FLETC ournal

FEDERAL LAW ENFORCEMENT TRAINING CENTERS

 ARTESIA CHARLESTON CHELTENHAM GLYNCO 

FALL-WINTER

VOLUME 15

2015 J
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

I’m pleased to introduce this edition of the FLETC Journal, which 

focuses on the timely theme of officer safety and wellness. In May 

2015, the Federal Bureau of Investigation released preliminary 

statistics that showed 51 law enforcement officers were feloniously 

killed in the line of duty during 2014. Although there was a notable 

decrease in 2013, the annual average was still 64 officers killed 

between 1980 and 2014, underscoring the threats that officers face 

from violent offenders.

But we’re losing more law enforcement officers in the line of duty than these statistics 

suggest. In 2014, an additional 44 officers were killed accidentally, with well over half of 

them due to vehicle-related incidents. And we must also mention the 16 who died in just 

the first 6 months of 2015 from job-related illnesses such as heart attacks.

Given these discouraging statistics, what can we do to enhance officer safety and wellness? 

We asked contributors from a wide spectrum of disciplines to weigh in on this question, and 

they provided us with articles covering heart disease and its disproportionate impact on law 

enforcement officers, digital officer safety, stress and sleep deprivation, and the benefits of 

realistic and innovative training, to name a few.

Law enforcement is a profession that has always carried inherent risks, from the earliest days 

of our watchmen and constables. It’s unrealistic to think that we’ll ever have a year with no 

law enforcement officers killed in the line of duty, but we have an obligation to find ways to 

minimize the number of preventable deaths and improve officers’ wellness. And optimism is 

warranted, because many dedicated experts are focused on research, education, and training 

in these areas, with the collective goal of reducing the number of names added every year to 

law enforcement officer memorials. I’m proud of the role that FLETC and our partners are 

playing in these efforts.

FOREWORD

2

Michael S. Milner

Assistant Director

Glynco Training Directorate

Michael S. Milner
what’s inside...

HIGHLIGHTS FEATURES

Reflections on 

Leadership

Mental Sunburn: 

New Thoughts on 

Law Enforcement 

Mental Trauma

Increasing 

Survivability During

Mass Casualty 

Events

Heart Disease 

and the Law 

Enforcement Officer

IACP Presentations

Training for Reality

De-escalation of 

Force

FORGING PARTNERSHIPS THROUGH TRAINING

FLETC piloted the Private/

Public Partnership Academy, 

demonstrating the power of 

building partnerships through 

training.

8

OFFICER DOWN

FLETC sought to examine line of 

duty deaths of FLETC graduates 

to help identify areas in which 

training could help mitigate 

tragedies.

28

FROM A TO Zzzzzzz

Researchers developed several 

basic rules of thumb based on 

the effects of fatigue on police 

activities.

33

NEUROCOP

Researchers demonstrated that 

training can mitigate some of 

the effects of stress on police 

activities.

43

5

14

19

38

48

49

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Digital Officer 23 Safety
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

Director

Connie L. Patrick

Executive Sponsor

Michael S. Milner

Editorial Team

Preston Farley

Alicia Gregory

Michael Hullihan

Mary Anne Lesiak

Tim Miller

William Norris

Ed Sizemore

John Stamp

Jen Tocco

Susan Thornton

Creative Team

Heather Santos

David Tucker

John H. Lander, Jr.

The FLETC Journal is a law enforcement training 

magazine produced and published by the Federal Law 

Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC). It is produced, 

published, and printed through a joint collaboration 

with the Protocol and Communications Office and the 

Government Printing Office. The printed circulation 

is 2,000 and it is also available electronically on the 

FLETC website at http://www.fletc.gov/about-fletc.

The content of this publication is written in accordance 

with the guidelines of the Associated Press (AP) 

style. Articles, photographs, and other contributions 

are welcomed from the law enforcement training 

community and academia. Publication depends on 

general topical interest as judged by the editorial team.

FAST FACTS

FLETC Domestic Training Sites:

• Artesia, New Mexico 

• Charleston, South Carolina 

• Cheltenham, Maryland 

• Glynco, Georgia 

• LA Port, California

Export Locations:

State and Local Law Enforcement

• Nationwide

International Law Enforcement Academies:

Academic, Operational and Program Support

• Bangkok, Thailand 

• Budapest, Hungary 

• Gaborone, Botswana 

• San Salvador, El Salvador

• Roswell, New Mexico 

International Training and Capacity Building Programs:

• Delivered Worldwide

Consolidation: Consolidation of law enforcement training 

permits the Federal Government to emphasize training 

excellence and cost-effectiveness. Professional instruction 

and practical application provide students with the skills 

and knowledge to meet the demanding challenges of a 

federal law enforcement career. They not only learn the 

responsibilities of a law enforcement officer, but through 

interaction with students from many other agencies, also 

become acquainted with the missions and duties of their 

colleagues. This interaction provides the foundation for a 

more cooperative federal law enforcement effort. 

Integrated Instructional Staff: FLETC has assembled the finest 

professionals to serve on its faculty and staff. Approximately 

50 percent of the instructors are permanent FLETC 

employees. The remaining instructional staff are federal 

officers and investigators on assignment from their parent 

organizations or recently retired from the field. The mix 

provides a balance of instructional experience and fresh 

insight.

4
WWW.FLETC.GOV 

Q. What training has most prepared you for leadership?

Taking the DISC assessment in 2002 as part of a FLETC training for 

instructors and supervisors greatly influenced my leadership skills. The 

DISC is a behavior assessment tool that is based on the work of psychologist 

William Marston. It is designed to help people understand behavior 

preferences. After receiving the training, I realized it could help me not 

only at work, but in all my relationships. I believe in DISC so strongly that 

I became one of the first DISC and Situational Leadership instructors at 

FLETC. While on assignment at the International Law Enforcement Academy 

(ILEA) in Botswana, I utilized DISC training, and it remains one of the most 

requested leadership tools at the ILEAs. I recommend DISC training to all 

FLETC employees who have the opportunity to participate, so they can learn 

more about themselves and their colleagues.

Q. What is the most important thing a person needs to know about being a leader?

Effective leaders need self-awareness and knowledge of how others perceive 

them. I believe we all have unique skills and talents. Conversely, we also have idiosyncrasies and peculiar habits, many of 

which we are blissfully unaware. Because co-workers and friends are reluctant to share bad news, many of us go through 

life not knowing what specific behaviors create distance between ourselves and others. I have heard many conversations 

where people say, “He is a good guy, BUT he is an arrogant know-it-all,” or “She’s a hard worker, BUT she gossips and 

talks about people.” The “BUT” defines people. No matter how talented or hard working an individual is, building 

trusting and positive relationships with colleagues is necessary for leadership. 

Q. Why do you think knowing your behavioral style is important in the work environment?

Problems can occur in relationships when we fail to meet each other’s expectations. When that happens, we often apply 

nefarious motives, when in fact it is just a behavioral tendency. Social folks can misinterpret a quieter person’s behavior as 

disinterest; independent workers may feel throttled by a more collaborative group. When we understand our behavioral 

preferences and those of our colleagues, we can adapt our own behavior and more generously interpret others’.

I have always provided my DISC report to my supervisors so they would know my behavior style and what makes me 

tick. I honestly think this has helped our relationships. By observing and listening to people over the years, I have gotten 

to know many people better by understanding them through the DISC lens. 

Reflections on Leadership

—by J. O. Smith, Chief, Physical Techniques Division

5
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

“He who knows others is learned. He who knows 

himself is wise.” —Lao Tzu

DISC helps us learn more about ourselves and others and use that information to create 

positive interpersonal relationships. The DISC assessment also predicts how individuals 

would likely react in specific team, management, or leadership situations given their DISC styles. We all know folks 

who come in and just talk and talk while we are trying to work, or people who like to work by themselves and not 

in groups, or those who like to speak or don’t like to speak in groups. DISC describes the origins of those behaviors. 

It even explains why some people have messy desks and others do not. DISC provides information about these 

behavioral preferences so that we can understand others and develop better relationships at home and at work. 

Q. How many behavioral styles are discussed in the DISC assessment training and which styles align with yours? 

There are four Primary Behavioral Styles in the DISC model, and I am a “D” type personality. We all have some 

characteristics of each style, but rely primarily on one. Environment matters; some act one way at home and another 

way at work. FLETC leadership instructors teach these characteristics all over the world and believe me—they are 

making a big difference in the lives of the students everywhere FLETC trains.

Dominance Style-(Driver) Task-oriented extroverts who can put on the heat, may be quick to anger, direct, blunt, get 

right to the bottom line. D’s like variety, challenge, new opportunities, making their own decisions, to be in charge, 

little or no supervision, change, freedom, going straight to the bottom line. D’s don’t like being questioned or 

challenged, can’t-do attitudes, routine tasks, appearing weak or soft, or beating around the bush. 

Influence Style-(Socializer) People-oriented extroverts who are optimistic, friendly, spread sunshine to others. I’s like 

talking, brainstorming, recognition, positive feedback, frequent interaction with people, a fun work environment, 

activity, socializing, quick decisions, and action. I’s don’t like negative people, picky people, tedious work, disapproval 

from others, lots of details, working alone, inflexibility, rules, and restrictions. 

Supportive Style-(Relater) People-oriented introverts who provide stability and support to the rest of the team. S’s 

like being appreciated, clearly defined responsibilities, job security, an orderly and predictable work environment, 

harmony, and personal privacy. S’s don’t like change, lack of management support, aggressive and pushy people, 

competition, conflict, confrontation, pressure, disorganization, or deadlines. 

Compliance Style-(Analyzer) Task-oriented introverts who are cool, unemotional, and analytical. C’s like to work alone 

without distractions and interruptions, low-risk decisions, the time and resources to do the job right, facts, logic, 

objectivity, adherence to rules, procedures, and standards. C’s don’t like dealing with emotionally-charged issues, 

sloppiness, carelessness, small-talk, mandatory socializing, projects with unpredictable outcomes, and changing 

rules and expectations. 

(Descriptions are from DISC Training Workshops at: http://www.disctrainingworkshops.com/)

Q. What type of person irritates you the most as a leader?

There will always be someone who is a problem and causes extra work, primarily due to his or her attitude. Sadly, 

we seem to all know who they are. I think an employee or a supervisor who is rude, insensitive to his or her 

colleagues, toxic to other folks, or is a mean-spirited bully should be dealt with immediately. Initially, it can seem 

6

REFLECTIONS ON LEADERSHIP
WWW.FLETC.GOV 

easier to allow these folks to go unchallenged. In the end, this causes additional problems, both 

emotionally and professionally to the staff and financially to the organization. If they aren’t dealt 

with quickly and appropriately, they eventually lower employee morale. A successful leader identifies 

and quickly addresses destructive behaviors and does not become a part of the problem. Employees appreciate it 

when supervisors act, and the organization is better off for it.

Q. Do you have a favorite leadership book?

I have several, but Lincoln on Leadership: Executive Strategies for Tough Times by Donald T. Phillips is near the 

top. This unique book provides a management course through the historical lens of Lincoln during the Civil War. 

Lincoln’s philosophy on leadership and fighting tough battles in work and life are still valuable. The very first chapter 

describes Lincoln’s inclination to get out of the office to find out what was really going on. This is a habit many 

managers could use today. Anyone who wants to improve their leadership skills would benefit from reading the 

book. Two of my favorite quotes are: “Be with a leader when he is right, stay with him when he is still right, but, 

leave him when he is wrong,” and one that is so true in my life, “I’m a success today because I had a friend who 

believed in me and I didn’t have the heart to let him down.”

Q. Why do you think international engagements are important to the FLETC mission?

While FLETC’s first mandate will always be training federal law enforcement, we recognize the interconnectivity 

between our mission and the goals of domestic and foreign law enforcement. Leadership training and capacity 

building are two areas in which we can actively engage with the international law enforcement community. The 

transnational nature of the criminal forces we face and the threat they pose to our society require that we work closely 

together. We must engage in the best practices available, train using the newest methodologies and technologies 

available, and develop and review strategic plans in order to adjust to evolving demands. 

Q. How does the leadership training your division provides in the international arena support the DHS mission and 

the US Government interests?

The Department of Homeland Security’s international blueprint calls for building and improving existing international 

partnerships to better identify vulnerabilities and work with those partners to understand, investigate, and interdict 

threats or hazards at the earliest possible point—ideally before they emerge as direct threats to the homeland, 

reach U.S. shores, or disrupt the critical networks on which the United States depends. Our ability to effectively 

network through robust partnerships and operational integration—within DHS, across the enterprise, and with our 

international partners—is critical to our mission success.

7

J.O. Smith currently serves as Chief of the Physical Techniques Division. He also served as the 

Chief of Forensics and Investigative Technologies Division and the Driver and Marine Division before being 

assigned as the Director of the International Law Enforcement Academy (ILEA) in Gaborone, Botswana, 

for five years. He returned to FLETC Glynco in December 2014. J.O. has received many awards 

for his leadership and local community service.
8 FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15
WWW.FLETC.GOV 

Shopping centers are part and parcel of our American way of life. People see 

them not only as places to purchase the items they need and desire, but also 

as venues for recreation, leisure, and entertainment. While we visit them 

typically without much thought to what could go wrong, there are private 

security professionals and local law enforcement officers engaged each day 

in ensuring both mall security and our safety. Their success in doing so 

depends on coordination and an understanding of each other’s roles. 

Since the Department of Homeland Security’s (DHS) inception following 

the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, evolving threats have underscored 

the significance of the private sector to the homeland security enterprise. 

Over 85% of our Nation’s critical infrastructure is privately owned, and 

DHS has embraced the criticality of collaborating with the private sector in 

all phases of preparing for, responding to, and recovering from large scale 

incidents. The 2014 Quadrennial Homeland Security Review identifies 

strengthening the execution of DHS missions through public-private 

partnerships as one of the Department’s strategic priorities.

