Table of Contents 

 Page

Acknowledgements........................................................... i

Introduction and overview................................................... 1

Theoretical approach ........................................................ 1

Synthesis of existing research .............................................. 2

Gaps in the literature......................................................... 5

Methodology .................................................................. 7

NPS case study units......................................................... 7

Field procedures ...................................................... 7

Case study interview questions ..................................... 8

Profiles of the nine NPS units in the study................................. 9

Boston National Historical Park .................................... 9

Boston African American National Historic Site................. 9

Cape Cod National Seashore ....................................... 10

Curecanti National Recreation Area ............................... 10

Petroglyph National Monument..................................... 10

Rocky Mountain National Park...................................... 11

John Muir National Historic Site.................................. 11

Golden Gate National Recreation Area........................... 11

Point Reyes National Seashore..................................... 12

Findings (by region, tables and summary points)......................... 12

Conclusion ..................................................................... 25

Management implications................................................... 26

Discussion..................................................................... 27

References..................................................................... 29

APPENDICES

Annotated bibliography ..................................................... 31

Variables of interest found in the experiential education, recreation,

& leisure studies literature (an abbreviated bibliography)................ 74

Variables of interest found in the environmental attitudes and

values literature (an abbreviated bibliography)............................ 76

Complete bibliography (all citations)....................................... 78

Key words...................................................................... 88
Acknowledgements

Many people deserve thanks and recognition for their assistance and cooperation in 

seeing this project through to completion. During Phase I of finalizing the annotated 

bibliography, we encountered occasional difficulty in obtaining copies of certain 

articles referenced in various electronic databases. Several authors and scholars were 

therefore contacted to request copies of their papers. Gratitude is extended to those 

individuals who were contacted and supported this project by following through: 

Teresita Aguilar, University of Nebraska; Leo McAvoy, University of Minnesota; 

Alan Ewert, Indiana University; Deborah Carr, U.S. Forest Service; and Maria 

Allison, Arizona State University. 

Second, thanks to Bob Dana, USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station; 

Steve Dunphy, National Parks and Conservation Association; and Sandy Watson, 

University of Idaho/NPS Cooperative Park Studies Unit, for providing a list of 

references pertaining to research from their respective organizations and agencies. 

Numerous studies, applicable to this project were extracted from these lists that we 

might not otherwise have had access to if it weren’t for their assistance. Several other 

people deserve public appreciation for their assistance and support of this project: Dr. 

Kathleen Pickering for her initial counsel and advice during the literature search 

phase; Iantha Gantt-Wright, NPCA, for her on-going support and engaging us in 

important dialogue; Patti Reilly, NPS Boston Support Office for her advice, insight 

and recommendations during the planning stages of the case study component; and 

finally, thanks to Sonja Macys, CSU graduate student, for her diligence in transcribing 

the taped interviews. 

The second Phase of this project consisted of in-depth interviews with many Park 

Service employees across the country. Without their support this project would have 

not been possible. By sharing their time, knowledge, programmatic detail, and 

materials about their education programs and outreach efforts, they were able to 

provide a clear picture to this research team to help make this project a success. The 

following people deserve special thanks for their time and incredible assistance: 

Kenneth Heidelberg, Bernadette Williams, and Frank Middleton, Boston African 

American National Historic Site; Bill Foley, Celeste Bernardo and Ethan Beeler, 

Boston National Historical Park; Mike Whatley and Bill Burke, Cape Cod National 

Seashore; Phil Zichterman and B.J. Johnson, Curecanti National Recreation Area; Bill 

Gwaltney and Mark DeGregorio, Rocky Mountain National Park; David Blackburn, 

John Muir National Historic Site, Judith Cordova and Diane Souder, Petroglyph 

National Monument, Lynn Fonfa, Arlene Rodriguez, and Rich Weideman, Golden 

Gate National Recreation Area, and John Dell’Osso, Point Reyes National Seashore.

The National Park Service Social Science Program provided funding for this study.

i
State-of-the-Knowledge Report

The Association of Gender, Ethnicity, and

Social Class in Outdoor Recreation Experiences

Donald A. Rodriguez, Principal Investigator

 Nina S. Roberts, Research Assistant

Introduction and Overview

Much of the research examining the variables of ethnicity, gender, and social class in 

relation to outdoor recreation participation are examined either independently or in duality 

(e.g., race and class, gender and ethnicity). Second, the few studies that have included an 

intersection of all three have investigated the relationship of these variables to participation 

patterns primarily in general leisure activities. To date, no studies have been found that look 

at the collective relationship regarding why the intersection, and subsequent impacts on 

outdoor recreation experiences, is critical for managers of our National Parks. 

This study was conducted during the two-year period from 1999-2000 and our 

research strategy included three phases. First, an extensive review of the literature was 

completed to ascertain what empirical studies have been conducted in the area of race, class, 

and gender in relation to outdoor recreation participation. This annotated review was 

accomplished on a very wide level with benefits and implications for a broad constituency. 

Additionally, the information obtained incorporated recreation on all public lands (including 

county, state, and federal); the implications and specific benefits for the National Park 

Service are manifest in the results and findings. Second, once this step was accomplished, 

nine site visits within three regions were selected and visited to collect information that 

describe interpretive, education and/or outreach programs designed for diverse user groups 

and traditionally under-served populations. Acquiring detail regarding the education and 

outreach component provides one method of identifying the potential diversity of park 

visitors from a recreation perspective. Last, this state-of-the-knowledge report synthesizes 

the body of knowledge represented in the annotated bibliography, identifies gaps in the 

research, presents a theoretical framework, and reviews the case study methodology applied 

to this research topic.

Theoretical Approach

The National Park Service Diversity Action Plan is a five year strategic plan 

developed for increasing diversity within the work force, modifying the interpretive 

programs and materials, educating employees, partners, and members of communities 

adjacent to the parks, and integrating diversity into the daily operations of the National Park 

Service (NPS, Diversity Action Plan, 1999). This plan is a major element reflecting the 

need and importance of alternative models for procuring information from a qualitative 

paradigm. As a result, this study involved an earnest approach to emergent design to 

generate a grounded theory based on the preeminent work of Glaser and Strauss (1967, 

1999).
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 2

A major emphasis of grounded theory is a general method of comparative analysis 

(Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The basic premise for this study therefore follows the procedures 

of Glaser & Straus in that the discovery of theory is procured from data systematically 

obtained from our case studies. The goal of this project was not to test hypotheses, rather to 

generate theoretical ideas, inter-related concepts, and categories for aggregating the data. A 

grounded theory research design was employed where the findings are the theory itself (i.e., a 

set of concepts and propositions which link them) and is inductively developed from the 

research (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). A specific theoretical framework in this project is not 

provided inasmuch as the intent of grounded theory is to generate concepts leading to a 

theoretical model for future application and practice (Creswell, 1994). 

Our strategy of comparative analysis for generating theory puts a high emphasis on 

theory as process; that is, theory is accounted for as an ever-developing entity, not as a 

perfected product. As researchers, we therefore attempted to derive a theory by using an 

inductive form of analysis by using multiple forms of data collection and the refinement and 

interrelationship of categories of information. According to Glaser & Strauss (1967), 

comparative analysis can be used to generate two basic kinds of theory: substantive and 

formal (p. 32). The analyst is advised to focus clearly on one level or another. For purposes 

of this project, we apply the substantive criterion – grounded in the data – in developing a 

prototype for this work. As a result, our focus is on the substantive areas of race, class and 

gender pertaining to outdoor recreation experiences in which the generation of theory as a 

“middle range” is achieved by a comparative analysis between or among groups within the 

same substantive area. That is, our intent is not to develop an “all inclusive” grand theory, 

rather to develop categories, prevalent themes, and subsequent theory using an inductive 

method with an immersion into the data.

Without a critical theory component on which to base this study, the subcultural 

hypothesis and discrimination hypothesis helped shape the initial research questions (see case 

study interview questions, page 6). The subcultural hypothesis (also known as the ethnicity 

hypothesis) directs research attention to cultural factors associated with the formation of 

outdoor recreation preferences and the discrimination hypothesis attempts to offer insight to 

the relationship between minority use patterns in the parks and perceived or actual 

experiences with discrimination (Floyd, 1999).

Synthesis of Existing Literature

The social sciences increasingly recognize the need for a broader, more inclusive 

paradigm to enhance the multiple facets of race, gender and class. These variables form the 

basic principles of social organization and of the human interaction process. Pertaining to 

leisure time spent in natural areas, these principles also constitute systems of meaning that 

influence parks and protected areas, and affect individual identity, environmental 

consciousness and recreation behavior. 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 3

Much of the research examining the variables of race/ethnicity, gender, and social 

class in relation to outdoor recreation participation has been examined either independently 

or in pairs (i.e., race and class, gender and ethnicity). However, few studies have included 

the combination of these variables and their relationship to participation in outdoor recreation 

activities and subsequent meaning of the experiences. This is not surprising because few 

people can manage to study race, class and gender simultaneously. Instead, scholars know 

more about some dimensions of this larger story and less about others. These types of 

studies are critical to the National Park Service (NPS) to gain an understanding of:

• the constraints or barriers of participation in outdoor recreation 

activities attributed to ethnicity, gender, and social class;

• the effects of ethnicity, gender, and social class on visitor recreation 

preferences; and

• the effects of ethnicity, gender, and social class on public policies 

relevant to parks.

An annotated bibliography can be found in the appendix of this report. This 

bibliography consists of research studies found in the literature encompassing race and/or 

ethnicity, gender, and social class in relation to the impacts on, and association with, outdoor 

recreation participation. Each reference annotated includes an overview, purpose of the 

study, methodology, results and discussion, and keywords. The project focus of research 

studies is defined as utilizing quantitative and/or qualitative methods and techniques for the 

purpose of drawing a conclusion or making an inference. Research designs found in the 

annotated bibliography of this report are inclusive of both approaches. Although this guide is 

the most comprehensive resource of its kind available, it is not exhaustive by any means. For 

example, the citations include research up through 1999. Second, between the day this report 

was submitted and bound, more research has sprung into existence.

Our goal as researchers was to remain steadfast to searching for research that 

included all three dimensions of “race/ethnicity, gender, and social class” and outdoor 

recreation in combination. Therefore, we did our best to avoid a departure from these 

variables. However, because of the dearth of research in this area, this was not always 

possible and they have therefore been included both in combination as well as separately. 

Consequently, it is important to note that race and/or ethnicity is a common denominator 

among all studies being reported and analyzed.

Regarding studies pertaining to recreation and leisure on a broad level (e.g., activity 

participation, trends, and patterns), if outdoor recreation was embedded as a significant 

component of the results, it was annotated and included in this document (see appendix). If 

race, gender and class in the recreation literature was the core, but outdoor recreation was 

not a significant factor or variable, the reference was listed as a citation of potential interest 

at the end of the annotated section. Consequently, a brief bibliography on this specific 

subject is also provided. In total, we have accumulated over 50 research studies that impress 

upon the issues of race/ethnicity, gender, and social class (or any combination thereof) 

pertaining to outdoor recreation.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 4

Throughout the process, numerous articles related to this subject in the way of 

anecdotes, personal experiences, and general observations were discovered. These papers are 

not included here because they are too numerous to mention. Consequently, we did not feel 

these papers would be appropriate for this particular project. However, an overall 

bibliography is included in the appendix of this report. This is comprised of several 

resources that are not considered research studies yet related to, and apropos for, providing 

additional resources about this subject. Similarly, for a comprehensive annotated 

bibliography on women outdoors, interested individuals are referred to Roberts (1998) and 

Henderson and Roberts (1998) for an integrative review of this literature. 

Many studies on Black/White differences in outdoor recreation and environmental 

attitudes date back to the 1960s. We have selected those that relate the most, and somehow 

incorporate (even to the slightest degree) class and gender as well; additionally, a search was 

conducted for those studies that built in as many varied ethnic backgrounds as possible. In 

general, while there is a plethora of studies on environmental attitudes, most do not have an 

outdoor recreation focus. Those with an outdoor recreation emphasis have been included and 

annotated. Hence, because of the primary goals of this project, we have not included 

annotations of references found in the literature pertaining to environmental attitudes. 

Individuals interested in the environmental attitudes literature are encouraged to review 

Dunlap and Liere (1978). Alternatively, other subsequent studies have been done since, for 

instance, see Environmental values in American culture (Kempton, Boster & Hartley, 1996). 

Such appraisals of the literature are always welcome.

An interesting search was the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute (ALWRI) 

Publications List. They have over 340 research articles on line including all research ever 

conducted from 1969-1998. Brief abstracts were included with publications from 1984-

1998. The list of all articles posted as of the writing of this report was reviewed and a 

request submitted for 5 of their research articles. A few publications in their list were articles 

published in other scholarly journals (e.g., Journal of Leisure Research, Leisure Sciences), 

not just from their projects. The majority was, however, Forest Service reports relevant to 

the mission of ALWRI. It was discovered that, from this and other searches, wilderness 

research was almost non-existent before 1960. Among the 340 studies listed on the ALWRI 

publications list during completion of this project, only one related to ethnicity (Washburne, 

1980). None were gender specific, and none connected socioeconomic/class variables with 

either ethnicity or gender.

Twenty reports were received from the National Park Service Cooperative Park 

Studies Unit (based out of the University of Idaho) relating to visitor and/or interpretive 

services. Out of these 20 reports, 11 were actual summary reports of visitor studies 

conducted. One was a survey of Managers in the Interpretive Services Division. The other 

eight documents were copies of completed visitor questionnaires. Out of the 11 summary 

reports of study results, only 5 included demographic profiles of visitors that included 

ethnicity as a variable of interest, and one asked “language spoken at home.” Neither gender 

nor social class (individual or family income) was reported in any of the documents. This 

information was not gathered at the time of these studies. Examples of other demographic 

variables and visitor profiles of interest in these NPS reports included: age, group size, 

family size, region/country of residence, previous visits to the park, visitor activities while in 

the park, and length of stay. Of the five reporting ethnicity as a variable, visitors identifying 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 5

as White, not of Hispanic origin, represented between 85% and 98% of the study population. 

Black respondents of the questionnaires represented between 0 and 17% (note: the 17% was 

visitation to the Booker T. Washington National Monument), Hispanics were reported 

between 1 and 12%, American Indian/Alaskan Native 2-6%, Asian and Pacific Islanders 

were reported between 1and 5%. A category of “other” minority groups was noted between 

4% and 10%, and between 1and 5% of each study “did not wish to answer.” The NPS 

reports have provided extremely valuable information about visitor and interpretive services 

in general, however, an analysis of the information obtained based on demographics would 

add value to a true comprehension of visitor attitudes and experiences. 

The five reports including demographic variables of visitors are included in the 

overall bibliography of this document. Individuals interested in these findings specific to 

NPS Units can refer to the NPS Social Science Research Review on race and ethnicity by 

Floyd (1999).

The bibliography in the appendix of this report attempts to organize what has become 

a considerable body of literature involving race, ethnicity, gender, and social class and their 

respective impacts on leisure participation. This resource can prove invaluable to park staff 

interested in gaining a deeper understanding of the influence of these variables on recreation 

involvement while designing programs for “under-represented” (or under served) 

populations. The bibliography will also serve students, researchers, and practitioners as the 

document will provide a starting point for identifying published research in a specific 

geographic area, specific land management unit, ethnic or racial group, or topic of interest 

(e.g., acculturation, perceived discrimination, cultural differences).

This report also includes results of case study research conducted on several park 

units across the country that describe outreach programs designed for diverse user groups. 

A case study method was chosen for its demonstrated flexibility and versatility and is 

described in the methodology section of this report. Our design embodied multiple cases and 

consisted of a detailed examination of “snapshot” studies (versus longitudinal). 

Gaps in the Literature

In attempts to provide a summary integrative analysis of the literature, and determine 

where the gaps exist, this aspect of the present study applied a qualitative method of coding 

all 55 articles (see annotated bibliography). Articles reviewed are representative of one 

classification (i.e., based on race/ethnicity, race and class, race and gender, or all three), and 

organized for exploration. We developed 18 primary domains based on both keywords from 

the studies as well as review of each article. Table 1 lists the domains, number of articles 

found relating to each classification, and total number of articles found in that particular 

domain. The top four domains presented in the literature are: barriers/constraints, 

participation patterns (and/or preferences), urban parks (and/or wildland-urban interface), 

and recreation/leisure behavior (e.g., outdoor-based). These areas make up more than 50% 

of the content area found in the literature, to date, being discussed.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 6

The most visible gaps in the outdoor recreation research literature as it pertains to the 

association of race/ethnicity, gender, and/or social class are within the areas of crowding, 

displacement, people with disabilities, the elderly, motivation, user conflicts and 

meaning/place attachment (Table 1). Collectively, these topics only consist of 10% of the 

content of studies in this report.

Table 1. Gaps in the Literature: Number of Articles per Domain 1

Race / Race and Race and Race, Class Total nbr

Ethnicity Class Gender & Gender of articles2

(n = 15) (n =17) (n = 3) (n = 20) (n = 55)

Domains (n = 18)

Acculturation 4 1 0 1 6

Adolescents/Youth 1 2 0 2 5

Assimilation 5 1 0 2 8

Attitudes 1 1 0 3 5

Barriers/Constraints 1 6 1 8 16

Crowding 1 0 0 0 1

Disability 0 0 0 1 1

Discrimination 2 2 0 3 7

 (perceived or real)

Displacement 1 0 0 0 1

Elderly 0 1 0 0 1

Meaning/Place 0 0 0 3 3

 Attachment

Motivation 2 0 0 0 2

Participation Patterns 4 3 1 7 15

 (and/or preferences)

Perceptions 0 2 0 2 4

Recreation/Leisure 6 2 1 2 11

 (outdoor) Behavior

Urban Parks and/or 3 5 1 6 15

 Wildland-Urban 

User Conflicts 2 0 0 0 2

Values 3 0 0 1 4

1

 Articles are cross-referenced and may be noted in multiple domains.

2 There are 55 articles in this analysis. This column indicates the number of articles that include the topic

 areas within each domain; more than one area per article may be represented.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 7

Methodology

This project is primarily exploratory and descriptive because of the considerable 

variety of education programs occurring within the NPS coast to coast. Exploratory studies 

are valuable for a variety of reasons including to help identify questions and improve 

measurement constructs that may be useful in subsequent studies in this subject area. 

The research strategy was three-fold: 1) to review the literature and compile an 

annotated bibliography, 2) develop interview questions, and 3) travel to three NPS regions to 

interview key personnel from three units per region. Personnel included Chiefs of 

Interpretation, Education Coordinators and Interpretive Specialists. Interviews were 

conducted during site visits to collect supplemental information, documentation and 

photographs from each Park Service unit for purposes of triangulation. Documentation 

included management strategies, interpretive division goals, visitor experience goals, 

educational program guides, fact sheets, newsletters, curriculum materials, and pre-visit 

guides. One of the most valuable documents procured for this study is “The Road Ahead: 

A Strategy to Achieve Excellence in Interpretation and Education in the National Park 

Service Northeast Region” (October 1997). This document highlights specific actions 

focusing on broadening interpretive efforts (e.g., untold stories), building future 

constituencies through curriculum-based education programs, developing partnerships, and 

taking advantage of new and emerging technologies.

NPS case study units

Due to limited resources, no attempt was made to select a representative sample of 

Park Service units. Those selected do represent a wide range of diversity within the NPS 

system. National Parks, National Recreation Areas, National Monuments, National Historic 

Sites, and National Seashores were part of the pilot study. Limited time and resources made 

this convenience sample both expeditious and cost effective. Cases were selected to 

maximize what can be learned in the period of time available for the study. The unit of 

analysis in this study included the nine individual park sites. Three sites were visited within 

each region for a total of nine sites:

Pacific West Region: Golden Gate National Recreation Area, Point Reyes National 

Seashore, John Muir National Historic Site.

Northeast Region: Boston National Historic Park, Cape Cod National Seashore, 

Boston African American National Historic Site.

Intermountain Region: Rocky Mountain National Park, Curecanti National 

Recreation Area, Petroglyph National Monument.

Field Procedures

The methodology to accomplish the goals and objectives set forth in this paper 

pertained to case study methodology and followed the recommendations of Yin (1994). Case 

study is an ideal methodology for this project because a holistic, in-depth investigation was 

both desired and needed.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 8

Two aspects of triangulation were utilized as a research strategy. That is, multiple 

sources of data were gathered, and second, two investigators examined the same 

phenomenon in different locations. Additionally, the issue of generalization was approached 

from a naturalistic perspective that is centered on a more intuitive, empirically grounded 

generalization. This is based on the favorable relationship between the investigator’s 

experiences and the various case studies themselves. According to Stake (1995), the data 

generated by the case studies would also resonate experientially with a broad cross section of 

readers, thereby facilitating a greater understanding of the phenomenon.

Each park service site was considered as a single case in order to include more than 

one unit of analysis. This multiple-case study approach therefore followed a replication logic. 

In particular, each individual site (i.e., case) consisted of a “whole” study in which facts were 

gathered from various sources and conclusions drawn on those facts. Furthermore, 

consideration was given to each of the three forms of validity. In order to ensure construct 

validity, the primary source of evidence was obtained from face-to-face interviews. The 

specification of each site as a unit of analysis provides the internal validity as the theories are 

developed and data collection and analysis test those theories. Although more difficult to 

attain, Yin (1994) provided the assertion that external validity could be achieved from 

theoretical relationships, and from these generalizations could be made. And, it is the 

development of formal case study protocol that provided the reliability for this project. 

Case Study/Interview Questions

Information was gathered through formal interviews and official documentation. 

Structured, open-ended interviews allowed each NPS staff person in attendance to emphasize 

the outreach efforts, education programs in existence, future plans, as well as issues and 

challenges faced by their respective units. Interviews were tape-recorded to assist in content 

analysis. Preliminary communication by phone was essential to creating a rapport and 

confidence regarding the goals and objectives of this project. These informal conversations 

occurred several weeks prior to the formal on-site interviews. They were prearranged as 

opportunities allowed. 

The nature of the research questions being primarily framed as “who, what, why, and

how” made this study design exploratory-explanatory in its strategy. The following questions 

were asked during the structured interviews:

ÿ Who are the primary visitors to your site?

ÿ Are there any patterns or trends that have emerged regarding characteristics of a 

“typical visitor?”

ÿ Who are the people that might be considered “under-represented” as far as visitors to 

this site?

ÿ What methods of visitor outreach are organized at your site? (general)

ÿ What special or unique outreach efforts take place to attract under-served populations 

and potential users to your site?

ÿ Do you have any education materials available that can support documentation being 

sought for this project? Are they inclusive based on the diversity goals of DOI?

ÿ What are the greatest challenges in reaching out to diverse user groups?
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 9

ÿ What resources are needed to help improve or enhance your education programs and 

outreach efforts?

ÿ How are the education and outreach programs financed?

ÿ Do you feel your education and outreach efforts/initiatives are unique to other NPS 

units (or other sites similar to yours, such as other historic sites, other national 

seashores)? If so, how?

ÿ What collaboration/connections do you/your site have with community-based 

partners?

Profiles of Nine NPS Units

Each National Park Service unit represents a unique ecological, cultural, historical, 

and sociological situation. Each has varied management approaches to achieve selected goals 

of the NPS diversity initiatives; in particular discourse relating to this project focused on 

relationship of outreach efforts to a broad constituency including meeting the needs of underrepresented populations. In the discussion that follows, a brief sketch of each unit is provided 

followed by a detailed profile highlighting both the education/outreach efforts and challenges 

for each area. Information provided in each “brief sketch” was derived from the park 

brochures, map and guides, and/or the respective web pages. 

NORTHEAST REGION (Massachusetts)

Boston National Historical Park (BOST, est. 1974)

This park was established to ensure the continuity of efforts –

begun in the 1870s – to preserve important aspects of America’s

“colorful and rebellious” past. This park has proved vital in 

helping to link, interpret, and preserve nationally prominent 

historic places throughout Boston. BOST is a coalition of sites

ranging from steeple churches, battlegrounds, Revolutionaryperiod graveyards, and grand meeting halls, to quaint colonial 

homes, shops and America’s oldest commissioned warship 

(U.S.S Constitution) located in the historic Charlestown Navy 

Yard. Both self-guided and ranger-guided programs are 

available. Given the nature of Boston as a “walking city,” the 

best way to explore the park is by travelling on foot through all 

or part of the 2.5-mile Freedom Trail, which links all 16 of 

the BOST sites.

