Importation of Fresh Fruit of Avocado (Persea americana 

Mill. var. ‘Hass’) from Mexico into the Continental United

States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

A Qualitative, Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessment

January 30, 2014

Version 1

Agency Contact:

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

United States Department of Agriculture 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300

Raleigh, NC 27606
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocado from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 i

Executive Summary

The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United States Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) prepared this risk assessment document to examine plant pest risks 

associated with importing commercially produced fresh fruit of avocado, Persea americana Mill. 

var. ‘Hass’ (Lauraceae), for consumption from Mexico into the continental United States, 

Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. Based on the market access request from Mexico, we considered the 

pathway to include the currently required systems approach for shipping restrictions, safeguards, 

municipality requirements, orchard and grower requirements, packinghouse requirements, 

certification, pest detection, and inspection as described in 7 CFR § 319.56-30 (2011). All 

processes and conditions considered during the risk assessment process become mandatory 

conditions for entry of the commodity.

Based on the scientific literature, port-of-entry pest interception data, and information from the 

government of Mexico, we developed a list of all potential pests with actionable regulatory status 

for the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico that are known to occur in Mexico and 

known to be associated with the commodity anywhere in the world. From this list, we identified 

and further analyzed the organisms that have a reasonable likelihood of being associated with the 

commodity following harvesting from the field and prior to any post-harvest processing.

Of the pests selected for further analysis, we determined that the following are not candidates for 

risk management, because no endangered area exists within the continental United States, 

Hawaii, and Puerto Rico: Paracoccus marginatus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Philephedra 

lutea (Hemiptera: Coccidae), and Thrips palmi (Thysanoptera: Thripidae).

Commerical consignments of ‘Hass’ Avocadoes are already are permitted into the continental 

United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico from the Mexican state of Michoacan (only) under a 

systems approach (7 CFR § 319.56-30, 2011). The current systems approach used in Mexico 

specifically addresses the following insects: Conotrachelus aguacatae, C. perseae, Copturus 

aguacatae, Heilipus lauri (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), and Stenoma catenifer (Lepidoptera: 

Oecophoridae) (7 CFR § 319.56-30, 2011). Given that, we found a Negligible overall likelihood 

of introduction for those insects. Expanding the region from which exports are permitted in 

Mexico is not likely to alter the effectiveness of the mitigations. Given similar biology and 

impacts to the above listed pests, we also gave the following pests Negligible risk ratings: 

Conotrachelus serpentinus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Cryptaspasma perseana (Lepidoptera: 

Tortricidae). These pests—Conotrachelus serpentinus for Hawaii and Puerto Rico; 

Cryptaspasma perseana for Continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico—should be 

included for inspection, cutting and culling in the CFR. 

We rated Phytophthora citricola and P. heveae (Oomycetes: Pythiales) as Negligible because 

infected fruits are highly likely to be removed from the pathway by the post-harvest practices.

We determined that the following pests are candidates for risk management, because they met 

the threshold to likely cause unacceptable consequences of introduction, and they received 

an overall likelihood of introduction risk rating above Negligible.
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 ii

Pest type Taxonomy Scientific name Likelihood of Introduction 

overall rating

Arthropods Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae Maconellicoccus hirsutus

(Green)

Medium

Thysanoptera: 

Phlaeothripidae

Pseudophilothrips perseae 

(Watson)

Medium

Thysanoptera: Thripidae Scirtothrips aceri (Moulton) Low

Scirtothrips perseae Nakahara Low

Fungi Ascomycetes: Myriangiales Sphaceloma perseae Jenkins Low

Viroid N/A Avocado sunblotch viroid Low

Detailed examination and choice of appropriate phytosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk are 

part of the pest risk management phase within APHIS and we did not address them in this 

document.
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 iii

Table of Contents

Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................... i

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Background .......................................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Initiating event...................................................................................................................... 1

1.3. Determination of the necessity of a weed risk assessment for the commodity.................... 2

1.4. Description of the pathway................................................................................................... 2

2. Pest List and Pest Categorization............................................................................................ 4

2.1. Pests considered but not included on the pest list ................................................................ 5

2.2. Pest list ................................................................................................................................. 7

2.3. Notes on pests identified in the pest list............................................................................. 46

2.4. Pests selected for further analysis ...................................................................................... 46

3. Assessing Pest Risk Potential ................................................................................................. 47

3.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 47

3.2. Assessment results.............................................................................................................. 48

4. Conclusions.............................................................................................................................. 88

5. Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. 90

6. Literature Cited ...................................................................................................................... 90

7. Appendix A. Organisms identified to the genus level that are reported on Persea 

americana Mill in Mexico and that have actionable or undetermined regulatory status. . 106
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 1

1. Introduction 

1.1. Background

This document was prepared by the Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory of the 

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology, USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), to evaluate the risks associated with 

the importation of commercially produced fresh fruit of avocado (Persea americana Mill. var. 

‘Hass’) for consumption from Mexico into the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto 

Rico.

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) provides guidance for conducting pest risk 

analyses. The methods used here are consistent with guidelines provided by the IPPC, 

specifically the International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) on “Pest Risk 

Analysis for Quarantine Pests” (IPPC, 2011). The use of biological and phytosanitary terms is 

consistent with the “Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms” (IPPC, 2012). 

Three stages of pest risk analysis are described in international standards: Stage 1, Initiation;

Stage 2, Risk Assessment; and Stage 3, Risk Management. This document satisfies the 

requirements of Stages 1 and 2. 

This is a qualitative risk assessment. We express the risk based on qualitative ratings for the 

likelihood and consequences of pest introduction via the imported avocado fruit from Mexico. 

The details of the methodology and rating criteria are found in the Guidelines for Plant Pest Risk 

Assessment of Imported Fruit and Vegetable Commodities, Version 6.0 (PPQ, 2012).

The appropriate risk management strategy for a particular pest depends on the risk posed by that 

pest. Identification of appropriate phytosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk is undertaken in 

Stage 3 (Risk Management) and is not covered in this risk assessment. Risk management will be 

specified in a separate document.

1.2. Initiating event

The importation of fruits and vegetables for consumption into the United States is regulated 

under Title 7 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 319.56 (7 CFR §319.56) (2012). At this 

time, commercial consignments of ‘Hass’ avocados are permitted into the continental United 

States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico ONLY from the Mexican state of Michoacan (municipalities: 

Acuitizio, Apatzingan, Ario, Cotija de la Paz, Erongaricuaro, Hidalgo, Irimbo, Los Reyes, 

Madero, Nuevo Parangaricutiro, Paracuaro, Periban, Salvador Escalante, Tacambaro, 

Tangamandapio, Tancitaro, Taretan, Tingambato, Tinguindin, Tocumbo, Turicato, and Tuxpan) 

(7 CFR § 319.56-30, 2011; APHIS, 2013). This assessment was prepared in response to a request 

from Mexico to change the Federal Regulation to expand the current export region to allow entry

from the entirety of Mexico into the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico.
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 2

1.3. Determination of the necessity of a weed risk assessment for the commodity

In some cases, the imported commodity may have the potential of becoming invasive in the pest 

risk analysis (PRA) area. The likelihood that this may happen is evaluated in a weed risk

assessment, conducted separately from the commodity risk assessment.

Weed risk assessments do not need to be conducted for plant species that are widely established 

(native or naturalized) or cultivated in the PRA area, for commodities that are already enterable 

into the PRA area from other countries, or when the plant part(s) cannot easily propagate on their 

own or be propagated. We determined that a weed risk assessment is not needed for avocados 

because avocados are cultivated and grown in the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto 

Rico and are enterable from other countries (NRCS, 2013; APHIS, 2013).

1.4. Description of the pathway

The IPPC (2012) defines a pathway as “any means that allows the entry or spread of a pest.” In

the context of commodity pest risk assessments, the pathway is the commodity to be imported, 

together with all the processes the commodity undergoes that may have an impact on pest risk. In 

this risk assessment, the specific pathway of concern is the importation of fresh fruit of avocados 

(Persea americana Mill. var. ‘Hass’) for consumption from Mexico into the continental United 

States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico; the movement of this commodity provides a potential pathway 

for the introduction and/or spread of plant pests. The United States and Mexico have agreed on a 

systems approach to be used for the importation of avocados from Michoacan (7 CFR § 319.56-

30, 2011) that is applicable to the potential expansion of the export region as assessed in this 

document.

The following description of this pathway focuses on the conditions that may affect plant pest 

risk, including morphological and physiological characteristics of the commodity, as well as

processes the commodity will undergo from production in Mexico through importation and 

distribution in the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. These conditions provided 

the basis for creating the pest list and assessing the likelihood of introduction of the pests 

selected for further analysis; therefore, all components of the pathway, as they are described 

below, should be considered mandatory conditions for importation of the commodity.

1.4.1. Description of the commodity

The commodity for import is the fresh fruit of Persea americana Mill. var. ‘Hass’ for 

consumption. Avocado trees are generally 30-60 feet tall, and considered “almost” evergreen 

(Morton, 1987b). Fruit is pear-shaped and 3-13 inches long and up to 6 inches wide. Skin color 

varies from yellow-green to nearly black and may be smooth or pebbled. Flesh is generally pale 

to rich-yellow, buttery and bland or nutlike in flavor. Each fruit contains a single seed 2-2.5 

inches in diameter that is hard and heavy (Morton, 1987b).

1.4.2. Production and harvest procedures in the exporting area 

As described in 7 CFR § 319.56-30 (2011), specific safeguards must be adhered to in Mexico. 

Municipalities from which avocados are to be shipped must be listed as and approved 

municipality in the bilateral work plan provided to APHIS by the Mexican national plant 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 3

protection organization (NPPO). Surveys must be conducted at least semiannually (inclusive of 

once during the wet season and once during the dry season). The municipalities must be found 

free of the large avocado seed weevil Heilipus lauri, the avocado seed moth Stenoma catenifer, 

and the small avocado seed weevils Conotrachelus aguacatae and C. perseae. Trapping for 

Ceratitis capitata must take place, and any findings reported to APHIS. Specific orchards and 

growers must be registered with the Mexican NPPO’s avocado export program and listed as an 

approved orchard or grower. Requirements specific to the orchards include: 

(i) The orchard and all contiguous orchards and properties must be surveyed semiannually 

and found to be free from the avocado stem weevil Copturus aguacatae;

(ii) Avocado fruit that has fallen from the trees must be removed from the orchard at least 

once every seven days and may not be included in field boxes of fruit to be packed for 

export;

(iii) Dead branches on avocado trees in the orchard must be pruned and removed from the 

orchard;

(iv) Harvested avocados must be placed in field boxes or containers of field boxes that are 

marked to show the official registration number of the orchard. The avocados must be moved

from the orchard to the packinghouse within 3 hours of harvest or they must be protected 

from fruit fly infestation until moved;

(v) The avocados must be protected from fruit fly infestation during their movement from the 

orchard to the packinghouse and must be accompanied by a field record indicating that the 

avocados originated from a certified orchard.

If any of the above-listed pests are found during surveys, the Mexican NPPO must immediately 

take measures to isolate and eradicate the pest. Affected orchards will immediately lose their 

export certification until APHIS and the Mexican NPPO agree that eradication measures have 

been effective.

1.4.3. Packinghouse procedures in the exporting area

Specific packinghouse procedures have been listed in 7 CFR § 319.56-30 (2011) and relevant 

sections relayed here. Packinghouses must be registered as an approved packinghouse in the 

annual work plan provided to APHIS from the Mexican NPPO. When avocados are being 

prepared for shipment to the United States (inclusive of Hawaii and Puerto Rico), fruit is only 

accepted from orchards certified by the Mexican NPPO. The packinghouse must have all 

openings to the outside covered by screening with openings of 1.6 mm or less, or some other 

insect prevention barrier, as well as double doors at the entrance to the facility and at the interior 

entrance to the area where avocados are packed. Prior to culling, a biometric sample of avocados 

per consignment must be selected, cut, and inspected by the Mexican NPPO or approved 

designee and found free of pests. The identity of the avocados must be maintained on field boxes 

or containers in order to allow for tracebacks if pests are found at the packinghouse or U.S. ports 

of entry. Prior to packing, each avocado must be cleaned of all stems, leaves, and other 

extraneous plant parts and labeled with a sticker bearing the official registration number of the 

packinghouse. 

1.4.4. Shipping and storage conditions

Avocados must be packed in clean, new boxes or bulk shipping bins, or in clean reusable crates 

and clearly marked with the identity of the grower, packinghouse, and exporter. A lid, insect-
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 4

proof mesh, or other material must protect avocados from reinfestation of pests after leaving the 

packinghouse. A sealed refrigerated truck or container must be used to transport avocados to the 

port of export. All consignments must be accompanied by a phytosanitary certificate issued by 

the NPPO of Mexico certifying that the conditions specified in 7 CFR § 319.56-30 have been 

met. Specific shipping and storage conditions have not been indicated; however, general 

information for shipment of ‘Hass’ avocados includes shipment at 7 °C, with a relative humidity 

of 85-90 percent. Chilling injury is likely at or below 4 °C (McGregor, 1987). Consignments 

may arrive at land borders or ocean containers through air or sea (7 CFR § 319.56-30, 2011; 

PPQ, 2011).

1.4.5 Inspection procedures at U.S. ports of entry

On arrival at U.S. ports of entry, Mexican avocados are subject to inspection and general 

requirements of 7 CFR 319.56-3 (APHIS, 2013). Consignments must be in sealed containers and 

accompanied by both an APHIS import permit and a Mexican Phytosanitary Certificate. The 

certificate must have the Additional Declaration that "The avocados in this consignment meet the 

requirement of 7 CFR 319.56-30." Individual boxes or shipping bins must be clearly marked 

with the identity of the grower, packinghouse, and exporter, and covered with pestproof 

packaging. Fruit is subject to inspection for pest damage. Additional inspections to include fruit 

cutting may be required if actionable pests are found. Additional specific information may be 

found in the bilateral operational workplan. 

1.4.6. Summary of the pathway 

The figure below summarizes the pathway of concern: the importation of fresh fruit of avocado 

(Persea americana Mill. var. ‘Hass’) for consumption from Mexico into the continental United 

States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico.

2. Pest List and Pest Categorization 

In this section, we identify the plant pests with actionable regulatory status for the continental 

United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico that could potentially become established in the 
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 5

continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico as a result of the importation of avocados

from Mexico, and we determine which of these pests meet the criteria for further analysis. Pests 

are considered to be of regulatory significance if they are actionable at U.S. ports-of-entry. 

Actionable pests include quarantine pests, pests considered for or under official control, and 

pests that require evaluation for regulatory action.

2.1. Pests considered but not included on the pest list

2.1.1. Rarely intercepted pests

The following pests were intercepted at U.S. ports-of-entry on avocados from Mexico; however,

they have been intercepted less than five times since 1985 (PestID, 2011) and are not considered 

likely to be normally associated with commercially produced avocados from Mexico: Ahasverus 

advena, Aleurocerus palmae, Amboria sp., Anomala sp., Ataenius sp., Calcisuccinea aff. luteola, 

Capaneus tetricus, Chalcodermus sp., Cyclocephala sp., Dallasiellus sp., Diabrotica porracea, 

Diplotaxis sp., Dyscinetus sp., Elsinoe sp., Empoasca sp., Estigmene sp., Gryllus sp., Ligyrus sp., 

Luperosoma sp., Myochrous sp., Pachybrachius sp., Phyllophaga sp., Physorhinus sp., 

Pityophthorus sp., Planococcus halli, Polymerus sp., Sphaceloma psidii, and Trichoplusia ni. If 

additional interceptions occur or we find new reports of this association in the literature, we may 

reevaluate this association and subsequent risk.

2.1.2. Pests with weak evidence for association with the commodity or for presence in the export 

area

Anastrepha species and Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann): Historically, the risk of introducing 

Anastrepha species and Ceratitis capitata into the United States was one of the greatest concerns

related to the importation of Mexican avocados. Recent laboratory and field experiments 

determined that uninjured, commercially produced ‘Hass’ avocados in Mexico do not serve as 

hosts for the Anastrepha ludens, A. serpentina, A. striata, and A. obliqua or Ceratitis capitata 

(Wiedemann) (Aluja et al., 2004; De Graaf, 2009; SENASA, 2010; Willink and Villagran, 

2007). These results, in conjunction with sampling of very large quantities of imported Hass 

avocados over an extended period without any findings of Anastrepha spp. larvae or Ceratitis 

capitata (Wiedemann), led APHIS-PPQ to conclude that the ‘Hass’ avocado, when harvested 

and safeguarded according to the parameters of the current systems approach for ‘Hass’

avocados from Mexico (7 CFR § 319.56, 2011), is not a host to Anastrepha spp. fruit flies or 

Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann). Consequently, Anastrepha spp. fruit flies and Ceratitis capitata 

(Wiedemann) were not included on this pest list.

Ceroplastes rubens Maskell: Dekle (2008) reports that C. rubens is present in Mexico, but we 

found no other corroborating reports. This was insufficient evidence for its presence in Mexico, 

so we did not include this pest on the pest list.

Ceroplastes stellifer Westwood (=Vinsonia stellifera Westwood): The main source used for 

reference of this pest on avocado stems was ScaleNet (Ben-Dov et al., 2013), which cites a list of 

pests associated with various host plants in the western Indian Ocean as published by Mamet, 

1943). An extensive literature search did not reveal any additional or more recent records of this 

species occurring in association with avocado in the field. Therefore, we did not include it on the 

pest list.
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 6

Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Beardsley: A recent publication by Wright (2011) corrected a single, 

older report that D. neobrevipes was associated with P. americana. Based on that information, 

we did not include this pest on the pest list.

Neosilba pendula Bezzi: Records of N. pendula in Mexico could not be confirmed (e.g., CABI, 

2013; Maes, undated), despite extensive research conducted in central and south American 

regions. In addition, extensive studies of the field host plants for N. pendula in Brazil by Uchoa 

and Nicacio (2010) did not find any avocado infestations by this fruit fliy. Therefore, it is not 

included on the pest list.

Nipaecoccus viridis Westwood: Erroneous reports that N. viridis is present in Mexico or 

anywhere in the world (e.g., Ben-Dov et al., 2010) were corrected recently by Williams and 

Miller (2010). Therefore, we did not include this pest on the pest list.

Pulvinaria simulans Cockerell: This pest is included in a “Check list of the avocado pests of the 

world” (Ebeling, 1959). However, an extensive literature search did not find any more recent or 

primary literature indicating that P. simulans may be found infesting avocados in the field. 

Therefore, we did not include this pest on the pest list.

Tetraleurodes truncatus Sampson & Drews: Persea americana is listed as a host plant for T. 

truncatus by Evans (2007) based on the records from the Whitefly Taxonomic and Ecological

Database. However, this publication does not provide any references indicating the status or 

origin of the information. An extensive literature search did not reveal any primary sources

indicating that T. truncatus may be a pest of avocado in the field. Therefore, we did not include it 

on the pest list.

Xylella fastidiosa: Xylella fastidiosa is reported in Mexico and the United States (CABI/EPPO, 

2006) and has been reported once on avocado (Montero-Astúa et al., 2008); however, it was not 

listed in the pest list because there are many strains of X. fastidiosa (CABI, 2011a). The record of 

X. fastidiosa occurring on avocado was from Costa Rica (Montero-Astúa et al., 2008). It is not 

known if the strain occurring in Costa Rica occurs in other parts of the world. The Costa Rica 

report says the strain found on avocado had 99 to 100 percent sequence identity to a Pierce's 

disease strain from California (Temecula1) and 94 to 95 percent to a citrus variegated chlorosis 

strain from Brazil (Found-5) (Montero-Astúa et al., 2008). If future studies suggest a strain 

different than what occurs in the United States occurs in Mexico on avocado, this pathogen will 

be re-evaluated for its risk to the United States.

2.1.3. Organisms identified only to the genus level

In commodity import risk assessments, the taxonomic unit for pests selected for evaluation 

beyond the pest categorization stage is usually the species (IPPC, 2011), as assessments focus on 

organisms for which biological information is available. Therefore, generally, we do not assess 

risk for organisms identified only to the genus level, in particular if the genus in question is 

reported in the import area. Often there are many species within a genus, and we cannot know if

the unidentified species occurs in the import area and, consequently, whether it has actionable 

regulatory status for the import area. On the other hand, if the genus in question is absent from 

the import area, any unidentified organisms in the genus can have actionable status; however, 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 7

because such an organism has not been fully identified, we cannot properly analyze its likelihood 

and consequences of introduction.

