants may enter source water. Local 

governments may also require permits that impose additional requirements such as setbacks, open spaces

buffers, walls and fences; street paving and control of site access points; and regulation of hours and 

methods of operation. Local jurisdictions may want to implement registration programs for exempt 

tanks, in order to exercise some oversight of their construction and operation. 

• Work with your State and local UST regulatory authorities to ensure that adequate inspection of UST 

sites takes place regularly — inspections that verify whether USTs are properly equipped, operated, and 

maintained so they will not pose a threat to your water source. 
Vehicle Washing 

Facilities 

• Minimize runoff 

• Enclose wash areas 

and locate them on 

impervious surfaces 

• Use alternative 

cleaning agents 

• Vehicle washing is the cleaning of privately owned vehicles (cars and trucks), public vehicles 

(school buses, vans, municipal buses, fire trucks and utility vehicles), and industrial vehicles 

(moving vans or trucks and tractors). Vehicle wash water contains oil, grease, metal (paint chips), 

phosphates, detergents, soaps, cleaners, road salts, and other chemicals. These chemicals can 

contaminate source water when they are allowed to enter storm water drains and injection wells, 

instead of being diverted to treatment plants or transported to vegetative areas, where the grass can 

filter the contaminants from the water. 

• Vehicle washing facilities should be designed and operated to minimize runoff. Warning signs 

should be posted for customers and employees instructing them not to dump vehicle fluids, 

pesticides, solvents, fertilizers, organic chemicals, or toxic chemicals into catch basins. Catch 

basins are chambers or sumps that channel surface runoff to a storm drain or sewer system. 

Vehicle wash facilities should stencil warnings on the pavement next to the grit trap or catch 

basin. All signs should be in a visible location and maintained for readability. 

• Wash areas should be located on well-constructed and maintained, impervious surfaces (i.e., 

concrete or plastic) with drains piped to the sanitary sewer or other disposal devices. The wash 

area should extend at least an additional four feet on all sides of the vehicle to trap all overspray. 

Enclosing wash areas with walls and properly grading wash areas prevents dirty overspray from 

leaving the wash area, and the overspray can be collected from the impermeable surface. 

o The impervious surfaces should be marked to indicate the boundaries of the washing area 

and the area draining to the designated collection point. Washing areas should not be 

located near uncovered vehicle repair areas or chemical storage facilities; chemicals could 

be transported in wash water runoff. 

o Cleaning wash areas and grit traps or catch basins regularly can minimize or prevent debris 

such as paint chips, dirt, cleaning agents, chemicals, and oil and grease from being 

discharged into storm drains or injection wells. 

• Using alternative cleaning agents such as phosphate-free, biodegradable detergents for vehicle 

washing will reduce the amount of contaminants entering storm drains. Cleaning agents 

containing solvents and emulsifiers should be discouraged because they allow oil and grease to 

flow through the oil/water separator (see below) instead of being separated from the effluent. In 

addition, these cleaning agents will remain in the wastewater and can pollute drinking water 

sources. 
Vehicle Washing 

Facilities 

Car wash with vegetated area 

• When sanitary sewers are not available for managing wastewater, there are several different 

approaches that can be taken depending on the size of the site, available resources, and State and 

local requirements. 

• Grassed swales and constructed wetlands can be used to filter sediment (see slides # 3-5 to 3-7 

for more information). 

• Collection sumps are deep pits or reservoirs that hold liquid waste. Vehicle wash water 

accumulates in the collection sumps, and is pumped or siphoned to a vegetated area (grassed 

swale or constructed wetland). Sediment traps can also be used to strain and collect the vehicle 

wash water, prior to pumping or siphoning the wash water to a vegetated area. 

• Oil/water separators are tanks that collect oily vehicle wash water that flow along corrugated 

plates to encourage separation of solids and oil droplets. The oily solids or sludge can then be 

pumped out of the system through a different pipe. The sludge can be hauled off site, and the 

wash water can be discharged to vegetated areas or to a treatment plant. There are two types of 

oil/water separators, one that removes free oil that floats on top of water, and one that removes 

emulsified oil, a mixture of oil, water, chemicals, and dirt. Choose the separator that fits the needs 

of the vehicle wash facility. 

• Recycling systems reduce or eliminate contaminated discharges to storm water drains and 

injection wells by reusing the wash water until the water reaches a certain contaminant level. The 

waste water is then discharged to a collection sump or to a treatment facility. 

• Local governments can use land use controls to protect source water from potential 

contamination from vehicle washing facilities. For example, zoning can restrict this activity to 

specific geographic areas that are distant from drinking water sources. Localities can also prohibit 

vehicle washing activities in source water protection areas to reduce the risk that harmful 

contaminants may enter source water. Local governments may also require permits that impose 

additional requirements such as setbacks, open spaces, buffers, walls and fences; street paving and 

control of site access points; and regulation of hours and methods of operation. 
Small Quantity Chemical Use, 

Storage, and Disposal 

• Small quantity chemical users include dry cleaners, beauty shops, photo finishers, vehicle 

repair shops, printers, laboratories, academic institutions, water supply facilities, nursing 

homes, medical facilities, and many others. These businesses use solvents, corrosives, dry 

cleaning agents, heavy metals and inorganics, inks and paint, le ad-acid batteries, plating 

chemicals, cyanide, and wood preserving agents, among other chemicals, in their daily 

business. These contaminants have a variety of environmental and health hazards. For 

example, a dry cleaning filtration residue, perchloroethylene, causes kidney and liver 

damage in both humans and animals. It is among the most common contaminants in 

ground water and a very small amount can contaminate many thousands of gallons of 

water. Used cyanide, a common waste product of metal finishing, is considered an acutely 

hazardous waste and can be toxic in very small doses. 

• Improper disposal of chemicals from these users can reach ground or surface water through 

a number of pathways. If substances from these businesses are accidentally or intentionally 

discharged into storm drains, contamination of ground and surface waters can occur. 

Improper disposal into sewers can also endanger the ability of publicly-owned treatment 

works (POTWs) to properly treat wastewater. Chemicals poured into septic systems or dry 

wells can leach into ground water or contribute to treatment system failure. Chemical users 

should always ensure that haulers they hire to carry their waste off-site are properly 

licensed and that they deliver the waste to appropriate disposal sites. 

• A useful tool for making disposal decisions is the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). 

These sheets provide important information regarding contents of commercial products and 

enable a facility to determine whether materials will produce hazardous waste. MSDS data 

(i.e., chemical name, ingredients, possible carcinogens, and other known hazards) are also 

important for chemical use, storage and spill control. MSDS documents can be obtained 

from manufacturers and should be kept readily accessible. 
Small Quantity Chemical Use, 

Storage, and Disposal 

Water-based paint 

• Good waste reduction and management strategies can significantly reduce the 

threat of hazardous materials to drinking water sources. Reading the label on 

chemical containers is one of the simplest and most important protection measures. 

The label provides information on proper use, storage, and disposal and may provide 

emergency information in the event the product is accidentally spilled or ingested. 

• Follow the manufacturer’s directions when mixing or using chemicals to prevent 

producing large quantities of useless material that must be disposed of as waste. 

• Responsible purchasing can also drastically decrease the amount of hazardous 

waste for disposal. 

o This includes ordering materials on an as-needed basis and returning unused 

portions back to vendors. 

o The toxicity of waste can be reduced by purchasing and using the least 

hazardous or least concentrated products available to accomplish their 

processes. Such substitutions include the use of water based pa ints, or high 

solids solvent based paints when water based paints are not available. 

Cleaning products and solvents, which can contain highly toxic or harsh 

chemicals, can be replaced with less hazardous counterparts. Printing 

businesses can use nontoxic inks that are free of heavy metal pigments. 

• Another method of waste reduction is trading waste with other businesses. Waste 

exchanges reduce disposal costs and quantities, reduce the demand for natural 

resources, and increase the value of waste. 
Small Quantity Chemical Use, 

Storage, and Disposal 

• Conduct a chemical 

audit 

• Implement a chemical 

management plan 

• Store chemicals 

properly 

• Do not empty in sinks 

or drains 

• Chemical audits are a good starting point. It is important to understand 

chemical needs for the facility and compare these to the chemical supply on 

hand. A chemical management plan that includes a list of chemicals used, 

the method of disposal such as reclamation or contract hauling, and 

procedures for assuring that toxic chemicals are not discharged into source 

water should be implemented. 

• Proper on-site storage of hazardous substances helps to prevent accidental 

leaks. Designated storage areas should have paved or impervious surfaces, a 

protective cover, and secondary containment around all containers. 

Containers should have clear and visible labels that include purchase date 

and all information presented on the distributor's original label. Dating 

materials allows facilities to use older materials first. When not in use, 

storage containers must be sealed to prevent spills and the loss of chemicals 

to the air. Storage areas and containers should be thoroughly inspected on a 

weekly basis and secured against unauthorized entry. 