Throughout its 45 year history, FLETC has embraced the power of 

partnerships in developing and delivering high quality law enforcement 

training. As a component of DHS, FLETC recognizes the need for law 

enforcement and the private sector to work together in support of 

safety and security, and the critical role training can play in improving 

coordination between the two sectors. To this end, FLETC collaborated this 

past spring with the DHS National Protection and Programs Directorate 

and private sector stakeholders in the commercial facilities field to pilot 

the inaugural FLETC Private-Public Partnership Academy (PPPA) at FLETC’s 

headquarters in Glynco, Georgia. Leaders from Simon Property Group, the 

largest shopping mall operator in the United States, represented the private 

sector in planning this event, with participants from other companies 

attending the training.

“I believe, to meet the challenges of securing our Nation 

and building resilience in this fast-paced, ever changing, 

threat environment, our mission is best served 

as a shared responsibility—shared by 

federal, state, local, tribal, and territorial governments, 

private sector companies, non-profit organizations, 

communities, and individual citizens.”

—DHS Secretary Jeh Johnson

9

FORGING PARTNERSHIPS

Senior Instructor Chris Corall burns a 

commercial safety fuse to acquaint students 

with characteristic fuming and odor during 

a block of training on Improvised Explosive 

Devices at the inaugural Private/Public 

Partnership Academy.
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

On June 1, 2015, nearly 175 mall executives, mall security 

directors, and local law enforcement officers and leaders 

gathered to participate in this first-of-its-kind training 

event at FLETC. The goal was to bring together these 

three groups that form the foundation of shopping 

center security to participate in training pertinent to 

securing public venues, with a broader goal of improving 

coordination, security, and resiliency across traditional 

public and private sector areas of responsibility. One of 

FLETC’s founding principles is that collaboration in training 

leads to more effective law enforcement operations. 

Bringing together private sector security providers, mall 

executives, and local law enforcement personnel for joint 

training was a natural evolution of FLETC’s commitment 

to collaboration across the comprehensive homeland 

security and public safety communities. 

As FLETC, NPPD, and Simon Property Group planned 

the training components of the first PPPA, they thought 

carefully about which topics would apply to all segments 

of the intended audience, and specifically how they 

could tailor the training to address each group’s roles 

and responsibilities in securing commercial facilities. 

The outcome was two days of training in a variety of 

topics, including terrorism awareness, weapons of mass 

destruction, improvised explosive devices, leadership in 

a crisis, special event security planning, tactical medical, 

and simulated firearms familiarization. 

Although FLETC delivers training in these topics every 

day to our Nation’s law enforcement officers, this was 

the first time the audience included both the public and 

private sectors. Participants ran the gamut from those 

with corporate responsibilities and no law enforcement 

experience to those serving as chiefs of police with no 

corporate experience. This created a particular challenge 

for FLETC to tailor the training sessions to meet the needs 

of all participants. The key was focusing on roles and 

responsibilities, so that regardless of their level of content 

knowledge, both groups came away with an understanding 

of how they could work across traditional boundaries to 

effectively keep their facilities and customers safe. 

FLETC’s Counterterrorism Division Chief Martin Roddini, 

who played a key role in planning the training, observed, 

“Although FLETC trains people with various levels of law 

enforcement experience, this audience had the largest 

variance in background, experience, and most importantly, 

their roles and responsibilities outside the fence line. 

Thus, to be effective, each block needed to address the 

varying missions, roles, and responsibilities of this unique 

audience.” Confirming the significance of tailoring the 

training sessions to focus on roles and responsibilities, 

another FLETC PPPA planner observed, “What behavior 

changes now? Do they communicate more than they did? 

That’s more the point than the individual training topics. 

I think they will communicate more than they did. Now 

they know what they don’t know.”

The various training sessions served as building blocks 

leading up to a final practical exercise, during which 

the four groups participated in a competition to identify 

threat indicators during a large-scale event. To ensure 

10

FORGING PARTNERSHIPS

Photo: Senior Instructor Hugh Breslin dons latex gloves as he discusses the 

physiological effects of contamination by Weapons of Mass Destruction.
WWW.FLETC.GOV 

realism, the final exercise took place during a FLETC-wide 

event that was open to all FLETC and Partner Organization 

staff. The goal was to replicate the kind of event open to 

the public that might occur at a shopping venue. FLETC 

therefore coupled this exercise with its inaugural Partner 

Appreciation Day, and held a Car, Truck, and Motorcycle 

Show to serve as the focal point for the event. The PPPA 

planners intentionally ensured the teams comprised a 

mixture of public and private sector personnel, offering 

the valuable experience of working with their counterparts 

during a pragmatic exercise. 

FLETC’s Counterterrorism Division staff collaborated 

with NPPD’s Federal Protective Service to inject 

simulated “threats” into the event. For example, they 

staged threats such as a suspicious package, a person 

wearing unseasonable clothing, a role player posing as 

a political candidate handing out literature indicative of 

his association with domestic terrorism, an abandoned 

vehicle with suspicious materials inside it, and a role 

player conducting video surveillance of the event with 

a smart phone. Participants worked with their teams to 

identify as many threat indicators as they could. After the 

event, FLETC instructors led them through a de-briefing 

during which they discussed what they had seen and what 

their responsibilities would be during an actual event.

Following the PPPA, participants shared feedback on the 

value of this exercise. One law enforcement participant 

stated, “This was one of the more thorough and realistic 

scenario-based exercises I have been a part of in 18 

years of law enforcement. The exercise put you into 

a real atmosphere of a crowded situation with high to 

moderate level of tension. The ebb and flow of what to 

expect was great.” Another noted that the final event 

provided an opportunity to draw from the information 

the instructors had imparted during the training sessions, 

and also observed, “It was a great opportunity to work 

with others.” 

FLETC staff who participated in the planning and execution 

of the PPPA identified important benefits to both public 

and officer safety. FLETC Assistant Director Valerie Atkins 

noted, “The PPPA attendees confirmed that the private 

sector is very eager and willing to embrace their role 

11

FORGING PARTNERSHIPS

Senior Instructor Chris Corall displays 

examples of dynamite while discussing the use 

of commercial explosives during training on 

Improvised Explosive Devices.
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

providing safe environments for their visiting public, and 

they value these learning experiences and the collaboration 

with public safety officials. The interest in this training 

will definitely help create safer venues.” Chief Roddini 

observed that the PPPA participants can now become force 

multipliers in the deterrence and detection of crime. He 

remarked, “They effectively have become trained observers 

not only during these special events but also during their 

day-to-day activities. They now know what to look for, 

their response, and the effects as they relate to improvised 

explosive devices, vehicle-borne improvised explosive 

devices, and weapons of mass destruction.” 

Even for those law enforcement participants with many 

years of experience, the uniqueness of training in concert 

with private sector partners was extremely valuable. One 

municipal law enforcement participant observed, “As a 

law enforcement person with 29 years of experience, 

most of this was not new information. However, when I 

shifted gears and realized this was the catalyst to talk more 

in depth with our private partners and know where their 

base of knowledge comes from, it is an excellent platform 

to build on and discuss continuous training concepts. This 

is a valuable training opportunity.”

The PPPA addressed the sometimes competing but often 

intersecting interests of business and public safety. For 

example, during the training block on special event 

planning, a FLETC instructor pointed out that the general 

manager of the mall does not have the same mission 

or possess the exact same concerns as the director of 

security and/or law enforcement. One mall executive 

who attended the PPPA observed the effectiveness of the 

program in addressing this potential conflict, stating, “The 

instructors did a phenomenal job of focusing the material 

toward our areas of responsibility. Everything was tailored 

to fit our needs. The hands-on approach enabled us to 

understand the private/public relationship dynamics...the 

12

Role players enact simulated threats during the final practical exercise 

of the FLETC Private/Public Partnership Academy. FLETC coupled 

this exercise with the inaugural Partner Appreciation Day, and held a 

Car, Truck, and Motorcycle Show to serve as the focal point of the event.

FORGING PARTNERSHIPS
WWW.FLETC.GOV 

session on special event planning was helpful and allowed 

me to understand the different viewpoints needed to 

prepare accurately.” Similarly, one law enforcement PPPA 

participant reflected, “It was enlightening for me to see 

what is important to the 

private sector.”

In addition to imparting 

information on the 

private and public sectors’ 

differing roles in support 

of improved coordination, 

the PPPA also aimed to 

underscore their collective 

responsibility in ensuring 

safety and security. One 

mall executive commented, “I was struck with the true 

responsibility that we all have to be prepared to jump in to 

save lives if the occasion arises.” A local law enforcement 

PPPA participant observed that the central message of 

“communication and knowing your role” with any 

operation “will possibly save lives.” 

Looking to the future, FLETC is reflecting on how it can 

replicate this experience for additional private and public 

sector stakeholders, potentially in other subsectors besides 

commercial facilities. FLETC’s brand statement is “Training 

Excellence Through Partnerships.” The inaugural PPPA 

enabled FLETC to concretely incorporate the private sector 

into the work it does every day to ensure our Nation’s law 

enforcement officers are well-prepared to perform their 

often dangerous roles. As a FLETC trainer observed after 

the PPPA, “This is pushing 

FLETC to look at how 

we’re doing our business. 

Law enforcement does not 

operate in a vacuum. How 

do we integrate others, like 

emergency services, the 

private sector, etc.?”

FLETC Director Connie 

Patrick summed up FLETC’s 

commitment to the role 

of training in forging 

private and public sector collaboration. She stated, “As 

professionals in the law enforcement and security fields, 

we know that it is never just one agency responsible for 

prevention, mitigation, and response. We also know that 

because we live in a free and open society, we cannot 

just harden facilities in order to protect them. We must 

proactively train and collaborate across the public and 

private sectors to work as a team to mitigate, prevent, and 

respond to threats.” FLETC looks forward to continued 

collaboration with private sector stakeholders to promote 

coordination and safety through training.

JENNIFER TOCCO began her civil service career in 2008 and currently serves as a management 

and program analyst in the Director’s Office. She previously held positions in the Office of State and 

Local Training and the Rural Policing Institute. Prior to moving to Georgia, Ms. Tocco worked in the 

nonprofit and academic sectors. While completing her graduate studies, she served as a research fellow 

at the Rutgers Graduate School of Education’s Center for Educational Policy Analysis. She holds a 

Bachelor of Arts with a double major in political science and history from Drew University, a Master 

of Education degree with a focus on educational policy and qualitative research methods from Rutgers 

University, and a Master of Public Administration degree from Valdosta State University. She also 

completed all doctoral coursework in educational policy while at Rutgers.

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FORGING PARTNERSHIPS

“We must proactively train and collaborate 

across the public and private sectors 

to work as a team to mitigate, prevent 

and respond to threats.”

—Connie Patrick, Director, FLETC
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

By Preston Farley

With the widespread public adoption of digital technology, the law enforcement 

landscape has changed drastically in the past few decades, along with every other 

segment of society. This article aims to explore the similarities and differences 

between traditional law enforcement officer mental trauma and the new type of 

trauma ushered in by the investigation of the criminal use of digital technology 

to facilitate child exploitation. This article will focus on the law enforcement 

professional, not the suspects or victims of this horrific type of crime. 

Critical Incidents

On February 15, 2011, as Special Agent Jaime Zapata and his 

partner were driving on a highway in Mexico in support of a 

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) mission, 

Mexican drug cartel members ambushed and shot them. 

His partner was shot in the legs and survived, but Special 

Agent Zapata eventually succumbed to multiple gun shots. 

A 15-year veteran1 of U.S. federal investigations didn’t 

show up for work one day. His boss became concerned 

when he didn’t answer his home or cell phone. Eventually, 

a patrol was dispatched to his house and discovered an 

apparent suicide scene. The suicide note said, “I can’t take 

the work anymore.” For five years, this federal officer had 

been assigned to a child exploitation imagery analysis unit 

where he apparently became traumatized by the images he 

processed every day. 

The first death described above made the national news, 

but the second one was not even a blip in the national 

media. While both deaths were equally tragic and the 

MENTAL

“SUNBURN”

New Thoughts on 

Law Enforcement Mental Trauma

1

 The agent depicted is a composite of multiple persons/events and is 

presented for demonstration purposes due to privacy concerns. Any similarity 

to unique people and events is accidental and unintentional.

14
WWW.FLETC.GOV 

public lost dedicated officers in both 

instances, the second kind of death 

may occur far more frequently until 

law enforcement makes a seismic 

shift in the treatment of its officers’ 

mental health needs. 

Short History of Research 

The history of pornography is 

probably as old as that of mankind 

itself. As we have mastered new 

communication technologies, so have 

those who traffic in pornography. 

From the erotic art on the walls of 

brothels in Pompeii, to Gutenberg’s 

invention of the printing press that 

brought pornography to paper, to the 

current binary format on computers 

all over the world, pornography has 

always had its impact. Along with 

adult pornography came a smaller 

segment that we referred to as child 

pornography, or what we now call 

child sexual exploitation (CSE) 

material. As the Internet came to the 

forefront in the modern world and 

everyone became connected virtually, 

those who traffic in CSE began to 

multiply online. 

The Internet was already an established 

CSE vector when I began my career 

in law enforcement in the middle 

1990s. And with the proliferation 

of CSE material came a need to 

investigate it. Law enforcement began 

to form investigative teams focused 

on computer crime, and rapidly 

discovered that the largest part of 

these investigations would be focused 

on CSE because it was so prolific. As 

more and more law enforcement 

officers were trained in this discipline, 

it became apparent that CSE material 

did not only victimize the children, 

but also had a negative impact on 

those who dedicated their careers to 

seeking justice for them. Anecdotally, 

those in the business would hear 

of computer examiners who just 

quit one day because “they just had 

enough.” 

Obviously, there was something 

affecting these officers differently 

than other types of police work. In 

the early 2000s, pioneering research 

15

One of the 

toughest issues 

associated 

with this type 

of trauma is 

identifying it.

MENTAL SUNBURN
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

began to attempt to identify the particular stressors on 

officers who spend their days investigating CSE material. 

As with any new endeavor, it takes time to gather enough 

data to begin formulating scientific theories. As of 2015, 

there is a lot of research literature and a great deal of 

actual field experience in dealing with the vicarious 

victims of CSE material, i.e., law enforcement officers 

responsible for investigating this type of criminal activity. 