In light of these issues, we usually do not include organisms identified only to the genus level in 

the main pest list. Instead, we address them separately in Appendix A. The information can be 

used by risk managers to determine if measures beyond those intended to mitigate fully 

identified pests are warranted. Often, however, the development of detailed assessments for 

known pests that inhabit a variety of ecological niches, such as internal fruit feeders or foliage 

pests, allows effective mitigation measures to eliminate the known organisms as well as similar 

but incompletely identified organisms that inhabit the same niche.

One organism, Colletotrichum boninense Moriwaki, Toy. Sato & Tsukib, was identified to the 

species level. However, recent taxonomic work by Damm et al. (Damm et al., 2012) found C. 

boninense to be a large species complex ({Damm, 2012 #289), and the species boninense is no 

longer associated with the pathogen reported from avocado in Mexico (Silva-Rojas and AvilaQuezada, 2011) and may very well be a species already present in the United States. Damm 

reported that “ITS sequences of endophytic strains of....C. boninense isolates from Persea 

Americana from Mexico (Silva-Rojas and Avila-Quezada, 2011)...and Passiflora sp. in Florida, 

USA (Tarnowski & Ploetz, 2010) are identical or similar to those of C. karstii (and C. 

phyllanthi)” (Damm et al., 2012). Colletotrichum karstii is reported from the United States 

(Tarnowski and Ploetz, 2010). Due to the uncertainty of the identity of this organism, we cannot 

assess its risk. If new information indicates that it is a species not present in the United States,

its risk will be re-evaluated. No Colletotrichum species have been intercepted in permit cargo 

from Mexico (PestID, 2013).

2.2. Pest list

In Table 1, we list pests associated with avocado that occur in Mexico. The list comprises pests 

that occur in Mexico on any host and are reported to be associated with avocado, whether in 

Mexico or elsewhere in the world. For each pest, we indicate 1) the part of the imported plant 

species with which the pest is generally associated, and 2) whether the pest has a reasonable 

likelihood of being associated, in viable form, with the commodity following harvesting from the 

field and prior to any post-harvest processing. We developed this pest list based on the scientific 

literature, port-of-entry pest interception data, and information provided by the government of

Mexico. Pests in shaded rows are pests identified for further evaluation, as we consider them 

reasonably likely to be associated with the harvested commodity; we summarize these pests in a 

separate table (Table 2). Please note that in the pest list, we do not provide information on plant 

part association and whether the pest is likely to follow the pathway for non-actionable pests. 

Even if non-actionable pests are able to follow the pathway, phytosanitary measures against 

these pests would not be justified because they already occur in the import area. Therefore, for 

non-actionable pests we indicate that information with N/A (not applicable).
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 8

Table 1. Pests reported on Persea americana Mill. (in any country) and present in Mexico (on 

any host).

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

ARTHROPODS

Acari: Eriophyidae

Calepitrimerus 

muesebecki Keifer 

MX (EstradaVenegasa et 

al., 2002), 

CONUS 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes

L (Jeppson et 

al., 1975)

No

Acarina: Tarsonemidae

Polyphagotarsonemus 

latus Banks 

(= Hemitarsonemus 

latus Banks)

MX (de Cross 

et al., 2010), 

US (CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

Acarina: Tenuipalpidae

Brevipalpus 

californicus Banks

(= B. australis

Baker6)

MX, US

(CABI, 

2011a)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Brevipalpus phoenicis

(Geijskes)6

MX, US

(EPPO, 

undated)

Childers et 

al., 2003

No N/A N/A

Acarina: Tetranychidae

Allonychus littoralis

(McGregor)

MX (Migeon 

and Dorkeld, 

2006)

Migeon and 

Dorkeld, 

2006

Yes L (Posada 

Ocohoa, 

1989)

7

No

 

1 Geographic Distribution: MX = Mexico, US = United States, CONUS = continental United States, HI = Hawaii, 

PR = Puerto Rico, FL = Florida, CA = California, GA = Georgia, LA = Louisiana, MD = Maryland, MS = 

Mississippi, NC = North Carolina, TX = Texas, NJ = New Jersey, AZ = Arizona, NV = Nevada, OR = Oregon 

(Individual U.S. states are listed only if the pest species is considered an actionable pest for the United States.)

2 Brackets [ ] around the status designation indicate that the pest has a limited distribution in the import area 

(continental United States, Puerto Rico, and/or Hawaii) and is either under official control or under consideration 

for official control.

3 Entries in bold indicate answers based on reportable/non-reportable status in PestID (2013); non-bolded answers 

are based on distribution records found.

4 For the non-actionable pests in Table 1 we put N/A (= Not Applicable) in the columns for “Plant Part(s) 

Association” and “Follow Pathway.” See discussion in section 2.1 for more information.

5 Plant parts: Br = Branch, Fl = Flower, F = Fruit, I = Inflorescence, L = Leaf, R = Root, Sd = Seed, S = Stem, and T 

= Trunk. N/A = Not Applicable 

6 Species of Brevipalpus mites can vector citrus leprosis, which occurs in Mexico (CABI, 2011a). If intercepted on 

citrus, mites are treated as vectors of this disease as they could continue feeding on the lesions. Avocado, 

however, is not a host of this disease and we do not expect the pathogen to be transmitted by mites previously 

feeding on citrus since leprosis is non-persistent circulative in a vector.

7 Based on information for Allonychus sp. (Posada Ocohoa, 1989).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 9

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Eotetranychus 

sexmaculatus 

(Riley) 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), 

CONUS 

(Ebeling, 

1959), HI 

(Migeon and 

Dorkeld, 

2013)

Ebeling, 

1959

CONUS, 

HI: No

PR: Yes 

L (Steven, 

2004)

No

Eotetranychus tremae

De Leon

MX, CONUS

(Bolland et al., 

1998)

Bolland et 

al., 1998

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes 

Leaf of other 

host plants 

(Flechtmann, 

1996)

No

Oligonychus 

biharensis (Hirst) 

MX

(McDonald, 

undated-a)

McDonald, 

undated-a

CONUS, 

PR: Yes

HI: No

L (McDonald, 

undated-a)

No

Oligonychus 

mcgregori (Baker 

& Pritchard) 

MX 

(McDonald, 

undated-b)

McDonald, 

undated-b

Yes L (Posada 

Ocohoa, 1989)

No

Oligonychus perseae 

Tuttle, Baker &

Abbatiello 

MX (Hoddle, 

1998), US

(Bolland et al., 

1998)

Hoddle, 1998 No N/A N/A

Oligonychus 

peruvianus

(McGregor)

MX (CABI, 

2011a), US 

(Bolland et al., 

1998)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

Oligonychus platani 

(McGregor)

MX (Bolland 

et al., 1998), 

US (Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Oligonychus punicae 

(Hirst)

MX, US 

(Waite and 

Barrera, 2002)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

No N/A N/A

Oligonychus viridis 

(Banks)

MX, CONUS

(Bolland et al., 

1998), PR 

(Migeon and 

Dorkeld, 

2013)

Bolland et 

al., 1998

CONUS, 

PR: No

HI: Yes 

L of other host 

plants 

(Jeppson et 

al., 1975)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 10

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Oligonychus yothersi 

(McGregor) 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002

No N/A N/A

Panonychus citri 

(McGregor)

MX, US 

(Bolland et al., 

1998)

Bolland et 

al., 1998

No N/A N/A

Tetranychus gloveri 

Banks

MX, US 

(Bolland et al., 

1998)

Bolland et 

al., 1998

No N/A N/A

Tetranychus 

mexicanus 

(McGregor)

MX, US 

(Bolland et al., 

1998)

Bolland et 

al., 1998

No N/A N/A

Tetranychus tumidus 

Banks

MX, US 

(Jeppson et 

al., 1975)

Jeppson et 

al., 1975

No N/A N/A

Tetranychus urticae 

Koch

MX, US 

(Bolland et al., 

1998)

Bolland et 

al., 1998

No N/A N/A

Acarina: Tydeidae

Lorryia formosa 

Cooreman

MX (Jeppson 

et al., 1975),

US (Muma, 

1971)

Jeppson et 

al., 1975

No N/A N/A

INSECTA

Coleoptera: Anthribidae

Araecerus 

fasciculatus (De 

Geer)

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

Coleoptera: Bostrichidae

Apate monachus

Fabricius

(= A. monacha F.)

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), PR 

(Martorell, 

1976)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

CONUS, 

HI: Yes

PR: No 

S (CABI, 

2011a)

No

Coleoptera: Cerambycidae

Trachyderes 

succinctus ssp. 

succinctus (Linné)

MX (Maes et 

al., undated)

Maes et al., 

undated

Yes S (Ploetz et 

al., 1994)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 11

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

Deloyala guttata 

(Olivier) 

MX (Ebeling, 

1959), US 

(Rausher, 

1984)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Diabrotica balteata 

Leconte

MX (CABI, 

2011a), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Caulophilus latinasus 

Say 

(= C. oryzae

(Cyllenhal))

MX, US 

(McKenzie, 

1935; CABI, 

2011a)

McKenzie, 

1935; CABI, 

2011a

No N/A N/A

Conotrachelus 

aguacatae Barber 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

Yes F, L (CABI, 

2011a)

Yes

Conotrachelus 

perseae Barber 

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

Yes F (Waite and 

Barrera, 2002)

Yes

Conotrachelus 

serpentinus (Klug)

MX (Alfieri 

Jr. et al., 

1984), 

CONUS 

(Menge and 

Ploetz, 2003; 

Alfieri Jr. et 

al., 1984)

Alfieri Jr. et 

al., 1984; 

Whitehead, 

1979

CONUS: 

No 

HI, PR: 

Yes

F (Alfieri Jr. 

et al., 1984)

Yes

Copturomimus 

hustachei Hagedorn

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

Yes S (Waite and 

Barrera, 2002)

No

Copturomimus 

perseae Hustache

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

Yes S (Waite and 

Barrera, 2002)

No

Copturus aguacatae 

Kissinger 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002

Yes S (Waite and 

Barrera, 2002)

Yes

Copturus constrictus 

Champion 

MX (McGuire 

and Crandall, 

1967)

McGuire and 

Crandall, 

1967

Yes S (CABI, 

2011a)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 12

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Heilipus albopictus 

Champion 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

Yes F, S 

(CastañedaVildozola et 

al., 2010)

No8

Heilipus lauri 

Bohemann 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002

Yes F, Sd (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

Yes

Pantomorus cervinus

(Boheman)

MX, CONUS 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

Rhynchophorus 

palmarum

(Linnaeus)

MX (CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a Yes F, Fl, L, S of 

various host 

plants (CABI, 

2011a)

No9

Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

Cryptocarenus 

diadematus Eggers

MX (Wood, 

1992), 

CONUS 

(Atkinson et 

al., 2010)

Wood, 1992 CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes

S (Atkinson et 

al., 2010)

No

Euphoria leucographa 

Gory & Percheron

MX (PestID, 

2011), 

CONUS 

(Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 1996)

PestID, 2011 No N/A N/A

Macrodactylus 

mexicanus

Burmeister

MX (Peña et 

al., 2002)

Peña et al., 

2002

Yes F, Fl, L 

(AragónGarcía et al., 

2010)

No10

Coleoptera: Scolytidae

Araptus schwarzi 

(Blackman)

MX (Wood, 

1992)

Wood, 1992 No N/A N/A

Cnesinus carinatus 

Wood

MX (Wood, 

1992)

Wood, 1992 Yes S (Wood, 

1992)

No

 

8 Adults of Heilipus albopictus may feed on the surface of the fruit, and larvae develop in stems and not fruit 

(Castañeda-Vildozola et al., 2010). They are considered highly unlikely to remain with the fruit through 

harvesting and processing.

9 Rhynchophorus palmarum is highly unlikely to follow the pathway because adults are highly mobile and because it 

is primarily a pest of palms. Reports on other hosts are typically of adults feeding externally on ripe fruit (CABI, 

2011a); those individuals are highly unlikely to remain with avocados through standard post-harvest processing.

10 Macrodactylus mexicanus feeds on the surface of fruit (Aragón-García et al., 2010) and it is highly unlikely to 

remain with the fruit through harvesting and processing.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 13

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Cnesinus costulatus

Blanford

MX (Atkinson 

and Martinez, 

1985)

Atkinson and 

Martinez, 

1985

Yes S (Wood, 

1992)

No

Cnesinus electinus 

Wood

MX (Wood, 

1992)

Wood, 1992 Yes S (Wood, 

1992)

No

Cnesinus eostulatus 

Blandford

MX (Wood, 

1992)

Wood, 1992 Yes S (Wood, 

1992)

No

Cnesinus gracilis 

Blandford

MX (Wood, 

1992)

Wood, 1992 Yes S (Wood, 

1992)

No

Cnesinus myelitis 

Wood

MX (Atkinson 

and Martinez, 

1985)

Atkinson and 

Martinez, 

1985

Yes S (Wood, 

1992)

No

Cnesinus prominulus 

Wood

MX (Wood, 

1992)

Wood, 1992 Yes S (Wood, 

1992)

No

Cnesinus pullus 

Blandford

MX (Wood, 

1992)

Wood, 1992 Yes S (Wood, 

1992)

No

Cnesinus punctatus 

Blandford

MX (Wood, 

1992)

Wood, 1992 Yes S (Wood, 

1992)

No

Corthylus comatus 

Blandford

MX (Bright 

and Skidmore, 

1997)

Bright and 

Skidmore, 

1997

Yes S (Peña et al., 

2002)

No

Corthylus nudus 

Schedl 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

Yes S (Peña et al., 

2002)

No

Corthylus papulans 

Eiehhoff

MX, CONUS 

(Wood, 1992)

Wood, 1992 CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes 

S (Wood, 

1992)

No

Hypothenemus 

gossypii (Hopkins)

MX, CONUS 

(Wood, 1992)

Wood, 1992 CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes

S (Atkinson 

and Peck, 

1994)

No

Hypothenemus 

seriatus (Eiehhoff)

MX, US 

(Wood, 1992)

Wood, 1992 No N/A N/A

Microcorthylus vescus 

Wood

MX (Bright 

and Skidmore, 

1997)

Bright and 

Skidmore, 

1997

Yes S (HYPP, 

undated)

N/A

Microcorthylus 

vicinus Wood

MX (Bright 

and Skidmore, 

1997)

Bright and 

Skidmore, 

1997

Yes S (HYPP, 

undated)

N/A

Monarthrum 

pennatum (Schedl)

MX (Bright 

and Skidmore, 

1997)

Bright and 

Skidmore, 

1997

Yes S (NogueraMartinez and 

Atkinson, 

1990)

No

Pagiocerus frontalis 

(Fabricius)

MX, US 

(Wood, 1992)

Wood, 1992 No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 14

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Phloeocleptus 

atkinsoni Wood

MX (Atkinson 

and Martinez, 

1985)

Atkinson and 

Martinez, 

1985

Yes S (Atkinson 

and Martinez, 

1985)

No

Phloeocleptus

caudatus Wood

MX (Bright 

and Skidmore, 

1997)

Bright and 

Skidmore, 

1997

Yes S (Atkinson 

and Martinez, 

1985)

No

Phloeocleptus 

cristatus Wood

MX (Atkinson 

and Martinez, 

1985)

Atkinson and 

Martinez, 

1985

Yes S (Atkinson 

and Martinez, 

1985)

No

Phloecleptus 

plagiatus Wood

MX (Atkinson 

and Martinez, 

1985)

Atkinson and 

Martinez, 

1985

Yes S (Atkinson 

and Martinez, 

1985)

No

Xyleborinus saxesenii

(Ratzeburg)

MX, CONUS 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes

S (CABI, 

2011a)

No

Xyleborus volvulus

(Fabricius)

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

Xylosandrus 

morigerus

(Blandford)

MX (CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a Yes S, R (CABI, 

2011a)

N/A

Diptera: Lonchaeidae

Neosilba batesi 

Curran 

MX (Aluja et 

al., 2004), US 

(Ahlmark and 

Steck, 1997)

Ahlmark and 

Steck, 1997

No N/A N/A

Diptera: Muscidae

Atherigona orientalis 

Schiner

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Aetalionidae

Aetalion quadratum 

Fowler 

MX (Ebeling, 

1959), US 

(NHM of LA, 

undated)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae

Aleurocanthus 

woglumi Ashby 

MX (Whiley 

et al., 2002), 

CONUS (FL, 

TX) (Evans, 

2008), HI 

(CABI, 

2011a), PR 

(Evans, 2008)

Whiley et al., 

2002

[Yes] L, S (CABI, 

2007)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 15

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Aleurodicus 

coccolobae 

Quaintance & 

Baker

MX (Evans, 

2008), 

CONUS (FL) 

(Hodges and 

Evans, 2005)

Evans, 2008 [Yes] L (Miller et 

al., 2000)

No

Aleurodicus cocois

Curtis

MX (CABI, 

2011a), 

CONUS (FL) 

(Hodges and 

Evans, 2005), 

PR (Martorell, 

1976)

CABI, 2011a [Yes] L (CABI, 

2011a)

No

Aleurodicus dispersus 

Russell

MX, PR, HI 

(Evans, 2008), 

CONUS (FL) 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Evans, 2008 No11 N/A N/A

Aleurodicus dugesii 

(Cockerell) 

MX (Ebeling, 

1959), US 

(Evans, 2008)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Aleurodicus 

pulvinatus

(Maskell)

MX (Evans, 

2008)

Evans, 2008 Yes L (CABI, 

2011a)

No

Aleurodicus 

rugioperculatus

Martin

MX, CONUS 

(FL) (EPICA, 

2009)

EPICA, 2009 [Yes] L (Miller et 

al., 2000)

No

Aleuroglandulus 

subtilis Bondar

MX (Evans, 

2008), US 

(Dooley III et 

al., 2010)

Evans, 2008 No N/A N/A

Aleuropleurocelus 

abnormis 

(Quaintance)

MX, US 

(Evans, 2008)

Evans, 2008 No N/A N/A

Aleurotrachelus 

trachoides (Back)

MX, US 

(Evans, 2008)

Evans, 2008 No N/A N/A

Aleurothrixus 

floccosus (Maskell)

MX, US 

(Evans, 2008)

Evans, 2008 No N/A N/A

Bemisia tabaci 

(Gennadius)

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Vasquez et 

al., undated

No N/A N/A

 

11 No action on commodities for consumption (PestID, 2011).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 16

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Bemisia tabaci (B 

biotype)

(Gennadius) 

(= B. argentifolia

(Bellows et al.))