• Hazardous waste should never be discharged into floor drains, storm drains, 

toilets, sinks, other improper disposal areas, or other routes leading to public 

sewers, septic systems, or dry wells. Chemical waste should be disposed of 

according to the manufacturer’s directions and State and local requirements. 

A facility may unwittingly create excess harmful materials by mixing 

hazardous with nonhazardous waste. Avoiding this practice can significantly 

reduce the burden of hazardous waste disposal and increase the possibility of 

recycling materials. Many local communities sponsor household hazardous 

waste events to collect and properly dispose of small quantities of chemicals. 
Small Quantity Chemical Use, 

Storage, and Disposal 

• Have a spill 

response plan 

• Do not mix 

hazardous and 

nonhazardous 

waste 

• When hazardous substances are unintentionally released, the event is 

considered a spill and must be treated appropriately. A good spill response 

plan minimizes the risk of bodily injury and environmental impact and 

reduces liability for clean-up costs and injuries. It is best kept where it can 

be easily viewed by employees near mixing and storage areas. Besides 

detailed instructions for staff, a spill response plan includes a diagram 

showing the location of all chemicals, floor drains, exits, fire extinguishers, 

and spill response supplies. Spill response supplies (e.g., mop, pail, sponges, 

absorbent materials) should also be listed. Someone trained in these 

procedures must be on site or easily reachable during hours of operation. 

• Other practices to control spills include the use of funnels whe n transferring 

harmful substances and drip pans placed under spigots, valves, and pumps to 

catch accidental leakage. Sloped floors allow leaks to run into collection 

areas. Catch basins in loading dock areas, where nearly one third of all 

accidental spills occur, can help recapture harmful chemicals. All practices 

should be performed in a way that allows the reuse or recycling of the spilled 

substance. 
Animal Waste 

• Livestock 

• Pets 

• Wildlife 

• Animal waste comes from a variety of sources, the most obvious of which are 

livestock animals. Estimates indicate that the quantity of animal waste is 13 times 

greater than human sanitary waste generation in the United States. Livestock waste 

can be introduced to the environment through direct discharges, open feedlots, land 

application, animal housing, and pastures. 

• Wild birds and mammals can pollute surface waters through direct contact. Gulls and 

waterfowl commonly visit or inhabit open reservoirs. Birds are widely reported to be 

one of the most common and significant sources of contamination to open reservoirs. 

• Companion animals, particularly dogs, are also significant contributors to source 

water contamination. Studies performed on watersheds in the Seattle, Washington, 

area found that nearly 20 percent of the bacteria found in water samples were 

matched with dogs as the host animals. Horses are also significant sources of waste. 

The average horse produces 45 pounds of waste each day, which may be difficult for 

small horse farms to manage properly. 

• Probably the greatest health concern from animal wastes is patho gens such as 

Cryptosporidium, Giardia lamblia, the more virulent strains of E. Coli, and 

Salmonella. They can cause serious gastrointestinal illness lasting 2 to 10 days in 

healthy individuals, but can be fatal in people with weakened immune systems. 

• Animal waste contains many pollutants of concern that affect humans and water 

quality. Such pollutants include oxygen-demanding substances that can lead to fish 

kills and degraded water quality; solids that can increase turbidity and decrease the 

aesthetic value (e.g., taste and odor) of water; and nutrients that can cause algal 

blooms or methemoglobanemia, Blue Baby Syndrome, in infants. Metals such as 

arsenic, copper, selenium, and zinc that are added to animal feed can be toxic to 

humans, plants and animals. 
Animal Waste 

• Feedlot management 

– Waste lagoons 

– Litter storage facilities 

– Clean water diversion 

– Composting 

Hog parlor with lagoon 

• Several feedlot management measures are available to reduce contact between livestock and poultry 

manure and precipitation or runoff. 

• A lagoon, or waste storage pond, is made by excavating earth fill for temporary storage of animal waste

This practice can reduce the organic, pathogen, and nutrient loading of surface waters but may 

contaminate ground water if not constructed and maintained properly. Due to the risk to ground water, 

good planning, siting, design, and maintenance are critical when using a lagoon for animal waste storag

• Poultry litter storage facilities are designed to keep rain water and runoff away from poultry house was

stored for later application to crops. Types of litter storage buildings (ranging from the least to most 

protective of water sources) include open stockpiles, covered stockpiles, bunker-type storage, and roofe

storage structures. The appropriate size of the storage structure will depend on the amount of litter 

removed and the frequency of poultry house cleanouts. 

• Clean water diversion is an effective protection measure that avoids contamination of precipitation and 

surface flow as it makes its way to drinking water sources. Rain gutters and downspouts on animal shel

roofs keep runoff clean by directing precipitation away from manure. Another tactic to prevent runoff 

contamination is to construct superficial diversions, including earthen ridges or diversion terraces built 

above the feedlot or barnyard to direct surface flow away from waste. 

• Composting can help eliminate pathogens and reduce the volume of manure. Composting is the contro

biological decomposition of organic materials; it can be aerobic (occurring with oxygen) or anaerobic 

(occurring with little or no oxygen). Compost sites should be located away from drinking water wells an

water sources to avoid leaching during heavy rain and on fairly flat sites where water does not collect o

run off. Composting should take place at the proper temperature and for an appropriate length of time to 

kill pathogens in the manure. 

• Once runoff becomes contaminated, vegetative filter strips and other means can be used to control 

overland flow. Such measures treat runoff from feedlots or grazing areas by absorbing nutrients, bacter

and chemicals. 
Animal Waste 

• Land application 

of manure 

– Nutrient 

management 

– Proper placement 

– Crop rotation 

• Pasture or 

grazing 

management 

– Fencing Livestock fencing 

• Proper land application of manure incorporates effective nutrient management to minimize the 

quantity of nutrients available for loss. This is achieved by developing a comprehensive nutrient 

management plan and using only the types and amounts of nutrients necessary to produce the crop, 

applying nutrients at the proper times and with proper methods, implementing additional farming 

practices to reduce nutrient losses, and following proper procedures for fertilizer storage and handling

• Correct placement of manure in the root zone can greatly enhance plant nutrient uptake and minimize 

losses. Manure should be incorporated into the subsurface, rather than surface applied, to reduce runo

and production of vapors. Waste should never be applied to frozen, snow-covered, or saturated groun

Good management of irrigation water can help maximize efficiency and minimize runoff or leaching. 

• Proper manure application rates are also important. Applying waste at the time of maximum crop 

uptake can minimize loss to surface runoff and decrease the amount of manure needed to fertilize crop

Calculating the optimal rate of application also includes crediting other sources that contribute nitrog

and phosphorus to the soil. Further, appropriate manure application is based on realistic yield goals 

established by the crop producers. Yield expectations are established for each crop and field based on 

soil properties, available moisture, yield history, and management level. Soil sampling is necessary to 

determine plant nutrient needs and to make accurate fertilizer recommendations. 

• Conservation tillage and buffers can reduce runoff over feeding and grazing lands and transport of 

livestock wastes to water sources. In conservation tillage, crops are grown with minimal cultivation o

the soil. This way, plant residues are not completely incorporated into the soil, providing cover and 

reducing runoff. Buffer strips and filter strips are created by planting dense vegetation near surface 

water bodies. The vegetation reduces runoff and strains and filters sediments and chemicals. 

• Where the amount of animal waste produced is more than can be properly utilized by all the crops in 

the area, programs to move the excess manure out of the watershed or source water protection area or 

develop an alternative use for the manure other than land applic ation may be necessary. 

• Crop rotation can often yield crop improvement and economic benefits by minimizing fertilizer and 

pesticide needs. Planting legumes as part of a crop rotation plan provides nitrogen for subsequent 

crops. Deep-rooted crops can be used to scavenge nitrogen left in the soil by shallow-rooted crops. 

• Several pasture or grazing management methods are available to keep livestock away from water 

bodies. In addition to preventing damage to stream banks, fencing can be used to keep livestock from 

defecating in or near streams or wells. Fencing designs include standard or conventional (barbed or 

smooth wire), suspension, woven wire, and electric fences. Height, size, spacing, and number of wire

and posts are a function of landscape topography as well as the animals of concern. Providing 

alternative water sources and hardened stream crossings for use by livestock will lessen their impact 

on water quality. 
Animal Waste 

Confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs) 

• Under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) 

regulations, concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are defined as 

point sources and are subject to permitting where they discharge or have the 

potential to discharge pollutants (40 CFR 122.23). EPA regulations define a 

CAFO based on the size of the animal feeding operation or its size in 

combination with the manner of discharge. 

• An animal feeding operation can also be designated a CAFO when the 

permit authority determines it is a significant source of pollution. A NPDES 

permit authorizes, and imposes conditions on, the discharge of pollutants. 