Boston African American National Historic Site (BOAF, est. 1980)

Located on Beacon Hill, this newer park unit consists of 14 sites all along the Black Heritage 

Trail. This trail (counterpart to the “Freedom Trail”) began during the 1960s Civil Rights 

era and consists of a 1.6-mile self- or ranger-guided walk. Similar to the Boston National 

Historical Park this unit, encompassing the Black Heritage Trail, includes many structures 

from the 1800s still in existence. The site’s keystone structure is the 1806 African Meeting 

House, the oldest black church still standing in America, constructed almost entirely with 

black labor. Other distinctions of this unit include the spectacular public memorial to Robert 

Gould Shaw and the 54th Massachusetts Regiment (first all-black volunteer Civil War 

“Visitor experience is what 

visitors take from a park. It is 

everything that visitors do, 

sense, feel, think, and learn. 

Interpretive planning describes 

desired experiences and 

recommends ways to facilitate 

those experiences.”

~ From the BOST “Visitor

Experience Goals

Statements.”
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 10

regiment), tales of runaway slaves, the Underground Railroad, Abiel Smith School (grammar 

school to educate black children of Boston) and stories around fights to desegregate Boston’s 

schools, to name a few. The National Park Service and the Museum of Afro American 

History operate the Black Heritage Trail under a cooperative agreement.

Cape Cod National Seashore (CACO, est. 1961)

Full of ambience and charm, the Cape’s human history is as rich as its natural history. The 

CACO was established by the National Park Service to help protect the unique qualities of 

this environment. Covering a 40-mile stretch between Chatham and Provincetown, examples 

of what embody the National Seashore are historic buildings that reflect the residents’ 

longtime association with the sea, the Old Harbor Lifesaving Station, miles of protected sand 

dunes, five lighthouses, and the Atwood-Higgins House (circa 1730). The CACO consists of

11 self-guiding nature trails and wayside exhibits open year round, and ranger-guided walks, 

talks and evening programs occur daily in summer and less often in spring and fall. 

INTERMOUNTAIN REGION (CO and NM)

Curecanti National Recreation Area (CURE, est. 1965)

Considered a recreation mecca, Curecanti’s immaculate landscape lies adjacent to Black 

Canyon of the Gunnison National Monument. A unique characteristic of CURE is manifest 

in its three major lakes; surrounded by mesas capped with cliffs and rocky spires, this area 

tells stories of violent volcanic eruptions some 30 million years ago. The Ute Indians were 

the area’s primary early inhabitants, and fur traders and miners later blazed through the land. 

Unique to the history is also represented by the Pacific Railroad transporting ore, coal, cattle 

and other goods from 1882 to 1949. Today, CURE is composed of miles of hiking and crosscountry ski trails, numerous designated picnicking and camping areas, and opportunities for 

fishing, horseback riding and snow mobiling in winter. As water sports are a favorite activity 

during summer months, two marinas provide additional visitor services including boat rentals 

and guided boat tours. While the focus of this study includes CURE, it is important to note 

that the Chief of Interpretation oversees all education and outreach efforts for Black Canyon 

of the Gunnison as well. 

Petroglyph National Monument (PETR, est. 1990)

Managed by the U.S. Department of Interior, NPS in cooperation with the City of 

Albuquerque, State of New Mexico, this National Monument is one of the newer 

establishments within the System. Established in 1990, the park protects 17,000 petroglyphs 

that Native Americans pecked into volcanic boulders on what is now the west side of the city

of Albuquerque. 

This 17-mile long, nearly 1800-acre monument lies squarely in the path of the city’s 

westward sprawl; local joggers and dog walkers now join the annual 100,000 visitors. In 

particular, Rinconada Canyon is rich with petroglyphs. These stone snap shots from the past, 

together with the spectacular vistas, geological features that include the cones of five extinct 

volcanoes, and the extraordinary wildlife habitat all make Rinconada one of the park’s 

precious gems. Recommended activities include self-guiding trails through petroglyph areas, 

hiking and picnicking in designated areas. Additionally, special ranger-led hikes are available 

at various times throughout the year. The threatened Ferruginous hawk abounds, two rare 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 11

cactus species are imperiled, mesa top views and volcanoes are within easy access, and 

archeological sites maintain important cultural significance. The Heritage Education Program 

is a major component of the interpretation and visitor experience.

Rocky Mountain National Park (ROMO, est. 1915)

Established as the nation’s 10th national park, this incredible playground is recognized as the 

Heart of the Rockies. Recreational opportunities such as driving for pleasure, horseback 

riding, hiking, backpacking, camping, fishing, climbing and numerous winter activities bring 

millions of people to the park year round. Regarding the natural landscape, effort to protect 

the fragile life forms is unprecedented. From the montane ecosystem in the park’s lower 

levels to the high alpine tundra ecosystem, there are marked differences in wildlife and 

vegetation. The snow-mantled peaks of ROMO rise above lush green valleys, twisting rivers, 

and glistening lakes. And, 1/3 of the park is above tree line, where tundra predominates. 

From the many valleys to the incredible mountain tops, ROMO encompasses many worlds 

waiting to be explored. 

PACIFIC WEST REGION

John Muir National Historic Site (JOMU, est. 1964)

This unique site preserves the 17-room mansion where the naturalist John Muir lived from 

1890 to his death in 1914. This 325-acre stretch of oak woodland and grassland was 

historically owned by the Muir family. Throughout his life, Muir accomplished many tasks. 

He battled to prevent Yosemite National Park’s Hetch 

Hetchy Valley from being dammed, served as the first 

president and one of the founders of the Sierra Club, 

played a role in the creation of several national parks, and 

wrote many articles and books expounding on the virtues 

of conservation and the natural world. 

The house can be seen on their daily-guided tour; a self-guided tour is also an option for 

visitors. There are exhibits in various locations throughout the estate, walking trails abound, 

bird and wildflower observation is accessible, and a variety of resources are available at the 

bookstore. A few special events are held throughout the year including John Muir’s Birthday 

Celebration, Las Posadas, and a Victorian Christmas. Other special programs include bird 

and wild flower walks, monthly Victorian piano programs and a junior ranger program. 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area (GOGA, est. 1972)

Through legislative efforts, GOGA was part of a national movement in the 70s to bring the 

national park experience to urban residents. Stretching along 28 miles of coastline, this 

74,000-acre designation preserves the natural, cultural, and historic resources of the San 

Francisco Bay area. This site is known as the “largest and most heavily visited urban national 

park in the world.” World-famous landmarks such as Alcatraz Island, Muir Woods, Marin 

Headlands, and the Presidio (to name a few) are enjoyed by the 17 million annual visitors. 

Examples of cultural and historic resources include: lighthouses, military forts, gun batteries, 

a former maximum security prison (Alcatraz Island), Native American culture, Spanish 

“All life is one, Muir believed. 

Nature does not exist solely 

to be exploited economically. 

It exists in its own right and, 

if protected, can benefit us in 

a myriad of ways.”

~ Park brochure
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 12

settlement, and maritime history. Natural resources include: native plant communities 

comprised of more than 1,200 species, abundance of wildlife such as bobcats, birds of prey, 

sea lions, and great white sharks, and one of the nation’s largest coastal preserves. 

Recreational resources also vary and include world-class sail boarding, hiking, backpacking, 

camping, and breathtaking views for relaxation and photo opportunities. 

Point Reyes National Seashore (PORE, est. 1962)

As indicated on the map and guide, “the story of Point Reyes is a study in motion – slow, 

continental transformations and sudden, violent jolts that shake the Earth; the rhythmic play 

of sea-spray along the coast; wings of birds flashing in flight; drifting shrouds of mist and 

fog; browsing deer who occasionally follow your movements with soft eyes; migrating 

whales offshore; and the ebb and flow of Pacific tides.” The geology and biology of the area 

has scientists mystified, the rich cultural history has anthropologist’s eager, and the 

sensational opportunities bring recreationists back for more. Point Reyes is also the story of 

the Miwok Indians, English and Spanish explorers, the Mexican “Lords of Point Reyes” and 

many generations of dairy farmers. With an annual visitation of 2.6 million people, visitors 

take advantage of hiking, camping, wildlife viewing, mountain biking, horseback riding, 

picnicking, exploring the lighthouse, and taking leisurely drives along the beach, to name a 

few of the many activities available at various times throughout the year. Like the others, 

special events are also a well-known and appreciated component of this site (e.g., Native 

American Festivals and Celebrations, Sandcastle Contest). 

Findings

The NPS Division of Interpretation’s goals are grounded in solid strategic planning 

and efforts to achieve numerous action items. Subsequently, each region has developed their 

own goals and strategies to meet the national standards of education and outreach. Long 

range plans have been devised throughout the nation; these are intended to encompass 

interpretive and educational programs that are inclusive and present diverse perspectives and 

multiple points of view where appropriate and related to park themes.

This report provides details and facts obtained from 3 NPS units in each of the three 

regions aforementioned for a total of nine different sites. While this information cannot be 

generalized across the NPS, this study has proven to be extremely valuable for determining 

regional/statewide activity relating to existing outreach efforts to under-served populations. 

Each interview generated fifteen or more pages of transcripts. The initial stages of analysis 

included breaking down, comparing, and conceptualizing statements from each interview 

transcript. This process of coding resulted in five key categories: 1) methods, 2) special or 

unique occurrences (e.g., distinctive efforts), 3) partnerships to assist with program 

development, 4) challenges faced by specific sites, and 5) resources needed to build or 

enhance opportunities. Results are broken out by region; a rubric of the results containing 

each of these five factors was constructed for each region (Figures 1-3). While all 

information obtained was extremely valuable, each rubric depicts highlights extracted from 

the data – procured from each of the 9 case study areas – as most central and dynamic to the 

objectives of this study. (Note: Due to both time constraints and financial limitations, an 

evaluative component is not included in this project.) 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 13

Region 1 (Northeast): Boston National Historical Park, Boston African American Historic 

Site, Cape Cod National Seashore

The Northeast Region has developed a strategy to achieve excellence in interpretation 

and education known as “The Road Ahead.” This 18-page document details the purpose and 

mission, tenets of effective interpretation, goals and action items and task directives as set 

forth by the Northeast Region Leadership Council. (see Table 1 for highlights).

Common ingredients among entire state:

• Education/Interpretive Initiatives:

‡ Exploring the Real Thing (1999): “A Guide to Educational Programs at 

National Park Sites in Massachusetts.” This booklet was developed with input 

and funding from National Parks in MA, and with funding from Eastern 

National, a cooperating association that supports park interpretive and 

educational programming through revenue generated from sales of 

publications and other merchandise related to park themes. This guide 

provides teachers with information on curriculum-based programs and 

materials offered by National Parks in Massachusetts. Additional 

recommended resources are included.

‡ Parks as Classrooms (1992): Developed and supported by the National Park 

Foundation, this program is a “nation-wide initiative that strives to help 

teachers make history, science, art, math, and culture come to life through 

structured learning experiences that bring students to parks and park resources 

into the classrooms” (Exploring the Real Thing, 1999).

‡ People and Places (1984): The number one program reaching and serving 

under-represented populations (i.e., elementary and middle school classes) 

throughout the city of Boston. Generously funded by the John Hancock 

Company, this program is a cooperative venture of the Freedom Trail 

Foundation, the Boston Public Schools and ten historic sites in the Boston 

area.

• Staff/Recruiting: Northeast Region -- Development of pool of ethnically diverse 

candidates to be shared with all units in the region for potential selection of 

applicants.

• All sites in the study link with school teachers (meetings, workshops, 

presentations, and in-class sessions).

• Educated visitors most familiar with the sites and resources take greater 

“ownership” of areas visited. 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 14

Figure 1. Highlights of Results for Region 1

Boston National Boston African American Cape Cod 

 Categories Historical Park National Historic Site National Seashore 

Outreach Methods

• Festivals (e.g., Harbor Fest, Sail Boston)

• Teacher contact and workshops

• Special mailings

• Viewpoint: “Tread lightly but tread” (e.g., engage the 

community, in the name of preservation)

• Major special events: Provide exposure and develop 

comfort

• Joint programs, public programs, forums, 

symposiums, community projects, special 

events

• Involvement of Boston City school teachers 

(e.g., field trips increased to their site)

• Visits/presentations w/ schools (city/suburbs)

• Boston Youth Fund (summer youth 

employment; cooperative venture with City of 

Boston, Mayor’s office)

• Mailings: foreign countries-specific inquiries

• Environmental Educ coordinator: 

- Visits/educ activities & presentations 

for schools in immediate 6 town area 

 (employed school year, not 

 summer)

- Some, but fewer, outer Cape schools 

for educ/interp. activities

- Teacher workshops, in-class and field 

sessions 

• EDLINK Community: Bell Atlantic

 grant – high school interns/exposure

Special or unique

outreach efforts or 

programs

• “People and Places”

• “Exploring the Real Thing”

• “Making the Monument”

• “Rebellion to Revolution”

• Special anniversary events

• Untold Stories: 

- Segregation on Destroyer 

- African Americans fighting: Bunker Hill

- Role of women in war

• External grants/research oral history interviews; 

Korean War era vets on Captain Cassin Young Ship

• Biographies of 5 African Americans who fought at 

Bunker Hill (info also used for curriculum & 

exhibits)

• Redesigning existing exhibits; attempts to make 

more inclusive

• Pru-Ranger Program (youth employment): Seasonal 

recruitment of diverse high school students

• Recruiting efforts for diverse seasonal staff

• “Conversations for the Millennium”

• Special events (e.g., Abolitionist March/Rally)

• Black History Month calendar and events

• Underground Railroad Initiative

• “Resisting for Justice”

• “In Hope and Glory”

• Untold Stories: “Unique because it’s real” 

-Rangers must discuss everything from race & 

robbery to murder, hatred, bigotry & sexism.

- “Can’t have the untold story until you have 

the entire story”

- Multi-layered perspective

• Use of metaphors in interpretive programs 

are effective in “telling the story”

• Harwich: not adjacent to CACO; 

intentionally included in visits to 

schools -- the “most ethnically diverse 

town on the Cape”

• Greater attempts to link with New

Bedford schools (re: lge Portuguese 

population) and Gay Head Tribe, 

Native population: Martha’s Vineyard

• “NEED” Programs (National 

Environmental Education and 

Development; est. 1970):

- Collaboration w/ 3 schools for 5th

graders; multi-day experience: Truro

- Old Coast Guard bldg. used by 

community groups; intentional 

priority given to special needs or 

inner-city groups (self-serve facility)

• Opportunities provided to Assoc. for 

Retarded Adults; Boston School for the 

Deaf (former visitors); Perkins School 

for the Blind; Helen Keller Institute

Partnerships

• Friends Group: Eastern National

• Freedom Trail Foundation

• Constitution Museum

• Connections with local colleges & universities (e.g., 

recruiting interns and seasonal staff)

• Prudential Center – “Pru-Ranger Program”

• Museum of African American History

• Public schools and universities (e.g., Suffolk 

University)

• Boston Youth Fund (City of Boston, Mayor’s 

Office, summer program)

• National Park Foundation

• School districts primarily in 6 town 

radius (Provincetown, Truro, Wellfleet, 

Eastham, Orleans, Chatham)

• Bell Atlantic (“EDLINK commun”)

• Friends of CC Nat’l Seashore
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 15

Figure 1 (cont’d). Highlights of Results for Region 1

Boston National Boston African American Cape Cod 

 Categories Historical Park National Historic Site National Seashore

Challenges

• Transportation

• Need to build database (e.g., not regular or consistent)

• Lack of research in developing the Untold Stories

• Develop “special exhibits” versus building into every day 

operations? (e.g., African American history).

• Diversification of permanent staff

• History/impact of segregation & busing: stigma remains

• Shame of federal gov’t taking away land from locals

• Need to enhance diversity knowledge & multicultural 

relations among staff

• Experiences of Black interpreters vs. White

• Visitor surveys: info gathered on demographics; not 

analyzed cross-race, gender, etc.; NPS “tends not to be 

intrusive, site’s hands are tied”.

• Training aspects of rangers: Need to be 

conscientious of “what is said and how it is 

said”.

• Site is relatively small compared to many 

other NPS sites (re: not as well known until 

last few years)

• Justification for projects to obtain budget 

requested (e.g., high profile parks get priority)

• Education Specialist on loan – seeking 

matching grant to maintain position

• Attempts to break the mold of tradition

• Generate new information to visitors; need to 

generate new ways of thinking

• White rangers occasionally intimidated by 

Black visitors (e.g., different knowledge, use 

of language, prompt dialogue)

• Family involvement in programs (e.g., 

“survival theory” – re: may believe programs 

are important yet in scheme of life’s priorities 

may really be unimportant).

• 1,000 buses/yr: diverse population

• Spring & Fall school buses; drop in; 

don’t often make reservations for 

arrival; hard to schedule educ/interp. 

progr -little to no contact w/ rangers

• Previous work with Boston school 

district (e.g., “Boston is so big/so 

complex, links made may disappear 

in couple of years)

• Unable to reach to ethnically diverse 

general population – schools easier

• African Americans visit Martha’s 

Vineyard; less visitation to CACO 

• Lack of written records and 

documentation from early Native 

inhabitants (“difficult to develop 

very intense, elaborate exhibits”)

• Staff tend to be reactive; “burn out” 

factor can be strong; increased 

visitor demand takes away from 

other efforts

• Local politics prevails in decisions

Resources

needed

• Record social history of Navy Yard

• Additional staff-focus on cultivating community relations

• More sophisticated research (general)

• Non-users: perception of park, area, sites? (seeking 

resources/research to collect data)

• Ability to do more outreach beyond Charlestown

• Training from outside NPS (e.g., intercultural training; 

diversity training) 

• Marketing strategist (external to NPS) to 

evaluate the site as to what they think would 

be the best alternatives. This, coupled with a 

needs assessment, would help BOAF to give 

their programs at the site a new direction.

• “Outer layer of assistance” to 

engage in outreach

• Diversification of employees (“with 

more diverse staff we may be more 

sensitive to outreach to under-served 

populations”)

• More ethnographic studies

Miscellaneous

 information 

provided

• Under-served: local population

• Most education/outreach attention: School groups

• Local community feels sense of ownership to site (e.g., 

Bunker Hill Monument & U.S.S. Constitution).

• Valuable resource for schools and universities 

conducting research on the Black 

experience/community. 

• More demanding public (e.g., want to hear the 

truth)

• Unique stories about African American 

History need to be told

• Increased retired population; active 

65+ age cohort in area

• Large gay/lesbian population 

expanding & participating in more 

educ/interp activities

• North Shore Air Force Base: 

significant minority population; no 

longer in existence on the Cape.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 16

Region 1: Summary Points

Many common efforts and similar challenges across all three sites relating to

education and outreach were discussed. Examples of common themes for special or unique 

efforts pertaining to outreach at individual sites include: 1) special events, 2) festivals, 3) 

anniversary celebrations, 4) utilizing services of colleges and universities for intern positions, 

5) friends groups and cooperating associations assisting with various aspects of operating 

visitor centers and certain components of interpretation of the park (outreach may or may not 

be an element), and 6) youth employment programs and opportunities, 7) substantial 

international visitor population interested in learning about “everything there is to know 

about an area or group of people in one day.” 

Challenges, on the other hand, include: 1) desire to diversify permanent staff (e.g., 

seasonal staff from different ethnic backgrounds easier to recruit), 2) additional staff needed 

to help meet demand of providing quality visitor services, 3) building relationships with local 

community groups and colleges/universities, 4) systematic evaluation of education and 

outreach efforts, and 5) providing environment of “comfort” and creating welcoming space 

to visitors from diverse backgrounds.

There were also many interesting components worth noting that surfaced site by site. 

The school system in Massachusetts cut the budget for transportation costs thereby limiting 

field trips for teachers. BOST built transportation into their budget in order to prohibit this 

aspect of programming for youth from terminating. BOST and BOAF operate collaborative 

programs with the Freedom Trail Partners such as “Rebellion to Revolution” and “Resisting 

for Justice.” BOST has made a conscious decision that it’s very important to not just come up 

with new things, but to change fundamentally the things they’ve been doing all along. 

Additionally, an ethnographic study was completed in the Northeast Region pertaining to 

African Americans and National Parks in New England. Apparently one of the 

recommendations that came out of that study suggested doing a “special exhibit” of the 

information generated from the results. An argument by staff at BOST is that “if you set up a 

‘special exhibit’ you’ll only get certain audiences who go to a special exhibit. This isn’t 

integrated into your every day, ordinary program where everybody sees it as part of their own 

history.” This type of discussion must continue among the employees in order to ascertain 

the best way to highlight both aspects of NPS history that may have been hidden in the past 

as well as educate both park staff and the general public about valuable sociological 

experiences from certain cultural groups. 

Efforts to engage local communities, in the name of preservation, are a key 

component. At the BOST, apparently one primary challenge relates to agreeing and 

determining how best to accomplish this task. Relating to the history of slavery, segregation 

and busing, a stigma still lingers around the Charlestown area. This makes it difficult for 

many local residents of the Boston area to have an interest in visiting; in particular, 

segregation in the 70s had an enormous impact on the community. It was noted that children 

today are less impacted than adults and that is why the school-based education components 

are equally important. CACO, on the other hand, is viewed by locals as “their city or county 

park system.” The irony is that CACO must portray themselves as a NP unit that has 

distinctly different goals. As a result, tension and conflict emerges around certain types of 

activity use and the regulations designed to protect and preserve the area (e.g., dunes). 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 17

Consequently, the local politics is very active, and park employees are constantly engaged in 

decision-making in conjunction with local constituents (e.g., outreach to outer Cape schools 

or remain focused on adjacent six towns?). 

Visitor surveys have a demographics section yet all responses are accumulated as an 

aggregate and no analyses are completed across variables of race, gender, socioeconomic 

status, etc. NPS is the only government agency that is “not allowed to be intrusive.” 

Authorization must become a standard if critical information is to be obtained from visitors 

in the spirit of enhancing and improving education/interpretive programs, as well as 

augmenting decision-making around policies and procedures at a management level.

At the BOAF site, African Americans are the primary visitor. They do not engage in 

any special outreach efforts to other user groups however they continuously disseminate 

information to a variety of interested individuals upon request and on specific inquiries. Their 

calendar of events and special activities schedule “sells itself.” The youth programs at this 

site are extraordinary. For instance, organized in cooperation with the City of Boston 

Mayor’s office, BOAF is one of over 200 organizations and agencies to participate in the 

“Boston Youth Fund.” The NPS provides transportation, supplies, materials, etc. and the city 

pays the youth their salaries. One such program for high school age students is called “In 

Hope and Glory” where they receive training in 1st person historical interpretation and 

reenact the 54th Massachusetts Regiment. They are provided with uniforms/costumes, and 

engage in research about the people they portray (i.e., character development on members of 

the 54th). Based on additional city funding, beginning the spring of 2000, BOAF now 

operates an after school program year round with eight students from two different local high 

schools. Their students are also given the opportunity to visit, work, and play in such parks as 

Acadia NP in Maine and the Marsh Billings-Rockefeller National Historic site in VT. 

Exposure and opportunity are key reasons why these students want to gain more experience 

with and knowledge of the NPS. An important aspect of discussion continues to be reflected 

in whether people’s perceptions of our natural, historical and cultural resources relates to, or 

depends on, class and socioeconomic status, or is how we’ve been taught, what we’re 

exposed and oriented to, shape our attitudes towards parks? Or is this phenomenon a 

combination of both?

At CACO, a group of people from a Hispanic subculture from the Bedford and Fall 

River areas - coined as “hunter-gatherers” are frequently observed hunting in the area and/or 

picking mushrooms. Many of these individuals have hunting dogs and typically hunt rabbits. 

Comments related to the fact that “they look like a pretty diverse group and are noticeably 

different” and do not check out the visitor centers or participate in interpretive programs. 

“They are here to gather some of the resources.” It was clear that rangers have not 

necessarily engaged in communication with these groups to determine their interests and 

potential involvement with education or interpretive programs at CACO. 

Produced by a grant from the National Park Foundation, CACO has developed the 

“Guide’s Guide to Cape Cod National Seashore.” This national model is a compilation of 

educational materials and fact sheets for all ages of visitors who arrive to this site by bus. 