Kenneth Middleton, Ph.D., Peer Support Clinical Advisor 

for ICE, has been in the mental health field since 1989. 

I recently interviewed Dr. Middleton, and he relayed the 

latest finding on Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder 

and related illnesses’ triggers and effects with respect 

to law enforcement officers. Dr. Middleton has spent a 

considerable amount of time researching cause and effect 

of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder for law enforcement, 

and specifically, identification, inoculation, hygiene, and 

treatment for those afflicted. 

Impact of Secondary Traumatic Stress

When a traumatic event occurs to one officer in an 

organization, it affects everyone else in that organization 

to varying degrees. In the example of Special Agent Zapata 

above, his death was traumatic, but the timing and scope 

of his untimely death were finite. Everyone involved could 

pinpoint the specific time and circumstances of this tragedy. 

Dr. Middleton explained that this type of mental trauma 

is akin to touching a burner on a stove. It is very easy 

to quantify when, where, and how you got this type of 

injury and to observe the negative impact. The symptoms 

and treatment for this type of injury are well known. 

With CSE investigations, it is much different. Unlike 

touching a very hot object and forming a burn blister 

immediately, CSE investigators get something more like a 

sunburn. Metaphorically, the agent may put on sunblock, 

wear long sleeves, and stand under an umbrella all day 

with just short forays into the water, but when he gets 

home that evening, he finds that he has received a bad 

sunburn anyway. He doesn’t know the precise minute in 

the sun that pushed him over the edge into a burn; he 

only knows he has been burned at some point. 

Dr. Middleton described three pitfalls common for 

CSE investigators who have gotten “burned,” which is 

technically known as Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder. 

The first type of trauma is burnout. Investigators 

are happy to go to work every day until one 

day they are not. They were very energized to 

get into the field and help to put perpetrators 

behind bars, but one day the “sunburn” hurts too much 

and they do not feel they can go on. Dr. Middleton stated 

that this most often occurs with agents who do not perceive 

that they have the necessary organizational support for 

their work. Either their supervisors do not understand the 

work, or attorneys are not taking their cases, or they do 

not have sufficient equipment. So burnout occurs when 

agents feel they know what to do, but do not have the 

proper tools and/or support.

The second type of pitfall for CSE 

investigators is called compassion fatigue. 

This happens when agents begin to focus 

too much on the victims. An agent may look 

at an image of a victim who is being posed but does not 

realize it. Investigators need to make a very quick decision 

regarding whether this is illegal or not. The problem 

comes when the agent takes an extra second to try to tell 

himself the story of how the child was placed into that 

position. If the agent begins to connect with the victim, 

he may feel compassion fatigue. To clinicians, this looks 

like the actual signs of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. The 

agents experience hyper-arousal and do not sleep well. 

When they dream, they dream about saving victims. They 

have a heightened startle response and their digestion 

does not work well. This is classic Post-Traumatic Stress 

Disorder symptomology. 

The final type of pitfall routinely observed 

in CSE investigators is vicarious trauma. 

The agents are traumatized when they see 

the trauma of others. The difference from 

compassion fatigue is that the agents begin to focus on 

the perpetrators. They tend to think, “I know what a 

perpetrator looks like.” They go grocery shopping and 

start looking at every man in the store with his daughter. 

1

2

3

16

MENTAL SUNBURN
WWW.FLETC.GOV 

When she asks for ice-cream, her father pats her on the 

back and says “Yes, you can have some ice-cream,” and 

the agent who has vicarious trauma thinks, “That guy is 

raping his daughter.” Agents start to view the world as if 

everybody is evil. 

Obstacles

One of the toughest issues associated with this type of 

trauma is identifying it, because investigators do not know 

they are getting “burned.” The process is slow and builds 

up over time for most people. The investigator’s behavior 

begins to change but he does not see it. Someone close to 

him sees it and then brings it to his attention. He is doing 

the work, and then suddenly his spouse says, “Why are you 

treating our daughter differently?” He responds, “Well, I 

don’t want to be accused of anything.” “But you’ve been 

acting one way with her for 11 years and now she’s 12 

and you are treating her differently. You’ve changed.”

A second obstacle is institutional and social stigma. In 

agencies where a security clearance is required, disclosure 

of seeing a mental health practitioner is sometimes 

perceived as a career killer. And among one’s peers, 

any sign of weakness might be mocked and amplified 

throughout the organization. These two factors are a huge 

pressure point for many people who recognize that they 

need some type of assistance, but the cost outweighs the 

benefits in their minds. 

Overcoming Obstacles

Over the years as more data have been aggregated 

concerning the issues of critical incident response 

and Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder treatment, 

institutional stigma is crumbling in many organizations. 

In Dr. Middleton’s organization, ICE management has 

instituted one of the most comprehensive and forward 

thinking treatment regimens in the United States law 

enforcement community. Every ICE office either currently 

has or will have a specially trained peer support officer 

on staff. It has implemented mandatory group meetings 

every quarter. Wellness coordinators run these meetings, 

getting everyone away from their desks and into an 

environment where they can safely talk 

about how the work has affected 

them personally and reconnect with 

their peers. 

Having implemented these 

remedies only in 2013, there is scant 

evidence of their effectiveness 

yet. However, as of this writing, 

ICE has certified 138 peersupport practitioners. These 

practitioners have cumulatively 

reported spending hundreds 

of man-hours assisting their 

co-workers with various 

stressors in their capacities as 

law enforcement officers. 

One of the cornerstones 

of the ICE Peer Support 

Program is anonymity. 

17

MENTAL SUNBURN
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

This is a requirement to ensure the agents feel safe enough 

to be frank and completely open to the peer support 

practitioner. This is great for the program participants, 

but makes obtaining accurate metrics difficult. Overall, 

the program should assist in making happier, healthier 

employees who take fewer sick days, and should reduce 

staff turn-over. 

Law enforcement agencies around the globe are facing 

the same issues with respect to CSE material investigators. 

While cultural norms differ around the world, there is 

an almost universal consensus regarding the taboo of 

child sexual abuse. Therefore, investigators combatting 

this particular crime in other countries experience 

the same problems as American investigators. To that 

end, the Virtual Global Taskforce has been established 

to comprehensively address these issues globally. Visit 

http://www.virtualglobaltaskforce.com/ for additional 

information. 

As this field matures, we should expect more research and 

even better services for officers involved in CSE material 

investigations. Until then, the most important thing 

investigators working in this field can do is not bottle up 

the feelings this type of work will generate. Find a friend 

or a peer support specialist and talk about it. 

PRESTON FARLEY is a senior instructor for the Cyber Division at FLETC, 

where he has been an instructor since 2004. In 2006, he became the program 

coordinator for the Seized Computer Evidence Recovery Specialist Training 

Program, which is the introductory digital forensic analysis class open to all 

law enforcement officers/agents at both the local and federal levels. His law 

enforcement career includes 20 years as a United States military member in 

both the active duty U.S. Air Force and the active duty U.S. Army culminating in 

nearly a decade of investigative experience with the United States Army Criminal 

Investigation Division Command as a special agent and cyber agent.

18

MENTAL SUNBURN
WWW.FLETC.GOV 

T.H.R.E.A.T.

By Charles Brewer

On April 15, 2013, at 2:49 p.m. thousands of runners and 

hundreds of thousands of spectators were participating 

in the Boston Marathon when two pressure cooker 

bombs exploded, ending the lives of three people and 

maiming over 260 others. The authorities’ response was 

unprecedented in the annals of U.S. law enforcement 

history. Due to the ubiquity of surveillance and mobile 

phone cameras, the suspected attackers were identified 

and their photographs were released to the public that 

very day. What is not generally known outside of first 

responder agencies is that communication problems 

still remain between police, fire, and emergency 

medical services (EMS) agencies when responding 

to mass casualty events. This has had the negative 

consequences of prolonged chaos, increased response 

times, and ultimately unnecessary pain and suffering for 

the injured. Fortunately, there is a solution. 

Intense media attention to mass casualty events in the 

United States has resulted in a renewed focus on improving 

A GOOD

KIND OF

T.H.R.E.A.T.

Increasing 

Survivability 

During Mass 

Casualty Events

19
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

survivability during these events, not only for 

the intended victims, but also for the responding 

police, fire, and EMS personnel. On April 2, 2013, 

and again on July 11, 2013, a group of public 

agency organizations known as the Hartford 

Consensus convened in Hartford, Connecticut, 

to develop strategies for increasing survivability 

during these events. 

Additionally, on February 5-6, 2014, the 

Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Office 

of Health Affairs held a stakeholder engagement 

meeting to facilitate discussion among subject 

matter experts from federal, state, and local 

agencies. The results of each of these meetings 

were similar, that we must develop policies to 

better integrate responding agencies through 

increased interoperability. Doing this would 

allow responding agencies to work within 

a common framework, while continuing to 

focus on their agency specific missions. While 

fire and EMS responders commonly use the 

National Incident Management System and the 

Incident Command System, law enforcement 

does not typically use them during the initial 

response. However, the law enforcement 

response is usually integrated as the National 

Incident Management System and the Incident 

Command System are activated.

It is well documented that most deaths 

from penetrating trauma result from blood 

loss. We also know the typical response to 

mass casualty events has not been optimally 

aligned to maximize survivability. Historically, 

initial response has been focused on threat 

neutralization. This should, and will, remain 

the focus. However, there are combat-proven 

techniques that can be integrated into the 

response that will greatly increase survivability 

of victims and any injured responders. This 

integration will achieve multiple objectives 

simultaneously. One such technique/tactic 

is the implementation of the Tactical Combat 

Top: Students practice applying a tourniquet to a wound during a practical exercise in 

the field. Bottom: Instructor and students discuss lessons learned in a Tactical Combat 

Casualty Care scenario. Opposite page: Students practice evacuating the wounded.

20

A GOOD KIND OF T.H.R.E.A.T.
WWW.FLETC.GOV 21

Casualty Care principles. When implemented with 

strong support, this program has resulted in dramatic 

reductions in preventable deaths. The Hartford Consensus 

recommended an integrated response containing the 

critical actions contained in the acronym THREAT:

Threat suppression

Hemorrhage control

Rapid Extrication to safety

Assessment by medical providers

Transport to definitive care

When utilized properly, THREAT requires cooperation 

among all initial responding agencies (police, fire, and EMS). 

The recognition of the need for increased interoperability 

and the implementation of true interoperability are two 

very distinct things. While virtually everyone agrees on the 

need, not everyone can develop or has developed a plan for 

successful integration. Differing policies among agencies 

often hampers implementing an integrated response. 

With law enforcement agencies adopting new techniques 

and tactics for responding to mass casualty events and the 

traditional fire/EMS approach of waiting until the scene 

is secured, it is virtually impossible to fully integrate a 

response. The introduction of the Tactical Combat Casualty 

Care concepts to street level police officers, including selfaid and buddy-care, has increased the survivability of the 

initial responding officers. There has also been a recent 

shift in traditional EMS response, with the utilization of 

additional law enforcement resources to allow EMS access 

to the “warm zone,” which allows for additional medical 

evaluation/treatment that would otherwise be delayed.

The obvious question prior to implementing any of the 

above tactics is, “How do we do it?” Unfortunately, during 

the event is not the time to answer that question. Ensuring 

proper implementation should be an ongoing process. 

Senior level leadership among the initial responding 

agencies should meet to develop policies and procedures 

that consider the entire response, not just their agencies’ 

A GOOD KIND OF T.H.R.E.A.T.
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

responses. Agencies should put these policies in place 

and utilize them during table top exercises and during 

departmental/agency training sessions. Training sessions 

should involve all responding agencies, not just the 

evolution “owner.” Doing so will also allow responders 

to get to know each other and to develop professional 

relationships. This will make communication easier 

during an emergency. 

Finally, perhaps the most important factor is training. This 

includes specific training on techniques and tactics, and 

also on policies. This training should be done both intraagency and inter-agency. There are numerous examples 

of one agency responding with exceptional training and 

polices, but other responding agencies lacking clarity on 

their roles. This creates conflict when multiple agencies 

are trying to work together to respond. Providing 

joint training opportunities can eliminate most of this 

confusion, especially for agencies sharing a geographical 

location or where mutual aid agreements exist. 

FLETC has developed the Basic Tactical Medical Training 

Program (BTMTP) to deliver this type of training. The 

BTMTP is a 24-hour training program focusing on the 

Tactical Combat Casualty Care principles as applied to 

civilian law enforcement. FLETC delivers this program 

across the country to federal, state, and local agencies in 

an attempt to align jurisdictions on this topic. Fire and 

EMS providers routinely attend the BTMTP, which local 

police agencies sponsor, in an attempt to better integrate 

into the response network. This training provides handson scenario practice to prepare agencies for an integrated 

and cooperative response during mass casualty events.

There are many other considerations before implementing 

this type of approach, such as appropriate medical 

training and use of ballistic protection for EMS. However, 

with the prevalence of mass casualty events in the United 

States, public safety agencies must begin considering an 

integrated response approach. Doing so will increase the 

survivability of first responders and civilian victims of 

mass casualty events.

A link to information about the BTMTP is https://www.

fletc.gov/training-program/basic-tactical-medicaltraining-program.

CHARLES BREWER has over 27 years experience with the federal government, serving in both the 

U.S. Department of the Treasury and the Department of Homeland Security, Federal Law Enforcement 

Training Centers. He currently serves as the chief of the First Responder and Fitness Branch in the FLETC 

Physical Techniques Division. He earned his bachelor’s degree from Armstrong State College in Savannah. 

He is a graduate of the FLETC Criminal Investigator Training Program, the Firearms Instructor Training 

Program, Driver Instructor Training Program, Non-Lethal Control Instructor Training Program and the 

Physical Fitness Coordinator Training Program. He has also served as a commissioned reserve police 

officer, as well as an emergency medical technician-tactical. While serving as an EMT-tactical he 

provided support, directly and indirectly, to numerous federal, state and local police agencies.

