Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

A Teachers Guide with Activities for

Earth and Space Sciences

Educational Product

Teachers Grades 5-12 National Aeronautics and

Space Administration
Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

A Teachers Guide with Activities for

Earth and Space Sciences

EG-1997-08-104-HQ

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Office of Space Science

Solar System Exploration Division

Office of Human Resources

 and Education

Education Division

August 1997

This publication is in the Public Domain and is not copyrighted.

Permission is not required for duplication.
 NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ i

 Acknowledgements

This teacher’s guide was developed in a partnership between

scientists in the Planetary Materials Office, at NASA’s Johnson Space

Center in Houston, Texas, and teachers from local school districts.

On the Cover—

Several aspects of a meteorite

fall are depicted on the cover.

The background is a painting

created by an eyewitness of

the Sikhote-Alin fireball. At

the top is the asteroid Ida, a

possible source of meteorites.

At the bottom is Meteor

Crater in Arizona—the first

identified meteorite impact

crater.

*Now at the Lunar & Planetary Institute, Houston, Texas. **Now at Antarctic Support Services, Denver, Colorado.

NASA and Contractor Staff

Marilyn Lindstrom

Project Coordinator and Meteorite Curator

NASA Johnson Space Center

Houston, Texas

Jaclyn Allen

Scientist and Science Education Specialist

Lockheed Martin Engineering & Sciences Co.

Houston, Texas

Allan Treiman* and Carl Allen

Planetary Scientists

Lockheed Martin Engineering & Sciences Co.

Houston, Texas

Anita Dodson

Graphic Designer

Lockheed Martin Engineering & Sciences Co.

Houston, Texas

Teachers

JoAnne Burch

Pearland ISD,

Elementary

Pearland, Texas

Karen Crowell

Pasadena ISD,

Elementary

Pasadena, Texas

Roy Luksch

Alvin ISD,

High School

Alvin, Texas

Karen Stocco

Pasadena ISD,

High School

Pasadena, Texas

Bobbie Swaby

Pasadena ISD,

Middle School

Pasadena, Texas

Kay Tobola

Alvin ISD,

Middle School

Alvin, Texas

We would also like to thank the following for reviews and meteorite samples:

NASA - Don Bogard, Mark Cintala, Everett Gibson, Kathleen McBride, Dave Mittlefehldt, Larry Nyquist, Cecilia

Satterwhite, Carol Schwarz, Roberta Score,** Faith Vilas, and Mike Zolensky.

NASA/OSU - Richard Adams, Jim Fitzgerald, Larry Gilbert, Les Gold, Tibisay Marin, Debbie Shearer, Greg Vogt,

and Ralph Winrich.

Teachers - Gregg Baumgartner, Stephanie McNeel, and Susan Ross (Alvin ISD); Jean Groover and John Ristvey

(Clear Creek ISD); Cathy Corley and Jeanie Thuneman (Friendswood ISD) and John Beasley (Stafford MSD).

Organizations - U.S. Antarctic Program (NSF), NNMH Smithsonian Institution, NASA, and the Field Museum of

Natural History.

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

Earth Science and Solar System

Exploration Divison
 ii NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Contents

About Exploring Meteorite Mysteries ........................................................................................................................... iii

About the Meteorite Disk ................................................................................................................................................ iv

About the Slide Set.......................................................................................................................................................... iv

Science Process Skills ...................................................................................................................................................... v

Science and Mathematics Standards ..............................................................................................................................vii

Lesson Topic Planner ...................................................................................................................................................... ix

Lesson Sequence Suggestions ......................................................................................................................................... x

Teacher’s Guide

Meteorites, Clues to Solar System History ............................................................................................................... 1

Meteorite ABC’s Fact Sheet .................................................................................................................................... 29

Solar System ABC’s Fact Sheet .............................................................................................................................. 31

Mysterious Meteorites

Lesson 1: Noblesville Fall ..................................................................................................................................... 1.1

Where Do They Come From?

Lesson 2: Follow the Falling Meteorite................................................................................................................. 2.1

Lesson 3: Searching for Meteorites ....................................................................................................................... 3.1

Lesson 4: The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection ..................................................................................................... 4.1

Lesson 5: Looking at Asteroids ............................................................................................................................. 5.1

Lesson 6: Impact Craters — Holes In the Ground! ................................................................................................ 6.1

Lesson 7: Crater Hunters ........................................................................................................................................ 7.1

What Are They?

Lesson 8: Edible Rocks ......................................................................................................................................... 8.1

Lesson 9: Meteorite Sleuths! ................................................................................................................................. 9.1

How Did They Form?

Lesson 10: Building Blocks of Planets ............................................................................................................... 10.1

Lesson 11: Changes Inside Planets ...................................................................................................................... 11.1

Lesson 12: Building Blocks of Life..................................................................................................................... 12.1

Lesson 13: Solving a Mystery ............................................................................................................................. 13.1

What Effect Do They Have?

Lesson 14: Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary ......................................................................................................... 14.1

Lesson 15: Historical Meteorite Falls .................................................................................................................. 15.1

Lesson 16: Near Miss ........................................................................................................................................... 16.1

How Can I Use Them?

Lesson 17: Asteroid Resources ............................................................................................................................ 17.1

Is There a Career for Me?

Lesson 18: Antarctic Meteorite Teams ................................................................................................................. 18.1

What Can We Believe?

Lesson 19: The Daily Shooting Star.................................................................................................................... 19.1

Glossary ........................................................................................................................................................................ A.1

Education Resources .................................................................................................................................................... B.1
 NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ iii

 About Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

Teachers and scientists designed this book to engage students in inquiry science and to extend science with

interdisciplinary connections. The study of meteorites provides a unifying theme that links almost every

aspect of Earth and planetary science with mathematics, physics, chemistry and even biology. The effects of

meteorite impacts have serious implications for social science. The activities in this book are designed for

upper elementary to high school levels. Many of the lessons begin with a simple activity and build to more

complex ones. The Curriculum Content Matrix, Lesson Topic Planner and Lesson Sequence Suggestions

may assist teachers in integrating the meteorite activities with their existing Earth science curricula and

standards requirements.

The Teacher’s Guide, Meteorites, Clues to Solar System History, gives a broad introduction to many

aspects of meteorite science. It tells the story of solar system history from the formation of the planets to

catastrophic impacts on Earth. It helps the students learn how scientists use studies of these rocks from

space to decipher that history. The Meteorite ABC’s and Solar System ABC’s Fact Sheets contain

important information about meteorites and bodies in the solar system in convenient table format.

The Activities are divided into units based on key questions

students may ask about meteorites. For example, the unit

entitled “Where do they come from?” contains six lessons with

many activities that explore that question. The activities range

from introductory impact experiments to rather complex orbit

constructions that use beginning geometry. Some lessons are

designed to use the Meteorite Sample Disk, although most

lessons do not require the disk. All the lessons could be

taught in the science classroom, but many lessons could

be used in other areas. The lessons include both teacher

and student pages, both of which may be copied as

needed. Measurements are given in metric units with

some English units in parentheses for common

household items.

The book concludes with a Glossary and an

Education Resources section. Key words that

appear in bold in the Teachers’ Guide or as

vocabulary in the Activities are defined in the

glossary. The Education Resources section lists

specific books and supporting materials for

meteorites. It also provides a guide to accessing the

broad range of NASA resources for educators.
 iv NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 About the Slide Set

About the Meteorite Sample Disk

The Meteorite Sample Disk contains six labeled meteorites embedded in

a 15 cm plastic disk. These pieces of asteroids represent the products of

basic planetary processes: accretion, differentiation, volcanism and

impact. Educators may borrow the Meteorite Sample Disk containing

these rocks from space to help students learn about the early history of

the solar system. The Meteorite Sample Disk package contains the disk,

a copy of this activity guide, and the Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

slide set described below.

To borrow the Meteorite Sample Disk educators must first attend a short

certification briefing on security requirements and handling procedures.

This is the same certification as for borrowing the Lunar Sample Disk. These briefings are given by NASA

staff at locations around the country. Following certification educators may request the loan of the disks for

periods of one to two weeks. Written requests should be sent to the NASA Educator Resource Center in

your geographic area at least one month before the requested loan date. For more information on

scheduling certification and request procedures, educators should contact their Educator Resource Center

at the locations given on page B.2 at the end of this book.

A set of forty-eight 35 mm slides has been prepared to supplement the

activities in this Exploring Meteorite Mysteries book. The slides and

narrative descriptions are divided into four parts. The first 25 slides

present a general introduction to meteorites and what they tell us about the

history of the solar system. It begins with observations of meteorite falls,

depicts meteorites and their formation processes, and concludes with their

impact on life and future exploration of the solar system. The remaining three

parts are more detailed sections for use with various lessons in the activity guide. These sections reuse

some of the slides from the introduction. One section on impact craters illustrates craters on Earth, the

Moon and other planets. The next section on classification and formation depicts various meteorite types

and the processes of accretion, differentiation, volcanism, and impact. The final section shows collection,

curation, and research on Antarctic meteorites.

The slide set is distributed to educators with the Meteorite Sample Disk. Anyone desiring a permanent

copy of the slide set may order it at cost from NASA Central Operation of Resources for Educators

(CORE). The address and various contacts for CORE are listed on page B.2 at the back of this book.
 NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ v

Science Process Skills

for Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

This chart is designed to assist teachers in integrating the activities contained in the guide with existing curricula. Observing Classifying Communicating Measuring Inferring Predicting Experimental Design Gathering and Organizing Data Controlling Variables Developing a Hypothesis Extending Senses Researching Team Work Mathematics Interdisciplinary Introductory Activity Advanced Activity

Unit Lesson

Mysterious Lesson 1 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Meteorites Noblesville Fall

“Where Do Lesson 2 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

They Come Follow the

From?” Falling Meteorite

Lesson 3 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Searching

for Meteorites

Lesson 4 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔✔ ✔✔

The MeteoriteAsteroid

Connection

Lesson 5 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Looking at

Asteroids

Lesson 6 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Impact Craters—

Holes in the

Ground!

Lesson 7 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Crater Hunters

“What Are Lesson 8 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

They?” Edible Rocks
 vi NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Unit Lesson

ObservingClassifyingCommunicatingMeasuringInferringPredictingExperimental DesignGathering and Organizing DataControlling VariablesDeveloping a HypothesisExtending SensesResearchingTeam WorkMathematicsInterdisciplinaryIntroductory ActivityAdvanced Activity

“What Are Lesson 9 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

They?” Meteorite Sleuths!

“How Did Lesson 10 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

They Building Blocks

Form?” of Planets

Lesson 11 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Changes Inside

Planets

Lesson 12 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Building Blocks

of Life

Lesson 13 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Solving a

Mystery

“What Lesson 14 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Effect Do Direct Hit at the

They K-T Boundary

Have?”

Lesson 15 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Historical

Meteorite Falls

Lesson 16 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Near Miss

“How Can I Lesson 17 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Use Them? Asteroid Resources

“Is There Lesson 18 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

a Career Antarctic Meteorite

for Me?” Teams

“What Can Lesson 19 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

We The Daily Shooting

Believe?” Star
 NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ vii

Lesson 1

Noblesville Fall ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Lesson 2

Follow the ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Falling Meteorite

Lesson 3

Searching ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

for Meteorites

Lesson 4

The MeteoriteAsteroid ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Connection

Lesson 5

Looking at ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Asteroids

Lesson 6

Impact Craters—

Holes in the ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Ground!

Lesson 7

Crater Hunters ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Lesson 8

Edible Rocks ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Science and Mathematics Standards

for Exploring Meteorite Mysteries Science as Inquiry Structure and Energy of the Earth System Origin and History of the Earth Earth in the Solar System Geochemical Cycles

Physical SciencePopulations and EcosystemsUnderstanding about Science and TechnologyScience in Personal and Social PerspectivesHistory and Nature of ScienceProblem SolvingMeasurementComputation and EstimationCommunicationGeometry and Advanced MathematicsStatistics and ProbabilityNumber and Number RelationshipsPatterns and Functions
 viii NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Lesson 9

Meteorite Sleuths ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Lesson 10

Building Blocks of ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Planets

Lesson 11

Changes Inside ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Planets

Lesson 12

Building Blocks ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

of Life

Lesson 13

Solving a Mystery ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Lesson 14

Direct Hit at the K-T ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Boundary

Lesson 15

Historical Meteorite ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Falls

Lesson 16

Near Miss ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Lesson 17

Asteroid Resources ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Lesson 18

Antarctic Meteorite ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Teams

Lesson 19

The Daily Shooting ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Star

Science as InquiryStructure and Energy of the Earth SystemOrigin and History of the EarthEarth in the Solar SystemGeochemical CyclesPhysical SciencePopulations and EcosystemsUnderstanding about Science and TechnologyScience in Personal and Social PerspectivesHistory and Nature of ScienceProblem SolvingMeasurementComputation and EstimationCommunicationGeometry and Advanced MathematicsStatistics and ProbabilityNumber and Number RelationshipsPatterns and Functions
 NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ ix

Lesson Topic Planner

for Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

Thismatrix indicates some of the lessons in Exploring Meteorite Mysteries that could be used to enhance

selected science topic themes frequently used in Earth/Space Science curricula.

Natural Resources/National Parks

Lesson 3 Searching for Meteorites

Lesson 10 Building Blocks of Planets

Lesson 11 Changes Inside Planets

Lesson 12 Building Blocks of Planets

Lesson 17 Asteroid Resources

Historical Connections/ People/Careers

Lesson 1 Noblesville Fall

Lesson 7 Crater Hunters

Lesson 14 Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary

Lesson 15 Historical Meteorite Falls

Lesson 16 Near Miss

Lesson 18 Antarctic Meteorite Teams

Lesson 19 The Daily Shooting Star

Space (Stars and Solar System)

Lesson 1 Noblesville Fall

Lesson 2 Follow the Falling Meteorite

Lesson 3 Searching for Meteorites

Lesson 4 The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection

Lesson 5 Looking at Asteroids

Lesson 10 Building Blocks of Planets

Lesson 11 Changes Inside Planets

Lesson 17 Asteroid Resources

Metric and Scientific Method (students use metric

measurements in activities)

Lesson 2 Follow the Falling Meteorite

Lesson 4 The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection

Lesson 6 Impact Craters — Holes in the Ground!

Lesson 9 Meteorite Sleuths

Water (fresh and oceans)

Lesson 12 Building Blocks of Life

Lesson 14 Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary

Lesson 16 Near Miss

Lesson 17 Asteroid Resources

Atmosphere/Climate/Weather

Lesson 14 Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary

Lesson 16 Near Miss

Rocks/Minerals/Geologic Time

Lesson 1 Noblesville Fall

Lesson 6 Impact Craters — Holes in the Ground!

Lesson 7 Crater Hunters

Lesson 8 Edible Rocks

Lesson 9 Meteorite Sleuths

Lesson 10 Building Block of Planets

Lesson 11 Changes Inside Planets

Lesson 12 Building Blocks of Life

Lesson 13 Solving a Mystery

Lesson 14 Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary

Planet Dynamics

Earthquakes

Lesson 14 Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary

Lesson 16 Near Miss

Lesson 6 Impact Craters — Holes in the Ground!

Plate Tectonics and Volcanism

Lesson 7 Crater Hunters

Lesson 10 Building Blocks of Planets

Lesson 11 Changes Inside Planets

Lesson 14 Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary

Weathering and Erosion

Lesson 6 Impact Craters — Holes in the Ground!

Lesson 7 Crater Hunters
 x NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Lesson Groups are suggested for one or a combination of several of the following criteria: time available in

the classroom, theme or topic of existing curricula, Meteorite Sample Disk availability, and interdisciplinary

connections. More than one lesson could be accomplished in a 90-minute class. Some lessons may be

inserted directly into existing Earth/Space Science curricula as enrichment activities without a more extensive

meteorite focus.

Lesson Sequence Suggestions

for Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

Activities Without Meteorite Sample Disk

Stand alone activities for one or two class periods

without Meteorite Sample Disk.

Lesson 1 Noblesville Fall

Lesson 2 Follow the Falling Meteorite

Lesson 4 The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection:

Orbits in the inner Solar System

Lesson 6 Impact Craters —Holes in the Ground!

Lesson 7 Crater Hunters

Lesson 8 Edible Rocks

Lesson 10 Building Blocks of Planets (nonMeteorite Sample Disk activities only)

Lesson 11 Changes Inside Planets (non-Meteorite

Sample Disk activities only)

Lesson 12 Building Blocks of Life

Lesson 14 Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary

Lesson 15 Historical Meteorite Falls

Lesson 16 Near Miss

Lesson 18 Antarctic Meteorite Teams

One week without Meteorite Sample Disk. (Emphasizing

basic meteorite background and hands-on activities on impact

cratering.)

Lesson 1 Noblesville Fall

Lesson 2 Follow the Falling Meteorite

Lesson 3 Searching for Meteorites

Lesson 6 Impact Craters —Holes in the Ground!

One or two weeks without Meteorite Sample Disk.

(Emphasizing basic meteorite background and hands-on

activities about the origin and physical characteristics of

meteorites.)

Lesson 1 Noblesville Fall

Lesson 8 Edible Rocks

Lesson 10 Building Blocks of Planets

Lesson 11 Changes Inside Planets

Lesson 12 Building Blocks of Life

Lesson 13 Solving a Mystery

Activities With Meteorite Sample Disk

One or two class periods with Meteorite Sample Disk.

(other lessons do not need the Disk)

Sequence of :

Lesson 1 Noblesville Fall

Lesson 10 Building Blocks of Planets

Lesson 11 Changes inside Planets

or

Lesson 8 Edible Rocks

Lesson 10 Building Blocks of Planets

Lesson 11 Changes Inside Planets

or

Lesson 8 Edible Rocks

Lesson 9 Meteorite Sleuths!

One week with a Meteorite Sample Disk.

Sequence of :

Lesson 1 Noblesville Fall

Lesson 8 Edible Rocks

Lesson 10 Building Blocks of Planets

Lesson 11 Changes Inside Planets

or

Lesson 1 Noblesville Fall

Lesson 8 Edible Rocks

Lesson 9 Meteorite Sleuths!
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 1

A family on a camping trip watches a bright light streak across the sky and disappear.

An explorer comes upon a circular crater with rocks scattered around its rim.

Two boys watch a rock fall from the sky and land near them.

A farmer picks up an unusually heavy rock while plowing his field.

A scientist discovers the rare element iridium in a soil layer that marks

the end of the age of dinosaurs.

All of these people have discovered possible evidence of rocks

from space that passed through the atmosphere and landed on

Earth. Sometimes there is little or no evidence of the rock itself;

it burned up in the atmosphere or broke up on impact. Other

times the rock is all there is, with little evidence of its fiery entry

or crash landing. These events all involve the mysteries of

meteorites: what they are, where they come from, how they got

here, how they affect people, and what they tell us about the

solar system. These are some of the questions that are

investigated in Exploring Meteorite Mysteries.

Meteorites are rocks from space that have survived their

passage through the atmosphere to land on Earth’s surface. Some

meteorites are seen or heard to fall and are picked up soon

afterward, while most are found much later. Some meteorites are

large enough to produce impact craters or showers of fragments,

but others are small enough to hold in one hand, and still others

are so small that you need to use a microscope to see them.

Some meteorites are like igneous rocks on Earth, others are

pieces of metal, and others are different from all known Earth

rocks. Yet, despite their variety in size, appearance, and manner

of discovery, all meteorites are pieces of other bodies in space

that give us clues to the origin and history of the solar system.

Brodie Spaulding (age 13) and Brian

Kinzie (age 9). The boys are standing on

the lawn where they observed the

Noblesville, Indiana meteorite fall on

August 31, 1991. (Photo by M. Lipschutz)

Noblesville meteorite. The 0.5 kg (fist-sized)

meteorite found by the boys. Inside Noblesville

is a gray stony meteorite, but outside it is

covered by a dark brown glassy crust.

Meteorites, Clues to

Solar System History
2 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Meteorite Fall

and Recovery

Meteors, Falls and Finds

Meteors, bright streaks of light moving rapidly across the sky, are

fairly common. On a clear night outside the city you could see an

average of three or four an hour. Sometimes many more meteors are

visible. These times are called meteor showers and many showers

return year after year on the same dates. These showers are associated with

comet dust left by long-passed comets. However, very few meteors, and none of the

yearly meteor showers, yield meteorites on Earth’s surface. Most of the dust and ice particles burn up

completely as they pass through the atmosphere.

Only a few people each year actually see a meteorite fall. Meteorites that are recovered soon after they

land on Earth are called falls. About 900 meteorite falls have been recovered around the world, mostly in

the last 200 years. The fall of a relatively small meteorite is exciting, but not dramatic unless it injures a

person or damages property. When young Brodie Spaulding and Brian Kenzie observed the fall of the

small Noblesville meteorite in August 1991 (see Lesson 1), they saw no bright light and heard only a

whistling sound. The meteorite was slightly warm to touch and made a small hole in the ground where it

landed.

Falls of large meteorites are rare, occurring only once every few decades, but are dramatic, beginning with

the bright streak of light and thunderous noise of a fireball. The falls of the Allende stony meteorite in rural

Mexico and the Sikhote-Alin iron meteorite in Siberia, Russia, were two recent large falls (see Lesson 15).

Both meteorite falls began with bright light and explosions that were seen, heard and felt for great distances.

The cover of this booklet shows the Sikhote-Alin fireball as depicted in an eyewitness painting. The fall

sites for the two meteorites were soon found. Allende was scattered over a 150 square kilometer area

Allende meteorite. This is a fragment from the Allende shower that fell

in Mexico in February 1969. It is a dark gray stony meteorite with

black glassy fusion crust. The Allende stones weighed a total of 2,000

kg, with the largest piece weighing 100 kg.

Sikhote-Alin meteorite. This is a fragment

from the Sikhote-Alin shower that fell in

Russia in February, 1947. It is an iron

meteorite that is covered by black fusion

crust and indentations like thumbprints

from melting during flight through the

atmosphere. The Sikhote-Alin irons

weighed a total of 23,000 kg, with the

largest piece weighing 300 kg.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 3

around the town of Pueblito del Allende. The Sikhote-Alin site was located from the air by its devastation

of a forested area. On the ground scientists found over 100 craters of varying sizes. Both meteorites fell as

thousands of fragments covering wide areas. The breakup and fall of a large meteorite like Allende or

Sikhote-Alin before impact is called a meteorite shower. (See Lessons 2 and 3)

The impact of a huge meteorite has never been observed and recorded by people; however, many have

been recorded as craters in the surfaces where they landed on the Earth or other planetary bodies. Meteor Crater in Arizona is the best known meteorite impact crater on Earth. It is about 50,000 years old

and well preserved in the arid desert. Many small fragments of the Canyon Diablo meteorite have been

found around the crater, but their total mass is only a tiny fraction of the total mass of the incoming

meteorite. The force of the impact is thought to have vaporized most of the meteorite. Imagine how

powerful that explosion must have been if anyone were nearby to see and feel it!

Studies of numerous observed falls, combined with field and experimental studies ofimpact craters, give us

a general picture of the fall process. Meteorites approaching Earth come in all sizes from microscopic to

gigantic. The larger the size, the fewer the number of meteorites there are. Most meteorites approach

Earth at speeds of about 20-30 km/sec. They are slowed down by friction with the air as they pass through

the atmosphere. The heat produced causes their outsides to melt to glass creating the fusion crust. The

tiniest rocks and dust burn up as meteors without landing on Earth. Small meteorites like Noblesville are

slowed to below the speed of sound. Larger meteorites like Allende and Sikhote-Alin don’t slow down

much and make sonic booms as they approach Earth at speeds greater than the speed of sound. Even

larger meteorites, like Canyon Diablo that formed Meteor Crater, are hardly slowed at all by the Earth’s

atmosphere and hit the Earth at very high speeds, making large impact craters. No meteorite this large has

fallen in recorded history. Most small to medium falls are stony meteorites and most of the larger showers

and impact craters are produced by iron meteorites. Iron meteorites are stronger than stony meteorites;

therefore, they don’t break up as easily in space or as they pass through the atmosphere.

Many meteorites fall to Earth each year, but are not observed. Few of these meteorites are ever found.

From photographic records of fireballs and smaller meteors, scientists have calculated that about 30,000

meteorites larger than 100 g fall on the Earth’s surface each year. Although this sounds like a huge number,

there is very little chance of a meteorite falling on you. Most of these meteorites just go unnoticed because

they fall quietly during the night, in unpopulated areas, or in the ocean . However, some meteorites survive

exposure at the Earth’s surface and are picked up hundreds or thousands of years after they fall.

Meteor Crater in Arizona. This 1.2 km

wide, 150 m deep, crater was made by a 30

m iron meteorite weighing about

1,000,000,000 kg. Thousands of fragments

totaling 30,000 kg of the Canyon Diablo

iron meteorite have been found, but most of

the meteorite was vaporized by the heat of

the impact.
4 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Meteorites that are collected with no visual evidence at the time

of their fall are called finds and make up the bulk of the world’s

meteorite collections. Prior to 1970, about 1500 meteorite finds

had been collected around the world. The discoveries of

numerous meteorites in desert regions in North America, Africa

and especially Australia have added hundreds of new meteorites

to the collections in the last few years. But the best area in the

world for collecting meteorites is the icy desert of Antarctica. In

1969, nine meteorites were found on Antarctic ice by a Japanese

field team. Since then about 17,000 meteorite fragments have

been found by Japanese, European, and U.S. meteorite

collection teams.

Antarctic Meteorites

Antarctica is a special place for collecting meteorites. More

meteorite fragments have been recovered there than from the rest

of the world combined. Yet because the continent is frozen,

remote and uninhabited, not a single Antarctic meteorite fall has

been observed. Several factors combine to make Antarctica

ideal for finding previously-fallen meteorites. The first is the ease

of finding dark meteorites on ice. This aids in recovery of small

and sometimes rare meteorites. The ice also helps to preserve

the meteorites because they rust and weather away more slowly

in cold Antarctic temperatures than in warmer climates. The next

factor is the movement of the ice which concentrates meteorites

that fell in different places at different times. The meteorites are

enclosed in ice and move with a glacier until it comes to a rock

barrier and stalls. The meteorites are later exposed at the

surface as the ice gradually erodes away. This concentration

makes it difficult to tell which meteorites are parts of a meteorite

shower, and which are individual falls. All Antarctic meteorites

are given separate names although some are later grouped as

paired meteorites if data suggest that they came from a single

shower. It is estimated that the 17,000

Antarctic meteorite fragments represent

about 3,000 separate meteorites, or about the

same as the total for the rest of the world’s

collection. (See Lesson 18)

The concentration process and ease of

finding meteorites in Antarctica led to

national and international meteorite

programs organized by the Japanese,

Americans and Europeans, and to

yearly expeditions to collect meteorites. The Japanese JARE (Japanese

Antarctic Research Expedition)

Identifying

Meteorites

Finding a meteorite on Antarctic

ice when there are no other rocks

around is easy (if you can stand

the cold!). Finding a meteorite

on sand, a plowed field, or a path

or road isn’t hard. But finding a

meteorite in a thick forest, or

picking one out of a pile of Earth

rocks is challenging, even for

experts. There are many types of

meteorites and they are found in

all sizes and shapes, but most

meteorites have two things in

common: Outside they have dark

brown or black glassy crusts and

inside they contain enough iron

metal to attract a magnet. The

outer glassy crust, of the

meteorite, called its fusion crust,

is produced as the rock is heated

by friction when it comes

through the atmosphere. The

outer part of the rock melts and

forms fusion crust that often has

flow marks or indentations like

thumbprints. The inside stays

cool and is usually light gray to

black in color, but some may be

tan or, if weathered and rusted,

brown.

The three major types of meteorites are stony, iron, and stonyiron meteorites. These are easily

distinguished by their amounts of

iron metal. Stony meteorites are

mostly silicate minerals with less

than 25% metal, iron meteorites

are essentially all metal, and

stony-iron meteorites are about

half silicate minerals and half

metal. Iron-rich meteorites can

be easily identified by their

density; they feel much heavier

than Earth rocks. Most stony

meteorites have shiny or rusty

continued on next page
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 5

continued from previous page

metal flecks visible inside: almost

no Earth rocks have iron metal.

A few stony meteorites have no

metal and are very similar to

Earth rocks; these can be

recognized by their glassy fusion

crust. Stony meteorites are the

most abundant (94%) among falls

and irons are uncommon (5%).

However, irons make up about

half of all finds, except in

Antarctica. Stony-irons are rare

(1%) among both falls and finds.

The only way to be sure if a rock

is a meteorite is to have it

examined and analyzed by an

expert. If you have a sample that

might be a meteorite, you should

contact a meteoriticist, geologist

or astronomer at a local science

museum or university.

Alternatively, you could contact a

national meteorite curation center

at NASA Johnson Space Center in

Houston or the Smithsonian

National Museum of Natural

History in Washington, DC.

program is run by the National Institute of Polar Research (NIPR)

in Tokyo. The EUROMET (European Meteorite) consortium is

a cooperative program among many European countries with its

headquarters at the Open University, Milton Keynes, England.

The American ANSMET (Antarctic Search for Meteorites)

program is a collaboration among three government agencies:

the National Science Foundation (NSF), NASA, and the

Smithsonian Institution.

In Antarctica, meteorites are concentrated on ice fields near

mountains, especially the Transantarctic Mountains. The sites are

far from the few coastal research stations or from the South Pole

station. The weather is extreme, with sub-zero temperatures and

high winds to make life hazardous. Teams of scientists spend

one to two months in this frigid environment collecting meteorites.

They travel to these sites by helicopters or cargo planes, drive

around in snowmobiles, and live in special polar tents. They

must take almost everything they need to survive because

Antarctica provides only air, frozen water and refrigeration.

Despite these hazardous conditions, the teams have been highly

successful in collecting meteorites. During approximately twenty

years of collection, American expeditions have returned over

Collecting Antarctic meteorites. This scientist is collecting a meteorite on

the ice in Antarctica. The Antarctic ice aids meteorite collection by

concentrating many meteorites in some areas, weathering them slowly,

and making them easy to see. Scientists live and work in remote, hazardous conditions in order to recover hundreds of meteorites per year.

Antarctic ice cave. A member of the U.S.

meteorite collection team is standing

outside an ice cave in Antarctica.
6 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Naming

Meteorites

Noblesville, Allende

Sikhote-Alin

Canyon Diablo

Gibeon, Brenham

ALH90411, EET83227

Meteorites are named after the

nearest town (Noblesville, IN) or

post office so their names are

often picturesque. Because

meteorites have been found the

world over, the list of meteorite

names looks like a geography

lesson. When meteorites are found

far from towns, they may be

named after their county of origin

(Sioux County, NB), or after a

nearby river (Calkalong Creek,

Aus.), lake (Carlisle Lakes, Aus.)

or other geographic feature

(Canyon Diablo, AZ). In deserts

where many meteorites are found

in areas with few towns or

geographic names, meteorite

names include both a geographic

area and sample number. For

example, Acfer 287 is from the

Sahara Desert in Algeria and

Camel Donga 005 is from the

Nullarbor region in Australia. In

Antarctica, where thousands of

meteorites have been collected in

yearly expeditions, the names

include the geographic area, year

of collection and sample number.

Geographic areas are often

abbreviated using one to four

letters. Thus ALH90411 stands

for sample 411 collected in 1990

in the Allan Hills area of

Antarctica. The names, locations

and find dates of meteorites in the

disks are given in the Meteorite

ABC’s Fact Sheet on page 29.

8,000 meteorite fragments, and Japanese over 9,000. In only

three expeditions Europeans found 530 meteorites.

Meteorite Curation

Scientists in museums and universities around the world are

responsible for the curation of non-Antarctic meteorites.

Curation includes classifying new meteorites, storing them, and

distributing them to scientists for study. When the three Antarctic

meteorite collection programs began bringing back hundreds to

thousands of meteorite fragments per year, each program set up

its own facilities to do curation. Each of these facilities has

special clean labs because Antarctic meteorites are less contaminated by Earth’s environment and pollution than other meteorite

finds. Meteorites are stored in clean cabinets, sometimes in a

dry nitrogen gas, and handled and examined in glove box cabinets or lab benches with filtered air. The first task of the curators

is to classify new meteorites and announce them to research

scientists. Scientists then send requests for samples to study. In

response, the curators take small pieces of each requested

meteorite and distribute them to the scientists. Finally, the

curators store the meteorites in clean environments to preserve

them for future studies.

Antarctic meteorite locations. Meteorites are found mostly along the

3,000 km Transantarctic Mountains that diagonally cut the continent.

These sites are remote from the U.S. research stations South Pole and

McMurdo (indicated with stars).
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 7

Meteorite curation. This is the meteorite

curation facility at NASA‘s Johnson Space

Center in Houston, Texas. It is operated by

the same group which curates the Apollo

lunar samples. A companion facility is at

the Smithsonian National Museum of

Natural History in Washington, DC.

Micrometeorites

The smallest objects approaching Earth are cosmic spherules

and interplanetary dust particles (IDP). They are called

micrometeorites because they are so small that a microscope is

needed to see them. Because micrometeorites are small and

have very large surface areas compared to their masses, they

radiate heat rapidly and are not melted as they pass through the

atmosphere. Cosmic spherules are droplets less than a millimeter

in size that are found in deep sea sediments and Antarctic and

Greenland ice. EUROMET has an active micrometeorite

collection program with a curation facility in Orsay, France.

IDPs are micrometer-sized irregular aggregates that vary widely

in composition, mineralogy and structure. NASA collects IDP’s

in the upper atmosphere using military airplanes with collectors

attached under their wings. The collectors are opened upon

reaching high altitudes and closed before returning to the ground.

This ensures that only high altitude particles are collected. Some

of these particles are man-made space debris, others are ash

from Earth’s volcanoes, but many are interplanetary dust. These

IDP’s are curated at NASA Johnson Space Center in a lab

adjacent to the Antarctic meteorite curation lab. NASA curators

describe, announce and distribute the IDP’s which are studied by

scientists around the world.

Interplanetary dust particle. This fluffy

aggregate of grains was collected by NASA

high in the atmosphere. It consists of a

variety of minerals loosely held together. It

is sitting on a metal surface with holes in it.

Cosmic dust collection. NASA collects

cosmic dust in collectors mounted on

aircraft that fly in the stratosphere.
8 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Impacts and Craters

Impact as a Planetary Process

One of the most significant discoveries from NASA’s exploration of the solar system is the importance of

meteorite impact as a planetary process. Images of the Moon, Mercury, Mars, asteroids, and the moons of

the outer planets show surfaces covered with impact craters. The recent Magellan radar images of Venus

revealed both craters and volcanism on that cloud-covered planet. The view of the whole Earth from space

shows little effect of impact. However, from photos taken in orbits closer to Earth, scientists have identified

a number of circular impact features. Meteor Crater in Arizona is the most familiar example of an impact

crater. It is relatively small, young, and well preserved compared to most impact craters. Many of these

craters are old; some craters are partly-filled circular lakes; others are heavily eroded. Various types of

craters are illustrated in the companion slide set. A map of terrestrial impact crater locations shows that

they are scattered around the Earth.

Terrestrial impact craters. This map shows locations of 140 impact craters which have been identified on Earth. The

craters range in size from under 1 km to over 200 km across and in age from recent to 2 billion years old. The clusters

of craters in eastern North America, Europe, and Australia are due to both stable geologic environments and active

crater search programs.

Field and Laboratory Studies of Impacts

Recognizing impact craters and understanding how they form require a combination of field geology and

impact experiments. The experiments define the speeds of impacting objects, structures of craters, and

types of rocks formed in the impact process. Field studies of well-exposed craters provide “ground truth”

for experiments and help define crater structure and the nature of rocks modified by impact. The speed of

the impacting object (about 20-30 km/sec) is greater than the speed of sound in air. The object produces a

sonic boom as it passes through the atmosphere and an explosion crater when it impacts. The diameter of

the crater is about 10 times larger than that of the impacting object while the crater depth is about 1/10 the
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 9

crater diameter. These numbers vary with the speed, size, mass, and angle of approach of the impacting

object, and with the nature of the target rocks.

Finding a circular crater is not sufficient to identify it as an impact crater because there are also volcanic

craters. Although their size ranges overlap, impact craters tend to be larger than volcanic craters. Their

structures also differ. A volcanic crater’s floor is often above the surrounding surface, while an impact

crater’s floor is below the surrounding terrain. Thus a fresh impact crater is circular, with a raised rim and a

lowered floor. Impact craters are also surrounded by rocky material thrown from the crater, ejecta. The

best proof of an impact crater is associated meteorite fragments; after that, the next best indicator is the

nature of its rocks. They are broken, distorted or even melted by the shock of the explosive impact. Much

of the ejecta outside the crater is broken pieces of various rocks mixed together to form a breccia. The

rocks inside the crater are also breccias which are highly shocked and sometimes melted. The original

bedrock below the crater is shocked and fractured. (See Lessons 6 and 7)

Catastrophic Impacts

Looking at the surface of the Moon we see craters ranging in size

from tiny to gigantic. The largest basins are the dark, roughly

circular mare that are filled with solidified basalt. Such large

impacts must have had a major affect on the whole Moon.

Studies of lunar rocks returned by the Apollo missions showed

that the giant impacts happened about 3.9 billion years ago (see

companion volume Exploring the Moon). Studies also showed

that the breccias formed by impact on the Moon are rich in some

metals that are abundant in meteorites, but rare in rocks on the

surfaces of the Moon and Earth. Iridium is one such metal that is

common in meteorites. Its discovery in the K/T boundary soil

offers an explanation of a catastrophic Earth event.

The K/T boundary is the layer of soil that marks the end of the Cretaceous (K) period and beginning of the

Tertiary (T) period of geologic time. It occurred 65 million years ago when three-fourths of all species of

life on Earth became extinct. Other time boundaries in earlier periods also mark extinctions of many

species. Geologists have tried to understand the causes of these mass extinctions, suggesting perhaps

Crater cross sections. This diagram shows two views of a typical impact crater. The left view shows the circular

crater with its rim and scattered ejecta. The right view shows that the rim is above and the crater floor is below the

original surface. The ejecta are thickest closest to the rim.

Aristarchus. The lunar crater Aristarchus

is about 40 km in diameter. It is one of the

most studied craters on the Moon.
10 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

major changes in climate. In 1980 geologists discovered that this layer is surprisingly rich in iridium. They

suggested that the iridium was from a giant meteorite that impacted the Earth throwing a tremendous volume

of dust into the atmosphere. While the immediate effects of the impact would have been regional, the effect

of the dust in the atmosphere could have been global. The climate might have been changed drastically for

some time after the impact. For years the impact hypothesis seemed plausible, but there were no terrestrial

craters with the right age and size to have caused these changes. Recently, geologists found a 65 million

year old buried crater that is over 200 km across on the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. It, possibly in

combination with other craters the same age, might be the “smoking gun” of the K/T mass extinctions (see

Lesson 14).

It is only natural to ask when the last large impact occurred on Earth

and whether another one could occur soon. Meteor Crater was

made by the impact of a large meteorite 50,000 years ago.

Although it is a relatively small crater, it would have caused major

destruction in a city, had there been any in existence at the time.

Two medium-sized impacts occurred this century in Russia,

Tunguska in 1908 and Sikhote-Alin in 1947 (see Lesson 15). The

Tunguska explosion was large enough to have caused significant

destruction if it had happened near a city.

The threat of global devastation from

a major impact led the U.S. government and NASA to propose the

Spaceguard Survey. It would have

been an international network of automated telescopes that would scan the sky in search of

all Earth-approaching asteroids or comets large enough (1 km) to cause severe destruction.

Once their orbits were determined, calculations would be done to predict whether any body would

impact Earth. Although the full international program was not approved, there are at least two

smaller programs which search the sky for incoming asteroids and comets. A means of deflecting

the asteroid or comet out of its orbit would then be needed to avoid a catastrophe. Although the

probability of a devastating impact is very low, the potential destruction of such an impact is so

great that precautions are warranted.

The impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 on

Jupiter in July 1994 was the first time

scientists predicted the impact of a small

body on a planet. The comet was discovered in March 1993 after it broke apart into

22 fragments as it passed close to Jupiter.

The orbit of this “string of pearls” was

determined by continued telescopic

observation. Calculations predicted that on

its next pass through Jupiter’s orbit the

fragments would impact the planet.

Because of the predictions, the

whole world watched and

waited, while thousands of

The Tunguska Impact. In 1908 the biggest

meteor in recorded history shot across the

Tunguska River in Russia and exploded.

(Credit: Smithsonian Institution)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 11

telescopes were aimed at Jupiter as the fragments of the comet impacted the planet on schedule. The views from

the Hubble Space Telescope and from the Galileo spacecraft were even better than from large Earth-based

telescopes. The successful identification of the comet and prediction of its impact allude to the potential capabilities of the Spaceguard Survey.

Meteorite Classification

and Formation

Classification

Meteorites are rocks that are made up

of a variety of minerals. Minerals are

naturally occurring crystalline materials

composed of elements in defined

proportions and structures. The most

common minerals in meteorites are

listed in the Meteorite ABC’s Fact

Sheet on page 29. Most meteorite

minerals are similar to those occurring

in Earth rocks, but a few of the rarer

minerals are found only in meteorites.

Different types of meteorites have

different types and proportions of

minerals and different compositions.

Therefore, meteorites are classified by

their mineralogy and composition. As

Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 approaching

Jupiter. This picture is a composite of

photographs taken by the Hubble Space

Telescope. The “string of pearls” is the

broken pieces of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9

which were photographed during the

approach to Jupiter. The collisions in July

1994 were the first predicted impacts of an

asteroid or comet on a planet. (Credit:

Space Telescope Science Institute.)

Meteorite Sample Disk. The meteorite

sample disk contains six different meteorite

samples. See page iv for more information

on using this disk in the classroom.
12 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

discussed in the section on identifying meteorites, the simplest classification of meteorites into stony, iron,

and stony-iron types is based on the amount of iron metal and silicate minerals in the meteorite. It is

relatively easy to tell whether a sample has little metal, is mostly metal, or is about half metal and half silicate

minerals. This can be determined by looking at the amount of metal and silicate minerals in the sample’s

interior and by hefting it to feel its density because iron metal is about twice as dense as silicate minerals.

Each of the three major types of meteorites shows considerable variability and is further subdivided based

on mineralogy and composition. Meteorite classification is complex because of the diverse possibilities.

Meteorites represent many different rock types and probably come from different bodies in the solar

system. However, after detailed studies, some meteorites of different types appear to be related to each

other and possibly come from the same solar system body. A simplified listing of meteorite types is given in

the Meteorite ABC’s Fact Sheet.

Stony meteorites are divided into chondrites and achondrites based on whether they contain small

round balls of silicate minerals called chondrules. Chondrites contain chondrules and achondrites do not.

Chondrites are the most abundant type of meteorites, making up nearly 90% of both falls and Antarctic

meteorites. Chondrites are divided into several classes, including ordinary chondrites, the most common,

and carbonaceous chondrites, perhaps the most interesting because of their potential to tell the earliest

history of the solar system.

ALH90411 chondrite. This stony meteorite

is chondrite A in the meteorite sample disk

and accompanying lithographs. This sawn

surface shows an irregular texture with

round chondrules, broken fragments, and a

little dark rusted metal. ALH90411 is a low

iron chondrite and is not metamorphic.

LEW87030 chondrite. This stony meteorite

is chondrite B in the meteorite sample disk.

It has a more uniform texture than

ALH90411 and indistinct chondrules

(vertical streaks are saw marks). It also has

lots of shiny metal. LEW87030, like

Noblesville, is a high iron,

metamorphic chondrite.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 13

Ordinary chondrites consist of variable amounts of metal and chondrules in a matrix of mostly silicate

minerals. The silicates are mostly olivine and pyroxene, with minor feldspar. Further subdivisions of

ordinary chondrites are based on the amount of iron metal and the variability in composition and texture.

Some are high iron chondrites, others are low or very low iron types. Chondrites which have distinct

chondrules and variable mineral compositions have not been heated since they formed and are non-metamorphic chondrites. Metamorphic chondrites have indistinct chondrules and constant mineral compositions

and have been changed since their initial formation.

Carbonaceous chondrites are a very special meteorite class because they are the most primitive meteorites

and they contain water and carbon compounds. These chondrites consist mostly of the silicate minerals

olivine and pyroxene or clay minerals that formed from them by weathering. Carbonaceous chondrites

contain very little metal, but contain unusual inclusions, and 2-20% water in their clay minerals. The carbon

occurs in elemental form as graphite and occasionally diamond, and in organic molecules which range

from simple molecules to amino acids, the building blocks of DNA and life. Carbonaceous chondrites

show variations in composition and degree of metamorphism and weathering.