The permit must include technology-based limitations and, if necessary, 

more stringent water quality-based limitations. EPA has published 

technology-based limitations (e.g., effluent guidelines) for feedlots at 40 

CFR Part 412. The guidelines include numeric limits, non-numeric effluent 

limitations, and requirements for facilities to use specific BMPs. 

• EPA published a proposed rule in the Federal Register on January 12, 2001 

(66 FR 2960,) that would revise and update both the definition of a CAFO 

and the effluent guidelines for feedlots. These revisions seek to address 

water quality issues posed by changes in the animal production industry as 

well as to more effectively address the land application of CAFO-generated 

manure and process wastewater. Additional information on this proposed 

rule can be obtained at http://www.epa.gov/npdes/afo. 
Animal Waste 

• Managing pet 

waste 

– Clean up waste 

– Bury waste 

– Keep pets away 

from streams 

and lakes 

• The most effective way for pet owners to limit their pet’s contribution to source water 

contamination is to simply clean up and dispose of pet waste. As long as the droppings are not 

mixed with other materials, pet waste should be flushed down the toilet. This allows waste to 

be properly treated by a community sewage plant or septic system. Also, pet waste can be 

buried or sealed in a plastic bag and put into the garbage if local law allows it. 

• To bury pet wastes, dig a hole at least one foot deep, and place three to four inches of pet waste 

at the bottom. Use a shovel to chop and mix the wastes into the soil at the bottom, then cover 

the wastes with at least 8 inches of soil to keep rodents and pets from digging them up. Pet 

wastes should only be buried around ornamental plants, and never in vegetable gardens or foodgrowing locations. 

• Pet wastes are not recommended for back yard compost piles. While animal manures can make 

useful fertilizer, parasites carried in dog and cat feces can cause diseases in humans and should 

not be incorporated into compost piles. Dogs and cats should be kept away from gardens as 

well. 

• Pets should not be walked near or allowed to swim in streams, ponds, and lakes. Stream banks 

should not be part of the normal territory of animals. Instead, walk pets in grassy areas, parks, 

or undeveloped areas. Pet wastes left on sidewalks, streets, or other paved and hard surfaces are 

readily carried by storm water into streams. Pet wastes should be kept out of street gutters and 

storm drains. 

• Some more advanced practices that can be adopted in public parks are doggy loos and pooch 

patches. Doggy loos are disposal units installed in the ground where decomposition can occur. 

If pets are allowed off-leash, they can be trained to defecate on pooch patches, which are sandy 

areas designated for that purpose. Special bins can also be provided for the disposal of pet 

waste. Wherever pets defecate, whether in public parks or backyards, try to have them use 

areas of long grass. This “Long Grass Principle” can be used to prevent source water 

contamination. Not only are dogs readily attracted to long grass, but long grass helps to filter 

pollutants and the feces can decompose naturally while minimally polluting runoff. 
Animal Waste 

• Wildlife waste 

– Harassment 

programs 

– Reducing 

attractiveness of 

water supply areas 

Snow geese 

• While there are a variety of ways to decrease the risk posed by wildlife, by 

either removing attractants or harassing nuisance species, any such plans 

should only be implemented with a good understanding of the nuis ance 

wildlife population in question. For example, Federal or State permits may 

be required for wildlife control harassment programs; additionally some 

nuisance species, such as Canada geese, are protected by Federal law and 

harming the birds or their eggs may result in stiff penalties. Consult fish and 

wildlife agencies regarding the handling of protected species. 

• Harassment programs can be implemented to repel birds and wildlife from 

valuable surface waters. These include habitat modification, decoys, eagle 

kites, noisemakers, scarecrows or pyrotechnics, plastic owls, dog hazing, and 

deterrent wires strung across the water source. A daily human presence can 

keep birds and other wild species away. 

• Reducing the attractiveness of water supply areas to wildlife may encourage 

these species to live elsewhere. Diverting species from sensitive areas can be 

accomplished using shoreline fencing, mowing, landscaping changes, tree 

pruning (to reduce bird roosting), or drainage devices (to keep beavers and 

muskrats from building dams and dens). For example, converting large 

grassy areas, such as corporate lawns, to native vegetation may make these 

areas less attractive to Canada geese. 

• Keep food sources to a minimum by prohibiting feeding by the public, 

removing trash, securing poultry, livestock, and pet feed, and reducing 

palatable plant species. 
Agricultural Fertilizer 

Application 

• Time nitrogen 

fertilizer 

applications for 

maximum uptake 

• To minimize 

phosphorus runoff, 

control erosion 

and apply 

phosphorus based 

on soil tests 

Fertilizer spreader 

• Fertilizer application is required to replace cropland nutrients that have been 

consumed by previous plant growth. It is essential for economic yields. 

However, excess fertilizer use and poor application methods can cause 

fertilizer movement into ground and surface waters. While fertilizer 

efficiency has increased, it is estimated that about 25 percent of all preplant 

nitrogen applied to corn is lost through leaching (entering ground water as 

nitrate) or denitrification (entering the atmosphere as nitrogen gas). 

• The two main components of fertilizer that are of greatest concern to source 

water quality are nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Nitrogen is used to 

promote green, leafy, vegetative growth in plants. Phosphorus promotes root 

growth, root branching, stem growth, flowering, fruiting, seed formation, and 

maturation. 

• Time nitrogen fertilizer applications to coincide as closely as possible to the 

period of maximum crop uptake. Fertilizer applied in the fall has been 

shown to cause ground water degradation in areas with high precipitation in 

the fall and winter. Partial application of fertilizer in the spring, followed by 

small additional applications as needed, can improve nitrogen uptake and 

reduce leaching. 

• Phosphorus fertilizer is less subject to leaching, but loss through surface 

runoff is more common. To minimize losses of phosphorus fertilizer, 

applications should only be made when needed (e.g., determined through 

soil testing) and at recommended rates. 

• The use of organic nutrient sources, such as manure, can supply all or part of 

the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium needs for crop production. 

However, like inorganic fertilizers, organic fertilizers can also cause 

excessive nutrient loads if improperly applied. 
Agricultural Fertilizer 

Application 

• Use proper 

application rates 

• Correctly place 

fertilizer 

• Calibrate 

application 

equipment 

Wheat-corn-fallow rotation 

• One component of a comprehensive nutrient management plan is to determine proper fertilizer 

application rates. The goal is to limit fertilizer to an amount necessary to achieve a realistic yield 

goal for the crop. Soil sampling and crediting other sources are part of the concept. Yearly soil 

sampling is necessary for determining plant nutrient needs and making accurate fertilizer 

recommendations. More accurate fertilizer recommendations are made by crediting other sources 

that contribute nitrogen and phosphorous to the soil. Previous legume crops, irrigation water, 

manure, and organic matter all contribute nitrogen to the soil, while organic matter and manure 

contribute phosphorus. 

• Nitrogen fertilizers come in several different forms and applyin g the appropriate form can reduce 

leaching. 

• Inspect fertilizer application equipment at least once annually. Application equipment must also 

be properly calibrated to insure that the recommended amount of fertilizer is spread. 

• As with all chemicals, closely follow label directions for storing and mixing fertilizer and for 

disposing empty containers. Permanent fertilizer storage and mixing sites need to be protected 

from spills, leaks, or storm water infiltration. Storage buildings should have impermeable floors 

and be securely locked. Impermeable secondary containment dikes can also be used to contain 

liquid spills or leaks. Fertilizer must not be stored in underground containers or pits. 

• To prevent accidental contamination of water supplies, mix, handle, and store fertilizers away from 

wellheads and surface water bodies. Ideally, producers should mix and load fertilizers at the 

application spot. Spills must be recovered immediately and reused or properly disposed of. 

Granular absorbent material can be used at the mixing site to clean up small liquid spills. 

• Irrigation water should be managed to maximize efficiency and minimize runoff or leaching. 

Irrigated crop production has the greatest potential for source water contamination because of the 

large amount of water applied. Both nitrogen and phosphorus can leach into ground water or run 

off into surface water when excess water is applied to fields. Irrigation systems, such as sprinklers, 

low-energy precision applications, surges, and drips, allow producers to apply water uniformly and 

with great efficiency. Efficiency can also be improved by using delivery systems such as lined 

ditches and gated pipe, as well as reuse systems such as field drainage recovery ponds that 

efficiently capture sediment and nutrients. Gravity-controlled irrigation or furrow runs should be 

shortened to prevent over watering at the top of the furrow before the lower end is adequately 

watered. 
Agricultural Fertilizer 

Application 

• Use environmentallyfriendly farming 

techniques 

– Crop rotation 

– Buffer and filter strips 

– Conservation tillage 

– Laser-controlled land 

leveling 

– Precision agriculture 

No tillage wheat farming 

• Crop rotation can often yield crop improvement and economic benefits by minimizing fertilizer and 

pesticide needs. Planting legumes as part of a crop rotation plan provides nitrogen for subsequent 

crops. Deep-rooted crops can be used to scavenge nitrogen left in the soil by shallow-rooted crops. 