22

A GOOD KIND OF T.H.R.E.A.T.
WWW.FLETC.GOV 23

By Greg King

Digital Officer Safety is crucial training for any member of 

the law enforcement community. The reason for this is 

simple: Law enforcement officers must understand that what 

is available about them online can be used against them. The 

primary goal of Digital Officer Safety is teaching officers to 

take steps to reduce the personal and professional operational 

risks associated with online activity and having an operational 

security plan in place at the beginning of investigative activity. 

The concepts and need for Digital Officer Safety arose from an 

understanding that law breakers have always been interested 

in ways to predict, intercept, and thwart police action against 

them. This requires an understanding of police concepts and 

identification of investigative and operational weaknesses. A 

criminal who understands these investigative and operational 

weaknesses can exploit them. 

Example after example has been shared throughout the law 

enforcement community detailing the ways LEOs have become 

vulnerable to online resources.

Two New York City Police Department (NYPD) police officers 

sitting in their vehicle were gunned down by a suspect who 

posted anti-police rhetoric and threats to law enforcement on 

social network sites. The subject used an application called Waze 

to target his victims. Waze identifies in real time the location of 

on-duty police officers. Prior to the attack, the NYPD sergeants’ 

union1 sent a letter to Google requesting it discontinue the 

Waze app. The union feared this app could lead to the targeting 

and killing of NYPD police officers. 

The Department of Defense and the U.S. Army alerted service 

members after discovering a hit list on a social media website 

used by the Islamic State. These 100 members of the armed 

forces were notified that the Islamist State had threatened 

to kill them and members of their family. The group that 

posted the information identified itself as the Islamic State 

Hacking Division. The online list featured photographs of 

service members along with their names, ranks, and home 

addresses. This information was publicly available and did not 

come from a data breach. In many cases, the troops’ identities 

are on military websites and their social media pages such as 

Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

In December 2014, the Open Source Intelligence Center sent 

information to its members informing them that key members 

of the Islamic State had closed their Twitter accounts because 

various governments were using their accounts to monitor 

and track them. 

Just as law enforcement can use online content to track 

extremists online, extremists can likewise track law 

enforcement targets the same way. There are a number of ways 

to reduce exposure, all of which require a law enforcement 

officer to be proactive. It begins with law enforcement officers 

gaining an understanding for how much data could be out 

there about them, both personally and professionally. The first 

step is to list all the sites that may have information relating 

to a law enforcement officer and his or her 

family members. These sites include but are 

not limited to agency websites and directories, 

church websites, group or affiliation sites, 

professional association sites, and social media 

sites. After listing these sites, the next step is 

to systematically search them to determine 

whether it is necessary to list personal information on these 

sites and if the sites serve a purpose. Law enforcement officers 

should do the same thing with members of their immediate 

families. They should ask them what social media sites contain 

their personal information, and in the case of children, reach 

an agreement to elicit truthful responses while trying not to 

judge. Once information is located, law enforcement officers 

should determine if this information could be used against 

them or their family members, and then start the process of 

opting out of all the sites they wish to be removed from. Most 

sites have opt-out options associated with their “privacy” 

statements. This is a labor intensive task and was designed to 

discourage attempts at removing information. This information 

is a source of revenue for these sites and others like them. It is 

important to remember that the removal of data is retroactive, 

so it is a continual process that will have to be repeated due to 

the continual accumulation of data by online entities. 

As outlined above, both domestic and foreign enemies 

are using social media in ways that are harmful to law 

enforcement. They seek trophies and incidents that can be 

used as propaganda and recruitment tools. Our enemies have 

also made clear their intentions to attack us on American 

soil. Unfortunately, some feel it is only a matter of time until 

another attack is successful. Law enforcement professionals 

are a valuable commodity to not only the agencies they serve, 

but to extremists as well. To counteract the intentions and 

actions of criminals and terrorists, law enforcement officers 

must deny them access to their personal information. 

The new information-rich environments have changed how 

law enforcement operates and how officers conduct their 

personal lives. It has presented new investigative avenues 

and access to data that were unimaginable a short while 

ago. It has also made locating members of all segments of 

society much easier. Applying the techniques and practices of 

Digital Officer Safety will help close some of the information 

security holes associated with everyday activity. It is also 

one step in protecting officers and their families. Officers 

must understand the operational risks associated with online 

investigative functions.

References

1

http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2015/02/10/nypd-sergeants-union-wazeapp-cop-tracker-puts-officers-in-danger/

2

http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/03/23/pentagonresponse-islamic-state-kill-list/70335810/

3

Dept. of Homeland Security Intelligence Assessment (U//

FOUO) Potential Tactics and Targets in ISIL Linked Western Attacks17 

October 2014 Office

24

GREG KING is currently a senior instructor 

and program coordinator with the Financial 

Fraud and Investigative Analysis Branch, 

Investigative Operations Division, Federal Law 

Enforcement Training Centers, Department 

of Homeland Security. He is the program 

coordinator for the Case Organization and 

Presentation Training Program, the Internet 

Investigations Training Program and the 

assistant program coordinator for the 

Intelligence Analyst Training Program. As program coordinator, Greg is 

responsible for research and development of course material, lesson plans 

and testing. He also provides technical support for prior students and 

partner organizations. 

Prior to joining FLETC, Greg was employed as a sworn peace officer 

with the Cleveland Police Department, in Cleveland, Ohio, for almost 

28 years and has a total of 33 years of law enforcement experience. 

Greg’s assignments included undercover Street Crimes Unit Detective, Sex 

Crimes/Child Abuse Detective, Financial Crimes Detective, Homicide 

Detective and Intelligence Detective and Analyst. As a member of the 

Intelligence Unit, Greg was also assigned to the Ohio Internet Crimes 

Against Children Task Force as a certified forensic examiner. While 

assigned to the task force, he conducted forensic examinations involving 

tens of terabytes of data involving a wide range of criminal offenses. Greg 

has been qualified as an expert witness in local, state and federal courts. 

Greg is a computer forensics examiner and is a member of the High Tech 

Crime Investigators Association. 

DIGITAL OFFICER SAFETY
WWW.FLETC.GOV 

By Bruce Miller

It is a cool damp morning in rural America. You have just come on duty, and decide to stop and grab a cup of coffee. 

While waiting for the cashier to ring up your purchase, your radio echoes into the silence, “All units respond to a call 

of shots fired at Smithville High School.”* You race to get to your car because you are the only unit within a quick 

response area. You arrive on the scene, and there is already chaos. People are fleeing the building, and you hear screaming 

and gunfire from inside the building. You get out of your car, hurry to the door, and enter the building. Thoughts race 

through your head. Are you prepared? Can you recall your training? And most prevalent, was your training adequate? 

In the current environment and considering the proliferation of acts of violence officers are witnessing, it is paramount 

we make training as realistic as possible. There has never been the level of scrutiny on officers’ actions and responses 

as there is today. The roles of law enforcement are changing, and acts of terrorism are becoming more prevalent every 

day in our country and around the world. We, as trainers, must provide officers with realistic training and scenarios 

to prepare them for their roles in the ever evolving climate they are operating in. We must keep training and practical 

exercises updated to reflect current events, and must anticipate future events as well. 

Placing students in realistic scenarios, based on solid research, allows them the best chance for survival and success 

when they face similar situations in the field. While developing scenarios and training exercises, we must consider 

historical events and the laws that govern our responses. Building unrealistic and unwinnable scenarios creates training 

scars, and this is never beneficial to the student. Agencies routinely require requalification with firearms, but officers 

25
seldom receive follow-on training to accurately articulate 

their decisions to use reasonable force. Failing to reinforce 

the force options and articulation skills places the officer in 

an unenviable and unfortunate situation. As trainers, we can 

avoid this by instituting simple formal training scenarios or 

roll call trainings that reinforce the proper use of force and 

allow officers to effectively articulate their decisions. This 

builds consistency and confidence. 

Active shooter events have no geographical limitations. All 

officers should be properly trained in the response techniques 

for these types of situations. In doing this, we must look at 

the daily duties of the officer or agent and the operating 

environments in which they perform. Departments in some 

areas of the country may have the luxury of two to four 

people responding quickly and simultaneously. In more rural 

environments, back-up can be a long way away, and a single 

officer may need to respond to neutralize the threat and prevent 

further loss of life. What this tells trainers is we must train 

for the worst case scenario, as well as the optimum response. 

In the current FLETC active shooter training programs, we 

utilize multiple scenarios with multiple response options. 

Some scenarios are designed to reinforce single officer tactics; 

others are designed to stress link-up drills and prevention 

of blue-on-blue accidental violence. FLETC has integrated 

these concepts to meet the needs of its varied partners from 

jurisdictions across America. 

FLETC has received feedback on the success of its approach 

firsthand from graduates of the active shooter programs, six of 

whom have shared testimonials of how they helped terminate 

active shooter events. In September 2013, officers and agents 

from multiple jurisdictions converged on the Washington 

Naval Yard in response to shots fired in Building 197. Four 

were graduates of the FLETC active shooter programs. United 

States Park Police (USPP) Officer Andrew Wong stated that 

after making entry into Building 197, “I looked over my 

shoulder and saw a deceased person on the ground, and I 

remember thinking to myself, `Boy, this feels an awful lot like 

a training scenario.’ I knew in my mind it wasn’t, but it felt 

like I was doing another scenario.” 

Naval Criminal Investigative Service Special Agent Jack 

Rasmussen also responded that day. Agent Rasmussen stated, 

“Approximately two years before the incident I had gone 

through the active shooter instructor training program down 

at FLETC, and I thought the final exercise where they had the 

role players in various stages of moulage and screaming, and 

26 FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

TRAINING FOR REALITY

Photos on pages 25-27: FLETC trains law 

enforcement officers using realistic scenarios 

based on actual events.
WWW.FLETC.GOV 

the noise and the chaos, really lent itself to 

what I dealt with on the day of the shooting.” 

USPP Officer Carl Hiott credited his response 

to the realistic training he received at FLETC. 

He remarked on how easily overwhelmed 

he could have been by the cries for help and 

obvious needs of those left in the wake of 

the shooter. He stated, “Our training through 

FLETC has been that during any kind of active 

shooter situation, if shots are being fired, to 

respond directly and get into the area where 

the shooter is. I ran into the building, met up 

at the corner with a couple of other officers, 

and we immediately made entry into the 

northeast corner of the building. A lot of 

your natural inclination is to stop and help 

these people...so as hard as it was to pass those people, the training is what helped us do that and get to the threat 

rather than take our time and possibly let him do more damage.” 

Referencing the link-up training and blue-on-blue emphasis, Special Agent Gerry Arena of the Bureau of Alcohol, 

Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, stated, “There was a tremendous law enforcement response from federal, state, and 

local law enforcement in building 197 that day. And the simple fact that there was not one incident of a blue-on-blue, 

and when I say blue-on-blue I mean one officer engaging another officer in gunfire, in that building during the entire 

time that building was being searched and cleared, is a testament to the training the individual officers and their 

agencies have received and the tremendous discipline everyone displayed that day.” 

These type of testimonies demonstrate how training can prevent responding officers from becoming overwhelmed by 

the carnage and chaos of the evolving scene in front of them. We owe it to the brave men and women who protect this 

great Nation to provide them the most realistic and timely training possible. We should constantly assess our training 

programs to ensure they are current and relevant to the customers we serve. There is no more powerful testimony 

than when the University of Central Florida Police Chief and current President of the International Association of 

Chiefs of Police Richard Beary, who states, “I get asked all the time, `Why do we train so hard and why do we train so 

much?’ Well, the answer is simple. Unfortunately, across the United States of America what we see is way too much 

gun violence, and as a 37 year law enforcement person I’m confident in saying this: There’s an armed confrontation 

coming to a location near you soon. You better prepare now.” 

* This is a fictitious school and scenario. Similarities to any actual schools or events are purely coincidental.

27

There’s an 

armed 

confrontation 

coming to 

a location 

near you soon. You better 

prepare now.

—Richard Beary

President, IACP

BRUCE MILLER is currently the chief of the Active Response Branch in the Enforcement Operations 

Division. Bruce is a retired special agent with the Air Force Office of Special Investigations, where he 

served in many capacities across the full spectrum of law enforcement. Before becoming a branch chief, 

he worked as a program specialist in the Office of State and Local and the Rural Policing Institute, 

developing training programs for state and local officers nationwide. He holds a bachelor’s degree in 

criminal justice from Regents University and a master’s in adult education from Troy University. Bruce 

is also a FLETC certified driving, firearms, and tactics instructor. 

TRAINING FOR REALITY
By Mike Robbs

On a daily basis across our Nation, law enforcement 

supervisors and senior agents are conducting roll-call 

briefs prior to beginning their shifts. During this time, 

they share sensitive information about recent crimes, 

trends, and dangerous or significant criminals who need 

to be located and apprehended. Also during this time, 

they share or reinforce training-related issues. On a 

sadder note, they communicate information concerning 

law enforcement officers and agents who have recently 

died in the line of duty. When such information is shared 

the room becomes respectfully quiet. 

Emotions and thoughts are stirred, the silence only to be 

broken with a question, “What do we know about the 

circumstances of the death?” Or, “What can we learn 

from this tragedy?” Chris Cosgriff, Founder and Director 

of the Officer Down Memorial Page once said, “When 

a police officer is killed, it’s not an agency that loses an 

officer, it’s an entire nation.” This statement embodies 

the emotions officers feel when hearing such news, and 

conveys the strands that bind each federal, state, local, and 

tribal law enforcement officer and agent in our country. 

The agency mourns along with all in our profession, 

for we are connected by a spirit of comradeship, pride, 

enthusiasm, and devotion to a cause bigger than ourselves. 

For years, the Officer Down Memorial Page, the National 

Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund (NLEOMF), 

and the Federal Bureau of Investigation, through its 

Uniform Crime Reporting Program’s Law Enforcement 

Officers Killed and Assaulted publication, have collected, 

analyzed, and reported on law enforcement officers and 

agents who were assaulted, killed, or died in the United 

States. These reports memorialize the officers and agents 

and help identify trends and lessons learned from such 

tragedies in hopes that our profession can better prepare 

officers and agents to be both safe and effective. 