Achondrites are the second most abundant type of meteorites (8%) and many are similar to igneous rocks

on Earth. Achondrites are divided into several classes, of which the most abundant is basaltic achondrites,

and the most unusual is planetary meteorites. The basaltic achondrites are actually a family of three

distinct subclasses that are grouped together because they appear to be related to each other. The most

common are pyroxene-feldspar igneous rocks similar to basalts on Earth. Many of these basalts were

broken up by impacts so that the meteorites are breccias made up of basalt fragments. Another type

consists mostly of pyroxene and may have formed by accumulation of minerals sinking in a magma. The

ALH84028 carbonaceous chondrite. This

stony meteorite has a highly irregular

texture with distinct round chondrules,

white inclusions, and little metal in a dark

carbon-bearing matrix (vertical streaks are

saw marks). It is a carbonaceous chondrite

similar to Allende, the carbonaceous

chondrite in the meteorite sample disk.

RKPA80224 basaltic achondrite. This

stony meteorite contains no chondrules or

metal and is an achondrite. Basaltic

achondrites consist of feldspar (white

mineral) and pyroxene (dark mineral) and

are similar to basalts that formed from lavas

on Earth and the Moon. This sample has an

igneous texture showing that it crystallized

from a melt. Other basaltic achondrites

have the same mineralogy and composition,

but are breccias containing broken rock

fragments. The achondrite in the meteorite

sample disk, EET83227, is a basaltic

achondrite breccia.
14 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

third type are complex breccias made up of fragments of the other two types. These meteorites formed by

impact mixing on the surface of a parent body.

Planetary meteorites are a recently recognized class of achondrites which include both lunar and martian

meteorites. They are igneous rocks and breccias that formed from igneous rocks. Their compositions and

mineral proportions range widely. Some are basalts that crystallized as lavas. Others are cumulates, rocks

that formed by accumulation of minerals floating or sinking in magmas. These include lunar anorthosite

breccias which formed by feldspar floating (see companion volume Exploring the Moon) or martian

cumulates which formed by pyroxene and olivine sinking. More lunar and martian meteorites have been

found in Antarctica than in the rest of the world.

Iron meteorites, which make up only 5% of meteorite falls, consist almost entirely of iron-nickel metal with

variable amounts of sulfides and occasional inclusions of silicate minerals. Iron meteorites usually consist of

two distinct iron-nickel minerals, kamacite (high iron) and taenite (high nickel) which are intergrown to form

a criss-cross Widmanstatten pattern which can be seen when the sample is etched lightly with acid. Irons

are subdivided both by the texture of this intergrowth and by the composition of trace elements in the metal.

However, the textural and compositional subdivisions do not correlate well. Some groups of iron meteorites

may be related to basaltic achondrites.

Gibeon iron meteorite. This photo shows a

sawed surface which has been etched with

acid to reveal the criss-cross Widmanstatten

pattern. The Gibeon iron meteorite in the

sample disk and the Sikhote-Alin meteorite

have fine intergrowths of iron-nickel metals.

Brenham stony-iron meteorite. This stonyiron meteorite consists of yellow-green

olivine crystals surrounded by iron-nickel

metal. It is a cumulate stony-iron and is

used in the meteorite sample disk.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 15

Meteorite research. This scientist is

working at a scanning electron microscope.

With this instrument the scientist can look

in detail at the mineralogy, composition,

and physical structure of meteorites.

Stony-irons, which are the least abundant major type of meteorites (1%), include both cumulate and

breccia varieties. The cumulates consist of metal and the silicate mineral olivine, where the olivine grains are

large and surrounded by metal grains. The metal and silicates formed by slow cooling of heavy phases from

a melted body. The metal and silicate grains in the stony-iron breccias are usually much smaller than in the

cumulates, and the texture is a complex mixture of broken fragments imbedded in matrix. The silicate

fragments are similar to those in basaltic achondrites. Both cumulate and breccia stony-irons may come

from the same bodies as basaltic achondrites.

Meteorite Research

Many different types of science are involved in the study of meteorites, their formation and their sources.

Meteorite research bridges the gap between geology, the study of Earth’s rocks and landforms, and

astronomy, the study of the Sun, planets, moons, and stars in space. Planetary geology is a new science

which began when we were first able to study the Moon and other planets up close. Planetary scientists

study the planets and other bodies in the solar system using photographs and chemical or physical data

collected from flyby and orbiting spacecraft or robotic landers: Voyager, a flyby craft, explored the outer

planets; the orbiter Magellan focused on Venus; Viking studied Mars with both orbiters and robotic landers.

The Apollo missions to the Moon provided the only chance so far for humans to walk on another planetary

body, to study the landforms, and to bring rocks back to Earth for detailed analyses (see companion volume

Exploring the Moon).

Meteoriticists are scientists who study meteorites. They may be trained in geology, chemistry, physics, or

astronomy because all these fields are needed to understand meteorites and their relationships to bodies in

the solar system. Meteoriticists often work in teams so that specialists in several different fields contribute to

the research. Mineralogists study the mineralogy and textures of thin slices of rock; chemists analyze rocks

for their elemental and isotopic compositions and determine ages; physicists measure physical properties

such as magnetism.

To learn about the relationship of meteorites to planetary bodies, astronomers try to match meteorites with

possible sources. Planetary geologists study impact craters on Earth, the Moon and planets to understand the

impact process. Other scientists do not

study meteorites or planetary bodies

directly, but do experiments in laboratories

to simulate the processes of meteorite

formation or impact. NASA funds most

of the research on meteorites that is done

in the U.S. through grants to investigators

at universities, industry, and government

laboratories.
16 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Processes of meteorite formation. This

diagram illustrates several meteorite

formation processes. The first processes are

condensation from a gas to a solid (not

illustrated) followed by accretion of small

particles to form an asteroid or planet.

When the accreted body is heated, it is

modified by metamorphism or differentiation. Even if heating is not enough to melt

the body, it may undergo metamorphic

processes which make the texture and

mineral compositions more uniform. If

heating melts the body, it may undergo

differentiation: Metal separates from the

silicate melt and sinks under the influence

of gravity to form the core. Silicate

minerals crystallize and heavy minerals,

like olivine and pyroxene, sink to form the

mantle, while light ones, like feldspar and

some pyroxene, float to form the crust.

Volcanism (not illustrated) brings basalts

to the surface to add to the crust. Weathering (not illustrated) alters the surface rocks

through chemical or physical changes.

Finally, impacts on a variety of bodies

break off fragments that may fall to Earth

as meteorites.

Formation Processes

The processes of meteorite formation have been identified by comparing studies of meteorite mineralogy,

composition and ages with those of Earth and Moon rocks, and experimental results. On Earth, rocks form

by igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary processes, but the continued action of these processes has

erased all evidence of Earth’s initial formation. Meteorites bear evidence of the history of the solar system

from its initial formation to recent volcanism and impacts on Mars. Chondrites are primitive objects formed

at the beginning of the solar system and changed by metamorphic and sedimentary processes. Achondrites,

irons, and stony-irons are differentiated objects formed by igneous processes and changed by impacts and

metamorphism. Evidence for these processes is listed on the Solar System ABC’s Fact Sheet on page 31.

Many of the details of the processes are not fully understood — hence meteorite research continues — but

enough is known to present a general story of meteorite formation.

The evidence for the primitive nature of chondrites is found in their ancient ages, Sun-like compositions, and

unusual minerals and textures. All chondrites are 4.5-4.6 billion years old. They are the oldest rocks in the

solar system and are used to date the beginning of the solar system. Chondrite compositions are very

similar to that of the condensable part of the Sun without the gaseous elements, H and He. Carbonaceous

chondrites are most similar to the Sun’s composition because they contain volatile components such as

water and carbon compounds. Chondrites tell us about formation of solid bodies from the cloud of gas and

dust called the solar nebula. Carbonaceous chondrites contain stardust and white inclusions. Stardust is

composed of minerals such as diamond and silicon carbide which are thought to have formed in a red giant

star before our Sun was formed. The white inclusions consist of unusual minerals which were the first

minerals to condense from a gas in the formation of the solar system. This condensation is the first stage in

solar system formation. The gases in the solar nebula gradually condense as it cools to produce the minerals
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 17

found in meteorites, first the white inclusions, then silicate minerals. Chondrules are melted and crystallized

spheres of silicate minerals which are thought to have formed by flash

heating as the solid matter in the solar system condensed.

Accretion is the physical process of building up chondrites

and planetary bodies by collecting together smaller pieces of

unrelated materials such as chondrules, white inclusions,

stardust, and volatile components. The variations in chondrite

mineralogy and composition show that there were areas in the

early solar system with different compositions or temperature

and pressure conditions. Inverse variations in the amount of

iron in metal versus iron in silicate minerals suggest that

there were variations in oxidation state for different chondrite

types. Variations in volatile contents suggest that the volatilerich carbonaceous chondrites accreted at lower temperatures

than volatile-poor ordinary chondrites. (See Lesson 10)

The organic compounds in carbonaceous chondrites are believed to

have formed very early in solar system history. There is considerable variety

in organic compounds in carbonaceous chondrites, from simple molecules to amino acids, but

apparently none were formed by living organisms. The evidence for this is in the symmetry of the organic

compounds which are found in both right- and left-handed forms in meteorites, while similar compounds

formed by living organisms on Earth are found only in one form. (See Lesson 12)

After condensation and accretion, most chondrites were changed by metamorphism and weathering. Heating

of originally heterogeneous chondrites to temperatures below their melting points caused the mineral compositions

to homogenize and chondrules to fade into the matrix. Heating of carbonaceous chondrites allowed their water to

weather the olivine and pyroxene silicates to clay minerals. This was the first weathering in the solar system, an

Earth-like sedimentary process that took place near the beginning of the solar system.

Differentiated meteorites (achondrites, irons, stony-irons) have compositions very different from those of

the chondrites or the condensable part of the Sun. However, if their compositions are recombined in the

relative proportions in which they fall to Earth, the average differentiated meteorite composition is a lot

closer to chondrite composition. Most differentiated meteorites are also ancient rocks 4.4-4.5 billion years

old, nearly as old as the primitive chondrites. The only exceptions are planetary meteorites which have ages

ranging from 180 million years through 4.5 billion years. Although many differentiated meteorites are

breccias broken and mixed by impacts, it is apparent that most are rocks that originally crystallized from

melts and formed by igneous processes.

The suite of differentiated meteorites is evidence of early differentiation on asteroids (and planets) into core,

mantle and crust. Heating of the body to above the melting temperature allowed separation of iron and silicate

melts and later separation of crystallized minerals. Iron meteorites represent the core of the asteroid which

formed by slow cooling from an iron melt to produce the intergrown iron-nickel minerals. Stony-iron cumulates

come from the core-mantle boundary where iron melt surrounded olivine silicate minerals. Basaltic achondrites

are mostly from the crust of the asteroid, with cumulates possibly from the upper part of the mantle. Basaltic

achondrites flowed as lava onto the surface, just like basaltic lavas produced by volcanism on the Earth, Moon,

and Mars. Finally, breccias of basaltic achondrites and stony-irons represent the soil and rocks at the surface of

an asteroid where various rock types are broken and mixed by impacts. (See Lesson 11)
18 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Meteorite Sources

Meteorites from

Asteroids

Meteorites are “rocks from space,” but

there’s a vast area of space out there.

Our Sun is just one of billions of stars in

the Milky Way galaxy, which is one of

billions of galaxies in the universe. Luckily, we don’t have to search all of outer

space for the sources of meteorites

because scientists think that meteorites

come from our own “backyard,” from the

asteroids, comets, moons and planets in

our solar system (see Solar System

ABC’s Fact Sheet).

Most meteorites appear to come from asteroids, the small (diameter less than 1000 km) rocky bodies that

orbit the Sun in the region between Mars and Jupiter, but are mostly concentrated in the asteroid belt

between 2.2-3.2 AU (astronomical unit, the mean distance between the Earth and Sun). The evidence that

most meteorites come from asteroids is based on comparison of meteorite and asteroid orbits and

mineralogies. Three meteorites have been observed photographically as they approached Earth. It was

possible to calculate the orbits of the Innisfree, Lost City, and Pribram meteorites from a series of timed

photographs. These are all elliptical orbits that extend from Earth back to the asteroid belt. (See Lesson 4)

Asteroids are so small and far away that telescopes on Earth see them only as points of light. Astronomers find

asteroids by studying telescopic images and looking for the objects that move compared to the stationary star

field. Long exposure photographs show a background of stars as bright spots with a streak of light from an

asteroid caused by its movement across the sky. To calculate the orbit of an asteroid, one must measure its

position at several different places and times, but it is not necessary to follow it through an entire orbit. Asteroidal

orbits are ellipses rather than circles (see Lesson 4), but most orbits are not too far from circular and therefore

stay within the asteroid belt and do not cross the orbits of the planets. A few asteroids, such as Aten, Apollo, and

Amor, have highly elliptical orbits that cross the orbits of Earth or Mars, while others like Hector are in the orbits

of Jupiter or beyond. Gravitational interactions with Jupiter, and impacts between asteroids in the belt may break

them up and send the resulting fragments into planet-crossing orbits.

Ceres, the largest asteroid (almost 1,000 km) was the first asteroid found in 1801. Since then over 6,000

asteroids have been catalogued. Most asteroids are very small, only three are larger than 500 km, and only

about 25 are larger than 250 km. All of the Earth- and Mars-crossing asteroids are smaller than 30 km.

Our first close up look at asteroids was provided by the Galileo spacecraft that flew by and photographed

asteroids Gaspra in 1991 and Ida in 1993. Both are irregular masses of rock, seemingly broken and

covered with impact craters. Phobos and Deimos, the moons of Mars, look very much like asteroids in size

and shape. The next planned asteroid encounters are part of the NEAR mission. It will fly by asteroid

Mathilde in summer 1997 and orbit and map asteroid Eros in 1999. The Solar System ABC’s Fact Sheet

gives information for twenty asteroids in order of distance from the Sun. It gives examples from each of the

groups of planet-crossers and several of the larger asteroids that populate the asteroid belt.

Asteroid Ida. This photograph of 52 km asteroid 243 Ida was taken in

1993 by the Galileo mission. The asteroid is a rocky body that is

irregular in shape and covered with impact craters.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 19

Meteorite and asteroid orbits. Orbits of

meteorites and asteroids compared to those

of Earth, Mars and Jupiter. (Top) The orbits

of three meteorites, Innisfree, Lost City and

Pribram, were calculated from series of

timed photographs taken as each meteorite

fell to Earth. (Bottom) Orbits of seven

asteroids are shown. The three closest to

the sun, Aten, Apollo and Amor, are elliptical and cross the orbits of Earth or Mars.

The next three, Vesta, Ceres and Hygeia, are

in the asteroid belt where most asteroids are

found. The last one, Hector, is in Jupiter’s

orbit, but spaced far enough from the planet

that it does not impact Jupiter.

Astronomers study different types of asteroids using the brightness and color of light they reflect. This is

called reflectance spectroscopy. Asteroids are divided into several classes (indicated by letters) based

on their overall brightness and reflectance spectrum. E asteroids are very bright, S and M asteroids are

moderately bright, and C and D asteroids are dark. U asteroids are unusual and varied. E, M, and U

asteroids are rare, while S and C asteroids are common. The asteroid belt appears to be zoned, with most

of the S asteroids in the inner part of the belt, C asteroids in the central to outer belt, and D asteroids only in

the outer belt. (See Lesson 5)

The spectrum of reflected light at different wavelengths is caused by the mineralogy on the surface of the

asteroid. If we have reflectance measurements of appropriate mineral and rock standards, we can determine the mineralogy of an asteroid by matching it to that of the standards. In this way we find that E asteroids are rich in iron-free pyroxene, M asteroids are rich in metal, C and D asteroids are rich in carbon, S

asteroids are mixtures of metal and silicates, and Vesta, one of the U asteroids, is made of basaltic rock.

When compared to meteorites, fairly good matches between asteroid and meteorite classes are found. E

asteroids match a special class of achondrites, M asteroids match irons and stony-irons, Vesta matches

basaltic achondrites, C and D asteroids match carbonaceous chondrites. However, S asteroids are not a

very good match for ordinary chondrites. Also, there is a problem that the most abundant type of asteroid

in the inner asteroid belt does not match the most common type of meteorites. Our knowledge of the
20 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

relationships between asteroids and meteorites is still incomplete. Nevertheless, there is a general relationship between meteorites and asteroids, and a zoning in asteroid types in the asteroid belt This suggests that

asteroids represent the transition in formation from rocky inner planets to volatile-rich, outer planets.

Meteorites from Comets

Comets are small (1-10 km) balls of ice and dust that spend most of their time in the frigid outer solar

system, but make spectacular displays when their highly elliptical orbits bring them into the warmer inner

solar system. The Sun’s heat produces a gaseous coma around the solid nucleus and long tails of gas and

dust that can be seen by the naked eye. Periodic comets, like Halley which appears every 76 years, have

elliptical orbits centered near Jupiter and Saturn and periods of less than 200 years. Most comets have very

long periods (>10,000 y) and have visited the inner solar system only once in recorded history. They have

nearly parabolic orbits and spend most of their time in the Oort cloud far beyond the orbit of Pluto. Comets

Hyakutake and Hale-Bopp that visited the inner solar system in 1996-97 have periods of 65,000 years and

4,200 years, respectively.

Comets are considered to be the most primitive bodies in the solar system. They are “dirty snowballs”

consisting of water, methane and ammonia ices mixed with silicates and a little metal dust. They are thought

to have formed in the region around Uranus and Neptune, but were moved to new orbits by gravitational

interaction with the planets: Periodic comets we see today were moved inward toward Jupiter and Saturn.

Most comets, however, were thrown outward beyond the planets to form the Oort cloud.

Comets are clearly related to periodic meteor showers. Almost all periodic showers occur when Earth

crosses the orbit of a periodic comet. Meteors are produced as cometary particles of dust and gas are

burned up in the Earth’s atmosphere. The Solar System ABC’s Fact Sheet lists several comets and their

associated meteor showers. The relationship between comets and meteorites is less certain. Since the

compositions of comets and interplanetary dust particles are quite similar, comets are thought to be the

sources of IDP’s. Comet composition is also somewhat similar to that of some carbonaceous chondrites; a

relationship with them is possible, although much less certain. Until we have more detailed information on

the nature and composition of comets, either from robotic landers or comet sample return missions such as

the Stardust mission to comet Wild 2, we will not know with certainty whether comets are the sources of

carbonaceous chondrites.

Comet Halley. This photograph of Comet

Halley and a meteor, which appears as a

streak, was taken on January 7, 1986 at the

Mount Palomar Observatory. The inset is

an image of the nucleus of Comet Halley

taken by the European Space Agency’s

Giotto spacecraft shortly before closest

approach.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 21

Meteorites from the Moon and Mars

The surfaces of the Moon and the rocky inner planets show

many craters caused by meteorite impact. Could some of these

impacts have ejected material into space that might later fall to

Earth as meteorites? Before the Apollo lunar landings a few

scientists thought that meteorites might come from the Moon.

But none of the lunar rocks returned by six Apollo missions in

1969-1972 resembled meteorites. It was ten years later when

the first lunarmeteorite, ALHA81005, was identified in Antarctica. Although not identical to any specific Apollo sample, this

achondrite is an anorthosite breccia that is very similar to many

samples collected in the lunar highlands (see companion

volume Exploring the Moon). Since 1982, a total of fifteen

lunarmeteorites have been identified. These meteorites include

anorthosite breccias from the highlands and basalts and breccias

from the lunar mare.

The identification of martian meteorites is a space detective story.

Because we have not yet returned samples from Mars we have

to rely on what we learned from robotic exploration and our

understanding of rocks from the Earth, Moon and asteroids. In 1976 the Viking mission provided our first

detailed look at Mars using two orbiters which photographed the whole surface and two landers which

analyzed the atmosphere and soil.

The intensive studies of lunar samples and meteorites in the 1970s led to general models for planetary

differentiation and evolution. Small bodies like asteroids differentiated early, if at all, and their heat engines

died shortly after solar system formation. Hence asteroidal meteorites, including basaltic achondrites, are

close to 4.5 billion years old. Larger bodies like the Moon and planets stayed active longer and have

Moon. This photograph of the Moon was

taken during the Apollo 17 mission. The

light areas are highlands that are covered

mainly with breccias rich in anorthosites.

The dark areas are maria that are covered

with basalt lavas.

Lunar meteorite ALHA81005. This 31 g

(ping pong ball-sized) meteorite is a

breccia rich in light colored anorthosite

fragments melted and mixed together by

impacts in the lunar highlands. Other lunar

meteorites are dark colored basalts from the

mare. The scale is 1 cm across.
22 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

younger rocks on their surfaces, such as lunar basalts which are

3-4 billion years old. The Earth is obviously still producing

igneous rocks today.

When geochemists discovered the SNC family, a group of

achondrites which were 1.3 billion years old or less, they argued

that they must be from a body larger than the Moon, perhaps

Mars. The absence of lunar meteorites was used to argue that it

was not possible to get meteorites off the surfaces of planets.

The argument was if you couldn’t get meteorites from the Moon

with its lower gravity and closer distance, you couldn’t get them

from Mars. The discovery of first one, and then several, lunar

meteorites refuted that argument. The definitive clues to a

martian origin were found by comparing the meteorites to the

Viking lander measurements. The martian soil had the composition of weathered basaltic rocks similar to the basaltic SNC

meteorites. But the real clincher was the discovery that gases in

one meteorite, EETA79001, had compositions identical to those

Viking measured in the martian atmosphere. The rock actually

had martian atmosphere trapped inside. In all there are twelve

martian meteorites and all of them are igneous rocks, either

basalts or olivine and/or pyroxene cumulates.

Mars. This picture of Mars is a composite

made from many photos taken during the

Viking mission. The crack across the middle

is a canyon as long as the United States.

The dark circles at the left are huge

volcanoes that are the largest in the solar

system.

Martian meteorite EETA79001. This 8 kg (soccer ball-sized) meteorite

is a basalt similar to, but distinct from, basalts on Earth, the Moon, and

the basaltic achondrite asteroid. It has dark glass-lined holes which

contain gases with compositions the same as those measured in the

martian atmosphere by the Viking lander.

Martian meteorite EETA79001. Remains

of dark fusion crust, created during high

speed entry through Earth’s atmosphere are

visible.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 23

Brief History of the Solar System

Our geological understanding of the history of the solar

system has been pieced together by geologists and

astronomers based on numerous studies of the large

bodies and rocks in the solar system. Many different

scientists participated in the study of the Earth, Sun, Moon,

planets, asteroids, and comets. Some studied the astronomical bodies with telescopes; others did geology with

orbital data and photographs; and still others studied the

mineralogy, composition, and ages of Earth and Moon

rocks and meteorites. These studies have

revealed a series of processes in solar system

history: condensation, accretion, differentiation, volcanism, metamorphism, weathering, and impact.

These processes have taken place throughout the rocky inner solar system, but the duration and extent of

the last four processes depend on the solar system body. Therefore, different bodies and their rocks

provide evidence for different processes in solar system history. This evidence is tabulated in the Solar

System ABC’s Fact Sheet, page 31.

The Earth, Moon and Mars have no evidence remaining of initial planet formation by condensation and

accretion. Primitive chondrite meteorites provide the evidence for the beginning of solar system history.

Iron, stony-iron meteorites, lunar anorthosites, and seismic studies of Earth’s interior structure provide

evidence of early differentiation into core, mantle, and crust. Basalts are products of volcanism on all types

of rocky bodies. Changes in the original mineralogy and composition of rocks were produced by metamorphism, weathering and impact on various bodies to different degrees.

Dating these events can be done in both relative and absolute ways. Relative

dating on Earth is done in layers of rock where the rock on the bottom is

presumed to be older than the rock on the top (unless there is evidence that

the whole unit is turned over). However, when comparing meteorites or

rocks from various planets these relationships are not available so absolute

dating must be used. Absolute dating of rocks is based on radioactive decay

of some elements with very long half-lives. The process that is dated depends

on whether the rock was changed by later processes and how extensive those

changes were. For example, if we want to date the initial formation of a meteorite

(accretion of a chondrite or crystallization of a basaltic achondrite) the sample should be one that has not

been extensively changed by metamorphism or weathering.

A solar system timeline based on dating of many meteorites and rocks from both Earth and Moon is given in

the Solar System ABC’s Fact Sheet. Like layers in rocks on Earth, the youngest events are at the top, the

oldest are at the bottom. Although scientists don’t fully understand all of these formation processes, they do

know generally what happened and when. Some of these processes took place at about the same time on

different bodies in the solar system. Some processes took place once and were finished. Sun and planet

formation and initial differentiation are good examples of this. Other processes such as volcanism, metamorphism, and weathering continued over different periods of time on different bodies.
24 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Billions of years ago, the elements which would eventually make up our solar system were produced in

other stars. Around 4.6 billion years ago a rotating disk of gas and dust called the nebula formed from these

elements. The center of the nebula collapsed under gravity to form the Sun. Slightly later, about 4.55 billion

years ago, continued condensation and accretion led to the formation of the planets, moons and asteroids of

the solar system. Very soon after their formation the inner planets, Moon and some of the larger asteroids

melted and differentiated to produce core-mantle-crust. Basaltic volcanism, metamorphism and weathering

took place shortly after the surfaces of these bodies formed. Thereafter the asteroids were geologically

inactive except for impacts and the evidence of their early history was preserved.

The Moon and inner planets continued to evolve geologically for various periods of time which appear to

depend on the size of the body. The record of their earliest geologic history is obscured by this subsequent

activity. The oldest Moon rocks, anorthosites, norites and troctolites, date the initial differentiation and first

magmas production at 4.4-4.5 and 4.2-4.5 billion years, respectively. The lunar cataclysmic bombardment

(discussed in the companion volume Exploring the Moon) occurred about 3.9 billion years ago. Mare

basaltic volcanism began before 4 billion years and continued until around 2-3 billion years. Geologic

activity (other than impact) on the Moon ended long ago.

Our knowledge of the geologic histories of Mars and Venus is extremely limited. The Viking mission to Mars

revealed ancient highlands, giant “young” volcanoes, and extensive surface weathering. The samples analyzed by

the Viking lander were weathered rocks and soils. The martian meteorites are all igneous rocks most of which

have ages of 180 million years (My) to 1.3 billion years. Thus martian basaltic volcanism continued at least to 180

My ago. One martian meteorite is an ancient rock 4.5 billion years old. The Magellan mission remote observations suggest that there may still be active volcanoes on Venus today. We have only very limited analyses of

surface samples and no known meteorites from Venus so our information about the geologic history of Venus is

woefully inadequate.

Earth is clearly the planet about which we have the most information. However, Earth’s current geologic processes (plate tectonics, volcanism, metamorphism and weathering) have hidden the early history by changing the

surface rocks. The earliest known Earth rocks are about 4.0 billion years old, although geologists think that Earth

history began at 4.5 billion years along with the Moon and asteroids. Earth is clearly still geologically active today.

Earth is the only body in the solar system where we know for certain that life began and evolved. The

conditions necessary for life as we know it (water, carbon, nitrogen and moderate temperature) are not

currently available on any other body; however, there is evidence that Mars was wetter and may have been

warmer in the past. The ancient martian meteorite may contain

evidence of fossil life from an earlier era. The debate about life in

the martian meteorite continues and may not be resolved without

martian returned samples. The earliest evidence of life on Earth

is dated around 3.7 billion years ago. Life evolved through ups

and downs to the present. Periodic mass extinctions changed the

direction of evolution. For example, at 65 million years ago

75% of all species died and small mammals took over dominance from the giant reptiles called dinosaurs. Whether the

cause of these mass extinctions is a biologic process or the

geologic process of meteorite impact is still hotly debated.

Nevertheless, meteorite impacts, both small and medium-sized,

continue on Earth and other planets at the present.

Martian meteorite ALH84001. This 4.5

billion year old rock may contain fossil

evidence that primitive life may have

existed on Mars as much as 3.6 billion

years ago.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 25

The history of our solar system is long and complex. Our knowledge has been gained through various studies in

geology and astronomy and related fields. Scientists are still trying to understand the physical and chemical

processes in solar system history so the story is not complete. However, the history as we see it involves similar

processes occurring at varied times on different bodies. Taken as a whole, it is a fascinating story.

Future Exploration

Further understanding of the history of the solar system is closely

linked to the future exploration of space by robotic and human

missions. There is still much that we can learn about solar system

processes from studies of meteorites and Apollo lunar samples

and from telescopic studies of the planets. But think how much

more we can learn about planetary bodies with new samples and

close-up geologic exploration! The six Apollo lunar landings

demonstrated the value of human observation and ingenuity in

exploration and returned many documented samples for continued studies. The spectacular results of the Voyager and Viking

missions showed how much we can learn about distant planets from robotic missions. Future missions such

as the Mars Surveyor orbiter and lander series and the Discovery class missions to the Moon (Prospector),

an asteroid (NEAR) and a comet (Stardust) promise exciting discoveries in the next ten years.

Exploration of space has other benefits besides knowledge. It creates new technologies and, perhaps more

importantly, it inspires people to excel and to work together. However, space exploration, especially human

exploration, is a very expensive business. Not only must the benefits of knowledge, technology, inspiration,

and cooperation be high, but the costs must be reduced as much as possible. One of the most effective

means of reducing costs comes from using space resources and reusing everything possible.

Asteroidal Resources

NASA has worked on a number of plans for future robotic exploration of the planets, asteroids, and comets

and on human missions to the Moon and Mars. The most important expendables for space exploration are

energy for transportation and operations and consumables for life support. It takes lots of expensive energy

to move a mass of consumables against Earth’s gravity. It takes much less energy to move the same mass in

lower gravity environments like the Moon and especially asteroids. There is a big advantage in energy, and

Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvouz (NEAR)

spacecraft. The NEAR mission will

rendezvouz with Asteroid 433 Eros in

February 1999.

Mining an Asteroid. This is an artist’s idea

of mining an asteroid to support space

exploration. Depending on the type of

asteroid, the products might be oxygen,

metal, glass, water, organic compounds or

several of these resources at once. (Credit:

Dennis Davidson)
26 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

thereby cost, in using space resources as compared to carrying them from Earth. It may even be advantageous to get resources from one place in space for use in other places.

The closest planetary targets, the Moon, Mars, and asteroids, have little or no atmosphere and surface

water, and no known plants for food, but there is abundant energy for operations from solar radiation.

Moreover, the rocks and soils can provide many of the elements necessary for space exploration. The

rocks themselves are nearly half oxygen, and some also contain water and organic compounds. NASA has

developed technologies to extract oxygen from rocks, producing metals or glass as by-products. This

oxygen will be used mostly for spacecraft propulsion, but also for astronaut life support. The metals and

glass, as well as surface rocks and soil, can be used for building materials and radiation shielding. NASA

has also developed methods of growing plants in closed environments, reusing scarce consumables.

The first targets for extended space exploration and resource utilization are likely to be the Moon and

asteroids. The Moon is close and relatively easy to get to. Although it doesn’t have air, water, or food, we

know what it is like, and we could produce oxygen, water, and even food in lunar factories and greenhouses. Ideas for a Moon base are discussed in the companion volume Exploring the Moon. Asteroids

are such small bodies that their minimal gravity makes it easy to get materials off the surface and into space.

In fact it takes less energy to get materials to and from some near-Earth asteroids than from the Moon. The

Moon and asteroids could provide test-beds for proving technology to sustain life on Mars or extended

space flight.

Asteroids are particularly promising for using space resources because they offer a variety of different

resources. Asteroids similar to stony meteorites could provide oxygen for fuel and metal or glass for

construction. Asteroids similar to iron

meteorites could provide metal, even

some precious metals, with very little

processing. Perhaps most promising,

asteroids similar to carbonaceous

chondrites could provide water and

organic compounds essential for life

support. Mining asteroid resources

could become a stepping stone to

human exploration of the outer solar

system. (See Lesson 17)

Mars Exploration

Mars is the ultimate near-term goal for

human space exploration. It is the

closest planet that may be habitable by

people. Venus, although closer to

Earth, has a highly toxic atmosphere

Future mission to Mars. In the year 2020

Mars exploration will be returning samples

from the red planet. (Credit: Pat Rawlings)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Teachers Guide 27

and extremely high temperatures which make it uninhabitable. Mars has a less toxic atmosphere and

moderate temperatures. Mars has always intrigued people because some astronomers thought they saw

channels suggesting the possibility of intelligent life. Recent geologic studies have shown that all surface

features are natural formations, but also confirmed that Mars is the only other planet in our solar system that

could once have harbored life of some kind. Although the Viking landers did not detect life in the martian

soil, we can’t be certain that life doesn’t or did not exist elsewhere on the planet. Mars is now cold and dry,

but it was not always so. There is evidence that water flowed on the surface in the past. Mars was once

wetter and may have been warmer, and more hospitable for life. Several martian meteorites show interaction with martian water. The oldest one, ALH84001, may even have evidence of past life on Mars. The

possibility of life and the more habitable conditions make Mars an important target for exploration.

Most of our information about Mars was collected during the Mariner and Viking missions. They were

flybys and orbiters that photographed the planet and made geophysical and geochemical measurements,

and landers that analyzed the atmosphere and soil composition. Mars’ weather is always changing. Wind

and dust storms are common and sometimes global. The polar ice caps change with seasonal temperature

changes. Major changes occurred some time in the past which made the surface water disappear and the

atmosphere decrease. We do not yet understand the causes of these changes.

Mars’ geology is also fascinating. Although the planet is much smaller than Earth, the scale of its major

geologic features is much larger. Mars’ volcanoes are the largest in the solar system, ten times greater than

the largest on Earth. Mars’ huge canyon, Valles Marineris, is as long as North America is wide! Mars is

divided by a global cliff into old cratered southern highlands and young volcanic northern plains. Both the

highlands and the plains have been eroded by water and wind. The two Viking landing sites in the plains

had soil compositions similar to basalts altered by water. The martian meteorites are all igneous rocks,

mostly from the young northern plains, but they contain some minor minerals in cracks and bubbles that are

products of alteration by water. There are many questions left unanswered about the geology and climate

Exploring Mars. This painting shows astronauts exploring Mars using a rover for transportation. The astronauts are

at the top cliff of a large canyon which is shrouded in mist. (Credit: Pat Rawlings)
28 Teachers Guide NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

of Mars. How has the planet changed with time? Why are the northern and southern hemispheres so

different? What caused the climate to change drastically so that the surface water and atmosphere disappeared? Is water or ice present at the poles or as permafrost? Is there convincing evidence of life, either

living organisms or fossils? These are some of the questions to be addressed by future exploration.

The exploration of Mars is a complicated and expensive endeavor. The trip to Mars takes at least six

months when the two planets are closest, which happens every two years. Ideally, Mars exploration will

include a combination of robotic and human missions. Robotic exploration is necessary in the early stages

to conduct global surveys and investigate potential sites for human exploration. Robotic missions will also

test technologies, deliver cargo, and return the first documented Mars samples. Human missions are desirable for detailed exploration of selected sites because people are best at observation, interpretation and

problem solving.

Preparation for a human mission to Mars is extensive. The mission would last about three years, including

the long trip each way and plenty of time for exploration while waiting for the planets to return to closest

approach. This extended mission requires a huge amount of consumables, both for fuel and for life

 support. The amounts can be reduced to about one third by using Mars’ resources. The selected site

should be one where water or ice is available for human use. NASA is developing technologies to produce

oxygen from the carbon dioxide in Mars’ atmosphere. This would be used for breathing, but also to power

rovers for exploration and the spacecraft for the return trip to Earth. Astronauts could grow plants for food

in greenhouses that recycle CO2 and other waste components. With habitats for shelter and rovers for

transportation, the first Mars outpost could be nearly self-sufficient. It would also be the first step in a

permanent human presence on Mars.

Once their basic needs are met the astronauts will spend part of their time on exploration and sample

analysis. They will observe geologic formations, collect rocks and soils, and look for any signs of life. In

the habitat labs they will do geochemical and biological analyses. Together with their scientific colleagues

back on Earth they will attempt to answer some of the questions about the evolution of Mars and its part in

the history of the solar system. By exploring the asteroids and planets we may be able to solve some of the

mysteries revealed by meteorites.

Mars Habitats. The joined habitats provide

the crew with multiple pressurized volumes

for conducting greenhouse experiments,

biological research, geochemical analysis

of samples, and general crew

accomodations. (Credit: Jack Frassanito)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Meteorite Fact Sheet 29

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Meteorite ABCs Fact Sheet

Major Minerals in Meteorites

Listed are the major minerals in meteorites, their composition and occurrence. Minerals are listed by group:

silicates, metal, sulfides, oxides, phosphates, and carbon compounds. Many other minerals occur in small

abundances but are not listed. Mineral compositions in meteorites and other rocks are variable, with similar

elements substituting for each other in the crystal structure (for example Mg, Fe, Ca in silicates or Mg, Fe, Cr, Al in

oxides). Variations in these mineral compositions are important in meteorite classification.

Mineral Formula or Composition Occurrence in Meteorites

Silicates stony and stony-irons

 olivine (Mg,Fe)Si2O4 chondrites, stony-irons

 pyroxene (Mg,Fe,Ca)SiO3 chondrites, achondrites, stony-irons

 feldspar CaAl2Si2O8-NaAlSi3O8 most abundant in achondrites

 clay minerals (Mg,Fe,Ca)3-6 Si4O10 (OH)2 *H2O mostly in carbonaceous chondrites

Metal abundant in irons, stony irons

 kamacite, taenite Fe (low and high Ni) common in most chondrites

Sulfides abundant in irons, stony irons

 troilite, pyrrotite FeS, Fe7S8 minor in stony meteorites

Oxides minor in most meteorites

 spinel, magnetite, chromite (Mg,Fe,Cr,Al)3 O4 composition depends on type

Phosphates

 apatite, whitlockite Ca5 (F,Cl,OH)(PO4)3, Ca2PO4 minor in stony meteorites

Carbon compounds

 diamond, graphite C (elemental carbon) carbonaceous chondrites

 organic molecules, amino acids C,H,O,N compounds carbonaceous chondrites

Meteorite Classifications

Listed are the major types and classes of meteorites, with examples of each. Major types are in bold and most

abundant classes are in italics. Minor classes are in normal font and only those discussed in text are listed. Other

sometimes more abundant classes are omitted for simplicity.

Type / Class Mineralogy / Rock Types Examples

Stony - chondrites silicate minerals, chondrules

 ordinary chondrites varied iron, metamorphism Noblesville, LEW87030,

ALH90411

 carbonaceous chondrites varied metamorphism, weathering Allende, ALH83100

Stony - achondrites silicate minerals, no chondrules

 basaltic achondrites basalt, breccia, pyroxene cumulate Juvinas, Johnstown, EET83227

 planetary- lunar

 - martian

basalt, anorthosite, breccia

basalt, pyroxene-olivine cumulate

ALHA81005, EET87521

EETA79001, Shergotty

Stony-irons metal-silicate cumulate, breccia Brenham, Estherville

Irons iron-nickel metal intergrowths Sikhote Alin, Gibeon
30 Meteorite Fact Sheet NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Meteorites in Meteorite Sample Disk

Name Location Find date mass (kg) classification

ALH90411 Allan Hills, Antarctica 1990 5.8 chondrite L3

LEW87030 Lewis Cliff, Antarctica 1987 8.0 chondrite H5

Allende Allende, Mexico 1969 1,000 carbonaceous chondrite

EET83227 Elephant Moraine, Ant. 1983 2.0 basaltic achondrite

Gibeon Namibia, Africa 1836 21,000 Iron - octahedrite

Brenham Kansas, USA 1882 4400 Stony-iron - pallastite

Descriptions of Meteorites in Meteorite Sample Disk

ALH90411 (Chondrite A) This ordinary chondrite has numerous clasts and chondrules

in a light gray matrix. It is a low-iron, non-metamorphic chondrite made up mostly of

olivine and pyroxene silicate minerals, with a little iron-nickel metal.

LEW87030 (Chondrite B) This ordinary chondrite has abundant metal and few clasts or

chondrules in a dark gray matrix. It is a high-iron, metamorphic chondrite made up of

olivine and pyroxene silicate minerals and iron-nickel metal.

Allende (Carbonaceous Chondrite) This carbonaceous chondrite is a dull black sample

with visible clasts and chondrules in hand specimen. A thin slice shows numerous small

white inclusions and chondrules in a dark carbonaceous matrix.

EET83227 (Achondrite) This basaltic achondrite is a rock made up of fragments of

various types of basaltic materials in a fine-grained matrix. A thin slice shows fragments

of different types of pyroxene-feldspar basalts and mineral fragments in a matrix of the

same minerals.

Gibeon (Iron) This iron meteorite has a fine-grained intergrown of kamacite and taenite

iron-nickel minerals. This criss-crossed intergrowth is called Widmanstatten texture and

is visible on the sawn surface that has been etched with acid.

Brenham (Stony-iron) This stony-iron meteorite is a cumulate consisting of yellow

olivine silicate crystals surrounded by iron-nickel metal. The metal has been polished and

would show a Widmanstatten texture if it were etched with acid.

We would like to thank the following organizations for providing meteorite samples for the disks:

U.S. Antarctic Meteorite Program (NSF), for ALH90411, EET83227, and LEW87030

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, for Allende and Gibeon

Field Museum of Natural History,for Brenham
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Solar System Fact Sheet 31

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Solar System ABCs Fact Sheet

Bodies in the Solar System

Listed are the Sun and bodies in the solar system that may be sources of meteorites. These include major bodies

(planets) and minor bodies (Moon, asteroids and comets). Given are the body name, diameter, orbit, and surface and

atmosphere composition. Orbital data include distance from the Sun (AU, semi-major axis), and eccentricity

(e: 0 for circular, 1.0 for parabolic, and values between are elliptical).

Body Diameter

km

Orbit

AU

Orbit

 e

Surface

Composition

Atmosphere Composition

Sun 1,400,000 -- -- none H2, He, C, N

Mercury 4,880 0.4 0.20 silicates none

Venus 12,100 0.7 0.01 silicates thick CO2

Earth 12,800 1.0 0.02 silicates, H2O medium N2, O2, H2O

Moon 3,480 1.0 silicates none

Mars 6,800 1.5 0.09 silicates, H2O,CO2 ices thin CO2

Asteroids <1,000 2.2-3.8 vary silicates, iron none

Jupiter 143,200 5.2 0.05 liquid H, silicate core thick H2, He

Saturn 120,000 9.5 0.06 liquid H, silicate core thick H2, He

Uranus 51,800 19.2 0.05 liquid H, silicate core thick H2, He, methane

Neptune 49,500 30.0 0.01 liquid H, silicate core thick H2, He, methane

Pluto 2,300 39.4 0.25 silicates very thin methane

Comets 1-10 per: 4-7

40,000

0.4-0.9

1.0

H2O, ices of methane,

ammonia, silicates

H2O, H,C,O,N compounds

Asteroids

Twenty asteroids are listed in order of distance from the Sun. Given are the asteroid number and name, year

discovered, diameter, semi-major axis of orbit, and asteroid type. The first four asteroids are Earth or Mars-crossing

and have elliptical orbits. The next 13 asteroids are all in the asteroid belt and have nearly circular orbits. These

were chosen to include the largest of the common S and C type asteroids and examples of the rarer types U, E, M.

The last three asteroids have orbits outside the asteroid belt. Hector is within the orbit of Jupiter.

Number Name Year Size km Orbit AU Type

2062 Aten 1976 0.9 0.97 S

433 Eros 1898 23 1.46 S

1862 Apollo 932 1.4 1.47 U

1221 Amor 1932 1.0 1.92 S

4 Vesta 1807 549 2.36 U

7 Iris 1847 210 2.39 S

44 Nysa 1857 73 2.42 E

6 Hebe 1847 201 2.43 S

21 Lutetia 1852 115 2.43 M

19 Fortuna 1852 215 2.44 C

3 Juno 1804 265 2.67 S

1 Ceres 1801 940 2.77 C

2 Pallas 1802 540 2.77 C

45 Eugenia 1857 228 2.72 C

16 Psyche 1852 265 2.92 M

10 Hygeia 1849 410 3.14 C

65 Cybele 1861 280 3.43 C

279 Thule 1888 60 4.26 D

624 Hector 1907 150x300 5.15 D

944 Hildago 1920 39 5.80 D

Comets and Meteor Showers

Listed are ten periodic meteor showers, their dates of

peak annual activity, and the comet associated with

each shower. Meteors are produced when the Earth

passes through the orbit of the comet and its residual

gas and dust particles burn up in the atmosphere.

Comet Shower Date

1491I Quadrantids January 3

Thatcher Lyrids April 23

Halley Aquarids May 4

Encke Taurids June 30

Swift-Tuttle Perseids August 12

Giacobini-Zinner Draconids October 9

Halley Orionids October 21

Encke Taurids November 4

Temple Leonids November 16

Phaeton Geminids December 13
32 Solar System Fact Sheet NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Evidence for Processes in the Solar System

Listed is the geologic evidence for rock-forming processes on various bodies in the solar system. Many of the

processes occurred on all planetary bodies and some asteroids. However, the geologic evidence is not always

available because it is masked by later processes.