And, this is a general resource available for people from any and all backgrounds to enjoy 

and learn about CACO. Due to the popularity and uniqueness of Cape Cod, a clear message 

was sent by staff that people are busy, there is a maintenance backlog, the mentality of staff 

from June to Labor day is they are already “maxed out,” road surfaces and parking lot 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 18

infrastructure are degraded in certain places, and “unless directive comes down pretty 

strongly from above, [we] don’t think the park is going to be all that inclined to try to draw 

any more visitation.” If the park employees were to investigate, “in a higher-minded way” to 

engage in other types of outreach than what is currently being done, the agreement seems to 

point to this occurring during the shoulder season. Consequently, the Environmental 

Education Coordinator is on furlough in the summer due to inability of the budget to support 

her tasks year-round. There is also an apparent divergence of attitudes among park staff and 

management relating to where education, interpretation and outreach priorities should be 

placed (e.g., effect of local politics). 

Whereas the NPS has made strides in attempts to “diversify the work force” overall, 

CACO has admitted to struggling. The problem is not one of hiring, per se, rather of 

recruiting. “With a more diverse staff, we may be more sensitive to trying to reach underserved populations.” There was concurrence that recruiting people from diverse ethnic 

backgrounds to work on the Cape and/or with the park has not been approached right by 

CACO. While it was not mentioned as an element of interest or resource lacking, evidence 

points to the need for CACO employees to be engaged in on-going diversity and crosscultural training.

Region 2 (Intermountain): Curecanti National Recreation Area, Rocky Mountain National 

Park, and Petroglyph National Monument

While this research did not reveal a collective strategy regarding education and 

interpretation throughout the region, it is evident that outreach to diverse communities is a 

high priority at these sites. Each of the sites has directed considerable effort toward 

classroom/school groups including development of teacher’s guides and curricula 

highlighting unique aspects and opportunities at each site.

Common ingredients among this region include:

• Education/Interpretive Initiatives:

→ Various programs designed for at-risk populations (i.e., stewardship programs, 

job training, and intervention programs) with under-served populations.

→ Working extensively with local school districts on site and in the classroom.

→ Multilingual communication efforts.

• Partnerships

→ Cooperation with a variety of state and federal agencies.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 19

Figure 2. Highlights of Results for Region 2

Curecanti National Rocky Mountain Petroglyph National 

 Categories Recreation Area National Park Monument

Outreach methods

• Two part: In-park school groups and programs in the 

schools

• Approx. 85% of outreach programs occur at schools

• Serve pre-school up to elder hostel (“all ages”)

- extensive work with grades K-12

• Activities developed to enhance school/district 

curriculum; tie in w/ math, science, geography and 

history standards; approx 10 interns per year help 

with efforts

• Internet: 3-times the visitation views website than 

visits the park; 40% of hits are in education pages

• In park groups; ranger sessions in schools

• Community-based organizations from Denver 

assigned to each permanent ranger; provision 

of minimum of two programs per group per yr 

(aspect of the Corps of Discovery)

• Week-long summer camp; collaborative 

effort; city kids – wide exposure of natural 

resources 

• “Bienvenidos” – general communication with 

Spanish speaking visitors to talk about the 

park, experiences, & program opportunities

• Organized school programs

• High school stewardship program

• Curriculum based education program

• Cultural awareness teachers guide

• 28 cultural demonstration projects

• Native Am. Story tellers in park

• Hispanic weavers, NA potters

• Virtual reality trail

• Traveling exhibits that reflect cultural 

and natural resources

Special or unique

outreach efforts or 

programs

• Two Spanish-bilingual interpreters on staff

• Provide programs for alternative high school in area

(Gunnison Valley School, Gunnison, CO)

• “Blue Mesa and Beyond” – seminar series (free). 

Two parts: 1) evening preparation talk for trip or 

activity occurs in Gunnison at local facility in town; 

2) participants drive out to site the next day to 

participate in program/activity

• Rangers led sessions in classes at schools in Spanish

• Certain sections on website are in 3 languages 

(Japanese, Spanish, French)

• Vision: have several paragraphs on website 

included in each major language around the globe

• Presentation about programs and curriculum at 

graduate level seminars (e.g., Utah State)

• 1993: Science based education passed in the CO 

legislature; “Connect” grant from NSF ($10 million 

to public schools), this area had 1 representative 

from Western State College, 1 from school district 

in local area, and 1 from local community. 

• Outreach in the schools and various diverse 

communities since 1992

• Junior ranger info packet and signage in 

Spanish

• “W.I.N.-W.I.N.” (Wonders in Nature, 

Wonders in Neighborhoods) – Approx. 30 

schools, 25 field sites; collaborative effort

• “Corps of Discovery” – Program offerings 

and maintenance of relationships with 

various ethnic communities in Denver 

• “Old Stories, New Voices” – Collaborative 

effort; atypical summer camp for ethnically 

diverse students; NPS instructors/counselors;

• “Seeking the Summit” – Grades 1-6; high 

population of students from homes where no 

parents have previously attended college.

• Women’s Shelters

• Youth Naturally: Jr. High, at-risk, inner-city

• Youth in Natural Resources: H.S., at-risk, 

inner-city, career development component.

• Community liaison position

• Training Pueblo on their site

• Publication on Atrisco land grant

• Allow Native American religious 

practices within the monument

• Native American symposium

• Consultation with diverse groups during

park planning efforts

• Community outreach and gang 

intervention specialist hired through NP 

Foundation

• Ethnographic study (book on land 

grants)

• GPRA goals associated with 

community outreach

• “That place people talk about” cultural 

landscape report

• allowing Hopi, Zuni, and Pueblo people 

to tell their own story

Partnerships

• School districts

• Cooperative interagency group efforts (e.g., BLM, 

Dept of Wildlife, USFS) – multi-agency approach to 

education programs in the schools.

• Rocky Mountain Nature Associates

• Rocky Mountain Associates (Friends Group)

• Nat’l Park Foundation: Parks as Classrooms; 

Exxon Grant (evaluation of programs)

• Dept. of Natural Res; Dept of Wildlife

• Various School Distr; CO Historical Society.

• Rio Grande Foundation (ethnographic 

study)

• Various Native American and Hispanic 

community groups

• Various resource management agencies

• Community leaders
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 20

Figure 2 (cont’d). Highlights of Results for Region 2

Curecanti National Rocky Mountain Petroglyph National 

 Categories Recreation Area National Park Monument

Challenges

• Transportation issues; biggest complaints from schools

• Unless multi-day trip is part of minority group program in 

visiting the site from outside the area, difficult to reach 

ethnically diverse populations beyond current locale

• No longer provide as many programs for special needs 

visitors and participants from organized groups 

(difficulties of logistics, mobilizing groups, and lack of

comprehension of participants)

• Limitation: Geography; “turf wars” with other NPS sites 

in the region to conduct outreach to under-represented 

user groups

• Proximity to Four-Corners; Navaho and Hopi tribal lands 

abound; difficult to engage this population (e.g., recruit 

for employment or visitors/program participation)

• Ute land in proximity; Indians have an influence in area; 

staff interaction with Ute natives is minimal.

• Evaluation: Necessary, expensive, time 

consuming

• Tracking of student involvement in outreach 

programs not as strong as education programs

• Getting into the schools during off season 

happens yet is difficult; re: lack of staff

• Environmental education and outreach 

programs not funded adequately

• “Old Stories, New Voices” long-term progress 

and survival is challenged by decrease in 

funding to support.

• Transportation to certain groups unable to 

provide their own

• Certain groups of potential participants don’t 

have necessary equipment or gear.

• Primary visitors from 62 countries

• Petroglyphs not a destination park

• Lack of diverse interest in visitor 

centers

• Blacks, Hispanics under-represented

• Lack of staff diversity (although this 

site is better than most)

• Must rework outreach publication to 

be more inclusive

• Lack of adequate resources

• Travelling exhibits need to be 

improved

• Loss of gang intervention specialist

Resources

needed

• Ways to resolve transportation issues

• Even greater provision of technology (e.g., vision of 

building a virtual classroom to influence more schools or 

outreach groups through emerging technologies than 

rangers being there in the schools).

• Continuation of external objective evaluation 

(to be on-going) of education programs.

• Evaluation of outreach programs

• Staff to assist with program leadership during 

academic school year and w/ outreach efforts

• Partnership with outdoor retailer (equip/gear)

• Additional staff for special 

programs (stewardship, etc)

• Funding for school transportation

• Ability to do more outreach beyond 

local community.

Miscellaneous

 information 

provided

• Demographics of Gunnison are changing; increase in 

Latino and Black population settling in area

• Staff presentations at national conferences relating to 

curriculum-based activities developed at their site

• Approximately 90% of groups are repeat clients

• Trends: families with R.V.s; more front range visitors to 

the western slope

• Web site reaches large Deaf population 

• Education programs: designed to support 

school curriculum & based on state standards

• Longitudinal study in progress (5 years): 

“Seeking the Summit” – Includes pre- & posttesting for grades 1-6. Formal evaluation & 

assessment. Contract w/ Poudre Schools and 

the Research & Development Center for the 

Advancement of Student Learning (CSU).

• Cultural resource specialist on staff

• Teacher guide geared toward telling 

the “untold story” regarding Buffalo 

Soldiers, Native Americans, etc.

• Focus has been with local 

community to the exclusion of 

national audience

• Land is not owned by NPS
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 21

Region 2: Summary Points

Two out of three sites visited in this region are located in Colorado. The third, 

Petroglyph National Monument, is located adjacent to Albuquerque, New Mexico. The 

Intermountain Region is a large tourist destination. These sites receive a significant share of 

national visitors, fewer international visitors (approx 2-5%); and, the largest proportions of 

visitors are from in state (approximately 40-50%) as well as from neighboring states. 

Extraordinary efforts are made in this region to reach under-served populations. 

CACO for instance, has two bi-lingual (Spanish/English) interpreters on staff to assist with 

visitors on site as well as providing education sessions to the local schools in Spanish. 

ROMO has bilingual interpretive rangers who are usually available upon request. 

A considerable proportion of general recreation visitors to CACO are Latino/Hispanic. 

They primarily engage in shore fishing and boating, and have very little contact with rangers. 

Apparently they rarely purchase permits and do not stay in the campgrounds. This population 

is considered to be “peripheral users” by park staff. Two primary components within CACO 

education programs are noteworthy; that is, their activity guide to support local school 

curriculum and extensive web site development. They operate with a broad vision of outreach 

by sharing their activities and lesson plans with city school districts across the country on the 

web. The Internet will be a major catalyst for this resource sharing. ROMO receives frequent 

visitation by a local Hispanic population to certain segments of the park (e.g., Endovalley) 

and these users also do not typically utilize the visitor centers or participate in programs. 

ROMO has been very conscientious about serving the needs of people with disabilities 

and other special needs (e.g., via both education programs and facility development such as 

wheelchair accessible trails). Regarding CACO, there was a period of time where staff from 

this site worked closely with special needs populations. While they still provide interpretation 

for certain groups (e.g., disabled adults), these efforts have decreased for various reasons such 

as difficulty dealing with logistics and changing philosophy. Staff noted, “If someone who 

can’t comprehend the minimal about something that is a treasure to this country, they need to 

be in another area doing other recreation.” 

CACO and ROMO both have an extensive evaluation process that includes pre- and 

post- testing of student learning. At CACO, the most recent data collected shows an overall 

average increase of 26% in comprehension of the environmental education lessons (e.g., 

water, geology, energy). At ROMO, a major evaluation and assessment of one of their 

education programs is in progress. That is, in partnership with the Poudre School District and 

the CSU Research and Development Center for the Advancement of Student Learning, the 

“Seeking the Summit” program at ROMO was piloted in the fall of 1999 with one elementary 

school consisting of approximately 400, 1st thru 6th graders given a pre- and post-test. Results 

of this aspect of the study will be utilized to develop a final instrument validated for a 

longitudinal study (i.e., data collection over the next 5 years).
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 22

Region 3 (Pacific West): Golden Gate National Recreation Area, John Muir 

National Historic Site, Point Reyes National Seashore.

All of the sites have explored a variety of outreach strategies designed to increase 

interest among diverse audiences. While the sites within this area might benefit from a 

regional strategy such as The Road Ahead, or Telling the Untold Story, the diversity among 

these sites poses a significant obstacle to composing a regional strategy that would be 

inclusive of all NPS units. 

Common ingredients among the units visited within this region:

• Education/Interpretive and Outreach Initiatives:

→ Stewardship programs involving local high school students working directly 

within the park to encourage interaction and support for park activities. These 

programs range from vocational training involving nursery work and 

landscaping with native vegetation, to area rehabilitation and park clean-up 

campaigns.

→ Special events consisting of local parades, cultural events that are hosted 

within each of the NPS units. While many of these events reflect the diversity 

within the community, they are tied directly with the interpretive mandate of 

the unit itself (i.e. Scottish culture and heritage at John Muir Historical Site; 

Native American festivals involving Coast Miwok at Pt. Reyes National 

Seashore, and working with Chinese elders to design relevant programs at 

Golden Gate National Recreation Area.

→ Community Advisory Groups involving a range of community partners and 

those involved in park programs. While Golden Gate NRA, Point Reyes 

National Seashore have enjoyed a long history of involvement with citizen 

advisory groups, park units within the region have expanded this idea to 

include diverse populations, youth advisory groups, and participation in 

NPCA’s community partners program. 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 23

Figure 3. Highlights of Results for Region 3

Golden Gate National John Muir National Point Reyes

 Categories Recreation Area Historic Site National Seashore

Outreach methods

• Environmental Ed. Specialist

- curriculum based education program

- community based educ. programs

- Cross cultural staff training 

- Chrissy Field Education Ctr.

- Multiple translations of ed. Materials

• Community programs director 

- Chrissy Field Center

- Golden Gate Raptor Observatory 

• Traditional nature walks, bird walks with a 

naturalist

• Curriculum based education program (being 

completed)

• Wildflower walks

• Roving interpretation in house and on grounds

• Self guided interpretive pamphlet

• Curriculum based education program 

for grades 6-8

• FM radio show presented every other 

week to highlight upcoming park 

events.

• Standard park brochure translated in 

three languages press release in three 

ethnic newspapers (La Opinion, 

Korean Community News, 

Community Voice).

Special or unique

outreach efforts or 

programs

• High school job training program 

• “National Parks Labs” vocational training

• Community stewardship days

• AmeriCorps internships through college/univ.

• Alcatraz Is. Special programs 

- high school civics

- middle school archeology

• Nike Missile site 

• Buffalo soldiers interpretation

• “Aim high” middle school program earn college 

• Presidio Stewards Program

• Angel Island immigration documentary

• Chrissy Field community advisory committee

• Numerous community festivals (floats)

• Park plays host to blues festival and events of 

community interest

• “March for the Parks”

• Booths at international tour and travel events

• “Branding” of the parks and places of interest

• Extending hours of operation (night programming) 

• Scottish Heritage Festival

• Burns dinner (celebration of Robert Burns)

• Ranch Days (life on the ranch in the 1800’s)

• La Posada (Christmas celebration)

• Victorian Christmas celebration in Muir House

• “Second Chance” alternative education 

program

• Inner City Outings (Sierra Club)

• Adobe celebration (link to Martinez Hispanic 

community)

• Nature essay contest in local schools (published 

as book of writings by local high school 

students).

• Hosts two Native American festivals

• Hispanic radio show broadcast

• Interpretive master plan focus on 

Coast Miwok culture

• Association currently runs education 

center

• Association scholarships for inner 

city students to attend nature camp

• Big Time Festival (Native American)

• Strawberry Festival (Native Am)

• Adopt-a-Trail program

Partnerships

• AmeriCorps

• SF and Marin Conservation Corps

• Golden Gate Raptor Observatory

• Numerous elementary, middle, and high schools

• SF Bay Area Community Colleges and Universities

• Space prohibits mentioning all existing partners 

• Sierra Club

• Local school districts

• Spanish Colonial Research Center (New 

Mexico)

• Sonoma State University

• Member NPS Community Partners Program

• Nature Association

• Local school districts

• Numerous Native American 

organizations
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p. 24

Figure 3 (cont’d). Highlights of Results for Region 3

Golden Gate National John Muir National Point Reyes

 Categories Recreation Area Historic Site National Seashore

Challenges

• Articulating the connection between community and 

parks

• Avoiding “urban bad/parks good” trap

• Insuring proper representation when planning for diverse 

community needs

• Inclusion of environmental justice issues in parks interp.

• Lack of a representative work force

• Changing the measure of equity in partnerships

• Shifting the focus to allow community members to tell 

their own story

• Redefinition of urban and natural environments

• While GOGA provides considerable resources, there is a 

lack of NPS staffing to run programs. 

• Being inclusive while staying within the 

legislative mandate for the site

• Making Muir’s life relevant to people of 

color

• Limited staff

• Limited budget

• Lack of staff diversity

• Expanding the community focus at the site

• Translation of classroom/curriculum 

program

• Demographic profiles of site visitors

• Adequate research related to non-user 

groups.

• Outreach to migrant labor force 

adjacent to the park

• High visitation stretches park resources

• Determining appropriate messages for 

diverse groups

• Lack of adequate research on needs and 

preferences of diverse audiences

• Lack of integrated approach involving 

under-represented groups

• Lack of adequate resources

Resources

needed

• Additional staff to work within local communities

• Specific resources related to non-users

• Community incentives for participation

• Outcomes assessment tools for community projects

• Adequate Native American historical documentation

• NPS staffing inadequate for amount of programs

• Staffing specifically tied to community 

outreach

• Multi-lingual staff

• Additional resources for community 

outreach

• Money to provide transportation for schools

• Lack of adequate user information

• Remote location is a barrier to casual 

visitation

• Outreach to migrant labor force

• Lack of adequate staff focused on 

community outreach

Miscellaneous

 information 

provided

• Community profiling to determine local needs 

• NP Foundation has hired a marketing firm to determine 

inner city recreation needs and preferences

• International market strong for GOGA

• Unique recreation groups that use the park (subsistence 

crabbing, fishing, etc.)

• 25% of site visits made by public/private 

school groups

• Strong cultural connection with people of 

Scottish ancestry

• Outreach with local service organizations is 

strong (Lions Club, Kiwanis, etc.)

• 2.5 million visitors per year (85% of 

which are Caucasian)

• Multi-cultural training for park staff 

every 2-3 years
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.25

Conclusion 

Common Themes

A primary emerging theme surfacing from the analysis of the interviews, and 

subsequent categories, was that actions of the park staff (e.g., chiefs/supervisors, interpretive 

rangers) formed the basis for outreach efforts and those actions were important in influencing 

attitudes of other park staff as well as specific program designs. A park management plan 

that emphasizes outreach to minority communities will be more successful in reaching 

diverse audiences. Additionally, such plan will enhance environmental education and 

opportunities for outdoor recreation among people of color than a park site that is didactic 

and passive. Many common and recurrent themes surfaced coast-to-coast among all nine 

sites involved in this case study. Those factors include:

Interpretation and Education

P Discover the Untold Stories

P Evaluation of programs is challenging: Minimal formal measurement of 

efforts and outcomes. 

P Perceptions and attitudes of non-users towards NPS, various parks, sites, 

area still unidentified in-depth

P Providing resources and materials to assist school teachers in 

accomplishing their educational goals and objectives (e.g., meet needs of 

curriculum) rather than impart NPS specific park “curricula” on the 

schools allows for greater development of school district partnerships and 

cooperation.

P Classroom curriculum is often the principal strategy in reaching 

surrounding communities.

Challenges

P Overriding problem noted by staff in each area: lack of funding

P Lack of staff to assist with and/or provide additional programming

P Lack of research/resources to conduct site-specific research

P Transportation issues

P Diversification of permanent staff

P Stigma/“disgrace” of federal government taking away lands from the 

locals and/or Native people

P Need to enhance diversity knowledge and multicultural relations among 

staff

P Educating teachers who, themselves, are not comfortable or fluent with the 

opportunities provided by NPS units, and therefore do not include NPS 

field trips to supplement their school-based curriculum.

Resources Needed

P Additional staff

P Training opportunities from outside the NPS

P More sophisticated research – site specific and system-wide

P Marketing assessment/strategies to enhance exposure to diverse 

communities
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.26

Management Implications

Linking Literature Gaps and Site Practices

Emerging from this study’s grounded theory approach, three primary themes became 

apparent. Two themes surfaced during the review of literature and included a lack of 

knowledge regarding preferences for park and outdoor recreation opportunities among 

minority communities, and a lack of adequate evaluation research involving interpretive 

programs and outreach efforts to minority audiences. Engaging local communities to 

determine their level of interest and community needs might be a first step in resolving many 

of the knowledge gaps involving minority audiences. Traditional market analysis and 

segmentation in minority communities may serve as an initial step in addressing the needs of 

local people. The literature suggests that ethnic differences alone may not address the lack of 

park interest from diverse communities. Other intervening variables such as social class, 

gender, urban/rural residence, etc., may play an important role in outdoor recreation choice 

behavior. Relating to park planning efforts, it is critical that the manager’s involvement is

such that they ensure diverse perspectives are recognized and incorporated. Furthermore, 

managers may wish to consider a variety of strategies such as differential pricing, gender 

specific programming (such as Becoming an Outdoors Woman), and interpretive/educational 

messages that stress the relevance of parks to urban audiences to broaden the appeal of 

outdoor recreation. 

A second theme appearing in the literature was the lack of adequate evaluation 

involving interpretive programs and outreach efforts to minority audiences. Many valuable 

education programs have been developed such as the Parks as Classroom Project, Telling the 

Untold Stories, Corps of Discovery, and other programs too numerous to mention that 

address aspects of cultural relevance and enhance the diverse appeal of parks. Too often, 

however, these programs have not been evaluated in terms of their programmatic impact. 

Parks must assume a more proactive role in insuring an evaluative component is included 

during program development. Without ongoing assessment and program evaluation our 

collective understanding regarding the relevance and community affiliation/involvement of 

these programs will be minimal. 

Third, regarding the case study interviews, it was apparent that the pattern of outreach 

to diverse communities, and subsequently the types of educational/recreational activities 

offered can be attributed to two primary assumptions: 1) Level of personal/professional 

interest among the staff in various decision-making positions at any given site (e.g., Chief of 

Interpretation, Superintendent), and 2) degree of “pressure from above” within the hierarchy 

of the NPS often dictates the plan (e.g., NPS Director, Special Assistants to the NPS 

Director, Regional Directors). Further investigation of these postulates could provide 

extremely valuable information for enhancing the outreach efforts put forth by the Park 

Service.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.27

The most visible gaps in the outdoor recreation research as it pertains to the 

association of race/ethnicity, gender, and/or social class are within the areas of motivation, 

and meaning/place attachment (Table 1). While much of the research in this field has been 

concerned with understanding participation patterns, barriers and constraints to outdoor 

recreation involvement, and recreation and leisure behavior, very little is known regarding 

recreation experience preferences among diverse user groups, perceived conflicts, and the 

sense of attachment or affiliation within the community relating to national park visitation or 

lack thereof. If managers are to effectively market the attributes of parks to underrepresented audiences, they must first gain an understanding of recreation experience 

preferences, and the recreation priorities of their local audiences. Last, assessment of needs 

and seeking innovative strategies to address these needs, without compromising the mission 

of the park itself, is essential for future.

Discussion

What are some of the lessons learned from this research? Are the programs reflected 

on these pages effective in creating an interest for parks among diverse audiences? More 

important than the individual success of these programs is the collective statement they make 

about the interest of the National Park Service in serving under-represented groups. While 

individual programs have begun to show results, it is far too early to judge them successful in 

diversifying the constituencies for National Parks. The importance of these programs does 

not lie in their success, but rather their intentions to be inclusive. These programs are a 

collective statement about the level of interest being generated by certain units within the 

system. They provide unique insight into how seriously the Park Service considers its

mandate to reflect the interests of all Americans. 

Regarding the association of race/ethnicity, gender, and social class, none of us alone 

has a comprehensive view of how these three variables operate as categories of analysis or 

how they might be used as categories of connection. As scholars, our personal biographies 

typically offer us partial views. Each researcher clearly has their own areas of specialization 

and expertise, whether scholarly, theoretical, or pedagogical, and within any given area of 

race, class or gender. Similarly, given limited resources within NPS sites, park staff may or 

may not have the training necessary to provide certain educational opportunities that will be 

of substantive interest and meaning to diverse constituents.