Background

Historically, law enforcement organizations have looked 

for trends related to criminal activity and vehicle crashes 

in order to identify effective measures to help reduce 

such occurrences. Similarly, researchers look for trends 

relating to causes of officer injuries and deaths while 

on duty. Such data analysis often results in the creation 

or adjustment of agency policies, standard operating 

procedures, and/or training objectives. 

Recognizing the great lessons to be learned from research, 

FLETC sought to examine line of duty deaths of FLETC 

graduates to help identify areas in which training could 

help mitigate tragedies. In June of 2014, staff from 

the FLETC Driver and Marine Division and the Training 

Research Office embarked on an effort to identify, analyze, 

and report on line of duty deaths of FLETC graduates of the 

Criminal Investigator Training Program, Uniformed Police 

Training Program, and Land Management Police Training. 

Through this work, FLETC has been able to identify lessons 

learned in order to modify and/ or supplement training 

activities and methodologies at FLETC.

The team began by collecting FLETC graduate line of duty 

death data on officers and agents who were killed in the 

line of duty from FLETC’s inception in 1970 until the 

completion of calendar year 2013. During this period of 

time, there were a total of 199 FLETC graduates killed in 

the line of duty from 28 of FLETC’s more than 95 federal 

partner agencies. 

First, the team organized the data on line of duty deaths 

into the three categories the Officer Down Memorial 

Page and NLEOMF use as primary causes of death. These 

categories are: 

Gunfire related-Officer killed by gunshot regardless of 

circumstances

Automobile related-Officer died in vehicle crash or was 

struck by another vehicle

Other cause–i.e. heart attack, terrorist attack, electrocution, 

drowning, fall, training incident, etc.

OFFICER DOWN

Law Enforcement Officers Dying in the Line of Duty

28 FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15
WWW.FLETC.GOV 29

As a comparison, the team reviewed FLETC graduates’ line of duty deaths 

alongside a recent report from the NLEOMF for the years 2004-2014. Because 

FLETC’s data on its graduates only went up to 2013, the research team only 

used the NLEOMF’s data through 2013. The chart to the right depicts this 

comparison and assists in determining if there are any significant differences 

between the FLETC graduates and those of all United States law enforcement 

line of duty deaths in terms of primary cause of death.

Lessons Learned from the “Gunfire” Category

Unlike the “Other” and “Automobile” categories, which each clearly fit into a 

single subcategory, the deaths by gunfire often fit into multiple subcategories 

(i.e., undercover work while also doing drug/gun interdiction). To analyze 

this data, the FLETC team coded these cases with primary and secondary 

subcategories. Therefore, the numbers reported below include both the primary 

and secondary causes. Thus, the total number of incidents depicted in the chart 

(73) is higher than the number of gunfire-related fatalities (53). 

The subcategories with the most cases were drug/gun interdiction (12), traffic 

stops (10), and other calls for service/incidents (10). Another trend to note is 

that for this category, there is a more even distribution among a variety of law 

enforcement roles. Additionally, most of these roles are areas in which related 

skills are covered in law enforcement training. 

Lessons Learned from the “Auto” Category

While many would guess that most law enforcement line of duty deaths are the 

result of officers being shot, this has not been the case in the United States. For 

16 of the last 17 years, there have been more officers and agents who have died 

from vehicle-related causes than by any other means. 

For a more in-depth analysis, the FLETC research team placed FLETC graduates’ auto related-death data into a variety 

of subcategories. The most significant finding was that most deaths happened during regular, non-emergency driving. 

Again, most would guess that there would be more crash deaths during emergency response or pursuit driving. 

Interestingly, a 28-year study conducted by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, which analyzed the 

deaths of officers who died in vehicle crashes from 1980-2008, found that 58% of these deaths happened during 

non-emergency driving. The lesson is that improving performance during non-emergency or regular driving appears 

to be just as critical or important as preparing our students for emergency vehicle operations. 

Lessons Learned from the “Other” Category

There was a significant difference between the data for FLETC graduates and the total law enforcement population in 

the “Other” category. Forty six percent of FLETC graduate line of duty deaths fell into this category, compared to 21% 

for all law enforcement. Such a difference warranted further investigation. 

FLETC analyzed this data, coding it into sub-categories comparable to those NLEOMF uses. Due to the much smaller 

number of FLETC graduate line of duty deaths compared to those of all law enforcement, the team plotted all FLETC 

cases (1970-2013) against only the most recent NLEOMF data (2004-2013). The largest difference in this data 

revealed that more FLETC officers and agents were killed in aircraft crashes (23% versus 8%) and terrorist/bomb 

related incidents (21% versus 5%). 

OFFICER DOWN
After closer examination, the team determined that factors 

leading to deaths caused by airplane crashes and bombings 

are not generally within the scope of the training officers 

and agents attending basic training at FLETC receive. 

When adjusting the numbers by removing aircraft and 

terrorist/bombing deaths from the overall statistics, the 

numbers become very similar.

A closer analysis of the adjusted statistics in the ‘Other’ 

category reveals that the largest risk for FLETC’s graduates 

comes from health-related issues. There were 24 FLETC 

graduates in this category. Of the 24 deaths, 18 were 

from heart attacks.

Conclusions

The goal of the FLETC line of duty death research effort 

is to learn more about the risks to FLETC graduates and 

to help identify those risks that may be reduced through 

training. To date, there have been several key findings from 

this review:

• There were more FLETC graduate fatalities from 

“Other” causes than for the larger law enforcement 

community. However, these differences were areas 

that fell outside the scope of factors that are addressed 

in basic law enforcement training (airplane crashes 

and bombings). When those two subcategories are 

removed from the analysis, the statistics for FLETC 

graduates match up very closely to those of all line of 

duty deaths in the United States.

• Considering all death categories, the three highest risks 

that could potentially be addressed in training are: (1) 

automotive crashes (during non-emergency response 

driving), (2) training related to drug/gun interdiction 

and (3) health issues (primarily heart attacks)

The Way Forward

The FLETC Driver and Marine Division conducted an 

analysis of all the graduate deaths in which its specific 

curriculum covers areas related to the causes of death. The 

analysis revealed that:

• 39 of the 199 total deaths happened during nonemergency driving. The Driver and Marine Division 

teaches a course on non-emergency vehicle operations.

• Seven deaths occurred when the officer or agent was 

responding to a call, i.e., running code or during a 

pursuit.

• Of the deaths by gunfire, 10 occurred during the 

execution of traffic stops. The Driver and Marine 

Division teaches the Risk and High Risk Vehicle Stops 

course.

• Nine deaths were the result of the officer or agent 

being struck by a vehicle while on foot, either working 

a traffic stop and/or at a vehicle crash scene.

• Of the officers or agents listed in the “Other” category, 

three drowned after their boats capsized. The Driver and 

Marine Division teaches the Marine Law Enforcement 

Training Program which includes the Man Overboard 

and Survival Swimming courses.

As a response to these research findings, the Driver and 

Marine Division staff is taking measures to mitigate 

future deaths in these areas through training. Of note is 

the recent use of driver simulators in which most of the 

scenarios involve non-emergency driving. During these 

exercises, the student must apply safe driving practices 

while utilizing in-car technologies when safe to do so, 

as well as apply appropriate judgment and decisions 

regarding other vehicles, pedestrians, and hazards on 

the roadway during various environmental and weather 

conditions. 

The Driver and Marine Division plans to evaluate a new 

modified Non-Emergency Vehicle Operations course 

laboratory and practical exercise in which there is 

more emphasis on all the requirements of an officer or 

agent operating a motor vehicle during non-emergency 

operations. 

Other FLETC training divisions will analyze the 

FLETC graduate line of duty death data related to their 

curriculums. Such evaluation will help identify trainingrelated changes that FLETC might make to help reduce 

graduate line of duty deaths. 

OFFICER DOWN
The conclusions FLETC can draw from its current graduate 

line of duty death data are limited somewhat by the 

details available on each death. Additional information 

on these cases would be valuable to the federal training 

community. 

To that end, the FLETC Training Research Office is reaching 

out to FLETC partner organizations to supplement available 

data, and is exploring obtaining additional data regarding 

FLETC graduates’ line of duty deaths from the Federal 

Bureau of Investigation’s Law Enforcement Officers Killed 

and Assaulted annual reports. 

FLETC is committed to recognizing its partners’ fallen 

officers and agents and memorializing their sacrifices 

in protecting and serving our county. At the same time, 

FLETC is dedicated to learning from these deaths in order 

to help mitigate tragedies through training. 

MIKE ROBBS began his law 

enforcement career in 1980, 

serving with the Chattanooga Police 

Department for 11 1⁄2 years. During 

this time he worked as a patrol officer, 

special weapons and tactics officer, 

special police operations team member, 

communications division supervisor, 

and instructor at the Chattanooga Police 

Academy. Employed at the FLETC since July 1991, Mike has 

instructed and/or managed in the Physical Techniques Division, 

Counterterrorism Division, Training Innovation Division, and the 

Driver and Marine Division. In May of 2015, he was assigned 

and is currently the law enforcement technology liaison for the 

Training Innovation Division’s Outreach and Exploration Branch, 

located in the FLETC Orlando, Florida, office. 

OFFICER DOWN

Photo: Senior Instructor John 

Floyd demonstrates on one of 

FLETC’s marine simulators.

If we do not determine lessons learned from our Line of Duty Deaths , then in a law 

enforcement sense, these officers and agents have died in vain.” —Mike Robbs
32 FLETCEDITOR’S NOTE

J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

Words of knowledge from Three “Wise” Research Professionals 

In recent years scientific studies have been conducted which document the negative effects of stress and 

sleep deprivation as it relates to officer judgement, decision making and performance when faced with useof-force options and other law enforcement situations. Current research reveals that for 17 out of the past 

19 years more officers have died in vehicle related line of duty deaths than by any other cause. Additionally, 

cardio-vascular disease related deaths such as heart attack and stoke are the third leading reason attributed to 

on-duty deaths each year. 

For those in the law enforcement profession burdened over the effect our jobs have on the health, well-being 

and performance of our officers and agents, it is a welcome relief when professionals from outside our family 

come to our aide with their research and knowledge sharing. 

Such is the case with the following contributors : Brian Vila, Ph.D., Jonathan Sheinberg, MD., and Jonathan 

Page, Ph.D., all doctors in their trades with a common goal: To improve the health, and performance of 

those in the law enforcement profession and to help reduce their job related injuries and deaths. 

The scientific findings presented in the following research articles from these “Three Wise 

Men” provides critical information for the FLETC as well as for all federal, state and 

local law enforcement departments and training academies. Such information 

provides leaders and instructors with research based evidence and 

tools needed to ensure we are providing our officers and 

agents with the knowledge, skills and abilities to 

help them to be healthy, safe and effective 

while performing their jobs. 
By Bryan Vila, Ph.D., Stephen M. James, ABD, Lois James, 

Ph.D. Sleep and Performance Research Center, Washington 

State University, Spokane, Wash. 

Tired Cops

Law enforcement officers need protection against the risks 

of potentially incapacitating workplace hazards ranging 

from the physical trauma of assaults, accidents, and 

errors, to the psychological effects of dealing with tragedy, 

horror, and rage. The responsibility for officer wellness and 

safety is shared by officers, their peers and supervisors, 

organizational leaders, and the communities they serve. 

These risks can be dramatically reduced if all officers would 

conscientiously follow the five tenets of the “Below 100” 

initiative: 

• Wear your seat belt.

• Wear your body armor.

• Watch your speed.

• Focus on “What’s important now?”

• Remember, complacency kills!

When these tenets are followed, the risk for officers to be 

injured or killed is reduced. (See Dale Stockton, http://calibrepress.

com/2015/05/the-preliminary-fbi-leoka-report/). However, the 

direct causes of death and injury, such as failure to follow 

safety guidelines or to make tactically sound decisions, 

may be linked to another factor, failure to think clearly. 

Unfortunately, this critical skill is frequently impaired by 

the fog of long shifts and sleep deprivation.

Sleep is as critical for life as air, water, and food, and the 

need for sleep is deeply ingrained in our biology. If you go 

too long without sleep, your body will put you into a sleep 

state involuntarily, much as it will eventually make you gasp 

for air no matter how hard you try to hold your breath. 

Unfortunately, the demands of police work make it difficult 

for a majority of officers to get the roughly 7.5 hours per 

day needed to stay healthy and think clearly. Extended 

operations, extra work shifts, and personal obligations or 

preferences also often keep officers awake for more than 

17 hours a day. That is the point where many key aspects 
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

of performance are as impaired as if an officer has a 0.05 

percent blood alcohol level. This impairment accelerates 

with each additional hour awake, reaching a 0.10 percent 

blood-alcohol equivalent after 24 hours awake. Worse still, 

working nightshifts reduces the amount of quality sleep. 

As night-sleepers, humans are built to be awake during the 

day and sleep at night. This makes shiftwork unnatural and 

especially fatiguing for officers working nightshifts because 

it is harder for them to fall asleep—and stay asleep—during 

the daytime. 

Extensive research evaluating human sleep makes it clear 

that sleep-related fatigue interferes with the ability to drive 

safely, observe and recount incidents accurately, make 

decisions that require insight, assess risks, think “outside 

the box,” and control emotional responses. Sleep loss has 

a negative effect on the “executive” region of the brain 

(the prefrontal cortex) where problems are solved, factors 

prioritized, and consequences considered. Sleep loss also 

reduces vigilance and the ability to employ expertise and 

finesse. Unfortunately, previous research used performance 

challenges that bore little resemblance to critical police 

tasks such as driving an emergency vehicle loaded with 

technology or dealing with high threat encounters or people 

in crisis. Furthermore, police officers, who commonly face 

long shifts and/or limited amounts of sleep, were not used 

as subjects.

Fatigue and Critical Police Operational Task Performance

In order to measure the impact of shift work and long work 

hours on police officers, 80 experienced patrol officers from 

the city of Spokane, Washington, were tested over a two year 

period. The study focused on comparing two conditions, 

“Fatigued” and “Rested.” The Fatigued measurements were 

taken after the last shift in a five-day workweek. The Rested 

measurements were taken at the same time of day as the 

Fatigued values—only for this condition testing came after 

the third consecutive day off. All officers worked five10 

hour and 40 minute shifts each work week, followed by 

four days off. In order to control for testing sequence, the 

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initial test for half the officers was during the Fatigued 

condition and the other half was Rested with a minimum 

of three weeks in between. The overall design also allowed 

researchers to compare the four work shifts and examine 

performance levels for each shift.