Process Earth Moon / Mars Asteroids (meteorites)

condensation no evidence no evidence carbonaceous chondrites

accretion no evidence no evidence chondrites

differentiation core/mantle/crust anorthosites, meteorites irons, stony-irons

volcanism basalts, volcanoes mare basalts, meteorites basaltic achondrites

metamorphism metamorphic rocks lunar metamorphic rocks chondrites

weathering sedimentary rocks Mars geology, meteorites carbonaceous chondrites

impact meteorite falls, craters breccias, craters meteorites, breccias

Solar System Timeline

Listed are major events or processes in the history of the solar system as determined from the geologic or

astronomical evidence. Time is in years (y) before the present (K=thousand; M=million; B=billion). Some of the

events on the Moon are not discussed in this book, but are explained in the companion volume Exploring the Moon.

Time Where Event or Process Evidence

0 y - 4.0 By Earth volcanism, metamorphism, weathering Earth rocks, geology

3, 25, 47 y Earth falls-Noblesville, Allende, Sikhote-Alin meteorites

50 Ky Earth fall of Canyon Diablo, Meteor Crater crater, meteorite

0.1-11 My Moon impacts sent lunar meteorites to Earth lunar meteorites

0.5-16 My Mars impacts sent Mars meteorites to Earth Mars meteorites

65 My Earth K/T impact and death of dinosaurs Ir in soils, fossils

0.2-4.5 By Mars basaltic volcanism, intrusions Mars meteorites

3.2-4.3 By Moon mare basaltic volcanism lunar basalts, meteorites

3.7 By Earth first evidence of life on Earth fossils

3.9 By Moon cataclysmic bombardment breccias, craters

4.0 By Earth oldest known Earth rock Earth rocks

4.2-4.4 By Moon igneous intrusions troctolite, norite

4.2-4.55 By Asteroids metamorphism, weathering chondrites

4.4-4.5 By Moon differentiation, magma ocean anorthosites, meteorites

4.55 By Asteroids differentiation, core, mantle, crust achondrite, iron, stony-iron

4.55 By nebula solar system forms by condensation, accretion chondrites, astronomy

4.6 By nebula Sun forms from nebula astronomy, physics

>4.6 By Stars elements form in other stars astronomy, physics

~10 By Universe H, He formed by "Big Bang" astronomy, physics
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 1  Noblesville Fall 1.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 1  Noblesville Fall Mysterious

Meteorites

Objectives

Students will:

• participate in a brainstorm session that will help focus their

interest on and arouse their curiosity about meteorites.

• view a slide show that provides background information.

Background

Throughout the world meteorite falls are rare events that are

observed just a few times a year. The fall of the Noblesville

meteorite in 1991 was observed by two boys. The story of the boys

and the meteorite makes an excellent focus for the unit.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Review story and be ready to tell it like a storyteller.

2. Preview slide set and narrative.

About This Lesson

Students will listen to the

story of an actual meteorite

fall and brainstorm on what

they want to know and how

they would react. The

questions students generate

will relate directly to the

units contained in Exploring

Meteorite Mysteries and will

help teachers focus students’

attention on meteorite

investigations. After making a

list of what they want to

know, they will view a slide

show introduction to

meteorites.

Materials

❑ Noblesville Fall Narrative

(pg. 1.2)

❑ Slide Set, Introduction

❑ projector

❑ screen

❑ chalkboard or overhead

projector

Vocabulary

meteorite, fall, find, crater

Photo of boys courtesy of

M. Lipshutz.
1.2 Lesson 1  Noblesville Fall NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Classroom Procedure

1. Tell the Noblesville Fall Narrative, Part 1 with as much animation and sound effects as

possible.

2. Ask the class to put themselves in the boys’ place and tell how they would feel, what they

would want to know, and what they would do next? Brainstorm on these questions, making a

random list of responses on the board. The class could then organize the responses into

groups such as Feelings, Actions, and Questions. Some of the questions students may

express are: What is it? Where did it come from? How did it get here? What is it made of?

How did it form? What good is it? Is it dangerous?

3. Conclude the Noblesville

Fall Narrative, Part 2

about what the boys did.

4. Show slides as an

introduction to

meteorites.

Noblesville Fall Narrative

Part 1: Observation

 of the fall

It was 7:00 PM and early dusk on the summer evening of August 31, 1991, in the small town

of Noblesville, Indiana. Two boys, 13 year old Brodie Spaulding and 9 year old Brian Kinzie, had

just finished riding bikes and were standing talking on Brodie’s lawn. Suddenly they heard a lowpitched whistling sound. Then Brian saw an object spinning through the air past Brodie. The

object landed with a thud on the ground 4 meters from them and rocked as it landed. The boys

picked up the object, which appeared to be a stone, and found that it was slightly warm. It had

made a hole 5 centimeters deep in the lawn where it landed. They looked around and couldn’t find

anyone who might have thrown the stone.

Stop for class brainstorm session.

Part 2: What the boys did

What Brodie and Brian did was take the stone inside to Brodie’s parents. They decided to

call nearby Purdue University. The mystery was solved a few days later when a Purdue

professor confirmed that the rock was a meteorite. The boys let the scientists have a small

portion of the meteorite for scientific studies. Today, although meteorite dealers have offered

them several thousand dollars to buy the meteorite, the boys still own it.

The boys learned that meteorites are very special rocks that have fallen to Earth after

traveling through the solar system. They provide clues for scientific detectives to solve the

mysteries of our early solar system, the origin of the planets, and the beginning of life itself.

Noblesville Meteorite
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 2  Follow the Falling Meteorite 2.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 2  Follow the Falling Meteorite

Objectives

Students will:

• apply geometric properties and relationships to meteorite

hunting.

• demonstrate and experience the way remote objects or sites

can be accurately located by triangulation.

• use triangulation on a map, both in a directed activity and in a

group-challenge activity.

Background

Triangulation is a basic geometric technique for locating distant

objects or events by measuring the directions to an object from two

known locations. The basic premise behind triangulation is that

many of our senses can accurately determine the direction to an

object but cannot always accurately determine its distance.

However, two observers in different locations will see the object in

different directions. The two known locations of the observers form

the base of a triangle. The angles to the distant object define where

that object is located, as seen in Figure 2-1.

Triangulation is used extensively in astronomy to determine

distances or sizes of objects we cannot visit (like stars and planets).

Triangulation is a useful map and survival skill often taught in scouting and orienteering. This technique is used in surveying and in

determining the epicenter of an earthquake. It is also a good introduction to the geometry and mathematics of triangles.

About This Lesson

In the activities in this lesson

students use sound to easily

demonstrate basic triangulation techniques. They also

triangulate using a meteor’s

path to predict where

meteorites might be found.

Extended math applications

may be added. Students also

develop a treasure hunt map

in the final activity.

“Where

do they

come

from?”

Vocabulary

meteor, meteorite,

triangulation
2.2 Lesson 2  Follow the Falling Meteorite NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Lesson 2  Follow the Falling Meteorite

 Activity A: Demonstration of Triangulation

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Gather materials.

Classroom Procedure

1. Choose a student to be the listener (not hearing-impaired in

either ear), and another to make noise (bell, buzzer, pencil

tapping etc.). Make sure that the listener cannot (or will not)

see during the procedure, as by blindfolding. Have the noise

maker go to a far point in the room, moving quietly or masked

by noises made by the other students. When the room is quiet

again, have the noise maker make a sound. Repeat if necessary until the listener points at the noise maker. Almost all

students will be able to point very close to the direction of the

noise maker. [Many students have probably played the

swimming pool game “Marco Polo,” which is this same idea.]

Ask blindfolded listener to determine distance to the noise

maker. Show the students that a single listener can tell the

direction to the noise, but not always the accurate distance.

2. Chose two students to be listeners and repeat as in step 1,

keeping as much distance between them as possible. Both

listeners should be pointing fairly close to the noise maker.

Show how the location accuracy is improved. To make it

easier for students to see the triangle, try using yarn to trace

the visual lines of sight.

3. Repeat with more than two listeners if desired. A small

“target area” will usually be formed.

Materials for Activity A

❑ blindfolds for two

(optional)

❑ noise maker (anything that

makes a noise)

❑ yarn (enough to “trace”

the triangle in Activity AStep 2, or ~50 m)

About This Activity

Students will demonstrate

how to locate distant objects

or sites by triangulation.

They will use sound to show

the basic principles of

triangulation. This activity

can be done indoors or

outside.

Figure 2-1
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 2  Follow the Falling Meteorite 2.3

 Lesson 2  Follow the Falling Meteorite

 Activity B: Path and Speed of a Meteor

About This Activity

Students will track a meteor’s

path using triangulation and

predict where its meteorites

might be found. The exercise

can be extended to

calculating the velocity of a

meteor and understanding

how scientists can determine a

meteor’s original orbit in

space.

Materials for Activity B

❑ protractors

❑ rulers

❑ Student Procedure

(pgs. 2.5-2.6, one per

student)

❑ colored pencils

❑ pencils

Question Key

Section 1

Where do the two lines cross?

40-43 km East-Northeast of Drygulch Flats.

Where did the meteor explode?

In the air near where the lines crossed, or same answer as

first question.

Section 2

Where was the meteor when the spark flew?

50-52 km northeast of Bubbling Bayou, or near the

coastline by the peninsula.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Review student procedure.

2. Assemble materials.

Classroom Procedure

1. Review use of protractors, map coordinates, map scale and

units.

2. Practice several protractor readings (see example below).

3. Distribute “Student Procedure: Activity B.”

4. If desired, work the first observation measurement as a class

or on the overhead.

5. Allow students to continue working on the worksheet.

6. Discuss.

Map Teacher Key

Example
2.4 Lesson 2  Follow the Falling Meteorite NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Using the positions of the spark and the explosion, which direction was the

meteorite traveling?

North-Northwest

How far was it from where the meteorite sparked to where it exploded?

(measure with ruler)?

23-25 km

Where would you first look for meteorites that might have

fallen from the explosion?

Northeast of Drygulch Flats, near

 where the lines cross.

Section 3 (optional)

If both observers counted two

seconds between the spark and

the explosion, how fast was the

meteor going?

Approximately 43,200 km

per hour.

Extra Thinking Questions

1. Why might a meteor not produce meteorites?

The meteorite might burn up before landing.

2. Could a meteorite fall without anyone seeing a meteor? Explain.

Yes. Meteors can be small enough and slow enough that they do not make big meteor

streaks in the sky; no one saw a meteor when Noblesville fell. Also, it might fall at a time or

remote location where no one is looking.

3. How could you determine the elevations of the meteor’s sparking and its explosion?

You can calculate the height using the determined distance and the measured observed

angle above the horizon h = d Tan angle.

4. What information would you need to determine the orbit a meteorite was in before it hit the

Earth?

You would need several accurately located photo observations of the meteor with exact

time records, and data charts of Earth’s positions. (See also Lesson 4.)

Extensions

1. Try depicting this activity in 3 dimensions by providing altitude angles. Challenge students to

come up with a way of representing the true meteor location.

2. For students with a background in algebra and trigonometry, the location of the meteor spark and

explosion in Activity B can be determined mathematically using the cosine rule.

3. If possible have students observe and or photograph a meteor shower.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 2  Follow the Falling Meteorite 2.5

 Lesson 2  Follow the Falling Meteorite

 Student Procedure: Activity B

Materials

❑ ruler ❑ protractor ❑ pencil ❑ colored pencils

Path and Speed of a Meteor

Using the map provided, you will be led through the procedures of triangulating the

path and explosion of a meteor and determining a likely area to look for meteorites.

Review the use of a protractor if necessary.

Section 1. The attached map shows the location of two people when they saw

the meteor. The observer in Drygulch Flats was looking 80° East of North

when she saw the meteor explode.

— From Drygulch Flats, measure an angle 80° E from the dashed N-S

reference line, mark the angle, and with a colored pencil draw a long line

from Drygulch Flats through the mark you made.

The observer in Bubbling Bayou was looking in a direction 40° East of North

when he saw the meteor explode.

— From Bubbling Bayou measure an angle 40° E from the dashed N-S

reference line, mark the angle. Using the same color pencils draw a long

line from Bubbling Bayou through the mark you made.
2.6 Lesson 2  Follow the Falling Meteorite NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Questions

Where do the two lines cross?

Where did the meteor explode?

Section 2. Both observers also saw the meteor shed a spark some time before it

exploded (assume the meteor’s path was horizontal). The observer in

Drygulch Flats was looking in a direction 110° East of North when she saw

the spark fly.

— Using the same technique as in step 1 and a different color pencil,

draw a long line from Drygulch Flats in that direction.

The observer in Bubbling Bayou was looking in a direction 60° East of North

when he saw the spark fly.

— Draw a long line from Bubbling Bayou in that direction.

Questions

Where was the meteor when the spark flew?

Using the positions of the spark and the explosion, which direction was the

meteorite traveling?

How far was it from where the meteor sparked to where it exploded?

(measure with ruler)

Where would you first look for meteorites that might have fallen from the

explosion?

Section 3. Determine how fast the meteor was going. If both observers counted

2 seconds between the spark and the explosion, how fast was the meteor going

(in km/hr)?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 2  Follow the Falling Meteorite 2.7

 Lesson 2  Follow the Falling Meteorite

 Activity C: Meteorite Treasure Hunt

About This Activity

This triangulation activity can

be done as a treasure hunt

game using a map of your

local community, county, or

state. Each team creates

directions that allow another

team to determine the fall site.

Materials for Activity C

❑ copies of local or regional

map (two per team)

❑ colored pencils

❑ paper

❑ protractor (per team)

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Have copies of local or regional maps for each team.

Classroom Procedure

1. Decide where on the map the two observers would be.

Divide the class into teams and give each team two copies of

the map.

2. Each team chooses a meteorite fall spot, and marks it with a

dot on one map. Determine what direction the observers

would have had to look to see the meteorite fall point. Draw

lines from the fall point to where each observer is stationed.

Measure the angle those lines make with North. At the

bottom of the second map or a piece of paper, record these

angles for use by another team.

3. Each team passes their list of angles to another team so that

they have “look directions” for a new meteorite fall. Then

use triangulation as in Activity B to determine where the

meteorite fell. This could be done as a race or as an

accuracy contest. After teams are finished, they can

compare their fall location with the original maps.

Extensions

1. Outside, set up treasure hunt so that students learn to use a

magnetic compass.

2. Place a ball bearing in a field to represent a meteorite.

Provide a map of the field and triangulation observation angles.

Have students attempt to find the “meteorite.”
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 3  Searching for Meteorites 3.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 3  Searching for Meteorites “Where

do they

come

from?”

About This Lesson

Water balloons filled with

flour and pebbles help

students model the distribution

of materials after meteorite

impacts. The flour simulates

the ejected crater material and

the pebbles represent the

meteorite fragments.

Students will use the model to

draw conclusions about where

it would be easiest to find

meteorites.

Vocabulary

meteorite, ejecta, terrain,

velocity, impact

Objectives

Students will:

• perform a demonstration of meteorite impacts with water

balloons.

• assess various terrains for meteorite recovery using

geography skills.

• attempt to recover simulated meteorite fragments.

• make experimental predictions.

• graph experimental results and draw conclusions.

Background

Finding meteorites is quite difficult because most meteorites look like

Earth rocks to the casual or untrained eye. Even to the trained eye,

recognizing meteorites can be difficult. In many cases

meteorites break apart into many fragments as they pass through the

atmosphere or impact the Earth. These smaller fragments are harder

to find than one large meteorite. Meteorites are rarely found in forests

or fields, where they become lost or buried among the plants. In

rocky areas, meteorites are hard to find because they tend to be dull

black, gray or white, and do not stand out among the much more

common Earth rocks (see Meteorite Sample Disk if available). Iron

meteorites are the exception. There are few natural sources of metal

except meteorites. Old iron implements can be (and often are) mistaken for meteorites. In many cases, a chemical analysis is required

to distinguish a meteorite from an Earth rock.

In their experiments, students will likely discover that

good places to retrieve meteorites are

surfaces that have no similar rocks, are very

flat, have a contrasting background, and do

not have thick vegetation. These conditions

are best met on Earth by the polar ice cap in

Antarctica, where in fact, thousands of

meteorites have been found since 1969.

Lots of meteorites are also found in deserts,

especially in the Sahara and in southern

Australia, where there are flat areas with few

other rocks.
3.2 Lesson 3  Searching for Meteorites NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Materials

Per Student

❑ Student Procedure and

Data Table (pgs. 3.3-3.5)

❑ 1 balloon (round balloons

work best)

❑ 0.1 liter flour (1/2 cup)

❑ 10 to 20 small pebbles

(colored aquarium rocks

work well)

❑ graph paper

Per Group or

Classroom

❑ water faucet to fill balloon

❑ funnel (one per group)

❑ measuring cup

❑ thin stick or skewer Extensions

1. Vary the exercise by using a variety of materials, chart all data,

and rewrite the activity, making it more effective.

2. Dramatize the impact and scatter pattern of pebbles, using

students as pebbles and doing the dramatization in slow motion.

3. On a world map have students predict where meteorites might

easily be found.

4. Lesson 18 could be used to extend the Antarctic meteorite team

information.

5. Show Antarctic slides (available from NASA, see page iv).

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Assemble materials.

2. Practice filling balloon with flour and check for appropriate

locations to conduct impacts.

Classroom Procedure

1. Distribute Student Procedure and Data Table.

2. Discuss background and intent for activity (why and how).

3. Look at (or discuss) selected impact sites prior to predicting

on Student Procedure.

4. Have students collect materials.

5. Follow Student Procedure.

6. Discuss results and lead to conclusions that Antarctica and

deserts are likely the easiest places to find meteorites.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 3  Searching for Meteorites 3.3

Procedure

Designate Groups

This activity is designed to be done in groups of 3-4 students. Although each

student launches (throws) a balloon filled with water and pebbles, students

should work as a group to choose areas, make predictions, record observations,

and draw conclusions.

Designate Target Areas

Working with your teacher, find 3-4 locations of various surfaces where balloons

filled with water and pebbles can be exploded. Surfaces commonly found at a

school site are concrete pavement, long jump pit or other sand pit, grassy area,

gravel, pebble, or shell surface, asphalt pavement, snow, ice, and water. Be sure

to get permission to use all areas.

Classroom Procedure

1. Gather all equipment.

2. Choose or assign terrain targets for each student.

3. Record information on Data Table.

4. Make predictions and record on Data Table.

Per Group or Classroom

❑ water faucet

❑ funnel

❑ measuring cup

❑ thin stick or skewer

Lesson 3  Searching for Meteorites

Student Procedure

Materials

Per Student

❑ Student Procedure and Data Table

❑ 1 balloon

❑ 0.1 liter flour (1/2 cup)

❑ 10 to 20 small pebbles

❑ graph paper
3.4 Lesson 3  Searching for Meteorites NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

5. Place a funnel in the neck of a balloon. Fill balloon with approximately

0.1 liter (1/2 cup) of flour. Flour tends to pack, so it should be poured into

the funnel slowly. A thin stick may be used to keep the flour flowing, but do

not puncture the balloon.

6. Add pebbles one at a time, noting number of pebbles and color.

7. Fill balloon 3/4 full with water. Do not shake the balloon. Be sure to tie

the balloon securely. This step must be done just before going outside to

launch the balloons.

8. Launch balloons one at a time in designated areas. You may throw the

balloon at an angle, lob them or throw them straight up so that they impact

vertically. Remember to work as a group. Record observations at your launch

site quickly then move to the next launch. When the group launches are

complete, individuals return to their impact site to finish the sketch of their

scatter pattern.

9. Clean up all balloon fragments and leave impact areas as clean as possible.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 3  Searching for Meteorites 3.5

Name: Other Team members:

Date:

Individual Launch Information

Balloon Filling

pebbles (note number and color)

water volume (estimate)

flour volume

predict number and colors of pebbles

that you will recover

Launch Site Description

(note terrain, estimate wind direction, and wind speed)

Launch Specifics

impact angle (estimate)

impact direction

impact velocity (fast-slow)

sketch impact site in the space at right

number(s) and colors of pebbles recovered

Team Launch Data

list different terrains below pebbles pebbles pebbles explain

other variables

(predict if you think it will be # launched # recovered % recovered (wind or height, etc.)

easy or hard to find the pebbles) and colors and colors

example: ice easy 8 6 75% building blocked wind

Searching for Meteorites: Data Table

2 red, 1 blue,

5 green

2 red, 1 blue,

3 green
3.6 Lesson 3  Searching for Meteorites NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Graph

Make a graph of the percentage of pebbles recovered from each impact surface.

Note how the data compares to your predictions. Include data from different colors

of pebbles if available.

Questions

Based on your data, which surface was the easiest for pebble recovery? Why?

Did this match your predictions?

What kind of land surface might be most productive for searching for meteorites?

Why?

How is the scatter pattern affected: by the ground surface? by the angle of impact?

How might a scientist use this type of information to help locate meteorites?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection 4.1

“Where

do they

come

from?”

Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid

Connection: Orbits in the Inner

Solar System

Objectives

In Activity A students will:

• draw circles and ellipses to illustrate basic shapes of orbits

in the solar system.

• define an elliptical orbit from three of its points (optional).

In Activity B students will:

• construct a scale model of the inner solar system including:

the Sun, the inner planets, the asteroid belt, and the orbits of

a few selected asteroids.

• observe relative distances and sizes within the inner solar

system.

• plot the paths meteoroids might take in traveling from the

asteroid belt to the Earth.

• manipulate models to demonstrate the concept of the ecliptic

plane, and discover that some asteroids do not orbit in the

ecliptic plane (upper grades).

(For Advanced Students)

In Activity C students will:

• graph the locations of the Earth and a near-Earth asteroid.

• observe from the graph that both time and location in space

are important.

• estimate when an asteroid would cross the Earth’s orbit.

About This Lesson

This lesson allows students to

understand how meteorites get

from the asteroid belt to Earth

and how rare it is for the Earth

to be hit by a large asteroid.

The students will build an

exact-scale model of the inner

solar system; the scale allows

the model to fit within a

normal classroom and also

allows the representation of

Earth to be visible without

magnification. Students will

chart where most asteroids

are, compared to the Earth,

and see that a few asteroids

come close to the Earth.

Students will see that the solar

system is mostly empty space

unlike the way it appears on

most charts and maps.

Higher grade students can

extend the activities as a

transition to astronomy.

Vocabulary

ellipse, orbit, astronomer,

asteroid, asteroid belt, ecliptic

plane, retrograde

Not to Scale!
4.2 Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Background

To appreciate the Earth in respect to meteorites and asteroids in the solar system, it is

important to know the configuration of the inner solar system, including the proper relative sizes and

distances of objects. Most charts of the solar system show the planets’ orbits at a different scale from

the planets, so that the solar system appears as large planets close together. The student gets an

incorrect impression of how far it is to other planets, how small planets are compared to the

distances between them, and how small the Earth is as a target for meteorite impacts. The exact scale

model of the inner solar system, from the Sun through the asteroid belt, will allow the student to

appreciate the sizes and distances pertinent to these exercises (information in Tables 2 and 4).

Most meteorites are thought to be broken fragments of asteroids — small “planets” or bodies of

rock or ice orbiting around the Sun. The largest asteroid is Ceres, 940 km in diameter, much smaller

than our Moon (3,500 km diameter). Ceres was the first asteroid discovered (in 1801), and about

6,000 have been discovered since then. Asteroids are so small that telescopes on Earth can see them

only as points of light. Recently the Galileo spacecraft passed close

to the asteroids Gaspra and Ida and sent us pictures of them. Both

are irregular masses of rock, seemingly broken and covered with

impact craters. As indicated by their colors

(reflectance spectra), most asteroids are mixtures of metal and silicate

minerals, possibly like chondrite meteorites. A few are made of

basalt rock, just like the basalt meteorites (example: 1983RD in this

lesson).

Most asteroids orbit in the asteroid belt between 2.2 and 3.2

times the Earth’s distance from the Sun; their orbits are ellipses,

oval-shaped curves that carry them nearer and farther from the Sun.

Only a few asteroids follow orbits that get near the Earth, and these

asteroids are probably the sources of some meteorites.

An asteroid that crosses the Earth’s orbit could collide with the

Earth and cause a devastating impact explosion. About 200 of these

Earth crossing asteroids are known, and it is estimated that 20-40

percent of them will collide with the Earth over the next million

years. No known asteroid will hit the Earth for at least 200 years.

We will likely have many years of warning before an asteroid

collision like this, and the students will see from the solar system

model that the Earth is really a very small target. But when there

are a million shots, over a long time, one is likely to hit.

To hunt for asteroids, astronomers photograph the night sky, and

look for “stars” that move compared to real stars. A long exposure

photograph would show a background of stars as spots, with a

streak from an asteroid, due to the

asteroid’s motion across the sky. To

discover the orbit of an asteroid, it is

not necessary to observe the asteroid as

it follows its whole orbit; knowing its

location a few times, over several

weeks or months, is sufficient.

Asteroids Can Have

Three Names!

When one is found, it is given

a temporary name, like

1983RD, showing what year

it was found. After the

asteroid’s orbit is known well,

it gets a number and can be

given a ‘real’ name by the

person who found it. The

names of the asteroids in this

lesson are “1 Ceres,” “1566

Icarus,” and “3551 1983RD.”

The last doesn’t have a ‘real’

name yet. Asteroid names

come mostly from mythology, but also include famous

people, including: “3352

McAuliffe” (after Christa

McAuliffe, the teacher/

astronaut who was killed

when the Space Shuttle

Challenger exploded), “2266

Tschaikovsky” (after the

Russian composer), “1744

Paavo Nurmi” (after a

Finnish marathon runner),

“1569 Evita” (after Evita

Perón, wife of ex-president

Juan Perón of Argentina), and

“2578 Saint-Exupéry” (after

the author of “The Little

Prince”).
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection 4.3

Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection

Activity A: Drawing Circles and Ellipses

Classroom Procedure

Part 1. Drawing a Circle. Have each group of students stick

one pushpin into the center of their cardboard sheet. Put the

loop of string around the pushpin, put the point of the pencil

within the loop, and draw the loop tight with the pencil tip

(not so tight as to pull out the pin!). Draw a line with the

pencil, keeping the string tight. The pencil line will be a

circle around the pushpin.

Part 2. Drawing Ellipses. Have each group of students stick

two pushpins into their cardboard sheet near its center, placing

the pins 10-15 cm apart. Put the loop of string around both

pushpins, and carefully draw the loop tight with the pencil tip

forming a triangle. Draw with the pencil, keeping the string

tight around both pins. The pencil line will be an oval, or

ellipse. Students may experiment with different distances

between pins and different lengths of string. Optional: paper

may be taped to the cardboard if desired.

Objectives

Students will:

• draw circles and ellipses to illustrate basic shapes of orbits

in the solar system.

• define an elliptical orbit from three of its points (optional).

Procedures

Advanced Preparation

1. The instructor should prepare a loop of string, approximately

40 cm in circumference, for each group. Additional

loops of string of different sizes may be used

for experimentation. See figure below.

2. Practice drawing ellipses.

About This Activity

In this activity, students will

learn how to draw circles and

ellipses using a pencil,

pushpins and string. They

will learn what an ellipse is,

how it is different from a

circle, and how an astronomer

can determine the elliptical

orbit of an asteroid.

Materials for Activity A

❑ poster board or cardboard,

about 60 cm x 60 cm,

thick enough to hold a

pushpin (old science fair

trifolds work), one for

each group

❑ tracing paper, about 60 cm

x 60 cm, one or more for

each group

❑ pushpins, 6 per group

❑ pencil/pen

❑ string

❑ scissors

push pin = foci

string
4.4 Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Part 3. Find the Asteroid Orbits. The orbits of asteroids are ellipses, not circles, around the Sun.

Astronomers can figure out the whole elliptical orbit of an asteroid by knowing just three points

in the orbit. In this activity, a team will draw an ellipse, and another team will work like

astronomers to try to reconstruct that ellipse knowing only the locations of three points and the

“Sun.” It is important that all the teams have strings of the same length.

Have each team draw an orbit for an asteroid on their cardboard by drawing an ellipse

(Part 2), and designating one pushpin as the “Sun.” Have each team remove the pushpins,

place the tracing paper over the orbit drawing, tack the tracing paper to the cardboard at the

corners, and using a pen, mark on the tracing paper the “Sun” position and three points on the

orbit ellipse (do not draw the entire ellipse). These three “data points” represent observations

made by astronomers which are used to plot the orbit of an asteroid. See figures below.

Teams label their ellipses, trade tracing papers, tack their new paper down at the

corners, and put a pushpin in at the “Sun” position. Each team of “astronomers” then tries to

find a placement for the second pushpin, so that an ellipse drawn with their loop passes through

the three points on the tracing paper. When complete, compare with the original group’s ellipse

that includes the three data points.

Questions

1. How are ellipses different from circles?

2. What shape is drawn when the pushpins are right next to each other?

Extensions

1. If you wanted to describe an ellipse to another person, what would you say? (length of string,

length of ellipse, breadth of ellipse, orientation) What more would you need if the ellipse could be

in the air oriented in any way?

 2. Part 3 can be extended by having the asteroid orbits drawn with different lengths of string, and

having each “astronomer” team determine the string length in addition to the location of the second

pin.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection 4.5

About This Activity

In this activity, the class will

learn how meteorites and

asteroids travel from the

asteroid belt to the Earth. The

focus here is on

construction of an exact scale

model of the inner solar

system (Sun to asteroid belt),

including some asteroids that

might hit the Earth. At the

given scale (which can be

expanded or reduced), the

model will fit on a 1.2 m x 1.2

m piece of cardboard or poster

board, and the Earth will be

just large enough to be seen.

Materials for Activity B

❑ 1.2 m square or larger piece

of corrugated cardboard

(refrigerator box?) or very

stiff posterboard

❑ 60 cm x 30 cm piece of

corrugated cardboard or

very stiff poster board

(upper grades)

❑ pushpins, two per group

❑ colored and regular pencils

❑ string, or loops of string in

the lengths indicated in

Table 1

❑ scissors, ruler, and

protractor

❑ clay-dough (or similar

substance) in yellow

or white

❑ magazines with colored

pictures

❑ Table 1 (pg. 4.6) and Table 2

(pg. 4.7) from this lesson

Optional for upper grades

❑ razor knife or other knife

(to be used only with

supervision)

Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection

Activity B: The Long and Winding Road

to Earth

Objectives

Students will:

• construct a scale model of the inner solar system including:

the Sun, the inner planets, the asteroid belt, and the orbits of a

few selected asteroids.

• construct circular and elliptical planetary orbits.

• conclude that the relative sizes of the Sun and the inner

planets are often misrepresented.

• observe relative distances and sizes within the inner solar

system.

• plot the paths meteoroids might take in traveling from the

asteroid belt to the Earth.

• observe that the Earth is a very small target.

• manipulate models to demonstrate the concept of the ecliptic

plane and discover that some asteroids do not orbit in the

ecliptic plane (upper grades).

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Gather materials, prepare string loops ahead if desired.

2. Practice procedure.

Classroom Procedure

1. Preparation of the Board.

Mark the center of the large sheet of cardboard; this will be

the Sun’s location. Draw a circle 1.8-2 mm diameter around

the point; this is the scaled diameter of the Sun. If the exact

orientations of orbits are desired for upper grades, draw a light

reference pencil line from the Sun’s center toward a side;

angles for orientations of elliptical orbits will be

measured from this line.

2. Prepare Strings.

A loop of string is needed for each orbit. The instructor may

prepare the loops ahead of time; or student teams may

measure, cut, and knot a loop for their own orbit. To keep
4.6 Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

the proper scale, use the string lengths in Table 1. If the loop turns out too long, it can be

shortened with an overhand knot.

3. Draw the Orbits.

Each student team should draw their orbit on the cardboard, using the pin(s) and string technique in Activity A, Part 2 and the data of Table 1; lower grades include the asteroid Icarus

here, upper grades may do Icarus separately (See optional section below—Asteroid Icarus in

the Third Dimension.).

Circular orbits require one pin at the Sun position. Elliptical orbits require two pins each: one at the

Sun and the other at the distance from the Sun shown in Table 1. The ellipses may be oriented at

any convenient angle on the board; to make the model exact, the second pins should be oriented at

the angles in Table 1 from the pencil line drawn in Part 1 (exact orientations are not used later). See

illustration on page 19 in the Teacher’s Guide. To draw the orbit of the Earth’s moon, pick a point

on the Earth’s orbit to be the Earth’s position. Around that point, draw a circle of 5 mm radius (10

mm or 1 cm diameter) to represent the Moon’s orbit.

Table 1. Drawing Orbits in Scale Model

4. Adding the Sun and Planets.

To complete the model, add the Sun and planets at the same scale as their orbits. Real and toscale diameters are given in Table 2. At this scale the Sun should be a ball just under

2 mm diameter, about the size of a BB or a ball bearing from a bicycle.

The Earth and Venus should be 1/50 mm across, which is almost invisible; smaller than a grain

of salt or a pin-prick in paper (~1/5 mm), and about the thickness of standard copier paper. A

single dot out of a half-tone print (as in a magazine) is about 3 times too large, but gives the
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection 4.7

right idea of scale. The individual dots in a half-tone print can be seen with a 5 or 10X

magnifying glass. The Moon, Mercury, Mars and the asteroids are too small to be visible at

this scale!

5. Discussion.

Encourage students to share their observations about size and scale as they construct and view

the scale model. Help students to observe that there is mostly open space in the solar system.

Lead students to the observation that Earth is a small moving target and is not frequently hit by

large impacting asteroids or comets.

Table 2. Real and Scaled Diameters of Solar System Objects

6. Optional - Upper Grades

Asteroid Icarus in the Third Dimension. The orbits of all the planets (except Pluto) and most

of the asteroids are nearly in the same plane, the ecliptic plane. In the model, the ecliptic plane

is the main cardboard. The asteroid Icarus orbits outside the ecliptic, and so provides an

exercise in three-dimensional geometry.

On a separate piece of cardboard, draw an ellipse following the method of Activity A with the

string length and pin distance for Icarus from Table 1. Cut out the ellipse. Draw a straight

pencil line through the pin holes from one end of the ellipse to the other. Select one pin hole to

be the Sun’s location. Draw a straight pencil line through the Sun pin hole at a 30° angle to the

end-to-end line; this last line is at the intersection of Icarus’s ellipse and the ecliptic plane.

Measure and write down the lengths of this intersection line on both sides of the Sun hole; the

distances will not be the same. In the ellipse, cut out a hole about 1 cm diameter around the

Sun point.

On the main solar system board, cut a slit through the Sun position as long as the intersection

line, so that the Sun point on the main board and the Sun hole in the Icarus ellipse can

coincide. The slit may be at any convenient orientation; to make the model exact, cut the slit at

an angle of 87° clockwise from the reference line, with the shorter part of the slit pointing to

87° and the longer part pointing to 273°.
4.8 Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

To attach the Icarus ellipse to the main board, insert the Sun end of the ellipse into the slit from

below the main board. Adjust the ellipse so that the intersection line is at the main board, and

the Sun point of the main board and the Sun hole on the ellipse coincide. Tape in place along

the intersection line.

Finally, tilt the Icarus ellipse (flexing the tape along the intersection line) so that its plane makes

a 25° angle to the main board (ecliptic plane). Tape or wire in place. Reinforce as needed to

correct possible sagging.

Extensions

1. Who was Icarus? Why name this particular asteroid after him? Another asteroid with a similar

orbit is named Phaethon. Who was Phaethon, and why might an asteroid be named after him?

2. At the scale of this model, a light year (the distance light travels in a year) is about 12.1 km. In this

model, how far from the Sun would it be to the nearest star, Proxima Centauri at 4.3 light years

distance? (52 km) How far to the nearest star visible in the Northern Hemisphere, Sirius at 8 light

years distance? (96.8 km) At this scale, how far away is the center of our Milky Way galaxy at

30,000 light years distance? (363,000 km) How is this image of the distances between stars

different from the images shown in TV shows or movies about space? (Space is more empty and

much larger than it is usually depicted.) (See Table 3 for additional information.)

3. View the video “Powers of 10.”

Table 3. Solar System and Nearest Star at this Scale

Distances are averages from Sun, except for Earth’s Moon* which is from Earth.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection 4.9

Objectives

Students will:

• graph the locations of the Earth and a near-Earth asteroid.

• observe from the graph that both time and location in space

are important.

• estimate when an asteroid would cross the Earth’s orbit.

• determine if a collision would take place.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Have materials ready. Instructor may prepare the papers and

the circular Earth orbit as in Part 1. Use a string, 30 cm knot

to knot. The instructor may choose to draw the Earth orbit

with a pushpin and string, or any other method. Distances in

Table 4 assume that the Earth orbit is 30 cm diameter, and can

be scaled for other sizes.

Classroom Procedure

1. Get Set . . . (Earth’s orbit)

Each team should mark the Sun point at the center of its

paper, and a pencil line from the Sun extending 30 cm in any

direction. This will be the reference line from which angles

are measured (see diagram below).

2. Go! (Graphing orbits)

Each team should graph the orbit of the Earth and the orbit of

one asteroid on their paper. To draw an orbit from the numbers in Table 4, begin with a single time at the left of the

Table 4. On that line in the Table, read the angle and

distance for that time in the orbit.

On the large piece of paper, use a protractor to measure the

angle (clockwise) from the Sun and the reference line, and

draw a line at that angle. Measure outward along that line to

the distance listed in the table, and draw a mark at that distance (color-coded, perhaps). Label the mark with the month

and half-month.

After all the points are graphed and labeled, connect them

freehand to make a smooth curve. The points may not make

a full orbit.

About This Activity

For Advanced Students

Even if the orbit of an

asteroid crosses the orbit of

the Earth, there may be no

collision if the asteroid and

Earth are at different places in

their orbits. In this

exercise, each group of

students will graph orbit

positions of the Earth and an

asteroid. Students will

compare their results, and see

which asteroid makes the

closest approach.

Materials for Activity C

❑ Kraft or butcher paper,

approx. 60 cm x 60 cm for

each group

❑ pencil/pen (colored pencils

optional)

❑ rulers, one per group

❑ protractors, one per group

❑ Table 4 (pg. 4.11)

Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection

Activity C: Collision Course

Graphing Asteroid Orbits
4.10 Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

3. And the Winner Is . . .

Each team should then estimate when (month number and a fraction) their asteroid crosses the

Earth’s orbit. Then, each team should measure the closest approach between their

asteroid and the Earth, by measuring the distance between corresponding time steps in their

orbits. Which asteroid comes closest to hitting the Earth? How close does the closest

asteroid really come to the Earth?

The scale here is 1 cm = 10,000,000 kilometers, and the Earth (to scale) would be 1/100 mm.

Note: This scale is not the same as in Activity B!

Extensions

1. The speed of an asteroid

(distance/time) can be

estimated here as the

distance between

successive points from

Table 4. How does the

speed of an asteroid change

as it goes through its orbit

(perhaps students could

graph speed versus distance from the Sun)? How fast is each asteroid going as it passes Earth’s orbit? If the asteroid(s)

hit the Earth, would the differences in speed have any effect on the force of the impact or the size

of a resulting crater? (See Lesson 6)

2. The distance between the Earth and an asteroid depends on the relative positions of both the

asteroid and the Earth. Tabulate the distances between the Earth and the asteroids through time

and make graphs of distance versus time. Why do the graphs have hills and valleys?

3. Astronomers have to know where in the sky to look for asteroids in order to study them. They

measure directions in the sky as angles compared to a reference direction, just as on the

drawings in Activity C. To find out where in the sky you would look for your team’s asteroid, pick

a time point for the Earth, and draw a line through that point parallel to your reference line (that

goes through the Sun). Draw another line from the Earth to the asteroid’s position at that time

point. Measure and write down the angle between these two lines; this is the direction (the longitude) in the sky you would have to look (to an astronomer, the “right ascension”). For your team’s

asteroid, tabulate the directions you would have to look from Earth, and graph that angle versus

time. Does your asteroid appear to move at a constant speed in the sky? Do any of the asteroids

appear to move backwards (retrograde motion)?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 4  The Meteorite-Asteroid Connection 4.11

Table 4. Distances from Sun and Angles from Reference Line for Earth and Asteroids Asteroid 1 = Castalia, (0 month is 1.5 months after perihelion at 0° ) Asteroid 2 = Cerebrus, (oriented so perihelion is on-line with Earth and Sun) Asteroid 3 = Antinous, (starting 71 half-months after perihelion) Asteroid 4 = Hephiastos, (starting at perihelion, but turned to retrograde orbit) Asteroid 5 = Nereus, (arranged for a near-miss) Asteroid 6 = Oljato, (starting at 51 half-months after perihelion, angle advanced by 85°) Earth Asteroid 1 Asteroid 2 Asteroid 3 Asteroid 4 Asteroid 5 Asteroid 6 Month Dist Angle Dist Angle Dist Angle Dist Angle Dist Angle Dist Angel Dist Angle 0 15 cm 0o 8.4 cm 0o 23.7 cm 322o 30.6 cm 195o 55.4 cm 50o 23.6 cm 56o 51.1 cm 261o 1 15 cm 30o 10.8 cm 72o 23.5 cm 333o 27.0 cm 205o 53.9 cm 48o 21.4 cm 71o 49.5 cm 264o 2 15 cm 60o 14.8 cm 110o 22.6 cm 344o 23.1 cm 218o 52.1 cm 46o 19.0 cm 90o 47.7 cm 267o 3 15 cm 90o 18.2 cm 133o 20.8 cm 356o 19.2 cm 236o 50.1 cm 44o 16.7 cm 115o 45.6 cm 270o 4 15 cm 120o 20.7 cm 149o 18.2 cm 11o 15.6 cm 263o 47.7 cm 42o 15.0 cm 146o 43.2 cm 273o 5 15 cm 150o 22.4 cm 162o 14.7 cm 30o 13.4 cm 303o 45.1 cm 40o 14.6 cm 182o 40.4 cm 277o 6 15 cm 180o 23.3 cm 174o 10.8 cm 59o 14.1 cm 347o 42.0 cm 37o 15.5 cm 216o 37.4 cm 282o 7 15 cm 210o 23.3 cm 185o 8.6 cm 113o 17.2 cm 21o 38.6 cm 33o 17.5 cm 245o 33.9 cm 288o 8 15 cm 240o 22.5 cm 197o 11.1 cm 192o 21.0 cm 43o 34.7 cm 29o 19.9 cm 276o 30.1 cm 294o 9 15 cm 270o 20.9 cm 210o 15.0 cm 244o 25.0 cm 59o 30.3 cm 24o 22.2 cm 285o 25.8 cm 303o 10 15 cm 300o 18.5 cm 225o 18.4 cm 272o 28.8 cm 70o 25.2 cm 17o 24.4 cm 299o 20.9 cm 316o 11 15 cm 330o 15.2 cm 247o 20.9 cm 290o 32.2 cm 79o 19.1 cm 6o 26.2 cm 311o 15.6 cm 338o 12 15 cm 0o 11.2 cm 283o 22.7 cm 304o 35.4 cm 86o 11.9 cm 342o 27.7 cm 321o 10.7 cm 21o 13 15 cm 30o 8.5 cm 352o 23.6 cm 317o 38.3 cm 92o 5.4 cm 240o 28.8 cm 331o 10.0 cm 94o
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids 5.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids

Objectives

Students will:

• gather data by observing, measuring, and manipulating

objects.

• record observations, analyze data and draw analogies.

• compare samples of similar materials.

• measure and record the brightness of light in a spectrum

produced from a prism.

• discover that white light is composed of the spectrum of

colors and that some light is invisible to the human eye.

• participate in introductory quantitative spectroscopy

experiments.

• set up and conduct an experiment to analyze reflected light.

• recognize that different materials reflect different

proportions of incident light.

About This Lesson

This lesson is about the

connection between meteorites

and asteroids. The activities

in this lesson focus on ways to

look at asteroids because

some scientists think that

some meteorites are fragments

of asteroids. The lesson

centers on remote sensing

techniques using light. Students consider the

brightness (reflectivity),

textures, and colors of

materials.

The lesson is arranged as

three work stations, an optional station, and a central

station with the Meteorite

Sample Disk. The Meteorite

Sample Disk or photographs

of the meteorites must be

available so students may

examine the meteorite samples

in light of the experimental

results at each station. This

lesson could be done simultaneously by four separate

groups, one for each station,

as no station relies on the

results of another. All stations

except Station 1 could be used

as independent exercises.

“Where

do they

come

from?”

Asteroid Ida
5.2 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Background

Most meteorites that land on Earth are thought to come from the asteroid belt. The connection

between meteorites and asteroids was suggested as soon as the asteroid belt was discovered.

Asteroids come in many sizes, from 900 km down to the limits of visibility in Earth based telescopes

at about 1 km. Astronomers assume that there are abundant dust size asteroid fragments also.

It is almost certain that some meteorites came from asteroids. We know this because some meteorite

orbits have been traced to the asteroid belt. Scientists have learned this by triangulating meteorite

orbits from photographs of meteors.

Many meteors are linked to comets. Yearly meteor showers occur as the Earth passes through the

debris left by passing comets. But no meteorites are known to have come from meteor showers.