Cover crops stop wind and water erosion, and can use residual nitrogen in the soil. 

• A complete system is needed to reduce fertilizer loss. Components of this system often include 

farming practices that are not strictly related to fertilizer, such as conservation tillage and buffers. 

• Creating buffer strips or filter strips can impede runoff and help filter nitrogen and phosphorus from 

runoff (see slides #3-5 to 3-7 for more information). 

• Conservation tillage is another field management method used to reduce runoff. In conservation 

tillage, crops are grown with minimal cultivation of the soil. When the amount of tillage is reduced, 

the plant residues are not completely incorporated and most or all remain on top of the soil. This 

practice is critical to reducing phosphorus losses because the residue provides cover and thereby 

reduces nutrient runoff and erosion by water. 

• A high-tech way to level or grade a field is to use laser-controlled land leveling equipment. Field 

leveling helps to control water advance and improve uniformity of soil saturation in gravity-flow 

irrigation systems. This improves irrigation efficiency and reduces the potential for nutrient pollution 

through runoff. 

• Precision agriculture is a suite of information technologies used to monitor and manage sub-field 

spatial variability. Variable rate application of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation water can 

enhance producers’ profits and reduce the risk to the environment from agricultural production by 

tailoring chemical use and application more closely to ideal plant growth and management needs. 

• Components of a comprehensive precision farming system typically include intensively testing soils or 

plant tissues within a field; equipment for locating position within a field with the Global Positioning 

System (GPS); a yield monitor; a computer to store and manipulate spatial data using Geographic 

Information System (GIS) software; and a variable -rate applicator. More involved systems may also 

use remote sensing from satellite, aerial, or near-ground imaging platforms during the growing season 

to detect and treat areas of a field that may need more nutrients. 

• Precision farming has the potential to reduce off-site transport of agricultural chemicals from surface 

runoff, subsurface drainage, and leaching. Two years of Kansas field data indicate less total nitrogen 

fertilizer use with precision farming than with conventional nitrogen management. 

• Several organizations can provide advice to help you select appropriate management practices in 

agricultural situations. Within the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Natural Resources 

Conservation Service and the Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service, can 

provide assistance. Local soil and water conservation districts can also help. 
Turf Grass and Garden 

Fertilizer Application 

• The care of landscaped areas can contribute to the pollution of storm water 

and ground water. Heavily landscaped areas include residential yards, 

commercial lawns, golf courses, ball fields, and parks. The soil in many of 

these areas requires frequent fertilization to maintain its turf grass. Because 

excess fertilizer use and poor application methods can cause fertilizer 

movement into sources of drinking water, the increased application of lawn 

and garden fertilizers in recent years has raised concern over the pollution of 

surface water and ground water. 

• Fertilizer applications should be based on soil tests to avoid the economic 

and environmental costs that can be incurred with excess fertilizer use. A 

soil test will show the levels of phosphorus and potassium present in the 

lawn; however, soil tests for nitrogen are rare. Samples can be tested using 

readily available field kits or submitted to a private laboratory or cooperative 

extension service for testing and interpretation. 
Turf Grass and Garden 

Fertilizer Application 

Composting can supply nutrients to the soil 

• Selecting the appropriate fertilizer is the next crucial step after receiving soil testing 

results. Most homeowners use blended fertilizers that list percentages of nitrogen, 

phosphorus, and potassium in the fertilizer. For example, a 100-pound bag of 10-5-

10 would contain ten pounds of nitrogen, five pounds of phosphorus, and ten pounds 

of potassium. If the soil test shows phosphorus is high, then a fertilizer with a low 

percentage of phosphorus should be chosen (such as 20-0-10 or 24-3-8). Most 

lawns contain adequate phosphorus, and continuous use of fertilizers high in 

phosphorus can result in excessive buildups of phosphorus. These lawns are more 

likely to contribute high levels of phosphorus to surface water during storm runoff 

events. The use of organic nutrient sources, such as manure, can supply all or part 

of the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium needs for turfgrass and gardens. 

However, organic fertilizers can also cause excessive nutrient loads if improperly 

applied. 

• To help maintain a healthy lawn it is best to mow frequently at a height of 2.5 to 3 

inches. Grass clippings should remain on the lawn to decompose and recycle 

nutrients back to the lawn. By leaving grass clippings on the lawn, nitrogen 

applications can be reduced by 30 to 40 percent. 

• Wherever possible, plant low maintenance, native plants and grasses (for example, 

xeriscaping is a landscaping method to minimize the use of water in dry climates) to 

minimize the use of fertilizer. Plants that are adapted to the local soils require less 

fertilization and watering. In fact, these practices can reduce required lawn 

maintenance up to 50 percent. 

• The use of an appropriate form of nitrogen fertilizer can reduce the potential for 

leaching and runoff problems. Quick-release fertilizers should be used on heavy 

clay or compacted soils, because the longer a fertilizer granule remains intact, the 

greater the chances it will be washed away into surface water. On sandy soils, 

however, nitrogen can leach through the soil quickly. On these soils, slow-release 

nitrogen sources provide soluble nitrogen over a period of time so a large 

concentration of nitrogen is not made available for leaching. 
Turf Grass and Garden 

Fertilizer Application 

• Calibrate 

equipment 

• Properly apply 

fertilizer 

• Irrigate after 

application 

• Follow label 

directions 

• While the proper time of year to fertilize varies by location, applying a 

smaller amount of fertilizer at a higher frequency is often best. Ideally 

fertilizer application should be timed to coincide as closely as possible to the 

period of maximum uptake and growth. 

• Core compacted soil before applying fertilizer to insure incorporation. In all 

types of soil, it is always best to incorporate organic fertilizers into the lawn. 

When the phosphorus in organic fertilizer remains on top of the soil it has an 

increased chance of washing away during heavy rains. Fertilizer should 

never be applied to frozen ground, and also should be limited on slopes and 

areas with high runoff or overland flow. 

• It is important to irrigate 1⁄4 to 1⁄2 inch of water immediately after application 

of phosphorus or water-soluble nitrogen fertilizer. Afterwards, the key is to 

add only enough water to compensate for that removed by plant uptake and 

evaporation; this will minimize potential pollution problems from runoff and 

leaching. 

• To ensure the proper amount of fertilizer is applied, properly calibrate 

spreaders. As spreaders get older, settings gradually change because of wear 

and tear. Regular cleaning and lubrication of the spreader will help it 

perform properly. 

• Buffer strips or filter strips can be created to slow runoff and help filter 

nitrogen and phosphorus from runoff (see slides #5-7 for more information). 

• Follow label directions when storing and handling fertilizer and disposing of 

empty containers. Stored fertilizer should be kept covered and on pallets to 

keep precipitation off and to reduce the possibility of water damage. 

Spreaders should be filled on hard or paved surfaces where spills can be 

cleaned up mechanically – sweeping or scooping up the spilled granules. 
Large-Scale Pesticide 

Application 

Spraying cotton in Mississippi 

• Pesticides (including insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides) contain a variety of chemicals 

used to control pests, insects, and weeds. They are used in a variety of applications to 

reduce damage to plants by insects and other pests, and to control overgrowth of undesirable 

plant species. 

• Pesticides are applied to crops by aerial spraying, topsoil application (granular, dust or liquid 

formulations, or spray using truck or tractor-mounted equipment), soil injection, soil 

incorporation, or irrigation. Aerial spraying and topsoil application pose the greatest risks 

for pesticides to enter surface water bodies from runoff. Soil injection and incorporation 

pose the greatest likelihood for ground water contamination because pesticides placed in the 

soil are subject to leaching. The application of pesticides through irrigation (chemigation) 

can also cause ground water contamination; for example, an irrigation pump may fail while 

the pesticide-metering equipment continues to operate and cause highly concentrated 

pesticide levels to be applied to a field. Pesticides can reach ground water through drains, 

sink holes, and other conduits as well. 

• Excess rain or irrigation water can wash pesticides from plants and soil. This can, in turn, 

run off into streams. Pesticides can leach into the soil if plants are watered or rainfall occurs 

soon after application. Some pesticides resist degradation by microbes in the soil and will 

eventually leach into the ground water. 

• Pesticides contain a variety of organic and inorganic compounds. By nature, they are 

poisonous, and while they can be safely used if manufacturers’ usage directions are 

followed, they can, if mismanaged, seep into surface water and ground water supplies. They 

can be difficult and expensive to remove, and, if inhaled or consumed, be hazardous to 

human health. 

• Integrated Pest Management (IPM) involves the carefully managed use of three different 

pest control tactics – biological, cultural, and chemical – to get the best long-term results 

with the least disruption of the environment. Biological control means using natural enemies 

of the pest, like lady bugs to control aphids. Cultural or horticultural control involves the 

use of gardening methods, like mowing high to shade out weeds. Chemical control involves 

the judicious use of pesticides. 