Strategies that involve local communities directly in park planning and decisionmaking have proven to be effective with diverse audiences. Effective park units have taken 

an aggressive outreach approach such as hiring community liaison staff, linking GPRA goals 

to outreach effectiveness, and actively seeking the input from minority communities through 

advisory boards, or informal networks. Parks must be proactive in their approach if their 

intention is to actively engage diverse audiences and local communities. Reaching out to 

church groups, schools, community centers, shelters, and the diversity of social programs 

within the community may provide parks with unique opportunities to serve the needs of 

local people. One park in California currently partners with a battered woman’s shelter in the 

local community to offer therapeutic camping opportunities for women in the program. This 

type of community involvement and service should be an ongoing focus for parks concerned 

with broadening their constituencies and increasing local appeal.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.28

Moving beyond the parochial view of parks with boundaries will create the correct 

atmosphere for positive community interactions. Parks must be actively engaged with underrepresented audiences if they are to increase the relevance of parks to their lives. A recent 

survey of NPS urban park manager’s points to the need to understand the values and attitudes 

of the residents of communities and neighborhoods adjacent to urban parks, and to develop 

strategies for integrating visitor and community based perspectives into decision making 

(Harris & Lorenzo, 2000). Park staff must constantly ask why this program or approach is 

important or relevant to the lives of local people. No longer is it enough to see parks as 

providing a brief respite from the hectic and hurried urban lifestyles we all share, but rather, 

we must impress upon the growing urban audience the need for the environmental benefits, 

and cultural resources parks may provide. Parks must become part of the community fabric 

that they serve. They must come to be regarded as an integral part of the larger physical and 

cultural landscape that touches the lives of urban people in a variety of ways that are as 

distinctive as the communities who visit them.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.29

References

Creswell, J.W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. 

Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Floyd, M. (1999). Race, ethnicity and use of the National Park System. Social 

Science Research Review, 1(2), 1-23.

Glaser, B. G. & Strauss, A.L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies 

for qualitative research. New York: Aldine De Gruyter.

Harris, R.A. & Lorenzo, A.B. (2000). Social science needs assessment: A survey of 

NPS urban park managers. Park Science, 20 (1), 42-44.

National Park Service (1999). “Diversity in the National Park Service: Diversity 

Action Plan.” World Wide Web: http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/diversity/divaction.htm.

Stake, R. (1995). The art of case research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Tellis, W. (1997, September). Application of a case study methodology. The 

Qualitative Report, 3, 3. Retrieved December 1999 from the World Wide Web: 

http//www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-3/tellis2.html.

Yin, R. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, 

CA: Sage.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.30
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.31

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Note: The annotations in this section include those references found to date through 

completion of this project. Omissions are erroneous and unintentional. 

 1. Arnold, M. L., & Shinew, K. J. (1998). The role of gender, race, and income on park 

use constraints. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 16(4), pp. 39-56.

Overview: This study examined perceived park use constraints in Chicago, Illinois, 

according to income level, gender, and race. The multiple hierarchy stratification perspective 

served as the theoretical framework for the study. The literature review included related 

empirical studies in the areas of income, education, occupational status, and constraints to 

participation among women, and Blacks. 

Purpose of the study: To examine constraints to urban park use as effected by gender, race 

and income. Reported constraints between Blacks and Whites, females and males, and upper 

and lower income groups were compared. 

Methodology: A stratified sample of parks was taken to assure diversity of park users by 

race and income in the Chicago metropolitan area. A systematic sample was used to collect 

approximately 150 on-site surveys from each of six community parks. 

Results/Discussion: The overall results of this study did not support the multiple hierarchy 

perspective; for instance, upper income White males reported significantly more overall 

constraint to park use than did low income Black females. Important to note that certain 

subscales did support the perspective, such as gender (e.g., females reported higher constraint 

score than males). Management implications are provided, including that managers should 

be aware of the high level of fear of violence among women, and fear of racial conflict as a 

constraining factor to park use. Future research might include in-depth interviews or focus 

groups particularly among low income Black women. Using a qualitative approach may 

allow other types of constraints to emerge.

Keywords: Gender, race, income, leisure constraints, urban parks, multiple hierarchy 

stratification perspective.

2. Baas, J. M., Ewert, A., & Chavez, D. J. (1993). Influence of ethnicity on recreation 

and natural environment use patterns: Managing recreation sites for ethnic and racial 

diversity. Environmental Management, 17(4), 523-529.

Overview: Management of natural areas is becoming increasingly complex because of the 

influx of urbanized society into wildland sites. As society becomes more pluralistic, a major 

factor that managers of natural environment sites need to consider is ethnic and racial 

background of visitors. Previous research shows recreation behavior, perceptions of natural 

sites, expectations of visitors and rates of participation in outdoor activities varies by ethnic 

group.

Purpose of the study: To examine the role of ethnicity in shaping recreation use patterns and 

site perceptions at a wildland-urban recreation site in Southern California. Study objectives 

included determining whether there are racial and/or ethnic differences in use and 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.32

perceptions of the sites, how visitors use information to find out about the area, and 

interactions with management.

Methodology: Self-administered questionnaires were distributed to visitors by a multilingual 

research team. Visitors within the sampling area of Mecca Hills within the Mojave Desert 

(managed by BLM) were approached and asked to complete the questionnaire about their 

recreation experience. Questionnaires were completed in English or Spanish, and were 

administered and collected on-site (n=237) to minimize delays and nonresponse bias 

associated with mail-back surveys. Data were collected on two weekends, during peak-use 

periods.

Results/Discussion: Five racial and/or ethnic groups were identified of which the majority 

self-identified as Hispanic (78%) followed by Anglos (16%). One individual was AfroAmerican, while members of several other racial groups were aggregated into an "other" 

category. ANOVA revealed there were statistically significant differences in how ethnic 

groups perceived the area. These differences pertained to the importance each group 

attached to actual site features (e.g., picnic areas, trails, restrooms and other site amenities) as 

well as desired features. Findings are consistent with other research in suggesting that 

ethnicity may play a role in the type and level of expectations people have toward natural 

recreation sites. Suggested management strategies based on group differences are provided.

Keywords: Ethnicity, recreation, wildland-urban interface, management strategies.

3. Blahna, D. J., & Black, K. S. (1992, May 17-20, 1992). Racism: A concern for 

recreation resource managers? Proceedings of the 4th North American Symposium on 

Society and Resource Management. Managing urban and high-use recreation settings. 

Selected papers from the "Urban Forestry" and "Ethnic Minorities and the Environment" 

paper sessions. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin.

Overview: Questions of social equity include the provision of outdoor recreation 

opportunities, and have arisen from research showing that ethnic minorities, especially 

African Americans are under-represented in most forest recreation activities. Few studies 

have looked at the issue of race relations in parks, and those that have, found only weak 

support for the notion that racism may act as a barrier to recreation participation. 

Purpose of the study: To explore racism as a potential racial barrier to outdoor recreation in 

forests and parks. 

Methodology: Focus group interviews were conducted with students at Northeastern Illinois 

University (UNI) in Chicago. UNI is a socially and economically diverse institution (e.g., 

over 1/3 of the 10,000 students are non-white, and there are 15 ethnic student groups on 

campus. Most of the focus groups held for this study were with members of ethnic 

organizations based on campus, other focus groups were held in geography classes with 

primarily minority students. There were a total of 22 focus groups ranging in size from 3 to 

15 students (average was n=8 students per group). Ethnic breakdown includes: 43 Asians, 24 

African Americans, 55 Hispanics, and 36 Caucasian (n=168 total participants). In addition 

to focus group interviews, 10 personal interviews were conducted with minority student and 

faculty leaders on campus. In the interviews, participants were asked about their use of 

local, regional, and national park and recreation areas, activities they participated in those 

areas, and problems or barriers they encountered. The goal of the interviews was to 

encourage participants to discuss their activities in, and attitudes toward, natural areas in 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.33

general. The interviews were taped, transcribed, and coded for content in 3 major areas: 1)

images and preferences for forest recreation areas and activities, 2) barriers to participation, 

and 3) recommendations for making forest opportunities more available to urban minorities. 

Results/Discussion: This paper focuses on barriers to recreation participation, especially the 

role of racism, and the relationship of racial barriers to other recreational barriers for 

minorities. A total of 537 barrier related comments were coded into nine categories: 1) 

management barriers (e.g., poor facilities, lack of maintenance); 2) safety or crime; 3) 

racism; 4) cultural barriers (e.g., language, dress, family or gender roles); 5) economic or 

transportation constraints; 6) time; 7) discomfort in the outdoors (e.g., primitive facilities, 

physical discomfort); 8) fear of the environment, and 9) user conflicts. Comments on 

racism related barriers were analyzed in six general themes. Descriptions of these six 

themes provide the major content of this report: 1) on-site experiences of racism from other 

recreationists; 2) on-site experiences of racism from professional staff; 3) differential upkeep 

and management of local parks; 4) fear of expected or potential racism; 5) socialization 

resulting from historical experiences with racism, and 6) social effects of past economic 

discrimination (i.e., economic deprivation/marginality). Research and management 

implications are provided.

Keywords: Race, ethnicity, socioeconomic, racial barriers, forest and park recreation, 

racism, historical perspective.

4. Busser, J. A., Hyams, A. L., & Carruthers, C. P. (1996). Differences in adolescent 

activity participation by gender, grade, and ethnicity. Journal of Parks and Recreation 

Administration, 14(4), 1-20.

Overview: Constructive leisure involvement may have positive consequences for 

adolescents. A greater understanding of adolescent activity participation and interests is 

required to assist professionals in the development of programs that will increase and 

enhance involvement. 

Purpose of the study: To examine the leisure interests and participation of adolescents in 

relationship to gender, grade level and ethnicity. 

Methodology: This study was conducted in a large urban school district in the Southwest 

and included eight junior high schools and five high schools. Questionnaires were 

distributed, completed and returned during one homeroom class period at each school. 566 

students total completed the questionnaire (n=122 junior high, n=444 high school). The 

questionnaire consisted of demographic information along with 112 leisure activities in 

which students indicated their level of involvement. 

Results/Discussion: A factor analysis of these 112 activities found 6 leisure activity 

groupings including: personal growth, arts, nontraditional sports/games, outdoor, community, 

and sport. Overall, youth indicated the highest preference for community activities. A 

MANOVA revealed significant differences in activity participation by gender, grade, and 

ethnicity. Males were more interested in outdoor activities, traditional sport and 

nontraditional sport/games while females were more interested in personal growth and the 

arts. Junior high students were more interested in nontraditional sports/games, outdoor and 

sport activities than high school students. Caucasian youth were more interested in outdoor 

activities than youth of color. This study suggested that pre-adolescents and adolescents, in 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.34

general, are also interested in physically active leisure either through sport or outdoor 

involvement. Implications for youth programming personnel are discussed.

Keywords: Adolescents (junior high and high school), gender, ethnicity, social class, 

recreation programming.

5. Caro, V., & Ewert, A. (1995). The influence of acculturation on environmental 

concerns: An exploratory study. Journal of Environmental Education, 26(3), 13-21.

Overview: Other studies have found a broad array of "differences" among ethnic and cultural 

groups on various outdoor and environmental issues (e.g., recreational behavior, crosscultural land ethics, leisure preferences). Of growing interest is the perception that 

environmental concerns and outdoor recreation behavior may be influenced more by class 

and level of acculturation than by ethnicity. 

Purpose of the study: This study examined levels of acculturation, as measured by place of 

birth and arrival age (to the U.S.), and the effect on responses to a selected group of 

environmental issues. 

Methodology: A scale of 11 environmental concerns was administered to visitors to two 

southern California forests. The respondents completed a questionnaire constructed by the 

researchers based on their personal contact with forest visitors and perusal of the literature. 

There were 398 usable questionnaires (out of 640 visitors contacted) of which 188 (48.2%) 

were male and 202 (51.8%) were female. Ethnic identity was categorized as U.S. born 

Anglos, U.S. born Hispanics, Mexican-born Hispanics and Central American-born Hispanics. 

Results/Discussion: Significant differences were observed on 4 of the 11 issues: Concerns 

about destruction of streambed vegetation, nuclear waste dumping, oil spills, and car 

emissions. Results also indicate that length of time in the United States and age of the 

individual upon arrival to the U.S. are of importance in predicted levels of environmental 

concern. Findings suggest that by evaluating the public's attitude toward environmental 

problems, environmental educators and outdoor recreation resource managers can more 

effectively deal with depreciative behaviors displayed at a specific site.

Keywords: Environmental concerns, ethnic/cultural differences, acculturation, class 

differences, visits to national parks, recreation behavior.

6. Carr, D. S., & Williams, D. R. (1993). Understanding the role of ethnicity in outdoor 

recreation experiences. Journal of Leisure Research, 25(1), 22-38.

Overview: The article concentrates on learning the role that ethnicity plays in outdoor 

recreation behavior. The researchers focused on understanding the apparent underparticipation of minorities in most types of outdoor recreation utilizing explanations of the 

marginality and ethnicity hypotheses.

Purpose of the study: This study examines the influences of ancestral, generational, and 

acculturational differences on meanings and preferences related to outdoor recreation 

experiences and forest use. 

Methodology: Four sites on two national forests in southern California were chosen for the 

study (i.e., area used almost exclusively by Hispanics). A self-administered, on-site survey 

was the primary data collection method employed. The overall sample size from all 4 sites 

yielded 732 responses. Individuals of Mexican and Central American ancestry were the 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.35

predominant group at three of the four study sites (Anglos were the predominant group at one 

site). The survey asked extensive questions about social structural background, country/state 

where they and each of their parents/grandparents were born, acculturation levels, style and 

meaning of outdoor recreation preferences, and open-ended questions inquiring about 

reasons for coming to the forest and soliciting meanings held toward wildland environments. 

Results/Discussion: The relationship between ethnicity and reason for visiting the site is 

presented, examination of the relationship between social group composition, and ancestral 

origins and generational status is discussed (e.g., individuals of Mexican ancestry are more 

likely than Anglos or Central Americans to recreate with immediate and extended family). 

Findings show two primary results: 1) while acculturation played a significant role in 

understanding several aspects of respondent’s recreation experiences, it tended to be a 

weaker relationship than would have been expected, and 2) social structural variables can be 

used to predict or explain recreation behavior.

Keywords: Hispanic recreation, forest use, outdoor recreation behavior, ethnicity, 

acculturation.

7. Chavez, D. J. (1996, October). Leisure experiences of Hispanic families. Proceedings 

of the Leisure Research Symposium, the National Park & Recreation Association Congress, 

Kansas City, MO.

Overview: Little is known about the lives of Hispanics in the United States including how, 

when, and why they engage in leisure pursuits. 

Purpose of the study: To document the leisure patterns of American families of Mexican 

descent in the home, the community, and in public land settings. 

Methodology: A qualitative case study using face-to-face interviews with four families was 

conducted on-site at two National Forests. The interviews were conducted in Spanish and 

recorded on audiotapes that were then translated to English. 

Results/Discussion: All families indicated they were close to other family members and that 

visits to natural areas enhanced that closeness. According to the study participants, the most 

important activities in natural environments were picnicking, relaxing, being with family, 

water play, and napping. A depiction of how extensive the picnicking is presented (e.g., an 

all day process). All groups mentioned leisure was very important in their lives and said that 

between recreation at home, in the community, and in natural environments, that the latter 

was most important. This case study suggests the importance of some public lands to 

Hispanics' leisure pursuits.

Keywords: Hispanics, recreation on public lands, interviews, activity preferences.

8. Chavez, D. J. (1992, October). Ethnic research in wildland recreation areas: Values, 

attitudes, and behaviors. Proceedings of the Leisure Research Symposium, the National 

Recreation & Park Association Congress, Cincinnati, OH.

Overview: Values are general ideas people share about what is good or bad, desirable or 

undesirable. Recreational activities can potentially reinforce one’s values, however and 

individual might not actually engage in those activities.

Purpose of the study: To examine values, attitudes and behaviors among ethnically and 

racially diverse urban visitors to two southern California National Forests. 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.36

Methodology: Data for this research project were collected during the summer of 1991. 

The sample totaled 270 visitors comprised of Anglos, Hispanic Americans, Mexican 

Americans and Central Americans. An on-site survey was conducted and respondents were 

asked which values presented best described themselves in general. They were also asked if 

certain recreational pursuits would reinforce that value they hold more closely, and how often 

they engaged in these activities. 

Results/Discussion: Chi Square tests of significance were used to examine ethnic group 

differences. The data suggest that most of these wildland visitors value "fun and enjoyment" 

as one reason they recreate in these areas. Between group differences were not statistically 

significant. Activity level, costs involved, and amount of planning required may affect 

behavior.

Keywords: Anglos, Mexican Americans, Hispanic Americans, Central Americans, values, 

attitudes, behaviors, recreational pursuits, outdoor activities, sports, wildland recreation.

9. Chavez, D. J. (1991). Crowding and discrimination: The unwelcome guests in 

wildland recreation. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, National Convention 

(August 4-7). "Pacific Rim Forestry: Bridging the World", San Francisco, CA.

Overview: Visitors to wildland recreation areas in southern California National Forests tend 

to be from the Los Angeles area. Two key components comprising visitors to these forests 

include: 1) Individuals come from an urban culture, and 2) they have diverse ethnic and 

racial affiliations. Because many natural resource techniques are geared toward rural, Anglo 

populations, there is evidence these techniques may not be applicable to urban, culturally 

diverse populations. 

Purpose of the study: To provide information about perceptions of crowding; provide 

information about expectations of crowding; determine which activities are most enjoyed; 

determine perceptions about discrimination; and provide information about displacement. 

Methodology: The questionnaire for the survey portion of the study was developed from a 

combination of past research reported in the literature and findings from site observations. 

Some team members administering the survey were bilingual and therefore available for 

Spanish speaking visitors. Four study sites in southern California were selected and chosen 

to ensure an adequate representation of various cultural and ethnic groups. The survey data 

was coded and entered by the author and analyzed using SAS (statistical analysis system). 

Respondents identifying as American Indian, Black, Asian American, and Middle Eastern 

were coded and analyzed as "other" due to the small sample size of these populations. 

Results/Discussion: Findings show all ethnic groups rated level of crowding similarly. 

Anglos were slightly (but not statistically significant) less likely to indicate a recreational 

area was crowded than any other ethnic or racial group. Picnicking is more enjoyable for 

Hispanic sub-groups than it is for Anglos, while hiking is more favorable to Anglos than it is 

to Mexican Americans or other ethnic groups. Discrimination questions inquired about 

respondents experience with being treated fairly or not by law enforcement people and 

mistreatment from other visitors. The majority of respondents reported not having been 

treated unfairly because of their ethnic identity. Less than 3% of all Anglo Americans and 

13% of all "others" reported some act of discrimination, while less than 40% of all Hispanic 

Americans and 18 % of all Mexican Americans reported some act of discrimination. 

Hispanic Americans and Mexican Americans were more likely to be victimized by law 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.37

enforcement officials than Anglos or others. Data indicate that displacement does not seem 

to be a factor at these sites (note: the possibility remains that displacement from an area may 

have occurred before the survey and was therefore not captured in this study). Implications 

for natural resource managers are provided.

Keywords: Hispanic American, Mexican American, forest recreation, outdoor activities, 

crowding, discrimination, displacement.

10. Dwyer, J. F. (1994). Customer diversity and the future demand for outdoor recreation

(General Technical Report, No. RM-252). St. Paul, MN: North Central Forest Experiment 

Station.

Overview: Recreation resource planners and managers, who must deal with the challenges of 

rapidly increasing and diversifying use of recreation facilities and programs, need 

information about the implications of population changes for the future demands of 

recreation users. 

Purpose of the study: The purpose of this report is to examine the implications of increased 

aging, racial and ethnic diversity, class differences, and urban residence relating to outdoor 

recreation behavior. 

Methodology: This national report draws heavily from the works of others and the analysis 

of data previously collected by other researchers. Cohort-component projection models are 

presented as one means of projecting changes in participation in outdoor recreation activities 

and the characteristics of participants that may accompany demographic changes. 

Comparisons occur in a multivariate framework. 83 references are cited from the literature. 

Results/Discussion: The findings and discussion include variation in outdoor recreation 

behavior at the national, state, and local levels associated with age, race and ethnicity, socioeconomics, and rural and urban residence, both singly and with other individual, household, 

and location variables taken into account. Both management and research implications are 

presented. Trends are discussed along with projections for future.

Keywords: Race, ethnicity, age, gender, socioeconomic, urban/rural residence, analyze 

trends, participation patterns, management implications.

11. Dwyer, J. F., & Hutchison, R. (1990). Outdoor recreation participation and 

preferences by black and white Chicago households. In J. Vining (Ed.), Social Science and 

Natural Resource Recreation Management (pp. 49-67). Boulder: Westview Press.

Overview: The authors quote from the 1987 President's Commission on Americans 

Outdoors report noting that our greatest recreation needs are in urban areas close to home 

and that many urban residents have special needs. In many instances planners and 

managers have difficulty serving these "special" urban needs because they lack information 

about them. Consequently, planners and managers do not know what approaches should be 

taken to provide recreation opportunities for this group.

Purpose of the study: First, to delineate the outdoor recreation patterns and preferences of 

black and white households in Chicago, compare these patterns, and explore explanations for 

similarities and differences. Second, a goal of this study was to provide policy makers with 

general guides for meeting the needs of these groups and to suggest research that will provide 

more specific recommendations for recreation resource planning and management.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.38

Methodology: A secondary analysis of data collected on recreation participation as part of 

the Illinois Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Planning process was 

accomplished. Out of 10,400 telephone surveys selected by random digit dialing, this 

analysis is based on responses by 269 black and 481 white non-Hispanic households. Data 

include type of activity participation, frequency of participation, and distance traveled to the 

most frequently used site. Additionally, questions were asked about preferences for site 

development, social interaction, and the importance of free time.

Results/Discussion: Participation by white households exceeded that of black households for 

19 of the 23 activities studied. These activities were clustered into six categories: swimming, 

biking and non-motorized riding, boating, camping, overnight lodging, and off-road vehicles. 

Eleven activities were significantly different at the p<.05 level. Comparisons of distance 

traveled, black households tended to travel shorter distances than whites for a given activity. 

The only activity in which black households have a higher participation rate than whites is 

swimming at pools. Attitudinal measures were taken regarding perceptions of benefits for 

various outdoor activities. For example, blacks indicated a strong orientation toward 

meeting people rather than getting away whereas whites divided their responses evenly 

between the two. Regarding site development, blacks strongly preferred developed facilities 

and conveniences rather than preserved natural areas, while whites strongly preferred 

preserved natural areas. The stronger black preference for meeting people and developed 

sites persisted even when accounting for income (e.g., offers additional support for the 

ethnicity perspective). Implications for management and future research are indicated.

Keywords: Outdoor recreation, social class, ethnicity, black/white differences, Chicago 

parks.

12. Ewert, A. W., Chavez, D. J., & Magill, A. W. (Eds.). (1993). Culture, conflict, and 

communication in the wildland-urban interface. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Overview: This book is an edited collection of essays and research studies addressing a 

variety of wildland-urban issues and topics. While not all inclusive, the material in this book 

collectively represents a wide range of interests involving both research and management on 

the wildland-urban interface. Examples of contents include: research directions and issues, 

critical perspectives, cultural diversity and ethnicity, interracial relations, difficulties with 

multicultural communication, principles for effective cross-cultural communication, 

sociocultural meanings of outdoor recreation, behaviors and land ethics, assessing ethnic 

group participation in public involvement processes, and integrating research and 

management. Created for scholars, natural resource managers, planners and policymakers, 

this book identifies characteristics of cross-cultural wildland users, looks at developing a land 

ethic among nontraditional forest users; communicating effectively with diverse cultures 

among users; and managing depreciative behavior. Research issues and implications are also 

presented in the last chapter "looking to the future."

Keywords: Race, ethnicity, social class, gender, assimilation, acculturation, urban 

experiences, outdoor recreation, constraints, values.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.39

13. Ewert, A., & Pfister, R. (1991, March). Cross-cultural land ethics: Motivations, 

appealing attributes and problems. Proceedings of the 56th North American Wildlife and 

Natural Resources Conference, Alberta, Canada.