Scientists think this is because the meteors in showers are made mostly of ice and dust, which melt

and vaporize when they encounter the Earth’s atmosphere. However, someday scientists may find

meteorites from comets.

There are many different kinds of meteorites, as shown in the Meteorite Sample Disk, and scientists

wondered if there might also be different kinds of asteroids. Since we have not yet sampled

asteroids directly, scientists have had to rely on telescopic measurements of the

colors (spectra) of asteroids. In spectroscopy studies, light from asteroids

(reflected sunlight) is taken into the telescope, directed through a prism

or diffraction grating, and spread out into its spectrum. Then the

scientists measure how bright the light is at each color (wavelength) in the spectrum. These reflection spectra can be

characteristic of certain minerals or metals on the asteroid

surface, or even indicate the presence of water ice. In

this way, astronomers can estimate the composition

of asteroids and try to correlate them with

meteorites.

There are asteroid color spectra types that seem to

be similar to most types of meteorites, including

some chondrites, some achondrites, irons, and stony

irons. But there are many types of asteroids with

spectra that do not correspond to spectra of known

meteorites. Perhaps there are many more kinds of

materials in the asteroid belt just waiting to fall as

meteorites. On the other hand, there may be

effects on the surfaces of asteroids that change

their colors in ways we do not now understand.

Additional information is available in the

Teacher’s Guide and in the background

sections of Lesson 4 (pg. 4.2) and

Lesson 17 (pg. 17.1).
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids 5.3

 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids

 Station 1: Meteorite Sample Disk

About This Station

The meteorites are used to

reinforce student’s observation

and deduction skills.

Materials for Station 1

❑ Meteorite Sample Disk

❑ magnifier

❑ binocular microscope

(optional)

 Station 2: Test Your Metal

About This Station

By looking at iron metal and

then making very small iron

filings, students will observe

how different something can

be when different sizes and

surface treatments are viewed.

Careful observations of the

meteorites will reveal that the

metal looks different from

sample to sample.

Materials for Station 2

❑ large nail or small piece of

metal piping

❑ metal file

❑ one sheet of white paper

❑ Lab Sheet (pg. 5.9)

❑ Questions (pg. 5.11)

❑ magnifier

(optional)

❑ pencil/pen

Objective

Students will:

• observe, and

compare meteorites.

Procedure

Students will proceed to this

station to answer questions

from other stations.

Objectives

Students will:

• observe and compare samples of metal and record their

observations.

• prepare samples for observation.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Set up station with nail and file, a sheet of white paper, and a

magnifying glass.

Classroom Procedure

1. Students examine the nail or metal pipe. Have one student

in each group file the nail or metal pipe until they have a

small pile of fine filings. Students examine the iron filings

(without spilling or losing them) noting their size, shape,

and color. Particularly note the variations of color. Students

should take notes on their observations in their lab notebook

or on the Lab Sheet. Answer questions found on separate

sheet after experiment.

2. At the Meteorite Sample Disk, students should examine the

metal in at least two of the meteorite samples and record

their observations in their lab notebook or Lab Sheet.

Note: Help students determine how they can tell metal from

the other minerals in the meteorite samples by reading the

descriptions provided with the Meteorite Sample Disk.
5.4 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Suggest they look for shiny spots or rusty spots. Also help

students consider that there might be differences in the

composition of the metal, the size of grains, surface roughness, and the way the metal was treated in the laboratory.

3. Students can then return to the station, re-examine the iron

filings, and record their observations comparing the appearance

of iron filings with the iron in the meteorite samples.

4. Clean area before next group arrives.

Objectives

Students will:

• set up and conduct an experiment to analyze reflected light.

• observe that different materials reflect different

proportions of incident light.

Background See the information with the questions on page 5.11.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Set up experiment so that:

- light is incident on the black paper or cloth

 at approximately a 45° angle,

- the thermometer bulb is located in the path of light

 reflected at 45°,

- the cardboard shields the thermometer from direct light

 (see Figure 1).

Classroom Procedure

1. Place color construction paper squares on the large black

paper so that the incident light shines equally on all colors,

and they are all viewed easily.

2. Rank the relative brightness of the papers. Touch each

paper, and rank the relative temperatures of the papers.

Record the results on the lab sheets. Remove all papers from

under the lights.

3. Adjust the temperature experiment equipment. Read the

thermometer and record the temperature.

About This Station

Through demonstrations and

analysis, students will

discover that different

materials reflect different

proportions of the light that

strikes them. The proportion

of light that is reflected (“reflectance”) is shown to be

important in determining the

compositions of distant

objects (e.g. asteroids).

Materials for Station 3

❑ 8 cm squares of construction

paper; one each of red,

black, blue, and white

❑ 1 thermometer

❑ incandescent light source

❑ 2 ring stands or other tall

supports for clamps

❑ two clamps or other means

of supporting equipment

(duct tape)

❑ cardboard large enough to

shield thermometer

❑ ~50 cm square of nonshiny black paper or cloth

(blotter paper works well)

❑ Lab Sheet (pg. 5.9)

❑ Questions (pgs. 5.11-5.12)

❑ pencil/pen

 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids

 Station 3: Reflections on Light and Heat
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids 5.5

Figure 1

About This Station

The teacher will display a

visible spectrum using light

from an overhead projector

(or other light source). As an

introduction to quantitative

spectroscopy, students will

measure and record parts of

the electromagnetic spectrum.

Students will discover that

white light is composed of the

spectrum of colors, that the

energy output of the electromagnetic spectrum can be

measured, and that some

wavelengths of the spectrum

are invisible to the human eye.

Vocabulary

reflectance, reflected,

diffracted, incident light,

incandescent light, emit

4. Place one colored piece of paper where the incident light will

strike it at a 45° angle. Wait five minutes and read the thermometer; record the results. Allow thermometer to return to

room temperature.

5. Repeat for each color of paper. Groups may do only one

color if there are time limitations. Share data.

6. After completing the experiment answer the questions found

on the separate sheet.

7. Discuss experimental results. (See Background pg. 5.2)

Objectives

Students will:

• measure and record the brightness of light in a spectrum

produced from a prism.

• observe that white light is composed of the spectrum of

colors and that some electromagnetic energy is invisible to

the human eye.

• participate in introductory quantitative spectroscopy

experiments.

Vocabulary

electromagnetic spectrum, spectroscopy, infrared, ultraviolet,

voltage

 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids

 Station 4: The Visible Spectrum and Beyond!
5.6 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Station 4: Method 1

Materials for Station 4 (Method 1)

❑ voltmeter (or other means of measuring power

output, ex: small motor-driven fan, solar

energy kit, etc.)

❑ solar cell, masked with tape so that light can

hit a patch only about 2-3 mm wide

❑ tape (duct or electrical)

❑ overhead projector (as light source)

❑ glass prism

❑ cardboard to cover most of projector surface

(to reduce glare from projector)

❑ white poster or other surface for “catching”

color spectrum

❑ wall chart with electromagnetic spectrum

❑ Lab Sheet (pg. 5.10)

❑ Questions (pg. 5.12) Distribute after experiment

❑ pencil/pen

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Teacher will need to experiment with available materials to

make a suitable spectrum. A spectrum can be produced

with the prism held almost at the edge of the projection

surface, and held parallel to the nearest edge of the

projection surface (approximately parallel to the lines in the

projection lens). Then rotate the prism around an axis parallel to the projection surface

until the spectrum projects onto the wall. See the diagram above right.

2. Electromagnetic spectrum chart should be available to students. Include additional instructions

if prepared lab sheet is not used. Try this first to make explanations easier. Note: If you are

familiar with using a diffraction grating, you may prefer to use it with an overhead projector

to display a visible spectrum.

Classroom Procedures

1. Turn on overhead projector with light projecting onto ceiling or upper wall.

2. Use cardboard to block extra light from overhead projector.

3. Allow light from projecting surface to pass through prism.

4. Experiment with positions and angles to create the most clearly defined spectrum possible.

5. “Catch” light spectrum on a poster board, and tape the poster on the wall.

6. Connect the voltmeter (or motor, etc.) to the solar cell.

7. Orient the solar cell so that only a single color of light hits the unmasked band (see solar cell

diagram above left). Move the solar cell through the spectrum on the wall, noting the relative

power from each spectral color (either voltage on the voltmeter, or how fast the motor runs).

Be sure to move the solar cell above and below the spectrum, i.e. beyond the red (Infrared or

IR) and beyond the violet (Ultraviolet or UV).

8. Record information on Lab Sheet, answer Questions, and discuss results.

Note: Be sure to test areas bordering, but away from the spectrum for control purposes.

Also, some new projectors have IR filters to reduce heat, therefore you may not get power

in the IR range.

} ~2 mm
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids 5.7

Materials for Station 4 (2)

❑ slide projector

❑ opaque screen (see

materials and instructions

below)

❑ glass prism

❑ supports for screen and

prism (books and or tape)

❑ projection screen or white

poster board

❑ Lab Sheet (pg. 5.10)

❑ Questions (pg. 5.12)

Distribute after

experiment

 Station 4: Method 2

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Make an opaque screen approximately 25 cm square from a

piece of cardboard or poster board. Cut a 5 cm-diameter

hole out of the middle. Tape two pieces of opaque paper or

aluminum foil over the hole so that there is a vertical gap

between them that is no wider than 1 mm.

2. Arrange the equipment and darken the room. Adjust equipment so projector light does not extend around the edges of

the opaque screen, and the visible spectrum is displayed on

the screen.

Classroom Procedures

1. See steps 6-8 in procedure for Method 1.

Questions

1. Why is there power output beyond the red light? There is

electromagnetic energy at wavelengths that our eyes cannot

see; students have probably had experience with infrared —

TV remote controls operate using infrared.

2. Why might the solar cell produce little power from blue or

purple light, even though we can see blue and purple? The

solar cell is not as sensitive to blue and purple as our eyes

are.

Objectives

Students will:

• set up and conduct a simple liquid chromatography

experiment.

• record observations and draw analogies.

Note: Chromatography is not used by scientists to determine the

composition of asteroids, however, this is an easy, inexpensive

laboratory exercise that reinforces the concept of separating useful

data to analyze a complex system.

 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids

 Optional: The Color Black

Vocabulary

chromatography, wick,

absorbent

About This Station

By a simple chromatography

experiment, students will

learn that one color may be

made up of a mixture of

different colors just as white

light is a combination of light

at different wavelengths.

This will introduce the

concept that the color of an

object (asteroid) can be used

to infer the composition of the

object.
5.8 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Assemble materials.

2. Cut filter paper as needed so that there are two strips for each marker.

3. Prepare containers of water, one per marker. Students re-use water but not papers.

4. Make sure absorbent paper is on hand for spills and for the finished chromatograms.

Classroom Procedure

1. Select a marker, two strips of filter paper, a pencil, and a container of water.

2. Using the marker, place a dot about 3 cm from one end of a strip. Make a second dot of

equal size using the same marker on the second strip of paper. You should have two

identical strips.

3. At the opposite end, using a ball point pen, label each strip with the brand name of the

marker and a student’s initials.

4. Place one of each pair of strips on a sheet of absorbent paper. Place the matching strip next

to it for a reference strip for later comparison.

5. Repeat for all four markers (group members may do this simultaneously).

6. On the worksheet, under Filter Description, describe the color of the dots for each marker

and note if any have tints of a different color in them.

7. Record what you predict will happen when the strip is suspended in water.

8. Take the filter paper strip from the absorbent paper and wrap the labeled end around the

middle of a pencil so that the paper will stay in place when the pencil is lifted.

9. Carefully place the dot end in the container of water so that the filter paper, but not the dot,

is in the water. Rest the pencil on the rim of the container, rolling the strip up or down if

necessary (see diagram). Repeat for each filter paper strip.

10. Allow adequate time (~ 3 minutes) for the

water to wick up the paper. When the water

reaches the top of the paper, carefully

remove it from the water and place it on the

absorbent paper next to the reference strip.

11. Compare the original black dot with the

water treated dot (chromatogram).

12. On the worksheet, write a description of each

of the four chromatograms.

13. Answer questions and discuss results.

❑ 4 pencils or wooden sticks

❑ absorbent paper

❑ scissors

❑ The Color Black worksheet (pgs. 5.13-5.14)

❑ map pencils or crayons

❑ ball-point pen

❑ metric ruler

Materials for The Color Black

Amounts will vary according to the method of

presentation. Group size from 4-6.

❑ 4 black felt-tipped, water soluble markers

(each marker a different brand)

❑ 4 transparent containers (beaker-like) with

water at a 2 cm depth

❑ 8 pieces of filter paper, approximately

10 cm x 2 cm (coffee filters work well)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids 5.9

 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids

 Lab Sheet: Stations 2-4

Name________________

Date_________________

Station 2: Test Your Metal

Describe what happened to the metal when you made the iron filings. What did the

filings look like? Describe any changes and explain.

Metal In Meteorites Description

Meteorite name Description of the metal Does the metal resemble the iron filings?

(describe how it is alike or different)

Station 3: Reflections on Light and Heat

Paper Color Brightness Touch Temp. Thermometer Reading

1= bright 1= hottest before after

4 = not bright 4 = coldest

 Black

 Red

 Blue

 White

Reflectance Bar Graph (show color verses degrees)
5.10 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

I-R Red O Y G Blue I V UV

voltage

(label units)

Station 4: The Visible Spectrum and Beyond

Which bands generate the greatest power?

 Color Volt Meter Reading or Relative Motor Power

 ___________ ____________________________________

 ___________ ____________________________________

 ___________ ____________________________________

 ___________ ____________________________________

 ___________ ____________________________________

 ___________ ____________________________________

 ___________ ____________________________________

 ___________ ____________________________________

 Control Area

 ___________ ____________________________________

 ___________ ____________________________________

Graph of Voltage vs. Color of Light
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids 5.11

 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids

 Questions: Stations 2-4

Name________________

Date_________________

Teacher Note: use these questions after each station, do not distribute before activity.

Station 2: Test Your Metal

1. Why are the iron filings dark and the metal in some of the meteorites shiny?

2. If an asteroid were made of metal, would it be shiny?

Station 3: Reflections on Light and Heat

1. Which color reflected the most light?

Was that color hottest to the touch?

Did the color which was hottest to the touch cause the highest temperature on the

thermometer?

Why did this happen?

2. Scientists can understand more about the surface composition and texture of

asteroids by measuring how much visible and infrared energy is reflected or

emitted. Scientists can measure the surface temperatures of asteroids by

measuring how much absorbed solar energy they emit as infrared energy.

Return to the meteorite disk to consider these questions based on your experimental results: Do you think an asteroid made of carbonaceous chondrite material

would be hotter or colder than an asteroid of achondrite material? Why?
5.12 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

How do you think an iron meteorite’s infrared reflectance would be compared to a

carbonaceous chondrite’s reflectance?

How would its distance from the Sun affect the temperature of an asteroid?

3. Advanced: You measured color reflectance of objects. Scientists measure color

brightness of planetary bodies and compare those levels of brightness to known

levels. In this way they are able to classify asteroids according to their

components. For example, frozen water (ice) would look white and,) therefore,

very bright.

Using your findings, how would we set up a comparison table for analyzing

reflectance?

Station 4: The Visible Spectrum and Beyond

1. Why is there power output beyond the red light?

2. Why might the solar cell produce little power from blue or purple light, even

though we can see blue and purple? Hint: Think about how sensitive our eyes are

and the sensitivity of the solar cell.

3. Can you feel heat from the infrared?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids 5.13

 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids

 The Color Black

Name________________

Date_________________

Filter Description Chromatogram Description

Prediction

Student Background (Read after completing The Color Black station.)

Just as you have probably attempted to create new colors for art by mixing colors you

already have, many colors are a combination of two or more colors (e.g. red + yellow

= orange). The experiment you have conducted works the other way. You started

with the “new” color — black — and revealed which colors were used to create it.

It’s rather like when you have a mixture of colored candies and want to know how

many candies of each color are in the bag. They have to be separated first. We often

go from general observations to specific ones in our attempts to understand things.

For example you could start with a bag of colored candies as a general observation

and then be specific and state that you have 6 yellow candies, 7 green ones, 4 red

ones.

Substances have specific properties (color, shape, texture). The more properties we

can identify, the greater our ability to understand and classify new substances. The

better we can classify, the better we can see relationships among substances, objects,

organisms, and occurrences. That process is similar to a detective’s work and can be

VERY exciting!

Scientists are working as detectives to determine the composition of the asteroids.

The color of the surface of an asteroid gives scientists clues to its mineral content.

Another way scientists investigate the composition of asteroids is to look at the light

reflected from the surface of an asteroid. Then they compare that light signature or

spectrum with spectrum of known substances on Earth. This technique is used to

compare asteroids and meteorites. They attempt to determine whether asteroids have

similar compositions to known meteorite types.
5.14 Lesson 5  Looking at Asteroids NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

The chromatography experiment you completed is not used by scientists to

determine the composition of asteroids. This experiment was designed so that you

could easily experience the investigative process of science and to allow you to see

that substances are often made of more than you realize!

Neither of the techniques to determine mineral compositions on asteroids works as

easily as the liquid chromatography experiment you have conducted. However, you

now have experience as an investigative scientist.

Questions (Use only after you have completed the experiment.)

1. What clues gave you a hint that the black inks might be made of different colors?

2. Did any of the chromatograms have similar colors in similar places? Explain.

Return to the Meteorite Sample Disk to consider the next question.

3. Write a short comparison among the black meteorite samples, comparing and

contrasting how black they are, and whether they are different shades or tints of

black.

4. What techniques do scientists use to determine the mineral content of asteroids?

5. How can meteorites help scientists understand more about asteroids?

6. Extra: Most asteroids are quite dark, and reflect only 10-20% of the light that

hits them. This is very much like the Moon, where the bright areas of the Moon

(the highlands) reflect about 20% and the dark areas (the mare) reflect about 10%.

Using references available in your classroom, investigate the composition of the

different parts of the Moon and why they are brighter or darker.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground! 6.1

Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

Lesson 6  Impact Craters

Holes in the Ground!

“Where

do they

come

from?” Objectives

Students will:

• model impact craters in the lab.

• identify various structures caused by the cratering process.

• manipulate the conditions that control the size and

appearance of impact craters.

• state the relationships between the size of the crater, size of

the projectile, and velocity.

• demonstrate the transfer of energy in the cratering process.

Background

Impact craters are formed when pieces of asteroids or comets strike

the surface of a planetary body. Craters are found on all the terrestrial

planets, on the Earth’s Moon, and on most satellites of planets.

Various geological clues and studies of the lunar rocks returned by

the Apollo missions indicate that about 3.9 billion years ago

asteroid-size chunks of matter were abundant in the solar system.

This was a time of intense bombardment of the young planets,

affecting Earth by breaking up and modifying parts of the crust.

Mountain building, plate tectonics, weathering and erosion have

largely removed the traces of Earth’s early cratering period. But the

near absence of weathering on the Moon has

allowed the evidence of this ancient time to

be preserved.

Impact craters are formed by the transfer of

energy from a moving mass (meteorite) to a

stationary body (planet). Kinetic energy is

the energy of motion. It is defined as one

half the mass of an object, times the velocity

of the object squared (K.E. = 1/2 Mv2).

Objects in space move very fast, so this can

be a huge amount of energy! In an impact

the kinetic energy of a meteorite is changed

into heat that melts rocks and energy that

pulverizes and excavates rock. Simplified

About This Lesson

This lesson allows students to

create impact craters in plaster

of Paris or layered dry

materials. They perform

controlled experiments by

varying the velocity or mass

of an object and observing

and measuring the effects.

Vocabulary

crater, impact, projectile,

velocity, kinetic energy, mass,

gravity, ejecta, rim,

meteor

ejecta

rim
6.2 Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground! NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

demonstrations of this transfer of energy can be made by creating impacts in powdered materials. If

identical objects are impacted into powdered materials from different heights or using different propulsion systems to increase velocities, then students can determine the effect velocity has on the cratering

process. Likewise if projectiles of different masses are impacted from the same height and the same

velocity, students will be able to identify the relationship of mass to crater formation.

The high velocity impact and explosion of an iron meteorite about 30 meters in diameter could make a

crater over one kilometer wide. This is how Meteor Crater in Arizona was formed. In the classroom

the low velocities and low masses will make craters much closer in size to the impacting bodies.

Energy Calculations for Advanced Classes

K.E. = 1/2 Mv2 (meteorite impacts like Meteor Crater)

v = 2gh (free fall)

thus

K.E. = Mgh (for classroom experiments)

Classroom Experiment Example

projectile - 10 grams = M

drop height - 2 meters = h

gravity effect - 980 cm/sec2 = g

K.E. = 1/2 × 10 grams × 2 × 980 cm/sec2 × 200 cm

K.E. = ~ 2 × 106 ergs

Meteor Crater Estimate

projectile was 30 meters in diameter

iron nickel sphere (meteorite with a density of 8 g/cm3

)

projectile 1.1 × 1011 grams = M

4/3 Π (1.5 × 103)

3

 cm3 = v

(1.4 × 1010 cm3) = v

K.E. = 1/2 Mv2

K.E. = 1/2 × 1.1 × 1011 grams × (2 × 106)2

K.E. = ~ 2 × 1023 ergs

K.E. = kinetic energy

M = mass of impacting

object (projectile)

v = velocity of impacting

object (projectile)

g = gravity constant for

Earth (980 cm/sec2)

h = height of release of

impacting object

erg = grams × cm2 × sec

(measure of K.E.)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground! 6.3

 Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground!

 Activity A: Making Craters in Plaster of Paris

Objectives

Students will:

• produce easily recognizable crater forms.

• simulate impacts into wet materials.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Assemble materials.

2. Practice mixing plaster of Paris to get a feel for the hardening

time under classroom or outdoor conditions. Plaster for classroom use should be mixed at time of demonstration.

3. Copy one Student Procedure per group.

4. If Lesson 7 will not be completed, then consider whether crater

slides could be used in this lesson.

5. Prepare plaster or direct students to mix plaster.

• Mix the plaster of Paris. A mixture of two parts plaster of

Paris to one part water works best. REMINDER: The plaster

hardens in 10 to 20 minutes, so you must work quickly. Have

Data Chart complete and all materials assembled before

plaster is mixed.

• Pour a 5 cm or more layer of plaster in a small deep

disposable container.

• Optional: Using a kitchen strainer or a shaker, sprinkle a thin

layer of powdered tempra paint over the plaster (use a dust

mask and do not get paint on clothes).

Classroom Procedure

1. Discuss background before or during activity.

2. Students work in small groups or conduct classroom

demonstration.

3. Follow Student Procedure.

4. Discuss questions.

About This Activity

In this activity students create

impact craters in plaster of

Paris. They may perform

controlled experiments by

varying the velocity or mass

of an object and observing the

effects.

Materials for Activity A

❑ plaster of Paris

❑ 1 large disposable pan or

box (if used as a whole

class demonstration)

or 3-4 small and deep

containers such as

margarine tubs or loaf

pans (for individuals or

groups)

❑ mixing container

❑ stirring sticks

❑ water (1 part water to two

parts plaster)

❑ projectiles (marbles,

pebbles, steel shot, lead

fishing sinkers, ball

bearings)

❑ dry tempra paint,

(optional) red or blue -

(enough to sprinkle over

the surface of the plaster)

or substitute baby powder, flour, corn starch,

fine-colored sand, powdered gelatin, or cocoa

❑ strainer, shaker or sifter to

distribute paint evenly

❑ meter stick

❑ Student Procedure (pgs. 6.5-

6.6, one per student)

❑ dust mask

❑ Data Charts (pg. 6.9, one

per group)
6.4 Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground! NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground!

 Activity B: Making Craters in Dry Materials

About This Activity

Students do controlled cratering

experiments in dry materials.

They vary the impactor

velocity or mass and observe

and measure the effects. Objectives

Students will:

• manipulate the variables of velocity and mass to investigate

crater formation.

• recognize the conditions that control the size and appearance

of impact craters.

• state the relationships between the size of the crater, size of

the projectile, and velocity.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Assemble equipment.

2. Prepare projectile sets and label.

3. Copy Student Procedure and Data Charts as needed.

4. Prepare target trays of dry material and paint.

(Optional: students prepare)

• Place 3 cm even layer of dry material in the bottom of a the

tray (or box).

• Sprinkle a thin layer of red powdered tempra paint over the

dry material with a kitchen strainer.

• Place another very thin (2-3 mm) even layer of dry material

on top of the tempra paint, just enough to conceal paint.

• Optional: Sprinkle another layer of blue powdered tempra

paint on top of the second layer of dry material. Repeat

step 6. (Very fine craft glitter can be used in place of

tempra paint for “sparkle” effect.)

Classroom Procedure

Note: This procedure is for small groups, it must be modified if

the entire class will act as a single group.

1. Students should work in small groups. Each group should

choose at least three projectiles from SET A or SET B.

2. Write a description of each projectile on your Data Chart.

3. Measure the mass, dimensions of each projectile and record

on the Data Chart.

4. Drop projectiles into the dry material.

Set A - Drop all projectiles from the same height or several

series of experiments may be conducted from different

heights. Record data and crater observations.

Set B - Drop the projectiles from different heights (suggest

2-3 m). Record all height data and crater observations.

5. Discuss the effects caused by the variables.

Materials for Activity B

❑ large tray or sturdy box 8-10

cm deep and about 1/2 m

on each side (a cat litter

pan works nicely); 2 per

class or 1 per group

❑ baking soda (2-3 1.8 kgboxes) per tray, or flour (2

bags, 2.26 kg), or fine sand

(sandbox sand, 3 kg per

tray)

❑ dry tempra paint - red and/or

blue; enough for a thin layer

to cover the dry material

surface. (Very fine craft

glitter may be used as one

color.) A nose and mouth

dust mask should be used

when sprinkling paint.

Suggested substitutes for

paint may be found in the

materials list for Activity A.

❑ projectiles (provide one set of

either type for each group

of students)

SET A - (provide enough

sets for all groups) four

marbles, ball bearings, or

large sinkers of identical

size and weight

SET B - (provide one or two

sets per class) three spheres

of equal size but different

materials so that they will

have different mass

(example: glass, plastic,

rubber, steel, wood)

❑ strainer or sifter to distribute

the paint

❑ metric rulers & meter sticks

❑ lab balance (one per class)

❑ Data Chart (pg. 6.9, per grp.)

❑ Student Procedure (pgs. 6.7-

6.8, one per group)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground! 6.5

 Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground!

 Student Procedure: Activity A

Materials - Per Group

❑ prepared plaster in container ❑ projectiles ❑ tempra paint and sifter (optional)

❑ meter stick ❑ Data Chart

Procedure

1. Form groups and distribute Data Charts.

2. Each group should choose at least three projectiles.

3. Write a description of each projectile on the Data Chart, including the mass

and dimensions.

4. Prepare plaster according to directions from your teacher.

5. Drop the projectiles at 2 minute intervals, recording appropriate information.

Each projectile requires an area of about 5x5 cm square. If you drop too many

projectiles in an area, your craters will be distorted (though overlapping craters

are interesting too).

6. Optional experiment — drop identical projectiles from different heights.

Record heights.

7. Leave the projectiles in the plaster and allow it to harden.

8. Write a description of the experiment on the Data Chart. Illustrate and label

the craters using the following terms: rim, ejecta, impact crater.

Questions

1. Where do you find the thickest ejecta?

2. How do you think the crater rim formed?
6.6 Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground! NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

3. The powder represents the planet’s surface. Any material beneath the top layer

must have formed at an earlier time (making it physically older).

If you were to examine a crater on the Moon, where would you find the older

material?

Where would you find the younger material? Why?

4. What effect did the time intervals have on crater formation? Why?

5. What effect did different projectiles have on crater formation? (If different

projectiles were used.) Why?

6. Since large meteorites often explode at or near the surface, how would the

explosion affect impact crater formation?

7. How does the increased drop height affect crater formation? Why?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground! 6.7

Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground!

 Student Procedure: Activity B

Materials - Per Group

❑ projectiles SET A and/or SET B (optional)

SET A - four marbles, ball bearings, or large sinkers of identical size and weight

SET B - three spheres of equal size but different materials so that they will

have different mass

❑ strainer or sifter to distribute the dry material

❑ metric ruler and meter stick ❑ lab balance (one per class) ❑ Data Chart

Procedure

1. Each group should choose at least three projectiles from SET A or SET B.

2. Write a description of each projectile on your Data Chart.

3. Measure the mass, dimensions of each projectile and record on the Data Chart.

4. Prepare dry material layers according to directions from your teacher.

5. Drop projectiles into the dry material.

Set A - Drop all projectiles from the same height or several series of

experiments may be conducted from different heights. Record data and crater

observations.

Set B - Drop the projectiles from different heights. Record all height data and

crater observations.

6. Experiment with different velocities by throwing projectiles into dry materials.

7. Discuss the effects caused by the variables.

Options:

• Plot ray length vs. mass when projectile velocity is equal.

• Plot ray length vs. velocity at a constant projectile mass. (Measure ray

length from the center of crater to the end of the longest ray for each crater.)

Questions

1. What evidence was there that the energy of the falling projectile was transferred to

the ground?
6.8 Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground! NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

2. How does the velocity of a projectile affect the cratering process?

3. How does the mass of a projectile affect the cratering process?

4. If the projectile exploded just above the surface, as often happens, what changes

might you see in the craters?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 6  Impact CratersHoles in the Ground! 6.9 Lesson 6  Impact Craters Holes in the Ground! Data Chart: Activity A and B Names Date Height Time Activity A only Longest Ray if available Projectile Description mass (g) dimensions (cm) Sketch of Crater and comments (note diameter and depth)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 7  Crater Hunters 7.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 7  Crater Hunters “Where

do they

come

from?” Objectives

Students will:

• observe impact craters on Earth and other solar system bodies.

• discuss geologic forces that have removed most of the evidence of the impacts on Earth.

• locate impact craters using longitude and latitude.

• search maps for potential impact sites.

• create a field work plan to investigate possible craters.

Background

Impact craters are geologic structures formed when a meteorite,

asteroid or comet smashes into a planet or other solid body. All the

terrestrial planets and satellites have been bombarded throughout their

history. To us the most obvious examples of these impacts are the

craters on the Moon. If the Moon is visible, craters are visible. You

can only see the very large craters or basins with the naked eye.

Lunar craters were not described until after Galileo used one of the

first telescopes to look at the Moon. Modern binoculars help to make

the craters on the Moon very obvious.

On the Earth, dynamic geologic forces have erased most of the

evidence of its impact history. Weathering, erosion, deposition,

volcanism, and tectonic activity have left only a small number of

impacts identifiable. Approximately 140 terrestrial impact craters

have been identified. These impact craters range from about 1 to

over 200 kilometers in diameter and from recent to about two billion

years in age.

About This Lesson

After viewing slides of craters

on other planets, the Moon,

and Earth, students will locate

impact craters on Earth using

longitude and latitude and

various maps. Students will

locate potential sites of impacts, and plan the necessary

research to verify their observations.

Vocabulary

impact crater, longitude,

latitude, weathering, erosion,

deposition, volcanism, tectonic, terrain, geophysical,

ejecta, tektites, vaporize
7.2 Lesson 7  Crater Hunters NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Lesson 7  Crater Hunters

 Activity A: Where Are the Craters on Earth?

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Gather materials.

2. Read lesson background.

3. Review slides.

Classroom Procedure - Part 1

1. Show slides of Mercury, Venus, Moon, Mars.

2. Discuss how these bodies are alike and how they are

different, focusing on cratering.

3. Ask “Where are the craters on Earth?” Show slide of

Meteor Crater only.

4. Each student (or pair of students) is given a map of North

America or the world.

5. Hand out (or put on overhead) the Craters on Earth Data

Chart and designate the impact craters to be used (teacher

may limit the number to be plotted).

6. Students plot designated craters using the longitude and

latitude data, varying dot size according to crater diameter.

7. If Part 2 will not be completed, the final slides of Earth impact

craters may be shown at this time.

Classroom Procedure - Part 2

In this advanced activity students consider geologic processes like

faulting, weathering, and glacial activity.

1. Distribute Student Sheets.

2. Based on the age, size, name, and terrain, students write a

description or make a sketch of what they think the crater

shapes would look like.

3. Show the slides of the craters and have students describe

craters again and compare to the previous descriptions.

Questions

1. Where are the craters on Earth?

2. What happened to the craters on Earth?

3. What are some differences between Moon craters and Earth

craters?

4. Compare several Earth craters. How are they alike and

different?

About This Activity

Part 1 - Students look at

other bodies in the solar

system to see that there has

been a history of impacts in

the entire inner solar system.

Focusing on Earth, students

discover that there are not

many obvious craters. They

locate craters on a map using

longitude and latitude.

Part 2 - Without seeing

pictures of the craters,

students describe the craters

using name, age, size, terrain,

etc. The crater photographs

are then shown to allow

comparison with the

students’ descriptions of the

craters.

Materials for Activity A

❑ slide projector and screen

❑ Slide Set, Impact Craters

❑ maps of North America or

the world with longitude

and latitude designated

(pg. 7.4)

❑ Craters on Earth Data

Chart (pg. 7.3, one per

group or transparency)

❑ pen/ pencil

❑ Student Sheet for Activity

A, Part 2 (pg. 7.5, one per

student)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 7  Crater Hunters 7.3 Craters on Earth Data Chart Lesson 7  Crater Hunters Activity A, Part 1 “Where Are the Craters on Earth?” *Craters used in Activity A - Part 2
7.4 Lesson 7  Crater Hunters NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 7  Crater Hunters Crater Hunters Map Activity A, Part 1 “Where Are the Craters on Earth?”
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 7  Crater Hunters 7.5 Longitude and Latitude for each crater can be found on Craters on Earth Data chart page 7.3. Procedure 5. Compare the descriptions. 4. View the pictures of the craters and write your second descriptions based on the pictures. 3. Considering all the information on the chart, write a description of what you think the craters look like. 2. Fill in a description of the surrounding terrain, especially consider the geology of the area, etc. 1. Use a detailed physical map or atlas to locate the craters listed below; note important information on the chart. Student Sheet: Activity A

Lesson 7  Crater Hunters

Activity A, Part 2 “Where Are the Craters on Earth?”
7.6 Lesson 7  Crater Hunters NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Scientists perform extensive field and laboratory research before they are able to verify that

a geologic feature is an impact site. Ideally the scientists are looking for round structures,

however geologic forces may have distorted the crater shape through faulting or other movement associated with plate tectonics. Ice, water, and wind, through weathering and erosion

processes, have caused great changes in craters. Some craters have been filled with water, or

completely covered by soil or water, and have no surface evidence. They may initially be

identified by remote testing of materials below the Earth’s surface (geophysical studies).

 Some of the clues that help scientists identify large impact sites are found in the physical

condition of the structure. In addition to the crater’s round shape, they look for layers of rock

that have been turned over at the edge of the crater. A large uplift or mountain at the center is

also common in impact craters. Highly fractured rocks are usually found at impact sites but they

could be interpreted as being associated with other non-impact geologic processes. However,

scientists find shatter cones, which are highly shocked rocks with distinct structures, only at

areas stressed by huge impacts. Investigations usually identify large amounts of excavated

material deposited around and in the craters. This material is called ejecta and may form thick

layers of breccia, a mixed broken rock material. To verify the location and origin of these

deposits requires extensive research, including drilling. Sometimes a large volume of impact

melted rock is found in and around the craters. Some melted rock is frequently thrown far from

the impact. These small glassy masses, which were aerodynamically shaped when they were

molten, are called tektites. Very small ones are microtektites. They are very good indicators of

large impacts.

 Another way to get important information about an impact is from chemistry. The impactmelted rock sometimes contains melted meteorites. By careful laboratory research, scientists

can detect very small amounts of rare elements that are more abundant in meteorites. These

chemical signatures are very important in meteorite research. To find a meteorite sample would

be the best discovery! Unfortunately this does not happen frequently. Meteorites may

completely vaporize during the impact process, or they may be removed by erosion.

 Early geologists misinterpreted some impact craters. Scientists reported Meteor Crater in

Arizona as a volcanic crater. The Chicxulub site on the Yucatan peninsula was also wrongly

reported. Early oil explorers misinterpreted extensive deposits around the Chicxulub area.

Scientists now know that the material is ejecta from a huge impact and not of volcanic origin.

 Considering the geologically active crust that erases craters, and all the research

necessary to verify the origin of impact craters, it is not surprising that only around 140 have

been identified so far. But it is likely that more will be found.

Lesson 7 - Crater Hunters

Student Background: Activity B
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 7  Crater Hunters 7.7

Objectives

Students will:

• develop criteria for identifying craters on Earth.

• search maps for potential impact sites.

• create a fieldwork plan to investigate possible craters.

Background

See Student Background (pg. 7.6), also see background

information in Lesson 16, pg. 16.2.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Gather materials.

2. Read background information.

3. Prepare sample crater if desired.

Classroom Procedure

1. Read and discuss background information. Review

observations made in Part A of this lesson. Re-show slides

if desired. Brainstorm an example crater and

investigation if necessary.

2. Divide class into teams of two to four students.

3. Assign each team a different map area to observe, looking

for any feature that might be the site of an impact. Allow

students to be very creative in choosing the possible sites.

Specific sites are not important. They are likely to choose

obviously round structures such as lakes in Canada, Hudson

Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, the Aral Sea in Uzbekistan (former

Soviet Union), Lake Okeechobee in Florida, and Lake

Victoria in Africa.

4. Students plan geologic field investigations and laboratory tests

that might be done to verify that their designated crater is or is

not an impact site. Report in outline form or see the proposal

idea below.

5. Students write a short “proposal” asking for support money to

conduct their research. They will need to explain and justify

the planned research. Consider time, travel, personnel,

laboratory expenses, and data gathering.

 Lesson 7  Crater Hunters

 Activity B: Crater Hunters

About This Activity

In teams students view physiographic maps of North

America or another part of the

world. They try to find a

possible impact site based on

circular shape and other

features observed in the slides

of impact craters on Earth.

The teams will then develop a

plan to do field research,

listing the data they could

collect and the tasks they

could perform to help them

verify if the formation is an

impact site.

Materials for Activity B

❑ Student Background

(pg. 7.6)

❑ large physical maps of any

region of the world, one

per team

❑ paper and pencil
7.8 Lesson 7  Crater Hunters NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Teacher notes for field investigations

Ask students “What would you look for at the site to help prove that

you have found the remnants of an impact?” Possible answers might

be:

• look for meteorites

• map the geologic formations looking for: a basin shape,

overturned rim layers, possible uplift in the central crater

region, multiple ring structures (see Lesson 6)

• look for minerals changed by impact shocks

• look for melted rocks

• test deposits associated with the debris from the crater, looking

for elements that are much more abundant in

meteorites (i.e., Iridium).
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 8  Edible Rocks 8.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 8  Edible Rocks “What

are they?”

About This Lesson

This lesson has been

designed as a comfortable

introduction to describing

meteorites. It helps students

become better observers by

making a connection between

the familiar (candy bars) and

the unfamiliar (meteorites).

Edible “rocks” are used in a

scientific context, showing

students the importance of

observation, teamwork and

communication skills. In

everyday terms, students draw

and describe the food.

Students will pair their observations with short descriptions

that are in geologic “Field

Note” style. As the teacher

and class review, appropriate

geologic terminology may be

substituted by the teacher and

subsequently embraced by

even very young students.

The last part of this activity

allows the student to describe

rock specimens before they

move to meteorite samples in

the Meteorite Sample Disk.

eec Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Prepare samples. Simple recipes are included for some

samples. The first six listed on the answer key are especially

important since they closely represent meteorite characteristics

that will be taught in other lessons. The other samples on the

list are good for meeting the objectives of this activity and

offer more variety. Use as many as needed, add a few extras

to complicate the exercise.

Note: Objectives and a

formal vocabulary

introduction should not be

discussed until the end of

the activity.

Objectives

Students will:

• observe and describe physical characteristics of an edible

sample in preparation for describing rock or meteorite

samples.

• work cooperatively in a team setting.

• use communication skills, both oral and written.

Materials

❑ prepared edible samples (see attached list, pg. 8.3 and

recipes, pg. 8.4)

❑ small plastic bags for samples ❑ knife

❑ “Field Note” Sample Descriptions of candy bars, enlarged and cut

into numbered segments (pgs. 8.7-8.10).

Note: If included recipes are not used, then the descriptions may

need to be revised by the classroom teacher to more accurately

describe the actual samples.

❑ Student Procedure (pg. 8.5, one sheet per team of two)

❑ colored pencils for each team

❑ pen or pencil

Cut surface of “edible rock.”
8.2 Lesson 8  Edible Rocks NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

2. Cut the samples so that a flat interior surface is exposed.

Reserve part or most of each sample — to be eaten by the students as a reward.

3. Place each sample for student teams in a small plastic bag. Each team of two students will

have one bag containing one sample.

4. Copy Student Procedure sheets, one for each team of two.

5. Cut enlarged “Field Note” Sample Descriptions into numbered segments. Descriptions are

written the way a scientist might take notes in a field record book.

6. Arrange one set of prepared “Field Note” descriptions on a table(s) so that students may easily

read and reach each of them (numbered sequence is not important).

7. Have answer key available for teacher.

8. Have a variety of rock samples available (students may bring their own samples).

Classroom Procedure

1. Distribute sample and procedure sheet to each team. Allow student teams to choose sample if

possible.

Note: Content vocabulary should not be expected initially. The processes of observing and recording should be kept simple.

2. Explain that each team is responsible for describing and sketching its sample. Encourage

students to describe their observations using familiar vocabulary; however, use no food

terms. Example: The outer layer is a thin coat of light brown material containing cream or tan

colored round chunks (i.e., chocolate candy bar coating that contains peanuts).

Student descriptions need not be exactly like the provided descriptions. In fact their

descriptions may be far more detailed than the short descriptions provided, which are in

geologic “Field Note” form.

3. Emphasize that working together is important.

4. When sketch and description of sample are

complete, students take them, along with their

sample, and pair them with the prepared

written descriptions. Emphasize that their

observations will not be exactly like the “Field

Notes.” They will likely try several matches

before they have the accurate paring.

Throughout this step, the teacher will verify

correct pairs. Expect questions like, “Is

number one peanut brittle?”. When they have

found the “Field Note” that describes their

sample, students should place their sketch,

description, and sample next to the correct

“Field Note” description. Reward the

students by allowing them to eat the reserved part of the candy or other treat. If students have

difficulty finding the description of their candy bar then the teacher should encourage them to

interact with other groups for help. This step of the lesson will likely become a slightly noisy,

cooperative process. As students find a match between “Field Note” descriptions and candy bars,

some definitions may be supplied if necessary, i.e. “Platy means flaky flat material.”

Time: Classroom Steps 1 thru 4 take 25-30 minutes total.

Rice cereal treats — (meteorite breccia).
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 8  Edible Rocks 8.3

5. When all students have successfully matched their samples, each team may describe its sample

to the class. The class should have access to the sample and the prepared written description

during this sharing. Sketches may be displayed.

6. Conduct a discussion that includes the following points which emphasize basic skills needed to

be good scientists:

• The students made detailed observations of a sample.

• The task was accomplished by using teamwork.

• Although the student’s descriptions differed from those provided and each team had a

different style, the skills and processes used to observe and record the data were the

same for each group.

• The students communicated their observations and then shared the findings verbally

and in writing.

7. During the discussion, the teacher may expand and help define the meteorite and geologic

vocabulary in context and encourage students to apply it to their own samples as they progress

to the next step. Pay particular attention to vocabulary for the first six samples that use some

words especially pertinent to meteorites.

8. Have students test their observation skills again by sketching and describing real rocks.

Vocabulary

texture, density, matrix, breccia, phases, fusion crust, chondrules, inclusions, vesicles, bleb, friable,

platy, porous, unfractured, unconsolidated, regolith

Extension

Using Meteorite Sample Disk or photographs of meteorites in disk, students repeat the same

procedure of observing and recording (or see Lesson 9—Meteorite Sleuths!).

Teacher Key

1. Peanut Brittle (chondrites)

2. Rocky Road (chondrites)

3. Chocolate (iron without fusion crust)

4. 3 MusketeersTM (achondrite with fusion crust)

5. Rice Cereal Treats (meteorite regolith breccia)

6. Chocolate brownie (carbonaceous chondrites)

7. SnickersTM

8. Milky WayTM

9. “Bar None”TM

10. Hershey BarTM

11. TwixTM

12. ButterfingerTM

13. SkorTM

14. RoloTM

15. Kit KatTM

16. SymphonyTM

17. M & MTM

18. Nestle CrunchTM

19. WhatchamacallitTM

20. MoundsTM

21. P.B. MaxTM

22. Mr. GoodbarTM

23. Hershey with AlmondsTM
8.4 Lesson 8  Edible Rocks NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Recipes for samples not easily available commercially.

Note: Recipes are for a larger quantity than required for the lesson.