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Pegg et al., 

2002

No N/A N/A

Dialeurodes citri

(Ashmead)

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

Dialeurodes 

denticulatus 

(Bondar) 

(= D. 

michoacanensis)

MX (Evans, 

2008)

Evans, 2008 Yes L (Fasula and 

Weems, 

2010)

12

No

Dialeurodes kirkaldyi 

(Kotinsky)

MX, US 

(Evans, 2008)

Evans, 2008 No N/A N/A

Paraleyrodes goyabae 

(Goeldi) 

MX (Teliz, 

2000)

Teliz, 2000 Yes L (Teliz, 

2000)

No

Paraleyrodes minei 

Iaccarino

MX, US 

(Evans, 2008)

Evans, 2008 No N/A N/A

Paraleyrodes perseae 

Quaintance

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

No N/A N/A

Paraleyrodes sp. near 

goyabae (Goeldi) 

MX (Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

Yes L (Posada 

Ocohoa, 1989)

No

Tetraleurodes perseae 

Nakahara

MX, US 

(Evans, 2008)

Evans, 2008 No N/A N/A

Tetraleurodes 

quadratus Sampson 

& Drews

MX (Evans, 

2008)

Evans, 2008 Yes L (Miller et 

al., 2000)

No

Tetraleurodes 

ursorum 

(Cockerell)

MX, US 

(Evans, 2008)

Evans, 2008 No N/A N/A

Trialeurodes 

abutiloneus 

(Haldeman)

MX, US 

(Evans, 2008)

Evans, 2008 No N/A N/A

Trialeurodes 

floridensis 

(Quaintance) 

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), PR 

(Evans, 2008), 

US (Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

 

12 Based on information available for Dialeurodes citri.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 17

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Trialeurodes similis 

Russell 

MX (Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Trialeurodes 

vaporariorum 

(Westwood)

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a) 

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Aphididae

Aphis gossypii Glover MX (CABI,

2011a), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Aphis spiraecola 

Patch

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Myzus persicae Sulzer MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

Toxoptera aurantii 

(Fonscolombe)

MX (CABI, 

2011a), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Asterolecaniidae

Bambusaspis 

bambusae

(Boisduval)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010) 

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Cicadellidae

Idona minuenda 

(Ball) 

MX (Peña et 

al., 2002), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Coccidae

Ceroplastes ceriferus

(Fabricius)

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

Ceroplastes 

cirripediformis 

Comstock 

MX, US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Ceroplastes 

cistudiformis 

Townsend & 

Cockerell

MX, US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 18

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Ceroplastes 

floridensis 

Comstock

MX, US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Ceroplastes sinensis

Del Guercio

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No13 N/A N/A

Coccus hesperidum 

(L) 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

No N/A N/A

Coccus longulus

(Douglas)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Coccus viridis

(Green)

MX, CONUS 

(Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010), HI 

(Zimmerman, 

1948), PR 

(Martorell, 

1976)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Eucalymnatus 

tessellatus

(Signoret)

MX (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2010), 

US (Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Kilifia acuminata

(Signoret)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Milviscutulus 

mangiferae (Green) 

(= Coccus 

mangiferae

Fernald)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Parasaissetia nigra

(Nietner)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Parthenolecanium 

corni (Bouche)

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Parthenolecanium 

persicae (Fabricius)

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

 

13 Action required for propagative material only (PestID, 2011).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 19

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Philephedra lutea

(Cockerell)

MX, US 

(Nakahara and 

Gill, 1985)

Nakahara and 

Gill, 1985

CONUS, 

PR: No

HI: Yes

I, F, L, S of 

other host 

plants (PestID, 

2011)

Yes

Philephedra 

tuberculosa

Nakahara & Gill

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Pulvinaria floccifera 

Westwood

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Pulvinaria psidii 

Maskell

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Saissetia coffeae 

(Walker) 

(= S. hemisphaerica 

(Targioni))

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

No N/A N/A

Saissetia miranda

(Cockerell & 

Parrott in 

Cockerell)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Saissetia oleae (Bern.) MX (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2010), 

US (Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Coreidae

Burtinus notatipennis 

Stal 

MX (Ebeling, 

1959), US 

(Henry and 

Froeschner, 

1988)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Capaneus humerosus 

Distant 

MX (Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

Yes L (CABI, 

2007)

No

Veneza phyllopus

(Linnaeus) (= 

Leptoglossus 

phyllopus (L)) 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 20

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Hemiptera: Diaspididae14

Abgrallaspis 

aguacatae Evans, 

Watson & Miller

MX (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Yes F, L, S (Evans 

et al., 2009)

Yes14

Abgrallaspis 

cyanophylli

(Signoret) 

(= Hemiberlesia 

cyanophylli 

(Signoret))

MX, US 

(Watson, 

undated) 

Watson, 

undated

No N/A N/A

Abgrallaspis perseae 

Davidson 

MX 

(Davidson, 

1964), 

CONUS (GA, 

TX) (Alvarez, 

1976)

Davidson, 

1964

[Yes] F (Davidson, 

1964), L 

(PestID, 2011)

Yes14

Acutaspis agavis

(Townsend & 

Cockerell) 

(= Chrysomphalus 

agavis (Townsend 

& Cockerell))

MX, US

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Acutaspis albopicta 

(Cockerell) 

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010 

CONUS, 

PR: No

HI: Yes

L (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010), F 

(Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes14

Acutaspis aliena

(Newstead) (= 

Melanaspis aliena 

(Newstead), 

Pseudischnaspis 

alienus Houser)

MX, CONUS 

(FL) (BenDov et al., 

2010), US 

(FL)

Ebeling, 

1959

CONUS, 

HI: No

PR: Yes

F, L (PestID, 

2011)

Yes14

Acutaspis perseae 

(Comstock) 

(= Chrysomphalus 

perseae Leonardi)

MX, US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Acutaspis scutiformis 

(Cockerell)

(= Chrysomphalus 

scutiformis Berlese 

& Leonardi)

MX (Ebeling, 

1959), 

CONUS (BenDov et al., 

2010; Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes

L (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010)

No

 

14 Although armored scales may enter on commercial fruit for consumption, they are highly unlikely to become 

established via this pathway, and are considered non-actionable on fruits for consumption at U.S. ports-of-entry. 

Please see discussion in section 2.3 for a detailed explanation.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 21

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Aonidiella aurantii 

(Maskell)

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Aonidiella citrina

(Coquillett)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Aonidiella orientalis

(Newstead)

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

Aspidiotus destructor 

Signoret

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Aspidiotus nerii

Bouche

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Chrysomphalus 

aonidum (L)

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

No N/A N/A

Chrysomphalus 

bifasciculatus

Ferris

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Chrysomphalus 

dictyospermi 

(Morgan) 

MX (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2010), 

US (Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Diaspidiotus ancylus

(Putnam)

(= Abgrallaspis 

howardi 

(Cockerell))

MX (Peña et 

al., 2002), US 

(Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010)

Peña et al., 

2002

No N/A N/A

Diaspidiotus 

perniciosus 

(Comstock)

MX, US

(CABI,

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

Diaspis boisduvalii

Signoret

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Diaspis coccois 

Lichtenstein 

MX (Peña et 

al., 2002), US 

(Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010)

Peña et al., 

2002

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 22

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Diaspis miranda

(Cockerell)

MX (Alvarez, 

1976)

Alvarez, 

1976

Yes F (Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes14

Diaspis sp. near 

miranda15

MX (Alvarez, 

1976)

Alvarez, 

1976

Yes F (Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes14

Fiorinia fioriniae 

(Targioni-Tozzetti)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Furcaspis biformis

(Cockerell)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Hemiberlesia diffinis 

(Newstead) 

MX (Peña et 

al., 2002), 

CONUS (FL, 

GA, LA, MD, 

MS, NJ, NC, 

TX) (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2010)

Peña et al., 

2002

[Yes] F, L, S 

(Watson, 

undated)

Yes14

Hemiberlesia lataniae 

(Signoret) 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

No N/A N/A

Hemiberlesia sp. near 

lataniae20

MX (Alvarez, 

1976)

Alvarez, 

1976

Yes F (Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes14

Hemiberlesia palmae

(Cockerell)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Hemiberlesia rapax 

(Comstock) 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

No N/A N/A

Howardia biclavis

(Comstock)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Ischnaspis 

longirostris

(Signoret)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Lepidosaphes beckii 

(Newman)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

 

15 Exact identity is unknown (Alvarez, 1976).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 23

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Lindingaspis rossi

(Maskell) (= 

Chrysomphalus 

rossi Leonardi)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Lopholeucaspis 

cockerelli

(Grandpré & 

Charmoy)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Melanaspis deklei

Deitz & Davidson

MX, CONUS 

(Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes

S (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010)

16

No

Melanaspis squamea

Ferris

MX (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Yes S (Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010)

No

Morganella 

longispina

(Morgan)

MX, US 

(Watson, 

undated)

Watson, 

undated

No N/A N/A

Mycetaspis personata 

(Comstock) 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), US 

(Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

No N/A N/A

Oceanaspidiotus 

spinosus

(Comstock)

(= Aspidiotus 

spinosus 

(Comstock))

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Parlatoria proteus

(Curtis)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Pinnaspis aspidistrae

(Signoret)

MX, US 

(Watson, 

undated)

Watson, 

undated

No N/A N/A

Pinnaspis strachani 

(Cooley) 

MX (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2010), 

US (Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Pseudaonidia 

trilobitiformis

(Green)

MX, US 

(Watson, 

undated)

Watson, 

undated

No N/A N/A

 

16 Based on biology of Melanaspis squamea.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 24

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Pseudischnaspis 

bowreyi (Cockerell)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Pseudoparlatoria 

ostreata Cockerell

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Pseudoparlatoria 

parlatorioides

(Comstock)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Selenaspidus 

articulatus

(Morgan)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Unaspis citri

(Comstock)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Velataspis dentata 

(Hoke) 

MX (Peña et 

al., 2002), US 

(Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010)

Peña et al., 

2002

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Flatidae

Hansenia 

pulverulenta 

(Guerin-Meneville) 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

Yes L, S (C.M.I., 

1987)

17

No

Hemiptera: Lygaeidae

Pseudopachybrachius 

basalis (Dallas) 

MX (PestID 

2011), US 

(Chordas III et 

al., 2005)

PestID, 2011 No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Margarodidae

Icerya purchasi 

Maskell 

MX, US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Membracidae

Aethalion quadratum

Fowler

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002

Yes S (Waite and 

Barrera, 2002)

No

 

17 We found no information on the biology or feeding habits of Hansenia pulverulenta. Therefore, we assumed that 

H. pulverulenta affects leaves and stems, as is generally the case for members of the Flatidae (C.M.I., 1987).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 25

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Hoplophorion 

monogramma

(Germar)

(= Metcalfiella 

monogramma 

(Germar))

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

Yes S (Barrera et 

al., 1998; 

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002)

No

Umbonia crassicornis 

(Amyot & Serville)

MX, US (DPI, 

2009)

DPI, 2009 No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Monophlebidae

Crypticerya 

montserratensis

(Riley & Howard) 

(= Icerya 

montserratensis 

Riley & Howard)

MX (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2010), 

PR (Martorell, 

1976)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

CONUS, 

HI: Yes

PR: No

L, S (Posada 

Ocohoa, 1989)

No

Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

Brochymena 

quadripustulata F.

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), US 

(Henry and 

Froeschner, 

1988)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

No N/A N/A

Nezara viridula 

(Linnaeus)

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae

Dysmicoccus brevipes 

(Cockerell) 

(= Pseudococcus 

brevipes)

MX (Ben Dov 

undated), US 

(Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Ferrisia malvastra

(McDaniel)

MX (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2010; 

PestID, 2011), 

US (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2010; 

Miller et al., 

2005)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Ferrisia virgata 

(Cockerell)

MX (CABI, 

2011a), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 26

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Maconellicoccus 

hirsutus (Green)

MX (CABI, 

2011a), 

CONUS (CA, 

FL, GA, LA, 

SC, TX) 

(CABI, 

2011a), HI, 

PR (Sagarra 

and Peterkin, 

1999)

CABI, 

2011a; 

Sagarra and 

Peterkin, 

1999

[Yes] F, L, S of 

various host 

plants (CABI, 

2011a)

Yes

Nipaecoccus 

jonmartini

Williams &

Granara de Willink 

MX (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2010; 

Ben-Dov, 

1994)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

Yes L (PestID, 

2011)

No

Nipaecoccus nipae 

(Maskell) (= 

Pseudococcus 

nipae Cockerell)

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959) 

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

No N/A N/A

Paracoccus 

marginatus

Williams & 

Granara de Willink

MX (CABI, 

2011a; BenDov, 1994 ; 

Williams and 

Granara de 

Willink, 

1992), 

CONUS (FL, 

MT), HI, PR 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a [Yes] F, Fl, L, S 

(CABI, 2011a; 

PestID, 2011)

Yes

Paraputo olivaceus

(Cockerell)

(= Farinococcus 

olivaceus 

(Cockerell))

MX (Ebeling, 

1959), US 

(McKenzie, 

1967)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Phenacoccus gossypii 

Townsend & 

Cockerell

MX (Ben-Dov 

et al., 2010), 

US (Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Planococcus citri 

(Risso) 

MX (CABI, 

2011a), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 27

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Planococcus minor

(Maskell)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010), HI 

(NAPIS, 

2011)

Ben-Dov et 

al., 2010

No N/A N/A

Pseudococcus 

calceolariae 

(Maskell) 

(= P. gahani Green)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Pseudococcus 

jackbeardsleyi

Gimpel and Miller

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

Pseudococcus 

longispinus 

(Targioni-Tozzetti) 

(= P. adonidum)

MX, US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Pseudococcus 

maritimus

(Ehrhorn)

MX, US (BenDov et al., 

2010)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Hemiptera: Psyllidae

Trioza aguacate MX (Hollis 

and Martin, 

1997)

Hollis and 

Martin, 1997

Yes L (Hollis and 

Martin, 1997)

No

Trioza anceps Tuthill MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002

Yes L (Hoddle, 

2013)

No

Trioza koebelei

Kirkaldy

MX 

(McKenzie, 

1935) 

McKenzie, 

1935

Yes L (Popenoe, 

1920)

No

Hemiptera: Pyrrhocoridae

Dysdercus obliquus 

(Herrich-Schaeffer) 

MX (Ebeling, 

1959), US 

(Henry and 

Froeschner, 

1988)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Largus succinctus

(Linnaeus) (= L. 

cinctus HerrichSchaeffer)

MX (Ebeling, 

1959), US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 28

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Hemiptera: Tingidae

Pseudacysta perseae 

(Heidemann)

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

No N/A N/A

Hymenoptera: Formicidae

Atta cephalotes

(Linnaeus)

MX (CABI, 

2011a) 

CABI, 2011a Yes L (CABI, 

2011a)

No

Atta mexicana (Smith) MX (Peña et 

al., 2002), US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Peña et al., 

2002

No N/A N/A

Atta sexdens

(Linnaeus)

MX 

(CariPestNet, 

undated)

CariPestNet, 

undated

Yes L (CABI, 

2011a)

No

Solenopsis geminata

(Fabricius)

MX, CONUS, 

HI, PR 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Lepidoptera: Geometridae

Sabulodes aegrotata 

(Guenee)

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), US 

(Whiley et al., 

2002)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

US: No

HI, PR: 

Yes 

F, L (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

No18

Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae

Caloptilia perseae

(Busck) (= 

Gracilaria perseae 

Busck)

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), 

CONUS 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes 

L (Waite and 

Barrera, 2002)

No

Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae

Pyrrhopyge chalybea 

Scudder 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983

Yes L (Diaz 

Castro, 1977)

No

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Peridroma saucia

(Hübner)

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

 

18 Sabulodes aegrotata feeds on the surface of the fruit (Peña et al., 2002) and is highly unlikely to remain with the 

fruit through standard harvesting and processing.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 29

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Spodoptera eridania

Stoll in Cramer

MX, US 

(CABI, 

2011a)

CABI, 2011a No N/A N/A

Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae

Stenoma catenifer 

Walsingham

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002

Yes F, L (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), Sd 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Yes

Lepidoptera: Papilionidae

Papilio crespontes 

Cramerg

MX, US 

(McAuslane, 

2009)

Garcia et al., 

2001

No N/A N/A

Papilio garamas 

abderus Hoppfer 

(= P. garamas 

garamas Hubner) 

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), US 

(Opler and 

Warren, 2004)

Peña et al.,

2002; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002

[Yes] L (Barrera et 

al., 1998; 

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002)

No

Papilio victorinus 

morelius Rothschild 

and Jordan

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

Yes L (Waite and 

Barrera, 2002)

No

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Amyelois transitella

(Walker) (= 

Paramyelois 

transitella Walker)

MX (McGuire 

and Crandall, 

1967), US 

(CABI, 2007)

Hill, 2008 No N/A N/A

Accinctapubes

albifasciata (Druce)

(= Stericta 

albifasciata 

(Druce))

MX 

(McKenzie, 

1935)

McKenzie, 

1935

Yes L, Br (Solis 

and Styer, 

2003)

No

Lepidoptera: Saturniidae

Copaxa decrescens 

Draudt

MX (Garcia et 

al., 2001)

Garcia et al., 

2001

Yes L (Garcia et 

al., 2001)

No

Copaxa 

multifenestrata 

(Herrich-Schaffer) 

MX (Peña et 

al., 2002)

Peña et al., 

2002

Yes L (Barrera et 

al., 1998)

No

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae

Amorbia cuneana 

(Walsingham)

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), 

CONUS (Peña 

et al., 2002)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes 

F, L (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

No19

 

19 Amorbia cuneana and A. essigana feed on the surface of the fruit (Peña et al., 2002) and are highly unlikely to 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 30

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Amorbia emigratella 

Busck 

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), US 

(Zimmerman, 

1948)

MacGregor 

and 

Gutierrez, 

1983; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002

No N/A N/A

Amboria essigana

Busck

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), 

CONUS 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes 

F, L (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

No22

Argyrotaenia 

montezumae

(Walsingham)

MX (Gilligan 

et al., 2011) 

CONUS 

(Ratnasingha

m, 2007 

onwards)

Gilligan et 

al., 2011

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes 

F, L (Ebeling, 

1959)20

No21

Cryptaspasma 

perseana Gilligan 

& Brown

MX (Gilligan 

et al., 2011)

Gilligan et 

al., 2011

Yes F, Sd 

(Gilligan et 

al., 2011)

Yes

Platynota stultana

Walsingham

MX (CABI, 

2011a), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

Ebeling, 

1959

No N/A N/A

Thysanoptera: Heterothripidae

Heterothrips 

decacornis 

Crawford

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), 

CONUS (FL), 

PR (Mound 

and Marullo, 

1996)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

CONUS, 

PR: No

HI: Yes

Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Heterothrips 

mexicanus Watson

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

 

remain with the fruit through harvesting and processing.

20 Based on the biology of Argyrotaenia citrana (Fernald) (CABI, 2013).

21 As a large, external feeder, it is highly unlikely that A. montezumae would remain on the harvested commodity.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 31

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Thysanoptera: Panchaetothripinae

Caliothrips fasciatus

(Pergande)

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a), 

US (Hoddle et 

al., 2008)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

No N/A N/A

Caliothrips phaseoli

(Hood) 

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a), 

US (Hoddle et 

al., 2008)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

No N/A N/A

Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae

Haplothrips gowdeyi

(Franklin)

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a), 

US 

(Zimmerman, 

1948)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

No N/A N/A

Pseudophilothrips 

perseae (Watson) 

(=Liothrips perseae 

Watson)

MX (UriasLopez et al., 

2007; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002)

Urias-Lopez 

et al., 2007; 

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

Yes F (Waite and 

Barrera, 

2002), Fl, L 

(Urias-Lopez 

et al., 2007)

Yes

Stephanothrips 

occidentalis Hood 

& Williams

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a), 

US 

(Zimmerman, 

1948)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

No N/A N/A

Thysanoptera: Thripidae

Arorathrips 

mexicanus 

(Crawford)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), US 

(Hoddle et al., 

2008)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

No N/A N/A

Aurantothrips 

orchidaceus 

(Bagnall)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), US 

(Funderburk et 

al., 2007)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

[Yes] Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Caliothrips fasciatus 

(Pergande)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), US 

(Hoddle et al., 

2008)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 32

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Caliothrips phaseoli 

(Hood)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), US 

(Hoddle et al., 

2008)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

No N/A N/A

Caliothrips 

punctipennis 

(Hood)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), 

CONUS 

(Diffie et al., 

2008; Mound 

and Marullo, 

1996)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes 

Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Exophthalmothrips 

chiapensis 

Johansen

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Frankliniella 

albacuriosa 

Johansen

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Frankliniella aurea 

Moulton

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Frankliniella 

borinquen Hood

MX 

(CamberoCampos et al., 

2009), PR 

(Martorell, 

1976)

CamberoCampos et 

al., 2009

[Yes] Fl (Johansen 

and Mojica, 

2007)

No

Frankliniella sp. nr. 

bruneri Watson

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

Yes Fl (Peña et al., 

2002)

22

No

Frankliniella 

brunnescens 

Priesner

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

 

22 Unconfirmed reports exist that Frankliniella bruneri and F. chamulae attack fruit (Peña et al., 2002), but we 

found no confirmation of this. Therefore, we did not list fruit. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 33

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Frankliniella 

cephalica Hood 

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), US 

(Ebeling, 

1959; Hoddle 

et al., 2008)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

No N/A N/A

Frankliniella 

chamulae Johansen 

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

Yes Fl (Peña et al., 

2002)

27

No

Frankliniella cubensis

Hood

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a), 

PR (Martorell, 

1976)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

[Yes] Fl (Peña et al., 

2002)

No

Frankliniella curiosa 

Priesner

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Frankliniella difficilis 

Hood 

MX 

(CamberoCampos et al., 

2009), PR 

(Martorell, 

1976)

CamberoCampos et 

al., 2009

[Yes] Fl (Johansen 

and Mojica, 

2007)

No

Frankliniella dubia 

Priesner

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Frankliniella 

fallaciosa Priesner

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

Yes Fl, L, S 

(Hoddle et al., 

2002a)

23

No

Frankliniella 

gossypiana Hood

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a), 

US (Hoddle et 

al., 2008)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

No N/A N/A

Frankliniella insularis

(Franklin)

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a), 

US (Hoddle et 

al., 2008) 

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

No N/A N/A

Frankliniella inutilis 

Priesner

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

 

23 Frankliniella fallaciosa was collected by beating avocado branches with young foliage and flowers present

(Hoddle et al., 2002a); no specific plant part of association was mentioned.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 34

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Frankliniella invasor

Sakimura

MX 

(CamberoCampos et al., 

2009)

CamberoCampos et 

al., 2009

Yes Fl (Johansen 

and Mojica, 

2007)

No

Frankliniella kelliae 

Sakimura

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), US 

(Diffie et al., 

2008)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

No N/A N/A

Frankliniella minor 

Moulton 

MX (Instituto 

de Biología, 

undated)

CamberoCampos et 

al., 2009

Yes Fl (Johansen 

and Mojica, 

2007)