Overview: The type and quality of land ethics held by the public is critical because of the 

normative values, attitudes and behaviors practiced by visitors have tremendous impact upon 

the success of wildlife management and natural resource programs. Understanding this land 

ethic among diverse users has become an area of increasing concern. A variety of cultural 

and ethnic factors can influence the development of a land ethic. 

Purpose of the study: To develop a greater understanding about the influence of ethnicity on 

the concept of land ethics. To accomplish this goal, this study used place of birth as the 

surrogate measure for level of assimilation and acculturation. 

Methodology: The research area was the Angeles National Forest in southern California. To 

study the three parameters of motivations, appeal and perceived problems, a questionnaire 

was distributed to forest visitors during the summer of 1989. Spanish-speaking enumerators 

were present to assist any visitors in understanding the instrument. In addition to general 

demographic questions, participants were asked about why they were there (motivations), 

what did they like about the sites (appeal), and what environmental and managerial problems 

did they encounter (problems) while at the site. Out of 837 potential respondents, 473 agreed 

to participate (response rate=56%). To the extent that formal education has an impact upon 

the development of a land ethic, the English only respondents had the highest level of 

education with 12 years. This was followed by bilingual Spanish-English respondents (11 

years), and Spanish-only (9 years). 

Results/Discussion: The strongest motivations among all respondents for visiting the forest 

are related to primarily low levels of activity, escape, reduction of stress, and enjoyment of 

family and scenery. When compared to U.S. born Anglos, Hispanic motivational patterns 

focused on more passive, relaxed and cathartic motivations. When aggregated, the most 

appealing aspect of the visit among the respondents was being with family followed by 

watching children play, proximity to water, preparing food, and being in shade. Specific 

wildlife attributes (e.g., fish, birds, stream vegetation) are more appealing to U.S. born 

Anglos and Mexican/Hispanics than to those born outside the U.S. Regarding problems, the 

top six concerns reported by respondents were: Litter on the riverbank, litter in the river, too 

few trash cans, inadequate toilet facilities, graffiti and vandalism, and water pollution. This 

factor revealed a consistent response to the other two. Items considered more problematic by 

foreign-born visitors when compared to U.S. born individuals were too few parking spaces, 

people breaking the law, and people drinking alcohol. Implications for management are 

provided.

Keywords: Culture, Hispanics, land ethics, outdoor recreation, motivation, constraints.

14. Floyd, M. F. & K. J. Shinew (1999). Convergence and divergence in leisure style 

among Whites and African Americans: Toward an Interracial Contact Hypothesis. Journal 

of Leisure Research, 31(4), 359-384.

Overview: There is a need to recognize the role of historical and contemporary race-based 

discrimination as a major force in shaping and constraining leisure participation among 

African Americans. Despite progress in certain social and economic areas, African 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.40

Americans – irrespective of socioeconomic mobility – are still subject to interpersonal and 

institutional forms of racism and discrimination. They physical separation of African 

Americans and Whites in a variety of social settings (e.g., friendships, occupations, and 

residential areas) serves as a distinct marker of the current state of U.S. race relations. 

Because there is a general tendency for Blacks and Whites to be spatially separated, there is a

greater chance of social isolation, particularly with regard to Blacks, and fewer opportunities 

for interracial social interaction.

Purpose of the Study: To explore the question of whether interracial contact holds 

significant implications for explaining differences in leisure activity preferences among 

African Americans and Whites. Drawing upon structural theory and social group 

perspectives, this study examined two propositions developed to outline a conceptual link 

between interracial contact and leisure activity preferences. The first proposition stated that 

as interracial contact increases, the greater the probability of observing similarity in the 

leisure preferences of African Americans and Whites. The second stated that the probability 

of observing similarity in the leisure preferences will be greater among Whites with high or 

low interracial contact than observing similarity among African Americans with high or low 

interracial contact. 

Methodology: Data to evaluate the propositions came from an on-site survey of Chicago (IL) 

park users conducted during the spring and summer of 1996. The survey was designed to 

provide information on a wide range of issues including park use patterns, leisure 

preferences, perceived constraints, information use, and demographic characteristics. 

Community areas were stratified by race and high, middle and low-income levels. Parks 

within each community were compared in terms of existing facilities and acreage. Visitation 

records were also examined. A total of 807 park users were contacted on-site; 612 completed 

an interview (Blacks = 271, Whites =311, other groups = 30) providing a response rate of 

75.8%. Only Blacks and Whites were included in this study. A list of 25 leisure activities 

was included in the survey of which outdoor recreation was a major component. The 

association between interracial contact and leisure preferences was assessed by analysis of 

variance procedures (ANOVA and MANOVA tests were used). The association between 

interracial contact and leisure preferences was observed while controlling for age, education, 

and income.

Results/Discussion: As hypothesized, Black and White respondents with high interracial 

contact reported very similar leisure preferences. Also, among African Americans, there was 

little similarity in the leisure preferences between individuals with high interracial contact 

and those with low interracial contact. Further, as expected, there was high similarity among 

Whites with high or low interracial contact. In general, the results of the study highlight the 

importance of considering social interaction, and interracial contact specifically, in 

explaining racial differences in leisure participation. The study also demonstrates the 

importance of examining internal differentiation of African Americans and its implications 

for leisure lifestyle choices.

Keywords: Race, ethnicity, socioeconomics, personal community, interracial contact, 

lifestyle, activity preferences, social groups.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.41

15. Floyd, M.F., & Gramann, J. H. (1995). Perceptions of discrimination in a recreation 

context. Journal of Leisure Research, 27(2), 192-199.

Overview: More recently the effect of perceived discrimination on recreation participation 

has been the subject of a number of empirical investigations. In these studies, discrimination 

is treated as an explanatory variable in relation to recreation behavior. This approach reflects 

the longstanding concern with matters of equality and equity regarding minority access to 

public recreation facilities. 

Purpose of the study: To test two competing theoretical perspectives on inter-group relations 

in a recreation context. That is, the "ethnic enclosure" and "ethnic competition" hypotheses 

provided the theoretical framework for this study. Specifically, this study examined how 

Spanish language maintenance (indicator of cultural assimilation), primary structural 

assimilation (extent of contact with Anglo-Americans), and educational attainment (indicator 

of socioeconomic assimilation) among Mexican Americans affected perceptions of 

discrimination in a recreation context. 

Methodology: Data were obtained and analyzed from a sub-sample of 100 people of 

Mexican ancestry interviewed by telephone in the spring of 1990. The original sampling 

frame included over 1,300 people in households in Arizona. The independent variables in 

the analysis included a measure of Spanish maintenance, primary structural assimilation, 

educational attainment, age, and gender of the respondent. Perceptions of discrimination 

were measured by responses to three statements relating to outdoor recreation participation as 

noted in the study. 

Results/Discussion: Findings showed that respondents with greater levels of education and 

lower Spanish competency were less likely to report discrimination against their ethnic 

group. This is consistent with the assimilationist perspective. Hence, perception of ethnicbased discrimination tends to be greater among those who exhibit low socioeconomic 

mobility and acculturation. Additionally, researchers did not find that perceptions of 

discrimination lessened as the degree of contact with majority group members in primary 

relationships increased.

Keywords: Assimilation, discrimination, ethnic groups, socioeconomic, gender, outdoor 

recreation.

16. Floyd, M. F., Gramann, J. H., & Saenz, R. (1993). Ethnic factors and the use of 

public outdoor recreation areas: The case of Mexican Americans. Leisure Sciences, 15, 

83-98.

Overview: Although ethnic and racial differences have been intermittently the subject of 

empirical research for nearly three decades, there have only been two major hypotheses that 

have evaluated these efforts: "marginality and ethnicity." The marginality hypothesis 

suggests that historical patterns of discrimination against African Americans is a major cause 

of their marginal economic position and hence low participation in wildland recreation. The 

ethnicity (or "subcultural") hypothesis argues that distinctive patterns of participation result 

from differences in value systems, norms, and leisure socialization patterns between racial 

and ethnic groups. Neither perspective accounts for the inhibiting effects of discrimination 

as perceived by individual minority members, nor do they account for the effect of perceived 

discrimination on current levels of recreation participation. 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.42

Purpose of the study: To investigate the effects of subculture, marginality, and perceived 

discrimination on use of selected public outdoor recreation areas. The assimilation 

perspective from the sociological literature provided the theoretical framework for the study. 

Methodology: Data for this study were obtained from telephone interviews conducted in two 

counties in Arizona in 1990. A list of 6000 randomly generated telephone numbers was 

obtained from a national survey-sampling firm. For a variety of reasons indicated, 

researchers only completed interviews with 1057 respondents. Measurements for the study 

included ethnic identification, cultural distance (acculturation), socioeconomic distance 

(structural assimilation) and inter-group distance (behavioral receptional assimilation), and 

recreation behavior (park service visits). 

Results/Discussion: The results support the socioeconomic, or marginality hypothesis and 

there was less support for the subcultural, or ethnicity, hypothesis. There was no support for 

the perceived discrimination hypothesis. Among Mexican Americans, it appears that higher 

levels of education are associated with a greater likelihood of using the types of recreation 

areas included in this study. Education was most strongly related to overall participation. 

According to the general model described in the study, this would suggest that as Mexican 

Americans achieve socioeconomic parity with Anglo-Americans, differences in the 

recreational patterns should be decreased. Research implications and recommendations are 

discussed.

Keywords: Assimilation, Chicanos, Mexican Americans, discrimination, ethnicity, 

marginality, outdoor recreation, parks, social distance.

17. Floyd, M. F., & Gramann, J. H. (1993). Effects of acculturation and structural 

assimilation in resource-based recreation: The case of Mexican Americans. Journal of 

Leisure Research, 25(1), 6-21.

[Note: This study was previously published in Leisure Sciences, volume 15, 1993. See 

Floyd, Gramann, and Saenz elsewhere in this report.]

Brief Abstract: This study examines the effects of Mexican American acculturation and 

structural assimilation on outdoor recreation patterns. Based on ethnic assimilation theory, 

the researchers hypothesized that the greater the level of acculturation or primary structural 

assimilation, the more similar Mexican Americans would be to Anglo Americans in their 

outdoor recreation behavior. Data to test these hypotheses came from a telephone survey of 

1,057 households in Arizona. Analysis of covariance indicated that acculturation and 

primary structural assimilation each had impacts on recreation behavior of Mexican 

Americans. In general, primary structural assimilation had its most apparent effects on site 

visitation, while acculturation was reflected most clearly in activity participation patterns.

Keywords: Ethnicity, assimilation, acculturation, Mexican Americans, outdoor recreation 

patterns, leisure behavior.

18. Floyd, M. F., Shinew, K. J., McGuire, F. A., & Noe, F. P. (1994). Race, class, and 

leisure activity preferences: Marginality and ethnicity revisited. Journal of Leisure Research, 

26(2), 158-173.

Overview: The literature generally states that African Americans participate in many leisure 

activities at lower levels than White Americans, or engage in different forms of leisure. Two 

explanations prevalent in the literature to explain the divergence between blacks and whites 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.43

are the marginality and ethnicity hypotheses. Many studies published in research journals do 

not reflect contemporary patterns of race relations, class mobility, and leisure styles. 

Alternative analytical and methodological strategies have not been forthcoming and despite 

increasing ethnic and racial diversity in the U.S., the black-white division continues to 

represent the most salient ethnic split in American society. 

Purpose of the study: To examine the relationship between race, leisure preferences and 

class awareness. Based on interest-group theory of class identification, the researchers 

hypothesized that blacks and whites that defined themselves similarly in terms of social class 

would exhibit similar recreation patterns. 

Methodology: Data to test this hypothesis came from a national probability survey of 1,607 

U.S. adults. A random telephone interview was conducted during February 1985 to obtain 

information about leisure preferences. Note: 60% of the respondents were female, 9% were 

black, and 68% and 27% were categorized as middle class and poor or working class, 

respectively.

Results/Discussion: The results of the analysis, in general, showed similarities rather than 

differences across racial groups when controlling for subjective social class. Patterns of 

leisure preferences, however, tended to diverge among blacks and whites who defined 

themselves as poor or working class. This divergence was attributed, in part, to differences 

between black and white females of the poor or working class. The results indicate some 

differences by race in rankings of preferred activities. Association-social activities and 

exercise-health were ranked higher by blacks than whites, and outdoor activities were ranked 

higher by whites (for both genders as well). This study suggests that the significance of race 

as a salient determinant of lifestyle (i.e., leisure) choices appears to be receding for the 

middle class, but among women who define themselves as poor or working class, race 

appears to remain significant as a determinant of leisure preferences.

Keywords: Race, gender, social class, leisure, recreation, subjective social class, 

recreational sports, outdoor adventure activities.

19. Floyd, M. F., & Gramann, J. (1992, October). Perceived benefits of outdoor 

recreation participation: Comparison of Anglo-Americans and Mexican Americans. 

Proceedings of the Leisure Research Symposium, the National Recreation & Park 

Association Congress, Cincinnati, OH.

Overview: Early studies of ethnic and racial differences in outdoor recreation have focused 

on participation in various activities or use of different recreation areas as the dependent 

variable. Under the marginality-ethnicity framework, differential rates of participation 

emerged as the dominant issue. From a management perspective, "style" of participation - as 

indicated in recent studies - is also an important dependent variable. 

Purpose of the study: First, to examine differences in the perceived benefits of leisure 

participation between Anglo-Americans and Mexican Americans, and second, to ascertain to 

what extent the differences (or similarities) are related to acculturation and structural 

assimilation. 

Methodology: Data for this study were derived from a telephone survey in Phoenix. The 

dependent variables in question were the various social and psychological benefits of 

recreation participation. Acculturation was measured by use of English and disuse of 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.44

Spanish language. Structural assimilation was measured in terms of ethnicity of respondents 

associated with primary relationships. 

Results/Discussion: A comparison of mean importance ratings for various benefits showed 

that Mexican Americans were more likely to place greater importance on "doing something 

with your family" and "doing something your children enjoyed." The addition of covariates 

(i.e., age, education, number of children) did not eliminate significant differences between 

Anglos and Mexican Americans on "doing something your children enjoyed." In this case, 

ethnic background retained a significant independent effect on perceived benefits of a 

familial nature. In general, the least acculturated Mexican Americans scored significantly 

lower than all other groups, with a progressive increase in adjusted means as acculturation 

increased. The expected effect of structural assimilation was not observed. The authors 

conclude that outdoor recreation contributes to the maintenance of key cultural values of 

Mexican Americans despite pressures to conform to Anglo American standards.

Keywords: Outdoor recreation, Anglo-Americans, Mexican Americans, acculturation, 

assimilation, perceived benefits of participation.

20. Gobster, P. H. (1993). Managing urban open spaces for naturalness: Preferences of 

Chicago housing authority children. Proceedings of the Northeast Recreation Research 

Symposium, Saratoga Springs, NY.

Overview: The social benefits of a nature experience include psychological, aesthetics, 

recreation, and education. A loss of natural areas is greatest in cities; this loss 

disproportionately affects those who lack access to more remote opportunities (e.g., lowincome populations). Young children are especially impacted. Alternatively, "nearby 

nature" can facilitate children's cognitive and emotional development. The challenge is to 

increase urban nature opportunities in ways that children can enjoy and learn from. Lack of 

previous experience may cause some children to feel discomfort or fear in natural areas. The 

degree of naturalness or wildness of a place has been shown to be a significant determinant

of children's preferences for urban woodland landscapes, but little information is available 

for managing naturalness in urban open spaces. 

Purpose of the study: To examine preferences of inner city children for urban open spaces 

and natural ecosystems that is managed at different levels of naturalness. 

Methodology: Six to twelve year olds (n=62) of African American heritage from Chicago 

Housing Authority residences viewed and rated their preferences for color slides of various 

urban ecosystems (photo rating approach), and took a tour of a local nature center. The 

slides were selected and scaled by a panel of natural resource professionals to represent 

varying degrees of naturalness. 

Results/Discussion: Analyses, in general, showed that low levels of naturalness were most 

preferred, but that for some ecosystem types higher levels of naturalness could be maintained 

without significantly decreasing preferences. The study results have implications for 

managing urban open spaces for children who may not be familiar with, or feel comfortable 

in wild landscapes, to encourage recreational enjoyment and learning from nature 

experiences.

Keywords: Inner city children/African Americans, socioeconomic, urban open space, natural 

areas, urban nature experiences, outdoor recreation.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.45

21. Gramann, J. H., Shaull, S. L., & Saenz, R. (1995, October). Cultural assimilation and 

the importance of family-related and nature-related recreation experiences among Hispanic 

Americans in California. Proceedings of the Leisure Research Symposium, the National 

Recreation & Park Association Congress, San Antonio, TX.

Overview: The hypotheses of nature-related recreation experiences and the importance to 

Hispanics, and the importance of family-related outdoor recreation experiences for Hispanic 

reflect differing models of ethnic assimilation. Leisure behavior, because it may be subject 

to fewer social-conformity pressures than behavior at school or in the workplace, could 

provide an important social space for expressing and maintaining important ethnic values. 

Purpose of the study: To examine the effect of acculturation on the importance to Hispanic 

Americans of nature-related and family-related experiences in outdoor recreation. 

Methodology: Sociological theories of cultural assimilation provided the framework for this 

study. The two hypotheses were tested using data from telephone interviews of households 

in central and southern California during the spring of 1991. The sample of households 

within the region was selected using random-digit dialing. Bilingual interviewers were used 

so interviews could be conducted in either Spanish or English. The original sampling frame 

consisted of 3,897 randomly generated telephone numbers and after going through the typical 

process yielded a final sample of 995. Cultural assimilation among Hispanics was 

operationalized using measures of language acculturation. This measure was cross-checked 

against "generational tenure" or the number of generations a respondent's family had lived in 

the U.S. Hypotheses were tested using analysis of covariance. The covariates were pre-tax 

household income, educational attainment, and number of children 12 years of age or 

younger in the household. 

Results/Discussion: Results highlight the relationship between language acculturation and 

the importance of nature-related outdoor recreation experience, and show the effect of 

language acculturation on the importance of family-related recreation experiences. This 

study revealed both inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic differences in the importance attached to 

outdoor recreation experiences.

Keywords: Sociological aspects of leisure behavior, nature-based recreation, family 

recreation, Hispanic, cultural assimilation, language, acculturation.

22. Hartmann, L. A., & Cordell, H. K. (1989, January). An overview of the relationship 

between social and demographic factors and outdoor recreation participation (General 

Technical Report SE-52). In A.E. Watson (Ed.), Outdoor Recreation Benchmark 1988 (pp. 

255-274). Proceedings of the National Outdoor Recreation Forum, January 13-14, 1988. 

Tampa, FL. GTR-SE52. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Southeastern Forest Experiment Station.

Overview: The relationships between a variety of social and demographic characteristics and 

participation in outdoor recreation activities have been studied for many years. This paper 

presents a literature review of the more commonly studied social and demographic influences 

on recreation behavior.

Purpose of the study: To present an overview of more commonly studied relationships 

including age, gender, income, education and occupation. Also discussed are the less 

commonly examined influences of disability, ethnic minority and co-participation group. 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.46

Methodology: Using descriptive statistics the 1985-87 Public Area Recreation Visitors 

Survey (PARVS). The influences of age, gender, income, education, occupation, race, 

disability, and co-participant group on outdoor recreation participation are explored. 

Results/Discussion: The results of this project show differences in rate of participation 

between blacks and whites. Part of this could be due to social class and opportunity. Table 6 

in this study displays the PARVS data. Differences in participation rates were remarkable in 

land activities. The activity "camping in primitive campgrounds once or more annually" 

showed that 15% of whites participated in this activity 92.7% of total participants, whereas 

only 8.7% of non-whites were found camping in primitive areas or 7.4% of total participants. 

Social, environmental, and economic implications are provided, with additional suggestions 

for future researchers.

Keywords: Social class, gender, ethnic minority, disability, outdoor recreation.

23. Hartmann, L. A., & Overdevest, C. (1990). Race, ethnicity, and outdoor recreation 

participation: A state-of-the-knowledge review and theoretical perspective. In K. Zera (Ed.), 

Proceedings of the Southeastern Recreation Research Conference, vol. 11, pp. 53-63, 

February 15-17, 1989, Asheville, NC. Athens, GA: Institute for Behavioral Research.

Overview: As indicated from research and reports written in the early 1950s, ethnic, 

religious, and racial minorities were discriminated against and often legally barred from 

participation in recreation and park programs and facilities intended to serve the public. As 

of this research project, few studies on racial differences in outdoor recreation participation 

had been conducted. 

Purpose of the study: To examine differences in outdoor recreation participation based on 

race/ethnicity through a review of the literature and analysis of previously unpublished data 

from the Public Area Recreation Visitor Study (PARVS). 

Methodology: Data from several studies were assessed, and a “state of the knowledge” 

report was written about 1) outdoor recreation patterns of non-whites, 2) outdoor recreation 

patterns of non-black ethnic groups, 3) methodological background on PARVS presenting 

new information from this two year visitor survey, 4) results of racial differences in 

participation from PARVS, and 5) theoretical perspectives. 

Results/Discussion: Studies indicate factors such as race, socioeconomic class, and gender 

influence recreation participation by non-Whites, however few studies have considered all 

three variables together. More specifically, while data reveals some apparent racial/ethnic 

differences in outdoor recreation participation, unanswered questions surfaced: why do these 

racial/ethnic differences exist? Is social class or some other variable driving the observed 

participation differences? Are there racial or cultural differences in recreational activity 

taste? Are current recreation patterns a lingering effect of decades of segregation and 

economic disadvantage with children learning recreation patterns from parents who may 

have had limited recreation opportunities? The answers may be more complex such as 

involving interactions among a variety of influences, including economic situation, residence 

location, available transportation, education, knowledge of available recreation opportunities, 

and influences of social groups who may have leisure norms different from the White 

population. Additionally, it appears that race/ethnicity by itself may not be sufficient to 

explain these differences, but other intervening variables such as social class, gender, 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.47

rural/urban residence and other factors may play a more important role in outdoor recreation 

choice behavior. Research implications and management implications are presented.

Keywords: Racial and ethnic groups, gender, social class, outdoor recreation behavior, 

participation patterns, constraints, Blacks, Whites, Native Americans, Mexican Americans.

24. Hutchison, R. (1987). Ethnicity and urban recreation: Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics 

in Chicago's public parks. Journal of Leisure Research, 19, 205-222.

Overview: Previous studies have indicated that differences in recreation activity may be a 

consequence of distinctive ethnic subcultures, the social class positions of a particular group, 

or a more complex interplay between the two. It is believed to be the social composition of 

recreation groups, rather than the specific activity, which is most important in understanding 

possible differences and similarities between ethnic and racial groups as well as based on 

gender. While many studies document differences in white and black leisure and recreation 

activity, it is still not clear if these patterns are due to social class or ethnic differences. 

Purpose of the study: To investigate ethnic and racial differences in recreation activity by 

direct observation of white, black, and Hispanic groups in public recreation settings. The 

study was concerned with behaviors actually observed within park settings, rather than 

responses of individuals or households to a survey questionnaire. 

Methodology: Field observations of thirteen neighborhood and regional parks in Chicago, 

conducted during the summer months of 1981 and 1982, recorded information on the type, 

size, age, and sex composition of activity groups to test predictions of differences in 

recreation activity. The selection of research sites was determined by a two level sample 

reflecting the major populations groups being looked at, and recreation settings available to 

the public (neighborhood, regional, and lakefront parks). While this does not represent a 

probability sample per se, the sampling procedure suggests a stratified sample that accounts 

for the major sources of variation in the control variables (population groups and park 

settings). Observation forms were specially designed to collect detailed information on the 

number of persons and social composition of each activity group observed in the park, 

including age, sex, race, and type of social grouping. Observations were made during 

daylight hours on both weekdays and weekends, and represent a minimum of four complete 

days for each location. This procedure produces results similar to "instant-count samples" 

and "typical user distribution patterns." Research personnel were matched to the dominant 

user groups in each park (i.e., black observer in black parks, Mexican-American observer in 

Hispanic parks, white observers in white and mixed parks). 