Rocky Road (#2 Edible Rock)

170 g (6 oz.) semi-sweet chocolate pieces (melted)

120 g (2 cups) mini-marshmallows

• butter loaf pan or folded foil

• pour about half of melted chocolate into pan

• pour marshmallows into pan and mix so

they are coated with chocolate

• pour remaining chocolate over the

marshmallows and spread flat

• refrigerate until cold

• cut a cube so vertical surface is exposed

Solid Chocolate (#3 Edible Rock)

use any thick chunk of solid chocolate

Chocolate Brownies (#6 Edible Rock)

• use any recipe for dark chocolate brownies or

a box mix

• add large chunks of semi-sweet baking

chocolate or solid chocolate candy (add

enough so that the solid candy will be

exposed on a cut surface)

• bake and cool completely

• cut, exposing some brownie and some solid

chocolate; this surface will be described

• to form the breccia texture, cut the cube in

several places, then reassemble the cube

in a jumbled manor, incorporating one or two

jelly beans and or other edible chunks

• allow the sample to harden so that a good

surface may be cut

• cut the sample so that chunks and various

chocolate lines are exposed

• students will describe the cut surface

Regolith Breccia Simulant ( # 5 Edible Rock)

(Marshmallow cereal treats)

240 g (1/2 cup) butter or margarine (melted)

300 g (10-11 oz.) mini-marshmallows

200 g (8 cups) crispy rice cereal

170 g (6 oz.) chocolate semi-sweet pieces (melted)

1 or 2 jelly beans, chocolate chunks,

or other large edible lumps

• butter a deep rectangular baking pan

• melt butter in microwave or in large pan on

the stove

• add marshmallows and melt

(2 min. in microwave)

• stir until smooth

• pour over cereal and stir to coat all cereal,

• press half of mixture into deep buttered pan

• spread cereal layer with melted chocolate

• press remaining mixture on top of the

chocolate

• allow cookie to cool enough to cut but not

until completely hardened (should still be

partly moldable)

• cut one cube about 5 cm square, then cut again

once or twice

• embed one or two jelly beans in part of the cut

cube

• mold cut pieces together again to form a

“breccia”

• allow to harden

• recut to expose interior and jelly bean
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 8  Edible Rocks 8.5

 Lesson 8  Edible Rocks

 Student Procedure

Materials - Per Two Students

❑ sample “rock” ❑ this procedure sheet ❑ pen or pencil ❑ map pencils

Procedure

1. With your partner, choose one sample to observe.

2. Carefully observe the sample. You may remove the sample from the bag,

but handle it carefully and do not taste.

3. Make a large, detailed sketch of the sample. The sketch should show the

interior cut surface that is flat and any important details of the exterior. You

may use the back of this paper for your sketch.

4. Write 2-3 sentences describing the physical characteristics of the cut surface

of the sample. Do not use any food terms. For example, do not use the

word chocolate. Make your description as clear and complete as you possibly can.

5. When you have completed Step 4 take your description, sketch and sample

to the table where the “Field Note” descriptions of the food samples are

located. Find the description that fits your sample. Check with your teacher

to see if you identified the correct match. You will likely try several of the

descriptions before you find the one that describes your sample. You may

get help from others. Try checking with the teacher or a dictionary for

unfamiliar words.

6. Place your description, sketch, and sample beside the “Field Note”

description for your sample.

7. Your effort will be rewarded with another part of the sample to eat.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 8  Edible Rocks 8.7

 Lesson 8  Edible Rocks

 Field Note Sample Descriptions

These food descriptions are in geologic “Field Note” style. Therefore, they may be short and

sometimes cryptic. Use of geologic terms will encourage students to stretch their minds.

1. Sample is a thin layer. There is a golden matrix surrounding tan

rounded or broken inclusions. The inclusions have a

reddish brown rim or crust.

2. Sample consists mainly of white, soft rounded to angular blebs

completely surrounded by a uniform dark brown matrix.

3. Sample is a solid dark brown dense mass with no obvious

fusion crust.

4. Sample has a homogeneous light brown interior with a few small

vesicles. The exterior looks like a fairly regular, dark brown

fusion crust with some patterning.

5. Sample appears to have been distorted. The dominant phase is

made of rounded light tan fragments containing many void spaces.

A dark brown thin layer fills spaces between some rounded

fragments. There are some large foreign inclusions.
8.8 Lesson 8  Edible Rocks NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

6. Sample is totally dark brown with two phases. The dominant phase

is shiny and crumbly. The other phase is dense and slightly lighter

in color. A light fusion crust appears on only one side.

7. Outside: Thin medium-brown layer with ripple-marks

on the bottom

Inside: Bottom - (~1/3) flat dense buff layer

Top - (~2/3) pebbles consolidated in a fine grained

tan matrix

8. Outside: Thin medium brown layer with wavy ripple marks

on the bottom

Inside: Bottom - dense dark buff layer

Top - shiny, smooth, medium tan layer

9. Outside: Medium brown layer, thin on the bottom, the

thicker top contains angular inclusions

Inside: Thin alternating horizontal layers of

smooth dark brown and fragmented dark

brown

10. Dense medium brown sample, flat on the bottom with three

parallel ridges on top.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 8  Edible Rocks 8.9

11. Outside: Thin medium brown layer with wavy ripples on

the bottom

Inside: Bottom - poorly consolidated light tan

porous layer

Top - shiny smooth medium tan layer

12. Outside: Thin medium brown layer

Inside: Poorly consolidated, friable, shiny to dull golden

platy fragments

13. Outside: Medium brown layer, very thin on bottom and

side, thicker on top with large wavy ripples

Inside: Thin dense layer of shiny light-golden unfractured

material

14. Outside: Thin, medium brown, edges higher on outside of

top, sides slanted

Inside: Smooth material that is yellowish brown and

sticky

15. Four segments of layered material.

Outside: Thin, medium brown

Inside: Alternating light and medium

colored material

16. Solid medium brown throughout, single dense layer with a valley

or dip in the top.
8.10 Lesson 8  Edible Rocks NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

17. Sample consists of unconsolidated pebbles with various colors and

regular shape. Each individual pebble has a medium brown interior

with a thin, hard colored shell.

18. Sample has a thin layer of dense brown material, containing very

light inclusions at the bottom. The sample top has a depression in

the middle with a ridge on each side.

19. Sample is a rectangular layer of rounded light pebbles

surrounded by a thin coating of medium brown. Some

yellowish brown sticky material is above the pebbles.

20. Sample interior consists of white, moist-looking fragments.

These are surrounded by a dark brown exterior layer.

21. Irregular sample.

Outside: Bumpy medium brown

Inside: Yellow brown solid material resting on light tan

fragments, some large tan fragments are found near

the top

22. Outside: Dense layer of medium brown with a dip in the top

Inside: Light tan pebbles that have settled to the bottom

23. Dense sample of medium brown material, rounded on the top and

flat on the bottom, with a few light brown pebble

inclusions.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths! 9.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths!

About This Lesson

The activities in this lesson

focus on observation and

examination skills. A

Meteorite Sample Disk (or

photos) will be at the center of

four laboratory stations. Students will use several degrees

of magnification to research

meteorites in the Meteorite

Sample Disk and other materials. Discussing the sequence

will help them understand

how scientists approach

meteorite research and classification.

Objectives

Students will:

• simulate techniques used by scientists.

• develop skills in acquiring data through the senses.

• observe, examine, record, and sketch data.

• use magnifying glasses, microscopes, and balances.

• experience conceptual application.

Background

See background information on Student Sheet, Station 4, page 9.7.

Lesson Information

Scientists use a variety of methods to classify materials and objects.

Specific technologies and techniques are used in the classification of

meteorites. The Meteorite Sample Disk (or photographs if the

Meteorite Sample Disk is not available) is the focal point for these

activities presented in a laboratory format. The laboratory activity is

broken into four sections that simulate meteorite identification

methods. A rotation lab is suggested with the Meteorite Sample

Disk displayed at a central location for periodic comparisons.

Teams of students will work at numbered stations, taking lab notes

in appropriate sections on a prepared laboratory worksheet.

Rotations will be ordered numerically; however, no specific order is

necessary in completing the lab. Since all portions of the lab are

broken down according to stations, teachers may prepare for and

include only those portions desired.

Note: Station numbers should be clearly identified to facilitate

orderly rotations. Additional duplicate stations may be set up to

allow for more than 4 groups per class.

Upon completion of all rotations a “wrap-up” session in which lab

results are reviewed and discussed in order, will clarify student

understanding. The students have made observations from general

macroscopic inspections to microscopic details — like the game “20

Questions” in which someone is asked to identify an unknown life

form via 20 “yes/no” questions. The winner invariably goes from

general to specific questions.

“What

are they?”

Vocabulary

texture, chondrite,

achondrite, stony-iron, iron,

mass, density, volume,

specimen, classification,

hypothesis, cross section,

carbonaceous chondrite
9.2 Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths! NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths!

 Meteorite Sample Disk Display

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Gather and assemble materials.

2. Review lesson information and Station 4 background.

3. Set up Meteorite Sample Disk or photos in central station.

Classroom Procedure

1. Divide class into 4 or more groups.

2. Distribute Student Sheets.

Objectives

Students will:

• develop skills in acquiring data through the senses.

• measure, record, and sketch rock samples.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Place graph paper, rock, and ruler on lab table.

Classroom Procedure

1. Visually examine rock specimen.

2. Record observations related to color, texture, and shape of

rock.

3. Measure rock and record measurements on Student Sheet.

4. Sketch rock to scale on grid provided.

5. Proceed to Meteorite Sample Disk display and record colors

of each meteorite.

Materials

❑ Meteorite Sample Disk

or photographs

❑ magnifier

❑ binocular reflected light

microscope (optional)

❑ Student Sheet

(pgs. 9.5-9.8)

 Station 1: Initial Inspection

About This Station

Students visually examine a

rock specimen and record

observations of color, texture,

and shape. Measurements are

taken and a sketch of the rock

is made. The students proceed to the Meteorite Sample

Disk display and record colors

of each meteorite.

Materials for Station 1

❑ fist-sized rock

❑ graph paper

(2 cm x 2 cm blocks)

❑ metric ruler

❑ pencil, and map pencils or

crayons

❑ Student Sheet (pg. 9.5)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths! 9.3

 Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths!

 Station 2: How Dense Is Dense?

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Place balance, gram masses (weights), container of marbles,

and prepared index card (verifying equal volumes of all

marbles) on lab table.

2. Consider steps 4 or 5 for upper grades or advanced

 students.

Classroom Procedure

1. Measure the mass of each type of marble.

2. Write a comparative statement using the words “mass” and

“density” for each type of marble (density = mass/volume).

3. Proceed to Meteorite Sample Disk display and

predict whether the iron or the achondrite has greater density.

4. Optional: Weigh equal volume (approximately) pieces of

steel and basalt to compare to the iron and achondrite.

5. Optional: Look up the specific gravity of iron and the

common rock forming minerals feldspar, and pyroxene

found in achondrites. Use this information to help determine

whether the iron or achondrite is more dense.

About This Station

Students will determine the

mass of several marbles and

hypothesize whether the iron

or the achondrite has greater

density.

Materials for Station 2

❑ beam balance

❑ metric masses (2 small

paper clips = 1 gm)

❑ marbles and/or other

objects of equal volume

but different densities

❑ container for marbles

❑ index card showing

diameters of the marbles

to verify equal volumes of

all marbles

❑ Student Sheet (pg. 9.6)

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Place printed picture(s) and magnifiers on lab table.

Classroom Procedure

1. Examine picture(s) with the unaided eye.

2. Examine picture(s) with a magnifier.

3. Record your observations.

4. Proceed to Meteorite Sample Disk display and examine the

stony-iron and the chondrite A with the unaided eye and a

magnifier.

5. Record your observations on Student Sheet.

About This Station

Students examine printed

images and the Meteorite

Sample Disk with and

without magnification.

Materials for Station 3

❑ full-color printed picture(s)

— newspaper, magazine

❑ magnifier

❑ Student Sheet

(pgs. 9.6-9.7)

 Station 3: Observation with Magnification
9.4 Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths! NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Objective

Students will:

• experience conceptual application.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Cut one piece of fruit into halves.

2. Cut one medium slice from one half so that a good cross

section is revealed.

3. Cut one very thin cross section slice from the remaining half

and place on slide on microscope stage.

4. Adjust microscope for viewing. Make thinner slice if

necessary for microscopic viewing.

5. Place fruits and equipment on the lab table in the following

order:

• whole fruit (labeled: #1 whole fruit),

• thick slice from half of fruit (labeled: #2 cross section) with

 magnifier,

• thin slice mounted on microscope (labeled: #3 thin section).

6. Remaining fruit will not be needed in this lab exercise.

Note: If microscope is not available, a magnifying glass or

hand lens is adequate for meeting the lab objectives.

Classroom Procedure

1. Read background information on Student Sheet (pg. 9.7).

2. Observe all samples in order and record observations,

not what you already know.

3. View the meteorites using

a microscope if available.

4. Write a short paragraph

that describes the relationship

between your lab experience

and the information on the

Student Sheet.

 Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths!

 Station 4: Journey to the Center of the Fruit

About This Station

Students experience the

progression from general to

more specific observations.

Materials for Station 4

❑ two of the same type of

easy-to-slice fresh fruits

that are optically

interesting (example:

kiwis,* apples, oranges,

tomatoes, etc.)

❑ sharp knife

❑ cutting board

❑ magnifier

❑ binocular microscope

❑ clean slides and cover slips

❑ paper towels

❑ 3 index cards labeled “1,”

“2,” and “3”

❑ Student Sheet

(pgs. 9.7-9.8)

* Kiwi fruit is similar to most

meteorites in that its outer

surface is so different from

the interior. The flesh of an

apple is similar to most

meteorites in that, under

magnification (even with

just a hand lens), the

appearance is vastly

different from that seen with

the naked eye. The outer

perimeter of the peel of an

orange looks similar to

fusion crust when under the

microscope. The flesh of a

tomato appears to have

chondrules when magnified.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths! 9.5

Color:

Texture:

Shape:

Dimensions:

Meteorite Colors:

 Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths!

 Student Sheet: Stations 1-4

Station 1: Initial Inspection

Procedure

1. Visually examine rock specimen.

2. Beside the grid below, record observations related to color, texture, and shape

of rock.

3. Measure rock and record measurements beside the grid below.

4. Sketch rock to scale on grid provided below (be sure to add scale).

5. Proceed to Meteorite Sample Disk display and record colors of each meteorite.

Rock Sketch
9.6 Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths! NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Station 2: How Dense Is Dense?

Procedure

1. Measure the mass of each type of marble.

Mass of first marble type: ___ gm Mass of second marble type: ___ gm

2. Write a comparative statement using the words “mass” and “density” for each type

of marble (density = mass/volume).

3. Proceed to Meteorite Sample Disk display and predict whether the iron or the

achondrite has greater density. (Circle one) Iron Achondrite

4. What data would be necessary to support your prediction?

5. How do density and mass relate to identification of meteorites?

 Station 3: Observation with Magnification

Procedure

1. Examine the picture both with the unaided eye and the magnifier. Describe or

sketch your observations. Complete the sentences below using details of your

observation.

With the unaided eye the picture is...

Viewed through the magnifier the picture is...
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths! 9.7

Lesson 9  Student Sheet continued

2. Proceed to Meteorite Sample Disk display. Using your unaided eye and the

magnifier repeat observations for the meteorites listed below.

Stony-iron is...

Chondrite A is...

3. Why would a scientist make observations with and without magnification?

4. Which observation gives more usable data for meteorite investigations? Explain

your reasoning.

 Station 4: Journey to the Center of the Fruit

Background

Scientists studying meteorites use various types of observations. They make qualitative (color, shape, texture, etc.) and quantitative (mass, volume, linear measurement, etc.)

observations, recording all data carefully. They use special tools to chip off parts and saw

through meteorites to make closer visual observations. They write careful descriptions

throughout their investigations.

Very thin sections are cut and mounted on slides for microscopic examination. Higher

powered microscopes, such as an electron microscope, and other advanced technology

give an even clearer picture of the minerals and other materials that make up the meteorite.

Meteorites are classified based on the types, amounts and textures of minerals they

contain. The primary classification into stony, iron and stony-iron is based on the amount

of metal. Stony meteorites are divided into chondrites, which contain round inclusions

called chondrules, and achondrites, which do not contain chondrules. Previously classified

meteorites are frequently referred to with continual comparisons being made.

As new information about a meteorite is obtained, scientists may change

their initial classification. The progression from general to more specific

observations helps scientists to narrow the possibilities in characterizing

meteorites. The study of these rocks from outer space helps to answer

questions about how our solar system formed and the relationships of

planetary bodies to each other.
9.8 Lesson 9  Meteorite Sleuths! NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Procedure

1. Observe all samples in order and record observations. Do not record just what you

already know.

#1. Whole Fruit

#2. Fruit Cross Section

#3. Fruit Thin Section

2. If a microscope is available at the Meteorite Sample Disk display, view all the

meteorites and list one where you see much more detail in the microscope than

you did with your unaided eye. Sketch and describe the meteorite’s detail you see

in the microscope.

meteorite sample name

3. Write a short paragraph that describes the relationship between your lab

experience and the background information.

4. What questions must be answered first in a scientific investigation?

5. What is the progression scientists follow in examining a specimen?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 10  Building Blocks of Planets 10.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 10  Building Blocks of Planets “How

did they

Objectives form?”

Students will:

• experiment with simulations that illustrate how chondrites and

asteroids formed in the early solar system.

• observe and describe the meteorites in the Meteorite

Sample Disk.

Background

Chondrites are the most primitive type of rock available for study.

They are 4.5 billion years old, as old as the solar system. Their

compositions are similar to the heavier elements found in the Sun

(not including the abundant H and He gases). Chondrites are made

up of chondrules (spherical balls of rock), metal, and a fine matrix

that holds them together. Chondrules are considered the building

blocks of the planets. Chondrites have many variations, due partly

to differences in the chondrules. Some of the differences are in the

number, size, shape, and mineral content of the chondrules.

Chondrites have various amounts of metal too. Metamorphism

causes some of the variations in chondrules. One of the chondrites

in the Meteorite Sample Disk is metal-rich and metamorphic, another

is metal-poor and has distinct chondrules. The third chondrite is

carbonaceous. This special type of meteorite contains water and

carbon and some organic compounds (amino acids) that are the

building blocks of life. They do not contain living creatures or fossil

material. (See Lesson 12)

Chondrites provide our best information on the earliest history of

the solar system. Scientists think that chondrites formed by

condensation and accretion in the solar nebula, the disk of gas and

dust that rotated in a plane around the early Sun. Dust particles

condensed from the gas and accreted (came together) into larger and

larger bodies: chondrules, then small rocks, and then asteroids and

planets. The forces that hold particles together include static

electricity, gravity, and magnetism. Some asteroids were large

enough to be hot inside thus causing some metamorphism.

Most meteorites are formed by the breakup of asteroids.

See additional information in the Teacher’s Guide, pages 16-17.

About This Lesson

In Activity A students will

observe and describe

chondrite meteorites.

In Activity B they will

experiment with balloons and

static electricity to illustrate

the theories about how dust

particles collected into larger

clusters.

In Activity C students will

manipulate magnetic marbles

and steel balls to dramatically

illustrate the accretion of

chondritic material into larger

bodies like planets and asteroids.

Vocabulary

chondrule, chondrite, sphere,

matrix, solar nebula,

condense, accrete, accretion,

metamorphism, organic,

static electricity, gravity,

magnetism

NOTE: The use of

magnets in Activity C is

intended to simulate all

three forces. Do not let

students equate magnetism,

a minor force, with the

major forces, gravity and

electrostatic charge.
10.2 Lesson 10  Building Blocks of Planets NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Lesson 10  Building Blocks of Planets

 Activity A: Chondrites

About This Activity

Students will observe and

describe chondrite

meteorites.

Materials for Activity A

❑ Meteorite Sample Disk

❑ Magnifier

❑ Slide Set, Classification and

Formation

❑ Slide projector

❑ Student Sheet (pg. 10.5,

one per student)

About This Activity

Students will experiment with

balloons and static electricity

to illustrate the theories about

how dust particles collected

into larger clusters.

Materials for Activity B

Per Group of Students

❑ 1 small balloon, inflated

(extras to allow for

popped balloons)

❑ 1 handful of small

(1-2 mm) styrofoam

pellets (from crushed

packing material or a

bean bag chair)

❑ 1 22 cm glass pan

❑ Student Sheet (pgs. 10.5-

10.6, one per student)

Objectives

Students will:

• experiment with static electricity to illustrate one of the forces

in the early solar nebula.

• observe, record, and relate their

observations to physical processes.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Read Teacher’s Guide, pages 16-17.

2. Blow up each balloon just before class time.

Classroom Procedure

1. Students place styrofoam balls in glass pan.

2. Student rubs the balloon in one direction on hair to create

electrostatic field.

3. Student places the balloon in dish and observes the activity

of the styrofoam. Record each step and observations.

4. Try experiment again and rub the balloon both ways on your

hair. Record observations.

5. Discuss questions and relate experiments to concepts.

Activity B: ZAP! Electrostatic Small Particle

Accretion

Objective

Students will:

• observe and describe chondrite meteorites.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Assemble materials and place Meteorite Sample Disk in an

easily accessible location.

2. Preview slide set, slide narrative and the meteorite

descriptions in the Meteorite ABC’s Fact Sheet, pages 29-30.

Classroom Procedure

1. Show meteorite classification and formation slide set and discuss.

2. Examine the three chondrite samples in the Meteorite

Sample Disk or photographs. Use magnifier.

3. Sketch and describe each sample on Student Sheet.

4. Complete questions. Reserve discussion until end of activity.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 10  Building Blocks of Planets 10.3

 Lesson 10  Building Blocks of Planets

 Activity C: CRUNCH! Accretion of

Chondrules and Chondrites

Objectives

Students will:

• manipulate

materials to illustrate

planetary accretion.

• observe, record, and

relate their

observations to

physical

processes.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Practice the circular motion of

the pie pan and the addition of each type of ball.

2. This simulation may be done on an overhead if a

demonstration is necessary.

Classroom Procedure

1. Divide class into groups of 3-5 students and assign

individual tasks. One student holds the pan; one to three

students add balls to the pan; one records observations and

one or more reports findings. Teacher might quickly

demonstrate the procedure for the small balls.

2. First student picks up the pan and practices orbital movement of the pan (slow circular pattern in only one direction).

3. Another student adds the small balls to the pan and the first

student continues to rotate the pan until balls start separating

and moving in a circular pattern. Observe the movement and

clustering and record observations.

4. Another student adds medium sized balls, one at a time

while first student continues rotating the pan. Experiment

with adding different numbers of these balls. Observe the

movement and clustering of the small balls and record

observations.

5. Another student adds one magnetic marble and quickly adds

the other one. First student continues to rotate the pan.

Observe the movement and clustering around the marbles

and record observations.

Materials for Activity C

Per Group of Students

❑ 50-100 small steel balls

(4.5 mm steel BBs work

well and a mixture of

copper-and zinc-plated

BBs provides color

contrast)

❑ 5 medium steel balls (1 cm

or 3/8" steel hunting shot

about double the

diameter of BBs)

❑ 2 magnetic marbles (found

in museum gift shops, and

gift or science catalogs)

❑ round glass or aluminum pie

or cake pan (glass is best;

flat bottom is essential;

vertical-sided pans contain

BBs better, but slant-sided

 pans produce more

action)

❑ Student Sheet (pg. 10.6,

one per student)

NOTE: The use of

magnets in Activity C is

intended to simulate all

three forces. Do not let

students equate magnetism,

a minor force, with the

major forces, gravity and

electrostatic charge.

About This Activity

Students will manipulate

magnetic marbles and steel

balls to dramatically illustrate

the accretion of chondritic

material into larger bodies like

planets and asteroids.
10.4 Lesson 10  Building Blocks of Planets NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

6. Have student groups share results with class. Conduct a

class discussion of how this simulation illustrates the

formation of meteorites and asteroids by accretion of dust in

the solar nebula. Do not let students equate magnetism with

gravity—the magnets allow a dramatic visual simulation

only. Small balls represent dust, medium balls are

chondrules, large balls are chondrites and clusters are

asteroids.

Questions

1. What happened to the small balls when the pan was moved?

2. How did the medium balls interact with the small ones? Was

the movement of the two sizes the same or different?

3. Was there an immediate reaction when the magnetic marbles

were added? Did the reaction continue or change?

4. What did you notice about the small balls at the end of the

activity?

5. How does this simulation relate to the accretion of meteorites in

the early solar system?

6. Extra: Which way does our solar system rotate: clockwise or

counter clockwise? (Draw the solar system on a thin sheet of

paper and place an arrow to indicate that the solar system moves

in a counterclockwise motion, as viewed from above. Now look

through the other side of the paper and determine which direction of movement is indicated by the arrow —clockwise. The

rotation direction is relative to the viewing perspective!
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 10  Building Blocks of Planets 10.5

 Lesson 10  Building Blocks of Planets

 Student Sheet: Activities A, B and C

 Activity A: Chondrites

Carefully observe the three chondrites in the Meteorite Sample Disk. Describe and

sketch them using the space below.

How do you think chondrites may have formed?

 Activity B: ZAP! Electrostatic Particle Accretion

Procedure

1. Place styrofoam balls in glass pan.

2. Rub the balloon in one direction on hair to create electrostatic field.

3. Place the balloon in the dish and observe the activity of the styrofoam.

4. Try the experiment again and rub the balloon both ways on your hair.

In the space provided below record observations from each step of the procedure.

Questions

1. How did the balloon and styrofoam balls react when you first put them together?

2. Why does this reaction happen?
10.6 Lesson 10  Building Blocks of Planets NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

3. Why do you think the balloon reacts differently when you rub it both ways in your

hair rather than when you rub it one way?

4. How could you relate this exercise to accretion in the solar nebula?

 Activity C: Crunch! Accretion of Chondrules and Chondrites

Procedure:

1. Practice circular motion as demonstrated by the teacher. Continue until the simulation is

complete. Predict what will happen as each set of balls is added.

2. Other students add small balls, continue rotation and observe.

3. Add medium steel balls (experiment with number of balls), continue rotation and observe.

4. Add two magnetic marbles at different spots, continue rotation and observe.

Questions

1. What happened to the small balls when the pan was moved?

2. How did the medium balls interact with the small ones? Was the movement of the

two sizes of balls the same or different?

3. When the magnetic marble was added, what was the immediate reaction? Did the

reaction continue or change?

4. What did you notice about the small balls at the end of the activity?

5. How does this simulation relate to the accretion of the meteorites in the early solar

system? What does each type of ball represent? Why is this activity only a

simulation? (Hint: consider the major forces the marbles represent.)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets 11.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets “How

did they

Objectives form?”

Students will:

• observe and describe differentiated meteorite samples.

• conduct experiments to model the separation of light and

heavy materials within a planetary body.

• relate meteorites to the core, mantle and crust of asteroids.

• model the break-up of a differentiated body to expose the

interior layers.

Background

Achondrites are stony meteorites without chondrules or metal. Metalrich meteorites include irons with little stony material and stonyirons which are part iron and part stone. Most of these meteorites

are, like chondrites, 4.5 billion years old. However, their compositions

are usually different from those of chondrites and different from the

Sun. Thus, they are grouped together as differentiated meteorites.

There are three of these differentiated meteorites in the Meteorite

Sample Disk. One of the meteorites is an achondrite consisting

mostly of two silicate minerals. It is a basalt similar to basalts

existing on Earth. The second sample is a metal meteorite made of

two types of iron/nickel crystals. The third sample is a stony-iron

meteorite made of metal and a single silicate mineral, olivine. See

Teacher’s Guide, pages 13-17, for more information.

Scientists think that these meteorites formed by differentiation

in asteroids or other planetary bodies. Heat in the asteroid

caused the body to melt. Heavy metal sank to the interior

to form a core. Light silicate minerals floated to the

surface to form the crust. Moderate density silicates

crystallized in the mantle. Basalts can also form by

incomplete melting in the mantle of a planetary body

and rise to the surface as volcanic rocks.

Earth is differentiated into core, mantle and crust, but we

cannot see the mantle or core. Researchers believe that

those inner layers exist because differences in the internal

structure of Earth have been measured using seismic waves.

Scientists think that iron meteorites are from the cores of asteroids and some stony-iron meteorites are from the core-mantle

About This Lesson

In this lesson students will

observe and describe

differentiated samples in the

Meteorite Sample Disk (or

photographs). They will

conduct an experiment using

gelatin and food that

illustrates planetary

differentiation. Hard boiled

eggs model the break-up of

differentiated planetary bodies.

Vocabulary

achondrite, iron, stony iron,

asteroid, metal, silicate,

crystallization, differentiation,

crust, mantle, core, basalt,

density
11.2 Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

boundary. Achondrites may represent the crustal material of

asteroids. In order for the deep-seated rocks from the core and

mantle to be exposed, impacts in the asteroid belt must break up the

parent asteroids.

 Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets

 Activity A: Differentiated Meteorites

Objective

Students will:

• observe and describe differentiated meteorites.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Assemble materials.

2. Place Meteorite Sample Disk or photographs in an easily

accessible location so students may view and draw samples.

3. Preview slide set, slide narrative, and descriptions of

meteorites in the Meteorite ABC’s Fact Sheet, pages 29-30.

Classroom Procedure

1. Show slide set and discuss meteorite classification.

2. Examine achondrite, stony-iron, and iron in Meteorite

Sample Disk or photographs. Use magnifier or microscope.

3. On the Student Sheet, sketch and describe each of the samples

listed above.

4. Complete the questions on the Student Sheet.

5. Reserve discussion until after Activity B.

About This Activity

Students will observe and

describe differentiated

meteorites in the Meteorite

Sample Disk or in the

photographs.

Materials for Activity A

❑ Meteorite Sample Disk or

photographs

❑ Student Sheet (pg. 11.5)

❑ magnifier

❑ binocular microscope

(optional)

❑ Slide Set, Classification and

Formation

❑ projector

crust
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets 11.3

Objectives

Students will:

• conduct experiments to model the separation of light and

heavy materials within a planetary body.

• relate meteorites to the core, mantle, and crust of asteroids.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation (See options below.)

1. Read classroom procedure and options to determine best

method for class.

2. Assemble materials. Either teacher will provide necessary

foods for experiments or assign students to bring items. Be

sure to provide several items that float and several that sink.

Use items that may be eaten to minimize waste, and increase

enjoyment.

Option 1. Working in groups each student makes predictions

and experiments with their own cup of food and gelatin.

See Classroom Procedure.

Option 2. Prior to class make a model(s) for students to use.

The predictions and observations may still be made by

the students prior to viewing the model. Student Sheet

questions, drawings and discussions may be used to

complete the activity.

Option 3. Conduct experiment by having students make

predictions and record information and observations.

Then make only one or possibly two large samples as a

demonstration for the entire class. Continue with

Student Sheet questions and discussion.

Classroom Procedure

1. Divide class into groups of three to five students. Distribute

Student Sheets and

materials.

2. Conduct experiments

according to the

procedure on Student Sheet

3. Answer questions and sketch

experimental results. Have

groups report findings.

4. Conduct a discussion based on

questions on the Student Sheet. Relate layers—in the

experiment to differentiation in an asteroid or planet.

Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets

Activity B: Food Differentiation

Materials for Activity B

Per Group of Students,

except where noted.

❑1 box of light colored

gelatin dessert (yellow

shows process clearly)

❑ metric measuring cup for

liquids

❑ bowl

❑ mixing spoon

❑ 270 ml (9 oz.) clear plastic

cups (one per student)

❑ 470 ml (2 cups) boiling

water (this keeps gelatin

hot for a longer time)

❑ heating source for water

(teakettle, hot plate or

microwave in central

location)

❑ pen or pencil

❑ Student Sheet (pgs. 11.5-11.7,

one per student)

❑ food items that sink*

raisins, fresh grapes, orange

slices, canned peaches,

pears, pineapple,** olives

❑ food items that float*

marshmallows, peanuts,

fresh apples, bananas, pears

*temperature of gelatin may cause

some foods to change sinking

and floating behavior.

**canned mixed fruit in light syrup

floats, but mixed fruit in heavy

syrup sinks.

About This Activity

Students will conduct

experiments with food in

gelatin to simulate the

differentiation of planetary

bodies into a core, mantle, and

crust.
11.4 Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets

 Activity C: Egg Smash: The Break-up of a

Differentiated Body

Objectives

Students will:

• relate meteorites to the core, mantle and crust of asteroids.

• model the break-up of a differentiated body to expose the

interior layers.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Boil eggs, then freeze eggs using one of the following

methods. Do not freeze longer than suggested or the texture

will not be ideal. Freezing methods:

• 10-15 minutes in or on dry ice (depends on number of

eggs frozen at one time). Preferred method.

• 2 minutes in liquid nitrogen (one egg at a time). Ideal,

but difficult method.

• 48 hours in freezer. Simplest method, but least satisfactory.

Use proper lab safety precautions!! Always handle dry ice, or

something frozen by dry ice, with thermal protection gloves.

Lab apron, face protection, and thermal protection gloves

must be worn when using liquid nitrogen or something

frozen by liquid nitrogen. Consult the Materials Safety Data

Sheet for full safety precautions.

2. Choose a hard surface like a concrete driveway where eggs

may be broken, and clean-up will not be difficult. OR

Choose an area of wall away from windows and doors where

the concrete floor meets the side of a building.

Tape a plastic tarp securely to the wall. Make sure that part

of the cover extends to cover the ground. (This makes clean

up more efficient.)

Classroom Procedure

1. Safety goggles and thermal protective gloves

should be worn.

2. With classmates at a safe distance, one student throws a

frozen, hard boiled egg at the designated area (repeat if it

does not break the first time). Repeat with other eggs.

3. Using Student Sheet, all students write observations and

illustrate the broken egg, labeling the crust, core and mantle.

4. Use questions to focus discussion and relate broken pieces to

meteorite types.

About This Activity

Students will discover, by

smashing hard-boiled eggs,

how impacts break up a

differentiated body so that the

core and mantle are exposed.

They will relate the meteorites

in the Meteorite Sample Disk

to parts of a differentiated

body.

Materials for Activity C

❑ frozen hard boiled egg (one

per student if possible —

stores may donate out of

date eggs —wasting food

is not the objective of this

exercise)

❑ dry ice (easily obtainable at

some grocery and ice

cream stores)

❑ picnic cooler to hold dry ice

❑ safety goggles

❑ thermal protective gloves

❑ lab apron

❑ liquid nitrogen and

container (optional)

❑ Student Sheet (pg. 11.8)

❑ large plastic tarp

 approximately 4m x 4m

❑ duct tape

❑ wall

❑ broom

❑ waste container
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets 11.5

 Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets

 Student Sheet: Activities A, B and C

 Activity A: Differentiated Meteorites

Carefully observe the achondrite, iron, and stony-iron samples in the Meteorite Sample

Disk or photographs. Describe and sketch them using the space below.

How do you think these meteorites formed?

 Activity B: Food Differentiation

Materials Per Group of Students (except where noted)

❑ 1 box of light colored gelatin dessert ❑ 270 ml (9 oz.) clear plastic cups (one per student)

❑ metric measuring cup for liquids ❑ 470 ml (2 cups) boiling water

❑ bowl ❑ food items

❑ mixing spoon ❑ Student Sheet and pencil (one per student)

Procedure

1. Groups collect materials for experiment (see list above).

2. Each group member will predict and record information below.

• Each member will select two food items: one you predict will sink and

one you predict will float. Make sure your group uses a variety of food items.

• Record predictions. __________________ will float in gelatin

 __________________ will sink in gelatin

• Each member place a spoonful or less of both food items in your individual

plastic cup.
11.6 Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

3. The teacher, or a group member, will mix gelatin and 470 ml (2 cups) of

boiling water in the bowl. Using all boiling water will keep the gelatin hot

for all team members. Stir gelatin until powder is dissolved.

4. Carefully pour gelatin into each cup, filling about 2/3 full. Do not stir.

5. Observe and record movement of food in gelatin.

6. In your group discuss the results and draw conclusions. Discussion should

include consistency of sinking and floating and why items sink or float.

7. Answer questions below.

8. Using the information from the Student Sheets, one group member shares the

group’s findings with the class. Discuss results.

9. Allow gelatin to harden. Observe and record any changes. Eat the results.

Questions

1. Describe the gelatin cup in your own words. Sketch and label your

experimental results.

2. How do you think the different layers formed?

3. Could the same layers occur in a different order? Why or why not?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets 11.7

Lesson 11  Student Sheet continued

4. Why did you choose the particular foods in your experiement? Have you ever

had an experience with this food and its floating properties before? Describe.

5. Were some foods used by your group not consistent in their floating

behavior? Why do you think this happened?

Could you change the conditions to make the floating more consistent?

6. Compare what happened in the gelatin experiments with the core, mantle and

crust of differentiated planetary bodies like Earth. Be sure to discuss which

parts of the gelatin represent parts of Earth.

7. Which meteorites in the Meteorite Sample Disk relate to each of the gelatin

layers?
11.8 Lesson 11  Changes Inside Planets NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Activity C: Egg Smash

Questions

1. What parts of a differentiated asteroid do the yolk, egg white, and shell represent?

Sketch and label an egg and include the comparable planetary layers.

2. How is the core or the inside of a differentiated asteroid exposed?

3. If you wanted to study the metal in an asteroid, which section of the asteroid

would you study?

4. How are Earth and an achondrite asteroid alike? Different?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 12  Building Blocks of Life 12.1

Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 12  Building Blocks of Life “How

did they

Objectives form?”

Students will:

• recognize that carbonaceous chondrite meteorites contain

amino acids, the first step towards living plants and animals.

• conduct experiments that simulate how the carbon material

and water from carbonaceous chondrites may have helped

early life on Earth.

Background

People have repeatedly asked the questions “How did life begin?” and

“Are we alone in the universe?”. The exploration of our solar system has

shown that Earth is the only body currently capable of supporting surface

life. However, there is fascinating evidence that other bodies may have

been habitable in the past or below the surface. Mars may once have

been capable of supporting surface life. In places on Mars where

volcanic and impact heat interacted with water, hot springs may have

formed. On Earth thermal springs harbor microbial life. Mars may still

be capable of supporting simple life in subsurface groundwater, ice, or

cracks in rocks. Scientists have found intriguing evidence that may be

fossil bacteria in cracks in an ancient martian meteorite, but that interpretation is still hotly debated. Other habitable environments might include a

possible liquid ocean under the ice of Jupiter’s moon, Europa, or some

of the newly discovered planets around other stars. If conditions were

right, could life have developed elsewhere? Meteorites provide the

evidence that the building blocks of life were available to other worlds.

Carbonaceous chondrites contain the two essential components for life,

water and complex carbon compounds. Some of the carbon

compounds are amino acids, the building blocks of DNA molecules,

which contain hereditary information for all life on Earth. Detailed studies

of the amino acids in meteorites show that they were not formed by living

things. This means that inorganic processes in the solar nebula, or later

within the rock itself, were able to make complex carbon compounds

from simple molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Carbonaceous chondrites may have delivered these building blocks

of life to various bodies in the solar system. Some scientists believe that

the beginnings of life on Earth partially depended upon availability of

water and carbon compounds from carbonaceous chondrites. These

materials would certainly also have been delivered to early Mars.

About This Lesson

The team activities in this

lesson explore the important

materials carbonaceous

chondrites brought to Earth.

A jumbled letter activity leads

students to look at the amino

acids found in

carbonaceous chondrites as

the building blocks of life.

Students also experiment with

growing yeast in

mediums that represent

carbonaceous chondrite

material.

Vocabulary

amino acids, DNA, carbon,

carbonaceous chondrites
12.2 Lesson 12  Building Blocks of Life NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Lesson 12  Building Blocks of Life

 Activity A: Alphabet Soup

Objective

Students will:

• recognize that carbonaceous chondrite meteorites contain

amino acids, the first step towards living plants and animals.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Prepare one envelope for each classroom team. Envelopes

should each have the letters necessary to spell “amino acids”

and an appropriate number of additional letters to challenge

the students.

Suggested letter groupings:

#1 - aminoacidsbeghlmnust

#2 - aminoacidsabffjklmmr

#3 - aminoacidscfijopprrty

#4 - aminoacidscdeehjloor

#5 - aminoacidsdgikllsuwz

#6 - aminoacidsdeggjmrtuy

#7 - aminoacidsacegimnnqt

#8 - aminoacidscffillnppu

For more advanced students use the names of

individual amino acids.

Glycine, Alanine, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Serine, Cysteine,

Cystine, Aspartic Acid, Asparagine, Threonine, Methionine,

Glutamic Acid, Glutamine, Proline, Lysine, Arginine, Histidine,

Tryptophan, Phenylalanine Tryosine

2. The activity may be simplified by

using one color for the letters that

spell “amino” and another color for

“acids” and different colors for the

extra letters. No two collections

should be the same in color or

letters.

3. Copy Student Sheet.

4. Review the lesson background.

About This Activity

Student teams try to discover

the hidden words “amino

acids” using cutout, jumbled

letters. They progress to the

analogy that just as the letters

are essential to “building”

words so are amino acids,

found in carbonaceous chondrites, essential as building

blocks of life.

Materials for Activity A

❑ individual letter sets for

each team (press cut-outs,

etc.) see Advanced Preparation

❑ envelopes large enough to

hold approximately 20

letters (1 per team)

❑ paper and pencil for each

team

❑ Student Sheet (pg. 12.5)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 12  Building Blocks of Life 12.3

Classroom Procedure

1. Divide class into teams and distribute envelopes with letters.

2. Using the letters, teams list words they can think of that

could be made if just one more letter was available.

3. Teams spell words using the letters in the envelopes.

A team recorder writes all words discovered.

Note: Teacher should monitor the progress being made.

After appropriate “wait” times, teams will be instructed to

progress through the remaining procedural steps.

4. Teams compare letters with a nearby team. At teacher’s

signal, sharing teams will compare with other teams, seeking

common letters and words.

5. Exercise continues until students discover the term “amino

acids,” with or without teacher intervention.

Intervention “Hints” from broad to narrow:

• “Do teams near you have any of the same letters?”

• “You’re looking for two words.”

• “Both words begin with the letter a.”

• “The words are associated with carbonaceous

chondrites.”

• “The words represent something important to life.”

• “Here are the blanks to play Hang Man. What letters are

common to all teams?”

6. Distribute Student Sheet.

7. Teacher leads a discussion based on the lesson background

information and the questions on Student Sheet. Stress the

comparison of letters as building blocks of words to amino

acids as building blocks of life.

a

m

n

i o

a c i d
12.4 Lesson 12  Building Blocks of Life NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

About This Activity

Students model the effects of

meteorites bringing water and

carbonaceous material to

Earth. They experiment with

growing yeast in mediums

that represent carbonaceous

meteorite material.

 Lesson 12  Building Blocks of Life

 Activity B: Get a BANG Out of Life!

Objective

Students will:

• conduct experiments that simulate how the carbon material

and water from carbonaceous chondrites may have helped

early life on Earth.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Gather equipment.

2. Copy Student Sheet.

Classroom Procedure

1. Students gather materials.

2. Measure 1/2 package of yeast into both containers.

3. Add 0.10 liter warm water to each container and stir.

4. Add crushed cookies to one container and stir.

5. Leave both containers in a warm place.

6. Predict what will happen in each container.

7. Observe how both batches of yeast react and grow.

8. Conduct class discussion on the effects of adding water or

both water and carbon compounds.

9. Complete the questions on the Student Sheet.

Materials for Activity B

Per Small Group or Class

❑ 1 package bakers’ yeast

❑ 0.20 liter warm water

(110 °F/ 43.3 °C)

❑ 3-4 crushed chocolate

snaps (or other

carbohydrate i.e., sugar)

❑ measuring container

❑ large spoon

❑ 2 large clear containers

(liter jars)

❑ thermometer

❑ Student Sheet (pg. 12.6,

per student)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 12  Building Blocks of Life 12.5

O

Questions

1. What are some words you could have made if you had been given just one more

letter.

2. What are some of the words you were able to make with your letters?

3. Fill in the blanks: We could not have spelled _____ ___ if our

envelope had not contained the letter “_ _”?

4. Extra: How are amino acids the building blocks of life?

5. Extra: What is the significance of the discovery of amino acids in carbonaceous

chondrite meteorites?

 Lesson 12  Building Blocks of Life

 Student Sheet: Activity A

A

T

M

N

S

DKL B I
12.6 Lesson 12  Building Blocks of Life NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Lesson 12  Building Blocks of Life

 Student Sheet: Activity B

Procedure

1. Gather equipment

2. Measure 1/2 package of yeast into both containers.

3. Add 0.10 liter warm water to each container and stir.

4. Add crushed cookies to one container and stir.

5. Leave both containers in a warm place.

6. Predict what will happen in each container.

7. Observe how both batches of yeast react and grow.

Record below.

8. Participate in class discussion on the effects of adding water

or both water and carbon compounds.