Sleep was monitored using wrist actigraphs, which 

provide a reliable and objective 24/7 measure of sleep; 

the Epworth and Karolinska sleepiness scales (KSS) and 

the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), which are 

self-report instruments; and daily self-reports collected 

in a sleep diary. All data collection was conducted at 

Washington State University’s Sleep and Performance 

Research Center to control for consistent light, sound, and 

temperature where participants reported to the laboratory 

immediately after their work-shifts (fatigued) or at the 

same time of day after three days off (Rested). Participants 

completed a series of simulated critical operational tasks: 

deadly force judgment and decision making, operational 

driving, cognition, tactical social interaction, and “nonoperational” driving. Each of these measures of operational 

performance was bracketed with a psychomotor vigilance 

test (PVT) that assessed sleep-related changes in alertness 

and reaction times. 

Driving tests were conducted using L3 PatrolSim IV highfidelity driver training simulators using custom scenarios 

designed for this research. Deadly force judgment and 

decision making and tactical social interaction tests were 

conducted in our laboratory’s use-of-force ranges, which 

use AIS PRISim L1000 systems as a core. Cognitive tasks 

were conducted in cubicles on dedicated workstations. 

After the experimental protocol, fatigued-condition 

officers slept in dark, sound-proof, comfortable, and private 

rooms to assure that they were sufficiently rested to drive 

home safely. In the Rested condition, officers completed 

the same tasks in the same order, but were allowed to go 

home immediately after the study.

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FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

The results and implications are still emerging; however, 

we found that there is a significant difference between 

individual officers’ performance in the Fatigued vs. 

Rested conditions. Fatigue significantly impairs driving 

performance with and without distraction challenges—

which we will discuss further below. It also appears to 

have significant effects on some aspects of tactical social 

interaction and shooting reaction times, but further 

analyses are still underway to determine why. 

At the shift level, we also found that officers whose shift 

assignments required them to sleep during the daytime 

were significantly more likely to perform more poorly in 

the simulations than those who were able to sleep at night. 

Day-sleepers had more collisions in the driving simulations, 

did less well in tactical social interaction scenarios, and 

tended to be quicker to shoot during deadly encounters.

Driving and Fatigue: Officers’ performance in the highfidelity driving training simulators was significantly 

degraded when they had less sleep and had been awake 

longer. Officers were assigned a simple task where they 

drove on a rural highway at 55 mph with no other vehicles 

on the road. During the drive, from five to seven incidents 

would occur in which a person or animal walked into the 

road at random locations. Using a statistical model that 

accounted for how much sleep officers obtained during 

the previous 72 hours and how long they had been awake 

when they were tested, we found a highly significant 

connection between less sleep, being awake longer, and 

the probability that an officer would have a collision. The 

performance of officers from all but one of the four shifts 

also was significantly worse during the fatigued condition. 

The only exception was the second shift of the day, which 

began at 10:00 a.m. and ended at 8:40 p.m.—likely because 

this shift allows officers to sleep in later in the morning and 

get off in time to get a full night’s sleep.

Vigilance: The psychomotor vigilance test showed that daysleepers had significantly slower reaction times than nightsleepers. They also were as much as twice as likely to have 

lapses in attention longer than half a second. This degraded 

performance also was persistent; rested day-sleepers 

performed at similar levels than fatigued night-sleepers.

Tired and Distracted Driving

Being sleep deprived can certainly impair decision making, 

but another occupational challenge also competes for an 

officer’s attention—the smorgasbord of communication 

devices found next to the driver. To what extent do 

communication devices impact driving and decision 

making ability—especially when the officer is tired? Here’s 

what our research revealed:

Distracted Driving, Fatigue, and Shift Assignment: 

Officers’ performance in the high-fidelity driving training 

simulators was dramatically worse when they were 

presented with a simple in-car distraction task. During 

two 30-minute simulated drives on an otherwise empty 

rural highway, officers were told to follow a lead vehicle 

at 55 mph, stay within 100 feet of it, and brake when it 

did—without changing lanes, swerving, or running into 

the lead vehicle. During one of the drives, officers were 

asked to do as many word-search distraction tasks as they 

could without colliding with the lead vehicle. For the 

distraction task, they scrolled through a list containing sets 

of three words in large print on the mobile data terminal 

just to the right of the steering wheel and selected the one 

with a target word in it. 

Officers’ driving performance was significantly worse 

while they tried to do the distraction task even though 

it was substantially less challenging than looking up an 

address on a cell phone. Officers took significantly longer 

to brake when the lead vehicle braked. They also were 

significantly more likely to collide with the lead vehicle 

even though they appeared to try to compensate for 

the distraction task by staying farther back from it. Of 

the 23 collisions we observed during 1,308 distracted 

driving sessions, all but one occurred when officers were 

performing the distraction task. 

During the non-operational or “drive home” simulation, 

more collisions occurred in the Fatigued condition than 

the rested condition. This effect was much stronger for daysleeping officers (those working the 4:00 p.m. to 2:40 a.m. 

and 8:00 p.m. to 6:40 a.m. shifts. Among officers on the 

4:00 p.m. to 2:40 a.m. shift, only 6% of rested-condition 

drives ended in a collision, compared with 41% of 

fatigued-condition drives. Among officers on the 8:00 p.m. 

to 6:40 a.m. shift, 14% of rested-condition drives ended in 

a collision compared to 22% of fatigued-condition drives.

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Managing Fatigue-Related Risks

Much remains that we do not yet know about the impact of shift work, long work hours, and fatigue on police officers, 

but the results of our research have led to several basic rules of thumb for managing fatigue-related risks: 

• Get screened for sleep disorders. Officers who cannot get enough sleep, or feel tired even after sleeping long enough to be 

rested, should get screened by a sleep physician. Remember, 40% of all police officers screen positive for (mostly 

undiagnosed) sleep disorders.

• Manage caffeine. Caffeine can be an effective short-term stimulant—but only if officers haven’t become desensitized by 

frequent, large doses. It’s best to stop consuming caffeine three to six hours before officers plan to sleep. 

• Deal with shift work basics. Officers require at least 11 hours off between shifts, so that they can feasibly get eight full 

hours of sleep between shifts. In addition, officers working nights should have at least two days off after a series of 

night shifts and stay on duty no longer than 12 hours (except in emergencies)—nine hours is a better maximum, 

especially for day sleepers. Officers working at night should try to reduce monotony and increase light exposure. 

They also should monitor their own fatigue and that of their fellow officers and subordinates.

• Take safe opportunities to nap. When they haven’t gotten enough sleep, officers should nap in a quiet, dark, cool environment. 

It’s easiest to nap between 1:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m. in the morning, and between noon and 2:00 p.m. is a good 

alternative. If officers must be awake for a long time, they should nap ahead of time to build their sleep reserves.

• Beware the drive home. The more consecutive shifts that officers work, the greater the risk of collision during the drive 

home. This is especially true for night-shift workers. Officers need to be mindful of this, and take action to counter 

extreme fatigue should it occur. At the end of a long night shift, it’s better to take a long nap before driving home 

or to have someone who is rested do the driving. Law enforcement agencies should consider setting up napping 

rooms and providing safe transport home for officers who’ve worked extended night shifts.

Endnotes

1

Vila, B. & Samuels, C. Sleep Problems in First Responders and the Military. In Kryger, M., Roth, T. and Dement, W.C. (eds.) Principles and 

Practice of Sleep Medicine, 5th Ed., Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2010, Chap. 72.

2

Durmer, J. & Dinges, D. Neurocognitive consequences of sleep deprivation. Seminars in Neurology, 2005; 25-39. 117-129.

3

Killgore, W.D.S. Asleep at the Trigger: Warfighter Judgment and Decisionmaking during Prolonged Wakefulness. Bartone, P.T. et al. (eds.) The 71F 

Advantage: Applying Army Research Psychology for Health and Performance Gains. Washington, D.C.: National Defense University 

Press, Chapter 3.

4

Harrison, Y. & Horne, J.A. The impact of sleep deprivation on decision making: a review. Exp Psychol Appl. 2000; 6:236-249.

5

Killgore, WD, Balkin TJ and Wesensten NJ. Impaired Decision Making Following 49 Hours of Sleep Deprivation. J. Sleep Research 2005; 14:1-7.

6

Killgore, WDS et al. The Effects Of 53 Hours of Sleep Deprivation on Moral Judgment. Sleep 2007; 30:345-352.

7

Whitney, P. et al. Feedback Blunting: Total Sleep Deprivation Impairs Decision Making that Requires Updating Based on Feedback. Sleep 2015;38(5):745-

754.

8

Koslowsky, M. & Babkoff, H. Meta-analysis of the relationship between total sleep Deprivation and performance. Chronobiology Int. 1992; 9:132-136.

9

James, S. and Vila, B. Police Drowsy Driving: Predicting Fatigue-Related Performance Decay. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies 

and Management. In press.

37

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By Jonathan Sheinberg, MD, FACC

Cedar Park Police Department

As a fellow law enforcement officer and a physician, I am trying to spread 

the word. We are missing the boat, and because of this, we are dying. 

There is a simple reason that law enforcement officers have 

some of the best pensions in the country–we do not live 

long enough after retirement to fully collect them. Several 

programs have been created to address premature officer 

death, and officer safety is a primary concern for every 

agency whether on the local, state, or federal level. Police 

officers and special agents are intimately aware of safety 

policy and procedure requirements: wear reflective vests, 

always use body armor, do not engage in high-speed pursuits 

for low-level crimes, etc. Despite these efforts, however, 

there is another cause of officer death and disability that is 

usually overlooked–cardiovascular disease.

Heart attacks are always in the top two or three categories 

of police line of duty deaths. However, if extrapolated to 

a full 24-hour day, heart attack likely becomes the number 

one killer of men and women in uniform. This is not new 

information. More than 20 years ago, the International 

Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) published some of 

its initial data (Violanti, 2013). 
The data are shocking. 

The life expectancy of a police officer is 20 years less 

than his or her civilian counterpart. The average age 

of a law enforcement officer (LEO) who has suffered 

a heart attack is 45 years, compared to 67 years of age 

for the general population (Figure 1). Finally, it is known 

that a LEO is 25 times more likely to suffer death and 

disability from heart disease than from a violent action 

of a suspect. Despite this information, many agencies 

have been slow to develop wellness programs and 

cardiac screening assessments. 

MISSING THE BOAT

Figure 1: The comparison between police officer and civilian age for heart 

attack and life expectancy.
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

It is now very clearly understood that the most effective 

treatment of coronary artery disease is prevention. With 

today’s technology, the understanding of nutrition and 

the development of certain medications, heart disease is 

completely detectable, preventable, and even reversible. 

The key to this prevention, detection, and treatment 

of cardiovascular disease is the development of a 

cardiovascular screening program and an overall wellness 

program.

Wellness is defined as the 

condition of good physical, 

mental, and emotional 

health, especially when 

maintained by an appropriate 

diet, exercise, and other 

lifestyle modifications. Any 

program that supports 

wellness is absolutely vital in 

a profession in which 80% of 

officers are obese (Shell et al, 

2003). Obese police officers 

may at times be ineffective 

in their jobs and may place 

their agencies in a position of 

increased liability. It has been 

seen time and time again. An 

“out of shape” officer may resort to deadly force more 

quickly than his or her physically fit counterpart, as the 

ability to go “hands on” becomes less effective. Obesity 

is not a problem specific to law enforcement; it is a global 

pandemic, and recently for the first time in recorded 

history, 30% more deaths will occur from complications 

of obesity than from starvation. 

The concept of wellness centers around nutrition. To 

better understand nutrition, several myths need to be 

dispelled. First and foremost, the biggest public health 

nightmare in the last 50 years arose from the 1983 United 

States guidelines recommending a reduction of fat in the 

American diet from 40% to 30% of calories consumed. 

The results have been catastrophic and have resulted in 

the obesity pandemic and the associated complications 

of obesity such as the increase in type II diabetes and the 

increase in cardiovascular disease. In 1983, an inaccurate 

concept was presented: dietary fat consumption results 

in heart disease. It was thought that dietary consumption 

of fat raised Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL–or bad 

cholesterol). LDL causes heart disease; therefore, dietary 

fat causes heart disease. This is simply not true. Although 

dietary fat does raise the bad cholesterol, it raises a type 

of bad cholesterol which is actually not that bad after all. 

Fat consumption results in an LDL particle that is buoyant 

or “fluffy.” These large, fluffy 

particles pass directly through 

the blood stream and are 

cleared by the liver. They are 

not absorbed into the blood 

vessel walls, and therefore, 

do not contribute to arterial 

blockage formation. 

In contradistinction to this, 

when carbohydrates or sugar 

are eaten, the body produces 

a type of bad cholesterol that 

is truly bad. These cholesterol 

particles are small and dense 

(think golf balls vs. beach 

balls), and therefore have the 

ability to cross the cell lining 

of the blood vessels and 

collect in the coronary artery wall. This is how plaque 

(and eventually coronary disease) develops. It is therefore 

essential to understand that it is in fact carbohydrates 

and sugar that result in heart disease, not fat. It is now 

understood as fact that bread, rice, pasta, juice, soda, 

tortillas, and such cause the development of bad dense LDL 

particles and therefore the development of heart disease 

(Figure 2). The concept of a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, 

and meat is the basis of the “Paleo” or caveman diet. This 

diet of low carbohydrate consumption is not only vital to 

cardiac health but to overall general wellness. 

It’s a perfect storm and it’s not your fault... 

Our bodies are not designed to eat carbohydrate-laden 

processed food. However, the deck is stacked against 

us. Sugar, wheat, and corn are subsidized by the federal 

government and are therefore inexpensive. Processed food 

is readily available and packaged for ease of consumption. 