Results/Discussion: The data yielded information on 18,000 groups engaged in more than 

300 different activity types. Important differences in white, black, and Hispanic activities 

are found. Further differences in the social composition of groups appear in both the age and 

gender of activity groups. Nearly one-third of all Hispanic activity groups were female (e.g., 

reflects childcare functions of mothers and older female children in watching over the 

young). Male groups appear more frequently among both whites and blacks (i.e., more than 

half of all groups are males for both groups). While the observational data do not provide a 

direct measure of social class, there is much evidence of intra-group variation. 

While both blacks and whites participate in more individualistic activities than Hispanics, 

differences were also observed between black groups in different areas of the city (e.g., 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.48

blacks participating in activities occurring on lakefront parks/more affluent areas versus 

neighborhood parks were not the same). Implications for resource managers are provided.

Keywords: Race, ethnicity, age, gender, social grouping, urban parks, recreation 

preferences. 

25. Hutchison, R., & Fidel, K. (1984). Mexican-American recreation activities: A reply to 

McMillen. Journal of Leisure Research, 16(4), 344-349.

Overview: This research presents a brief summary of the systematic and substantive 

differences in the type, size, age, and sex composition of Mexican-American and Anglo 

activity groups. This analysis of Mexican-American and Anglo groups in Chicago indicates 

substantive and systematic differences in the social organization of recreation activities 

between two groups. This is incompatible to the results of the McMillen Houston study of 

1983. 

Purpose of the study: To compare data sources and results with the McMillen (1983) study. 

It is suggested by the author’s that the behavior data presented in this paper are a more 

reliable measure of ethnic differences than the survey data employed in the McMillen study.

Methodology: This Chicago study is based on behavioral observation rather than survey 

data. Thirteen neighborhood and regional parks were carefully selected to represent the 

variety of recreation settings, and social class and ethnic neighborhoods across the city. 3,072 

observations were completed during the summer of 1980, providing detailed information on 

the actual activities of over 18,000 groups of people. While the data corresponded to 

"instant-count samples" of park users, for each observation, researchers also recorded the size 

of the group participating, age and sex composition of group members, and the type of social 

grouping (e.g., individual, couple, family, and team). In addition to what types of activities 

ethnic/racial groups might participate, this methodology answered the question of how they 

participate. 

Results/Discussion: The conclusions contradict those of McMillen. That is, systematic 

differences in the recreation behavior of the Mexican-American and general Anglo 

population may be related to the importance of the family unit in the more traditional 

Mexican and Mexican-American culture. Systematic differences in the size and types of 

social groups differentiate the outdoor recreation behavior of Mexican-Americans from 

Anglos. There is a strong association between the type of activity, size of group, and type of 

social grouping. Regarding age, more than a third of all Anglo groups are in the young adult 

group, and children are surprisingly absent from the parks. Half of the Mexican-American 

groups appear in the mixed-age category, emphasizing the extended group and family 

character of their recreation activity. Sex groupings were also noted as being related to 

specific patterns of activity. Fifty percent of the Anglo activity groups were comprised of 

males, corresponding to the individual sport and exercise activities; a large number of mixed 

age and sex groups were observed among Mexican-Americans. Nearly 40% of the MexicanAmerican groups observed were female, emphasizing the child care function of mothers and 

older female children in watching over young siblings. Although the McMillen study 

reported no significant differences between Mexican-Americans and the general population, 

substantive differences in the size, type, age, and gender composition of recreation groups 

were observed in this study.

Keywords: Mexican-Americans, social participation, ethnic, age, and gender differences, 

social class, leisure behavior.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.49

26. Human powered outdoor recreation: State of the industry report. (1997). A bi-annual 

publication of the Outdoor Recreation Coalition of America & the Sporting Goods 

Manufacturing Association. Compiled & written by KPMG Peat Marwick LLP, Boulder, 

CO: ORCA.

Overview: Because of the nature and format of these bi-annual reports, the detail regarding 

purpose of the study and methodology are unavailable. The highlights provided, for 

purposes of this project, are excerpts from the executive summary provided in the actual 

report. The 1997 State of the Industry Report is an examination of participation patterns, 

economic impact, policy implications, and current trends in the outdoor recreation industry. 

The primary focus of this report is limited to the spectrum of products and services 

represented by ORCA and SGMA Outdoor Products Council Members. Data was obtained 

from a variety of sources (e.g., Forest Service National Survey on Recreation and the 

Environment, ORCA studies conducted by Leisure Trends, Climbing Magazine reader 

surveys). Examination of participation patterns reveals the following key findings: (1) 

males are predominantly more involved than females in most activities by a ratio of 2 to 1; 

(2) approximately 65% of all recreationists have received some level of college education; 

(3) approximately 75% to 95% of all outdoor recreation participants are Caucasian; (4) Most 

Americans remain active past 60 years of age. Recreation enthusiasts typically range 

between 16 and 40 for most activities; (5) approximately 65% of outdoor recreationists have 

an income level between $25k and $75k per year. Additionally, the report provides an 

overview of participation by region, highlights what markets to watch (e.g., indoor climbing, 

kayaking, snowshoeing, in-line skating), discusses the economic value and benefits of 

outdoor recreation, and provides detail on the trends impacting outdoor recreation (i.e., shift 

in age, rise in racial and ethnic diversity, changing family structures & lifestyles, rise in 

number of women participating, increased urbanization and healthcare). Challenges that lie 

ahead are presented (e.g., changing market, funding for maintaining facilities, liability issues, 

access). Note: Individuals interested in previous years’ reports are encouraged to contact 

ORCA in Boulder, Colorado.

Keywords: Outdoor recreation, economic impact, trends, technology, public policy, 

demographic participation patterns (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender, age, education, income).

27. Irwin, P. N., Gartner, W. C., & Phelps, C. C. (1990). Mexican-American/Anglo 

cultural differences as recreation style determinants. Leisure Sciences, 12, 335-348.

Overview: The Hispanic population in the U.S. has increased 30% since 1980 compared 

with a 6% increase for the non-Hispanic population, and the leading source of immigrants to 

the US has been from Hispanic groups, primarily from Central and South America and 

Mexico. As population composition changes, non-Anglo families, if they choose to recreate 

on national forest lands, will encounter facilities that were planned and built more than 20 

years ago designed for traditional, European American users. A review of the literature 

includes recreation behavior differences, Mexican-American/Anglo differences, and 

Mexican-American subcultural theory.

Purpose of the study: To explore and investigate differences between Hispanic/Anglo 

campers in a wildland setting in New Mexico. The area was chosen because of an 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.50

identifiable subcultural Hispanic population (Mexican-American) that was known to recreate 

at designated campgrounds in the area.

Methodology: Mexican-American and Anglo campers using a minimally developed U.S. 

Forest Service managed campground in New Mexico were surveyed during the summer of 

1985. A personal interview accompanied by a written questionnaire was developed, and 58 

interviews were completed. The written survey was printed in English and Spanish versions 

for ease in interpretation. The Spanish translation was completed by a bilingual MexicanAmerican who was also an area resident. Ethnicity was determined by observation and 

personal interviews. Included were questions on recreation area preference, camping style, 

and sociodemographic characteristics.

Results/Discussion: Significant differences were noted between groups. Larger party sizes 

were noted for Mexican-American campers than for Anglo groups. Mexican-Americans also 

indicated a preference for nearness to other campers, placed a higher priority on tangible 

campground design features, and intended to use more highly developed campgrounds and 

decrease use of dispersed or road-less area campgrounds in the future. Noted differences 

were believed related to more cultural identity than either socioeconomic or social class 

variances.

Keywords: Mexican-Americans, subculture theory, socio-economics, recreation behavior, 

differences, recreation facility design.

28. Johnson, C. Y. (1998). A consideration of collective memory in African American 

attachment to wildland recreation places. Human Ecology Review, 5(1), 5-15.

Overview: It is generally assumed that African Americans have a more negative impression 

of wildlands compared to white ethnic groups. Studies from past decades report that blacks 

show less preference for wildlands and unstructured environments, and are also less 

environmentally aware than whites. More recent studies, however, show that in some 

instances African Americans display a similar degree of concern as whites for the dangers of 

environmental toxins. African American grassroots involvement in the environmental justice 

movement, for instance, has mounted in recent decades. While it is assumed that blacks are 

averse to wildlands, few studies have considered some of the socio-historical factors that may 

have contributed to the formation of such attitudes.

Purpose of the study: To examine the effect of race (e.g., racial variation) in place 

attachment to wildland areas.

Methodology: Black and white responses to wildland place attachment were compared by 

first analyzing the place attachment scale with exploratory factor analysis to replicate the 

earlier work of Williams et al. (1992). The place attachment scale was then subjected to 

confirmatory factor analysis, which was incorporated into a structural model. In this study, 

the items comprising the place attachment scale are observed variables that point to the 

underlying place attachment construct. This study adapted four wilderness attachment 

statements from Williams et al. to measure attachment to wildland recreation areas. The 

study sample is a subset of a larger sample drawn from the 1990 census tracts of six-county 

areas surrounding the Apalachicola National Forest in Florida. This study includes 

respondents from Gadsden County where 57% of the population is African American. The 

white sample was selected at random from the tracts, irrespective of racial density. A survey 

instrument was administered as a household mail survey in December 1994. A total of 263 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.51

surveys were returned (49% response rate) consisting of 147 white and 116 African 

American. Responses from racial or ethnic groups other than these two were not included in 

the analyses. The structural model controlled for age, sex and education level of the 

respondents.

Results/Discussion: Race accounted for just fewer than 10% of model variance (R-square 

value of 9.5 percent). Gender was positive and significant (p<.001), age was negative and 

significant (p<.01), and education was not significant. Results indicate that African 

Americans were less likely to have stronger attachment to wildlands, compared to whites. 

Males were more likely than females to be more attached to wildlands, and older respondents 

had less attachment compared to younger ones. The fact that race remains significant after 

including other socio-demographic variables indicates that race is a reasonably strong 

predictor of attachment to wildland environments. Based on socio-historical factors 

associated with African Americans and the land, it was argued that these factors (e.g., 

collective impressions) such as slavery, sharecropping, and lynching may contribute to this 

lack of interest and appreciation. As a social psychological construct, collective memory 

mediates between demographic variables such as race, gender, and income, on the one hand, 

and attitudes, and ultimately behavior, on the other hand. Results from the factor analyses 

supported the high reliability for place attachment found by Williams et al. (1992). 

However, while the present study employed a quantitative measure of attachment to 

wildlands, more qualitative assessments of attachment to wildlands can enhance our 

understanding of individuals personal feelings for such places, their work histories, the social 

atmosphere (i.e., relations between blacks and whites), and how these influence their 

interaction with wildlands.

Keywords: African American, collective memory, environmental meaning, place 

attachment, wildland recreation, gender, socioeconomic barriers.

29. Johnson, C. Y., Bowker, J. M., English, D. B. K., & Worthen, D. (1998). Wildland 

recreation in the rural South: An examination of marginality and ethnicity theory. Journal of 

Leisure Research, 30(1), 101-120.

Overview: Past studies have established that African Americans, compared to whites, 

generally perceive wildland settings to be less aesthetically pleasing than built environments 

and are also less likely than whites to recreate in these areas. Most of these investigations 

have been conducted with non-rural household samples, or with on-site samples in places 

relatively distant from black populations. Racial and ethnic differences in forest recreation 

visitation, preferences, and perceptions for rural populations have received relatively little 

attention by researchers. 

Purpose of the study: To review the marginality and ethnicity explanations that account for 

black/white differences in outdoor recreation. 

Methodology: Using primary data, the authors examine visitation for a rural, southern 

sample to unspecified wildland recreation areas, visitation to a National Forest wildlands, and 

household visits to the Apalachicola National Forest for a rural, southern sample. 

Black/white responses are also compared regarding reasons for non-visitation and latent 

demand for wildland visitation. Using logistic regression, black/white differences are tested 

for: 1) visitation to wildland areas in general; 2) visitation to National Forest wildland areas; 

and 3) household visitation to the Apalachicola National Forest. The marginality/ethnicity 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.52

paradigm is also used as the basis for examining reasons for non-visitation and latent demand 

for visitation. 

Results/Discussion: Findings show that race, sex, and age as well as a race/poor (poor black) 

interaction term are strong predictors of visitation. However, race appears to be less effective 

in predicting reasons for non-visitation and latent demand for wildland visitation. Overall, 

results do not provide strong support for either ethnicity or marginality as a sole reason for 

describing racial differences in wildland recreation. Rather, results indicate that the two 

probably work in combination to explain racial differences. The poor black interaction also 

suggests that rural black visitation to wildlands varies depending upon income, with less 

affluent blacks actually participating more than those with higher incomes. This contradicts 

the marginality assertion that recreation participation varies positively with income and 

suggests that marginality perspective may need to be qualified depending upon residence 

(rural vs. urban) and type of activity. Recommendations for future research are presented.

Keywords: Ethnicity, marginality, rural residence, socio-economics, wildland recreation.

30. Johnson, C. Y., Horan, P. M., & Pepper, W. (1997). Race, rural residence, and 

wildland visitation: Examining the influence of sociocultural meaning. Rural Sociology, 62, 

89-110.

Overview: Most research on racial and ethnic group participation in outdoor recreation has 

shown that African Americans are less likely than other groups to engage in wildland 

recreational activities such as camping, hiking, or backpacking. Landscape preference 

researchers also report that African Americans are less likely than other ethnic groups to 

express preferences for wildland, unstructured-type settings, in contrast to affected or built 

landscapes. A critical limitation of these investigations is that the sampled populations were 

primarily urban respondents. Relatively little research has focused on either the recreation or 

scenic preferences of rural blacks. 

Purpose of the study: In this exploratory study, the authors propose that race operates on 

wildland recreation visitation through the different meanings rural blacks and whites attribute 

to wildlands. This hypothesis is examined with a structural model of wildland visitation that 

includes race and other socio-demographic variables, which specifies a wildland "meaning" 

dimension as an intervening factor between race and visitation. The model proposes that 

race operates on wildland visitation primarily via a set of beliefs and attitudes that reflect the 

meaning attributed to wildlands by racial groups. 

Methodology: Data was collected from a sample selected from 1990 census tracts of six 

counties surrounding the Apalachicola National Forest in Florida. Mail surveys resulted in 

427 that were returned and usable (303 white, 124 African American). Responses from 

racial or ethnic groups other than African American or white were not included in the 

analyses because they comprised less than five percent of the sample. The questions were 

designed to measure each of the four-wildland meaning dimensions (i.e., developed 

preference, collective preference, safety concern, place attachment). Both exploratory and 

confirmatory factor analyses were performed on the wildland meaning scale. A logistic 

regression tested for racial differences in visitation while holding the other sociodemographic variables constant. 

Results/Discussion: As the theoretical model proposed, both race and gender are significant 

predictors of wildland meaning. Race has a negative relationship with wildland meaning. 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.53

Age was also found to be significant to visitation and meaning and, contrary to predictions, 

education is not a significant predictor of wildland meaning. Neither is the presence of 

children significant for visitation. Regression results showed significant black/white 

differences in both visitation and meaning, with African Americans reporting fewer visits 

and having less favorable impressions about wildlands. The congruency of these results 

with earlier urban-focused studies suggests that "wildland aversions" reported for urban 

blacks may be generalized to rural blacks as well. The findings imply that differences in 

reported visitation correspond, in part, to differences in how respondents perceived wildland 

areas. Thus, it may be that the meanings and impressions people attach to wildlands are 

more salient than race in predicting behavior towards wildlands. This reference to symbolic 

interactionism enhances our understanding of how different societal groups interpret the

natural environment. The authors suggest using ethnographic analyses, and incorporating 

both feminist and narrative theory and methods in helping to generate future data.

Keywords: Race, gender, socio-economics, education, family structure, age, African 

Americans, wildland recreation, wildland meaning, attitudes, rural perceptions, outdoor 

recreation.

31. Managing Urban and High-Use Recreation Settings. Proceedings of the 4th North 

American Symposium on Society and Resource Management. (General Technical Report 

NC-163), P. H. Gobster (ed.), Selected Papers from the Urban Forestry and Ethnic Minorities 

and the Environment Paper Sessions. University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI (May 17-20, 

1992). Chicago, IL: USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station.

Overview: This General Technical Report contains selected papers from the "Urban 

Forestry" and "Ethnic Minorities and the Environment" paper sessions. The papers in these 

proceedings reflect the current scope of people-place interactions in two focus areas: urban 

forestry and racial and ethnic minority populations. Race and ethnicity is an area which 

encompasses issues centering on particular racial and ethnic groups; age, gender, and social 

group variations; the use of important recreation settings such as the wildland-urban 

interface; and expansion of the recreation research agenda into areas of environmental equity, 

concern, and action. Examples of papers in these proceedings include: Daily cycles of 

urban park use; Race, ancestry, and gender relating to urban park use; Preferences for nearby 

natural settings relating to ethnic and age variations; Understanding diverse recreationists: 

beyond quantitative analysis; Hispanics in the National Forests; racism as a concern for 

recreation resource managers (see Blahna elsewhere in this report); An update on outdoor 

recreation participation of Blacks, Whites, Hispanics, and Asians in Illinois; and Leisure 

among African-Americans: towards an indigenous frame of reference. Papers in these 

proceedings proclaim the most recent advances in our knowledge of these complex issues, 

and recommend new directions for future research and practical application.

Keywords: Outdoor recreation, urban forestry, wildland-urban interface, race/ethnicity, 

gender, socio-economics, environmental attitudes.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.54

32. McDonald, J. M., & Hutchison, I. J. (1986). Minority and ethnic variations in outdoor 

recreation participation: Trends and issues. In: A literature review, the President's 

Commission on Americans Outdoors (pp. 41-51). U.S. Government Printing Office (PR40.8: 

AM3).

Overview: To date, the substantive question as to whether or not recent trends in the supply 

of, and demand for, public outdoor recreation resources and opportunities are valid indicators 

of an influencing association between race, ethnicity, cultural values, and outdoor recreation 

participation, needs to be answered. During the last couple of decades, several theories have 

been utilized to explicate ethnic variations in outdoor recreation participation. Additionally, 

several studies have been conducted to determine both the extent to which race and ethnicity 

influence outdoor recreation and to identify barriers to the access and utilization of outdoor 

recreation resources by minority Americans. 

Purpose of the study: The purpose of this paper is to provide an evaluative review of the 

literature is to reveal various theoretical approaches to the examination of ethnic variations in 

outdoor recreation. 

Methodology: Prominent theories are discussed and critiqued, and factors influencing 

outdoor recreation behavior are identified from an investigation of studies to date. 

Results/discussion: Results of the review and assessment of the literature offer several 

conclusions as to reasons and rationale for differences in availability, demand and 

preferences for outdoor recreation resources among ethnic and minority Americans. 

Examples of an overall content analysis include such factors as: Blacks seem to participate 

more in sports than whites; Whites participate to a greater degree in wildland outdoor 

recreation activities; Blacks recreate closer to home making greater use of local parks and 

less use of state and national parks; Access to recreation facilities may differ for blacks and 

whites; and the greater degree of urbanization, the greater the convergence of white and nonwhite outdoor recreation participation rates. Results also conclude the need for minority 

professionals in natural resources and outdoor recreation. There is a need to determine the 

extent to which such increases in minority professionals might yield positive results.

Keywords: Outdoor recreation participation, race, ethnicity, cultural values, literature 

review, research assessment.

33. McGuire, F. A., O'Leary, J. T., Alexander, P. B., & Dottavio, F. D. (1987). 

A comparison of outdoor recreation preferences and constraints of Black and White elderly. 

Activities, Adaptation & Aging, 9(4), 95-105.

Overview: One of the most important dimensions affecting life satisfaction in the elderly is 

the level of activity and the intensity of involvement. On the other hand, other evidence 

indicates that activity, per se, is not as important as the congruence between actual and 

desired activity. Also, because some research shows that social class and race are not 

necessarily conclusive predictors explaining leisure participation, recommendations have 

been put-forth for more sophisticated analyses to be done on specific activities and targeting 

specific populations. 

Purpose of the study: To look at the outdoor recreation behavior of black and white 

individuals over the age of 65. 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.55

Methodology: Data used in this study were gathered as part of the 1982-83 Nationwide 

Recreation Survey (NRS). The NRS was jointly sponsored by the National Park Service, 

U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and the Administration on Aging. The 

NRS was conducted with a sample of individuals (n=6720) who were 12 years of age or 

older. Data were weighted to reflect the national population of individuals 12-years or older. 

This weight was adjusted for nonresponse, age, sex, and race. Respondents were asked to 

identify the three outdoor recreation activities most important to them. Data from this 

question were used to examine recreation preferences of black and white individuals 65 years 

of age or older. Respondents were also asked whether they were participating in those 

activities selected as often as desired. Discriminant analyses were used to determine 

whether differences existed in either outdoor recreation involvement or constraints between 

elderly blacks and whites. 

Results/Discussion: Overall, results indicated more similarities than differences in outdoor 

recreation preferences between black and white respondents. However, a comparison of the 

percentage of black and white respondents experiencing specific constraints to participation 

appeared to indicate some differences. Examination of the standardized discriminant 

function coefficients indicated that lack of money and transportation was more important to 

black respondents, whereas lack of time and overcrowding were relatively more important to 

white respondents. While an examination of outdoor activity preferences of blacks and 

whites indicated some differences, an analysis of the entire discriminant analysis suggested 

this was more a reflection of large sample size than meaningful racial differences. 

Conclusions indicate the inappropriateness of providing activities based on myths or 

stereotypes about groups.

Keywords: Race, class, Black, White, elderly, outdoor recreation preferences, constraints.

34. Nelson, I. (1974). Minority demand for resident youth camping in the South. 

Proceedings of the Outdoor Recreation Research Symposium: Applying the Results, (pp. 98-

100). June 19-21, 1973, Marquette, MI. (General Technical Report, NC-9). St. Paul, MN: 

USDA North Central Forest Experiment Station.

Overview: Use of public outdoor facilities is markedly less among non-whites than whites. 

For a variety of reasons, including traditions, facility locations, and average incomes, 

recreation patterns of whites and non-whites differ. This statement is not to suggest that 

non-white patterns are inferior; they may be just as beneficial and enjoyable as those of 

whites. Suppliers of recreation recognize the rights of minorities to public facilities, but 

often wonder what types of services to supply. Prior to 1964, the year the Supreme Court 

abolished segregation laws on the use of public facilities, blacks seeking resident camping (in 

Alabama) generally attended all-black camps. 

Purpose of the study: To survey resident youth camps in Alabama and Florida to determine 

growth and participation rates. 

Methodology: This paper does not provide detail about the exact methodology other than the 

fact that 151 camps in Florida and 162 camps in Alabama were surveyed. 

Results/Discussion: The survey revealed only one all-black camp in Florida (established in 

1952), and three in Alabama. By 1970, agencies had discontinued their separate camping 

operations for blacks and whites. Nevertheless, the rate of minority camper participation 

remained low (e.g., only 7 percent of Alabama's 48,265 campers were non-white). However, 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.56

a few religious and nearly all private camps had no minority attendance. The estimated 

number of non-whites in Florida resident camps was about 9,000 or almost three times that 

for Alabama. It was stated that the more liberal interracial climate in Florida explains some 

of the differences. Resident youth camping among blacks appears to be increasing due to 

restrictions being lowered. Paradoxically, increased activity by minorities may reduce 

majority participation. Denial of public facilities to certain groups is indefensible. 

Participation by all groups is encouraged and inter-group harmony should be actively 

promoted.

Keywords: Blacks, whites, youth camps, socio-economics, outdoor recreation.

35. Pawelko, K. A., Drogin, E. B., & Graefe, A. R. (1997, October). Ethnic and cultural 

origin and its impact on river recreationists' experiences: The case of Hispanic Americans. 

Proceedings of the Leisure Research Symposium, the National Recreation & Park 

Association Congress, Salt Lake City, UT.

[Note: This same study was presented at the 1996 Northeast Recreation Research 

Symposium in New York. The paper also appears in the NERR Proceedings for this 

conference and can also be obtained from the USFS Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, 

General Technical Report No. 232].

Overview: Recreation resource managers are challenged to increase their understanding of 

ethnically and culturally diverse visitors. More specifically, a major gap has been identified 

in the literature regarding the behaviors and styles of ethnic minority group visitors at waterbased recreation areas. 

Purpose of the study: To address what behaviors, experience styles, preferences, and 

meanings Hispanic Americans attach to river recreation experiences, and look at what 

constraints or conflicts are associated with their leisure experiences at an outdoor river 

recreation area. A naturalistic approach was used to examine the multiple, subjective 

experiential realities associated with ethnic/cultural group water-based recreation 

experiences. 