• If pesticides must be used, proper handling and application according to the EPA-approved 

label are essential. Select an effective pesticide for the intended use and, where possible, use 

products that pose lower human and environmental risks. Read the pesticide label for 

guidance on required setbacks from water, buildings, wetlands, wildlife habitats, and other 

sensitive areas where applications are prohibited. 
Large-Scale Pesticide 

Application 

• Integrated Pest 

Management 

combines three pest 

control tactics 

– Biological 

– Cultural or 

horticultural 

– Chemical 

The leaf beetle Diorhabda elongata; 

first approved biological control 

agent for salt cedar in the US 

• Never start an application if a significant weather event such as rainfall is forecast; the rainfall 

may cause drift or soil runoff at the application site. Pesticide application just before rainfall or 

irrigation may result in reduced efficacy if the pesticide is washed off the target crop, resulting in 

the need to reapply the pesticide. 

• Crop rotation reduces pesticide use by breaking the pest cycle. As crops are rotated, pests such as 

insects and weeds cannot adapt to the changes in nutrient sources. Insects will move to another 

location where they can find food. Weeds will become dormant until the right condition returns. 

Pesticide rotation reduces the risk of pest-resistant pesticides. As pesticides are used year after 

year, pests will develop immunities to the pesticide, requiring increased application of pesticides 

to get the same result. 

• Soil incorporation involves placing the pesticide into the top two inches of soil by tillage, where 

it is less likely to be removed by surface runoff. Incorporation can reduce runoff by as much as 

two-thirds compared to surface application. 

• Timing of the application of pesticides is important. Early pre-plant application is the application 

of pesticides before the plant emerges from the soil. This application, using less than the labeled 

rate, can reduce potential pesticide runoff by up to one-half. When used in early April, pre-plant 

applications can provide effective control and the applied pesticides will be less vulnerable to 

spring and early summer runoff. If additional control is needed with a pre-emerge or post-emerge 

product, spot treatment should be practiced. 

• Post-emergence application is the application of pesticides after the plant emerges from the soil. 

Post-emergence application of pesticides should be done during low periods of rainfall. Postemergence application can reduce pesticide runoff because a much smaller amount of pesticide (as 

compared to the labeled rate) is applied. 

• Split application, with one-half to two-thirds of the pesticide applied prior to planting and onehalf to one-third applied at planting, can reduce pesticide runoff by up to one-third. If good weed 

control is achieved with the pre-emergence application, the post-emergence application may not 

be necessary. 
Large-Scale Pesticide 

Application 

Ultra low volume herbicide application 

• Pesticide storage is key to preventing ground water contamination. If pesticides are stored in 

intact containers in a secure, properly constructed location, pesticide storage poses little danger to 

ground water. Some States, including Maryland, New Hampshire, North Carolina and 

Washington, have regulations on the storage of small quantities of pesticides. Nearly half the 

States have regulations for the storage of large tanks of pestic ides. Secondary containment, such 

as an impermeable (waterproof) floor with a curb and walls around the storage area, will minimize 

pesticide seepage into the ground or spreading to other areas if a liquid pesticide storage tank 

leaks. The capacity of liquid tank secondary containment should be sufficient to contain the 

volume of the largest tank. Dry pesticides should be protected from precipitation. An operator 

should always be present when pesticide is being transferred. 

• Proper mixing and loading practices can also prevent contamination of ground water and surface 

water by pesticides. Mixing and loading on an impermeable concrete surface allows most spilled 

pesticides to be recovered and reused. The impermeable surface, or pad, should be kept clean and 

large enough to hold wash water from the cleaning of equipment, and to keep spills from moving 

off-site during transfer of chemicals to the sprayer or spreader. Ideally, the pad should slope to a 

liquid-tight sump that can be pumped out when spills occur. 

• Improper disposal of pesticide containers can lead to ground water contamination. To prevent 

ground water contamination, use returnable containers and take them back to the dealer as often as 

possible. Pressure-rinse or triple-rinse nonreturnable containers immediately after use, since 

residue can be difficult to remove after it dries, and pour the into the spray tank. Puncture 

nonreturnable containers and store them in a covered area until they can be taken to a container 

recycling program or a permitted landfill. Contact the Ag Container Recycling Council at 

www.acrecycle.org or 877-952-2272 for more on a recycling program near you. Shake out bags, 

bind or wrap them to minimize dust, and take them to a permitted landfill. Do not bury or burn 

pesticide containers or bags on private property. 
Small-Scale Pesticide 

Application 

• Select diseaseresistant plants 

• Use plant 

management 

techniques 

• Use natural 

biological controls 

and manual control 

activities 

• Pesticides are also used in a variety of smaller applications to control insects and other pests, and to 

control overgrowth of undesirable plant species. They are used by homeowners and lawn care 

companies for lawn care and gardening activities. Many homeowners plant non-native plant 

species that require pesticides, fertilizers, and watering to keep them healthy. 

• Commercial establishments such as golf courses and cemeteries, and recreational areas such as 

parks and other open spaces use pesticides for similar purposes. Shorter grasses typical of golf 

courses are less resistant to insects and require application of pesticides to keep them healthy. 

Pesticides are also used to maintain lawns in cemeteries and commercial areas. Herbicides are used 

along roadways and transportation and utility corridors to limit vegetation growth and increase 

visibility for drivers or access to power lines. 

• Integrated Pest Management (IPM) applies to small-scale use of pesticides as well as large-scale 

usage. 

o Select healthy seeds and seedlings that are known to resist diseases and are suited to the 

climate. 

o Alternate your plants each year. Insects will move to another location where they can find 

nutrients, and weeds will remain dormant until their nutrient source is replenished. 

o Manual activities such as spading, hoeing, hand-picking weeds and pests, setting traps, and 

mulching are all good ways to get rid of pests without using pesticides. 

o Proper plant management can improve plant health and reduce the need for pesticides. Use 

mowing and watering techniques that maintain a healthy lawn and minimize the need for 

chemical treatment. Maintain proper drainage and aeration to encourage the growth of 

microbes that can degrade pesticides. Reduce watering to control seepage of pesticides to 

the ground water; this effort conserves water and reduces runoff. 

o Use of biological controls reduces the need for chemical pesticides. Plants that attract 

predatory species, such as birds and bats, can enhance landscaping and naturally reduce pests
Small-Scale Pesticide 

Application 

• Proper application of pesticides reduces the amount of chemicals applied to 

the ground and saves landowners money by reducing the amount of 

pesticides purchased. Read the label for usage, disposal, and emergency 

information. Calibrate application equipment, follow pesticide 

manufacturers’ directions, and select leaching-resistant or “slow release” 

pesticides. Application as large droplets could prevent pesticide losses due 

to wind dispersion. Mix and load pesticides only over impervious surfaces, 

such as cement, that do not contain floor drains or storm water drain inlets. 

• Pesticides should not be applied immediately before or after a rainfall. The 

rainfall may cause surface runoff at the application site. Pesticide 

applications just before rainfall also result in reduced efficacy as the 

pesticide is washed off the target plant, resulting in the need to reapply the 

pesticide. Also, the soil removed by the runoff can carry the pesticide to the 

local storm water drain, and contaminate local source waters. 

• Proper storage is important in preventing both surface water and ground 

water contamination. Store pesticides in intact containers in a shed or 

covered structure on an impermeable surface such as concrete. You must 

follow directions for storage on pesticide labels, although the directions are 

usually general, such as “Do not contaminate food or feed by storage of 

disposal.” Do not store pesticides in areas prone to flooding. Keep 

pesticides in their original containers; if the label is unreadable, properly 

dispose of the product. 
Small-Scale Pesticide 

Application 

• Lady bugs are a 

natural biological 

control for aphids 

• Spill clean up is another important protection measure. Promptly sweep up dry 

spills and reuse the pesticides as intended; dry spills are usua lly easier to clean. 

For liquid spills, recover as much of the spill as possible and reuse it as intended. 

It may be necessary to remove some contaminated soil. Have cat litter or other 

absorptive materials available to absorb unrecovered liquid from the floor. Be sure 

to have an emergency contact number to call for help, if necessary. Be sure to 

check the label for proper handling of the chemicals. 