Figure 2: Dietary fat results in large “fluffy” LDL particles, while 

the consumption of carbohydrates results in the development of 

small dense LDL particles. In the example above, both individuals 

have an LDL of 100mg/dl but it is the person with the more 

small dense cholesterol particles who is at risk for heart disease.

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MISSING THE BOAT
WWW.FLETC.GOV 41

Finally, this type of food tastes good and it is addictive. It 

is a well-understood marketing tool that the more sugar a 

manufacturer places in the food, the more it is consumed. 

The combination of inaccurate guidelines, subsidization, 

processing, and the adding of sugar to improve taste has 

resulted in the biggest public health crisis in the last 50 

years, that is, obesity, diabetes, and progressive heart disease.

We are not powerless...

In order to turn back the tide of obesity, diabetes, and heart 

disease the physiology of obesity needs to be examined 

and understood. Obesity is not simply a bad behavior; it 

is problem of biochemistry. 

When hungry, the stomach secretes a hormone called 

ghrelin. This peptide reaches the brain and tells the brain it 

is time to eat. After eating has begun, the fat tissue receives 

nutrients and a hormone called leptin is released. This 

leptin travels to the brain and activates the nervous system 

resulting in the “sugar high.” The brain knows it has food 

available and therefore it is okay to expend energy. 

However, when an individual is overweight, his or her 

body’s insulin levels are elevated. The elevated insulin 

present in the body blocks the leptin and the brain does 

not know it has been fed. In essence, those with elevated 

insulin levels have brains that think they are “starving.” 

In this situation, the brain attempts to decrease the 

body’s metabolism, hold onto every calorie, and does not 

“encourage” exercise. This works great if one is starving. 

But for the majority it backfires; it creates obesity.

This cycle CAN be broken! By simply removing the 

sugar from the diet, the body’s insulin level will decrease 

and the brain will once again recognize leptin. Weight 

loss occurs rather quickly. Therefore, the rates of obesity, 

diabetes, and heart disease can be radically reduced by 

simply eliminating sugar and reducing carbohydrates 

from the diet. 

Early detection is key...

Screening is defined as the “examination of a group to 

separate well persons from those who have an undiagnosed 

pathologic condition or who are at high risk.” In other 

words, how can a population of police officers, who have 

been historically at high risk for premature heart disease, 

be evaluated to identify those individuals who are likely to 

develop heart attacks before they have their first problem? 

In order to help answer this question, the Public Safety 

Cardiac Foundation was created. This foundation is a 

501(c)3 (not-for-profit) entity, developed to obtain grant 

funding to sponsor cardiovascular research and promote 

cardiovascular screening within law enforcement agencies. 

The Public Safety Cardiac Foundation has already created 

the Cardiac Screening Initiative, a pilot study that has 

made some significant headway in developing strategies 

to help in the early detection of heart disease in police 

officers. The Cardiac Screening Initiative evaluated police 

officer volunteers who were not having any symptoms. 

These officers were asked to perform three very simple 

screening tests: an exercise treadmill test, a coronary 

calcium score CT scan (a low dose radiation CAT scan 

MISSING THE BOAT
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

54% designed to detect the small flecks of calcium present in blockages), and an advanced blood 

test. The advanced blood test (Boston Heart Diagnostic Lab) was performed to look at the 

presence of different types of cholesterol particles and the presence of a maker of coronary 

inflammation, which would suggest the early development of blockage. This inflammatory 

biomarker, phospholipase associated appoprotein 2, (PLA-2), is an enzyme that is released by the heart’s blood vessels 

in response to blockage formation. This process is similar to the inflammation that occurs after getting a splinter. 

The results of the study so far have been absolutely staggering. Of the officers screened to date, 54% have detectable 

coronary disease. 

Save lives, save money...

By detecting coronary disease in its earliest stages and before it causes symptoms, it is possible not only to save officers’ 

lives, but also to keep officers on the street and reduce their agencies’ expenses. Due to the high costs of health care, 

it is estimated that aggressive screening for heart disease can save approximately $5,000 per 

officer per year when extrapolated across a large department. Also, after coronary artery 

bypass surgery, a heart attack, or a stent placement/angioplasty there are significant amounts 

of time that the officer will be off the job, requiring increased overtime for the remainder of 

the officers. This cost is ultimately passed along to the taxpayers. 

The responsibility for officer wellness and screening lies within the training academy, the agency, and the individual 

officer or agent. Initially, the training academy must set the tone and establish the concept that wellness is an 

important component of law enforcement. Just as graduates currently understand that they will be 

required to maintain proficiency with their weapons, they should also have the expectations that they 

will be required to maintain physical fitness and weight standards. Individual agencies must also 

develop a degree of accountability within their ranks, using either the “stick or carrot” approach or any 

combination of thereof. Agency fitness standards cannot be created in a vacuum, but instead, need to 

be developed with collaboration among command staff, departmental physicians, union representatives, 

fitness professionals, and training directors. Finally, it is ultimately the responsibility of individual officers or 

agents to understand their increased risk for coronary disease and to seek out possible screening and wellness 

programs, even if their specific agency does not offer them. 

It is quite clear that obesity, diabetes and coronary disease are major factors that contribute to premature police officer 

death and disability. It is absolutely vital that law enforcement agencies recognize this risk and develop wellness and 

screening programs to keep their officers healthy, effective, and safe. 

Citations

—Violanti et al Int J Emerg Ment Health. 2013;15(4):217-28.

—Shell et al, The Police Executive Leadership Program Class Exercise and Nutrition Questionnaire, administered by Daniel E. Shell, 

 Division of Public Safety Leader- ship, Johns Hopkins University (Baltimore, MD, October 2003). 

$5K

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MISSING THE BOAT

DR. JON SHEINBERG is board certified cardiologist, practicing in Austin,Texas. He is a sworn officer with the 

City of Cedar Park Police Department and serves as the medical director of the Central Texas Regional SWAT Team. 

He may be reached at: Jonathan.sheinberg@cedarparktexas.gov; (512) 626-0512.
WWW.FLETC.GOV 

Editor’s Note: For many years there have been numerous research studies 

documenting the negative effects of stress as they relate to officer judgment, 

decision making, and performance when faced with deadly force and self-defense 

situations. At the same time, for approximately 16 of the past 18 years there 

have been more law enforcement officers and agents killed in the line of duty by 

vehicle related incidents than by any other cause. Thus, there is a great need to 

investigate the effects of stress as they relate to law enforcement driving. 

In coordination with the Metropolitan Police Department in England, Dr. Page 

used law enforcement driving as the foundation for his research study, which 

attempts to link specific brain functioning to higher order cognitive tasks such 

as visual discrimination, multitasking, and imagination while driving emergency 

response. Of particular interest to his team and him is finding out how these processes 

may change under stressful situations. Much of Dr. Page’s research endeavors have been 

laboratory and field experiments that help to better understand how maintaining cognitive 

control influences driving and tactical decisions in law enforcement. 

The scientific findings of Dr. Page’s study regarding the effects of stress and performance during 

learning and in law enforcement operations are critical information for FLETC as well as for 

all federal, state, and local law enforcement departments and training academies. Such information 

provides leaders and instructors with knowledge and tools needed to ensure they are teaching specific 

skills in a way that works with the brain—not against it in order to help ensure those they are preparing 

to serve and protect are learning the critical skills needed to safely and effectively perform their jobs.

Using Science to Understand 

Policing Under Stress

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COP

By Jonathan W. Page & Kasee F. Page
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

The dispatcher’s call crackles over the radio in the squad 

car, “terminate the pursuit, terminate the pursuit.” The 

officer ignores the directive and continues to pursue 

the fleeing vehicle. In a short time, the pursuit indeed 

ends; but it ends in a non-fatal crash that tarnishes the 

officer’s reputation and leaves the police agency exposed 

to liability issues.

A few years ago, a deputy commissioner of a large 

police organization asked us why the officer in the above 

example did not disengage the pursuit as instructed by 

the dispatcher. There had been three similar cases in his 

organization in the year and a half leading up to our 

discussion, so he was interested in finding the answer. 

In his words, “I spoke to all three officers and they all 

claimed not to have heard the termination order. But is 

that possible? From a scientific standpoint, is it possible 

to be engaged in a radio conversation with dispatch, but 

somehow miss this vital information?”

To answer the deputy commissioner’s question, we 

conducted a series of experiments designed to explore 

multitasking under stress and to find training techniques 

to improve cognitive functioning and control during 

such instances. We believe sharing our findings here will 

be beneficial to the field of law enforcement, but our 

research should also be taken as a demonstration of how 

law enforcement can use science to find such answers.

Multitasking on the Skid Pan

We spent two summers in London researching at the 

London Metropolitan Police’s driver training school in 

Hendon. At the training facility is a skid pan: a large, 

circular asphalt area that slopes gently to a drain in the 

center. Cones and tires are placed at key locations to create 

“courses” the instructors can use during training. Each 

morning an instructor covers the skid pan with a fresh 

coat of oil and then turns on water that trickles out of 

spigots embedded in the curbing. The water trickles over 

the surface throughout the day, mixing with the oil, to 

create a slick surface that allows the instructors to teach 

traction control.

We recruited a few officers attending a driving course, 

along with a handful of instructors, and connected a 

portable electroencephalograph (EEG) to their heads to 

measure brain activity while driving. Additionally, we 

asked them to discriminate between two tones (lowand high-pitched beeps) while navigating a course of 

half circles on the pan. Our original plan was to see if 

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one of the two groups was better at multitasking than 

the other. We hypothesized that the instructors would 

be better, and that the difference could be attributed to 

expertise (i.e., amount of training).

Our findings may not surprise you, but they surprised 

us at the time: the trainees were under a great deal of 

stress during the driving test. We had not considered 

that stress may play a role; why should we? The task was 

simple: drive in slow circles while counting beeps. It 

became clear, however, that most of the trainees were 

experiencing a tremendous amount of stress. When we 

asked why, one trainee said, “Because the instructor is 

in the car.” Our response was, “The instructor told you 

that he was not evaluating you today, he was simply 

riding along to follow protocol.” The trainee responded, 

“Maybe he didn’t evaluate me today, but had I screwed 

up on the course, he would have remembered my bad 

performance the next time I am on the skid pan for 

training.”

Looking at our brain data, a bump (known as the P300) 

at a specific point in the brainwaves indicates participants 

were paying attention and discriminating the beeps. 

They were multitasking. No bump means that they were 

not multitasking. A bump is obvious in the instructors’ 

EEG, which matches their nearly perfect performances 

of counting the high-tones; but we didn’t see much 

of a bump in the trainees’ brainwaves. The difference 

is more obvious when comparing performances at the 

extremes: We saw textbook-perfect multitasking by an 

instructor, and absolute tunnel vision by a trainee. The 

colors in the brain model of our graph represent neural 

activity attributed to the task. Again, the instructor was 

multitasking (bright colors); the trainee was not (dull 

colors).

The following summer, we directly measured stress as 

it relates to multitasking. Again, we found that those 

trainees with the highest levels of stress (determined 

by self-reports and measures of the stress hormone 

cortisol) performed the poorest, and those with the 

least amount of stress performed the best. We included 

three skid pan instructors in the study and found their 

performances to be perfect.

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Left: University students volunteer to be hooked up to sensors as part of a 

study on attention responses.
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

In discussions with the few trainees that performed fairly 

well, we asked why they were so close to accurately 

counting the tones, but were still slightly off (usually by 

only a few counts). Their responses were all similar and 

went something like this...“I was driving along counting 

the beeps when all of a sudden I sensed that I was losing 

control of the vehicle. All of my attention went towards 

getting the vehicle back under control. Once I felt that I 

was back in control, I heard another beep. That reminded 

me to start counting again. I didn’t hear the beeps while I 

was trying to gain control of the vehicle, so I had to guess 

how many beeps sounded during the time that I wasn’t 

paying attention.”

Our research showed that an officer could be in control 

and multitasking until something threatens her/his 

control of the vehicle. At that point, multitasking was 

compromised. It would be like pursuing another vehicle 

and talking on the police radio. An officer may be doing 

both, but if a threat suddenly appears–like another vehicle 

approaching from a side street or a child running through 

a yard along the pursuit path–the officer turns all of his or 

her focus towards controlling the threat and maintaining 

safety. During this time, the officer may miss auditory 

information from the police radio. Once the threat is no 

longer present, multitasking resumes. 

Laboratory Study of Multitasking and Memory

In a laboratory study in London, we had officers with 

different amounts of training watch one-minute videos 

of pursuits while counting beeps (multitasking). After 

each video, we recorded officers’ detailed memories of 

the pursuit. We found large memory differences between 

groups, with the highly trained pursuit drivers scoring 

the highest on the memory tests, followed by the lesser 

trained response drivers, followed by officers who had not 

received police driver training. There were no differences 

between these groups using standard tests of memory, 

nor when looking at brain activity related to multitasking. 

The differences were for police-related information only, 

and were due to training.

What about their training led to these differences? Our 

research showed that the pursuit drivers had a much more 

detailed pattern-recognition system, probably due to 

training using verbal commentary–a technique used by the 

driving school to train with correction. Using this method, 

trainees are required to talk about what they are doing as 

they do it so that the instructor can assess intent along with 

behavior. As a side benefit, describing the environment and 

giving details about the maneuvers they were performing 

seemed to train up the pattern-recognition system.

Our Additional Research Findings

Since our original findings in London, we have conducted 

several studies aimed at finding ways to enhance training 

by building strong pattern-recognition systems in the 

brain. In one study, we partnered with a driver training 

program called “Slower is Faster” delivered by the 

Hillsborough, North Carolina, Police Department. They 

allowed us to conduct research during their driving 

course. Brain activity was measured using a portable EEG 

while officers drove a closed course on an abandoned 

airport runway. We assessed multitasking, using beeps 

again, and driving, by timing each drive and counting 

errors based on how many cones were struck.

Initial measures were taken from two groups (baseline), 

followed by an hour and a half break, and then a second 

round of measures were taken (test). One group rested 

during the break; the other group received 75 minutes 

of training on how to stay in cognitive command, which 

we refer to as C2. Results showed that the improvement 

between drives, comparing the test to the baseline, was 

greatest for the cognitive command group. Its multitasking 

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improved six fold compared to the control group and its 

driving improvement was tenfold.