Methodology: Data were collected on 18 occasions utilizing observation and interview 

techniques. The population included all Hispanic American river recreation visitors at a 

National Park Service national recreation area in NJ and PA. The sample included 31 river 

users selected on multiple sampling occasions at one site known to be used intensively by 

Hispanic Americans. Theoretical, purposive, and snowball sampling techniques guided data 

collection. Data were prepared into transcripts and the constant comparative method of 

qualitative analysis was used to code, process and analyze the data. 

Results/Discussion: Results show several themes emerged which illuminated the similarities 

and differences among ethnic/cultural user groups. These include: identification of the range 

of visitors & their leisure styles; visitor motivations; culturally influenced recreational 

behaviors; conflicts among users; temporal elements and spatial elements. Recreational 

conflicts may be precipitated by a lack of understanding or appreciation of similarities or 

differences among diverse ethnic groups; and Hispanic visitors' style may reflect diverse 

cultural notions of time and space when compared to patterns of use by the dominant 

majority use (e.g., European American). Further research exploring temporal & spatial 

outdoor recr. related factors associated with diverse cultures & ethnic groups are suggested. 

Keywords: Outdoor recreation behavior, Hispanic Americans, race and culture, motivation, 

user conflicts.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.57

36. Philip, S. F. (1995). Race and leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 17, 109-120.

Overview: Much leisure research has been based on a model representing a hierarchical 

series of intra-personal, interpersonal, and structural constraints that affect leisure choices. 

This suggests that "individuals move from proximal constraints, which affect preferences, to 

distal constraints, which affect participation. Unfortunately, this evolving generalized model 

of leisure constraints has not directly addressed race as an important factor affecting leisure 

preference and participation. Other research has focused on exploring explicit group 

differences in leisure barriers, preferences, and participation, usually associated with various 

forms of marginality, sub-cultural values or discrimination. 

Purpose of the study: To examine the importance of race as a significant factor affecting 

leisure constraints. African Americans and European Americans were compared on some 

basic measures of leisure constraint. The author highlighted related African American 

literature pertaining to racial differences in leisure preference and participation as well as 

intra-personal leisure constraints. 

Methodology: A stratified random sample of 450 households was drawn from a middlesized southern coastal metropolitan area (32% African American, 66% European American, 

2% other). The study census tract was selected using the 1990 U.S. census information. The 

original sample yielded 247 completed questionnaires: African Americans =136 (55%); 

European Americans=108 (44%); and 3 by others (1%) resulting in overall response rate of 

55%. Two leisure constraint measures were tested: appeal and comfort. Respondents were 

asked to indicate their associated strength of comfort or appeal on a Likert-type scale for 20 

selected recreational activities. These activities were chosen to represent a wide spectrum of 

common outdoor and indoor leisure activities frequently measured in the leisure literature. 

Demographic characteristics of African Americans and European Americans were 

statistically similar. Variables measured include: age, household size, household income, 

education, and gender. 

Results/Discussion: Specifically pertaining to outdoor recreation, African Americans rated 7 

of the 20 activities significantly lower in appeal than did European Americans (i.e., camping 

in mountains, going to beach, going to zoos, bicycling, dining out, snow skiing, going to 

museums). However, fishing was rated significantly higher for African Americans than for 

their European counterparts. Similarly, many of the same activities were also rated lower in 

comfort for African Americans; others included in this category for this population include: 

going to festivals; going to country clubs; picnicking. African Americans and European 

Americans of similar residential location and socioeconomic status showed [statistically] 

significant differences in the rated appeal and comfort they associated with a majority of the 

recreational activities examined in this study. Three major theoretical explanations of racial 

difference frequently encountered in the leisure literature are offered here for discussion: (a) 

marginality, (b) ethnicity-socialization, and (c) prejudice-discrimination.

Keywords: Race, African American, leisure preferences, constraints, participation, 

recreational sports, outdoor activities, socioeconomics.

37. Phillipp, S. F. (1993). Racial differences in the perceived attractiveness of tourism 

destinations, interests, and cultural resources. Journal of Leisure Research, 25, 290-304.

Overview: Two general observations are made concerning contemporary America: 

1) Tourism is an increasingly important force in the economic development of many 

communities, and 2) black economic prosperity, though still lagging far behind that of 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.58

whites in absolute terms, has allowed large gains over the last ten years in the relative 

number of blacks who might be categorized as "middle class" or even "affluent." If tourism 

is the "driving engine" of economic development for many areas, then how do black tourist 

perceptions, opinions, values, and decisions differ from white tourists, and how might that 

empirical data specifically figure into the tourism planning and development process? 

Purpose of the study: To ascertain whether race was an important variable in determining 

tourism destination attractiveness. In addressing this objective, the leading question of this 

study was: Are blacks and whites different in the destinations, and associated destination 

characteristics, they find attractive? 

Methodology: A stratified random sample of 213 households in a southern, coastal 

metropolitan area was investigated (45% black, 55% white). Interviewers conducted house 

visits (from randomly selected street blocks from census tracts), and investigated black-white 

differences in perceived attractiveness of tourism destination characteristics. Respondents 

were asked to rank three sets of color photographs, representing different types of 

destinations, interests, and cultural resources, from most attractive to least attractive. 

Frequency cross-tabulations by race were performed on all the study variables. Differences 

in the rankings by race for each study area were then statistically evaluated utilizing 

Spearman's Coefficient of Rank Correlation. Blacks and whites were compared to determine 

the degree of association between their rankings. Differences in socio-economic variables 

were statistically evaluated by race using chi-square tests of independence. 

Results/Discussion: Strong positive correlations between overall black and white rankings 

were found for all three study characteristic areas. Some significant differences, however, 

were shown on the individual categories in each area. Black and white rankings for tourism 

cultural resource areas resulted in the largest difference. Interesting to note that the natural 

resource category showing "scenery" in the form of a "waterfall", was ranked higher than the 

cultural resource categories for both blacks and whites. While natural resource based 

destinations (i.e., rivers, beaches, mountains, lakes, and farms) were ranked overall in the top 

five choices by both races, blacks were likely to rank the photograph most closely associated 

with "wildland recreation areas" (i.e., mountains) significantly lower than whites. Blacks' 

ranked "tribal costumes" and "contemporary stage dancing" significantly higher than whites. 

While a few significant differences were found between races, this study also found high 

overall association between blacks and whites in the attractiveness of tourism destinations, 

interests, and cultural resources.

Keywords: Race, socio-economics, tourism, leisure, perception, photographs, cultural 

resources, natural resource-based destinations.

38. Roberts, N. S., & Drogin, E. B. (1996, October). Attitudes and experiences of women 

of color in the outdoors. Proceedings of the Leisure Research Symposium, the National 

Recreation & Park Association Congress, Kansas City, MO.

Overview: Current information about women pursuing outdoor adventure activities still 

comes primarily from studies of white women. Research has only recently begun to explore 

the experiences of women of color. It is essential to recognize that women of various ethnic 

and cultural backgrounds may pursue different goals and engage in different outdoor 

recreational activities for different reasons. 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.59

Purpose of the study: This study is an exploratory evaluation which looked at attitudes, 

concerns, constraints, knowledge and awareness of women of color related to outdoor 

recreation and adventure-based activities. 

Methodology: Based on review of research in environmental attitudes, race, ethnicity, and 

culture in the outdoors; and women, leisure and experiential education, a 60-item Attitudes 

and Experiences Inventory was constructed. Data for the study were collected through mail 

surveys received from 36 self-selected women of color from across the country. Basic 

descriptive statistics were used to analyze demographics, outdoor experience, and perception 

of race. Additional correlation’s, ANOVA's and chi-square analyses were performed to 

differentiate attitudes and experiences by basic characteristics. Respondents represented a 

wide age range (i.e., 18-58). The majority was African American (60%), bi-racial or 

multiracial (16%), and Native American (14%). The remainder was of Asian or Hispanic 

ancestry. 

Results/Discussion: Findings show that most respondents preferred to recreate outdoors with 

friends or an organized group rather than by themselves, as well as to socialize with

individuals of similar ethnic backgrounds. Over half agreed that women of color have not 

been socialized to participate in outdoor activities, that they were not uncomfortable being 

the only person of color participating in an outdoor activity, and that the more educated a 

woman is the greater the effect this has on the selection of outdoor activities. Respondents 

did not feel that race nor economic situation were the primary factors affecting intent to 

participate, actual participation, or under representation of women of color in the outdoors. 

Rather factors relating to cultural acceptance and norms, limited exposure to outdoor 

activities, lack of awareness of opportunities, stereotype of the outdoors as a "white thing," 

and outdoor activities as inappropriate for women of color were noted as constraints. Factors 

indicated as preventing more frequent participation in outdoor activities include: Lack of 

equipment, lack of knowledge and/or expertise, health and safety issues, fear, and proximity 

to outdoor recreation areas.

Keywords: Women, ethnicity, socio-economics, leisure, experiential education, outdoor 

recreation, constraints, attitudes and experiences.

39. Roberts, N. S. (1996). Women of color in experiential education: Crossing cultural 

boundaries. In K. Warren (Ed.), Women's Voices in Experiential Education (pp. 226-240). 

Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.

Overview: Discussion of the outdoor adventure experiences of women often neglect 

experiences of women of color. Little is known how ethnic background affects the quality 

and quantity of their experiences in the outdoors. It is therefore critical to understand not 

only the outdoor experiences of all women, but to acknowledge and ascertain how race and 

ethnic relations shape each of us individually. 

Purpose of the study: To determine perceptions of participation in outdoor recreation by 

women of color and examine their attitudes and experiences relating to the outdoors. 

Methodology: The author describes a connection of race and ethnicity to women's 

involvement in experiential education and recreation in the outdoors. Incorporating a content 

analysis of the literature, issues of empowerment, difference, socialization, spirituality and 

leadership are discussed. Utilizing a qualitative methodology, three case studies form the 

basis for this research project. Through the process of face-to-face interviews, the author 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.60

elicited perspectives on leadership, gender issues, and general feelings and experiences of 

outdoor adventure participation. Because of their unique backgrounds and various regional 

representations, three women were solicited and selected to provide personal perspectives for 

this study. That is, African American, Chinese American, and Chicana (with Navajo 

ancestry). 

Results/Discussion: Themes that emerged include leadership, empowerment, building 

cultural connections, culture and spirituality, discrimination and racism. More specifically, 

these themes relate to the need for more women of color as role models, development of 

confidence and challenge not available elsewhere, building alliances and coalitions to cross 

cultural boundaries, taking responsibility to eradicate myths and stereotypes, exploring 

personal heritage and the relationship to the outdoors, and understanding how discrimination 

and racism has impacted women differently depending on their specific ethnic background.

Keywords: Race, ethnicity, gender, class, outdoor recreation, experiential education, case 

studies, constraints, leadership, empowerment, feminist theory, culture, spirituality, 

discrimination, racism.

40. Roberts, N. S., & Henderson, K. A. (1997). Women of color in the outdoors: Culture 

and meanings. Journal of Experiential Education, 20(3), 134-142.

Overview: Although more women are becoming involved in outdoor experiential activities, 

we are only beginning to learn about the experiences of women of color. Scholars and 

practitioners in experiential education and outdoor recreation are being challenged to rethink 

the relationship among different races and cultures. In particular, the growing interest in 

gender and diversity in the outdoors has raised new questions. 

Purpose of the study: To examine meanings of the outdoors (including the natural 

environment and participation patterns) as expressed by women of color. 

Methodology: A grounded theory approach was used to analyze two data sets collected from 

interviews with women of color in the U.S. The data for this project were analyzed largely 

from an ethnicity perspective that assumed cultural variations may exist in norms, values, 

behavior, and beliefs about the outdoors. An interpretive paradigm was the basis for this 

study. Symbolic interactionism provided the theoretical framework for analyzing the data. 

Specifically, this was used to explore the relationships that women of color had with the 

outdoors through analysis of their personal experiences. The sample consisted of two data 

sources; hence the results were obtained through secondary analysis of these two sources. 

First, seven women of color at a southeastern university who participated in a focus group 

about outdoor involvement were one source of data. Structured questions were developed to 

guide the focus groups. The second source of data was interviews with 17 women of color 

(ages 20-33) representing various racial and ethnic backgrounds from across the U.S. 

Again, structured questions guided the interview process. A total of 24 self-identified 

women of color were interviewed for this analysis that included fourteen African American, 

six Asian American, two Hispanic, and two Native American women. Data analysis used 

primarily constant comparison techniques. The data were coded independently by both 

researchers to reflect themes regarding meanings about outdoor involvement. The re-coding 

of sub-themes reflected specific content. The coded transcripts were re-read to ascertain that 

the categories fit the data and visa versa. Background literature was related to the data to 

better understand the emerging themes and to develop a grounded theory approach to 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.61

deriving conclusions. Corroboration between the researchers helped determine high 

credibility and dependability. 

Results/Discussion: Findings indicate two prevailing themes emerged: Social Support, and 

Discomfort and Fear as related to the outdoors. Involvement by the sample of women in this 

study revolved around their interpretation of these two dimensions. Sub-themes that 

emerged pertaining to "social support" include: Family, peers, role models, isolation, and 

sociocultural connotations. Within "discomfort and fear" the following sub-themes were 

prevalent: Personal (e.g., appearance, skill, previous exposure to outdoor activities), and 

Social (e.g., stereotypes, perceived stigma, potential for racial discrimination). 

Recommendations and implications for program managers and outdoor leaders are provided.

Keywords: Women of color, race/ethnicity, culture, constraints, outdoor recreation, 

adventure activities.

41. Roberts, N. S., & Drogin, E. B. (1993). The outdoor recreation experience: Factors 

affecting participation of African American women. Journal of Experiential Education, 

16(1), 14-18.

Overview: Although an increasing number of women are enjoying the outdoors and 

participating in outdoor activities, the representation of black women is relatively low. 

Acknowledgement of cultural diversity among women mandates that women of color be 

looked at as a group that may indeed pursue different goals, and subsequently engage in 

different activities towards meeting these goals. 

Purpose of the study: To explore the factors contributing to the non-participation of African 

American women in outdoor recreation activities. 

Methodology: Relevant research was synthesized and intensive interviews were conducted 

with African American women in the Washington, D.C. area. Five women participating in 

Washington, D.C.’s “Black Women’s Support Group” were self-selected and agreed to 

partake in the study.

Results/Discussion: Based on a critique of the literature and results of interviews, the 

primary factors affecting participation reported in this paper include: a historical perspective 

(e.g., oppression and racism), perceptions of race and gender (e.g., stereotypes), lack of role 

models, lack of exposure to activity options in the outdoors, limited accessibility to 

wilderness from urban areas, and oppressive economic conditions. Additionally, several 

cultural factors are discussed. Implications for professionals can relate to program planning. 

Planning initiatives to reduce barriers for women of color on the part of outdoor recreation 

and experiential education professionals must be undertaken to comprehend and overcome, if 

appropriate, unique constraints to participation faced by black women.

Keywords: African American, race, gender, socio-economics, outdoor recreation, adventure 

programs, historical perspectives, constraints, myths, stereotypes.

42. Rodriguez, D. A. (1996). An assessment of factors influencing natural resource career 

aspirations among Hispanic high school students. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation (Ph.D.), 

Colorado State University, Fort Collins (UMI Microform No. 9710078).

Overview: Although racial and ethnic influences are documented in the literature, basic 

understandings of environmental values within various groups, as well as the degree this 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.62

translates to work within a natural resources career field have received little attention. 

Additionally, early work seems to support the notion of increased environmental sensitivity 

through long term outdoor experiences, however, there is increasing evidence and concern 

that the lack of access to outdoor recreational pursuits may hamper the development of 

environmental sensitivity among ethnic minorities.

Purpose of the study: To assess early leisure experiences among a population of Hispanic 

students across the country and to determine if these experiences have a direct effect on held 

environmental values and subsequent career decisions. A secondary objective included 

identifying a methodology for assessing levels of ethnic identity among Hispanic youth and 

its subsequent effect on leisure choice and participation in environmental learning 

experiences.

Methodology: A predictive model was developed to explain the behavioral intentions of 

Hispanic youth and the factors which might account for their attitudes toward, and interest in, 

pursuing a degree in the natural resource field. A self-administered mail survey was sent to 

Hispanic high school students who had taken the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), or the 

American College Testing Service Exam (ACT), during the 1992-1993 school year, as a 

prerequisite for college acceptance. Subjects receiving the survey were randomly selected 

from the Colorado State University database of qualified Hispanic high school seniors. 

Ethnic origin was identified by a self-reporting procedure employed by each testing service. 

From a random sample of 1,000 students selected from the list generated from the sampling 

procedure, 353 usable questionnaires were returned (35.3% response rate). To eliminate 

non-response bias, a random sample of 30 non-respondents were called and administered an 

abbreviated survey containing general questions related to ethnic identity, outdoor recreation 

participation, outdoor learning experiences, and general demographics identical to those in 

the initial survey.

Results/Discussion: Survey responses were obtained from Hispanic students in 21 states and 

the District of Columbia. Respondents consisted of 61.3% female and 38.8% male. The 

majority of students identified themselves as Mexican, Mexican-American, Chicano (74.5%) 

and the remainder was of Central American origin, Puerto Rican, and Cuban origin. The 

reported approximate mean household income for survey respondents was $45,000-59,999

annually. Results of this study confirm earlier work related to differing patterns of outdoor 

recreation involvement among ethnic groups. Ethnic identity was explored as a new way of 

operationalizing levels of acculturation and assimilation. Anglo affiliation, Anglo lifestyle, 

and Anglo self-image were identified as predictors of outdoor recreation behavior. Measures 

of ethnicity related to Hispanic lifestyle and having a Hispanic mother were negatively 

associated with outdoor recreation activity. Ethnic identity was also found to be positively 

associated with natural resource career aspirations. Outdoor learning experiences were found 

to be instrumental in influencing outdoor recreation patterns among Hispanic youth. 

Utilitarian and eco-centered (anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric) environmental values 

were shown to be positively associated with natural resource career aspirations. Outdoor 

recreation participation was shown to have a significant influence on students' natural 

resource career aspirations and perceived behavioral control regarding natural resources and 

related career fields. 

Keywords: Hispanics, high school students, environmental values, outdoor learning 

experiences, ethnic identity, outdoor recreation participation, natural resources career 

influences.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.63

43. Shaull, S. L., & Gramann, J. H. (1998). The effect of cultural assimilation on the 

importance of family-related and nature-related recreation among Hispanic Americans. 

Journal of Leisure Research, 30(1), 47-63.

Overview: The hypotheses of nature-related recreation experiences and the importance to 

Hispanics, and the importance of family-related outdoor recreation experiences for Hispanic 

reflect differing models of ethnic assimilation. Leisure behavior, because it may be subject 

to fewer social-conformity pressures than behavior at school or in the workplace, could 

provide an important social space for expressing and maintaining important ethnic values. 

Purpose of the study: To examine the effect of acculturation on the importance to Hispanic 

Americans of nature-related and family-related experiences in outdoor recreation. 

Sociological theories of cultural assimilation provided the framework for this study. The two 

hypotheses were tested using data from telephone interviews of households in central and 

southern California during the spring of 1991. The sample of households within the region 

was selected using random-digit dialing. Bilingual interviewers were used so that interviews 

could be conducted in either Spanish or English. The original sampling frame consisted of 

3,897 randomly generated telephone numbers and after going through the typical process 

yielded a final sample of 995. Cultural assimilation among Hispanics was operationalized 

using measures of language acculturation. This measure was cross-checked against 

"generational tenure," or the number of generations a respondent's family had lived in the 

U.S. Hypotheses were tested using analysis of covariance. The covariates were pre-tax 

household income, educational attainment, and number of children 12 years of age or 

younger in the household. 

Results/Discussion: Results highlight the relationship between language acculturation and 

the importance of nature-related outdoor recreation experience, and show the effect of 

language acculturation on the importance of family-related recreation experiences. This 

study revealed both inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic differences in the importance attached to 

outdoor recreation experiences.

Keywords: Sociological aspects of leisure behavior, nature-based recreation, family 

recreation, Hispanic, cultural assimilation.

44. Shinew, K. J., Floyd, M. F., McGuire, F. A., & Noe, F. P. (1995). Gender, race, and 

subjective social class and their association with leisure preferences. Leisure Sciences, 17, 

75-89.

Overview: Empirical studies of the singular effects of race, social class, and gender on 

leisure behavior comprise a substantial portion of the leisure research literature. However, 

studies regarding the extent to which gender, social class, and race combine to influence 

leisure-related outcomes are rare and just beginning to be explored and appear in the 

literature. 

Purpose of the study: This study examines the leisure preferences of subgroups defined by 

gender, race, and subjective social class. The multiple hierarchy stratification perspective 

and the class polarization perspective provided the theoretical rationale for the study. 

Methodology: A secondary data set from a national probability survey was used. The 

original study involved a national random telephone survey conducted to obtain information 

regarding the leisure preferences of adults age 21-65. From 2,148 contacts, 1,711 interviews 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.64

were completed (71% completion rate). Race was measured by a self-report and resulted in 

a sample consisting of 138 Blacks, 1374 Whites, 38 Hispanics, 16 Asians, and 12 American 

Indians. Respondents' incomes were skewed toward the upper income levels. Individuals 

with incomes over $50,000 were over represented, whereas those with incomes below 

$20,000 were under-represented, which may be the result of the age parameters of the study. 

The gender breakdown was 60% females and 40% males. 

Results/Discussion: Results were broken down into males and females from different ethnic 

and social class backgrounds. Relating to outdoor recreation specifically, hunting and fishing 

activities were ranked first by middle to upper middle class White men, and seventh among 

poor working-class Black women. The same activities were ranked third among middle to 

upper middle-class Black men. Both White and Black men from middle-upper middle-class 

backgrounds ranked outdoor individual and camping-hiking activities similarly. For Black 

female groups of different social classes, they ranked boating and risk-skill activities (e.g., 

snow skiing, rock climbing, and skydiving) as their least preferred activities. Regarding 

Black men of different social classes, the middle-upper-middle class individuals ranked 

camping-hiking activities higher, whereas the poor-working-class men ranked associationsociability and games activities higher. Overall, the most isolated groups in terms of 

dissimilarity in activity preferences were the poor-working-class Black women and the 

middle-upper-middle class White men. The conflicting pattern of activity preferences 

between racial groups of poor or working-class status suggests that race factors may be more 

closely related to leisure activity preferences than to a common perception of one's social 

class. The authors conclude with confidence that race and social class interactively affect 

leisure preferences irrespective of gender. The combined or interactive effect of race, class, 

and gender represents a fertile area for inquiry.

Keywords: Race, social class, gender, class polarization, multiple hierarchy stratification 

perspective, leisure preferences.

45. Social Aspects and Recreation Research: Symposium Proceedings (General 

Technical Report: PSW-GTR-156). D. Chavez, Technical Coordinator, USDA Pacific 

Southwest Research Station. Symposium on Social Aspects and Recreation Research, 

February 23-25, 1994. San Diego, California.

Overview: This General Technical Report is a collection of research studies presented at 

the second Social Aspects and Recreation Research Symposium. In these proceedings are 

copies of the presentations, summaries of presentations from the educational poster, roundtable, and simulated field trip sessions. This document includes a variety of issues and 

topics. The theme for this symposium was the human dimensions of natural resources. 

Examples of presentations included in these proceedings (relating to this project): Impact 

of multicultural groups on resource management; Differences in behavior conventions (i.e., 

comparison of Hispanics and Anglo Americans); Ethnic use of the Tonto; Environmental 

dilemmas and ethical reasoning among Hispanic and non-Hispanic forest visitors; and 

Development and testing of a cultural identity construct for recreation and tourism studies. 

Keywords: Race, ethnicity, gender, Hispanics, behavior, forest recreation, cultural identity, 

environmental concerns. 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.65

46. Social Aspects and Recreation Research: Symposium Proceedings (General 

Technical Report: PSW-GTR-132). D. Chavez, Technical Coordinator, USDA Pacific 

Southwest Research Station. Symposium on Social Aspects and Recreation Research, 

February 19-22, 1992. Ontario, California.