9. Complete the questions below.

Prediction

Materials

❑ 1 package baker’s yeast

❑ 0.2 liter warm water (110°F/43.3°C)

❑ 3-4 crushed cookies or substitute

carbohydrate

❑ measuring container

❑ large spoon

❑ 2 large clear containers

❑ thermometer

Questions

1. Sketch a close-up view of the results of your experiment.

2. How are the materials in this activity similar to carbonaceous meteorites and how

are they different?

3. How did carbonaceous meteorites contribute to making life possible on Earth?

4. Extra: This experiment was designed to reflect how meteorites contributed to

conditions that promoted life on Earth! How is the experiment similar and how

is it different?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery 13.1

?

Objectives

Students will:

• conduct an investigation.

• observe and record the physical characteristics of an

unknown rock (meteorite).

• determine the mass of the unknown rock using math skills

to track sample chips.

• determine the density of a rock.

• describe and classify a meteorite.

• apply observations and knowledge to the process of a

scientific investigation.

• present evidence to verify classification decisions.

• explore concepts of spatial relationships.

Lesson Structure (All parts A-D are necessary for completion.)

Four photographs provide the evidence for the students’

investigations. The goal is to gather enough information to identify

the unknown rock in the photograph. At each step the students will

check whether there is enough data to identify the unknown, or at

least eliminate some of the possibilities.

Part A. Looking for Clues

— Start investigation of unknown by observing the rock in

Lithograph I.

— Emphasis is on describing color, texture, and shape.

— Use Lithograph II to view from a different perspective.

Optional

— Construct paper cube and use a die to develop

understanding of spatial relationships.

— Manipulate the orientation cube used with meteorite

samples to understand why it is important.

Part B. Vital Statistics

— Measure the dimensions of the unknown (Lithograph I

and II).

— Determine the density of the rock.

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery

About This Lesson

This is a culminating lesson in

four parts. It is designed to

follow meteorite identification

activities. A minimum sequence is Lessons 1, 8, 9, 10,

11, and 13. It would also be

useful after geologic sample

identification activities. The

goal for the class is to gather

enough information to identify

the unknown rock. This will

be accomplished by using

photographs to observe,

describe, measure, illustrate,

and classify the “unknown”

(Noblesville meteorite).

Scientific identification

processes will be simulated.

As the class progresses

through each step of the

activity they will be asked

“What would be your next

step to classify this rock?”.

The teacher will lead the

students to recognize the need

for additional, usually more

detailed, information. Stress

that even though they may

guess or have a “hunch” what

the unknown is (a meteorite),

they must present evidence

to verify their decisions. See

“Hints” throughout the

procedure.

“How

did they

form?”
13.2 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Part C. Narrowing the Suspect List

 — Observe the interior of the rock in detail (Lithograph III).

Part D. Nabbing the Culprit

— Use a microscope photo of a thin section of the rock to complete the

identification (Lithograph IV).

Background (See also Lesson 1)

After Brodie Spaulding and Brian Kenzie observed the fall of the

Noblesville meteorite, they sent the specimen to astronomer Dr.

Solomon Gartenhaus at Purdue University for classification and study.

Dr. Gartenhaus contacted Purdue meteoriticist Dr. Michael Lipschutz who

led a group of scientists to study the meteorite. He arranged for curation at

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Johnson Space Center

(NASA-JSC). The meteorite was sent to NASA for initial description and

classification by the curators at the lab. The curators photographed, weighed,

measured, and described the meteorite, then took 20 grams of chips for further scientific study. One

chip was used to prepare thin sections for mineral analysis and microscopic textural observations.

They found that Noblesville is a meteorite breccia consisting of numerous large white clasts in a dark

gray matrix.

Abundant metal and a few small chondrules can be seen in the specimen, showing that it is a metalrich chondrite. Mineral analyses confirmed the high-iron nature of both clasts and matrix and showed

that the clasts are highly metamorphosed, while the matrix is only slightly metamorphosed. This type

of chondrite breccia is rare. It is a regolith breccia similar to some lunar breccias. The curators also

sent chips of the meteorite to several geochemists for elemental and isotopic analyses. These scientists

found that Noblesville is rich in gases deposited by the solar wind.

Vocabulary

astronomer, attrition, breccia, chondrite, chondrule, classification, clast, curation, curator, density,

fusion crust, geochemist, isotope, matrix, metal, metamorphic, meteoriticist, regmaglypt

Advanced Preparation

1. Be familiar with background information and comfortable with vocabulary (see glossary).

2. Assemble all materials and be very familiar with the order in which they will be used.

3. If only one original set of photographs is available, good photo copies will work. Use copies

for the groups and display originals for consultations.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery 13.3

Objective

Students will:

• observe and record information from close examination of

two photographs of the unknown rock.

Procedure - Step 1

Suggested introduction to be used by teacher:

Have you ever been confronted with a real mystery?

— Someone has written an anonymous love note to you,

and you can’t figure out who it is!

— Something has disappeared and you KNOW it was

there a minute before.

— You’ve found something weird and you can’t figure out

what it is or where it came from.

Some professionals spend their entire careers solving

mysteries for people. THIS time, YOU will be the

investigators.

1. Divide class into groups of 3-5 students.

2. Students examine Lithograph I as a group and using the

Team Data Sheet write individual descriptions of the rock.

Include shape, color, texture, and hypothesize as to its

identity. Allow students to check original color photo if

they are using photo copies.

3. Students may share descriptions and hypotheses.

4. Solicit ideas for further investigation and lead students to

recognize the need for more information — a picture of

the rock from a different perspective.

Hint: Students may ask for the actual rock. Point out that

private investigators often search for missing persons and

have only a photograph for their first clue.

Procedure - Step 2

1. Examine Lithograph II. Students record similarities and

differences of the two photographs (Lithos I and II) on the

Team Data Sheet. Focus on big rock, not small pieces.

 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery

 Part A: Looking for Clues

Materials for Parts A-D

Per Group of Students

Note: Materials should be

distributed as needed for

each step of the

investigation.

❑ Lithograph Set (Lithographs

I-IV show 4 photographs of

Noblesville meteorite)

❑ Lithograph copies if needed

❑ Suspect List, pg. 13.15,

(used in Parts C and D)

❑ Team Data Sheet, pgs.

13.13-13.14, (per student)

❑ Meteorite ABC’s Fact

Sheet (pgs 29-30)

(used in Part D)

❑ NASA JSC Notes -

Extended Comments

(pg. 13.11)

❑ individual writing materials

❑ paper clips

❑ transparency or similar

plastic sheet

❑ transparency marker

❑ metric ruler

❑ one overhead projector for

class

❑ single die - optional

❑ patterns for orientation

cubes for each student -

optional (pg. 13.12)

❑ sissors

❑ glue

About Part A

Students will start their

investigation by observing

the rock in photographs.
13.4 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Hint: Two photographs of the same person often look like different people. A different perspective can make a big difference.

2. Allow students to discuss comparisons, and reveal all evidence they have observed.

Hint: Exterior “coat” which could be fusion crust should be identified by this point;

 therefore, this rock “may be a meteorite.” Since they have presumably been studying

meteorites this is a logical step since hypotheses come from evidence coupled with prior

knowledge. But they must present evidence!

 Looking for Extra Clues Optional Extension

 (use after Part A)

Objective

Students will:

• explore concepts of spatial relationships.

Procedure

Suggested introduction:

Just as an investigator might start off with a photograph of a missing person, we have two

photographs of an unidentified rock. Is there anything else in either photograph that

might provide additional clues about this rock? (Lead class to notice orientation cube if

necessary.) What do you think the little block is? (Point out letters. Solicit comments.)

Sometimes investigators make simulations of items they can see in photographs. I have

some patterns to make cubes. If we experiment, maybe we can figure out why cubes are

in both of the pictures?

1. Distribute individual cube pattern sheets and scissors.

2. Students label sides of cube shown in pictures. This may be done after construction if

desired.

3. Teacher leads class in supplying “missing” letters and students finish labeling cubes.

Hint: Looking at the two cubes, I see the letter ‘E’ on both of them. Assuming that both cubes

are identical, how would the ‘T’ and ‘B’ relate to each other? (Opposite each other — T for

Top & B for Bottom) Now that we’ve dealt with the T and the B, let’s look at the leftover

letters. Where have you seen an N and an E together before? What could they stand for?

(North and East) If students do not recognize the letters as directions, identify them as

such. S and W are not visible in the photographs but students should put them on their

cube model.

4. Students fold and glue cubes.

5. Teacher solicits possible uses for cubes.

6. Students relate cubes to picture, determining that the rock has been turned upside down in

the second photograph.

S
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery 13.5

Hint: When police arrive at a crime scene, it is common practice to

orient objects (bodies) using strips of tape before photographing

the scene. This allows for effective “further investigation.”

7. Demonstrate the use of orientation cube using die.

— Group leader will place cube next to die on lab table

with the cube’s “T” face on top and “N” face indicating

north. Die should be placed with “5” and “6” faces of

die oriented to “T” and “N” respectively.

— As other members of each group record instructions,

group leader will flip or rotate both the cube and die

simultaneously as teacher calls out and models

instructions. Note: Both die and cube must be flipped

or rotated the exact same number of times in the exact

same direction(s).

— Teacher will point out that the relationships of the “T”

and “5” as well as the “N” and “6” are still the same

after the first few instructions.

— Teacher will verify comprehension.

— Group leader, aided by recorded data of teammates, will

return both die and cube to initial placements and

orientations.

— Groups will divide into two teams each. While one team

looks away, the other team will change the orientation

of the die and cube simultaneously, flipping and rotating at

least 3 times (one teammate must record “moves”).

— The inactive team will attempt to return both the die and

cube to their initial positions without help (if asked, the

active team may give hints after a reasonable effort has

been made).

— Teacher will support teams struggling with task

throughout exercise.

— Teams will switch “jobs.”

8. Class will work with cubes, and demonstrate initial

orientation of a variety of objects in the classroom.

Hint: Noting the placement of cubes in photographs, we can determine

the exact placement of an object when it was found: both “which

end was up” and its geographical orientation (whether it was

“facing” north, south, etc.). If items must be moved, either during a

crime or scientific investigation, the investigator often must duplicate the scene. Without orientation devices, this would be impossible. Geologists use this technique when they saw rocks into

pieces. They must know exact placements of parts in relation to

the original specimen, particularly when they are being held

accountable for national treasures like the lunar samples or rare

meteorites.
13.6 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Objectives

Students will:

• measure the size of the unknown rock.

• determine the mass of the unknown rock using math skills to

track sample chips.

• estimate the density of a rock.

Procedure - Step 1

Suggested introduction:

Just as an investigator needs vital statistics on a missing

person, measurements are the next logical step in identifying

this rock. For all we know, this thing is as big as a house.

Is it a pebble or a boulder? How can we find out its size?

1. Solicit suggestions as to how the rock might be measured.

2. Disclose actual dimensions of cubes in photographs. Cubes

are 1 cm on a side, not the same size as cube in optional step.

3. Groups measure or estimate dimensions of unknown, based

upon Lithographs I and II and record data on the Team Data

Sheet.

4. Optional: Class may average data to estimate size or they

could create a table or graph based on the data.

Procedure - Step 2

1. Students find the total mass of all the parts of the unknown.

2. Have students compare initial mass of the unknown and the

total mass of broken pieces (see Team Data Sheet for data).

The difference is 0.1g (not 4.1g - some may neglect to

include the 4g piece removed prior to processing at NASA).

3. Class will hypothesize about reasons for the difference in

mass. The difference is due to attrition, fine dust and tiny

pieces lost in sample processing. However, some students

might suggest a weighing mistake or a rounding error (both

are possible).

 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery

 Part B: Vital Statistics

About Part B

Students will take

measurements and determine

the density of the specimen.

Optional

1. Optional - Students may

calculate the approximate

density (grams per cubic

centimeter).

2. Bonus Question - Ask

students how an

investigator could find

the volume of an

irregular object. Answer

could be the standard

liquid displacement

procedure or a new

computer imaging

process.

Hint: If density is

calculated, “iron

meteorite” may be

eliminated at this point

(iron density = 8, stone

density = 3.3 - 4.5)

Actual Noblesville

Density is 3.9.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery 13.7

Objectives

Students will:

• describe and draw details of an unknown rock.

• apply observations and knowledge to the process of a

scientific investigation.

Procedure

Suggested introduction:

If you get a present and want to know what it is, you might shake

it, heft it, sniff it, etc., but you will eventually OPEN it. We’ve

examined the rock in our photograph pretty thoroughly. Where do

we go from here? (Solicit “look inside” response.)

Looking inside something is another typical investigative

technique. Since we don’t have the actual rock we’re attempting

to identify, we’ll use an additional photograph of the interior of

the rock. The inside was exposed when a section of it was removed.

This magnified photograph is helpful because it allows us to see

INSIDE the rock. What additional clues can we obtain from this

detailed view of the unknown rock? (Solicit answers.)

Investigators often use another technique when attempting to

locate a suspect. They call in a police artist and, based on

descriptions of witnesses, compile an artist’s sketch.

Your job is easier than that. I’d like you to examine this detailed

view and prepare an artist’s sketch of it.

1. Students examine Lithograph III as a group. Each student

will draw this detailed portion of the unknown. Labels will be

added after step 3 below.

2. Distribute Suspect Lists and have students fill in their

observations based on the investigations to this point.

3. Teacher will lead students to begin the narrowing process.

 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery

 Part C: Narrowing the Suspect List

About Part C

Observations of the interior

of the specimen are made.
13.8 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Just as investigators label drawings to clarify information, I’d

like you to label your drawing. Since it appears more and

more that this rock may be a meteorite, try using terms from

this word bank for your labels: breccia, chondrules, clast,

fusion crust, matrix, metal.

4. Instruct students to label their illustrations with at least three

appropriate vocabulary words. Depending on the level of

experience students have with meteorites, the words may be

from a word bank or from the students’ previous studies.

Hint: The texture of the unknown is a breccia texture — clasts

(broken fragments) contained in a matrix. Carbonaceous

chondrite will be eliminated at this point (very few black veins

and little matrix). If chondrules are recognized, achondrite

may also be eliminated.

Suspect List
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery 13.9

 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery

 Part D: Nabbing the Culprit

Objectives

Students will:

• observe and draw detailed microscope view of unknown.

• present evidence to verify classification decisions.

Procedure

Suggested activity introduction:

 We’ve observed and recorded information about our rock from

more than one perspective. Any ideas on a next step? I’m

remembering a picture I’ve seen of an investigator peering at

something on the floor through a magnifying glass — like

Sherlock Holmes. Why would he have done that?

(To make things look larger so more details may be seen.) With

all the technology available to us now, how would a modern

investigator accomplish that same thing? (Microscope)

Along with microscopes, modern investigators now have special

cameras they can attach to microscopes for taking pictures.

Geologists have even figured out a way to cut a skinny little piece

of rock that is so thin that light will pass through. It’s called a

thin section. Lithograph IV is a thin section of our rock. This is

what scientists see through a special microscope.

1. Groups will receive transparency sheet and marker. They will

lay the transparency sheet over lithograph of thin section and

secure with paper clips. Trace corners on transparency to

make it obvious if the paper slips.

2. Possible chondrules and bits of metal, (shaded) will be traced.

(Metals block light and look black under the microscope.)

3. Groups will compare transparencies by aligning and stacking

them on the overhead and viewing simultaneously to detect

differences in observations. Help students clarify the clast

boundaries.

4. Using the Suspect List the class will attempt to eliminate

“suspects” by process of elimination. If further information is

needed, students may use the Meteorite ABC’s Fact Sheet on

pgs. 29-30, of the Teacher’s Guide.

Hint: Chondrules WILL be identified at this point; therefore,

achondrite is eliminated. If density has not been calculated

About Part D

Students use a microscope

photo of a thin section of the

rock to complete the

identification.
13.10 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

then students will need to use the photographs and

descriptions in the Introductory materials to eliminate iron

and stony-iron. See the Background Information on pg. 13.2

of this lesson for a detailed description of the Noblesville

meteorite.

5. Class will discuss/summarize investigative process and

conclusions reached.

6. Students will only be expected to identify the unknown as a

chondrite or possibly as a chondrite breccia. Noblesville is a

metamorphic regolith breccia made of clasts of H

chondrites in a matrix.

7. Teacher will identify the rock as the Noblesville meteorite and

the original investigators as the meteoriticists who identified

and classified it.

8. Class will compare and contrast the descriptions of the

meteorite prepared by the students with the initial

descriptions prepared by NASA scientists at the Johnson

Space Center. See NASA JSC Notes - Extended Comments

pg. 13.11.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery 13.11

NASA JSC

Notes / Extended Comments

Sample: Noblesville non -Antarctic meteorite

Description By: Satterwhite 10/17/91

Dimensions - 9.5 x 8 x 3.5 cm

Exterior of this sample is covered with dull black fusion crust. Bottom surface of

exterior is brown, top surface has several regmaglypts and some residual dirt. Small area

on exterior is chipped away and reveals a medium grey matrix with some white angular

clasts.

Interior is fine-grained medium grey with numerous angular white clasts. A few

distinct chondrules are visible. Some very small chondrules and fragments are seen.

Abundant fragmented grains with metallic luster are visible. White clasts are coarser

grained. More metal sulfide and some medium-grained yellow grains

(olivine ?).

Weathering - A+ recent fall

Fractures - A

Weight - 483.7 g

 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery

 NASA JSC Notes

Use only after students have completed Part D

Initial description prepared by NASA scientists

at the Johnson Space Center

Compare this description with students’ descriptions of Noblesville.

Point out similarities in their descriptions but do not expect students’ observations to be exact.
13.12 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

(not same scale as photographs)

1. Cut out pattern.

2. Fold along lines to make a cube shape.

3. Glue tabs to inside of cube.

 Lesson 13Solving a Mystery

 Orientation Cube Pattern
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery 13.13

Name:

Team:

 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery

 Team Data Sheet

Part A: Looking for for Clues

Step 1: Lithograph I

Describe the rock (shape, color, texture, etc.) What do you think it is?

Step 2: Lithograph II

View both photos and record the similarities and differences revealed about

the rock.

Part B: Vital Statistics

Step 1:

How big is this rock?

Estimate the rock’s volume in cm3. Why is this estimate not very exact?
13.14 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Step 2: Finding the rock’s mass

The mass of the rock described in the NASA Lab was 483.7g before chips were

chiseled off for scientific studies. A small 4.0g piece was removed before it

arrived at NASA, thus the total initial mass of the rock was 487.7g.

What was the total mass of the rock including all the pieces? (chip 0 weighed

466.4g, chip 1 weighed 12.4g, chip 2 weighed 1.6g, chip 3 weighed 3.2g)

Why was there a difference in the original weight and the total weight of the

pieces?

Step 3: Optional

Estimate the rock’s density in g/cm3, showing your math. How could this estimate be inaccurate? How should you adjust your estimate?

Part C: Narrowing the Suspect List

Sketch the inside of the mystery rock using Lithograph III. Note significant features

observed.

Part D: Nabbing the Culprit

Trace the features shown in the microscope photograph onto a transparency sheet.

Show detail. Use the space below to describe what you see in Lithograph IV.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery 13.15

 Lesson 13  Solving a Mystery

 Suspect List

Name:

Yes or No Reason (be specific)

Earth Rock

Sedimentary

Igneous

Metamorphic

Meteorite

Iron

Stony - Chondrite

- Carbonaceous

 Chondrite

- Achondrite

Stony-Iron
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary 14.1

Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the

K-T Boundary

“What

effect

do they

have?” Objectives

Students will:

• evaluate and apply data from a narrative to a scientific

selection process.

• demonstrate or visualize simulations of some of the effects

of a huge impact.

• write a point of view narrative.

About This Lesson

In this lesson, students explore

information about the effects

of large impacts.

A critical thinking activity

helps students select the likely

impact site associated with the

extinction of the

dinosaurs.

Using simple simulations

students will find it easier to

relate to the massive

destruction caused by large

impacts. Creative writing

skills are developed by

writing a first person

narrative to illustrate the

destruction.
14.2 Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Objective

From a narrative, students will:

• select criteria and then apply them to a scientific problem by

using critical thinking skills.

Background

Sixty-five million years ago three quarters of the life forms on Earth

became extinct. The most well-known group to die out were the

dinosaurs. However, birds may be lineal descendants of one group

of dinosaurs. Other species that became extinct were the ammonites

(marine molluscs like the chambered nautilus), rudistid clams (so

abundant that they formed huge reefs), and whole groups of small

marine organisms. The only groups of animals that were not

affected lived deep in the oceans. Some land animals like the early

mammals survived also. This extinction marks the end of the

Cretaceous period of geological history and the beginning of the

Tertiary period. Rocks that formed during these distinct periods are

recognized by their fossils, which are enormously different because

of the great extinction. As a shorthand (or jargon), geologists call

this geological instant the K-T boundary (K for the German word

for Cretaceous; T for Tertiary).

The extinction of the dinosaurs has been a source of scientific

speculation. Hypotheses about the cause of the extinction have

included:

—it wasn’t a single event, but a series of unrelated local extinctions;

—the extinction was a slow decline in numbers and diversity, not a

catastrophe;

—the extinction was caused by a rapid change in climate from warm

and wet to cool and dry;

—the dinosaurs became an evolutionary dead end and could no

longer adapt to minor changes in their environment;

—living things were killed by the effects of massive volcanic eruptions (specifically those in the Deccan region of India);

—the effects of a meteorite impact caused the extinctions.

 Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary

 Activity A: Find the K-T Crater

About This Activity

This activity starts with a

short informative narrative

about the extinction of many

species, including the

dinosaurs. An asteroid impact

was identified as the major

reason for the long lasting

global changes that killed so

many living things. But the

location of the large crater,

caused by the impact, was not

immediately obvious. Like

the scientists, the students will

be asked, “Where is the

crater?” Students will

develop the criteria for evaluating crater candidates from

the background narrative

information. In teams they

will evaluate selected craters

to see which one(s) might

have caused the extinction of

the dinosaurs.

Materials for Activity A

❑ Student Background

(pgs. 14.7-14.8)

❑ Geographic Features

Suspect List (four sets

are provided,

pgs. 14.9-14.12)

❑ Geographic Features

 Teacher Key (pg. 14.6)

❑ physical maps(s) of the

world

❑ overhead projector

(optional)
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary 14.3

Until 1980, each of these hypotheses had strong adherents and there was no consensus at all. In that

year, a crucial paper was published in Science that thrust the meteorite impact hypothesis into prominence and eventual acceptance by most scientists.

The K-T boundary had been investigated for many years as scientists searched for the cause of the

extinctions. The rocks seemed to indicate a global catastrophe. Rocks at the exact boundary are not

exposed at the Earth’s surface in very many places. Some of the best exposures are in northern New

Mexico, southern Canada, Italy, Spain, Denmark, and New Zealand. At all of these sites, the K-T

boundary is defined by a thin layer of grayish clay. Rocks at these sites include sandstones from

ancient river valleys, limestones from ocean reefs, and cherts from the ocean floor. The gray clay is

present in all of them. Cretaceous fossils, marine or terrestrial, are present below the gray clay and are

never found in rocks above the gray clay.

Scientists at the University of California at Berkeley (led by Nobel laureate Walter Alvarez and his son

Louis) decided to investigate the clay layer at the K-T boundary to see if they could determine just

how much time was represented by the gap between K and T times. A meteorite researcher suggested

that the fairly constant inflow of micrometeorites that contain trace amounts of the element iridium

might yield a measure of the time. Iridium is extremely rare in rocks from the Earth’s surface, averaging about 0.1 parts per billion, but is much more abundant in common meteorites at about 500 parts

per billion. Also, analyses for such small quantities of iridium is relatively cheap, easy and reliable

using a technique called neutron activation analysis. Alvarez and his co-workers collected samples of

the K-T gray clay and the surrounding rocks and analyzed them for iridium. They found an extremely

high concentration of iridium (from 1 to 90 parts per billion). The iridium concentration was so high

that at expected micrometeorite fall rates, the gap would represent tens of millions of years. This time

sequence was not likely so they were forced to look for another reason for the unexpected amount of

iridium.

Thus, the discovery reported by Alvarez, of the worldwide distribution of iridium from meteorites, has

added to the evidence that a large meteorite impact did occur at the K-T time. Many scientists conducted investigations that would link this new information with the mass extinction of species.

The extra iridium at the K-T

boundary also allowed

Alvarez and his co-workers

to estimate the size of the

impacting meteorite. They

calculated how much extra

iridium, in grams/cm2

, had

fallen at each of the K-T sites

and computed the average

iridium fallout. Assuming

that the iridium had been

originally deposited worldwide, they calculated their

extra iridium values and

Painting courtesy of Don Davis©.
14.4 Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

computed the total iridium fallout over the Earth. Their total iridium

could have been supplied if the impacting “meteorite” were

10 kilometers in diameter, and made of ordinary chondrite material.

An object this size can hardly be called a meteorite; it was an asteroid.

Once the iridium excesses in the K-T clay were known, other scientists

began looking for additional evidence for a meteorite impact at the K-T

boundary time. In the gray clay they found other features consistent with

a meteorite impact, including grains of the mineral quartz that showed the

effects of enormous shock pressure, and globules of melted rock that

could have been formed in an impact. Scientists also found soot in the

clay layer — enough soot to suggest that enormous fires consumed much

of the Earth’s vegetation. In the rocks below the gray clay, they also recognized deposits from enormous

ocean waves that might have been tsunamis caused by an impact. In addition, they found broken rock in

unusual places that suggested earthquakes (which could have been triggered by an impact).

The impact of a 10 km diameter meteorite (actually a small asteroid) must have produced a circular crater,

probably more than a 150 km in diameter. A crater that size would likely have multiple ring structures, like

the larger craters on the Moon. Although remnants of a few large craters like that are known on the Earth,

they are all much older than the 65 million year age of the K-T boundary. The lack of a known crater made

many scientists suspicious of the whole meteorite impact hypothesis, and inspired others to look for the

impact crater. Many features around the world were suggested and investigated as possible impact sites.

The work centered first on North America because the largest fragments of shocked rock were found

there. The Manson meteorite crater, beneath Iowa, was first targeted because it formed about

65 million years ago. But Manson is only 35 kilometers in diameter, probably too small to have

caused global devastation and too small to have been made by a 10 kilometer asteroid.

Then the search focused on the Caribbean area, because the clay layer was thickest there, and had the

largest rock fragments and globules of melted rock. Finally, suspicion focused on an unusual

sub-surface structure on the northern coast of Yucatan (Mexico), centered under the town of

Chicxulub. Studying rocks from drill cores of the area and data from remote sensing methods

(gravity measurements, seismic profiles) showed that the Chicxulub structure is a

meteorite impact crater. The most recent estimate of its size is 300 kilometers across, certainly large

enough to have caused a global environmental catastrophe.

The effects of the meteorite hitting the Earth can hardly be described. As the meteorite hit, all life

within about 300 km (the size of the eventual crater) would be vaporized instantly. Then the hot blast

wave from the impact explosion would kill all life for several hundred kilometers in all directions.

Farther out, the blast wave would kill, deafen and disorient many animals. In the ocean, the shock

from the impact would generate enormous, world-wide tsunamis, perhaps with waves a kilometer tall.

Gigantic hurricanes might also be triggered. In the Earth, the shock from the impact would be felt as

huge earthquakes, and would set off other earthquakes over the whole globe.

Ejecta from the impact (sand-sized and larger) would shoot out and rain down for thousands of

kilometers around. Other ejecta would leave the Earth’s atmosphere but not Earth’s gravity; it would

return to Earth as meteorites so abundant that their heat would “broil” the Earth’s surface and set off

Merida

Y U C A T A N 

P E N I N S U L A

Gulf Of Mexico
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary 14.5

wildfires over the whole planet. Over the impact site, a mushroom cloud would rise, carrying dust

from the explosion far into the stratosphere. This dust would mingle with the soot from wildfires to

form a world-wide haze so thick as to block out all light from the sun. Over time, without the Sun’s

heat, surface temperatures on the Earth would drop 20-30oC. The combined effects of the fires, the

darkness, and the cold must have devastated life and caused the collapse of almost all ecological

interrelationships. Months later, when the dust cleared and the Sun finally shone again, only some

seeds and the most enduring animals would still be alive. Three quarters of all species would die in the

next few years, due to the loss of the ecosystems on which they depended. Early shrew-like animals

were the only mammals so far discovered to have survived the disaster.

Procedures

Advanced Preparation

1. Review background.

2. Read and be familiar with the Teacher Key for Geographic Features.

3. Prepare envelopes containing sets of Geographic Features: Suspect Lists.

• one set of four features per envelope, per team

• repeat sets if there are more than four teams

Classroom Procedure

1. Read the Student Background as a group or individually.

2. Ask “Where is the Killer Crater?” and “What criteria (parameters) would you use to narrow

the list of suspect features?”

Note: Some students may already know the name or location of the likely crater. Encourage them

not to reveal the name and remind them that, like scientists, they must present proof and logical

reasons for their crater choice not just “I read/ saw that it was down in the Yucatan.”

3. Brainstorm the criteria as a class. Take all suggestions and then combine and focus on the

categories listed below. Some classes may develop only three criteria and some may have

four. Be flexible, but do not focus on age alone, the true age of a feature may be difficult to

determine. (Criteria: Shape, Size, Target Material, and Age)

4. Divide the class into teams of 3-4 students (more if necessary).

5. Distribute the envelopes of “Suspect Features”, keeping the numbered groupings so that each

team will have a variety of criteria to assess.

6. Ask each team to assess whether their assigned features are “likely,” “unlikely,” or

“possible” candidates for the “Killer Crater.” Maps may be used.

7. Have each group report their findings to the class. (A simple list on the chalkboard or a chart

may be developed if needed.)

8. Have the class prioritize the list of craters, from “most likely” to “maybe.”

9. Provide information from background as needed.

Vocabulary

crater, meteorite, asteroid, impact, iridium, clay, shock, quartz, fossil, Cretaceous, Tertiary, catastrophe, soot.

Questions

1. Could there have been more than one impact that contributed to the global catastrophe?

Justify your answer.

Extensions

1. Ask students to bring articles from books or magazines that give more background information.
14.6 Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Teacher Key

Geographic Features
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary 14.7

Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary

 Student Background

The death of the dinosaurs was part of a large extinction — a time when three

quarters of the kinds of life (species) on Earth were killed. Most scientists are

convinced that the dinosaurs and other life forms died when a giant meteorite hit the

Earth. You may have heard about the crater from this impact. Just like the scientists

who study the death of the dinosaurs, you too can use reason to choose which crater

was the killer.

The dinosaurs died out about 65 million years ago, along with many kinds of

plants and marine animals, especially ones that lived in shallow water. This change in

life on Earth, and the fossils left behind, marks the end of the Cretaceous period of

geological history and the beginning of the Tertiary period. Geologists commonly

call this time the K-T boundary. In many places, the rock at the K-T boundary is a

few centimeters of clay. Below the clay are abundant fossils of Cretaceous animals

(dinosaurs or marine animals, depending on the rocks); above the clay layer, in the

same kind of rocks, the fossils are gone. This clay layer marks a global ecological

catastrophe, the extinction of three quarters of the life forms on Earth.

One idea was that the K-T extinctions were caused by meteorite impacts. In

1980, scientists from the University of California at Berkeley set out to test this idea.

They thought that the K-T clay might contain meteorite material, and that the element

iridium might be a good “fingerprint” for a meteorite impact. Iridium is a rare metal,

much like platinum, and about 5000 times more abundant in most meteorites than in

Earth rocks. The scientists analyzed samples of the clay, and found that it had up to

400 times the iridium of the surrounding rocks! This result proved that a huge

meteorite had hit the Earth at the time of the K-T

extinction. A meteorite of about 10 kilometers in

diameter could have provided all of the iridium

in the worldwide clay layer.

But the proof of a meteorite impact left many

questions unanswered. How could a meteorite impact

have caused massive deaths over the whole world? And

where was the crater caused by this meteorite?
14.8 Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

How could a meteorite impact have caused a global ecological catastrophe?

Everything at the impact site would have been vaporized, and the blast wave would

have killed all life for hundreds of kilometers around. Earthquakes, tsunamis, and

hurricanes would also have killed many animals. But how could the effects have

been global? The evidence is in the K-T clay, which is found all over the world.

That clay was originally dust from the impact, and must have spread throughout the

atmosphere, and then settled out to form the clay layer. In addition, the K-T clay is

rich in soot, suggesting that the meteorite impact was followed by huge fires over

much of the globe. The dust and soot would have blocked out the Sun for months,

and temperatures would have dropped 20 to 30o

C. Only the most enduring animals

and seeds could have survived until the air cleared and the Sun shone again.

And where did the killer meteorite land? Where is the smoking gun? The impact of a 10 km meteorite must have made a crater, a huge circular scar, somewhere

on the Earth’s surface, similar to craters on the Moon, Mars, and other planets. The

K-T clay again holds clues, now in the form of grains of the mineral quartz, heavily

shocked by the meteorite impact. Quartz is very rare in rocks from the ocean basins,

so the impact crater is likely to be on a continent or continent edge.

But exactly where? Which crater pulled the trigger on the dinosaurs? This is

your chance to pick the killer crater from this line-up of suspects. Just don’t bother

looking for a motive.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary 14.9

 Geographic Features: Suspect List Group 1

Acraman - In South Australia, Lake Acraman is a hexagonal salt lake about

20 km in diameter at 32°S, 135.5°E. Surrounding the lake are two, much

larger, circular structures, which are barely visible in aerial or space

shuttle imagery; the largest structure is 160 km in diameter. Rocks in the

area are deformed, and a belt of broken and melted rock is present 300 km

to the East of Acraman. The broken and melted rock formed about 600

million years ago, which may be the age of the Acraman structure.

Manson Structure - The Manson Structure, beneath the surface in Iowa at

42.5°N, 94.5°W, is detectable only through geophysical means (seismic

profiles). It is a circular ring of granitic rock, 35 km in diameter, buried

under hundreds of feet of other rocks which appear to have covered over

the ring. The rocks in the Manson structure are severely broken. They

were subjected to great shock pressures, and melted. The age of the

Manson structure is about 65 million years.

Valle Grande - The Valle Grande is a circular basin, 22 km in diameter, in the

mountains of central New Mexico at 36°N, 106.5°W. The edge of the

basin is a sharp scarp, and the land slopes away on all sides. Rocks at the

wall of the basin are broken and jumbled together. Within the basin is a

central peak surrounded by a ring of smaller peaks. Rocks in the Valle

Grande are all volcanic, with ages of younger than 2 million years.

Elgygytgyn - Elgygytgyn is a circular lake (the meaning of the name in the

local tribal language) in easternmost Siberia, Russia: 67.5°N, 172°E.

Around the slightly raised rim of Elgygytgyn is a ring of broken and

partly melted rock. Farther away there is a halo of fractured and strongly

shocked rocks. There are no volcanoes or recent volcanic rocks in the

area. The crater formed 3.5 million years ago.
14.10 Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Geographic Features: Suspect List Group 2

Crater Lake - Crater Lake is a circular basin, 8 kilometers in diameter, at the

peak of a 2400 meter tall mountain in Oregon at 49°N, 122°W. The edge

of the basin is a sharp scarp, and the mountain slopes away on all sides.

The basin is filled with water. One peak forms an island in the basin

center. Crater lake formed 6,000 years ago.

Crater Elegante - This circular depression, about 1 kilometer in diameter, is in

northwestern Mexico at 30°N, 115°W. The crater has steep sides and a

raised lip; the land surface slopes gently away from the crater in all

directions for a kilometer or so. The crater is near the flanks of a large

volcano, Cerro Pinacate, which is surrounded by many cinder cones and

lava flows.

Chicxulub Structure - Chicxulub is a circular structure in bedrock beneath the

Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, consisting of concentric rings of uplifted

bedrock centered at 23°N, 90°W. The largest ring is 300 km in diameter.

The Chicxulub structure is buried under a great thickness of limestone,

and has been mapped by remote geophysical methods (gravity and

seismic profiles). Within the structure are lava rocks and minerals which

have been shattered or subjected to high pressure. The Chicxulub

structure is apparent at the Earth’s surface only as a series of sinkholes

over one of the concentric rings. The Chicxulub structure formed 65

million years ago.

Vredefort - The Vredefort ring appears as concentric circles of ridges in

bedrock in South Africa at 27°S, 27.5°E. The outermost ring is 140 km

in diameter and is partly covered by younger rocks. Vredefort does not

look like a crater now, but it is thought to be an eroded crater. It formed

2 billion years ago.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary 14.11

 Geographic Features: Suspect List Group 3

Kamensk - The Kamensk crater is an impact scar in south-central Russia, at

48°N, 40°E. It was formed 65 million years ago and is 35 km across.

Because of political instability in the region, nothing more is known about

the Kamensk crater.

Charlevoix - The Charlevoix structure is marked by a semicircular valley along

the St. Lawrence River in southern Quebec, Canada: 47.5°N, 70°W. If the

structure was originally circular, its southern half is now under the river.

Outside the valley is a band of hills, giving an overall diameter of

46 kilometers (if the structure is circular). Rocks around the structure

have been strongly deformed. In the center of the semicircular valley is a

central peak, composed of broken and melted rock. The age of the melted

rock is 357 million years.

Iceland - This roughly circular island is located in the North Atlantic at 20°W,

65°N. It sits on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a volcanically active spreading

center. The island is about four hundred kilometers in diameter and has

many lava flows and active volcanic vents. Scientists estimate the age of

Iceland to be as much as 20 million years old.

Lake Toba - Lake Toba is located in an elongate basin structure on the Island

of Sumatra, Indonesia at 3°N, 99°E. The land slopes gently away from

the outer edge of the fifty kilometer basin. The surrounding volcanic ash

flows have been dated at about 75,000 years old.
14.12 Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Geographic Features: Suspect List Group 4

Lake Baikal - This beautiful, elongate lake is located in southeastern Russia at

107°E, 52°N. It is the Earth’s deepest continental depression with the

total depth of water plus sediments at over 9 km. The lake is 650 km

long and 8 km wide. The oldest sediments are estimated to be 25 million

years old.

Sudbury - The Sudbury structure is an elliptical area of igneous rocks and

sediments in southern Ontario (Canada) at 46.5°N, 81°W. Sudbury is

inferred to be an impact crater because rocks around it show characteristic

features of intense shock. Now the Sudbury structure is 140 km by 50 km,

and may have been as large as 200 km diameter when it formed,

1.85 billion years ago.

Deccan Traps - The Deccan structure, located at 75°E, 20°N, covers a large part

of west-central India. About sixty-five million years ago huge lava flows

formed a thick, roughly circular area of approximately 520,000 square

kilometers.

Barringer (Meteor) Crater - The Barringer Crater is a circular hole in the

ground in northern Arizona, 35°N, 111°W. It is 1.2 km in diameter.

Many pieces of iron meteorite have been found scattered around the

crater. It is estimated to have formed 49,000 years ago.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary 14.13

 Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary

 Activity B: Global Ecological Disaster

About This Activity

In this activity students will

use simple simulations to

develop a better understanding

of the short term and long

term changes that happen

when gigantic impacts occur

on Earth. These exercises

may be done as demonstrations,

experiments or as verbal

visualizations, i.e. “Think

about what happens when

you throw a large rock in a

puddle!”.

Materials for Activity B

❑ 2 two liter clear soft drink

bottles

❑ 2 one hole rubber stoppers

or styrofoam or clay to

block top

❑ 2 lab thermometers (long)

❑ water

❑ paper (wooden splints

work well also)

❑ matches

❑ light source (sunlight is

best but lamp or overhead

will work)

❑ Atmospheric Changes Data

Sheet for temperature and

time (pg. 14.16)

❑ two pie pans

❑ rock or other object 3-5 cm

diameter

❑ water to fill pan

❑ flour to fill pan

❑ pencil/pen

Objective

Students will:

• visualize or physically demonstrate simulations of some of the

effects of a huge impact.

Background

National Geographic Sept. 1986. See Background from Lesson 14,

Activity A (pgs. 14.2-14.5).

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Gather materials.

2. Review background material.

Classroom Procedure

Atmospheric Changes (see diagram)

1. Put water in each bottle to a depth of 1 cm.

2. Place a stopper in each bottle, insert one thermometer

through each stopper.

3. Place the two prepared chambers where all students may

observe.

4. Distribute the Atmospheric Changes Data Sheet.

5. Have the students predict what will be the effect of sunlight

on the chambers if one chamber contains smoke particles.

clear

soft drink

bottle
14.14 Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

6. Put burning paper (splint or wooden stir stick) in one

chamber and immediately replace stopper (this may be done

before students are present).

7. Allow time for the temperature to come down to the same

temperature as in the control container.

8. Place chambers in sunlight (or use lamp if necessary).

9. Using data table, students record temperature of each

chamber at 1 minute intervals or more, allowing enough time

to show a significant difference in temperature).

10. Based on the results, students should evaluate their

hypotheses.

Tsunami

1. Fill one pie pan with water.

2. Drop rock in water.

3. Observe what happens.

4. Compare and contrast the effect of the “rock” to the possible

effect of an asteroid over 10 km in diameter with an impact

speed of about 15 km per second.

Ejecta and Base Blast

1. Fill one pie pan with flour.

2. Drop rock or large heavy object into flour (layered with

another fine powder if desired).

3. Observe the ejecta and fall out.

4. Discuss the probable similarities and differences between

this demonstration and what happened at the impact site at

Chicxulub.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary 14.15

 Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary

 Activity C: You Were There!

About This Activity

Students will write and

illustrate a narrative from the

point of view of dinosaurs as

a meteorite struck the Earth

sixty-five million years ago.

Objective

Students will:

• write and illustrate a point of view narrative on the

extinction of the dinosaurs.

Background

Consult the Background in Lesson 14, Activity A (pgs. 14.2-14.5).

Procedure

The time is sixty-five million years ago. A huge meteorite has hit

the Earth. Imagine that you are a dinosaur and you notice things

seem different!

Write a paper from the point of view of your dinosaur.

How do you feel? How is your environment changing?

Make an illustration to accompany your paper.
14.16 Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Lesson 14  Direct Hit at the K-T Boundary

 Atmospheric Changes Data Sheet

Describe lab setup.

What will happen to the temperature in the chamber containing smoke particles?

What happened in the chambers and why?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls 15.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls

Objectives

Students will:

• read about large historical meteors and meteorite falls.

• discuss the effects the impacts have had on people.

• compare the responses recorded in history to their own

responses.

Background

Part A: The Tunguska Meteor. This reading describes the largest

meteor and explosion in recorded history. Many effects of its explosion were like those of very large meteorite impacts. Yet, there is no

agreement on what type of planetary material exploded in the Earth’s

atmosphere to cause these effects.

Part B: The Ensisheim Meteorite. The story of the fall of the

Ensisheim Meteorite focuses on how people reacted to a large meteorite fall in the year 1492.

Part C: Fall of the Sikhote-Alin Meteorite. This reading

selection describes one of the largest meteorite showers in recorded

history. The primary emphasis is on the physical events of the fall,

with a secondary emphasis on the political context of the

strategically sensitive area where the fall occurred.

Part D: The Peekskill Fall.

The story of the Peekskill fall, like that of Noblesville in Lesson 1, is

a story of ordinary people in the 1990s. This meteorite crashed into a

teenager’s car after the blazing meteor had been seen by many fans

watching football games.

Part E: The Fall of Allende.

This reading describes a large meteorite shower and the subsequent

scientific revolution. Allende is a special type of meteorite that

generated extra excitement because it was studied by a large number

of scientists testing their equipment in preparation for the imminent

arrival of the Apollo Moon rocks. They discovered that this meteorite

revealed new information about the early history of the solar system.

“What

effect

do they

have?”

About This Lesson

This lesson contains five

reading selections and

associated questions. The

readings and questions are

mostly about the responses of

people to meteor and

meteorite falls.

Materials

❑ copies of readings

(pgs. 15.3-15.12)

❑ reference materials

❑ writing materials

❑ maps

Procedure

Give attached readings to

students to read and discuss.

Have students locate each

event site on a map.

Vocabulary

asteroid, meteorite, meteor,

crater, comet, expedition,

superstition, fireball
15.2 Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Teacher Key - Questions

Part A: The Tunguska Meteor

1. Why would an explosion blow down trees all around it?

2. Why might the trees nearest the explosion site still

be standing?

3. Why might the Russian Academy of Sciences have

waited 19 years to make an expedition to the

Tunguska site? (World War I, the Russian

Revolution)

4. How might the world react today to a Tunguska-type

explosion at the same place? What if it happened in

Texas?

5. What could you do today to find sand-sized grains from

the asteroid or comet that hit at Tunguska? What types

of material might have survived 85 years of weather?

(Metal, minerals) The sand-sized grains from the

meteor might have been propelled by the explosion;

where might you find this sand separate from locally

generated sand? Might any Tunguska material be

preserved anywhere else?