• Disposal of pesticide containers can lead to ground water contamination if the 

containers are not stored or cleaned properly. Chemical residues from these 

containers can leak onto the ground. Homeowners and other users may have 

smaller quantities of pesticides and empty containers and different disposal options 

than farmers. 

o Homeowners usually use nonreturnable containers, and have the option of 

participating in their local community household hazardous waste collection 

events. Partially-full and empty containers may be given to household 

hazardous waste collection. Homeowners should only triple rinse pesticide 

containers if they are able to use the rinse water immediately, e.g., on plants 

that require pesticides. Rinse water should never be disposed down a drain or 

into a sewer system. Recycle plastic and metal containers whenever possible, 

keeping in mind that non-hazardous container recycling programs may refuse 

to take pesticide containers. Empty containers may be disposed in regular 

trash. Shake out bags, bind or wrap them to minimize dust, and put them in 

regular trash. Do not bury or burn pesticide containers or bags on private 

property. Homeowners may give unused pesticides to a neighbor rather than 

throw them away. 
Combined and Sanitary 

Sewer Overflows 

Combined sewer overflow 

Combined sewer outlet 

• Sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs) are discharges of untreated sewage from municipal 

sanitary sewer systems from broken pipes, equipment failure, or system overload. 

Combined sewer overflows (CSOs) are discharges of untreated sewage and storm 

water from municipal sewer systems or treatment plants when the volume of 

wastewater exceeds the system’s capacity due to periods of heavy rainfall or snow 

melt. The untreated sewage can be discharged directly into surface waters including 

streams, lakes, rivers, or estuaries. 

• SSOs and CSOs can carry bacteria, viruses, protozoa (parasitic organisms), helminths 

(intestinal worms), and inhaled molds and fungi directly into source water, and can 

cause diseases that range in severity from mild gastroenteritis to life-threatening 

ailments such as cholera, dysentery, infectious hepatitis, and severe gastroenteritis. 

People can be exposed to the contaminant from sewage in drinking water sources, and 

through direct contact in areas of high public access such as basements, lawns or 

streets, or water used for recreation. 

• Monitoring and maintenance programs are key in preventing SSOs and CSOs. 

Sanitary sewer collection system operators should visually inspect and monitor their 

sewer lines, service connections, and sewer line joints regularly and develop and use a 

maintenance plan. Maintenance programs should also include cleaning sewer lines, 

connections, and pumps. If trash and sediments build up in the sewer lines, they will 

block the sewage from flowing to the collection system or treatment plant. 

• Employee training is an important tool for preventing contamination from sewer 

overflows. Employees should be trained on how to run the equipment and shut it 

down, if necessary, to prevent overflows. Employees should have access to and 

knowledge of contingency and emergency response plans. If there is an incident, they 

should know to notify public water suppliers. They should be aware of any potential 

for overflow events and be prepared to take appropriate action to prevent sewage from 

entering source water. 
Combined and Sanitary 

Sewer Overflows 

Sanitary sewer overflow 

• Public education involves informing the community and developers of how sewer overflows 

occur, and what they can do to prevent them. Developers should be aware of the sewer collection 

design capacity, and plan accordingly. As new communities are developed, the additional sewage 

can overload the collection system. Developers should check to make sure the new sewer lines 

are compatible with the existing sewer system. If the lines do not fit the joints, then the sewage 

can leak out of the system, or rain water or snow melt can infiltrate the cracked lines and cause 

overflows. Developers should also make sure that sewer lines are not placed near trees; the roots 

can grow into the sewer lines and crack them. The community can help prevent overflows by 

conserving water and flushing only appropriate items. 

• Incorporating system upgrades is another viable option, but this can be very expensive. As sewer 

systems become older, sewer lines and connections have to be repaired or replaced. Equipment 

also has to be replaced or updated as new technology becomes available. As new communities 

are developed, new sewer lines will be added to the collection system. Eventually the sewer 

system will reach its design capacity and will have to expand or a new collection system will have 

to be built. 

• Adding a “wet weather” storage facility such as an overflow retention basin to sewer collection 

system will reduce SSOs and CSOs by capturing and storing excess flow. The stored volumes of 

sewage and storm water are released to the waste water treatment plant after the wet weather 

event has subsided and the treatment plant capacity has been restored. 

• Eliminating direct pathways of sewage overflows to source water is an effective measure to 

prevent contamination. Regrading areas around pump stations and “vulnerable” manholes can 

divert overflow sewage from entering surface water directly. In addition, plugging storm water 

drainage wells (i.e., drywells used to discharge storm water underground) in the vicinity of pump 

stations and manholes would eliminate conduits for sewage overflow to enter the ground water. 

• CSO control technologies include a number of engineering methods such as deep tunnel storage, 

in-system control/in-line storage, off-line near-surface storage/sedimentation, vortex technologies, 

and disinfection. In urban areas, where space constraints are severe, deep tunnel storage can be a 

viable option for managing CSOs. In-line storage, along with control strategies, can be used to 

maximize the flows to treatment plants. Vortex separators regulate flow and cause solids to 

separate out from the combined flow, therefore allowing clarified flow to be discharged to surface 

water. Disinfection using liquid hypochlorite is the most common practice in treating CSOs, and 

alternatives such as ultraviolet light, ozone, or gaseous chlorine are also available. 
Aircraft and 

Airfield Deicing 

21 million gallons 

of deicing/antiicing fluid are 

discharged to 

surface waters 

annually. 

• Aircraft surfaces must be deiced and anti-iced to ensure the safety of passengers. Paved areas on airfields m

also be kept ice-free. However, prevention measures are necessary to ensure that deicing operations do not 

contaminate drinking water sources. 

• The most common technique for aircraft deicing/anti-icing is the application of chemical deicing/anti-icing 

fluids (ADF), which are composed primarily of ethylene or propylene glycol. Deicing/anti-icing fluids also 

contain additives, such as corrosion inhibitors, flame retardants, wetting agents, and thickeners that protect 

aircraft surfaces and allow ADF to cling to the aircraft, resulting in longer holdover times (the time between 

application and takeoff during which ice or snow is prevented from adhering to aircraft surfaces). 

• Chemicals commonly used for deicing/anti-icing of paved areas include ethylene or propylene glycol, urea

potassium acetate, sodium acetate, sodium formate, calcium magnesium acetate (CMA), or an ethylene glyc

based fluid known as UCAR (containing ethylene glycol, urea, and water). Sand and salt may also be used

• EPA estimates that 21 million gallons of ADF are discharged to surface waters annually across the country, 

and an additional 2 million gallons are discharged to publicly owned treatment works (POTWs). Unless 

captured for recycling, recovery, or treatment, deicing agents will run off onto the ground where they may 

travel through the soil and enter ground water, or run off into streams. Unprotected storm water drains that 

discharge to surface water or directly to the subsurface are also of concern. 

• Ethylene and propylene glycol can have harmful effects on aquatic life due to their high biological oxygen 

demand. Depletion of oxygen, fish kills, and undesirable bacterial growth in receiving waters may result. 

Although pure ethylene and propylene glycols have low aquatic toxicity, ethylene glycol exhibits toxicity in 

mammals, including humans (with the potential to cause health problems such as neurological, cardiovascul

and gastrointestinal problems, serious birth defects, and even death when ingested in large doses). 

• Additives in deicing/anti-icing fluids can be significantly more toxic to the aquatic environment than glycol

alone. Corrosion inhibitors are highly reactive with each other and with glycols; reactions can produce high

toxic byproducts. Additives such as wetting agents, flame retardants, pH buffers, and dispersing agents also 

exhibit high aquatic and mammalian toxicities. 

• Sodium chloride (salt) is applied to paved surfaces to prevent icing. Sodium can contribute to cardiovascula

kidney, and liver diseases, and has a direct link to high blood pressure. Chloride adds a salty taste to water 

corrodes pipes. 
Aircraft and 

Airfield Deicing 

Infra-red deicing system. 

• Alternative airfield deicing products such as potassium acetate, sodium acetate, sodium formate, 

potassium formate, or CMA instead of urea or glycol deicers have lower toxicities, are readily 

biodegradable, and have a lower BOD in the environment. Many of these products can be applied 

using the same mechanical spreaders used for urea or spray booms used for glycol-based fluids. 

Reducing Deicing/Anti-Icing Fluid Usage on Aircraft 

• Mechanical deicing technologies eliminate the need for deicing fluids and reduce the need for antiicing fluid. Below are some examples of newer technology. 

o Boot deicing works by inflating a rubber boot located on the leading edge of an aircraft wing. 

When inflated, the boot causes ice to crack and become dislodged from the surface. Passing air 

blows the ice away. This method is used primarily on propeller-driven aircraft. 

o For small aircraft, infra-red deicing systems use natural-gas-fired radiant heaters inside a 

drive-through hanger. 

o Electrical resistive heating can remove ice from the surface of small to medium sized aircraft. 

By applying resistive heating to heating mats located near the skin of an aircraft, ice is melted 

and is easily dislodged from aircraft surfaces. 

o Hot air blast deicing systems use heated compressed air to blow snow and ice off of aircraft 

wings. This may be followed by conventional deicing/anti-icing. 