No

Frankliniella minuta 

(Moulton)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), US 

(Mound and 

Marullo, 

1996) 

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

No N/A N/A

Frankliniella 

occidentalis 

(Pergande)

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a), 

US (CABI, 

2011a)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

No N/A N/A

Frankliniella 

panamensis Hood

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

No N/A N/A

Frankliniella pestinae 

Sakimura & 

O’Neill

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Frankliniella rostrata 

Priesner

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Frankliniella salviae 

Moulton

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), 

CONUS 

(Mound et al., 

2005)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes 

Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Frankliniella 

seneciopallida 

Johansen

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 35

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Frankliniella simplex 

Priesner

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Frankliniella 

williamsi Hood (= 

F. spinosa 

Moulton)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), US 

(Diffie et al., 

2008)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

No N/A N/A

Frankliniella zucchini 

Nakahara & 

Monteiro

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Heliothrips 

haemorrhoidalis 

(Bouche) 

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), US 

(Whiley et al., 

2002)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

No N/A N/A

Leucothrips furcatus

Hood

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a), 

CONUS 

(Hoddle et al., 

2008)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes 

L (Hoddle et 

al., 2008)

No

Leucothrips piercei 

(Morgan)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), US 

(Hoddle et al., 

2008)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

No N/A N/A

Microcephalothrips 

abdominalis

(Crawford)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), US 

(Hoddle et al., 

2008) 

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

No N/A N/A

Neohydatothrips 

annulipes (Hood)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), 

CONUS 

(Diffie et al., 

2008; Mound 

et al., 2005)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes

Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 36

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Neohydatothrips 

burungae (Hood)

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a), 

US (Hoddle et 

al., 2008)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

No N/A N/A

Neohydatothrips 

inversus (Hood)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), 

CONUS 

(Diffie et al., 

2008)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes

Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Neohydatothrips 

signifer Priesner 

MX (Hoddle, 

1999)

Hoddle, 1999 Yes L (Mound and 

Marullo, 

1996)

No

Neohydatothrips 

tibialis Priesner

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

Yes L (Mound and 

Marullo, 

1996)

No

Neohydatothrips 

variabilis (Beach)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), 

CONUS (AZ, 

CA, GA, IL, 

NE, NJ, OK, 

TN, UT) 

(Hoddle et al., 

2008)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

[Yes] Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scirtothrips 

albosilvicola 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scirtothrips aceri 

(Moulton) 

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), US 

(Hoddle et al., 

2008)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a; Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002

CONUS: 

No

HI, PR: 

Yes

F (Waite and 

Barrera, 

2002), L 

(Hoddle et al., 

2008)

Yes

Scirtothrips aztecus 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scirtothrips citri

(Moulton) 

MX (Hoddle 

et al., 2002a), 

US (Hoddle et 

al., 2008), HI 

(Zimmerman, 

1948)

Hoddle et al., 

2002a

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 37

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Scirtothrips 

cognatoalbus 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scirtothrips 

danieltelizi 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scirtothrips 

detereomangus 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scirtothrips 

hectorgonzalezi 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scirtothrips 

longipennis 

(Bagnall) 

MX (Johansen 

and MojicaGuzman, 

1998), HI 

(C.M.I., 1985) 

CONUS, PR 

(Mound and 

Palmer, 1981)

Johansen and 

MojicaGuzman, 

1998

No N/A N/A

Scirtothrips 

mangiferaffinis 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scirtothrips 

martingonzalezi 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scirtothrips perseae 

Nakahara (= S. 

uruapaniensis; S. 

kupandae; S. 

manihotifloris; S. 

tacambarensis; S. 

aguacatae)

24

MX (Waite 

and Barrera, 

2002), 

CONUS, HI 

(CABI, 

2011a)

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

CONUS, 

HI: No

PR: Yes 

F (Waite and 

Barrera, 2002)

Yes

Scirtothrips 

silvatropicalis 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

 

24 Taxonomy is based on Stevenson, 1975).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 38

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Scirtothrips silvicola 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scirtothrips totonacus 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scirtothrips 

willihennigi 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scirtothrips 

zacualtipanensis 

Johansen & Mojica

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

Yes Fl, L 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003)

No

Scolothrips 

sexmaculatus 

(Pergande)

MX 

(JohansenNaime et al., 

2003), US 

(Hoddle et al., 

2008)

JohansenNaime et al., 

2003

No N/A N/A

Selenothrips 

rubrocinctus 

(Giard)

MX 

(MacGregor 

and Gutierrez, 

1983), US 

(Whiley et al., 

2002)

Whiley et al., 

2002

No N/A N/A

Thrips palmi Karny MX, CONUS 

(CA, FL, TX), 

HI, PR 

(CABI,

2011a)

CABI, 2011a [Yes] F, L, S (CABI, 

2011a)

Yes

Thrips tabaci

Lindeman

MX (Peña et 

al., 2002), US 

(CABI, 2007)

Peña et al., 

2002

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 39

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

FUNGI and CHROMISTANS

Albonectria 

rigidiuscula (Berk. 

& Broome) 

Rossman & 

Samuels

(= Calonectria 

rigidiuscula (Berk. 

& Broome) Sacc; 

Nectria rigidiuscula

Berk. & Broome) 

Anamorph: 

Fusarium 

decemcellulare C. 

Brick

MX (CABI, 

2011a; Farr et 

al., 2013) 

CONUS (OK, 

FL) (Farr et 

al., 2013; 

Ploetz, 1996), 

PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

Ohr et al., 

2003; Pegg et 

al., 2002

No25 F (Ohr et al., 

2003; Pegg et 

al., 2002)

Yes

Armillaria mellea 

(Vah1:Fr.) P. 

Kumm.

MX (Alvarez, 

1976; CABI, 

2011a), 

CONUS 

(CABI/EPPO, 

1997; Farr et 

al., 2013), HI 

(Farr et al., 

2013)

Alvarez, 

1976; Pegg et 

al., 2002; 

Teliz, 2000

PR: Yes 

CONUS, 

HI: No

R, S (lower) 

(CABI, 

2011a)

No

Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) 

Tu & Kimbr.

(= Sclerotium 

rolfsii Sacc.) 

Anamorph: 

Corticium rolfsii 

Curzi 

MX, CONUS, 

HI, PR 

(C.M.I., 1969) 

Alfieri Jr. et 

al., 1984

No N/A N/A

Botryosphaeria ribis 

Grossenb. & 

Duggar

MX, CONUS, 

HI (Farr et al., 

2013)

Menge and 

Ploetz, 2003

PR: Yes

CONUS,

HI: No

S (Alvarez, 

1976; 

Rodriguez, 

1972; Teliz, 

2000); 

No

Dialonectria 

episphaeria (Tode : 

Fr.) Cooke 

(= Fusarium 

episphaeria (Tode : 

Fr.) W.C. Snyder 

& H.N. Hansen)

MX (VidalesFernández, 

2009), US 

(Farr et al., 

2013)

VidalesFernández, 

2009

No N/A N/A

 

25 In 2012, A. ridiguscula was de-regulated in the United States (PestID, 2012). 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 40

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Fusarium oxysporum 

Schltdl. : Fr.

MX (Fernando 

Ceja Torres et 

al., 2000), 

CONUS, PR 

(UGA, 2011), 

HI (HEAR, 

2005) 

Fernando 

Ceja Torres 

et al., 2000

No N/A N/A

Fusarium roseum 

Link : Fr.

MX (VidalesFernández, 

2009), US 

(Farr, 2011)

VidalesFernández, 

2009

No N/A N/A

Ganoderma lucidum 

(Curtis : Fr) P. 

Karst. 

MX (MoralesGarcia, 1989), 

CONUS, HI 

(Farr et al., 

2013, UGA, 

2010b), PR 

(Farr et al., 

2013)

Bigelow et 

al., 1998

No N/A N/A

Gibberella intricans 

Wollenw.

Anamorph: 

Fusarium equiseti 

(Corda) Sacc.

MX (Fernando 

Ceja Torres et 

al., 2000), 

CONUS (Farr 

et al., 2013), 

PR (UGA, 

2011), HI 

(USDA-FS, 

2004)

Fernando

Ceja Torres 

et al., 2000

No N/A N/A

Glomerella acutata 

Guerber & J.C. 

Correll 

Anamorph: 

Colletotrichum 

acutatum J. H. 

Simmonds

MX (AvilaQuezada et al., 

2007), US 

(Farr et al., 

2013)

AvilaQuezada et 

al., 2007

No N/A N/A

Glomerella cingulata 

(Stone.) Spauld. & 

H. Schren

Anamorph: 

Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides

Penz. & Sacc. 

(Penz.)

MX 

(Fucikovsky 

and Luna, 

1987; Ploetz 

et al., 1994; 

PestID, 2011), 

CONUS, HI, 

PR (UGA, 

2010b)

PestID, 2011; 

Ploetz et al., 

1994

No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 41

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Haematonectria 

haematococca 

(Berk. & Broome) 

Samuels & 

Rossman

Anamorph: 

Fusarium solani

(Mart.) Sacc.

MX (Fernando 

Ceja Torres et 

al., 2000), US 

(Farr et al., 

2013; UGA, 

2011)

Fernando 

Ceja Torres 

et al., 2000

No N/A N/A

Lasiodiplodia 

theobromae (Pat.) 

Griffon & Maubl.

(= Botryodiplodia 

theobromae Pat., 

Diplodia natalensis 

Pole-Evans)

MX, CONUS 

(Diffie et al., 

2008), HI 

(Diffie et al., 

2008; HEAR, 

2005), PR 

(Diffie et al., 

2008; 

Stevenson, 

1975)

Ohr et al., 

2003

No N/A N/A

Mycosphaerella 

perseae L.E. Miles

MX (Farr et 

al., 2013; 

Teliz, 2000), 

CONUS (FL) 

(Farr et al., 

2013), PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

Farr et al., 

2013; 

Stevenson, 

1975

HI: Yes

CONUS, 

PR: No

L (Stevenson, 

1975; Teliz, 

2000)

No

Neonectria ditissima 

(Tul. & C. Tul.)

Samuels & 

Rossman

(= Nectria 

galligena Bres)

MX (VidalesFernández, 

2009), US 

(Farr et al., 

2013)

VidalesFernández, 

2009

No T (VidalesFernández, 

2009)

No

Pestalotiopsis adusta

(Ellis & Everh.) 

Steyaert 

MX (PestID, 

2011), US 

(Farr et al., 

2013)

PestID, 2011; 

Teliz, 2000

No N/A N/A

Pestalotiopsis 

versicolor (Speg.)

Steyaert

(= Pestalotia 

versicolor Speg.)

MX (Teliz, 

2000), 

CONUS (FL) 

(Alfieri Jr. et 

al., 1984), PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

Teliz, 2000 No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 42

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Phyllachora 

gratissima Rehm.

MX (PestID, 

2011; Teliz, 

2000), PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

PestID, 2011; 

Teliz, 2000

[Yes] L (Farr et al., 

2013, Teliz, 

2000)

No

Phyllosticta 

micropuncta Cooke 

(= P. perseae Ellis 

& G. Martin)

MX (Teliz, 

2000), 

CONUS (Farr 

et al., 2013)

Teliz, 2000 HI, PR: 

Yes

CONUS: 

No

L (Farr et al., 

2013; Teliz, 

2000)

No

Phymatotrichopsis 

omnivora (Duggar) 

Hennebert 

(= Phymatotrichum 

omnivorum (Shear) 

Duggar)

MX (MoralesGarcia, 1989), 

CONUS 

(CABI, 2011a; 

UGA, 2010b) 

MoralesGarcia, 1989; 

Teliz, 2000

No R (Teliz, 

2000) 

No

Phytophthora 

cinnamomi Rands 

MX (MoralesGarcia, 1989), 

CONUS, HI, 

PR (UGA, 

2010b)

Ploetz et al., 

1994

No N/A N/A

Phytophthora 

citricola Sawada26

MX 

(Fucikovsky 

and Luna, 

1987; 

Oudemans, 

1994), 

CONUS, HI 

(Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 1996)

Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 

1996; Ploetz 

et al., 1994

PR: Yes 

CONUS, 

HI: No

F, S (Erwin 

and Ribeiro, 

1996; Faber et 

al., 1997; 

Fucikovsky 

and Luna, 

1987)

Yes

Phytophthora 

nicotianae Breda de 

Haan 

(= P. parasitica

Dastur)

MX, CONUS, 

HI, PR (Farr 

et al., 2013) 

Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 1996

No N/A N/A

 

26 Phytophthora citricola is present in hosts other avocado in the United States and Hawaii (Farr et al., 2013). 

Phytophthora citricola has long been considered a complex of subgroups and Hong et al. (2009) found that the 

avocado subgroup of Phytophthora constituted a distinct species from P. citricola. They reassigned that subgroup 

to a new species Phytophthora mengei Browne, Gallegly, Hong. In that work, however, only avocado isolates 

from CA were used, and it is unclear if P. citricola isolates from MX would test the same. Therefore, we treated 

them here as P. citricola. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 43

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Phytophthora heveae 

A. Thomps.27

MX (Abad, 

2011; OchoaAscencio et 

al., 2011), 

CONUS 

(Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 1996)

Abad, 2011; 

Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 

1996; 

Fernando 

Ceja Torres 

et al., 2000; 

OchoaAscencio et 

al., 2011

PR, HI: 

Yes

CONUS: 

No

F (Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 1996; 

Fernando Ceja 

Torres et al., 

2000), S 

(Fernando 

Ceja Torres et 

al., 2000)

Yes

Phytophthora 

palmivora (E.J. 

Butler) E. J. Butler

MX, CONUS, 

HI, PR (Farr 

et al., 2013)

Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 1996

No N/A N/A

Pseudocercospora 

purpurea (Cooke) 

Deighton

(= Cercospora 

purpurea Cooke) 

MX 

(Fucikovsky 

and Luna, 

1987), 

CONUS 

(Ploetz et al., 

1994), HI 

(Gonsalves 

and Ferreira, 

1994a), PR 

(CABI, 

2011a) 

Fucikovsky 

and Luna, 

1987; Ploetz 

et al., 1994

No N/A N/A

Pythium ultimum

Trow 

MX (C.M.I., 

1981), 

CONUS, HI, 

PR (C.M.I., 

1981)

French, 1989 No N/A N/A

Rhizopus stolonifer

(Ehrenb. : Fr.) 

Vuill. 

Syn.: R. nigricans 

Ehrenb.

MX, CONUS, 

HI, PR (Farr 

et al., 2013)

Ohr et al., 

2003

No N/A N/A

 

27 The Phytophthora species that occur on avocado in Mexico is an ongoing study. Phytophthora boehmeriae has 

been reported on avocado in Mexico (Coria Avalos, 1985; Romero Cova and Solis Aragon, 1996; Teliz, 2000), 

but these reports were thought to be mis-identifications (Abad, 2009; Coffey, 2009), and recently the species 

found on avocado in Mexico was confirmed to be Phytophthora heveae (Abad, 2011; Ochoa-Ascencio et al., 

2011). Some references place P. heveae as a synonym of P. palmivora (CABI, 2011a, 2011b); however, 

molecular work puts them in different clades (Kang, 2011). They also have morphological differences (Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 1996). Phytophthora heveae is reported from the continental United States (Farr et al., 2013, Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 1996). Records of P. heveae in Hawaii and Puerto Rico were not found; however, confusion with closely 

related species may be affecting distribution records.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 44

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Rosellinia bunodes

(Berk. & Br.) Sacc. 

Black 

MX (C.M.I., 

1985), PR 

(C.M.I., 1985; 

Stevenson, 

1975)

Ploetz et al., 

1994; Teliz, 

2000

CONUS, 

HI: Yes

PR: No

R (Ploetz et 

al., 1994)

No

Rosellinia necatrix 

Prill.

Anamorph: 

Dematophora 

necatrix R. Hartig 

MX (C.M.I., 

1987), 

CONUS 

(C.M.I., 1987; 

Ploetz et al., 

1994)

Ploetz et al., 

1994; Teliz, 

2000

HI, PR: 

Yes

CONUS: 

No

R (Ploetz et 

al., 1994)

No

Rosellinia pepo Pat. MX (C.M.I., 

1968), PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

Ploetz et al., 

1994

CONUS, 

HI: Yes

PR: No

R (Ploetz et 

al., 1994)

No

Sphaceloma perseae 

Jenkins 

MX 

(Fucikovsky 

and Luna, 

1987; PestID, 

2011), 

CONUS 

(C.M.I., 

1986a), PR 

(C.M.I., 

1986a; 

Stevenson, 

1975)

PestID, 2011; 

Teliz, 2000

HI: Yes

CONUS, 

PR: No

F (Pegg et al., 

2002; PestID, 

2011), L 

(Pegg et al., 

2002) 

Yes

Thanatephorus 

cucumeris (A.B. 

Frank) Donk 

Anamorph:

Rhizoctonia solani

Kühn

MX (Alvarez, 

1976), 

CONUS, HI, 

PR (Farr et al., 

2013; UGA, 

2010b) 

Alvarez, 

1976; Farr et

al., 2013

No N/A N/A

Verticillium alboatrum Reinke & 

Bert. 

MX (MoralesGarcia, 1989), 

CONUS, HI 

(UGA, 

2010b); PR 

(C.M.I., 

1986b)

MoralesGarcia, 1989; 

Teliz, 2000

No N/A N/A

BACTERIA AND PHYTOPLASMAS

Agrobacteriurn 

tumefaciens (Smith 

& Town.) Conn 

MX (Alvarez, 

1976), 

CONUS, PR, 

HI (UGA, 

2010a)

Teliz, 2000 No N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 45

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

Erwinia carotovora 

subsp. carotovora 

(Jones) Bergey et 

al.

(= Pectobacterium

carotovorum subsp. 

carotovorum

(Jones) Hauben et 

al. emend. Gardan 

et al.)

MX (CABI, 

2011a), HI 

(CABI, 2011a; 

HEAR, 2005), 

CONUS, PR 

(CABI, 2011a; 

UGA, 2010a)

Bradbury, 

1986

No N/A N/A

Erwinia herbicola 

(Lijhnis) Dye

(= Pantoea 

agglomerans

(Ewing and Fife) 

Gavini)

MX 

(Fucikovsky 

and Luna, 

1987), 

CONUS 

(CABI, 

2011a), PR 

(University of 

Puerto Rico, 

2001), HI 

(HEAR, 2005)

Fucikovsky 

and Luna, 

1987

No N/A N/A

Pseudomonas 

syringae pv. 

syringae van Hall

MX 

(Fucikovsky 

and Luna, 

1987), 

CONUS, PR 

(C.M.I., 

1988), HI 

(HEAR, 2005)

Bradbury, 

1986

No N/A N/A

NEMATODES

Radopholus similis 

(Cobb) Thorne

MX (CABI, 

2011a), 

CONUS (CA, 

FL, TX) 

(NGDC, 

1984), HI, PR 

(Williams and 

Granara de 

Willink, 1992)

Williams and 

Granara de

Willink, 1992

[Yes] R (Williams 

and Granara 

de Willink, 

1992)

No

VIRUSES and VIROIDS

Avocado sunblotch 

viroid

MX 

(Fucikovsky 

and Luna, 

1987), 

CONUS (CA, 

FL) (Ploetz et 

al., 1994)

Ploetz et al., 

1994

HI, PR: 

Yes

CONUS: 

No

All plant parts 

including seed 

(Ploetz et al., 

1994; Dodds 

et al., 2006)

Yes
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 46

Pest Scientific Name Distribution1 Host 

association

Actionable 

pest2,3

Plant part(s) 

association4,5

On 

harvested 

commodity?

ALGAE

Cephaleuros virescens 

Ktz.

MX (PestID, 

2011), 

CONUS 

(Holcomb et 

al., 1997; 

Nelson, 2008); 

PR (Morton, 

1987a), HI 

(Nelson, 

2008)

PestID, 2011; 

Nelson, 2008

No N/A N/A

2.3. Notes on pests identified in the pest list

Armored scales: We did not further analyze the armored scales (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) 

identified in this risk assessment as quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway (Abgrallaspis 

aguacatae, A. perseae, Acutaspis albopicta, A. scutiformis, A. aliena, Diaspis miranda, Diaspis 

sp. near miranda, Hemiberlesia diffinis, Hemiberlesia sp. near latania, Melanaspis deklei, and

M. squamea), because armored scales are highly unlikely to establish via this pathway due to 

their very limited ability to disperse to new host plants (Miller et al., 1985; PERAL, 2007). Only 

a certain immature form of armored scales, the crawler stage, can self-disperse. Crawlers are 

highly unlikely to successfully disperse by walking from their natal host since they are not 

capable of rapid movement over bare soil or rough surfaces. They are typically dispersed from 

plant to plant by wind. Additionally, their dispersal period is limited to approximately 24 hours, 

after which they start feeding, become firmly anchored to the host tissue, and lose their legs. 