Part B: The Ensisheim Meteorite

1. How large was the stone, if its density was 3 grams

per cubic centimeter? (About the size of a cube 40

cm on an edge.) How would you get a stone that

heavy out of a hole in the ground?

2. After they found the stone, why do you suppose

the townspeople argued? Why might the townspeople have thought the stone was good luck?

What would you have thought?

3. Why didn’t the person who owned the field claim

the stone as his own? (This is a difficult question.

The concept of property ownership that we now

accept was not known in 1492. Farmland around

a village was considered “common land,” to be

used by the whole village.)

4. Why might the mayor have taken the stone to the

Church? Why didn’t he take it inside the church?

If a meteorite landed near your town, where would

it be taken, or would it be moved at all?

5. Why was King Maximilian interested in the fall of

the Ensisheim meteorite?

6. What other event happened in the year 1492?

Part C: Fall of the Sihkote-Alin Meteorite

1. Where is Sikhote-Alin? Locate the area on a globe or

a map. The towns nearest to the meteorite fall are

Dainerecensk and Vostrecovo. Can you find these on

a map? (45.8°N, 134-135°E)

2. Why might people not have rushed out immediately

to find the meteorites?

3. Russia and Japan were fighting during World War II,

just a few years before the Sikhote-Alin meteorite

fall. What might people have thought about the fall

if it had happened during the war?

4. China and the United States were fighting all

across Korea during the Korean conflict, just a

few years after the Sikhote-Alin meteorite fall.

What might people have thought about the fall

if it had happened during that conflict?

Part D: The Peekskill Fall

1. Why would someone want to buy a meteorite?

2. Compare how the people in Peekskill responded

to a meteorite fall with how those in Ensisheim

responded five hundred years earlier.

3. How does the geography of the Earth affect how

many meteorites are found?

4. How do you think population density affects

recovery rates of meteorite falls?

5. Using the many videos of the meteor streak, how

could you determine the direction of flight and

the speed of the meteor?

Part E: The Fall of Allende

1. In February 1969, many scientists:

a. had developed ways to study moon rocks, but didn’t

have any samples yet.

b. were studying lunar samples that had been brought

back from the moon the previous summer.

c. believed that life existed on the Moon.

d. were in Pueblito de Allende when the meteorite

shower occurred.

2. In this passage, it seems:

a. seeing a fireball in the sky in central Mexico is a

normal event.

b. Pueblito de Allende is a large, busy town.

c. meteorite fragments are interesting to villagers and

farmers as well as scientists.

d. after several days, people lost interest in the

meteorite fragments.

3. The statement “The meteorite proved to be most

unusual.” means:

a. the meteorite was average.

b. the scientists did not like the meteorite.

c. the meteorite was special.

d. the meteorite was from the Moon.

4. Which of these statements best summarizes the passage?

a. The Allende meteorite shower gave scientists a very

unusual meteorite to study and an opportunity to

practice using labs and procedures that would be used

later with the lunar samples.

b. The Mexican government was very cooperative as

scientists looked for meteorites in 1969.

c. Although meteoriticists were very interested in the

Allende shower in early 1969, they soon turned their

attention to the lunar samples and forgot this wonderful

event and the important information it revealed.

d. The Allende meteorite shower was an important scientific

event because it happened near NASA JSC.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls 15.3

 Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls

 Part A: The Tunguska Meteor

scorched from the heat.

The Tunguska meteor

and explosion were widely

reported in newspapers and

magazines. However, there

was little scientific interest

until 1927, when the Russian

Academy of Sciences organized

an expedition to map the area

and find meteorites. The

expedition had to battle deep

swamps, thick forests, and

The biggest meteor in recorded history shot across the Tunguska River in

Russia in 1908, and exploded like a nuclear bomb. The Tunguska meteor did not

make an impact crater, but some of the effects of its explosion are similar to what

could happen in a large meteorite impact.

At seven in the morning on June 30, 1908, a blazing meteor streaked across

the sky in central Russia. It sped northwest from Lake Baikal toward the trading

post of Baikit in central Siberia, an area of dense forests, wide swamps, and meandering rivers. Before reaching Baikit, the meteor exploded in a gigantic column of

fire near the Tunguska River (61o

N, 101.5oE).

The effects of the explosion were felt worldwide. Around the globe scientists

wondered at the rapid changes in atmospheric pressure and unusual vibrations in the

Earth. People within a thousand kilometers of the explosion saw both the meteor

and the fire column. They also heard the explosion like a series of bombs. Closer

to the explosion, people felt the ground rumble and shake. At about a hundred

kilometers from the explosion, people, animals and houses were scorched and

thrown by a hot blast of air. Only a few people were nearer to the blast, and they

reported fires, houses being blown down and burnt, and reindeer being killed by falling

trees. For 20 kilometers around the center of the explosion, the forest was flattened, with

the downed trees pointing away from the explosion. At the center of the blown down

area, tree trunks still stood, but all their limbs had been stripped off. Everything was

Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution.
15.4 Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

hungry insects. Almost 20 years had passed since the explosion, and the explorers

were not sure what would be left. At the explosion site, they found the blown

down tree trunks and traces of fire among the new growth that had developed during those years. The explorers did not find meteorite craters, but guessed that some

bogs were the remains of craters. After working very hard to drain and dig out the

most promising bogs, they found no meteorites at all and finally realized that bogs

were common all over the region, not only near the explosion. Later expeditions

found tiny traces of melted rock in the soil, but never any meteorites.

Scientists have debated for years about what hit the Earth at Tunguska in

1908, especially since it left no meteorites behind. Some people have claimed that

an alien spacecraft or a black hole hit the Earth. Most scientists think it was a comet

because comets are made mostly of ice and would leave no meteorites. But it may

have been a small rocky asteroid, which completely exploded in the air so that no

rocks were left. Now, over 85 years later, it may be impossible to learn any more

about the Earth’s largest meteor explosion in modern history.

Questions

1. Why would an explosion blow down trees all around it?

2. Why might the trees nearest the explosion site still be standing?

3. Why might the Russian Academy of Sciences have waited 19 years to make

an expedition to the Tunguska site?

4. How might the world today react to a Tunguska-type explosion at the same

place? What if it happened in Texas?

5. What could you do today to find sand-sized grains from the asteroid or comet

that hit at Tunguska? What types of material might have survived 85 years of

weather? The sand-sized grains from the meteor might have been propelled

by the explosion; where might you find this sand separate from indigenous

sand? Might any Tunguska material be preserved anywhere else?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls 15.5

 Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls

 Part B: The Ensisheim Meteorite

In early November of 1492, the people of central France were astonished to

hear a thunderclap from a clear sky rumble across their hills and farms. Today, a

sound like that would probably be ignored as an airplane’s sonic boom or an industrial accident. But no one in 1492 had ever heard such a loud explosion. They

must have thought it was a “sign.”

As the sound of the thunderclap died out, the people searched for its cause

and meaning. Their world was apparently unchanged, except in the small town of

Ensisheim, near the border of what are now France and Germany. There, a young

boy saw a very large stone fall from the sky and land in a wheat field. He must

have told his parents, and a crowd soon gathered where the stone had fallen. It sat

at the bottom of a hole, one meter deep in the field. After arguing about what to do,

the crowd finally pulled the 150 kilogram stone out of its hole and began breaking

pieces off for good-luck charms. The mayor ordered them to stop and had the stone

carried into the town and placed in front of the church.

 News of this marvelous

stone traveled quickly to

King Maximilian of

Austria, heir to the Holy

Roman Empire. He arrived

in Ensisheim two weeks

later, on his way to battle

with the French. The King

examined the stone,

consulted with his advisors,

and decided that it was a sign from God foretelling victory in his upcoming battles.

After taking his own piece of the stone from Heaven, the King ordered that it be

kept forever in the town church. King Maximilian and his soldiers then marched

off to battle and managed to defeat a much larger French army in the battle of

Salins. The stone was preserved in the Ensisheim church, where it hangs today.

The stone from Heaven got as much credit for the victory as did Maximilian.

Brant, 1492; courtesy of Zentralbibliothek, Zurich.
15.6 Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Questions

1. How large was the stone, if its density was 3 grams per cubic centimeter?

How would you get a stone that heavy out of a hole in the ground?

2. After they found the stone, why do you suppose the townspeople argued?

Why might the townspeople have thought the stone was good luck? What

would you have thought?

3. Why didn’t the person who owned the field claim the stone as his own?

4. Why might the mayor have taken the stone to the Church? Why didn’t he

take it inside the church? If a meteorite landed near your town, where would

it be taken, or would it be moved at all?

5. Why was King Maximilian interested in the fall of the Ensisheim meteorite?

6. What other event happened in the year 1492?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls 15.7

Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls

 Part C: The Fall of the Sikhote-Alin

Meteorite

An area of Russia called the Sikhote-Alin hills, north of Vladivostok along the

Sea of Japan, was enjoying a quiet, cold morning in February, 1947. Although

Sikhote-Alin lies next to China and near Japan, two of Russia’s traditional enemies,

all was peaceful in 1947. World War II had ended a year and a half earlier, and the

Korean conflict was years in the future. The few people in Sikhote-Alin went about

their business, mostly surviving the long winter and preparing for spring.

At 10:30 in the morning on February 12, the mid-morning calm was shattered

as a huge red and yellow meteor streaked across

the sky. The fireball, with its trail of smoke and

sparks, was visible for more than 300 kilometers.

As it roared over the hills, it broke apart with a

thunderous explosion, and the burning fragments

flew downward and crashed into the forest.

Apparently no one rushed to investigate the

fall. The next day two airmen discovered where

the meteorite had landed when they happened to

fly over the site. Where there had been unbroken

forest, the airmen saw downed trees, craters, and

open clearings. The airmen reported what they

had seen to the Soviet government, and a

scientific expedition was organized immediately.

After slogging through the dense forest, the

expedition arrived at the fall site on February 24,

1947.

There, scientists found more than 100 holes and craters in the rocky soil. The

largest crater was 26 meters across and 6 meters deep; in the crater were many pieces

of iron meteorite, together weighing 150 kilograms. The force of the meteorite’s

impact had twisted the meteorite pieces like taffy candy, blasted trees apart, and

thrown rocks a kilometer from the crater. More than 23,000 kilograms of meteorites

were found, equal to an iron ball 1.6 meters in diameter.
15.8 Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Questions

1. Where is Sikhote-Alin? Locate the area on a globe or a map. The towns

nearest to the meteorite fall are Dainerecensk and Vostrecovo. Can you find

these on a map?

2. Why might people not have rushed out immediately to find the meteorites?

3. Russia and Japan were fighting during World War II, just a few years before

the Sikhote-Alin meteorite fall? What might people have thought about the

fall if it had happened during the war?

4. China and the United States were fighting all across Korea during the Korean

conflict, just a few years after the Sikhote-Alin meteorite fall. What might

people have thought about the fall if it had happened during that conflict?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls 15.9

 Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls

 Part D: The Peekskill Fall

Crash! Boom! Pow!

No, it wasn’t Batman, Superman or an automobile accident. Michelle Knapp,

a typical eighteen year old high school senior from Peekskill, NY, was home watching television at 7:50 Friday evening October 9, 1992, when she heard a loud crash.

She rushed out of her house to investigate and found that her 1980 red Malibu had a

demolished trunk.

In other parts of eastern United States, video cameras that had been focused on

high school football games shifted upward and caught glimpses of an object streaking

across the night sky. Later that evening, local television stations broadcast the videos of

this spectacular meteor. Once a meteor makes it through the Earth’s atmosphere and

strikes the ground, it is called a meteorite.

Under her mangled car, Michelle found a 11.8 kg, football-sized rock from

space. The first clue that suggested this rock might be a meteorite was the melted

appearance of the front or leading edge. This exterior texture, called fusion crust, is

produced by the friction of the speeding meteorite with the atmosphere. When

Michelle touched the rock it was still warm, another good clue. The rock fell with

such a great force that the red paint from the car was imbedded in the meteorite.

Also, after passing through the car’s trunk, the rock made a 15 cm deep crater in the

driveway.

The Peekskill Police Department transported the meteorite to the American

Museum of Natural History in Manhattan to be classified. Scientists identified it as

an ordinary chondrite, the most common type of meteorite found. Meteorite falls are

a regular occurrence; thousands of

kilograms are distributed onto Earth’s

surface each year. Even so, the odds

against a meteorite hitting Michelle’s car

were extremely high. There have only

been a few recorded instances of

meteorites striking anything but the

ground or the ocean. A dog was reportedly killed in Egypt in 1911 by the

impact of a meteorite. In Alabama a

meteorite passed through the roof of a

Credit: Dr. Dimitri Mihalas, courtesy of Science Graphics. house and injured a woman.
15.10 Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

The Peekskill meteorite sold for about $ 69,000. What about Michelle’s car?

Would insurance cover it? Would you believe someone bought it for $10,000 so

they could put it on display?

Questions

1. Why would someone want to buy a meteorite?

2. Compare how the people in Peekskill responded to a meteorite fall with how

those in Ensisheim responded five hundred years earlier.

3. How does the geography of the Earth affect how many meteorites are found?

4. How do you think population density affects recovery rates of meteorite falls?

5. Using the many videos of the meteor streak, how could you determine the

direction of flight and the speed of the meteor?
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls 15.11

 Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls

 Part E: The Fall of Allende

The Allende Meteorite Shower — A Scientific Revolution

Early on the morning of February 8, 1969, the peaceful sleep of villagers in

central Mexico was disturbed by a brilliant fireball and loud explosions. The fireball

came from the south-southwest and scattered thousands of meteorite fragments over a

huge area around the town of Pueblito de Allende. The villagers and farmers

collected many pieces of meteorite. One of the pieces was taken to the nearest city

and reported in the newspaper. Within days scientists from NASA and the

Smithsonian Institution were at the site in Mexico, collecting specimens and

describing their distribution. Over the following months many other collectors visited

the area. Altogether the Mexican and foreign collectors recovered thousands of

fragments weighing a total of 1,000 kg!

The earliest samples collected by U.S. meteoriticists were rapidly distributed to

many other scientists who were preparing their labs for the imminent return of Apollo

lunar samples. The scientists welcomed the chance to study a new meteorite and test

their new procedures. The meteorite proved to be anything but ordinary. It was a very

primitive carbonaceous chondrite containing evidence of the earliest history of the

solar system. This special meteorite fell at the right place and the right time. The right

place was in Mexico only a day’s drive from NASA’s Johnson Space Center in

Houston. The right time was early 1969, five months before the return of the first

Apollo Moon rocks. The information about the early solar system revealed in the

Allende meteorite created a revolution in meteorite science that is still felt today.
15.12 Lesson 15  Historical Meteorite Falls NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Questions

1. In February 1969, many scientists:

a. had developed ways to study moon rocks, but didn’t have any samples yet.

b. were studying lunar samples that had been brought back from the moon the

previous summer.

c. believed that life existed on the Moon.

d. were in Pueblito de Allende when the meteorite shower occurred.

2. In this passage, it seems:

a. seeing a fireball in the sky in central Mexico is a normal event.

b. Pueblito de Allende is a large, busy town.

c. meteorite fragments are interesting to villagers and farmers as well as scientists.

d. after several days, people lost interest in the meteorite fragments.

3. The statement “The meteorite proved to be most unusual.” means:

a. the meteorite was average.

b. the scientists did not like the meteorite.

c. the meteorite was special.

d. the meteorite was from the moon.

4. Which of these statements best summarizes the passage?

a. The Allende meteorite shower gave scientists a very unusual meteorite to study

and an opportunity to practice using labs and procedures that would be used

later with the lunar samples.

b. The Mexican government was very cooperative as scientists looked for

meteorites in 1969.

c. Although meteoriticists were very interested in the Allende shower in early

1969, they soon turned their attention to the lunar samples and forgot this

wonderful event and the important information it revealed.

d. The Allende meteorite shower was an important scientific event because it

happened near NASA JSC.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 16  Near Miss 16.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 16  Near Miss

Objectives

Students will:

• apply science to daily life as they simulate possible

responses to a meteorite impact.

• produce articles for a newspaper.

• role-play in a panel discussion (after they have researched

scientific careers).

About This Lesson

This lesson involves the

students in creative

interactions by asking them to

take on the roles of

community members who

react to a large and

frightening, but not

devastating, impact. There

are two activities which

require different research and

modes of response. The

students will write newspaper

articles from the point of view

of a variety of citizens. In

preparing for and

conducting a community

briefing, the students will gain

scientific knowledge about

meteorite impacts and careers.

Undetected asteroid streaks

perilously close to Earth

by Blaine P. Friedlander

“In May 1993, the Earth survived a near

miss by an asteroid. This “projectile” was

about 10 meters in diameter and weighed

about 5.4 million kilograms — about the

mass of a Navy destroyer! A group

called Spacewatch in Arizona discovered

it after it had passed within 145,000

kilometers of Earth!”

Adapted from: Houston Chronicle,

Monday, June 21, 1993.

“What

effect

do they

have?”
16.2 Lesson 16  Near Miss NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Lesson 16  Near Miss

 Activity A: Extra, Extra, Read All About It!

Objective

Students will:

• apply science to daily life as they explore the implications of

a fictitious meteorite impact in the vicinity of their

community.

Background

From July 16 through July 22, 1994, fragments of Comet

Shoemaker-Levy 9 collided with Jupiter, with dramatic effect. This

was the first collision of two solar system bodies ever to be

predicted and observed. Shoemaker-Levy 9 consisted of at least 20

fragments with diameters estimated at up to 2 kilometers, which

impacted the planet at 60 km/sec. The impacts resulted in plumes of

gas and dust which rose many thousands of kilometers high, hot

“bubbles” of gas in the atmosphere, and large dark “scars” on the

atmosphere which lasted for weeks. Even after the main bodies had

hit, smaller bits of the comet continued to impact the planet.

Shoemaker-Levy 9 is gone now, and Jupiter is getting back to normal. If the comet had hit Earth instead, the effects would have been

devastating.

About This Activity

Students will read about the

recent near miss of an Earth

crossing asteroid and about

the impact of comet

Shoemaker-Levy 9 on

Jupiter. They also have heard

about the impact that killed

the dinosaurs and most other

species.

Now students will consider

how they and other people

would react if an impact

occurred near their

community. Students will

write articles for a newspaper,

reflecting the many different

reactions of citizens.

Materials for Activity A

❑ Student Sheet (pg. 16.6)

❑ paper and pencils

(computer if possible)

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Reproduce Student Sheet as needed.

2. Review the background information above and the

background in Lesson 14, Activity A (pgs. 14.2-14.5), and

Lesson 15 (pg. 15.1).

Classroom Procedure

1. Students read background information and newspaper article

on Student Sheet.

2. After reading, have the students discuss how they feel about

knowing that there are large objects that could someday

impact the Earth.

3. Teacher asks, “What if a meteorite landed outside our

community and made a crater 30 meters across?”

4. Students discuss the question from different viewpoints.

Teacher leads the discussion to different professions.

5. Students write a newspaper article from the viewpoint of

different professionals.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 16  Near Miss 16.3

 Lesson 16  Near Miss

 Activity B: Take My Advice

Dr. Hy “Rocky” Mountain

Geologist

Dr. Susan Starr

Astronomer

Dr. Mattie R. Wright

Meteoriticist

Col. Cathy “Crash” Carlston

Test Pilot

Major Ian Laser

Long-Range Weapons

Specialist

Secretary Lyons

Secretary of Defense

Representative B. Noble

Congressional Delegate

 from Texas

About This Activity

The activity starts with a

“simulated” meteorite impact

outside the community. This

may follow Activity A or

stand alone. Students take on

the roles of concerned

citizens and “experts” as they

conduct a town meeting held

to address their questions and

concerns about the event and

government plans for

safeguarding their

community from larger

impacts. Students will need to

research information for the

panel discussion. If the class

has completed many of the

lessons on meteorites and

asteroids, this activity could

be used as an assessment of

the knowledge gained by the

students.

Materials for Activity B

❑ question cards

❑ fact cards

❑ name placards for panel

members on left

Objectives

Students will:

• evaluate implications of scientific principles and the

findings of research.

• recognize that the scientific community has a vast amount of

information about meteorites and is aware of the hazards

associated with meteorite falls.

Background

Just as technology has provided a wide margin of safety from hurricanes (through early detection and warning), earthquakes (through

fault detection and architectural modifications), and other natural

disasters, scientists continue to watch for Earth-crossing asteroids and

meteors. They study possible diversion and/or destruction of the

potentially dangerous ones.

NASA’s “Spacewatch” is one asteroid detection system which has

been placed “on line.” In addition to detection, scientists have created

a number of crisis scenarios to consider how they would deal with a

threatened impact in the future. Some possible actions to respond to

an impact crisis have been developed. Suggested strategies include

exploding or diverting the incoming body. The technology necessary

for implementing many of these defensive maneuvers is available

today. One important element necessary to developing a defense

against any global threat is cooperation. Scientists have traditionally

exhibited a willingness to cooperate with colleagues worldwide and

governments can follow their example.
16.4 Lesson 16  Near Miss NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Question: How will the

scientific community keep

citizens informed if there is a

real impact crisis?

Expert: Dr. Susan Starr or

Question: Do you know Secretary Lyons

what’s going to happen if an

asteroid hits us?

Expert: Dr. Hy “Rocky”

Mountain, Geologist or

Dr. Mattie R. Wright,

Meteoriticist

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Assemble background information.

2. Gather or identify research materials for questions and facts.

Classroom Procedure

1. Introduce the topic and provide the background necessary to establish a plausible nonthreatening, yet alarming impact event (see Activity A).

2. All students research the topic and prepare for the town meeting. Each will produce fact cards

or information “crib sheets” for the expert of their choice. Each will develop questions that will

challenge the experts and inform their community. Allow students to see the cards above.

3. Set up the town hall meeting. Panel members may be chosen at random, by the teacher, the

class, or by trying out for the teacher.

4. Read the following to the class: “Our class is going to act out a nationally televised “town

meeting.” It will be conducted to answer questions, allay fears, and develop community input

for an emergency plan to respond to the approach of a large meteor and its impending fall. Our

panel members will represent science advisory and governmental officials. The audience has

question cards, but anyone may ask questions. Panel members may refer to their fact cards

when questioned, but remember that even the experts don’t have all the answers. Just do your

best.” (The teacher will act as panel moderator.)

5. Panel moderator starts the meeting with the statement: “There is concern that just as meteorite

falls have caused destruction in the past, such as the Tunguska Fall of 1908, future meteorites

could also pose a danger to life on Earth. The purpose of this meeting is to answer questions

from the public about the threat of possible asteroid, comet or meteorite impacts, and to gather

input for an emergency plan. We have assembled a panel of experts who have been studying

about asteroids, impacts, and the possible defenses against potentially dangerous meteors, both

before and after they actually strike the Earth. I will now call for a question from the audience.”

6. Panel moderator ends the meeting with several summarizing statements.

Information

are made of stony material, or metal. We

: Earth-crossing asteroids

know this from studies of meteorites and

spectral reflectance studies of asteroids.

Expert:

Dr. Mattie R. Wright, Meteoriticist or

Dr. Susan Starr, Astronomer
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 16  Near Miss 16.5

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Student Sheet

Background

From July 16 through July 22, 1994, fragments of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 collided

with Jupiter, with dramatic effect. This was the first collision of two solar system

bodies ever to be predicted and observed. Shoemaker-Levy 9 consisted of at least 20

fragments with diameters estimated at up to 2 kilometers, which impacted the planet

at 60 km/sec. The impacts resulted in plumes of gas and dust which rose many

thousands of kilometers high, hot “bubbles” of gas in the atmosphere, and large dark

“scars” on the atmosphere which lasted for weeks. Even after the main bodies had

hit, smaller bits of the comet continued to impact the planet. Shoemaker-Levy 9 is

gone now, and Jupiter is getting back to normal. If the comet had hit Earth instead,

the effects would have been devastating.

“In May 1993, the Earth survived a near

miss by an asteroid. This “projectile” was

about 10 meters in diameter and weighed

about 5.4 million kilograms — about the

mass of a Navy destroyer! A group

called Spacewatch in Arizona discovered

it after it had passed within 145,000

kilometers of Earth!”

Adapted from: Houston Chronicle,

Monday, June 21, 1993.

Undetected asteroid streaks

perilously close to Earth

by Blaine P. Friedlander
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 17  Asteroid Resources 17.1

“How

can I use

them?”

Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

Lesson 17 Asteroid Resources:

The Stepping Stone to Beyond

About This Lesson

In teams, students will

research and document some

of the requirements for

mounting an expedition to an

asteroid. Activity B allows

the students to simulate a

miniature mining expedition

of an edible asteroid.

Objectives

Students will:

• actively explore the potential resources available to space

travelers through research, assessment, team cooperation,

and exploration simulations.

• develop the background to make the connection between

meteorite research and potential planetary resources.

• map and core an edible asteroid.

Background — What can we get from an asteroid?

 Two types of materials on asteroids appear to be attractive for

mining - metals and volatiles. Both of these are essential for space

travel. The cost of launching any material from the Earth is

extremely high, so useful materials which are already in space can

be very valuable.

Most of the asteroids are found in orbits between Mars and Jupiter.

However, several hundred have orbits that bring them close to the

Earth. Rocket trips to some of these “near-Earth” asteroids would

use even less fuel than a trip to the Moon, though the travel time to

an asteroid might be much longer.

Metals - An asteroid of the composition of an ordinary chondrite

could be processed to provide very pure iron and nickel. Valuable

byproducts would include cobalt, platinum, gallium, germanium,

and gold. These metals are basic to the production of steel and

electronic equipment. Some metals from an asteroid mine might

even prove valuable enough to be returned to Earth. Iron meteories

are high grade ores.

Volatiles - Water, oxygen, and carbon compounds are useful in any

space settlement, both for life support and for producing rocket fuel.

These volatiles could be found in an asteroid that resembles a

carbonaceous chondrite or the nucleus of a former comet. Water

contents may range from 5-10% by weight for a chondrite to 60%

by weight for a comet nucleus. In some asteroids large quantities of

sulfur, chlorine and nitrogen may also be available.

(Adapted from “Asteroid Resources” by

John S. Lewis in Space Resources, NASA

SP-509, Vol. 3, pg. 59-78, 1992)
17.2 Lesson 17  Asteroid Resources NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Lesson 17  Asteroid Resources

 Activity A: Exploration Proposal

Objectives

Students will:

• plan an expedition or other large engineering project.

• investigate options in many aspects of space flight.

• present their options, reasoning, and recommendations to the

group.

Scenario

Time: Sometime in the next century.

Place: Earth.

NASA, in cooperation with national and international space

agencies, is planning for human exploration of the outer solar

system. The intention is to send expeditions to the moons of Jupiter,

Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune to explore, collect samples, and search

for clues to the beginnings of the solar system. It is impractical to

send all the rocket fuel and consumables (drinking water, air, food)

from the Earth because they are heavy, bulky items. Therefore,

NASA is looking for sources of rocket fuel and consumables at an

intermediate destination, the asteroid belt. Your class has been

selected to plan a prospecting expedition to the asteroids to look for

resources that could be turned into rocket fuel, drinking water, etc.

Materials for Activity A

❑ resource materials about: space travel, space resources,

asteroids, rockets, space shuttle, spacecraft

(see Education Resources, pg. B.2)

❑ personal log (journal)

❑ art supplies

❑ Student Background sheet (pg. 17.7)

Procedures

Advanced Preparation

1. Read background material.

2. Assemble research materials or know where students may

find them.

3. Copy Student Background sheets as needed.

About This Activity

This is a group-participation

simulation based on the

premise that water and other

resources from the asteroid

belt are required for deep

space exploration. The class

will brainstorm or investigate

to identify useful resources,

including water, that might be

found on an asteroid. Teams

of students are asked to take

responsibility for planning

various aspects of an asteroid

prospecting expedition, and to

present the results of their

planning.

The students should learn that

a large project requires the

cooperation of many different

teams, considering many ideas

and needs. Elementary level

classes could focus on the

simplest aspects of vehicle

design, hardware and

personnel; advanced level

classes could also consider

financing for the mission,

criteria for crew selection,

Earth support teams, training,

and maintenance, etc.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 17  Asteroid Resources 17.3

Classroom Procedure

1. Present background for the problem, and then brainstorm what facts about asteroids might be

needed to prepare for a mission that would prospect for water, oxygen, or metals.

2. Brainstorm the important components that must be designed or built to mount a prospecting

expedition to an asteroid. Topics to be addressed may vary, depending upon the grade levels

of students, availability of information and materials, etc. They could include: propulsion

(type of rocket), power, life support, communications, financing (including valuable things

that could be mined on an asteroid and returned to Earth), crew selection (including human

vs. robotic), ground support, vehicle design, maintenance, prospecting tools, and training.

3. Each team selects a topic from those suggested — all members of the team should reach

consensus.

4. Teams will research and document their topic, keeping a log of sources investigated, relevant

data found, relevant conversations, meetings, etc. The research should include a “major

points” outline, visual aids, references used, and list of possible problems to be resolved

through research. Teams should also list “interfaces” with other aspects of the expedition

design, (e.g., the electrical power team needs to know how large the crew is, how the lifesupport system runs, and whether the prospecting tools require electricity).

5. Team results should include the basic questions or trade-offs for their part of the prospecting

expedition, advantages and disadvantages for each option (e.g., power from solar cells versus

power from a nuclear reactor), and a recommendation of which option is best for the

expedition. Groups should present their results to the class.

Questions

1. Why do humans explore?

2. Where does the money for space exploration come from?

3. Might the money be spent better on the many problems on Earth?

4. What are possible economic benefits of space exploration?

5. Might a lunar base be cheaper to run than a space station in low-Earth orbit?

6. What are the advantages/disadvantages of gender-mixed crews?

7. What are the different abilities of human crews and robotic instruments (e.g. compare initiative,

adaptability, hardiness, need for life-support)?

8. What types of support teams (on Earth or other home base) are necessary to a mission? Consider

human and/or robotic crews.

9. How does destination and crew selection affect vehicle design?

10. What skills/programming would astronauts/robots

need during each phase of a mission?

11. Imagine some emergencies that might occur in

flight. How might we plan to deal with them?

What kinds of problems could not be fixed in a

spacecraft millions of miles from home base?

Extensions

1. Create a web showing the interconnections of

support personnel necessary to a mission.

2. Research and debate “Human vs. Robotic

Exploration.”
17.4 Lesson 17  Asteroid Resources NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

 Lesson 17  Asteroid Resources

 Activity B: Prospecting on Asteroids

Materials for Activity B

This will make one large or

two small “asteroids” for

about 10 students (groups

may take turns).

❑ 1 large package of

chocolate sandwich

cookies

❑ 10-20 grapes (depends on

size of grapes)

❑ 1 large bag of marshmallows

❑ 1 stick of margarine

❑ 40 peanuts

(approximate)

❑ 1 large microwaveable

bowl

❑ 2 containers to hold

crushed cookies

❑ 1 heavy glass or other

object to crush cookies

❑ microwave

❑ spatula

❑ waxed paper

❑ refrigerator

❑ apple corers, knives, or

cork borers

❑ toothpicks

❑ small tabs for labels

❑ Student Worksheet

(pg. 17.8)

❑ metric ruler

❑ pens/pencils

Objectives

Students will:

• devise and carry out an investigation plan to prospect for

resources on an artificial asteroid.

• use reasoning, observation, and communication skills.

• map an edible asteroid.

• conduct coring or digging excavations to assess and report

the “mineral resources” available.

Background

Scientists have found that meteorites contain materials that could be

useful to support space travel. Asteroids are the source of many

meteorites; therefore, it has been proposed that mines and

manufacturing plants on asteroids would be able to supply or

replenish needed consumables for deep space expeditions.

Some of the resources include, but are not limited to:

water - found in minerals in carbonaceous chondrites (used

for life support or rocket fuel)

diamonds or platinum - found in ureilites (monetary or

industrial value)

iron, nickel, cobalt, or gold - found in ordinary chondrites

and irons (industrial value)

fine surface materials similar to soils - (for nutrient or

plant growth material, insulation, or building blocks)

gallium or germanium - found in ordinary chondrites (used

for electronic circuitry)

oxygen - can be extracted from minerals (used for life

support and rocket fuel)

carbon - found in carbonaceous chondrites (used for life

support and manufacturing)

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. If the teacher will be making the “asteroid(s),” allow at least

10 hours of refrigeration before class time (see classroom

procedure and recipe on page 17.6).

2. If the class will make the “asteroid(s),” allow two class

sessions for this activity.

3. Assemble or assign materials.

4. Review the background material.

About This Activity

This activity allows students

to simulate a miniature mining

expedition to an edible

asteroid.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 17  Asteroid Resources 17.5

Classroom Procedure

Day 1

1. Discuss resources on asteroids; brainstorm the material needs of deep space travelers.

2. Establish and assign tasks (may be based on Activity A or Background

Information).

3. Students decide what and why they could prospect on asteroids.

4. Team tasks: make an edible “asteroid”, class or team determines what the ingredients

represent (see recipe directions below).

Day 2

5. Exchange “asteroids” with another team (to make the coring a discovery).

6. Name the “asteroid” (see naming criteria in Lesson 4 — The Meteorite-Asteroid

Connection).

7. Draw or map the “asteroid” using the student worksheet; illustrate in detail.

8. Locate the best site for a core sample (a deep cylindrical hole) that will help

determine the interior resources.

9. Mark the core location on the map, and on the “asteroid,” using a small flag or toothpick.

10. Take one or more core samples using a sharp apple corer or knife.

11. Draw and describe the core on the Student Worksheet, noting the type and amount of

“mineral resources” present.

12. Write a brief report to headquarters on Earth, describing the research, findings,

 and suggestions for further research.

Questions

1. Why would we want to go other places to mine?

2. If the resources of an asteroid are needed to support a deep space exploration mission, where

would be a better place from which to launch a resource mining expedition: Earth, a space

station, a lunar base, other? Why?

Extensions

1. Create a poster indicating the substances and resources that could be found or produced on

different planets, moons, and asteroids. Use information scientists have learned from meteorites

and lunar materials.

2. Estimate the cost differences of launching a mining operation from various “jumping off” places.

3. Construct a prototype of a mining facility located on the planetary body of your choice.

4. Set up a booth at a

science event to

demonstrate your

concept for a mining

facility.

Asteroid

Painting courtesy of Dennis Davidson, American Museum of Natural History, Hayden Planetarium.
17.6 Lesson 17  Asteroid Resources NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Recipe*

See materials list for ingredients

1. Remove filling from approximately 8 cookies, crush cookies into fine particles and

set aside on waxed paper for step 7, save filling.

2. Crush remaining cookies (with fillings) into medium-large pieces (add filling from

step 1).

3. Mix grapes and peanuts with crushed cookies.

4. Place margarine and marshmallows in microwaveable bowl and melt thoroughly, stir.

5. Combine marshmallow mixture with cookie mixture, blend gently but thoroughly.

6. Using lightly buttered hands, gather the gooey mass into an “asteroid” shape, add

“impacts” or “collision fragments” by making indentations in the warm mass.

7. While still warm, roll the “asteroid” in crushed chocolate cookies (this creates a regolith

or soil-like surface layer), immediately wrap firmly in waxed paper.

8. Refrigerate overnight.

* For typical asteroid shape and topography, review the picture of asteroid Ida in the slides

and below. This recipe will produce a very dark surface, possibly like a “C” class

asteroid, which might correspond to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites.

Asteroid Ida
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 17  Asteroid Resources 17.7

 Lesson 17  Asteroid Resources

 Student Background: Activity A

Scenario

Time: Sometime in the next century.

Place: Earth.

National and international space agencies are cooperating

to plan for human exploration of the outer solar system.

Their intention is to send expeditions to the moons of Jupiter,

Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune to explore, collect samples, and search for clues to the

beginnings of the solar system. It is impractical to send all the rocket fuel and

consumables (drinking water, air, food) from the Earth because they are heavy,

bulky items. Therefore, the space agencies are looking for sources of rocket fuel and

consumables at an intermediate destination, the asteroid belt. Your class has been

selected to plan a prospecting expedition to the asteroids to look for resources that

could be turned into rocket fuel, drinking water, etc.

Background — What can we get from an asteroid?

Two types of materials on asteroids appear to be attractive for mining - metals

and volatiles. Both of these are essential for space travel. The cost of launching any

material from the Earth is extremely high, so useful materials which are already in

space can be very valuable.

Most of the asteroids are found in orbits between Mars and Jupiter. However,

several hundred have orbits that bring them close to the Earth. Rocket trips to some

of these “near-Earth” asteroids would use even less fuel than a trip to the Moon,

though the travel time to an asteroid might be much longer because the asteroid is

not orbiting Earth.

Metals - An asteroid of the composition of an ordinary chondrite could be

processed to provide very pure iron and nickel. Valuable byproducts would include

cobalt, platinum, gallium and germanium. These metals are basic to the production

of steel and electronic equipment. Some metals from an asteroid mine might even

prove valuable enough to be returned to Earth. Iron meteorites are high grade ores.

Volatiles - Water, oxygen, and carbon compounds are useful in any space settlement, both for life support and for producing rocket fuel. These volatiles could be

found in an asteroid that resembles a carbonaceous chondrite or the nucleus of a

former comet. Water contents may range from 5-10% by weight for a chondrite to

60% by weight for a comet nucleus. In some asteroids large quantities of sulfur,

chlorine and nitrogen may also be available.

(Adapted from “Asteroid Resources” by John S. Lewis in Space Resources, NASA SP-509, Vol. 3, pg. 59-78, 1992)
17.8 Lesson 17  Asteroid Resources NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 17  Asteroid Resources Student Worksheet: Activity B Prospecting on Asteroids Group: _________________ Name: __________ ______ 1. Make a drawing or map of the front and back of your asteroid, add appropriate labels. List important materials found in cores. Note the scale (example 1 cm on grid = 3 cm on the asteroid). 3. Draw and label a detailed illustration of the core sample in the space below. The scale may need to be different from the scale above. 4. Write a brief report to headquarters on Earth describing your research. Report findings, especially the type and amount of “mineral resources” present, and suggestions for further exploration or research.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 18  Antarctic Meteorite Teams 18.1

Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

Lesson 18  Antarctic Meteorite

Teams

“Is there a

career for

me?”

Objectives

Students will:

• view slides and read about meteorite collecting.

• explore science careers.

• evaluate characteristics and skills of scientific teams dealing with

meteorites.

• create scientific teams.

• make written and oral presentations about chosen scientific

teams.

Background — Antarctic Meteorite Teams

Antarctica is a special place for collecting meteorites. Since the discovery of nine meteorites on the ice in 1969, over 17,000 fragments of

meteorites have been recovered by U.S., Japanese, and European

expeditions. Several factors that contribute to this huge number of

meteorites are listed below.

— It is easier to find meteorites on ice than on soil or vegetation, so

many small meteorites are recovered on the ice.

— The movement of Antarctic ice helps to concentrate meteorites

where the ice comes to a rock barrier. This concentration makes

it difficult to tell which meteorites are individuals and which are

fragments from large meteorite showers. Thus the 17,000

meteorite fragments may come from only 3,000 separate

meteorites.

— The ease of collecting large numbers of meteorites led to systematic searches by various national and international groups, which

in turn led to discovery of many more meteorites.

The recovery of large numbers of Antarctic meteorites led to an increased interest in studying meteorites in laboratories around the world.

Facilities were created where the new meteorites could be classified,

distributed and stored. Meteorite recovery, curation, and research,

is done by teams of scientists working together on a common goal. Each

of the teams has a leader, an assistant leader and several workers with

different qualifications. Factors that help in the selection of team members

are education, experience, special skills and sometimes personality — age,

race, and gender are less important.

About This Lesson

This lesson is designed to

enhance students’ awareness

of scientific career possibilities

and requirements. A series of

slides will provide students

with background information

about expeditions to

Antarctica to recover

meteorites. Meteorite curation

and research will be

discussed, emphasizing

education and skill

requirements. After

considering potential team

candidates, students will work

in cooperative groups to

create three scientific teams

that deal with the recovery,

curation, and study of

meteorites from Antarctica.
18.2 Lesson 18  Antarctic Meteorite Teams NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Materials

❑ Slide Set, Antarctic Meteorite Teams, projector

and screen

❑ Student Background reading — Antarctic

Meteorite Teams (pgs. 18.5-18.7)

❑ Member Profiles for Prospective Antarctic

Meteorite Teams — Profiles of scientists and other

potential team members (pgs. 18.8-18.9, one for

each student)

❑ large sheet of paper and markers to record

results, per group

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Assemble materials.

2. Review background.

3. Consider possible options listed in step 3 of

Classroom Procedure and the extensions at the end of the lesson — incorporate if desired.

4. Copy Member Profiles and Student Background sheets as needed.

Classroom Procedure

1. Show slide presentation about Antarctic meteorites.

2. Conduct a teacher led discussion or brainstorm session to explore the importance of team members

who are skilled and cooperative. (What skills and qualities do Antarctic Meteorite team members

require?)

3. Divide students into three or more groups. Distribute Member Profiles and Student

Background sheets to each student.

Options:

• Use the profiles as they are listed and give each team a full listing.

• Cut individual profiles into strips and have students draw by separate gender groupings.

• Cut off the number and gender designation on each profile and let students draw slips

 randomly.

• Have students make up their own profiles.

Note: A profiled person may fit on several different teams (this really happens).

4. Each group has the responsibility of creating one of the following teams: collection, curation, or

research. There may be more than one team per category. (The teacher may help guide groups to

ensure that at least one of each team category is formed.)

5. At some time in the group discussion have each student select a “person” whom they will represent in

this activity. Selections are made from the Member Profiles for Prospective Antarctic Meteorite

Teams or from profiles created by the students.

6. Groups evaluate team members’ skills and education first. Then decide what team category they will

best be able to create as a whole group. Students may make up additional qualifications or skills for

any of the profiled people. Consider the years of “experience” and expand on the possibilities.

There are many people working in fields not associated directly with their degree(s). Flexibility will

be necessary — some individuals may need to move to another group if skills do not match the

teams’ needs.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 18  Antarctic Meteorite Teams 18.3

7. Make specific job assignments for each person based on the

needs of the team and the individual characteristics and skills.

Make up information about the character and abilities of your

“person” that will allow them to be better team members.

(Individuals might be chosen for more than one team and have

different roles on each team.)

8. The groups’ choices and job assignments should be recorded

and shared with the class. Groups should be prepared to explain

their decisions.

Questions

1. Imagine that you are the organizers of an expedition to collect

meteorites.

— What kinds of personality traits would make the team’s job

more enjoyable?

— What specific items would you include in your plan for

transportation, clothing, shelter, food, water, and

communication? Explain why you need each item.

— What would you do in your spare time on the meteorite

collecting expedition?

2. What other things, in addition to education, interests and skills, would

be important in choosing your meteorite collection, curatorial, or

research team? What other things would not be important?

3. Would you actually want to collect, curate or study meteorites?

Explain your answer.

Vocabulary

curation, research, classification, expedition, technician, Bachelor’s

Degree, Master’s Degree, Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.)

Evaluation

The groups’ lists and explanations could be used as the evaluations of

this activity.

Extensions

1. The class could be required to reach a consensus for one set of

teams based on the individual group recommendations.

2. Each group could role play the team members and introduce themselves to the class.

3. Each group member could choose a team applicant and write an

acceptance/rejection letter explaining the group’s decision.

4. Research other historic Antarctic expeditions and compare them to

present day expeditions.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 18  Antarctic Meteorite Teams 18.5

Lesson 18  Student Background

 Meteorite Recovery Team

Collecting meteorites in Antarctica is a difficult and potentially dangerous task. Antarctica is

the coldest continent on Earth, with summer temperatures of 0 to -25°C and wind chills that

make it feel much colder. Teams work for about two months during Antarctic summer

(November to January) in the remote regions along the Transantarctic Mountains. Because

meteorites are found long distances from the few scientific bases, teams are transported to

camps by air and must have everything they need to survive. They have lots of food and fuel,

special clothing and tents for protection, snowmobiles for transportation, and radios for

communication.

Team Members — Their Skills, Duties, and Responsibilities

Team Leader and Assistant

— have scientific backgrounds.

— write the proposal for funding and support to the National Science Foundation

which operates bases and oversees Antarctic science.

— plan which locations to search for meteorites.

— arrange for transportation and equipment.

— select the other team members and lead the field expedition.

Ice Specialist

— is responsible for finding safe routes on ice and avoiding crevasses.

— manages the mapping project and prepares a computer database of locations of all

meteorites.

Team Members (3-4)

— are scientists or science students selected by the leaders for their interest in

meteorites and desire to work in Antarctica.

— are in good health and

physical condition.

— are often from the curation

and research teams.

— have a personality suitable

to working and living

closely with team members

for two months in this

isolated, hazardous

environment. The members

of U.S. teams have included

both men and women of many

nationalities, with ages ranging

from under 30 to over 60.
18.6 Lesson 18  Antarctic Meteorite Teams NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Lesson 18  Student Background

 U.S. Antarctic Meteorite Curation Teams

There are two curation teams, one at NASA’s Johnson Space Center and the other at the

Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History. They share the tasks of classification, distribution, and storage. Each team consists of curators, scientists, specialists, and

technicians. Duties of team members are often interchangeable. Curatorial staff members may

have a variety of educational backgrounds. Members of the curation team may also serve on the

collection team.