• A computerized spraying system to apply deicing chemicals may reduce the use of deicing/anti-icing 

fluids. These systems can reduce both the volume of deicing fluid used and the time needed for 

deicing, and increase the collection efficiency of runoff. These “car-wash” style systems can be 

operated by personnel with a minimum of training. This option may be cost-prohibitive for smaller 

airports, and in some cases, planes may need additional deicing using traditional means (trucks or 

fixed booms) to deice engine inlets, undercarriages, or the underside of aircraft wings. 
Aircraft and 

Airfield Deicing 

• Using ice detection systems or sensors, especially on larger aircraft, can reduce and, in some cases, 

eliminate application of deicing fluid. Because operators and flight crews often have difficulty 

detecting ice on aircraft wings, aircraft are deiced whenever ic e is suspected to be present. 

Magnetostrictive, electromagnetic, and ultrasonic devices can detect ice on aircraft surfaces, 

including areas that are difficult to inspect visually and in cases where ice build-up is not apparent. 

This allows operators to more accurately determine when deicing is unnecessary and can decrease 

the amount of ADF used at an airport. 

• Increase storage for multi-strength glycol solutions. Using a technique called “blending to 

temperature,” operators can vary the concentration of glycol in deicing fluid. Operators, particularly 

at small airports, commonly use a fluid with 50 percent glycol, a concentration that is formulated for 

worst-case cold weather conditions. However, concentrations of 30 to 70 percent glycol may be 

used in different conditions. Reducing the glycol concentration in deicing fluid decreases the 

amount of glycol in surface runoff and storm water collection systems. 

Reducing Deicing/Anti-Icing Fluid Usage on Pavement Surfaces 

• Prevent strong bonding of ice to pavement surfaces by pre-treating and/or promptly treating 

pavement using either mechanical methods or chemicals. Pre-treating pavement with chemicals such 

as aqueous potassium acetate prior to the onset of freezing conditions or a storm event can allow 

easy removal of snow and ice using sweepers and plows. The FAA estimates that the correct 

application of pavement anti-icing chemicals can reduce the overall quantity of pavement 

deicing/anti-icing agents used by 30 to 75 percent. 

• Use mechanical methods for dry snow removal rather than applying chemicals. 

• Use the proper amount of pavement deicing/anti-icing chemicals by following recommendations 

from the manufacturer, and properly maintaining spreading equipment. This will reduce 

unnecessary or over-application of chemicals. Avoid applying glycol-based deicers near storm 

drains, particularly those that are not routed to a publicly-owned sewage treatment plant. 
Aircraft and 

Airfield Deicing 

Disposal of spent fluid: 

Deicing pads 

Vacuum sweeper trucks 

Detention basins 

Bioremediation systems 

Transport to a POTW 

Collection and Disposal of Spent Fluid to Reduce Runoff 

• Centralized deicing pads restrict aircraft deicing to a small area, minimizing the volume and 

allowing for the capture of deicing waste. A deicing pad is specially graded to capture and route 

contaminated runoff to tanks. If the pads are located near gate areas or at the head of runways, 

deicing may be completed just prior to takeoff; as a result, less Type IV anti-icing fluid may be 

necessary. In addition, the fluids recovered from deicing pads may be suitable for reuse. 

• Vacuum sweeper trucks collect spent aircraft and airfield deicing fluids as well as any slush or snow 

from gate areas, ramps, aircraft parking areas, taxiways, and aircraft holding pads. The recovered 

fluid may be suitable for recycling. 

• Detention basins or constructed wetlands are open-water ponds that collect ADF runoff from 

runways and airport grounds. Basins allow solids to settle, and reduce oxygen demand before the 

runoff is discharged to receiving waters. A pump station can discharge metered runoff by way of an 

airport storm sewer. 

• Anaerobic bioremediation systems, in conjunction with sewage treatment plants or detention basins, 

can be an effective means to dispose of glycol-contaminated runoff. Bioremediation systems 

generally consist of a runoff collection and storage system, an anaerobic bioreactor treatment system 

(one that requires little or no oxygen), and a gas/heat recovery system. These systems can reduce 

oxygen demand levels sufficiently to permit unrestricted disposal to a sewage treatment plant. 

Additionally, these systems can remove additives from runoff. An economic benefit to the anaerobic 

process is that it converts glycol in runoff to methane gas that can be used for heating. 

• Transport of spent fluid to a sewage treatment plant by way of a sanitary sewer is almost always the 

most economical method of treating deicing fluid, provided that sufficient biological loading 

capacity is available at the treatment plant. However, many sewage treatment plants will only accept 

limited quantities of glycol-contaminated runoff; check with the appropriate local agency to verify 

applicable regulations. Airport maintenance crews should not assume that storm drains are routed to 

a sanitary sewer. They should be knowledgeable about which drains or collection systems discharge 

directly to surface waters or to the subsurface, e.g., through a dry well. 
Aircraft and 

Airfield Deicing 

• National Pollutant Discharge Elimination 

System (NPDES) 

• Underground Injection Control (UIC) 

Program 

• Under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Permitting Program, airports 

are required to obtain permit coverage for storm water discharges from vehicle maintenance, 

equipment cleaning operations, and airport deicing operations. While specific permit conditions 

vary from state -to-state, in general, NPDES storm water permits require airports to develop and 

implement Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plans (SWPPPs) that include the following elements: 

o Description of potential pollutant sources and a site map indicating the locations of aircraft and 

runway deicing/anti-icing operations and identification of any pollutant or pollutant parameter 

of concern. 

o Description of storm water discharge management controls appropr iate for each area of 

operation. 

o Consideration of alternatives to glycol- and urea- based deicing/anti-icing chemicals to reduce 

the aggregate amount of deicing chemicals used and/or lessen the environmental impact. 

o Evaluation of whether deicing/anti-icing over-application is occurring and adjustment as 

necessary. 

o Employee training on topics such as spill response, good housekeeping, and material 

management practices for all personnel that work in the deicing/anti-icing area. 

• Many NPDES storm water permits issued to airports also require monitoring to evaluate the 

effectiveness of storm water controls in preventing deicing/anti-icing activities from impacting 

receiving water quality. For example, monitoring requirements for airport deicing/anti-icing 

activities in EPA’s Multi-Sector General Permit include monthly inspections of existing storm water 

controls during the deicing season (weekly if large quantities of deicing chemicals are being spilled 

or discharged), quarterly visual monitoring of storm water discharges, and periodic effluent 

monitoring. 

• Storm water that discharges directly to the subsurface by way of dry wells, drain fields, or any other 

type of distribution system is subject to Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program 

requirements. These types of drainage systems are regulated as Class V injection wells and operators 

should contact their state or federal UIC Program authority for information on applicable regulations. 
Aircraft and 

Airfield Deicing 

• Recycling of glycol from spent deicing/anti-icing fluid decreases the amount that 

reaches and potentially impairs surface and ground waters. The recycling process 

consists of several steps including filtration, reverse osmosis, and distillation to 

recover glycol from spent deicing fluid. Technology is available to recycle fluids 

containing at least 5 percent glycol. Glycol recycling reduces the amount and 

strength of wastewater, reducing wastewater disposal costs. In addition, the 

recovered glycol may be sold; the value of recovered glycol depends on the type of 

glycol and its concentration and purity. Recent developments have made on-site 

recycling successful at smaller airports; however the volume of fluid used at very 

small airports may still be insufficient to make recycling economically viable at 

these facilities. 

• Employee training is an important tool in reducing contaminated runoff. Deicing 

personnel receive eight hours of FAA-mandated training, but industry sources state 

that three years of experience is required to become adept at aircraft deicing. 

Personnel should be trained on proper application techniques and best management 

practices, and be informed of the presence of any sensitive water areas nearby. 

Properly trained personnel will also use less deicing/anti-icing fluid, saving money 

and reducing contamination. 

• Monitor ground water quality and identify the direction of ground water movement 

on-site through the creation of a water table map. Once the direction of ground water 

flow is known, annual monitoring up gradient and down gradient of deicing areas 

should provide early detection of deicing fluid contamination and other harmful 

impacts. 
Highway Deicing 

• Deicing chemicals are used to clear roads covered by snow and ice during winter weather to 

make roadways safe; however, the runoff associated with highway deicing may contain 

various chemicals and sediment which have the potential to enter surface and ground water 

sources. 

• The most commonly used and economical deicer is sodium chloride, better known as salt, 

because it lowers the freezing point of water, preventing ice and snow from bonding to the 

pavement and allowing easy removal by plows. Salt contributes to the corrosion of vehicles 

and infrastructure, and can damage water bodies, ground water, and roadside vegetation. 

• Sodium is associated with general human health concerns. It can contribute to or affect 

cardiovascular, kidney, and liver diseases, and has a direct link to high blood pressure. 

Chloride adds a salty taste to water and corrodes pipes. 

• These issues have led to the investigation and use of other chemicals as substitutes for and 

supplements to salt. Other deicing chemicals include magnesium chloride, potassium 

acetate, calcium chloride, calcium magnesium acetate, and potassium chloride. 