Adult females have no wings or legs. Dispersal from fruit discarded into the environment is 

highly unlikely because of low wind speeds at ground level and low survival rate of crawlers on 

the ground or on decaying fruit or fruit peels. 

2.4. Pests selected for further analysis 

We identified 18 pests for further analysis (Table 2). All of these organisms are actionable pests 

for the continental United States, Hawaii, and/or Puerto Rico and have a reasonable likelihood of 

being associated with the commodity plant part(s) at the time of harvest and remaining with the 

commodity, in viable form, throughout the harvesting process.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 47

Table 2. Pests selected for further analysis.

Type Pest Classification Pest Scientific Name Actionable pest for:

CONUS HI PR

Arthropods Coleoptera: Curculionidae Conotrachelus aguacatae   

Conotrachelus perseae   

Conotrachelus serpentinus  

Copturus aguacatae   

Heilipus lauri   

Hemiptera: Coccidae Philephedra lutea 

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae Maconellicoccus hirsutus   

Paracoccus marginatus   

Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae Stenoma catenifer   

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae Cryptaspasma perseana   

Thysanoptera: 

Phlaeothripidae

Pseudophilothrips perseae   

Thysanoptera: Thripidae Scirtothrips aceri  

Scirtothrips perseae 

Thrips palmi   

Fungi and 

Chromistans

Phytophthora citricola 

Phytophthora heveae  

Sphaceloma perseae 

Viroids Avocado sunblotch viroid  

3. Assessing Pest Risk Potential

3.1. Introduction

For each pest selected for further analysis, we estimate its overall pest risk potential. Risk is 

described by the likelihood of an adverse event, the magnitude of the consequences, and 

uncertainty. In this risk assessment, we first determine for each pest if there is an endangered 

area within the import area. The endangered area is defined as the portion of the import area 

where ecological factors favor the establishment of the pest and where the presence of the pest 

will result in economically important losses. Then we determine the overall risk of each pest 

using two separate components: 1) the likelihood of its introduction into the endangered area on 

the imported commodity (i.e., the likelihood of an adverse event), and 2) the consequences of its 

introduction (i.e., the magnitude of the consequences). In general, we assess both of these 

components for each pest. However, if we determine that the risk of either of these components 

is negligible, it is not necessary to assess the other, as the overall pest risk potential would be 

negligible regardless of the result of the second component.

The likelihood and consequences of introduction are assessed using different approaches. For the 

consequences of introduction, we determine if the pest meets the threshold (Yes/No) of likely 

causing unacceptable consequences of introduction. This determination is based on estimating 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 48

the potential consequences of introduction in terms of physical losses (rather than monetary 

losses). The threshold is based on a proportion of damage rather than an absolute value or 

amount. Pests that are like to impact at least 10 percent of the production of one or more hosts 

are deemed “threshold pests.”

For likelihood of introduction, which is based on the likelihoods of entry and establishment, we 

qualitatively assess risk using the ratings Negligible, Low, Medium, and High. The risk factors 

comprising the model for likelihood of introduction are interdependent and, therefore, the model 

is multiplicative rather than additive. Thus, if any one risk factor is rated as Negligible, then the 

overall likelihood will be Negligible. For the overall likelihood of introduction risk rating, we 

define the different categories as follows:

High: Pest introduction is highly likely to occur.

Medium: Pest introduction is possible, but for that to happen, the exact combination of 

required events needs to occur.

Low: Pest introduction is unlikely to occur because one or more of the required events 

are unlikely to happen, or the full combination of required events is unlikely to 

align properly in time and space.

Negligible: Pest introduction is highly unlikely to occur given the exact combination of 

events required for successful introduction.

3.2. Assessment results

3.2.1. Avocado sunblotch viroid

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Low. We present the results of this

assessment in the table below. We determined that the establishment of avocado sunblotch viroid

in Hawaii and Puerto Rico is likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this 

assessment in the table below. 

Determination of the portion of Hawaii and Puerto Rico endangered by avocado sunblotch 

viroid

Climatic suitability Avocado sunblotch viroid is present in Australia, South America (Peru, 

Venezuela), Africa (South Africa), Asia (Israel), Europe (Spain), Mexico, 

and the continental United States (Florida and California) (Dale J.L et al., 

1982; Dodds et al., 2006; Lopez-Herrera, 1987; Torre-A, 2009). A 

comparison of these regions with USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 

(Magarey et al., 2008) indicates that establishment may occur throughout 

Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Avocado is the only known natural host for avocado sunblotch viroid 

(Dale J.L et al., 1982). Avocados are grown in Hawaii and Puerto Rico 

(NRCS, 2013).

Economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Avocados are an economically important crop grown in Hawaii and 

Puerto Rico (Crane et al., 2010; NASS, 2009).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

Avocado sunblotch viroid is a minor problem where tree certification 

programs exist (Menge and Ploetz, 2003). If propagation material is not 

persistently kept clean, however, it can become a severe and widespread 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 49

risk problem (Menge and Ploetz, 2003). The viroid typically causes the 

following: abnormal tree growth; red, yellow, pink or white streaks on 

young branches; leaves may become bleached in appearance and fruit 

may develop white, yellow, or red blotches/depressions (Dodds et al., 

2006; Menge and Ploetz, 2003). Some trees may become symptomless 

after expressing symptoms, and some infected trees remain symptomless 

carriers, complicating surveillance/management (Dodds et al., 2006). 

Both symptomless and symptomatic trees will have “greatly” reduced 

yields (Menge and Ploetz, 2003) or may have a heavy fruit set of small 

fruit (Dodds et al., 2006). 

Defined 

Endangered Area

The endangered area encompasses avocado production throughout 

Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of avocado sunblotch viroid into the Hawaii 

and Puerto Rico via the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and other 

notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Low MU Avocado sunblotch viroid is systemic in 

the host tree and infected trees are often 

stunted and exhibit a sprawling growth. 

All infected trees, symptomless or not, 

usually have greatly reduced yield 

(Dodds et al., 2006). Fucikovsky and 

Luna (Fucikovsky and Luna, 1987) 

reported that avocado sunblotch viroid 

was understudied in Mexico due to its 

extremely low incidence. We found no 

additional reports. Hence, we rated the 

pest prevalence as Low. 

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Low MC Specific guidelines indicate a strict 

policy of inspection, cutting, and culling 

of avocado fruit in the packinghouse to 

detect various pests that may be 

contaminating the fruit (7 CFR § 319.56-

30, 2011). Symptomatic avocado fruit 

are highly likely to be culled, but 

symptomless fruit would go undetected. 

Consequently, we did not change the 

previous rating (A1).

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

Low C No transport or storage conditions have 

been provided that may reduce the 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 50

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and other 

notes as necessary)

storage conditions of the 

consignment

prevalence of avocado sunblotch viroid

on the fruit (see Section 1.4: Description 

of pathway). Typical shipping conditions 

for avocado seem unlikely to affect the 

viroid. 

Risk Element A: Overall risk

rating for likelihood of entry

Low N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

Low MC Avocado is the only known natural host 

for this viroid and it has no known 

vectors (Dale J.L et al., 1982; Dodds et 

al., 2006). The primary means of 

dispersal is graft transmission or natural 

root grafts in the field (Menge and 

Ploetz, 2003). The viroid is seed 

transmitted at high rates (estimated 80-

100 percent) with symptomless trees and 

only occasionally with trees expressing 

symptoms (Menge and Ploetz, 2003). To 

infect other avocado trees, seeds from 

discarded fruit (with seeds) would need 

to germinate and survive, and be in close 

proximity to other avocado plants.

Pollen transmission is reported but only 

affects fruit; no other parts of the tree 

(Menge and Ploetz, 2003). Given the 

limited host range and the limited ability 

for natural dispersal, the likelihood of 

coming into contact with host material is 

Low.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

Low MC Less than 10 percent of the population 

(including the continental United States) 

lives in the endangered area.

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

Low N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment 

Low N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 51

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Avocado sunblotch viroid into Hawaii 

and Puerto Rico (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area 

Yes MC Avocado sunblotch viroid is a minor 

problem where tree certification 

programs exist. However, if persistent 

efforts are not utilized to keep 

propagation material clean, it can 

become a severe and widespread 

problem (Menge and Ploetz, 2003). 

Damages as listed under pest potential 

on economically important hosts above 

indicate that if Avocado sunblotch 

viroid were introduced into Hawaii or 

Puerto Rico it would be an additional 

pathogen to screen for in 

propagation/certification schemes. Due 

to the complications of symptomless 

carriers and yield reductions it is likely 

this viroid would have a significant 

damage potential. 

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential 

Yes MU Avocado sunblotch can be spread 

through mechanical transmission (up 

to 30%), root grafting, pollen 

transmission, and seed transmission 

(especially with symptomless carriers) 

(Dodds et al., 2006). Symptomless 

carriers may also contribute to spread 

potential (Dodds et al., 2006). Spatial 

analysis of the USDA avocado 

germplasm collection found the 

effective range of spread for avocado 

sunblotch viroid increased more than 

threefold during a 13 year span and 

despite strict sanitation procedures, 

incidence of the viroid increased

(Schnell, 2011). The wide geographic 

distribution of avocado sunblotch 

viroid (see Climatic suitability above) 

suggests it would not be limited should 

it become introduced into Hawaii or 

Puerto Rico.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 52

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts 

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary 

requirements 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely 

to cause significant trade 

impacts 

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area? 

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.2. Conotrachelus aguacatae

Based on the current systems approach used in Mexico, we determined the overall likelihood of 

introduction to be Negligible. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. 

Because the likelihood of introduction is Negligible, no analysis of consequences of introduction 

was necessary.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

endangered by Conotrachelus aguacatae

Climatic suitability Conotrachelus aguacatae is only known to occur in Mexico, specifically 

central Mexico (O'Brien and Wibmer, 1982; Whitehead, 1979). A 

comparison of this region with USDA Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey 

et al., 2008) indicates that establishment in the continental United States 

may occur in Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11. Additionally, the climate 

throughout Hawaii and Puerto Rico appear suitable for establishment of 

C. aguacatae.

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA Area

The only known host of C. aguacatae is avocado (Persea americana) 

(CABI, 2013). In the continental United States, avocado is primarily 

grown in California (NASS, 2009) and Florida (NRCS, 2013), but may 

also be found in Texas (Crane et al., 2010). Avocados are also 

commercially grown in Hawaii (NASS, 2009; NRCS, 2013) and Puerto 

Rico (Crane et al., 2010; NRCS, 2013). These areas all fall within the 

regions determined to be suitable for establishment of C. aguacatae.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 53

Economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Avocados are an economically important crop grown in the continental 

United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Boriss et al., 2013; Crane et al., 

2010; NASS, 2009).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at risk

Up to 85 percent fruit loss has been documented (Peña, 1998).

Defined Endangered 

Area

The endangered area includes avocados grown throughout Hawaii and 

Puerto Rico, as well as in California, Florida, and Texas in the 

continental United States. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2013; #3).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Conotrachelus aguacatae into the 

endangered area via the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry) 

Low C The systems approach outlined in 

section 1.4 includes specific measures 

for surveys and inspections to detect 

any presence of this pest in the field (7 

CFR § 319.56-30, 2011). Orchards in 

which C. aguacatae is detected would 

not be eligible for export certification. 

Conotrachelus aguacatae would 

therefore always have a low 

association with these harvested 

‘Hass’ avocados for export. 

Risk Element A2: 

Likelihood of surviving postharvest processing before 

shipment 

Negligible C Guidelines call for strict inspection, 

cutting, and culling of avocado fruit in 

the packinghouse (7 CFR § 319.56-30, 

2011), which appear to be effective. 

Any C. aguacatae infesting harvested 

fruit are highly likely to be detected

and removed from the pathway in the 

packinghouse. Consequently, we 

decreased the previous rating (A1) 

from Low to Negligible, and the 

analysis of this pest stops here.

Risk Element A3: 

Likelihood of surviving 

transport and storage 

conditions of the 

consignment

N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 54

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Risk Element A: Overall risk

rating for likelihood of entry

Negligible N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

N/A N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment 

Negligible N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.3. Conotrachelus perseae

Based on the current systems approach used in Mexico, we determined the overall likelihood of 

introduction to be Negligible. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. 

Because the likelihood of introduction is Negligible, no analysis of consequences of introduction 

was necessary.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

endangered by Conotrachelus perseae

Climatic suitability Conotrachelus perseae is currently established in Mexico, Costa Rica, 

Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua (O'Brien and Wibmer, 1982;

Whitehead, 1979). A comparison of these regions with USDA Plant 

Hardiness Zones (Magarey et al., 2008) indicates that establishment in 

the continental United States may occur in Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11. 

Additionally, the climate throughout Hawaii and Puerto Rico appears

suitable for establishment of C. perseae.

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Conotrachelus perseae is an important pest of avocado (Waite and 

Barrera, 2002; Whitehead, 1979). In the continental United States, 

avocado is primarily grown in California (NASS, 2009) and Florida 

(NRCS, 2013), but may also be found in Texas (Crane et al., 2010). 

Avocados are also commercially grown in Hawaii (NASS, 2009; NRCS, 

2013) and Puerto Rico (Crane et al., 2010; NRCS, 2013). These areas all 

fall within the regions determined to be suitable for establishment of C. 

perseae.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 55

Economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Avocados are an economically important crop grown in the continental 

United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Boriss et al., 2013; Crane et al., 

2010; NASS, 2009).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

risk

Infestations of C. perseae may result in losses of up to 80 percent in 

avocado (Waite and Barrera, 2002).

Defined 

Endangered Area

The endangered area includes avocados grown throughout Hawaii and 

Puerto Rico, as well as in California, Florida, and Texas in the 

continental United States.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Conotrachelus perseae into the endangered 

area via the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry) 

Low C The systems approach outlined in 

section 1.4 includes specific 

measures for surveys and 

inspections to detect any presence

of this pest in the field (7 CFR § 

319.56-30, 2011). Orchards in 

which C. perseae is detected would 

not be eligible for export 

certification. Conotrachelus

perseae would therefore always 

have a low association with 

harvested ‘Hass’ avocados for 

export into the United States.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment 

Negligible C Guidelines call for strict 

inspection, cutting, and culling of 

avocado fruit in the packinghouse

(7 CFR § 319.56-30, 2011), and 

which appear to be effective. Any 

C. perseae infesting harvested fruit

are highly likely to be detected and 

removed from the pathway in the 

packinghouse. Consequently, we 

decreased the previous rating (A1) 

from Low to Negligible, and the 

analysis of this pest stops here.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 56

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

Risk Element A: Overall risk

rating for likelihood of entry

Negligible N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

N/A N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Negligible N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.4. Conotrachelus serpentinus

Based on the current systems approach used in Mexico for other Conotrachelus species of 

concern, we determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Negligible. We present the 

results of this assessment in the table below. Because the likelihood of introduction is Negligible, 

no analysis of consequences of introduction was necessary.

Determination of the portion of Hawaii and Puerto Rico endangered by Conotrachelus 

serpentinus

Climatic suitability Conotrachelus serpentinus is present in Mexico, Florida, the Bahamas, 

Cuba, and Haiti (Whitehead, 1979). A comparison of this region with 

USDA Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey et al., 2008) indicates that 

establishment is possible throughout Hawaii and Puerto Rico for 

establishment of C. serpentinus.

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Conotrachelus serpentinus may attack avocados (Persea americana) as 

well as other Persea spp. (Whitehead, 1979).

Economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Avocados are an economically important crop grown in the continental 

United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Boriss et al., 2013; Crane et al., 

2010; NASS, 2009).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

Conotrachelus serpentinus may damage avocado fruit, but the extent of 

the damage that may be attributed to this species is unclear (Whitehead, 

1979). As indicated by Whitehead (1979), C. serpentinus is a potential
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 57

risk pest of commercially produced avocado.

Defined 

Endangered Area

The endangered area includes avocados and Persea spp. grown 

throughout Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Conotrachelus serpentinus into the 

endangered area via the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Low C The life cycle and association with 

avocado fruit of C. serpentinus

appears to be the same as that of C. 

aguacatae and C. perseae

(Whitehead, 1979). The systems 

approached outlined in section 1.4 

includes specific measures for 

surveys and inspections to reduce 

prevalence of C. aguacatae and C. 

perseae in the field (7 CFR § 

319.56-30, 2011). Those surveys 

should also detect this species 

(Whitehead, 1979), and detection 

should also result in rejection of 

the fruit. Conotrachelus 

serpentinus would therefore always 

have a low association with 

harvested ‘Hass’ avocados for 

export into the United States. 

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment 

Negligible C Guidelines call for strict 

inspection, cutting, and culling of 

avocado fruit in the packinghouse

to detect C. aguacatae and C. 

perseae (7 CFR § 319.56-30, 

2011). Any C. serpentinus

escaping detection in the field are 

highly likely to be detected and 

removed from the pathway in the 

packinghouse. Consequently, we 

decreased the previous rating (A1) 

from Low to Negligible, and the 

analysis of this pest stops here.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 58

Risk Element Risk Rating Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment 

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry 

Negligible N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

N/A N/A

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

N/A N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment 

Negligible N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.5. Copturus aguacatae

Based on the current systems approach used in Mexico, we determined the overall likelihood of 

introduction to be Negligible. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. 

Because the likelihood of introduction is Negligible, we did not analyze the consequences of 

introduction.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

endangered by Copturus aguacatae

Climatic suitability Copturus aguacatae occurs in Mexico and as far south as Guatemala 

(Bravo-Monzon and Espinosa-Garcia, 2008; Engstrand et al., 2010;

Waite and Barrera, 2002). A comparison of this region with USDA 

Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey et al., 2008) indicates that 

establishment in the continental United States may occur in Zones 9-11. 

Additionally, the climate throughout Hawaii and Puerto Rico appear 

suitable for establishment of C. aguacatae.

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA Area

The only known host of C. aguacatae is avocado (Persea americana)

(Bravo-Monzon and Espinosa-Garcia, 2008; Waite and Barrera, 2002). 

In the continental United States, avocado is primarily grown in 

California (NASS, 2009) and Florida (NRCS, 2013), but may also be 

found in Texas (Crane et al., 2010). Avocados are also commercially 

grown in Hawaii (NASS, 2009; NRCS, 2013) and Puerto Rico (Crane 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 59

et al., 2010; NRCS, 2013). These areas all fall within the regions 

determined to be suitable for establishment of C. aguacatae.

Economically 

important hosts at riska

Avocados are an economically important crop grown in the continental 

United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Boriss et al., 2013; Crane et 

al., 2010; NASS, 2009).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at risk

Copturus aguacatae is an important pest of avocado in Mexico, 

reducing yields and potentially killing trees (Waite and Barrera, 2002).

Defined Endangered 

Area

The endangered area includes avocados grown throughout Hawaii and 

Puerto Rico, as well as in California, Florida, and Texas in the 

continental United States.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Copturus aguacatae into the endangered 

area via the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry) 

Low C Larvae bore into the stems of 

avocado fruit and may be found in 

the stem close to the fruit, but this 

apparently only occurs under heavy 

infestations (PERAL, 2005). The 

systems approach outlined in section 

1.4 includes specific measures for 

surveys and inspections to eliminate 

prevalence of this pest in the field. 

Also, stems associated with fruit for 

export to the United States must be 

less than 1⁄2 inch long (7 CFR § 

319.56-30, 2011). Overall, then, C. 

aguacatae is likely to have a low 

association with harvested avocado 

fruit. 

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment 

Negligible C Guidelines call for strict inspection, 

cutting, and culling of avocado fruit 

in the packinghouse (7 CFR § 

319.56-30, 2011). Any C. aguacatae 

escaping detection in the field are 

highly likely to be detected and 

removed from the pathway in the 

packinghouse. Consequently, we 

decreased the previous rating (A1) 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 60

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

from Low to Negligible, and the 

analysis of this pest stops here.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment 

N/A N/A

Risk Element A: Overall risk

rating for likelihood of entry

Negligible N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

N/A N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment 

Negligible N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.6. Cryptaspasma perseana

Based on the current systems approach used in Mexico for other quarantined pests of concern, 

we determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Negligible. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below. Because the likelihood of introduction is Negligible, no 

analysis of consequences of introduction was necessary.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

endangered by Cryptaspasma perseana

Climatic suitability Cryptaspasma perseana is distributed in Michoacán, Mexico, and central 

Guatemala (Gilligan et al., 2011). A comparison of that region with 

USDA Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey et al., 2008) indicates that 

establishment in the continental United States may occur in Zones 9-11. 