Team Members — Their Skills, Duties, and Responsibilities

Curators

— write funding proposals.

— interact with administrators, oversight committees, other curators, the field team,

research scientists, and the general public.

— classify both Antarctic meteorites and other meteorites sent by individuals.

— direct the work of the laboratory scientists, computer specialists, and technicians.

— publish classifications in newsletters and bulletins.

— some also conduct research projects.

— some work on public displays and education.

Computer Specialist

— manages the database of meteorite classifications and weight inventories.

— prepares data for publication in newsletters and reports to administrators and

committees.

Laboratory Scientists

— do the actual handling of meteorites.

— describe new meteorites in laboratory notes.

— take subsamples to distribute to researchers.

 Technicians

— prepare meteorite thin

sections for microscopic

examination and analysis.

— maintain the laboratory

equipment, and clean

special tools and

containers.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 18  Antarctic Meteorite Teams 18.7

 Lesson 18  Student Background

 Meteorite Research Team

 Meteorite Research Team

The research group usually consists of university or college professors, research staff, post

doctoral associates, graduate, and undergraduate students. All members of the team need to be

skilled in the use of computers. Members of the research team participate on the collection

team.

Team Members — Their Skills, Duties, and Responsibilities

Lead Researcher

— is usually a professor who teaches classes or may be a research staff member of an

 institute.

— writes research proposals to secure funding.

— directs the research.

— writes some of the papers reporting the results.

— makes oral presentations to colleagues at scientific meetings.

Research Associate/Assistant

— is a research staff member, a post doctoral associate, or sometimes a graduate

student.

— conducts much of the actual research, including requesting meteorites from the

curation team.

— interprets and reports the results.

— writes papers.

— makes oral presentations to colleagues at scientific meetings.

Technician

— may be a regular employee or a student employee in training to be a technician or

scientist.

— maintains and operates the

laboratory equipment.

— does many of the experiments

or analyses.

— contributes to written

articles.
18.8 Lesson 18  Antarctic Meteorite Teams NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Member Profiles for Prospective Antarctic Meteorite Teams

Member Education / Experience Interests / Skills

# 1 Geology Univ. of Hawaii Backpacking

Female Masters Degree Cross-country skiing

# 2 Communications U.S. Army Computer programming

Female Bachelors Degree + 8 years Reading

# 3 Creative Writing Alvin Community College First aid

Male Associates Degree + 15 years Photography

# 4 Chemistry Texas A&M - Ph.D. Student Piano

Male Masters Degree + 2 years Gourmet cooking

# 5 Agriculture Texas Tech Bird watching

Male Bachelors Degree + 10 years Ham radio

# 6 Pilot U.S. Navy Horses

Male Bachelors Degree + 5 years Stamp collecting

# 7 Physics/Geochemistry Oregon State Univ. Sail boarding

Female Ph. D. + 5 years Classical music

# 8 Physical Sciences Univ. of Texas at Dallas Baking bread

Female Bachelors Degree + 40 years Computers

# 9 Accounting Univ. of California Surfing

Male Bachelors Degree + 15 years Restoring cars

# 10 Math Univ. of Texas - Ph.D. Student Geology

Female Masters Degree + 5 Years Conservation

# 11 Astronomy/ Univ. of Arizona Tennis

Male Planetary Science Ph. D. + 15 years Car repair

# 12 English Univ. of Houston Desktop publishing

Male Masters Degree + 5 Years Bicycling

# 13 Mechanical Engineer Southern Methodist Univ. Golf

Female Masters Degree + 1 year Chess

# 14 Business Austin College Sailing

Male Bachelors Degree + 2 years Microscopes
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 18  Antarctic Meteorite Teams 18.9

# 15 Physical Education/ TCU - Ph.D. Student Stock market analysis

Female Geochemistry Masters Degree + 10 years Weaving

# 16 Forestry Univ. of Alaska Woodcarving

Female Ph.D. + 1 year Cooking

# 17 Music Rice Univ. Electronics

Female Masters Degree + 5 years Texas history

# 18 Chemical Engineer Baylor Univ. Archery

Male Masters Degree + 2 years Videotaping

# 19 Electrician San Antonio Comm. Coll. Soccer

Male Associates Degree +15 years Radio controlled airplanes

# 20 Theater Trinity Univ. Short story writing

Female Bachelors Degree + 5 years Rock climbing

# 21 Dentist Louisiana State Univ. Model building

Male DDS + 5 years Crossword puzzles

# 22 Psychology Univ. of Florida Jet skiing

Male Masters Degree + 15 years Horses

# 23 Marine Biology Univ. of Delaware Opera

Female Masters Degree + 5 years House building

# 24 Photography U.S. Air Force Kayaking

Male Masters Degree + 2 years Bowling

# 25 Electrical Engineer Univ. of Oklahoma Running

Male Bachelors Degree + 30 years Square dancing

# 26 Electron microscopy Arizona State Univ. Meteorites

Male Ph.D. + 15 Body building

# 27 Political Science Georgetown Univ. Marine mammals

Male Bachelors Degree + 25 years Canoeing

# 28 Scientific Illustrator Univ. of Michigan Gardening

Female Masters Degree + 25 years Karate

# 29 Computer Science Miss. State Univ. - Masters Student Baseball

Male Bachelors Degree + 10 years Sewing

# 30 Librarian Univ. of Missouri Exploring caves

Male Masters Degree + 5 years Cooking ethnic food
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Lesson 19  The Daily Shooting Star 19.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Lesson 19  The Daily Shooting Star “What

can we

Objectives

believe?”

Students will:

• read prepared tabloid articles about meteorites.

• determine whether news articles are fact or fiction.

Background

Truth is often stranger than fiction and sometimes it is difficult to

distinguish between the two. Newsstands are filled with tabloids

thriving on our fascination with the outlandish. Articles pertaining

to space and associated subjects are common and sometimes sound

plausible. Since many of the things scientists have learned from

meteorites are hard to believe, they lend themselves perfectly to this

type of media.

Procedure

Advanced Preparation

1. Copy articles from The Daily Shooting Star or prepare

transparencies.

Classroom Procedure

1. Instruct students to read articles and determine which are

fact or fiction. Each may privately record decisions and

keep for future reference if this is being used as a

preassessment.

2. If desired, take a true/false class vote and keep results

for later review.

Note: Just as the scientific study of meteorites leads us to

question the early origins of the universe, these

articles were designed to engender uncertainty.

Competition is not the focus of this exercise.

3. Ask students to justify their decisions on a

voluntary basis and allow non-judgmental

discussion — students just might have to eat their

words otherwise!

4. Upon completion of the unit, repeat steps 1 and 2.

Compare the two sets of responses. Requiring

justification for answers that changed would be a good

assessment tool.

About This Lesson

The Daily Shooting Star uses

a tabloid format to generate

interest in meteorites. The

articles may be used as an

introduction or preassessment

before any lessons are started,

or it may be a final assessment

after the units are completed.

Materials

❑ The Daily Shooting Star

(pgs. 19.3-19.8)

❑ writing materials

❑ blackboard and chalk

❑ overhead projector and

markers
19.2 Lesson 19  The Daily Shooting Star NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Questions

1. Is there one or more specific thing(s) in the article which influenced your decision about its truth

or falsehood?

2. Describe articles you have read in the past which remind you of those you just read. What topic

was addressed, did you believe the material presented, why or why not?

3. What difficulties might an author of articles about space encounter?

4. Identify concepts in any of the articles which might be considered to be beyond today’s

technology but within reason in the future.

Extensions

1. Allow students to write their own sensational scientific articles, based upon truth or fiction.

Local newspapers often run material related to scientific topics which may be used for the “truth”

articles and “the sky is the limit” when composing the fiction. “Yellow journalistic” tabloid

articles provide useful models; however, care should be taken. Some of these articles tend to be

risqué.

2. Allow students to prepare and present a dramatic presentation of either true or false articles. A

showcase might be presented for younger students where the audience votes on whether they

believe the dramas to represent truth or fiction. This could be followed by a “confession session”

in which actors emphasize the amazingly true vignettes and tell what was wrong with the

fictional ones.

3. If it is available, play a tape of the original “War of the Worlds” radio broadcast for the class. If

it is unavailable read a shortened version to them. Follow up with information about the panic

audiences experienced when this broadcast aired in the late 1930’s. Instruct students to compare

the response of that first audience to the response they would expect of a modern day audience.

4. Have groups create and perform commercials for products using meteorites, micro-meteorites,

etc., claiming an end to baldness, super-human powers, etc. Packaging and promotional

considerations may be included.

Tabloid Answer Key

1. True Amateur Astronomer Discovers Comet

2. True Annihilation Narrowly Avoided

3. False Intelligence Enhancing Meteorites No studies have been done, nor has the

need for any been confirmed.

4. False Extraterrestrials Hurl Rock at Earth No evidence has been found of

extraterrestrial life; however, 65 million years ago an impact did cause

massive destruction.

5. False Longevity Secret Revealed No studies have been done.

6. True Giant Impact Thought to Cause Mass Extinctions

7. False Huge Diamond Discovered in Meteorite Although diamond chips have been

found in meteorites, none of significant weight has ever been discovered.

8. True History of Solar System Revealed

9. True Oldest Meteorite Found

10. False Phenomenal New Energy Resource Discovered No technology exists

for the harnessing of either lightning or streaking meteors.

11. True Microbes from Mars
Lesson 19  Meteoroid Tabloid

SEPTEMBER 30, 1994

NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ 19.3

of mountains and thousands of smaller fragments.

Scientists are now studying data on these collisions gathered

by telescopes and spacecraft located in different parts of

the solar system. The orbiting Hubble Space Telescope

was aimed at Jupiter during the impact. The results of

the impact with Jupiter have far reaching implications for

the planet Earth. Could we survive an impact of this

magnitude? ★

comet sightings are made

by amateurs. Professional

astronomers Carolyn and

the late Eugene Shoemaker

co-discovered the comet

which was designated as

Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9.

 As the comet approached

Jupiter, it was torn apart to

resemble a “string of pearls”

with at least 17 chunks the size

ANNIHILATION

NARROWLY AVOIDED

Scientists recently detected an

asteroid, named 1993 KA2,

which passed within 145,000

kilometers of Earth. It was

spotted by David Rabinowitz, an

astronomer in Arizona,

several hours after it passed

Earth. The asteroid was not

detected earlier because of its

low visual magnitude. Its

estimated mass is about five and

onehalf tons—about the same

as an oil tanker. The asteroid’s

speed was calculated at 77,000

km/hr., relative to Earth. Most

objects aimed at Earth burn up

in the atmosphere, but

scientists speculate that 1993

KA2 could have created a

significant crater had it entered

our atmosphere, survived, and

impacted. The affects of the

collision would have been felt

worldwide! In his paper

entitled “Collision of

astronomically observable

bodies with the Earth,”

G. W. Wetherill concludes,

“. . . that impacts of half a

km-diameter Earth-crossing

objects, energetic enough to

produce a 10 km-diameter

crater, occur with a frequency

of about once every hundred

thousand years!” ★

Amateur Astronomer Discovers Comet

 A discovery by an amateur astronomer has focused the

world’s attention on the most exciting astronomical event in

history.

 David Levy, using an 18-inch telescope on Mount

Palomar, California, discovered a comet which later collided

with Jupiter. Surprisingly, seventy percent of all initial

aaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

The Daily Shooting Star
SEPTEMBER 30, 1994

19.4 Lesson 19  Meteoroid Tabloid NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Scientists say they have proof

that sixty-five million years

ago extraterrestrials hurled a

massive rock at the Earth

and almost destroyed it! The

heat and pressure created by

the meteorite landing in the

ocean injected a vast amount

of water vapor into the

atmosphere and caused a

tsunami over a kilometer

high.

“The fossil record proves

the tsunami covered the

continent with water,” says

Dr. Charlene Brashier. “The

tsunami instantly killed

several species of land plants

and animals, but created a

vast ocean full of life. The

warm water caused by the

meteorite impact accelerated

the growth of all oceanic

organisms.” When asked

about the extraterrestrials,

Dr. Brashier responded, “I

know it sounds far fetched,

but Dr. Io has

convinced

me.”

Dr. Io, a

theoretical

physicist,

could not be

reached for

comment but

his assistant

told us about

his theory. “The only force

strong enough to hurl an

asteroid of that magnitude

had to be extraterrestrial.

The Hubble telescope sent

us some very interesting

pictures of the planet Venus.

On the surface of the planet

are many fossils. The fossil

remains clearly show the

signs of a planet at war.” ★

INTELLIGENCE

ENHANCING

METEORITES

A fifteen year study conducted

by an international team of

psychologists has determined that fetal exposure to

newly fallen meteorites

increases I.Q. scores.

Scientists became interested

in effects from meteorites after

Mexican educators, working

with 7 child prodigies,

discovered that all were born

shortly after the Allende

meteorite fell there in 1969.

A world-wide study was set

up encompassing areas within

5 kilometers of meteorite falls

occurring between 1977 and

1987. The results strongly

indicate that intelligence is

affected in developing fetuses

by one or more of the

atmospheric changes which

occur as a result of meteorite

impacts. I.Q. scores 20 points

above average appear to be

common in children whose

mothers were exposed to

meteorite impact areas

during the second trimester

of pregnancy. Additional

studies are planned. ★

Extraterrestrials

Hurl Rock at Earth!

1969 1977 1987

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

1969 1977 1987

> 5 km

< 5 km
Lesson 19  Meteoroid Tabloid

SEPTEMBER 30, 1994

NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ 19.5

 Meteorologists and

geologists around the world

have confirmed the

occurrence

of a major

catastrophe

in Earth’s

history which led to the

deaths of numerous life forms

including the giant sea

nautilus.

 Scarring of the ocean

floor and land on the Yucatan

Peninsula identify that

area as the site of a huge

meteorite fall. Fossils found

in the area show that massive

extinctions occurred as a

result of the impact. Not

only land inhabitants but

also oceanic species were

endangered when the lower

organisms on the food chain

began to disappear. Among

those unique creatures lost

forever was the giant sea

nautilus, a valuable link to

understanding adaptations

of species.

 Scientists regularly

undertake worldwide studies of corings of glacial ice,

geological strata, and

mature trees to trace climate

changes. The percentage of

carbon dioxide found in

Antarctic ice from that

ancient time changed

dramatically following the

impact of the huge meteorite on Earth. Based on

current knowledge of

the “greenhouse” effect,

scientists recognized the

indications of the ancient

change in climate. Along

 Extinction continued on page 19.6

Merida

Y U C A T A N 

P E N I N S U L A

Gulf Of Mexico

LONGEVITY SECRET

Revealed

 A geographical study

conducted by graduate students

has linked micrometeorites to

longevity. Researcher Doug

Jackson, while reviewing data

compiled by his longevity study

team, noted a significant

similarity to a study his wife,

Karen, is working on. She is a

geology student specializing in

micrometeorites.

 It was really quite by

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaaaaaa

Giant Impact

Thought to Cause

Mass Extinctions

accident,” Jackson said. “We

were sitting around talking about

our work and it suddenly hit me

that Karen’s data tables were

almost identical to mine.”

 Further investigation

revealed a significant

relationship between long life

and heavy micrometeorite

concentrations. “These people

have probably been ingesting

micrometeorites for years,”

Jackson added. Initial studies

indicate that a unique nutrient,

found in the tissues of

centenarians, is a component of

most micrometeorites which

appears to be the key to long

life. Systemic Supplies, Inc.

has proposed a patent for

vitamins containing the newly

discovered nutrient. ★
SEPTEMBER 30, 1994

19.6 Lesson 19  Meteoroid Tabloid NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Huge Diamond

Discovered

in Meteorite

 Meteorite researchers at a

prestigious scientific institute

in Houston, Texas have

discovered a massive 6.74 carat

diamond in an Antarctic

meteorite. Scientists have been

collecting meteorites in

Antarctica for several years.

After collection the samples

are packaged and shipped to

Houston for scientific

analysis. A number of

diamond chips have been

recovered from meteorites, but

the largest total weight to date

had been less than .07 carats.

 Dr. Lynn Allen, investigative team leader, expressed

mixed feelings over the find.

“Funding for the Antarctic

project will not be such a

problem now,” she told this

reporter. “This stone is

obviously very valuable and

will enhance the viability of

our research. Scientific

knowledge is important to

many people, but when a

dollar figure can be assessed,

financiers are more willing to

support our work. The sad part

is that people who might

have willingly relinquished

meteorites to the scientific

community may be more

reluctant to do so now.”

 Officials have made no

decisions as to the disposition

of the diamond.★

Extinction continued from page 19.5

with the change in weather patterns, food chains broke down

and massive extinctions resulted.

 In response to a reporter's questions about what would

happen if a similar impact were to happen in modern times,

geologist Dr. Virgil L. “Buck” Sharpton quipped, “It would

be a real bad day. But it would solve the problems of nuclear

proliferation and global warming!” ★

History of the

Solar System

REVEALED

Scientists at the Lunar and Planetary Institute

have released startling information which

supports the theory that the solar system arose

from gaseous and particulate matter. This

information was obtained through intensive study of

meteorites from the Moon, Mars, and the asteroid belts. Dr. Allan

H. Treiman states, “Meteorites are the best clues to how the solar

system formed. In our labs, we can take meteorites apart and learn

just how they were put together, whether it was on the Moon, on

Mars, or in a dusty gas cloud orbiting a very young Sun.”

 Previous studies of rocks have helped scientists understand

the Earth’s formation. Materials and structure found in Earth

rocks and meteorites are very similar. Those similarities led

researchers to the conclusion that, as they are learning about

how meteorites were formed, they were also learning how other

planetary bodies were formed. Just as planets have layers (core,

mantle, crust), meteorites discovered on the Earth’s surface

reveal samples of the same types of layers from other celestial

bodies. Though small in size, meteorites provide windows to

explore the processes that formed the solar system.

 As more meteorites are discovered and studied, scientists feel

confident that more information about the origins of the solar

system and perhaps life itself will be understood. ★
Lesson 19  Meteoroid Tabloid

SEPTEMBER 30, 1994

NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ 19.7

of “observed falls.” “It

appears to us that observation of this meteorite fall has

been handed down by word

of mouth,” states Akihiko

Okada of the Institute of

Physical and Chemical

Research in Japan.

 Scientists had previously

considered the Ensisheim

stone, which fell in Germany

in 1492, to be the oldest

witnessed fall. The NogataShi predates the Ensisheim

stone by over 600 years and

renews speculation about

the existence of other

undiscovered, preserved

meteorites. ★

 Masako Shima and

associates recently presented

information to the

Meteoritical Society about

the Nogata-Shi meteorite, a

chondrite. The Nogata-Shi

meteorite fell at a Shinto

shrine on May 19, 861, by

the Julian calendar. It has

been preserved at the

religious site as a treasure of

the shrine in a specially

marked wooden box .

 Many meteorites have

been on the Earth’s surface

for thousands of years.

However, only specimens

whose sightings have been

documented may be

considered in the category

OLDEST

METEORITE

FOUND

 A meteorite which fell in

Japan in 861 has been

identified as the oldest

witnessed fall of which pieces

are preserved.

Phenomenal New

Energy Resource

DISCOVERED

Lewis Berkeley Lab

(LBL) has announced the

development of a new

process which will harness

the vast energy available

from streaking meteors.

“The technology

necessary to construct a

functioning plant utilizing

this type of power is

available now,” Dr. Robert

Faradey states. “Much

depends upon whether or

not utility companies are

willing to make this drastic a

change in their operations.”

Based on techniques

used in collecting electricity

from lightning flashes, LBL

has projected the harnessing

of billions of kilowatts of

power, during periods of

active meteor showers. This

could be equivalent to the

production of three nuclear

power plants. It is estimated

that the savings to

the consumer would be

substantial once the system

has been placed “on line.”

No official comments

were offered by utility

industry representatives, but

one was heard to remark

after the news conference

with LBL, “This is a harebrained scheme — a waste

of public resources.” ★
SEPTEMBER 30, 1994

19.8 Lesson 19  Meteoroid Tabloid NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Microbes from Mars !

In August 1996, a panel of scientists

revealed a secret held for two years.

They unveiled the first evidence of

possible life on the Red Planet. The

Mars meteorite research team, led

by Dave McKay and Everett

Gibson, described startling findings

in an ancient meteorite which was

blasted off Mars and landed in

Antarctica. This rock contains

organic molecules and microscopic

bits of iron oxides like those

produced by bacteria. Even more

amazing are images of worm-like

forms so small that they can only be

seen by the most powerful electron

microscope. Even though there are

other interpretations of each of the

pieces of evidence, taken together,

“we believe that these tiny guys can

be interpreted as (fossil) bacteria,”

says McKay.

Reaction of other scientists to the

discovery has been skeptical, and in

some cases, downright hostile.

Some scientists, who have studied

the meteorite, say that the carbonate

minerals containing these features

formed at temperatures too high for

life to exist. Ralph Harvey suggests

the worm-like forms aren’t

microfossils, but are elongated iron

oxides, formed in volcanic fumaroles

too hot to support life. Luann Becker

suggests that the organic molecules

are produced by contamination in

Antarctica.

The debate rages hot and cold. The

Life on Mars team continues to

collect more data—magnetics and

isotope chemistry suggest a cold

origin. Meanwhile, the naysayers

add more lines of negative

evidence— the fossil-like forms are

too small to hold a molecule of

DNA. Tim Swindle, who took an

informal poll of planetary scientists,

says it came out even, with most

scientists sitting on the fence waiting

for more data. ★
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Exploring Meteorite Mysteries  Glossary A.1

 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

 Glossary

Words that appear in italic type within a definition

also are defined in the Glossary.

Absorbent: able to suck up liquid like a sponge.

Accrete (accretion): accumulate under the influence

of gravity and some minor forces.

Achondrite: stony meteorite without chondrules.

Amino Acids: organic acids that are the components

of proteins.

Angular: a shape description that indicates an object

has one or more angled edges rather than rounded

edges.

Anorthosite: an igneous rock made up almost entirely

of plagioclase feldspar.

Aphelion: the point of a celestial body’s orbit most

distant from the Sun.

Asteroid: one of thousands of small (diameters under

1000 km) solid planetary bodies orbiting the sun; most

orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter, but a few

come closer as they cross the orbits of Earth or Mars.

Asteroid belt: area between Mars and Jupiter where

thousands of asteroids orbit the Sun.

Astronomer: one who studies the science of celestial

bodies and their origins, magnitudes, motions, and

compositions.

Atmosphere: mixture of gases that surround a planet.

Attrition: the amount of material worn away during

sample preparation; small losses.

Bachelor’s degree: usually the lowest academic

degree given by a college or university.

Basalt: fine-grained, dark-colored igneous rock

composed primarily of plagioclase feldspar and

pyroxene; other minerals such as olivine and opaques

are usually present.

Basaltic achondrite: a type of meteorite consisting

of the minerals feldspar and pyroxene; they are

similar to basalts from lava flows on Earth.

Bleb: a small, usually rounded inclusion of one material

in another.

Breccia: rock consisting of angular, coarse fragments

embedded in a fine-grained matrix.

Carbonaceous chondrite: a primitive type of

meteorite usually with chondrules; they contain

water and carbon compounds, including organic

molecules.

Carbon compounds: forms of carbon combined with

other elements, includes organic molecules such as

amino acids.

Catastrophe: a great disaster or misfortune.

Chromatography: separation of complex solutions into

chemically distinct layers, usually different colors, by

seepage through an absorbent material.

Chondrite: stony meteorite containing chondrules

embedded in a fine grained matrix of pyroxene, olivine,

and metallic nickel-iron.

Chondrule: a small rounded body of various materials,

chiefly olivine or pyroxene, found embedded in a

usually fragmental matrix in certain of the stony

meteorites.

Classification: the formal system of arranging objects

or information into like groups.
A.2 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries  Glossary NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Clast: a broken piece of rock formed by the breakup

of a larger object.

Clay: a size term denoting particles, regardless of

mineral composition, with diameters less than 1/256

mm.

Comet: a small body of ice and dust circling the sun in

an elliptical orbit; when it comes near the Sun gases

are released to form a tail that points away from the

Sun.

Composition: the amounts of all the elements in a

rock or mineral.

Condensation: to form a liquid or solid from the

gaseous state.

Core: the central region of a planet or moon, frequently

made of different materials than the surrounding

regions (mantle and crust); Earth and the Moon are

thought to have cores of metallic iron and nickel.

Cosmic spherules: melted droplets of meteorites, less

than 1mm in size, found in ocean sediments and ice.

Crater : a hole or depression (see impact); most are

roughly circular or oval in outline; on Earth most

natural craters visible at this point in geologic time

are of volcanic origin; on the Moon most craters are

of impact origin.

Cretaceous: the period of geologic time from

approximately 140 million years ago to about 65 million

years ago; abbreviated symbol is K.

Cross section: a profile portraying an interpretation

of a vertical section of the Earth explored by

geophysical and/or geological methods.

Crust: the outermost layer of a planet or moon, above

the mantle.

Crystallization: to form crystals.

Cumulate: collection of minerals that have been

separated from molten rock by density settling.

Curation: taking care of collections of samples and

distributing information on those samples.

Curator: one in charge of a collection or exhibit of

items such as in a museum.

Deposition: the process of accumulation of a

sedimentary layer of rock or precipitate.

Diameter: the length of a line that goes from edge to

edge of a circle or other shape and also passes

through the center of that shape.

DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid; functions as the transfer

of genetic information from cells in living organisms.

Dense: means the mass of an object is relatively high

per unit volume of the object; object could be

described as “heavy for its size”.

Density: mass per unit volume; how much material is

in a given space.

Differentiation: chemical zonation caused by

differences in the densities of minerals; dense

materials sink, less dense materials float.

Diffracted: when light beams are deflected or bent by

interaction with an object (diffraction).

Doctor of Philosophy: usually the highest academic

degree given by a university or college in any field of

academic study (Ph.D. or doctorate).

Ecliptic plane: the plane defined by the orbit of the

Earth around the Sun; most planets orbit in or near

the ecliptic plane.

Ejecta: material thrown out from and deposited around

an impact crater.

Electromagnetic spectrum: energy ranges from

gamma-rays through x-rays, ultraviolet, visible light,

infrared, microwave, all radio waves (all having

specific energy).

Ellipse: (elliptical) a closed curve of oval shape.

Emit: to give off, such as light or sound.

Erosion: process of physically changing and or moving

rocky material; on Earth this especially includes

weathering and transport of material by water and

wind.

Expedition: a journey for a particular purpose such

as research or discovery.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Exploring Meteorite Mysteries  Glossary A.3

Fall: is a designation for a meteorite that was observed

as it came through Earth’s atmosphere and was

retrieved soon afterward.

Find: is a meteorite that was not observed to fall; it

may have been on Earth for a long time.

Fireball: the streak of light and loud noise of a large

meteor going through the Earth’s atmosphere.

Friable: easily crumbled rock fragments.

Fusion crust: dark glassy coating on the surface of a

meteorite, caused by heating as the meteorite enters

the atmosphere.

Geochemist: a scientist who studies the chemical

composition of, and chemical changes in the Earth

or other planetary bodies.

Geologist: scientist who studies Earth, its materials,

the physical and chemical changes that occur on the

surface and in the interior, and the history of the planet

and its life forms; planetary geologists extend their

studies to the Moon, planets, and other solid bodies

in the solar system.

Geophysics: extensive experimental and modeling

studies of the Earth and other planetary bodies with

respect to their structure and development.

Gravity: a force of attraction pulling any two things

toward each other, dependent on the mass of the

objects.

Heterogeneous: composed of several different types

of material.

Highlands: oldest exposed areas on the surface of

the Moon; extensively cratered, and chemically

distinct from the Mare.

Homogeneous: composed of one type of material.

Hypothesis: an idea or group of ideas that attempt to

explain an observed or predicted event or

occurrence.

Igneous: rocks or processes involving the formation

and solidification of hot, molten magma on the surface

of a planetary body or below the surface.

Impact: the forceful striking of one body, such as a

meteorite, against another body such as a moon or

planet (crater).

Impact crater: hole or depression formed by a

meteorite colliding with a surface.

Impactor: object that strikes (impact) a surface, may

create a crater (projectile, meteorite).

Incandescent light: light which came from an

electrically heated filament.

Incident light: light that has struck an object (see

also reflected light).

Inclusions: a fragment of another rock enclosed in a

rock.

Infrared: the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum

with wavelengths of from 0.7 to about 1.0

micrometers, just beyond the red end of the visible

spectrum.

Inorganic: compounds that are not formed by living

organisms.

Interplanetary dust particles: microscopic bits of

asteroids or comets; these particles can be collected

from high in the atmosphere.

Iridium: a hard, brittle, very heavy, metallic chemical

element used in alloys; found in greater percentages

in meteorites as compared to Earth rocks.

Iron meteorite: meteorite consisting of metallic iron

and nickel.

Isotope: elements having an identical number of

protons in their nuclei but differing in their number

of neutrons.

Kinetic energy: the energy of a body or mass in

motion; with greater speed and mass the kinetic

energy increases.

Latitude: the angular distance North or South from

the Earth’s equator measured in degrees; Equator

being 0° and the poles 90°N and 90°S.

Lava: fluid magma that flows onto the surface of a

planet or moon; erupted from a volcano or fissure;
A.4 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries  Glossary NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

the rock formed by solidification of magma.

Layer: a bed of stratum or rock.

Longitude: the angular distance East or West,

between the meridian of a particular place on Earth

and that of Greenwich, England, expressed in degrees

or time.

Lunar meteorites: meteorites that have been

identified through their chemistry and minerals as

being from the Moon.

Magma: term applied to molten rock in the interior of

a planet or moon; when it reaches the surface,

magma is called lava.

Magnetism: a property possessed by certain bodies,

whereby under certain circumstances, they repel or

attract one another according to determined laws.

Magnetic field: a force that acts over a region of

space around a magnetically charged body.

Mantle: a mostly solid layer of Earth lying beneath

the crust and above the core; consisting mostly of

iron and silicate minerals.

Maria: dark areas on the Moon covered by basalt

lava flows (singular Mare).

Martian meteorites: meteorites that have been

identified as pieces of Mars by a combination of their

relatively young age and their chemical similarity to

Viking data from Mars.

Mass: the amount of matter in a given object.

Master’s Degree: academic degree higher than a

bachelor’s degree but lower than a doctoral degree.

Matrix: the smaller sized grains in a rock, where the

rock consists of large grains or fragments surrounded

by smaller grains.

Metal: any of a class of substances that typically are

opaque, are good conductors of electricity, and often

have a shiny luster like gold.

Metamorphic (metamorphosed): rocks that have

recrystallized in a solid state as a result of changes

in temperature, pressure, and chemical environment.

Meteor: relatively small body of matter traveling

through interplanetary space.

Meteorite: a metallic or stony (silicate) body that

has fallen on Earth, Moon or other planetary body

from outer space (see Impactor, Projectile).

Meteor shower: group of meteors or comet dust,

traveling together, which enter the atmosphere within

a few hours.

Meteorite shower: a large number of similar

meteorites falling together; caused by the breakup

of a large meteorite in the atmosphere.

Meteoriticist: someone who studies meteorites.

Micrometeorites: meteorites smaller than 1 mm.

Mineral: naturally occurring inorganic solid with a

definite chemical composition and crystal structure.

Mineralogy: the mix of minerals which make up a

rock.

Orbit: the path of an object in space moving about

another under gravitational attraction.

Ordinary chondrites: the most common class of

meteorites, consisting of variable amounts of metal

and chondrules in a matrix of mostly silicate

minerals.

Organic molecules: compounds of carbon, hydrogen

and oxygen, that form complex molecules (may or

may not be from living organisms).

Perihelion: the point of a celestial body’s orbit closest

the Sun.

Planetary geology: the study of the planets in our

solar system concerning the history and formation

of the interior and surface.

Planetary meteorites: a class of igneous or

brecciated meteorites from other planets; currently,

meteorites have been found that come from the Moon

and Mars.

Platy: the texture of a rock that is composed of flat

minerals or rock fragments.

Porous: contains open or void spaces between solid
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Exploring Meteorite Mysteries  Glossary A.5

material.

Post doc: researcher who has completed a Doctor

of Philosophy degree and has a temporary position

such as a fellowship to pursue a specific type of

research.

Projectile: object that impacts a surface.

Quartz: a common, often transparent crystalline

mineral that is a form of a silica.

Research: studious and critical inquiry aimed at the

discovery and interpretation of new knowledge.

Reflectance: the amount of light of a particular color

reflected by a surface, divided by the amount of light

of the same color that strikes the surface.

Reflectance spectroscopy: the study of the colors

of light reflected from a surface.

Reflected light: light which strikes a surface and

bounces back, as happens with a mirror.

Regmaglypt: any of various small indentations or pits

on the surface of meteorites.

Regolith: loose, unconsolidated rock, mineral, and

glass fragments; on the Moon and some other

planetary bodies, this debris is produced by impacts

and blankets the surface.

Retrograde: an orbit that moves in the opposite

direction of Earth’s orbit.

Rim: the border of a land form, such as the curved

edge surrounding the top part of a crater.

Scale model: an object that gives the size of the sample

in proportion to the size of the actual thing.

Sediment: solid rock or mineral fragments transported

and deposited by wind, water, gravity, or ice;

precipitated by chemical reactions; or secreted by

organisms; accumulated as layers in loose,

unconsolidated form.

Sedimentary: rock formed when sediment is

compacted and solidified.

Shock: a sharp impact or violent shake; evidence of

large shocks may be seen in the rocks and minerals

near an impact crater.

Silicate: minerals that contain the elements Si and O,

plus one or more metals: Mg, Fe, Ca, Na, Al.

Solar nebula: gravitational accumulation of solid

particles and dust around the Sun.

Solar power: energy derived from the Sun or sunlight

for use as a source of electricity.

Solar system: the Sun and all the objects such as the

planets, moons, asteroids, and comets that orbit the

Sun.

Solar wind: the stream of charged particles, mainly

ionized hydrogen, moving outward from the Sun with

velocities in the range of 300-500 kilometers per

second.

Soot: a black substance that is formed when

something burns.

Specimen: a sample, as a rock, fossil, or ore.

Spectroscopy: the excitation of the spectrum, its visual

or photographic observation, and the precise

determination of wavelengths.

Sphere: an object that is round or almost round in all

dimensions like a ball.

Static electricity: stationary charges of electricity.

Stony-iron: a class of meteorites composed mostly

of an intimate mixture of silicates and iron metal.

Stony meteorite: a class of meteorites composed

mostly of silicate minerals.

Strewn field: a generally elliptical pattern of

distribution of recovered meteorites, formed when

a meteor is fragmented as it passes through the

atmosphere.

Superstition: beliefs or practices resulting in fear of

the unknown, ignorance and trust in magic or chance.

Technician: a person who has acquired the technique

of a specialized skill or subject.

Tektites: small fragments of melted and

aerodynamically shaped rock that were ejected from

a large impact crater.
A.6 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries  Glossary NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

Tectonic: pertaining to rock forms due to deformation

in the crust of Earth and other planetary bodies.

Terrain: area of the surface with a distinctive physical

or geological character.

Tertiary: the period of geologic time between 65 and

2 million years ago, abbreviation is T.

Texture: general physical appearance of a rock.

Triangulation: method of finding the distance to an

object or location of an event in the sky by creating a

triangle, with two vertices the ground, and the object

at the third vertex.

Ultraviolet: having a wavelength shorter than visible

light and longer than x-rays.

Unconsolidated: materials loosely pack but not

cemented to each other.

Unfractured: does not contain breaks or cracks.

Uniform: having always the same form, manner, or

degree.

Vaporize: to change something from a liquid or a solid

to a gaseous state as in rock that is completely altered

to gas during large impacts.

Velocity: rate of motion in a specific direction.

Vesicle: bubble-shaped cavity in a volcanic rock formed

by expanding gases.

Volatiles: chemical elements that enter a gas phase

at relatively low temperatures.

Volcanism: the physical processes of a volcano.

Volcano: mountain formed from the eruption of

igneous matter through a vent; volcanism refers to

all natural processes resulting in volcanoes and other

igneous surface events.

Voltage: electromotive force measured in volts.

Volume: space occupied, as measured by cubic units.

Weathering: the mechanical breakdown and chemical

alteration of rocks and minerals.

Wick: (verb) to draw a liquid on to or up a solid

(i.e. a towel).

Zoologist: scientist who studies animals.
NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ Exploring Meteorite Mysteries  Education Resources B.1

Exploring Meteorite Mysteries

Education Resources

Meteorite Resources

Teacher’s Guide:

The following companion volume is available from

NASA Educator Resource Centers or NASA

Central Operation of Resources for Educators:

Exploring the Moon, G. Jeffrey Taylor et al, 1994,

NASA EP-306.

Video:

Meteorites-Vol. 1: Menace from the Sky. Vol. 2:

Witnesses from Beyond the Times, Austrian

Broadcasting Corporation, 1993, 84 minutes.Atlas

Video, Inc. Bethesda, Maryland.

Slides:

Accompanying Exploring Meteorite Mysteries slide

set is available from NASA CORE.

Terrestrial Impact Craters, set of 26 slides with guide

and A Spacecraft Tour of the Solar System, 40

slides with guide.

Lunar Planetary Institute

3600 Bay Area Boulevard

Houston, Texas 77058-2186

281-486-2172 or FAX 281-486-2186

Posters:

Meteorites Poster (#328)

The Planetary Society

Sales Department

65 North Catalina Avenue

Pasadena, California 91106-2301

Comet Chart (#31-0) and Cosmic Catastrophies

(#46-9)

Hansen Planetarium Publications

1845 South 300 West, #A

Salt Lake City, Utah 84115-1804

1-800-321-2369

Web Sites:

http://www-curator.jsc.nasa.gov/curator/curator.htm

http://www-curator.jsc.nasa.gov/curator/antmet/

antmet.htm

http://www-sn.jsc.nasa.gov

http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/pao/educators/

http://www.ewu.edu/CNRU/Dept/Antsci/geol/

ANSMET/ANSMET.htm

http://hurlbut.jhuapl.edu/NEAR/

http://pdcsrva.jpl.nasa.gov/stardust/home.html

http://nssdc.gsfc.gov/planetary/planets/

asteroidpage.html

Bibliography

Children’s Books:

Asteroids, Comets and Meteors, Gregory L. Vogt, 1996, Millbrook Press, 32 p.

Comets and Meteors, Isaac Asimov, 1990, Dell Publishing, 32 p.

Magical, Mysterious Meteorites, Madelyn Wood Carlisle, 1992, Barron’s Educational Series Inc., 32p.

Introductory Book:

Meteorites: The Key to Our Existence, Robert Hutchison and Andrew Graham, 1992, Natural History

Museum Pub. 60p.

In Depth Books:

Rocks from Space, O. Richard Norton, 1994, Mountain Press, 449p.

Thunderstones and Shooting Stars: The Meaning of Meteorites, Robert T. Dodd, 1986, Harvard University

Press, 196p.

Meteorites and Their Parent Planets, Harry Y. McSween, Jr., 1987,Cambridge University Press, 236p.
B.2 Exploring Meteorite Mysteries  Education Resources NASA EG-1997-08-104-HQ

NASA’s Central Operation of Resources for Educators (CORE)

was established for the national and international distribution of

NASA-produced educational materials in audiovisual format.

Educators can obtain a catalogue and an order form by one of the

following methods:

• NASA CORE

Lorain County Joint Vocational School

15181 Route 58 South

Oberlin, OH 44074

• Phone (440) 774-1051, Ext. 249 or 293

• Fax (440) 774-2144

• E-mail nasaco@leeca8.1eeca.ohio.gov

• Home Page: http://spacelink.nasa.gov/CORE

Educator Resource Center Network

To make additional information available to the education

community, the NASA Education Division has created the NASA

Educator Resource Center (ERC) network. ERCs contain a wealth

of information for educators: publications, reference books, slide

sets, audio cassettes, videotapes, telelecture programs, computer

programs, lesson plans, and teacher guides with activities.

Educators may preview, copy, or receive NASA materials at these

sites. Because each NASA Field Center has its own areas of

expertise, no two ERCs are exactly alike. Phone calls are welcome

if you are unable to visit the ERC that serves your geographic area.

A list of the centers and the regions they serve includes:

Regional Educator Resource Centers (RERCs) offer more

educators access to NASA educational materials. NASA has formed

partnerships with universities, museums, and other educational

institutions to serve as RERCs in, many states. A complete list of

RERCs is available through CORE, or electronically via NASA

Spacelink.

NASA On-line Resources for Educators provide current

educational information and instructional resource materials to

teachers, faculty, and students. A wide range of information is

available, including science, mathematics, engineering, and

technology education lesson plans, historical information related

to the aeronautics and space program, current status reports on

NASA projects, news releases, information on NASA educational

programs, useful software and graphics files. Educators and

students can also use NASA resources as learning tools to explore

the Internet, accessing information about educational grants,

interacting with other schools which are already on-line, and

participating in on-line interactive projects, communicating with

NASA scientists, engineers, and other team members to experience

the excitement of real NASA projects.

Access these resources through the NASA Education Home Page:

http://www.hq.nasa.gov/education

or, for more information send an e-mail to:

comments@spacelink.msfc.nasa.gov

NASA Television (NTV) is the Agency’s distribution system for

live and taped programs. It offers the public a front-row seat for

launches and missions, as well as informational and educational

programming, historical documentaries, and updates on the latest

developments in aeronautics and space science. NTV is transmitted

on the GE-2 satellite, Transponder 9C at 85 degrees West longitude,

vertical polarization, with a frequency of 3880 megahertz, and

audio of 6.8 megahertz.

Apart from live mission coverage, regular NASA Television

programming includes a News Video File from noon to 1:00 pm, a

NASA History File from 1:00 to 2:00 pm, and an Education File

from 2:00 to 3:00 pm (all times Eastern). This sequence is repeated

at 3:00 pm, 6:00 pm, and 9:00 pm, Monday through Friday. The

NTV Education File features programming for teachers and students

on science, mathematics, and technology. NASA Television

programming may be videotaped for later use.

For more information on NASA Television, contact:

NASA Headquarters, Code P-2, NASA TV, Washington, DC

20546-0001 Phone: (202) 358-3572

Home Page: http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/ntv.html

How to Access NASA’s Education Materials and Services,

EP-1996-11-345-HQ This brochure serves as a guide to accessing

a variety of NASA materials and services for educators. Copies

are available through the ERC network, or electronically via NASA

Spacelink. NASA Spacelink can be accessed at the following

address: http://spacelink.nasa.gov.

MS

NASA Educator Resource Center

Building 1200

NASA John C. Stennis Space Center

Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-8000

Phone: (601 ) 688-3338

NASA Educator Resource Center

JPL Educational Outreach

Mail Stop CS-530

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory

4800 Oak Grove Drive

Pasadena, CA 91109-8099

Phone: (818) 354-6916

CA cities near the center

NASA Educator Resource Center for

NASA Dryden Flight Research Center

45108 N. 3rd. Street East

Lancaster, CA 93535

Phone: (805) 948-7347

KY, NC, SC, VA, WV

Virginia Air and Space Museum

NASA Educator Resource Center for

NASA Langley Research Center

600 Settlers Landing Road

Hampton, VA 23669-4033

Phone: (757) 727-0900 x 757

VA and MD’s Eastern Shores

NASA Educator Resource Lab Education

Complex - Visitor Center Building J-1

NASA Wallops Flight Facility

Wallops Island, VA 23337-5099

Phone: (757) 824-2297/2298

IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI

NASA Educator Resource Center

Mail Stop 8-1

NASA Lewis Research Center

21000 Brookpark Road

Cleveland, OH 44135-3191

Phone: (216) 433-2017

AK AZ, CA, Hi, ID, MT NV, OR UT, WA, WY

NASA Educator Resource Center

Mail Stop 253-2

NASA Ames Research Center

Moffett Field, CA 94035-1000

Phone: (415) 604-3574

AL, AR, M, LA, MO, TN

U.S. Space and Rocket Center

NASA Educator Resource Center

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center

P.O. Box 070015 Huntsville, AL 35807-7015

Phone: (205) 544-5812

CT, DE, DC, ME, MD, MA, NH, NJ, NY, PA,

Rl, VT

NASA Educator Resource Laboratory

Mail Code 130.3

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Greenbelt, MD 20771-0001

Phone: (301) 286-8570

CO, KS, NE, NM, ND, OK, SD, TX

JSC Educator Resource Center

Space Center Houston

NASA Johnson Space Center

1601 NASA Road One

Houston, TX 77058-3696

Phone: (281) 483-8696

FL, GA, PR, Vl

NASA Educator Resource Laboratory

Mail Code ERL

NASA Kennedy Space Center

Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899-0001

Phone: (407) 867-4090

NASA Resources for Educators
Litho I
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