• Anti-caking agents are often added to salt, the most common of which is sodium 

ferrocyanide. There is no evidence of toxicity in humans from sodium ferrocyanide, even 

at levels higher than those employed for deicing. However, some studies have found that 

the resulting release of cyanide ions is toxic to fish. 
Highway Deicing 

Road Weather 

Information Systems 

provide data on air 

and pavement 

temperatures, 

precipitation, and the 

amount of deicing 

chemicals on the 

pavement. 

• The goal of prevention measures for roadway deicing is to minimize the loss of deicing 

chemicals due to overuse and mishandling. Management of deicing chemicals focuses on 

reducing waste through training and access to information on road conditions through the use of 

technology. Generally, optimal strategies for keeping roads cle ar of ice and snow will depend 

on local climatic, site, and traffic conditions, and should be tailored as such. Road maintenance 

workers should be trained on these measures prior to the winter season. Personnel should also 

be made aware of areas where careful management of deicing chemicals is particularly 

important, e.g., sensitive water areas such as lakes, ponds, and rivers. Similarly, personnel 

should be aware of runoff concerns from roadways that are near surface water bodies or that 

drain to either surface water or the subsurface (e.g., through a dry well). 

• Alternative deicing chemicals include calcium chloride and calcium magnesium acetate 

(CMA). Another alternative, sodium ferrocyanate, should be avoided due to its toxicity to fish. 

Although alternatives are usually more expensive than salt, their use may be warranted in some 

circumstances, such as near habitats of endangered or threatened species or in areas with 

elevated levels of sodium in the drinking water. Other considerations for using alternatives to 

salt include traffic volume and extreme weather conditions. Each deicer works differently in 

various climatic and regional circumstances. Combining deicers, such as mixing calcium 

chloride and salt, can be cost-effective and safe if good information on weather conditions and 

road usage are available. 

• Road Weather Information Systems (RWIS) help maintenance centers determine current 

weather conditions in a given location. Since the mid-1980’s, increasing numbers of states are 

using this technology. Sensors collect data on air and pavement temperatures, levels of 

precipitation, and the amount of deicing chemicals on the pavement. The data are paired with 

weather forecast information to predict pavement temperatures for a specific area and 

determine the amount of chemicals needed in the changing conditions. The strategically placed 

stations are 90 to 95 percent accurate. This information is also used for anti-icing treatment to 

allow for chemicals to be applied before the pavement freezes, reducing the amount of deicing 

chemicals used. Several states are developing satellite delivery of this information to 

maintenance workers. 
Highway Deicing 

Anti-icing can reduce the amount of 

chemicals needed to keep roads safe. 

• Anti-icing or pretreatment methods are increasingly being used as a preventative tool. 

Anti-icing may require up to 90 percent less product than is needed for deicing after snow 

and ice have settled on road surfaces. Deicing chemicals, often liquid magnesium chloride, 

are applied to the pavement before precipitation or at the start of a storm to lower the 

freezing point of water. Timing is everything in the process, and weather reports or RWIS 

data can assist in determining the best time and place to apply chemicals. 

• Some states have installed fixed chemical spraying systems in highway trouble spots, such 

as on curves and bridges, to prevent slippery roads. Chemicals are dispensed through spray 

nozzles embedded in the pavement, curbs, barriers, or bridge decks. Though expensive to 

implement, this technique saves materials and manpower and reduces deicing operations 

during a storm. 

• Spreading rates and the amount of deicer used are important considerations. Some studies 

have shown that snow melts faster when salt is applied in narrow strips. In a technique 

known as windrowing, spreading is concentrated in a four to eight foot strip along the 

centerline to melt snow to expose the pavement, which in turn warms a greater portion of 

the road surface, and causes more melting. 

• Timing of application is also an important consideration. It takes time for the chemical 

reactions of salt and other deicers to become effective, after which a plow can more easily 

remove the snow. Sand should not be applied to roadways if more snow or ice is expected, 

as it will no longer be effective once covered. Traffic volume should also be taken into 

consideration, as vehicles can disperse deicers and sand to the side of the road. The timing 

of a second application is dictated by the road conditions. For example, while the snow is 

slushy on the pavement, the salt or deicer is still effective. Once it stiffens, however, 

plowing should be done to remove excess snow. 
Highway Deicing 

Plows are a chemical-free option for clearing snow and ice. 

• Application equipment aids in the proper distribution of deicer chemicals. Many trucks are 

equipped with a spinning circular plate that throws the chemicals in a semi-circle onto the 

road. A chute is used to distribute in a windrow, typically near the centerline of the road. 

Modified spreaders prevent the over-application of materials by calibration or by the speed 

of the truck and should be used. Spreader calibration controls the amount of chemicals 

applied and allows different chemicals to be distributed at different rates. Annual 

equipment maintenance and checks should be conducted to ensure proper and accurate 

operation. 

• Plowing and snow removal are chemical-free options to keep roads clear of snow and ice. 

With plowing, less chemicals are needed to melt the remaining snow and ice pack. For 

specific weather conditions, specialized snow plows may be used. For example, various 

materials, such as polymers and rubber, can be used on the blade. 

• Pre-wetting of sand or deicing chemicals such as salt can provide faster melting. Salt can 

be pre-wetted through a spray as it leaves the spreader. Sand is oftenpre-wet with liquid 

deicing chemicals just prior to spreading, an effective method for embedding the sand into 

the ice and snow on the pavement. 

• Street sweeping during or soon after the spring snow melt can prevent excess sand and 

deicing residue from entering surface and ground waters. Many road departments sweep 

streets at least once in the spring. 

• Proper salt storage is a key measure to prevent the introduction of potentially harmful 

contaminant loads to nearby surface and ground waters. It is important to shelter salt piles 

from moisture and wind, as unprotected piles can contribute large doses of sodium chloride 

to runoff. Soil type, hydrology, and topography must also be appropriate for the storage 

area. Any runoff should be cleaned up immediately and the collected brine reused. Spills 

during loading and unloading should be cleaned as soon as possible. Salt should be stored 

outside of wellhead and source water protection areas, away fromprivate wells, sole source 

aquifers (where feasible), and public water supply intakes. Ground water quality 

monitoring near salt storage and application sites should be performed annually. 
Abandoned Wells 

Photo: 

• Locations often 

unknown 

• Common nearby 

activities may 

degrade water 

quality 

• Runoff also 

poses threats 

Purdue Extension Service 

• Abandoned wells present safety hazards and pose a potential threat to the 

quality of drinking water. As municipal water supplies reach suburban and 

rural areas, such as farms and old homestead sites, many older wells are no 

longer needed and are often neglected or forgotten. In many cases, property 

owners are not aware that abandoned wells exist on their property. Old and 

abandoned monitoring, irrigation, pump and treat, and distribution wells can 

also pose a risk. No one knows how many abandoned wells there are, but 

estimates for each of the Midwestern States range in the hundreds of 

thousands. 

• Common rural activities that occur in the vicinity of a wellhead may degrade 

ground water quality. Farmers or landowners mix and apply fertilizers and 

pesticides on fields and crop lands. Livestock and animal feeding operations 

produce animal wastes. Rural sites with wells typically have septic systems 

to treat household wastewater, and faulty septic systems located in areas with 

thin soil and porous rock can allow wastewater to enter the aquifer and wells. 

Runoff from vehicle and farm equipment washing carries chemicals and 

other contaminants. In addition, runoff from waste disposal sites and storage 

areas carries contaminants that threaten ground water quality. 
Abandoned Wells 

• Plug abandoned 

wells 

• Use licensed 

well drillers 

Graphic: North Dakota State Univ. 

• The most effective way to minimize risks from abandoned wells is to find 

them and properly plug them. 

• While abandoned wells can be anywhere, some indicators that there may be 

an abandoned well in the area include depressions in the ground surrounded 

by vegetation, or structures such as hand pumps, pipes in the ground, or old 

farms that would accompany a well. Historical photographs, land records 

and permits, and previous land owners are additional sources of information 

that may yield the locations of abandoned wells. 

• In general, plugging a well involves measuring the diameter of the well bore 

to determine the amount of fill needed, removing debris or obstructing 

materials, and filling the well with plugging materials and grout. Available 

fill materials include sand and gravel, clay, sodium bentonite, or cement 

grout. Specific procedures will vary depending on the well site, depth, and 

properties. 

• State or local health departments may have requirements for proper sealing 

of a well, and some require that licensed well drillers do the job. 
124 

Class Discussion: 

Implementing Source 

Water Protection 

Measures 
• Class Discussion: Students should consider and discuss what actions each of the 

following entities could take to implement or facilitate implementation of source 

water protection measures in the community pictured above: 

o Local government officials 

o Water systems 

o Environmental and community groups 

o Business owners and their trade associations, including farmers 

o Homeowners 

• What types of issues might they face when trying to adopt or implement 

protection measures?