Additionally, the climates of Hawaii and Puerto Rico appear suitable for 

establishment of C. perseana.

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

The only known host of C. perseana is avocado (Persea americana) 

(Gilligan et al., 2011). In the continental United States, avocado is 

primarily grown in California (NASS, 2009) and Florida (NRCS, 2013), 

but may also be found in Texas (Crane et al., 2010). Avocados are also 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 61

commercially grown in Hawaii (NASS, 2009; NRCS, 2013) and Puerto 

Rico (Crane et al., 2010; NRCS, 2013). These areas all fall within the 

regions determined to be suitable for establishment of C. perseana.

Economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Avocados are an economically important crop grown in the continental 

United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Boriss et al., 2013; Crane et al., 

2010; NASS, 2009).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

risk

As a newly identified species (Gilligan et al., 2011), the pest potential of 

C. perseana is unclear. Larvae in the fruit may easily be confused with 

that of S. catenifer (Gilligan et al., 2011), indicating some potential for 

similar damage to occur.

Defined 

Endangered Area

The endangered area includes avocados grown throughout Hawaii and 

Puerto Rico, as well as in California, Florida, and Texas in the 

continental United States.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Cryptaspasma perseana into the endangered 

area via the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Low MU Even though only newly described, C. 

perseana was detected during 

avocado surveys for S. catenifer

(Gilligan et al., 2011). The 

inspections currently required by 7 

CFR § 319.56-30 (2011) for other 

avocado fruit pests such as S. 

catenifer are likely to also detect 

infestations of C. perseana. The 

addition of this species to the CFR 

requirements would therefore result in 

a low association with harvested fruit 

for export. Because it is a newly 

described species, we have some 

uncertainty about this conclusion.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Negligible MU The packinghouse procedures 

(culling, cutting, and inspections)

currently required by 7 CFR § 

319.56-30 (2011) for other avocado 

fruit pests such as S. catenifer are 

highly likely to also detect 

infestations of C. perseana. Adding 

this species to the CFR requirements 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 62

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

is therefore highly likely to remove

the pest from the pathway. Thus, we 

decreased the previous rating (A1) by 

one level from Low to Negligible, and 

the analysis of this pest stops here.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment 

N/A N/A

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry 

Negligible N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

N/A N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment 

Negligible N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.7. Heilipus lauri

Based on the current systems approach used in Mexico, we determined the overall likelihood of 

introduction to be Negligible. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. 

Because the likelihood of introduction is Negligible, no analysis of consequences of introduction 

was necessary.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

endangered by Heilipus lauri

Climatic suitability Heilipus lauri is only known to occur in Colombia and south-central 

Mexico (Castañeda-Vildózola et al., 2013). A comparison of this region 

with USDA Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey et al., 2008) indicates that 

establishment in the continental United States may occur in Zones 9-11. 

Additionally, the climates in Hawaii and Puerto Rico appear suitable for 

establishment of H. lauri.

Potential hosts at Heilipus lauri is an important pest of avocado (Castañeda-Vildózola et 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 63

risk in PRA Area al., 2013; Waite and Barrera, 2002). In the continental United States, 

avocado is primarily grown in California (NASS, 2009) and Florida 

(NRCS, 2013), but may also be found in Texas (Crane et al., 2010). 

Avocados are also commercially grown in Hawaii (NASS, 2009; NRCS, 

2013) and Puerto Rico (Crane et al., 2010; NRCS, 2013). These areas all 

fall within the regions determined to be suitable for establishment of H. 

lauri.

Economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Avocados are an economically important crop grown in the continental 

United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Boriss et al., 2013; Crane et al., 

2010; NASS, 2009).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

risk

Infestations of H. lauri may result in losses of up to 80 percent in 

avocado (Castañeda-Vildozola et al., 2013; Waite and Barrera, 2002).

Defined 

Endangered Area

The endangered area includes avocados grown throughout Hawaii and 

Puerto Rico, as well as in California, Florida, and Texas in the 

continental United States.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Heilipus lauri into the endangered area via 

the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Low C Heilipus lauri is a major pest of 

avocado fruit in Mexico (Waite and 

Barrera, 2002), though it is not known 

to occur in Michoacân (CastañedaVildozola et al., 2013). The systems 

approach outlined in section 1.4 

includes specific measures for surveys 

and inspections to reduce prevalence 

of this pest in the field (7 CFR § 

319.56-30, 2011). Orchards in which 

H. lauri is detected would not be 

eligible for export certification. 

Heilipus lauri is therefore likely to 

have a low association with harvested 

‘Hass’ avocados for export into the 

United States. 

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment 

Negligible C Specific guidelines indicate a strict 

policy of inspection, cutting, and 

culling of avocado fruit in the 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 64

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

packinghouse (7 CFR § 319.56-30, 

2011) that have been shown to be 

effective. Any H. lauri infesting 

harvested fruit are highly likely to be

detected and removed from the 

pathway in the packinghouse. Based 

on this evidence, we decreased the 

previous rating (A1) by one level 

from Low to Negligible, and the 

analysis of this pest stops here.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment 

N/A N/A

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry 

Negligible N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

N/A N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Negligible N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.8. Maconellicoccus hirsutus

Maconellicoccus hirsutus is considered a reportable/actionable pest at all U.S. ports of entry 

(PestID, 2013). Reported as a pest of ‘Hass’ avocado in Mexico that may be associated with 

harvested fruit (CABI, 2011a; Sagarra and Peterkin, 1999), the PRA area at risk includes the 

continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. Presence of M. hirsutus in Hawaii, Puerto 

Rico, and some portions of the continental United States reduces the potential endangered area to 

some portions of the continental United States as described below. No endangered area exists in 

either Hawaii or Puerto Rico.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 65

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below. We also determined that the establishment of M. hirsutus in 

the endangered area within the continental United States is likely to cause unacceptable impacts. 

We present the results of this assessment in the table below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

endangered by Maconellicoccus hirsutus

Climatic suitability Maconellicoccus hirsutus is present in many parts of Asia, Africa, 

Oceania, the Middle East, and the Caribbean and in some parts of the 

southern and western United States (CABI, 2012). Based on this 

distribution, we estimate that it may establish in the United States 

throughout Plant Hardiness Zones 7-11.

Maconellicoccus hirsutus is already established outdoors in some states 

considered to be at risk in the continental United States. Each of these 

states report the use of biological control efforts to reduce or maintain 

impact levels below economic status. These states include California 

(Roltsch et al., 2006), Florida (Hoy et al., 2011), Georgia (Horton, 2008), 

Louisiana (LDAF, 2006), South Carolina (Chong, 2009), and Texas 

(Burns et al., 2007). Maconellicoccus hirsutus is also already established 

outdoors in Hawaii and Puerto Rico (Sagarra and Peterkin, 1999). 

Because of a lack of official control program (as defined by ISPM No. 5, 

IPPC, 2009), those areas are not endangered.

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

The pest feeds on a large number of hosts in various families, including 

ornamentals and native plants (CABI, 2012). Many of its hosts are 

widely distributed and abundant in the continental United States.

Economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Numerous economically important hosts grow in Plant Hardiness Zones 

7-11 in the United States, including citrus, avocado, cherry, plum, 

pepper, grapes, corn, beans and peas, eggplant, potato, cucumber, 

cabbage, squash, okra, and tomato (CABI, 2012).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

risk

Where it is found in the United States, M. hirsutus is an economically 

important pest (Aristizabal et al., 2012). In India, M. hirsutus has caused 

economic losses in cotton, grapevine, mulberry, and pigeonpea (CABI, 

2012). These hosts occur in the United States in Zones 7-11.

Defined 

Endangered Area

Based on the current distribution of M. hirsutus in Hawaii and Puerto 

Rico and the lack of official control in those regions, we determined no

endangered area exists for Hawaii and Puerto Rico. In addition, the 

outdoor establishment and lack of official control in CA, FL, GA, LA, 

SC, and TX negate the potential for these states to be considered 

endangered. Therefore, for this risk assessment, the endangered area is 

considered to be a wide range of crops and environmental plants only in

states within Plant Hardiness Zones 7-11 where M. hirsutus does not 

occur: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, 

Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, New Jersey, New 

Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 66

Tennessee, Virginia, Washington, and West Virginia.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Maconellicoccus hirsutus into the 

endangered area via the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry) 

Low MC Avocado is not a regular field host for 

M. hirsutus: many reports indicate 

that avocados are at risk (e.g., CABI, 

2013; EPPO, 2005; Hoy et al., 2011),

but documentation of M. hirsutus on 

avocado trees occurs in only a few 

references (e.g., Sagarra and Peterkin, 

1999). Those references, however, 

simply record presence on the plant 

with no indication of damage or 

infestation levels. Because of the low 

association of M. hirsutus with

avocados, we rated prevalence as 

Low.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Low MC Maconellicoccus hirsutus is a small, 

sessile external feeder (CABI, 2013). 

Inspection procedures outlined in 

Section 1.4 do not specify detection 

of small mealybugs, and are unlikely 

to reduce the prevalence of this 

species, so we did not change the 

previous rating.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

Low MC Transport and storage conditions as 

described in Section 1.4 are not likely 

to affect pest populations. We did not 

change the previous rating (A2). 

Risk Element A: Overall risk

rating for likelihood of entry

Low N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

Low MC The dispersing life stage of the pest 

has limited ability to disperse 

naturally. The sessile nature of M. 

hirsutus severely limits the chance of 

contacting hosts (Gullan and 

Kosztarab, 1997). Successful 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 67

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

establishment of these insects in a 

new environment can occur only 

when mobile forms (i.e., crawlers) are 

present on the imported fruit and 

these fruit are placed in close 

proximity to a susceptible host.

Because those circumstances are 

highly unlikely to co-occur, M. 

hirsutus we rated this element Low.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population lives in the endangered 

area.

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment 

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Maconellicoccus hirsutus into the 

continental United States (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes C Crop production costs will 

significantly increase due to 

infestations of M. hirsutus (Hoy et al., 

2011). 

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential 

Yes C The distribution of M. hirsutus is 

rapidly expanding through the 

movement of infested commodities or 

passenger baggage, particularly in 

regions where it has recently been 

introduced (e.g., Culik et al., 2013; 

Sagarra and Peterkin, 1999).

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts 

Yes N/A
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 68

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary 

requirements 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely 

to cause significant trade 

impacts 

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area? 

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.9. Paracoccus marginatus

Paracoccus marginatus is a reportable/actionable pest at all U.S. ports of entry (PestID, 2013). 

Reported as a pest of ‘Hass’ avocado in Mexico that may be associated with harvested fruit 

(CABI, 2011a), the PRA area at risk includes the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto 

Rico. Despite that, we determined that no endangered area exists within those areas. We present 

the results of this assessment in the table below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

endangered by Paracoccus marginatus

Climatic suitability Paracoccus marginatus is a tropical pest. It has been established

outdoors in Florida since 1998 (Miller et al., 1999), in Hawaii since 2004 

(Heu et al., 2007), and Puerto Rico since 2001 (Pantoja et al., 2007). 

Based on the tropical distribution of P. marginatus in Asia, northern 

Africa, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean (Miller and Miller, 

2002; Muniappan et al., 2009; Muniappan et al., 2008), we estimate that 

establishment may occur in Plant Hardiness Zones 10-11, as described by 

Magarey et al. (2008). Despite the lack of official control, and known 

movement of potential host plants from Florida to other regions (Miller 

and Miller, 2002), P. marginatus is not spreading in the United States, 

and it is likely already established in all of the regions suitable for 

population development.

Defined 

Endangered Area

Based on the current distribution of P. marginatus in the continental 

United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico and lack of official control in 

these regions, we determined that no endangered area exists.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 69

3.2.10. Philephedra lutea

We determined that no portion of Hawaii is likely to be endangered by Philephedra lutea

because the pest does not pose a threat to any hosts of economic, environmental, or social 

importance in the PRA area. Because no endangered area exists, we did not analyze either the 

likelihood or consequences of introduction.

Determination of the portion of Hawaii endangered by Philephedra lutea

Climatic suitability Philephedra lutea is present in Mexico, Guatemala, and the United 

States (Ben-Dov et al., 2013; Nakahara and Gill, 1985). In the United 

States, action is only required to Hawaii, the Virgin Islands, and the 

Pacific territories (PestID, 2013). A comparison of this region with 

USDA Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey et al., 2008) indicates that 

establishment could occur throughout Hawaii.

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA Area

Potential hosts include Codiaeum variegatum, Croton sp., Ficus sp., 

Magnolia sp., and Persea americana (Ben-Dov et al., 2013), which are 

all present in Hawaii (Starr and Starr, n.d.).

Economically 

important hosts at riska

In Hawaii, avocados are considered to be economically important 

(Boriss et al., 2013; Crane et al., 2010; NASS, 2009).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at risk

We found very little information about P. lutea. It occurs in some 

regions of the United States and Mexico, but is only known from a few 

native plants and was not economically important (Nakahara and Gill, 

1985). Despite multiple mentions of this species more recently (e.g., 

García et al., 2004; Garcia et al., 2006; Rosenblueth et al., 2012) we 

found no evidence that this species could cause economic harm. 

Consequently, we concluded that the pest potential on economically 

important hosts at risk is negligible.

Defined Endangered 

Area

We determined that no portion of Hawaii is likely to be endangered by 

P. lutea because the pest does not pose a threat to any hosts of 

economic, environmental, or social importance in Hawaii. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

3.2.11. Phytophthora citricola 

Based on the current systems approach used in Mexico, we determined the overall likelihood of 

introduction to be Negligible. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. 

Because the likelihood of introduction is Negligible, no analysis of consequences of introduction 

was necessary.

Determination of the portion of Puerto Rico endangered by Phytophthora citricola

Climatic suitability Phytophthora citricola is present in California, and Mexico, Hawaii, 

Taiwan, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, Greece, Sri Lanka, United 

Kingdom, Italy, Mexico, Canada, and Argentina (Erwin and Ribeiro, 

1996). Based on a comparison of this distribution with a global map of 

Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey et al., 2008), we estimate that it could 

establish throughout Puerto Rico.
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 70

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA Area

Phytophthora citricola has a wide host range of woody tree and shrub 

hosts (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996). Potential hosts in Puerto Rico include 

Citrus spp., Hibiscus spp., Persea Americana, Phaseolus vulgaris, 

Psidium guajava, Solanum lycopersicum, and Vitis vinifera (Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 1996; NRCS, 2013).

Economically 

important hosts at riska

Persea americana is an economically important crop in Puerto Rico 

(Crane et al., 2010).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at risk

Phytophthora citricola causes trunk canker, collar rot, and fruit rot on 

avocado and, in general, is an important soilborne pathogen worldwide 

(Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996; Bhat and Browne, 2007).

Defined Endangered 

Area

The endangered area encompasses avocado production throughout 

Puerto Rico.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Phytophthora citricola into Puerto Rico via 

the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Low MC Low-hanging fruit can be infected by 

irrigation water or by soil splash 

during heavy rains (Faber et al., 

1997). Infected fruit may eventually 

fall from the tree (Fucikovsky and 

Luna, 1987). Since fruit is not the 

typical infection site and infected fruit 

may fall prior to harvest, we rated 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity as low.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Negligible MC Specific guidelines indicate a strict 

policy of inspection, cutting, and 

culling of avocado fruit in the 

packinghouse (7 CFR § 319.56-30, 

2011). Symptoms on fruit from P. 

citricola often develop before harvest,

and sometimes after harvest as fruit 

decay (Faber et al., 1997). Therefore,

infected fruits are highly likely to be 

removed from the pathway by the 

post-harvest practices of inspection, 

cutting, and culling. No Phytophthora

spp. have been intercepted with 

Mexican avocados permit cargo 
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 71

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

(PestID, 2013). Consequently, we 

decreased the previous rating (A1) by 

one level from Low to Neglible, and 

the analysis of this pest stops here.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

N/A N/A

Risk Element A: Overall risk

rating for likelihood of entry

Negligible N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

N/A N/A

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

N/A N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment 

Negligible N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.12. Phytophthora heveae

Phytophthora boehmeriae has been reported on avocado in Mexico (Coria Avalos, 1985;

Romero Cova and Solis Aragon, 1996; Teliz, 2000), but these reports were thought to be misidentifications (Abad, 2009; Coffey, 2009), and recently the species found on avocado in Mexico 

was confirmed to be Phytophthora heveae (Abad, 2011; Ochoa-Ascencio et al., 2011). Some 

scientists think P. heveae is a synonym of P. palmivora (CABI, 2011a, 2011b) but they are 

actually in different clades (Kang, 2011). They also have morphological differences (Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 1996). Phytophthora heveae is reported in the continental United States (Farr et al., 

2013, Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996), but not in Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

Based on the current systems approach used in Mexico, we determined the overall likelihood of 

introduction to be Negligible. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. 

Because the likelihood of introduction is Negligible, no analysis of consequences of introduction 

was necessary.
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 72

Determination of the portion of Puerto Rico and Hawaii endangered by Phytophthora 

heveae

Climatic suitability Phytophthora heveae is present in Malaysia, New Zealand, New 

Guinea, Brazil, Ivory Coast, Australia, India, Guatemala, Taiwan, 

China, and the continental United States (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996; Ko 

et al., 2006). A comparison of these regions with USDA Plant 

Hardiness Zones (Magarey et al., 2008) indicates that establishment 

may occur throughout Puerto Rico and Hawaii.

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA Area

Potential hosts in Puerto Rico and/or Hawaii include coconut (Cocos 

nucifera), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus pilularis), avocado (Persea 

americana), mango (Mangifera indica), Mexican yellow pine (Pinus 

patula), apple guava (Psidium gaujava), and cocoa (Theobroma cacao) 

(Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996; NRCS, 2013). 

Economically 

important hosts at riska

Phytophthora heveae causes disease on economically important fruit 

crops (avocados, coconuts, mangoes, cocao, guava, etc.) that are grown 

in Puerto Rico and Hawaii (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996; NRCS, 2013).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at risk

Phytophthora heveae causes a tree canker and/or constriction of the 

trunk on avocado that leads to die-back and stunting, and potentially 

tree death (Erwin and Ribeiro, 1996; Menge and Ploetz, 2003). On 

avocado fruit, it causes a dark basal rot that extends into the flesh 

(Ochoa-Ascencio et al., 2011). 

Defined Endangered 

Area

The endangered area encompasses avocado production throughout 

Puerto Rico and Hawaii.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Phytophthora heveae into Puerto Rico and 

Hawaii via the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

Low MC Phytophthora heveae is a soilborne 

pathogen that typically causes 

bleeding cankers and root rots on 

Persea americana (Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 1996). Low-hanging fruit can 

be infected by irrigation water and 

splash during heavy rains (OchoaAscencio et al., 2011; Erwin and 

Ribeiro, 1996). Diseased fruit may 

eventually fall from the tree (OchoaAscencio et al., 2011). Since fruit is 

not the typical infection site and 

infected fruit may fall prior to harvest,
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 73

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

we rated prevalence on the harvested 

commodity as Low.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Negligible MC Specific guidelines indicate a strict 

policy of inspection, cutting, and 

culling of avocado fruit in the 

packinghouse to detect various pests 

(7 CFR § 319.56-30, 2011).

Symptoms on fruit often develop 

before harvest, so any harvested 

infected fruit are highly likely to be 

culled. No Phytophthora spp. have 

been intercepted with Mexican 

avocado permit cargo (PestID, 2013). 

Thus, we decreased the previous 

rating (A1) from Low to Negligible.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

Negligible N/A Typical shipping conditions for 

avocado seem unlikely to affect the 

pest population, so we did not change 

the previous risk rating.

Risk Element A: Overall risk

rating for likelihood of entry

Negligible N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

N/A N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment 

Negligible N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.13. Pseudophilothrips perseae

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Medium. We present the results of 

this assessment in the table below. We determined that the establishment of P. perseae in the 

continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico is likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We 

present the results of this assessment in the table below. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 74

Determination of the portion of the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

endangered by Pseudophilothrips perseae

Climatic suitability Pseudophilothrips perseae is present in Chile, Guatemala, Honduras, 

and Mexico (Mound et al., 2010; Urias-Lopez et al., 2007). A 

comparison of this region with USDA Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey 

et al., 2008) indicates that establishment in the continental United States 

may occur in Zones 9-11. Additionally, the climate throughout Hawaii 

and Puerto Rico appear suitable for establishment of P. perseae.