Additional research has shown that these improvements 

are not specific to driving. We found similar results 

during a scenario-based test at a deputy sheriffs’ academy. 

An academy class of deputies were trained in cognitive 

command and put through a scenario-based test of 

tactically clearing a building. A variety of responses were 

evaluated and recorded and compared to another academy 

class of deputies that had not been trained in cognitive 

command. The cognitive command deputies showed 

an increase in perceptual awareness, memory, patternrecognition, and confidence compared to the control 

group.

Conclusions

Officers and trainers that we have talked to generally agree 

that there are two basic reasons why the driver in the 

above example failed to follow the directive to terminate 

the pursuit: (1) the officer heard the command but was 

so jacked up on adrenaline, and had such a bad case of 

red mist, that he simply didn’t want to stop the pursuit; 

or (2) stress from the pursuit led to a form of auditory 

exclusion that prevented him from hearing the directive.

While our research cannot determine why an officer 

behaves in a certain way in a given situation–i.e., there is no 

machine to date that can literally read minds–our research 

does show how such mental lapses can occur. Stress wreaks 

havoc on our cognitive and perceptual systems. When 

under “threat-of-harm” or “threat-of-life” stress, our 

system behaves much differently from what is typical.

We were also able to show that training can mitigate some 

of the effects of stress. Cognitive command training has 

a positive effect on stress-related performance. Having 

a strong pattern-recognition system allows an officer to 

automatically understand a situation and take quick and 

decisive action. It increases awareness and frees up neural 

resources so that additional information can be attended 

to and processed. Our current research into this exciting 

area is providing first-of-its-kind information about 

how a pattern-recognition system can be trained in law 

enforcement; and we are expanding our brain research 

into new areas and testing training concepts that should 

have a positive impact on academy and in-service based 

training in the near future. Being able to answer questions 

about stress and officer behavior from a scientific point 

of view is essential. Having an understanding of how 

the brain operates under stress can inform opinions on 

policing behaviors and improve police training.

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JONATHAN PAGE is a professor, cognitive neuroscientist, and 

co-founder of the World is Round, LLC, a research, training, and 

consulting company. He has conducted more than a decade of research 

studying human perception and action. His extensive research on 

physiological responses to stress and how stress influences behavior led 

him to pursue new and more effective ways to deal with stress and 

stressful situations. Collaborating in field research with law enforcement 

agencies in the U.S. and U.K. provided Jon with the knowledge he needed 

to develop cognitive command, a mental mindset training technique for 

public safety. Along with his wife Kasee, Jon co-authored a training 

curriculum that is currently being used in law enforcement academies 

in the US. He also authored the book NeuroCop: The Science of Using 

Automatic Thinking to Guide Tactical Behaviors (www.see-too.com) 

and has published his research in several professional journals.

KASEE PAGE is an educator. A love for learning and growing 

knowledge led her professional experiences in the fields of education and 

research. She has taught in multiple U.S. regions to numerous student 

populations from public grade schools to institutions of higher education, 

and participated in field research in the U.S. and abroad. Kasee received 

a Master’s in Educational Leadership from the University of Nevada. 

She has trained district administrators and teachers in professional 

development to implement new curriculum and instruction methods in 

public education and worked as a leadership team member for school 

improvement plans, including an extended administrative internship 

role. She has worked as a consultant for a large western school district 

and volunteered for the May Foundation to provide enriched learning 

events for Northern Nevada’s children. Kasee is co-founder of The 

World is Round and is currently conducting research with her husband 

Jonathan to develop curriculum and instruction training methods for 

law enforcement. Kasee’s most important teamwork assignment with 

her husband Jonathan is being mom to their three young adult kids.
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

October 24-27, 2015, at the 122nd International Association of Chiefs of Police Conference in Chicago, Illinois, FLETC instructors will 

deliver the following presentations:

• Developing an Effective, Practical Use of Force Training Program Recent high profile events headlined in the national media 

have put the spotlight on police use of force. Too often, the media reports information based upon an incorrect/

unrealistic perception of the legal environment and the challenges law enforcement officers face. This presentation 

will highlight the importance of having an effective use of force training program. Presenters will examine methods 

of designing and implementing a modern program given the recent attention placed on police use of force 

encounters. 

• Eight Signs of Terrorism When determining if a terrorist attack is imminent, law enforcement knowledge of the 

operating environment is critical to determine what might be out of place. Terrorist attacks do not occur in a 

vacuum. Whether the terrorists are domestic, international, or lone wolf, persons who intend to commit terrorist 

acts or to support those acts have been observed conducting surveillance, testing security, gathering information 

(elicitation), and acquiring supplies. These are just some of the indicators reflected in the Eight Signs of Terrorism. 

Other signs include solicitation of funding, suspicious behavior, rehearsal and dry runs, and getting into position 

and deploying assets. Law enforcement at all levels of government can observe these indicators. Reporting these 

indicators became the emphasis of the Department of Homeland Security’s (DHS) “See Something, Say Something” 

campaign. 

• Tactical Medical Training: Integrating into Basic Law Enforcement Training When implementing tactical medical training in 

a basic training environment, law enforcement agencies must consider time and money. For each hour added to a 

basic training program, there are additional costs to the agency in either the time added to the training program or 

time taken away from existing curriculum. An additional consideration is the cost of equipping each officer with 

the tools required to implement the training in the field upon graduation. This workshop will provide information 

included in FLETC’s Basic Tactical Medical Training Program and lessons learned while implementing tactical 

medical training into basic law enforcement curriculum. 

48

IACP 

PRESENTATIONS
WWW.FLETC.GOV 

By Tim Miller

The Supreme Court’s decision in San Francisco v. Sheehan inched closer to answering the question about whether a 

police officer has a legal duty to de-escalate force when confronting an armed, violent, and mentally ill suspect. For 

officers, the news was good. Qualified immunity remains a strong defense against claims about what they should have 

done. But the news for their employing agency was not as good. Whether the agency can be sued under Title II of the 

Americans with Disabilities Act still depends on the federal circuit. 

Teresa Sheehan had become a threat to herself and others. She lived in a group 

home for people suffering from mental illness and was not taking her medications. 

“Get out of here!” she shouted after a social worker entered her room. “You don’t 

have a warrant! I have a knife and I’ll kill you if I have to!” Two police officers were dispatched to the home. Now...

there is a paradox in the motto “To Protect and Serve” emblazoned across the sides of so many police cars. The officers 

had no duty to act—at least not a legal duty imposed by the Constitution. Had Officer Holder and Sergeant Reynolds 

ignored the call, they would have avoided nearly seven years of litigation. 

The duty was triggered when they entered Ms. Sheehan’s room. Entering her home was a Fourth Amendment search; 

the force the officers would use to take her into custody, a seizure. The Fourth Amendment requires police officers to 

perform objectively reasonable searches and seizures. Entering a home without a warrant is presumptively unreasonable; 

but so far, so good for the officers. This was an emergency, a reasonable exception to the warrant requirement. Ms. 

Sheehan was a threat to herself and others. She had threatened the social worker and what happened next confirmed 

 What Happened?

49
FLETC J FALL-WINTER 2015 VOLUME 15

that she posed a threat to anyone in her room. When the officers opened the door, Ms. Sheehan grabbed a knife. She 

raised it over her head and came forward forcing the officers to retreat and close the door behind them. But still...

so far, so good. Ms. Sheehan was alone in her room; and the officers were outside in the relative safety of the hallway.

Most of the litigation would be over what the officers did next. Rather than wait for backup or try to de-escalate the 

situation, Holder and Reynolds reentered the room. Predictably, Ms. Sheehan charged them with the knife. Predictably 

(her lawyer would argue) the officers shot her. Officers initially tried pepper spray, but Ms. Sheehan would not 

drop the knife and the officers shot to save themselves. Ms. Sheehan survived, and she sued the officers for Fourth 

Amendment violations and their employing agency under Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). The 

facts supported both claims; specifically, that the officers should have waited and de-escalated the situation instead of 

charging back into the room.

The Supreme Court dismissed the case against the officers. Holder and Reynolds 

requested qualified immunity—their defense to standing trial for a constitutional 

tort. Qualified immunity is like an implied contract between police officers and 

the federal court system. It goes like this: 

We, the officers, promise to follow the U.S. Constitution. And we, the courts, promise to put officers on notice about 

what is not constitutional. The court will dismiss the case against the officer absent some act or course of conduct that 

violated a clearly established constitutional right. 

The officers’ appeal to the Supreme Court was over the lower court’s decision to deny them qualified immunity and 

to make them stand trial. The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit believed there was enough room 

for a jury to find that the officers violated Sheehan’s clearly established right not to be provoked into the deadly 

encounter. Be clear: The question was not whether the officers’ initial entry into Ms. Sheehan’s room was reasonable. 

The Ninth Circuit conceded that it was. Deadly force to seize Ms. Sheehan—viewed at least from the standpoint of the 

moment of the shooting—was also reasonable. No need for a trial over that, either. The question was over the Circuit’s 

“provocation doctrine.” In the Ninth Circuit, officers can be liable for an otherwise reasonable use of deadly force if 

they intentionally or recklessly provoked the deadly confrontation. A jury would have answered that, had the Supreme 

Court not granted review of the case.

The Supreme Court reversed the Ninth Circuit. Even assuming the officers provoked the encounter—and even assuming 

that the provocation was unconstitutional—the law was not clearly established. The Court found wanting any robust 

consensus of precedent that would have put any reasonable officer on notice about when it was reasonable, or not, to 

enter the room. Qualified immunity is designed to protect all but the plainly incompetent or those who knowingly 

violate the law. It is not exactly a noble standard to live up to, but has a purpose in situations where police officers are 

likely to face public ridicule for not acting and personal liability when they do—particularly with suspects who are 

predictably unpredictable. That the law be clear is an exacting standard. It keeps the Fourth Amendment’s objective 

test from fading into a subjective one that would allow juries to second guess police officers when things go wrong. 

The ADA claim against the agency will proceed to trial. There is a circuit-split 

about whether an officer’s employing agency can be sued under the ADA in a case 

like this. The Supreme Court was going to resolve the split and answer whether 

Title II of the ADA requires police officers to accommodate an armed, violent, and mentally ill suspect in the course 

of bringing her into custody. Unfortunately, the parties did not properly brief the question and the Court saved it for 

another day. That kept the ADA claim how the lower court left it. 

 Case Dismissed

 Claim Proceeds

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The Ninth Circuit sided with the other circuits that held that the ADA applies to anything a public entity does, which 

would include taking someone like Ms. Sheehan into custody. While the Court agreed that an accommodation may 

not be reasonable, it held that a jury should make the decision here. Since Sheehan was alone inside her room, and 

the officers outside, less confrontational tactics may have been available, and therefore, she could have been denied the 

benefits of the services, programs, or activities of a public entity. 

Research on mental health epidemiology shows that mental disorders are common 

throughout the United States, affecting tens of millions of people each year, and 

that overall only about half of those affected receive treatment. Cases like Sheehan 

will happen again. When they do, there will be no winners. There never are in a case where someone calls the police 

for help and the police are forced to shoot the person needing the help. Winning will be left to training. Columbine, 

Sandy Hook, and the Washington Navy Yard shootings prompted active shooter training—training that plants the file 

in the officer’s brain to ask questions like, “Where is the suspect?” and “Who else is inside?” Getting less press, but 

happening at least as often are people like Sheehan barricading themselves behind closed doors and promising harm 

to anyone coming in. “Does she pose a danger to anyone else?” would seem just as an important a file to plant. And 

if she does not, why not wait and see if the passage of time will defuse the situation? The law gives police officers a 

lot of breathing room to make a plan and not be sued for taking the time to make one. There is no duty to act, and 

when they do, qualified immunity remains a strong defense against claims from those who want the perfect answer. 

Citations

2

San Francisco v. Sheehan, 2015 U.S. Lexis 3200 (2015).

3

Private citizens generally do not have a constitutional right of protections from other citizens even if the officers or their agency know about the danger and could 

provide it. DeShaney v. Winnebago County Dept. of Social Services, 109 S. Ct. 998 (1989). 

4

Individuals in their personal capacities are not subject to suit under Title II, which provides redress only from public entities. Baribeau v. City of 

Minneapolis, 596 F.3d 465, 484 (8th Cir. 2010).

5

The Ninth, Tenth, and Eleventh Circuit held that the ADA applies to arrests. See Sheehan v. San Francisco, 2014 U.S. App. LEXIS 3321 

(2014), reversed in part San Francisco v. Sheehan, U.S. LEXIS 3200 (2015; Bircoll v. Miami-Dade Co., 480 F.3d 1072 (11th Cir. 

2007); Gohier v. Enright, 186 F.3d 1216 (10th Cir. 1999). But not every circuit agrees that an arrest is a service, program, or activity of a 

public entity. The Fifth Circuit held that the ADA does not apply to arrests or other on-the-street responses made by law enforcement until the scene is safe. 

Hainze v. Richards, 207 F. 3d 795 (5th Cir. 2000). 

6

Title II of the ADA provides that “no qualified individual shall, by reason of such disability, be denied the benefits of the services, programs, or activities of a 

public entity, or be subject to discrimination by any such entity.” 42 U.S.C. § 12132. 

7

That National Institute of Mental Health: www.nimh.nih,gov

 Predictions

TIM MILLER is the Subject Matter Expert for Use of Force for the Federal Law 

Enforcement Centers Legal Division. Tim joined the United States Marine Corps in 

1984 after taking the Illinois state bar exam. He served as a prosecutor, defense counsel, 

military judge, and staff judge advocate. Tim received a Bachelor of Science Degree and 

Juris Doctorate from Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Illinois. He received 

his Master of Laws from the Army Judge Advocate General’s School in Charlottesville, 

Virginia. 

DE-ESCALATION OF FORCE
FEDERAL LAW ENFORCEMENT TRAINING CENTERS ∙ 1131 CHAPEL CROSSING ROAD ∙ GLYNCO, GEORGIA 31524 ∙ WWW.FLETC.GOV