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA Area

Pseudophilothrips perseae is a pest of Persea species (Mound et al., 

2010), including avocado (Waite and Barrera, 2002). In the continental 

United States, avocado is primarily grown in California (NASS, 2009) 

and Florida (NRCS, 2013), but may also be found in Texas (Crane et al., 

2010). Avocados are also commercially grown in Hawaii (NASS, 2009; 

NRCS, 2013) and Puerto Rico (Crane et al., 2010; NRCS, 2013). These 

areas all fall within areas suitable for establishment of P. perseae.

Economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Avocados are an economically important crop grown in the continental 

United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Boriss et al., 2013; Crane et al., 

2010; NASS, 2009).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at risk

Pseudophilothrips perseae is an “important pest” of avocado trees 

(Waite and Barrera, 2002), causing economic damage on fruits and 

leaves (Urias-Lopez et al., 2007).

Defined Endangered 

Area

The endangered area includes avocados grown throughout Hawaii and 

Puerto Rico, as well as in California, Florida, and Texas in the 

continental United States.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Pseudophilothrips perseae into the 

endangered area via the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and other 

notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry) 

High MU Pseudophilothrips perseae is an 

important pest in ‘Hass’ avocado 

production orchards in Mexico (UriasLopez et al., 2007). No standard 

industry practices have been indicated 

that may reduce the prevalence of thrips 

on the harvested commodity.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment 

Medium MU Specific guidelines indicate a strict 

policy of inspection, cutting, and 

culling of avocado fruit in the 

packinghouse to detect various insects 

(7 CFR § 319.56-30, 2011). These 
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 75

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and other 

notes as necessary)

inspection measures are highly likely to

also detect external thrips present on the 

fruit. Therefore, we reduced the risk 

rating by one level to Medium.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

Medium MC Transport and storage conditions as 

described in Section 1.4 are not likely 

to affect pest populations. We did not 

change the previous rating (A2).

Risk Element A: Overall risk

rating for likelihood of entry

Medium N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

Low MC The pest has a restricted host range. The 

host range of P. perseae is limited to 

Persea species (Mound et al., 2010), 

including avocado (Waite and Barrera, 

2002).

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area 

High C More than 25 percent of the U.S. 

population lives in the endangered area.

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

Medium N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment 

Medium N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Pseudophilothrips perseae into the 

continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes C Pseudophilothrips perseae causes

damage to fruits and leaves (UriasLopez et al., 2007). Losses as high as 

40 percent have been reported.

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential 

Yes C Pseudophilothrips perseae has recently 

been spreading in Mexico (UriasLopez et al., 2007).

Risk Element C: Pest Yes N/A
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 76

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts 

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary 

requirements 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely 

to cause significant trade 

impacts 

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area? 

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.14. Scirtothrips aceri

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Low. We present the results of this

assessment in the table below. We determined that the establishment of S. aceri in Hawaii and 

Puerto Rico is likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in 

the table below. 

Determination of the portion of Hawaii and Puerto Rico endangered by Scirtothrips aceri

Climatic suitability Scirtothrips aceri is present in Mexico, Central America, western 

continental United States and Chile (Hoddle et al., 2008; Waite and 

Barrera, 2002). A comparison of these regions with USDA Plant 

Hardiness Zones (Magarey et al., 2008) indicates that establishment 

may occur throughout Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA Area

Potential hosts in Hawaii and Puerto Rico include Quercus sp. (Hoddle 

et al., 2008), and Persea americana (Hoddle et al., 2002a; JohansenNaime et al., 2003; Waite and Barrera, 2002).

Economically 

important hosts at riska

Avocados are an economically important crop grown in Hawaii and 

Puerto Rico (Crane et al., 2010; NASS, 2009).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at risk

Scirtothrips aceri is listed as one of the most important thrips species 

infesting avocados in Mexico (Hofshi, 2001; Waite and Barrera, 2002).

Defined Endangered 

Area

The endangered area encompasses avocado production throughout 

Hawaii and Puerto Rico.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 77

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Scirtothrips aceri into the endangered area 

via the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

High MC Scirtothrips aceri is one of the most 

important thrips species infesting 

avocados in Mexico (Hofshi, 2001;

Waite and Barrera, 2002). No standard 

industry practices have been indicated 

that may reduce the prevalence of 

thrips on the harvested commodity.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Medium MU Specific guidelines indicate a strict 

policy of inspection, cutting, and 

culling of avocado fruit in the 

packinghouse to detect various insects 

that may be contaminating the fruit (7 

CFR § 319.56-30, 2011). External 

thrips on the fruit are also highly likely 

to be detected by those procedures, 

therefore, we lowered the risk rating to 

Medium.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

Medium C Transport and storage conditions as 

described in Section 1.4 are not likely 

to affect pest populations. We did not 

change the previous rating (A2).

Risk Element A: Overall risk

rating for likelihood of entry

Medium N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

Low MU Known host plants include avocado for 

which it is considered a major pest 

(Hofshi, 2001; Waite and Barrera, 

2002), and oak (Nakahara, 1997). 

Given this limited host range and the 

relatively limited ability for natural 

dispersal of thrips, the likelihood of 

coming into contact with host material 

is Low.

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area

Low MC Less than 10 percent of the population

(including the continental United 

States) lives in the endangered area.

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

Low N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 78

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment 

Low N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Scirtothrips aceri into Hawaii and Puerto 

Rico (i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area 

Yes MU Initially thought to be a non-pest in 

California (Nakahara, 1997), S. aceri

has recently been described as one of 

the most important thrips species in 

avocado production (Hofshi, 2001;

Waite and Barrera, 2002). 

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential 

Yes MU Available information does not 

indicate that spread for S. aceri may be 

limited should it become introduced 

into Hawaii or Puerto Rico.

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts 

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary 

requirements 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely 

to cause significant trade 

impacts 

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area? 

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 79

3.2.15. Scirtothrips perseae

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Low. We present the results of this

assessment in the table below. Furthermore, we determined that the establishment of S. perseae

in Puerto Rico is likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment 

in the table below.

Determination of the portion of the Puerto Rico endangered by Scirtothrips perseae

Climatic suitability Scirtothrips perseae is found in Mexico, Guatemala, California, and 

Hawaii (Hoddle et al., 2002a). A comparison of these regions with 

USDA Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey et al., 2008) indicates that 

establishment may occur throughout Puerto Rico.

Potential hosts at risk 

in PRA Area

Persea americana is an important larval host plant for S. perseae

(Hoddle et al., 2002a). Adults may also be found on other plant species 

when larval densities on avocado are high, though it appears the 

developmental host range is extremely limited (Hoddle et al., 2002a).

Economically 

important hosts at riska

Avocados are an economically important crop grown in Puerto Rico 

(Crane et al., 2010).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at risk

Scirtothrips perseae is a pest of major economic significance in 

avocado production systems in California (Hoddle et al., 2002a). Up to 

85 percent crop losses have been recorded (Waite and Barrera, 2002).

Defined Endangered 

Area

The endangered area for S. perseae encompasses all avocado 

production areas in Puerto Rico. 

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Scirtothrips perseae into the endangered 

area via the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry) 

Medium MC Mature avocado fruit is not a preferred 

feeding site. Scirtothrips perseae is 

more likely to be associated with 

immature fruit and leaves (CABI, 

2013; Hoddle, 2002).

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Low MU Specific guidelines indicate a strict 

policy of inspection, cutting, and 

culling of avocado fruit in the 

packinghouse to detect various insects 

that may be contaminating the fruit (7 

CFR § 319.56-30, 2011). These 

inspection measures are highly likely 

to also detect external thrips on the 

fruit. Therefore, we lowered the risk 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 80

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

rating by one level from the previous 

rating.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment 

Low MC Transport and storage conditions as 

described in Section 1.4 are not likely 

to affect pest populations. We did not 

change the previous rating (A2).

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry 

Low N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area 

Low MC Scirtothrips perseae are poor fliers 

(CABI, 2013; Hoddle et al., 2002b), 

and would have a limited ability to 

disperse naturally from an infested 

fruit to an avocado plant. In addition, 

the reproductive host range of S. 

perseae is restricted to P. americana

(Hoddle et al., 2002a).

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area 

Low MC Less than 10 percent of the population 

(including the continental United 

States and Hawaii) live in the 

endangered area.

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

Low N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Low N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Scirtothrips perseae into Puerto Rico

(i.e., the PRA area)

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered 

area

Yes C Scirtothrips perseae is a pest of 

major economic significance in 

California; infestations can result

in 50-80 percent crop losses and 

significant increases in production 

costs (Hoddle et al., 2002a).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

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Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential 

Yes C Following the initial introduction 

of S. perseae in California, the pest 

quickly spread and was known to 

occur in about 95 percent of 

avocado production areas by 2002 

(Hoddle et al., 2002a).

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary 

requirements 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely 

to cause significant trade 

impacts 

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area?

Yes N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.16. Sphaceloma perseae

We determined the overall likelihood of introduction to be Low. We present the results of this

assessment in the table below. We determined that the establishment of S. perseae in Hawaii is 

likely to cause unacceptable impacts. We present the results of this assessment in the table 

below. 

Determination of the portion of Hawaii endangered by Sphaceloma perseae

Climatic suitability Sphaceloma perseae is present in the continental United States 

(Florida), parts of Latin America, Morocco, the Philippines, South 

Africa (Menge and Ploetz, 2003), Mexico (Fucikovsky and Luna, 

1987, PestID, 2013) and Puerto Rico (C.M.I., 1986a; Stevenson, 

1975). A comparison of these regions with USDA Plant Hardiness 

Zones (Magarey et al., 2008) indicates that establishment may occur 

throughout Hawaii.

Potential hosts at risk in 

PRA Area

Avocado, the host of Sphaceloma perseae, is grown in Hawaii (NRCS, 

2013).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 82

Economically 

important hosts at riska

Avocados are an important commercial crop in Hawaii (NASS, 

2009).

Pest potential on 

economically important 

hosts at risk

Sphaceloma perseae is a severe problem in humid tropical regions 

where it causes losses due to fruit drop and lower market value of 

avocado fruit (Menge and Ploetz, 2003).

Defined Endangered 

Area

The endangered area encompasses avocado production throughout 

Hawaii.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Sphaceloma perseae into Hawaii via the 

importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and explanation 

of uncertainty (and other notes as 

necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

High MC Sphaceloma perseae causes raised corky 

lesions on the fruit (Menge and Ploetz, 

2003). Since 2005, there have been 219 

permit cargo interceptions of avocado 

fruit from Mexico and hundreds more in 

baggage interceptions (PestID, 2013).

Risk Element A2: 

Likelihood of surviving 

post-harvest processing 

before shipment

Medium MC Specific guidelines indicate a strict policy 

of inspection, cutting, and culling of 

avocado fruit in the packinghouse to 

detect various pests that may be 

contaminating the fruit (7 CFR § 319.56-

30, 2011). Sphaceloma perseae is a 

pathogen of young tissues and fruit 

become resistant once they are half grown 

(Menge and Ploetz, 2003; Mossler and 

Crane, 2012); therefore, it is likely 

symptoms will be evident on fruit and 

subject to culling. However, since there 

are numerous S. perseae interceptions 

from Mexico in permit cargo since 2005 

(PestID, 2013), not all fruit is being 

culled prior to shipment. We decreased 

the rating for the previous risk element 

(A1) by one level from high to medium.

Risk Element A3: 

Likelihood of surviving 

transport and storage 

conditions of the 

consignment

Medium C Transport and storage (see Section 1.4: 

Description of the pathway) are unlikely 

to positively or negatively affect pest 

prevalence in the commodity. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 83

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and explanation 

of uncertainty (and other notes as 

necessary)

Risk Element A: Overall 

risk rating for likelihood of 

entry

Medium N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: 

Likelihood of coming into 

contact with host material 

in the endangered area 

Low MC Avocado is the primary host for 

Sphaceloma perseae and is grown 

commercially and naturally in Hawaii 

(NASS, 2009; NRCS, 2013). Conidia can 

form on fruit in cool, moist weather and 

are carried to other hosts by wind, rain, 

and insects (passively) (Menge and 

Ploetz, 2003). Scabby fallen fruit are 

considered the primarily inoculum source 

for grove infections from year to year 

(Menge and Ploetz, 2003). Due to the 

passive means of natural dispersal, 

infected fruit (for consumption) shipped 

to Hawaii would need to be discarded in 

close proximity to other avocado hosts, 

and the host would need to have young 

susceptible tissues available for infection. 

For these reasons, the likelihood of 

coming into contact with host material in 

Hawaii is considered Low.

Risk Element B2: 

Likelihood of arriving in 

the endangered area

Low MC Less than 10 percent of the population 

(including the continental United States) 

lives in the endangered area.

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

Low N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment 

Low N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

Assessment of the consequences of introduction of Sphaceloma perseae into Hawaii

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Direct Impacts

Risk Element C1: Damage 

potential in the endangered area 

Yes MU Sphaceloma perseae is a severe 

problem in humid tropical regions, 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 84

Criteria Meets 

criteria? 

(Y/N)

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

where it causes losses due to fruit

drop, lower market value of fruit, 

and creates infection points for 

other pathogens (Menge and Ploetz, 

2003; Mossler and Crane, 2012). 

The tropical climate of Hawaii is 

likely to be conducive to S. perseae. 

Management involves cultural 

practices to reduce inoculum, 

planting tolerant varieties, and 

application of preventative copper 

sprays, which must be applied 

multiple times during the growing 

season (Menge and Ploetz, 2003; 

Mossler and Crane, 2012). 

Risk Element C2: Spread 

potential 

Yes MC Sphaceloma perseae has been 

introduced and spread throughout

various countries of the world

(Menge and Ploetz, 2003; Farr et 

al., 2013) and therefore is likely to 

spread in Hawaii. 

Risk Element C: Pest 

introduction is likely to cause 

unacceptable direct impacts 

Yes N/A

Trade Impacts 

Risk Element D1: Export 

markets at risk 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D2: Likelihood 

of trading partners imposing 

additional phytosanitary 

requirements 

N/A N/A

Risk Element D: Pest is likely 

to cause significant trade 

impacts 

N/A N/A

Conclusion

Is the pest likely to cause 

unacceptable consequences in 

the PRA area? 

Yes N/A

a C=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 85

3.2.17. Stenoma catenifer

Based on the current systems approach used in Mexico, we determined the overall likelihood of 

introduction to be Negligible. We present the results of this assessment in the table below. 

Because the likelihood of introduction is Negligible, no analysis of consequences of introduction 

was necessary.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

endangered by Stenoma catenifer

Climatic suitability Stenoma catenifer can be found in Mexico, Central America (Belize, 

Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama), 

and South America (Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, 

Peru, and Venezuela) (CABI, 2013; Hoddle and Hoddle, 2008). A 

comparison of this region with USDA Plant Hardiness Zones (Magarey 

et al., 2008) indicates that establishment in the continental United States 

may occur in Plant Hardiness Zones 9-11. Additionally, the climate 

throughout Hawaii and Puerto Rico appears suitable for establishment of 

S. catenifer.

Potential hosts at 

risk in PRA Area

Stenoma catenifer is a major pest of avocados throughout its range 

(Hoddle and Hoddle, 2008). In the continental United States, avocado is 

primarily grown in California (NASS, 2009) and Florida (NRCS, 2013), 

but may also be found in Texas (Crane et al., 2010). Avocados are also 

commercially grown in Hawaii (NASS, 2009; NRCS, 2013) and Puerto 

Rico (Crane et al., 2010; NRCS, 2013). These areas all fall within the 

regions determined to be suitable for establishment of S. catenifer.

Economically 

important hosts at 

riska

Avocados are an economically important crop grown in the continental 

United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Boriss et al., 2013; Crane et al., 

2010; NASS, 2009).

Pest potential on 

economically 

important hosts at 

risk

Up to 90 percent avocado fruit loss has been documented (Waite and 

Barrera, 2002). Even in chemically treated production fields, 60-80

percent yield losses may occur (Hoddle and Hoddle, 2008).

Defined 

Endangered Area

The endangered area includes avocados grown throughout Hawaii and 

Puerto Rico, as well as in California, Florida, and Texas in the 

continental United States.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

Assessment of the likelihood of introduction of Stenoma catenifer into the endangered area 

via the importation of avocados from Mexico

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Likelihood of Entry

Risk Element A1: Pest 

prevalence on the harvested 

Low MC Stenoma catenifer is considered a 

major pest of avocado fruit in Mexico 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 86

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

commodity (= the baseline 

rating for entry)

(Waite and Barrera, 2002), though it 

is not known to occur in Michoacân

(Castañeda-Vildozola et al., 2013).

However, the systems approach 

outlined in section 1.4 includes 

specific measures for surveys and 

inspections to reduce prevalence of 

this pest in the field (7 CFR § 319.56-

30, 2011). Even in commercial 

production fields using chemical 

treatments, damage due to infestations 

by S. catenifer may be significant 

(Hoddle and Hoddle, 2008). Regular 

inspections of the orchards as outlined 

in section 1.4 are highly likely to

detect this species, thereby reducing 

the possibility of population 

establishment. Given the addition of 

S. catenifer to the CFR, any finds of 

S. catenifer in an orchard for export to 

the United States will result in a loss 

of registration as an approved grower. 

Thus, we think S. catenifer will only 

ever have a low association with these 

harvested ‘Hass’ avocados for export 

into the United States.

Risk Element A2: Likelihood 

of surviving post-harvest 

processing before shipment

Negligible C Specific guidelines indicate a strict 

policy of inspection, cutting, and 

culling of avocado fruit in the 

packinghouse (7 CFR § 319.56-30, 

2011). Given the addition of S. 

catenifer to the CFR, infested fruit are

highly likely to be detected and 

removed from the pathway in the 

packinghouse. Based on this 

evidence, the rating for the previous 

risk element (A1) was decreased by 

one level from Low to Negligible, and 

the analysis for this pest stops here.

Risk Element A3: Likelihood 

of surviving transport and 

storage conditions of the 

consignment

N/A N/A
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Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 87

Risk Element Risk 

Rating

Uncertainty 

Ratinga

Justification for rating and 

explanation of uncertainty (and 

other notes as necessary)

Risk Element A: Overall risk 

rating for likelihood of entry 

Negligible N/A

Likelihood of Establishment 

Risk Element B1: Likelihood 

of coming into contact with 

host material in the 

endangered area

N/A N/A

Risk Element B2: Likelihood 

of arriving in the endangered 

area 

N/A N/A

Risk Element B: Combined 

likelihood of establishment 

N/A N/A

Overall Likelihood of Introduction 

Combined likelihoods of

entry and establishment

Negligible N/A

aC=Certain, MC=Moderately Certain, MU=Moderately Uncertain, U=Uncertain

3.2.18. Thrips palmi

Thrips palmi is considered to be a reportable/actionable pest at all U.S. ports-of-entry (PestID, 

2013). Present in Mexico and potentially associated with the harvested fruit of hass avocado 

(CABI, 2011a), the PRA area at risk for T. palmi encompasses the continental United States, 

Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. However, we determined that a full pest analysis is not needed for T. 

palmi because there is no endangered area in these regions. We present the results of this 

assessment in the table below.

Determination of the portion of the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

endangered by Thrips palmi

Climatic suitability Thrips palmi is distributed throughout tropical regions in Asia, Africa, 

South America, Oceania, and the Caribbean (CABI, 2013), including

Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and southern Florida (Capinera, 2010; Seal, 2001). 

While T. palmi is an important greenhouse pest, and some concern exists 

that it may infest protected environments anywhere, outdoor 

establishment of permanent populations is likely to be restricted to 

tropical regions (Capinera, 2010). Thrips palmi is already established 

outdoors in Hawaii and Puerto Rico (Capinera, 2010). In the continental 

United States, permanent populations have only been documented in 

Florida south of Orlando (Capinera, 2010). Initially detected in 1990 

(Capinera, 2010), it is not under official control. Surveys conducted over 

the last 20 years indicate that T. palmi is likely established throughout the 

climate zone appropriate for population development. The possibility of 

T. palmi populations overwintering in greenhouses and then moving 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 88

outdoors in summer (e.g., Kawai, 1990; McDonald et al., 1999) has not 

been realized.

Defined 

Endangered Area

Based on the current distribution of T. palmi in the continental United 

States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico and lack of official control in these 

regions, we determined that no endangered area exists.

a As defined by ISPM No. 11, supplement 2, “economically” important hosts refers to both commercial and nonmarket (environmental) plants (IPPC, 2011).

4. Conclusions

Of the organisms associated with avocados worldwide and reported in Mexico, we identified 

organisms that are actionable pests for the continental United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

and have a reasonable likelihood of being associated with the commodity following harvesting 

from the field and prior to any post-harvest processing. We further evaluated these organisms for 

their likelihood of introduction (i.e., entry plus establishment) and their potential consequences 

of introduction. Pests that meet the threshold to likely cause unacceptable consequences of 

introduction and receive an overall likelihood of introduction risk rating above Negligible are 

candidates for risk management. The results of this risk assessment represent a baseline estimate 

of the risks associated with the import commodity pathway as described in section 1.4.

Of the pests selected for further analysis, we determined that those identified in Table 3 are not

candidates for risk management, either because no portion of the continental United States, 

Hawaii, or Puerto Rico is likely to be endangered by the pest, they do not meet the threshold to 

likely cause unacceptable consequences of introduction, and/or because they received a 

Negligible overall risk rating for likelihood of introduction into the endangered area via the 

import pathway. We summarize the results for each pest in Table 3.

All the other pests selected for further analysis are candidates for risk management, because they 

meet the threshold to likely cause unacceptable consequences of introduction, and they received 

an overall likelihood of introduction risk rating above Negligible. We summarize the results for 

each pest in Table 4.

Detailed examination and choice of appropriate phytosanitary measures to mitigate pest risk are 

part of the pest risk management phase within APHIS and are not addressed in this document.

Table 3. Summary for pests selected for further evaluation and determined not to be candidates 

for risk management.

Pest Reason the pest is not a 

candidate for risk management

Uncertainty statement 

(optional)a

Conotrachelus 

aguacatae

Negligible Likelihood of 

Introduction

Current systems approach (7 CFR 

§ 319.56-30, 2011) determined to 

be an effective mitigation.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

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Pest Reason the pest is not a 

candidate for risk management

Uncertainty statement 

(optional)a

Conotrachelus perseae Negligible Likelihood of 

Introduction

Current systems approach (7 CFR 

§ 319.56-30, 2011) determined to 

be an effective mitigation.

Conotrachelus 

serpentinus

Negligible Likelihood of 

Introduction

Current systems approach (7 CFR 

§ 319.56-30, 2011) for other 

Conotrachelus species is highly 

likely to be effective for C. 

serpentinus.

Copturus aguacatae Negligible Likelihood of 

Introduction

Current systems approach (7 CFR 

§ 319.56-30, 2011) determined to 

be an effective mitigation.

Cryptaspasma perseana Negligible Likelihood of 

Introduction

Current systems approach (7 CFR 

§ 319.56-30, 2011) for other 

Lepidoptera species is highly 

likely to be effective for C. 

perseana.

Heilipus lauri Negligible Likelihood of 

Introduction

Current systems approach (7 CFR 

§ 319.56-30, 2011) determined to 

be an effective mitigation.

Maconellicoccus 

hirsutus

No endangered area within

Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and certain 

areas of the continental United 

States due to current distribution.

Only some areas of the continental 

United States are considered 

endangered due to the status of this 

pest as under consideration for 

state-mandated official control.

Paracoccus marginatus No endangered area within the 

PRA area

Philephedra lutea No endangered area within the 

PRA area

Pest does not cause economic 

damage.

Phytophthora citricola Negligible Likelihood of 

Introduction

Current systems approach (7 CFR 

§ 319.56-30, 2011) is highly likely 

to be an effective mitigation.

Phytophthora heveae Negligible Likelihood of 

Introduction

Current systems approach (7 CFR 

§ 319.56-30, 2011) is highly likely 

to be an effective mitigation.

Stenoma catenifer Negligible Likelihood of 

Introduction

Current systems approach (7 CFR 

§ 319.56-30, 2011) determined to 

be an effective mitigation.

Thrips palmi No endangered area within the 

PRA area

aThe uncertainty statement, if included, identifies the most important source(s) of uncertainty.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 90

Table 4. Summary for pests selected for further evaluation and determined to be candidates for

risk management. All of these pests meet the threshold for unacceptable consequences of 

introduction.

Pest Likelihood of Introduction 

overall rating

Destination 

Avocado sunblotch viroid Low Hawaii and Puerto Rico only

Maconellicoccus hirsutus Medium Continental United States

Pseudophilothrips perseae Medium Continental United States, Hawaii, 

and Puerto Rico

Scirtothrips aceri Low Hawaii and Puerto Rico only

Scirtothrips perseae Low Puerto Rico only

Sphaceloma perseae Low Hawaii only

aThe uncertainty statement, if included, identifies the most important source(s) of uncertainty.

5. Acknowledgements 

Authors Heather Hartzog, Risk Analyst (plant pathology)

a

Tara Holtz, Risk Analyst (entomology)a

Cynthia Landry, Risk Analyst (entomology)a

Reviewers Ignacio Baez, Staff Scientist (entomology)b

Ron Sequeira, Associate Director, S & T (entomology)b

Kayimbi Tubajika, Risk Analyst (pathology)a

Marina Zlotina, Risk Analyst (entomology)a

a Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory, USDA-APHIS-PPQ

b USDA-APHIS-PPQ, Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

6. Literature Cited

7 CFR § 319.56-30. 2011. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 7, Part 319.56-30 (Hass 

avocados from Michoacan, Mexico).

7 CFR § 319.56. 2011. 7 CFR § 319. 2011. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 7, Part 319 

(7 CFR § 319 – Foreign Quarantine Notices).

7 CFR § 319.56. 2012. U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 7, Part 319 (7 CFR § 319.56 -

Fruits and Vegetables).

Abad, Z. G. 2009. Potential mis-identification of Phytophthora boehmeriae. Personal 

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Wood, S. L. 1992. A Catalog of Scolytidae and Platypodidae (Coleoptera), Part 2: Taxonomic 

Index Volume A. Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah. 833 pp.

Wright, M. G. 2011. Avocado. EXTension ENTOmology & UH-CTAHR Integrated Pest 

Management - Program Knowledge Master - Crop knowledge Master - Fruits and nuts. 

Last accessed 2011, http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/crops/fruits.htm.

Yale, J. W., and G. R. Johnstone. 1951. The occurrence and effects of Cephalothecium roseum

on Avocado. California Avocado Society 1951 Yearbook 36:179-185.

Zimmerman, E. C. 1948. Insects of Hawaii. A manual of the insects of the Hawaiian Islands, 

including an enumeration of the species and notes on their origin, distribution, hosts, 

parasites, etc. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 475 pp.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 106

7. Appendix A. Organisms identified to the genus level that are reported on Persea 

americana Mill in Mexico and that have actionable or undetermined regulatory 

status. 

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

ARTHROPODS

Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

Chrysodina sp. PestID, 2011 US (Rouse, 

1972)

US: U

HI, PR: A

L (LeSage, 

1991)

No We found no 

evidence of

presence in HI 

or PR.

Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Conotrachelus 

sp.

PestID, 2011 US (CABI, 

2013)

US: U

HI, PR: A

F, L (CABI, 

2011a)

Yes We found no 

evidence of

presence in HI 

or PR. 

However, the 

potential risk 

is assumed to 

be addressed 

through the 

analysis of C. 

aguacatae and 

C. perseae. No 

further 

information is 

needed.

Copturus sp. Ebeling, 

1959

US 

(Reinert 

and 

Howard, 

1982)

US: U

HI, PR: A

S (CABI, 

2011a)

No We found no 

evidence of

presence in HI 

or PR.

Hyperodes sp. PestID, 2011 US (Peck et 

al., 2007)

US: U

HI, PR: A

L (PestID, 

2011)

No We found no 

evidence of

presence in HI 

or PR.

 

28 A=Actionable, U=Undetermined. If the genus does not occur in the continental United States, Hawaii, or Puerto 

Rico, the organism has actionable status. If the genus occurs in the continental United States, Hawaii or Puerto 

Rico, the organism has undetermined regulatory status, because we cannot know if the unidentified species is one 

that occurs in the continental United States, Hawaii or Puerto Rico.

29 The plant part(s) listed are those for the plant species under analysis. If the information is extrapolated, such as 

from plant part association on other plant species, this is noted.

30 “Yes” indicates simply that the pest has a reasonable likelihood of being associated with the harvested 

commodity; the level of pest prevalence on the harvested commodity (low, medium, or high) is qualitatively 

assessed in Risk Element A1 as part of the likelihood of introduction assessment (section 3).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 107

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

Coleoptera: Scolytidae

Corthylus spp. Peña et al., 

2002

US (CABI, 

2013), PR 

(Capriles 

and 

Navarro, 

1967)

US, PR: U

HI: A

S (Peña et al., 

2002)

No We found no 

evidence of

presence in HI.

Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae

Blapstinus sp. PestID, 2011 US, PR 

(Steiner, 

2006), HI 

(Beardsley 

and Tuthill, 

1959)

U F, L (PestID, 

2011)

Yes Several 

Blapstinus

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae

Paraleyrodes sp. PestID, 2011 US, HI, PR 

(Stocks, 

2012)

U L (PestID, 

2011)

No Several 

Paraleyrodes

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Tetraleurodes 

sp.

Waite and 

Barrera, 2002

US, PR 

(Nakahara, 

1995)

US, PR: U

HI: A

L (Waite and 

Barrera, 

2002)

No We found no 

evidence of

presence in HI. 

Several 

Tetraleurodes

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Tetralicia sp. PestID, 2011 US (Evans, 

2007)

US: U

HI, PR: A

L (PestID, 

2011)

No We found no 

evidence of

presence in HI 

or PR. T. 

ericae is 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 108

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

Trialeurodes sp. PestID, 2011 US, HI, PR 

(Ghahari et 

al., 2009)

U L (Barrera et 

al., 1998)

No Several 

Trialeurodes

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Hemiptera: Aphididae

Greenidea sp. PestID, 2011 US 

(Halbert, 

2004), HI 

(Beardsley, 

1993)

US, HI: U

PR: A

L (PestID, 

2011)

No We found no 

evidence of

presence in 

PR. Several 

Greenidea

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

except HI. 

Action may be 

required only 

to HI (PestID, 

2013). 

Hemiptera: Cicadellidae

Idona spp. Ebeling, 

1959

US 

(Ebeling, 

1959)

U L (Peña et al., 

2002)

No We found no 

evidence of

presence in HI 

or PR. Idona 

minuenda is 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Scaphytopius sp. Ebeling, 

1959

US (CABI, 

2013), HI 

(Beardsley, 

1966), PR 

(Maes and 

Godoy, 

1993)

U L (CABI, 

2011a)

No Several 

Scaphytopius

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 109

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

Hemiptera: Diaspididae31

Abgrallaspis sp. PestID, 2011 US, HI, PR 

(Ben-Dov 

et al., 2013)

U F (PestID, 

2011)

Yes See footnote 

#30

Acutaspis sp. PestID, 2011 US, HI, PR 

(Ben-Dov 

et al., 2013)

U F (PestID, 

2011)

Yes See footnote 

#30

Diaspidiotus sp. PestID, 2011 US, HI, PR 

(Ben-Dov 

et al., 2013)

U F, S (PestID, 

2011)

Yes See footnote 

#30

Hemiberlesia sp. PestID, 2011 US, HI, PR 

(Ben-Dov 

et al., 2013)

U F, L, S 

(Watson, 

undated)

Yes See footnote 

#30

Quadraspidiotus 

sp.

PestID, 2011 US (Alston 

et al., 2011)

U F (PestID, 

2011)

Yes See footnote 

#30

Hemiptera: Psyllidae

Trioza sp. PestID, 2011 US (Mead, 

2012), HI 

(Uchida 

and 

Beardsley, 

1992)

US, HI: U

PR: A

L (PestID, 

2011)

No We found no 

evidence of

presence in 

PR. Several 

Trioza species 

are considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Hymenoptera: Formicidae

Atta sp. CABI, 2011a US (CABI, 

2013)

U L, F (CABI, 

2011a)

No32 We found no 

evidence of

presence in HI 

or PR. Several 

Atta species 

are considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

 

31 Although armored scales may enter on commercial fruit for consumption, they are highly unlikely to become 

established via this pathway. Please see discussion in section 2.3 for a detailed explanation.

32 Atta sp. is a surface pest (CABI, 2011a) and is unlikely to remain with the fruit through harvesting and processing.
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 110

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

PATHOGENS

Alternaria sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US, HI, PR 

(CABI, 

2013;

UGA, 

2011)

U F, L (Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes Example: 

Alternaria

alternata (Fr. : 

Fr.) Keissl.

Aphelenchoides 

sp.

Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USDAARS, 

2013); PR 

(McGawley 

et al., 1984)

U R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Aphelenchoide

s species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Ascochyta sp. PestID, 2011 US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U F, L, St

(PestID, 

2011)

Yes Several 

Ascochyta 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Cephalothecium

sp.

Alvarez, 

1976

US (Yale 

and 

Johnstone, 

1951); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U L (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Example: 

Cephalosporiu

m roseum

Oudem./ 

Trichothecium 

roseum

Ceratocystis sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U “Twigs”

(Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Ceratocystis 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Cercospora sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(UGA, 

2011)

U L (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Cercospora 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 111

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

Cladosporium

sp.

Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U L (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Cladosporium 

species are 

considered

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Criconemoides 

sp.

Alvarez, 

1976

US 

(Cordero et 

al., 2012); 

HI (USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Ferris, 

2013)-

Criconemoi

des 

sphaerocep

hala (For 

Puerto 

Rico)

U R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Criconemoides

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Curvularia sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U L (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Curvularia 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Diplodia sp. PestID, 2011 US (Farr et 

al, 2013); 

HI (USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U F, L (PestID, 

2011)

Yes Several 

Diplodia 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Dorylaimus sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USDAARS, 2013)

See remarks R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No The genus 

Dorylaimus is 

listed as nonreportable 

(PestID, 2013). 

Dothichiza sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (Farr et 

al., 2013)

US: U

HI, PR: A

St (Alvarez, 

1976)

No We found no 

evidence for 

Hawaii or 

Puerto Rico. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 112

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

Dothiorella sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (Farr et 

al., 2013); 

HI (USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U F, St

(Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes Puerto Rico 

referenced by 

Botryosphaeri

a name 

(synonym). 

Several 

Dothiorella 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Erwinia sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US, PR 

(CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013)

U F (Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes Puerto Rico 

referenced by 

Pantoea nam 

(synonym). 

Several 

Erwinia 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Fusarium sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); PR, 

HI (UGA, 

2011)

U F, R, St 

(Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes Several 

Fusarium

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Gibberella sp. Alvarez, 

1976

Yes (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

UGA, 

2010b)

U F (Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes Several 

Gibberella 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Gloeosporium

sp.

Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U L (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Gloeosporium 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 113

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

Glomerella sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U St (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Glomerella 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Gnomonia sp. Alvarez, 

1976

Yes (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013)

US, HI: U

PR: A

St (Alvarez, 

1976)

No No evidence 

found for 

Puerto Rico. 

Several 

Gnomonia

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Helicotylenchus

sp.

Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(USDAARS, 2013)

U R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Helicotylenchu

s species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Helminthosporiu

m sp.

Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U L (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Helminthospor

ium species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Hemicriconemoi

des sp.

Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013)

US: U

HI, PR: A

R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No No evidence 

found for 

Hawaii or 

Puerto Rico 

Example: 

Hemicriconem

oides 

mangiferae

Siddiqi 

(limited U.S.

distribution)
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 114

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

Hoplolaimus sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Hoplolaim

us 

puertoricen

sis)

U R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Hoplolaimus

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Linochora sp. PestID, 2011 US (Farr et 

al., 2013)

US: U

HI, PR: A

F, L (PestID, 

2011)- single 

interception 

on fruit, most 

are leaves and

not finding 

this 

host/pathogen

assocation in 

the literature

Yes No evidence 

found for 

Hawaii or 

Puerto Rico.

Macrosporium 

sp.

Alvarez, 

1976

Yes (Farr et 

al., 2013); 

HI (USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U St (Alvarez, 

1976)

No The genus, 

Macrosporium

, is listed as 

non-reportable 

(PestID, 2013).

Marssonina sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (Farr et 

al., 2013); 

HI (USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U L (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Marssonina

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Meloidogyne sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(USDAARS, 2013)

U R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Meloidogyne

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 115

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

Monilia sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (Farr et 

al., 2013); 

HI (USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U F (Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes

Monochaetia sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US, HI 

(Farr et al., 

2013)

US, HI: U

PR: A

St (Alvarez, 

1976)

No No evidence 

found for 

Puerto Rico. 

Several 

Monochaetia

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Mycosphaerella 

sp.

Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U L (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Mycosphaerell

a species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Nectria sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U St (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Nectria species 

are considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Ovularia sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (Farr et 

al., 2013)

US: U

HI, PR: A

R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No No evidence 

was found for 

Hawaii or 

Puerto Rico. 

Several 

Ovularia

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Perizomella sp. PestID, 2011 N/A nonactionable 

(PestID, 

2013)

N/A N/A
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 116

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

Pestalotia sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (Farr et 

al., 2013); 

HI (USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U L (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Pestalotia

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Phoma sp. PestID, 2011 US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U F, L (PestID, 

2011)

Yes Several Phoma

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Phomopsis sp. PestID, 2011 US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U F, L (PestID, 

2011)

Yes Several 

Phomopsis

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Phyllachora sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U L (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Phyllachora

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Phyllosticta sp. PestID, 2011 US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U L (PestID, 

2011)

No Several 

Phyllosticta 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Phymatotrichum 

sp.

Alvarez, 

1976

US (Farr et 

al., 2013); 

HI (CABI, 

2013)

US, HI: U

PR: A

R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Example: 

Phymatotrichu

m omnivorumconsidered 

non-reportable 

at all ports of 

entry (PestID, 

2013); No 

evidence found 

for Puerto 

Rico
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 117

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

Polyporus sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (Farr et 

al., 2013): 

PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013)

U Trunk 

(cortex) 

(Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Polyporus 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Prathigada sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (Farr et 

al., 2013)

US: U

HI, PR: A

St (Alvarez, 

1976)

No No evidence 

found for 

Hawaii or 

Puerto Rico.

Pratylenchus sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(USDAARS, 2013)

U R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Pratylenchus 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Rhizoctonia sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US, HI 

(Farr et al., 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975) 

U R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No All species of 

Rhizoctonia 

are considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Rosellinia sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US, PR 

(CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USGSPIERC, 

2013) 

U R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No

Rotylenchus sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US, PR 

(CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USDAARS, 2013)

U R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Example for 

US, PR: 

Rotylenchus 

bradys (now 

Scutellonema 

bradys). 

Several 

Rotylenchus 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 118

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

Sclerotinia sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US, HI 

(CABI, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U F (Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes Several 

Sclerotinia 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Septoria sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US, PR 

(CABI, 

2013); HI 

(UGA, 

2010b)

U L (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Septoria 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Sphaceloma sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(Farr et al., 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U F (Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes Several 

Sphaceloma 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Stagonospora 

sp. 

PestID, 2011 US (Farr et 

al., 2013); 

HI (USGSPIERC, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U L (PestID, 

2011)

No Several 

Stagonosporas

pecies are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Stemphylium sp. PestID, 2011 US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(UGA, 

2010b); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975)

U L (PestID, 

2011) 

No Several 

Stemphylium 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Thielaviopsis sp. PestID, 2011 US (CABI, 

2013); PR 

(Stevenson, 

1975); HI 

(Gonsalves 

and 

Ferreira, 

1994b)

U Branches, 

trunk (cortex) 

(PestID, 

2011)

No Several 

Thielaviopsis 

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).
Pest Risk Assessment for Avocados from Mexico

Ver. 1 January 30, 2014 119

Pest name Evidence of 

presence on 

avocado in 

Mexico 

Genus 

present in 

US, HI, 

PR?

Regulatory 

status28

Plant part(s) 

association29

On 

harvested 

plant 

part(s)?30

Remarks

Trichodorus sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US, HI, PR 

(CABI, 

2013)

U R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Several 

Trichodorus

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Trichothecium

sp.

Alvarez, 

1976

US, HI, PR 

(Farr et al., 

2013)

U St (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Example: 

Trichothecium 

roseum (Pers. : 

Fr.) Link

Tylenchus sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US (CABI, 

2013); HI 

(USDAARS, 2013)

See remarks R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Tylenchus sp. 

is listed as 

Non-reportable 

at all ports of 

entry (PestID, 

2013)

Verticillium sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US, PR 

(CABI, 

2013); HI 

(UGA, 

2011)

U R (Alvarez, 

1976)

No Example: 

Verticillium 

albo-atrum. 

Several 

Verticillium

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Xanthomonas sp. VidalesFernández, 

2009

US (CABI, 

2013); HI, 

PR (UGA, 

2010a)

U F (VidalesFernández, 

2009)

Yes Several 

Xanthomonas

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).

Xiphinema sp. Alvarez, 

1976

US, HI 

(CABI, 

2013)

US, HI: U

PR: A 

R (Alvarez, 

1976)

Yes Several 

Xiphinema

species are 

considered 

non-reportable 

at all ports 

(PestID, 2013).