Overview: This General Technical Report is a collection of research studies presented at the 

first Social Aspects and Recreation Research Symposium. In these proceedings are copies of 

the presentations, summaries of presentations from the educational poster, round-table, and 

simulated field trip sessions. This document includes a variety of issues and topics. 

Examples of studies provided, relating to this project, include conflicts in the wildland-urban 

interface, data collection for multicultural environments, communication with multicultural 

groups, service delivery strategies for multicultural environments, valuing cultural diversity, 

and wilderness issues for urban proximate areas.

Keywords: Race, ethnicity, multiculturalism, cultural diversity, wilderness, urban, conflicts.

 

47. Stamps, S. M., & Stamps, M. B. (1985). Race, class, and leisure activities of urban 

residents. Journal of Leisure Research, 17, 40-56.

Overview: There is a lack of empirical data on the relationship between race, social class 

and leisure activity. This is surprising given the assumption that is often made that class is 

more important than race in determining life-styles. 

Purpose of the study: To examined the relationships of race and class to leisure activities of 

urban residents. This study should provide a better understanding of the role played by race 

and class with regard to leisure lifestyle. While this study looked at a broad array of leisure 

activities (n=22), outdoor recreation is a significant component in the analysis. 

Methodology: Data for this study were obtained from a 1981 study investigating the quality 

of life of residents living in integrated census tracts in a Northern New York community of 

approximately 180,000 residents. A random sample of 750 households was drawn from the 

sampling frame that reflected the proportional population in each census tract. An interview 

was conducted with all households and consisted of 111 questions including pertinent 

demographics (e.g., education, occupation, race, socioeconomic status) and information 

about leisure activities. Gender was not a variable of interest in this study. Of those 

interviewed, 66.7% were black, 27.7% were white. Other groups (e.g., Hispanic, Native 

Americans) made up the remaining 5.4% and were not included in this analysis. Utilizing 

Spearman's Coefficient of Rank Correlation, blacks and whites of different classes were 

compared to determine the degree of association between rankings of their participation in 

leisure activities. Chi-square analysis was utilized to determine whether blacks and whites of 

differing classes participated at a differential rate in the specific leisure categories.

Results/Discussion: Results show whites participated more in outdoor recreation, traveling, 

yard work/gardening and blacks participated more in socializing/partying, shopping, 

resting/relaxing. When the two social classes were compared (i.e., lower, middle), it was 

found that middle class participated more in sports, cultural activities, outdoor recreation and 

traveled more. Lower class respondents watched television and listened to the radio more. 

Similarly, middle class whites participated in activities noted above for whites and middle 

class blacks participated in activities noted above for blacks. Results also show that, in 

general, socializing/partying and resting/relaxation were participated in more by blacks, 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.66

regardless of class, than by whites in this study. Additionally, there were no differences 

between lower class blacks and whites regarding outdoor recreational activities. Overall, 

contrary to what was expected, race seems to be more important than class in determining 

leisure participation. This was especially true for middle-class respondents.

Keywords: Leisure lifestyle, recreation activities, race, social class, urban, community. 

48. Taylor, D. E. (1992). Urban park use: Race, ancestry, and gender. Proceedings of the 

4th North American Symposium on Society and Resource Management. Managing urban 

and high-use recreation settings: Selected papers from the "Urban Forestry" and "Ethnic 

Minorities and the Environment" paper sessions. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin.

Overview: Most of the comparative race and ethnic leisure studies focus on a very narrowlyspecified model, where race and social class are sole determinants of leisure participation. 

Sometimes a more sophisticated model is implied that includes ethnicity and attitudinal 

variables, but in practice there seems to be little difference between it and the narrower raceclass model. The reason for reliance on this simplified model is due to the problem inherent 

in many comparative studies to date, is that of operationalizing components of the model. 

However, ethnicity in many cases in not operationalized. Instead researchers analyze data on 

race and interpret the differences in participation as differences caused by ethnicity. 

Purpose of the study: To propose an alternative explanation known as the "differential 

access model." This model more accurately reflects the complexity of socio-structural and 

cultural variables (and their interrelationships) and their influence on leisure participation. 

Methodology: Data were collected in 1989 from participants who frequent the parks of New 

Haven Connecticut. Two-hour interviews were conducted with people living in various 

neighborhoods in the city. Responses from 144 interviews were analyzed (n=63 Blacks of 

which 14 were Jamaicans and 49 were African Americans; 81 Whites of which 26 were 

Italians and 55 were other Whites). 

Results/Discussion: The analysis included responses to general use of neighborhood parks, 

favorite parks, reasons for park use, attractive park features, and reasons for avoiding parks. 

Males were more likely to use the parks closest to them than females. Black females were 

least likely to use the parks closest to their residences. Reasons for park use include park 

facilities, love outdoors, aesthetic appeal, convenient location. Reasons for avoiding parks 

include no interest, life cycle limitations, no time, and perceived danger. A certain 

percentage of Blacks did not use the neighborhood parks because they perceived them to be 

dangerous places or they had no interest, while Whites used parks either because of the 

facilities or they found these parks aesthetically appealing. African Americans were more 

likely to perceive parks as more dangerous than any other group; danger in the parks was not 

an issue with Italians and other whites. An overriding concern of Blacks was to find a place 

with well-maintained play equipment for children in which they could recreate safely, in 

addition to the fact they wanted to see other Blacks recreating in these parks. Whites place 

slightly more emphasis on the kind of facility in the park, while Blacks were more attracted 

to the peaceful nature of parks than whites. There was no significant difference in the way 

males and females ranked the various park attributes, however significant differences did 

vary by age and education. And, ancestry had some interesting effects. This study 

demonstrates that park use is influenced by a multiplicity of factors.

Keywords: Ethnicity, gender, social class, urban parks, outdoor recreation.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.67

49. Tierney, P. T., & Dahl, R. (1998). Who is likely to visit natural areas and participate 

in outdoor experiential education programs; what are the barriers; and how can barriers be 

broken? Monographs of the Association for Experiential Education, Reference #102098. 

Boulder, CO: AEE.

Overview: Recent studies have found significant differences in visitation to natural areas 

(NA) and participation in outdoor recreation activities among segments of the American 

public. Important questions that continue to be asked are important to protected area 

managers as well as to non-profit and commercial organizations providing outdoor 

experiential education programs (often in natural settings). Future trends suggest we need to 

pay even more attention to these issues.

Purpose of the study: To identify barriers by current users and non-users, especially urban 

minority residents; to develop and test a model of outdoor recreation participation in 

undeveloped natural areas incorporating the variables of socio-economic status, ethnicity, 

assimilation, and perceived discrimination.

Methodology: The study described in this monograph was based on a telephone survey of a 

stratified random sample of Los Angeles City and County adult residents between November 

1994 and January 1995. Interviews were available in English, Spanish and Mandarin. 

Respondents were asked if they took a recreational or leisure trip away from their home from 

May through August 1994. If they took a trip, respondents were asked if they visited an 

"undeveloped natural" area. Data was collected from three key groups: 1) individuals who 

did not take any leisure trip during the summer, 2) those who traveled but did not visit an 

undeveloped natural area in the summer; and 3) people who visited an undeveloped natural 

area on a vacation or shorter excursion. Each of the three groups described was asked to 

identify barriers or constraints to visitation.

Results/Discussion: At total of 3,098 calls were attempted with a total of 894 interviews 

completed. The survey sample was very diverse, with 31.8% identified themselves as 

primarily Mexican American, Hispanic, Chicano, Latino, or Spanish decent; 31.1% were 

White or European American; 20.6% were Black or African American; 16.5% Asian or 

Pacific Islander; .07% were other ethnic groups and 1.7% were a mixture of ethnic groups. 

About one in three survey respondents did not take any leisure trip during the spring and 

summer of 1994, suggesting a substantial number of residents have significant barriers to 

travel or have limited interest in leisure travel. About four out of ten people interviewed took 

a trip where they visited an undeveloped natural area. The remainder (30.5%) took a leisure 

trip but did not visit an undeveloped natural area. Visitors to natural areas were evenly 

distributed among age groups. Significant differences were found in visitation to natural 

areas according to education and income levels. For instance, 55% of households 

interviewed earn $75,000 or more visiting a NA compared to 17.1% of those from 

households earning under $25,000. There was little difference in NA visitation between 

males and females. U.S. citizens were more likely to visit a NA (35.9%) compared to noncitizens (24.6%). The study reports and discusses significant within group differences of 

various ethnicity’s relating to visitation to NA. The most constraining barriers for all three 

groups were: 1) lack of free time; few friends travel or recreate in natural areas; nearby 

destinations were too crowded; their financial situation; don't know where to go/what to do. 

Time commitments, financial constraints and not enough workers of my ethnicity were 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.68

significantly more important to respondents who did not take a leisure trip, compared to 

those who took a leisure trip. Additionally, ethnic minorities were more likely to express the 

belief that not feeling welcome was an issue, than their European American counterparts 

(e.g., perceived discrimination and feeling welcome traveling enroute or within a natural 

area). Regarding the development and testing of a "model": Logistic regression results 

showed that respondents significantly less likely to visit an undeveloped NA were those with 

low levels of socio-economic status, low levels of assimilation, who had moderate to high 

perceived discrimination, and who were of African American ethnicity. There were no 

significant differences between Asian, Hispanic and European Americans in their likelihood 

of visiting a NA, once intervening variables were held constant. The six most important 

barriers to natural area visitation cited by groups that under-utilize wildlands include: 1) 

lack of friends to recreate in NA with; 2) too crowded; 3) want more workers there of my 

ethnicity; 4) feel unwelcome and discriminated against; 5) don't know where to go or what to 

do; and 6) lack transportation options.

Keywords: Outdoor recreation, barriers, ethnicity, age, socio-economics, gender, natural 

area recreation use patterns, experiential education participation, perceived discrimination, 

barriers.

50. Tierney, P. T., Dahl, R., & Chavez, D. (1996, October). Cultural diversity in 

use of undeveloped natural areas (abstract). Proceedings of the Leisure Research 

Symposium, the National Recreation & Park Association Congress, Kansas City, MO.

Overview: Due to the rapidly growing population of various ethnic groups in America, a 

potentially significant change in recreation use patterns will occur. Numerous studies have 

sought to determine if there are differences in recreation use patterns and underlying 

motivations between ethnic groups, often with conflicting results. 

Purpose of the study: Develop and test a model of ethnic participation at undeveloped 

natural areas (NA). 

Methodology: The proposed model included the constructs of socio-economic status, 

perceived discrimination, assimilation and ethnicity. Undeveloped natural areas were 

defined as "being located outside of cities and primarily natural in composition (e.g., national 

and state forests), which could have campgrounds, lakes, access roads, visitors centers, and 

trails." Information for model testing came from a telephone survey of a stratified random 

sample of Los Angeles county residents. Both users and non-users were surveyed. The 

model was tested using Logistic Regression, which showed an overall chi-square of p<.001, 

and 70% of the predicted values were observed. A total of 894 interviews were completed 

with 31.8% identifying themselves as Hispanic, 31.1% White, 20.6% Black, and 16.5% 

Asian. 

Results/Discussion: Findings show that ethnicity had a significant influence on visitation to 

NA's only one ethnic group, African Americans, was significantly less likely (p<.00 to visit. 

Asian (p=.95) and Hispanic (p=.56) visitation was not significantly different than the 

European American respondents. Individuals significantly less likely to visit an 

undeveloped natural area were those with low levels of assimilation, who had moderate to 

high perceived discrimination, and who were of African American descent. These data 

suggest that public wildland agencies must be proactive by creating new programs and 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.69

expanding existing intervention projects, or they risk not being able to show that publicly 

funded natural resources are used by most Americans.

Keywords: Model development, socioeconomic status, perceived discrimination, 

assimilation, ethnicity, national forests, parks, wildlife refuges, open space. 

51. Toth, J. F., & Brown, R. B. (1997). Racial and gender meanings of why people 

participate in recreational fishing. Leisure Sciences, 19, 129-146.

Overview: Issues of leisure, race, and gender permeate American society yet systematic 

analyses of these three factors in outdoor activities are lacking in leisure studies. As some 

feminist scholars have pointed out, many studies on popular leisure activities assume that 

these activities hold similar meanings for all social groups, thereby ignoring potential gender 

and racial differences. 

Purpose of the study: To explore the meanings associated with why people fish as a leisure 

pursuit; and, to compare these meanings across gender and racial groups. 

Methodology: Using data drawn from surveys collected in two Mississippi Delta 

communities, responses were examined from people who had indicated they had been fishing 

in the past year (n=124). Of the total respondents analyzed, 49% were White, 51% were 

Black, 56% were women, and 44% were men. The median household income range for 

White anglers was $20,000 to $25,000, whereas for Blacks it was $5,000 to $10,000. The 

median income of female fishers was $10,000 to $15,000 and for males the median income 

range was $15,000 to $20,000. The sample was drawn from a predominantly rural area and 

was comparable to other Delta communities regarding racial and socioeconomic make-up. 

They are also located next to many rivers and lakes in the area thereby affording ample 

opportunity for fishing. The data were gathered using structured surveys where trained 

interviewers conducted an interview with a randomly selected adult in the household. 

Interviews were conducted between July 1994 and February 1995. Respondents were 

selected using a stratified, random cluster sampling procedure. Before the survey data were 

collected, the authors conducted non-participant and participant observation and informal 

interviews. Exploratory factor analysis was used to examine what fishing activities mean to 

racial and gender groups and looked at 11 specific reasons why people fish. 

Results/Discussion: Findings show that for fishing as a leisure activity, race and gender 

affect the manner by which meaning is assigned to the experience. Race had the greatest 

(statistical) impact on the reasons stated for fishing and the strongest factor in the creation of 

meaning, although gender contributed conceptually to meaning structures. Differences were 

found between Black women and White women providing a step towards the call that deeper 

contextual understanding of women’s leisure must be pursued. More similarities than 

differences, however, are present among anglers in this study. A discussion of the 

theoretical significance of place and subculture highlights the role of race and gender in 

creating meanings of leisure. Implications for outdoor recreational management 

professionals are provided.

Keywords: Race, gender, age, income, leisure meanings, recreational fishing.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.70

52. Washburne, R. F., & Wall, P. (1980). Black-white ethnic differences in outdoor 

recreation (Research Paper INT-249). Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service: Intermountain 

Forest and Range Experiment Station.

Overview: Recreation research literature has demonstrated that minority populations 

(especially Blacks), participate less frequently than Whites in many outdoor recreation 

activities in both urban and wildland settings. Explanations for these ethnic variations are 

less clear. Interpretations commonly use one of three competing explanations: demographic 

explanation, marginality explanation, or the ethnicity perspective. 

Purpose of the study: To clarify, theoretically, the nature of ethnic differences in 

participation rates using the HCRS national sample (Heritage Conservation and Recreation 

Service). To assess the applicability of the marginality, demographic, and ethnicity 

perspectives, the former two are tested together empirically and the latter explored through 

substantiating sociological and anthropological theory. 

Methodology: A stratified probability sample of 4,029 households was drawn; age and sex 

quotas were then used to select respondents within households for telephone interviews 

conducted in June and July of 1977. 

Results/Discussion: Analysis of this national sample on outdoor recreation participation 

show the Black group is no more hampered by cost factors than the White group. 

Additionally, little evidence exists that Blacks' generally lower rates of participation (in 

comparison to Whites') in wildland-related activities stem from either inhibitory factors or 

statistical artifacts of population composition. Blacks' perceived constraints on outdoor 

recreation participation differed from Whites' only in greater transportation difficulty; desired 

activities for outdoor recreation tended to accentuate Black-White differences rather than 

reduce them. Rather, Black leisure patterns result from a distinct cultural value and 

normative system contrasted to White "mass society." Both groups prefer small, nearby 

parks. However, when compared to the White group, Blacks tend more toward urban parks 

(as opposed to rural ones), toward more facilities instead of more land, toward indoor rather 

than outdoor facilities, and toward inland rather than waterfront sites. The key question that 

remains unsatisfactorily answered concerns the relative importance of location of 

participation opportunities versus the activity itself in determining Black leisure style.

Keywords: Blacks, Whites, marginality/ethnicity perspectives, socio-economics, constraints, 

outdoor recreation.

53. Washburne, R. (1978). Black under-participation in wildland recreation: Alternative 

explanations. Leisure Sciences, 1, 175-189.

Overview: Prior to the 1960s, Blacks' nonuse of wildland resources received little attention 

or concern. However, challenges in the 1960s and 1970s to other previously sacred 

institutions of American society in which there were imbalances of benefits raised in the 

likelihood that outdoor recreation might be another manifestation of inequity similar to the 

housing, educational, and occupational disadvantages accruing to minorities. Increased 

concern among policymakers resulted in a variety of programs, such as the Youth 

Conservation Corps, to enhance outdoor recreation in proximity to urban areas and also to 

provide opportunities for minority youth to gain acquaintance with park and forest 

environments. 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.71

Purpose of the study: To present two alternative perspectives on Black under participation in 

wildland recreation. The alternative explanations discussed are marginality and ethnicity. 

The marginality perspective suggests Blacks do not participate because of poverty and 

various consequences of socioeconomic discrimination. The ethnicity perspective proposes 

that recreational patterns are based on sub-cultural leisure norms and value systems. Blacks 

may have a very different historical relationship to wildlands and nature in comparison to the 

white European tradition, which may be responsible for white American values relating to 

wildland recreation activities. 

Methodology: While data were not available as of the writing of this article, the marginality 

concept was tested using 1969 data on leisure of selected California residents in urban areas 

with unusually low incomes and other disadvantages. This secondary data source was 

reanalyzed to examine more closely Black-white leisure differences, with results focusing on 

marginality and (to a limited extent) ethnicity perspectives. A multistage, stratified sample 

was used to randomly select census tracts and then dwelling units for interviewing residents. 

1193 Blacks, 838 whites were respondents for this study. Very limited numbers of Mexican 

Americans and assorted other ethnic groups were covered but not discussed in this article. 

Participation rates for Blacks and whites in different recreation activities were compared 

based on percentage of each group mentioning each activity, and testing for significance with 

chi-square analyses. 

Results/Discussion: Blacks are more active than whites in team sports, yet participate much 

less extensively in wildland-related outdoor recreation and in recreation involving travel 

outside the local (home) community. Use of local parks (e.g., more community oriented) 

does not differ significantly for the two groups. Regarding "fishing, hunting, and crabbing" 

Black participation is not significantly different from white. For wildland outdoor activities, 

low participation by Blacks could be due to intervening socio-economic differences from 

whites. Both activity costs and transportation issues were mentioned more frequently by 

Blacks as barriers to participation in various leisure activities. An analysis of value systems 

in minority cultures might provide insights into how they serve as predictors of leisure 

behavior.

Keywords: Ethnicity, socio-economics, recreation participation, preferences, wildlands, 

leisure styles, constraints/barriers, marginality/ethnicity perspectives.

54. West, P. C. (1989). Urban region parks and black minorities: Subculture, marginality, 

and inter-racial relations in park use in the Detroit metropolitan area. Leisure Sciences, 11, 

11-28.

Overview: Two paradigms - marginality and subculture (ethnicity) - have dominated the 

way of thinking and research about minority under-representation in outdoor recreation. 

However, this body of research has almost entirely ignored the problems of interracial 

relations and prejudice. This oversight may be due, in part, to the cognitive tyranny of the 

dominant paradigms in leisure research on minorities in general. 

Purpose of the study: To compare participation in Detroit city parks and surrounding 

regional parks by black and white Detroit residents. This study explores the nature of 

barriers to the use of city and regional parks by black residents. 

Methodology: The sample was drawn using random digit dialing for the population of 

Detroit proper (not including suburbs), because the concern was focused on the recreation 
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.72

needs and constraints for inner city minorities. Of all numbers dialed and contacts made, a 

final sample of 456 usable surveys was obtained. Only black and white respondents are 

included in the analysis due to low numbers of Hispanic and other racial groups. Subjective 

indicators of marginality were formed from coded responses to open-ended questions on the 

survey about reasons for nonuse of parks (for nonusers), or for reasons why the respondent 

did not participate more often (for users of parks). Categories including financial reasons 

("expense") and "lack of transportation" were the primary subjective indicators of 

marginality. Regarding interracial factors, the general working concept for this project 

included a set of subjective perceptions ranging from direct experience of obviously racist 

reactions from whites (i.e., racial name-calling), perception of anti-black attitudes and 

prejudice, and general perceptions of feeling "uncomfortable" or "unwelcome." 

Results/Discussion: Black participation rates within Detroit far exceed the participation rate 

for whites. Among those who do use Detroit City parks, there were no statistically 

significant differences in frequency of use between white and black users. Among users of 

regional parks, frequency of use among whites is greater than for blacks. These sharply 

contrasting findings by regional location within the urban region suggest that policy analysis 

should carefully examine the spatial-regional context of outdoor recreation participation by 

minorities. Findings show transportation, and not expense, was somewhat more of a 

problem for black nonusers of regional parks than whites. Neither white nor black 

respondents listed expense as a reason for not participating. As for non-use of regional 

parks, more whites stated "not interested" or "lack of preference" as a reason for not visiting 

these areas, and while there were fewer black nonusers responding this way, the indicated 

they can do preferred activities in Detroit. Results also show that it wasn't until more specific 

questions were asked about interracial relations that these factors became significant. Out of 

all respondents, more whites than blacks said they had experienced negative reactions from 

others while using regional parks however these differences were not statistically significant. 

When probe questions were asked about the types of negative reactions they experienced, 

this revealed statistically significant differences between black and white respondents. One 

example is that separate statistical tests indicate minorities felt "unwelcome or uneasy" 

significantly more than whites. In attempts to determine what types of users were 

experiencing interracial tensions, tests for statistical interaction between race and various 

demographic and socioeconomic variables were conducted (i.e., sex, age, education, 

income). Interaction was not statistically significant for sex, age, and education, but was 

statistically significant for the interaction between race and income. Implications for further 

research as well as policy and planning are presented in this paper.

Keywords: Urban region parks, Blacks, socio-economics, subculture, marginality, interracial relations, prejudice, discrimination, constraints/barriers.

55. Yancey, W. L., & Snell, J. (1976). Parks as aspects of leisure in the inner city: An 

exploratory investigation. Proceedings of the Research in the Parks: Transactions of the 

National Park Centennial Symposium, Annual meeting of the American Association for the 

Advancement of Science (December 28-29, 1971), Neil J. Reid (ed.), pp. 149-158. 

Washington, D.C.: Department of the Interior.

Overview: This paper is a summary of general findings of an exploratory investigation of the 

leisure activities among lower, working, and middle-class blacks and whites living in a 

middle-sized city -- Nashville, TN.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.73

Purpose of the Study: To identify which particular social and economic groups participate 

in various leisure activities. To examine the nature of the social relationships (if they existed 

at all) which characterize a particular form of leisure.

Methodology: Data were generated by means of a questionnaire survey administered in the 

spring of 1971. The sample consisted of 301 adults (i.e., 149 whites, 152 blacks). Note: 

How the sample was obtained is unknown. This sample allowed for investigation of racial 

differences in leisure activities, while controlling for the effects of social and economic 

status. Similarly, the authors examined the social class difference in leisure within and 

between racial groups. Using open-ended questions, information was obtained on an 

extensive range of informal and formal activities that respondents were engaged in during 

their leisure time. Included were questions about evening activities, sports participation, 

voluntary associations, hobbies, visiting with neighbors and friends, vacation travel, musical 

preferences, and the use of local, state, and national parks and recreation areas. (The 

results/discussion of this annotation focuses on the parks and natural recreation areas).

Results/Discussion: Overall, it was found that over 95% of those going to parks, go with 

family or friends. Of the two major independent variables focused upon – race and 

socioeconomic status -- findings indicate that social class is far more important in 

determining patterns of leisure than is racial status. And, there are some differences in the 

leisure activities of blacks and whites after controlling for social and economic status. Data 

suggest that before people from the lower economic status concern themselves with spending 

money on recreation, the basic requirements of housing, food, clothing, and transportation 

must be satisfied (e.g., "survival"). Considerable differences were reported regarding 

frequency of use of local or neighborhood parks compared to the state and national parks. 

Regarding local parks: One month prior to the interview, 90% of all respondents reported 

that they and their families used the parks at least once during that month. Although more 

blacks do not use the parks at all, those who do use them, do so more often than whites. 

Among blacks, there is a higher rate of use of local parks among those respondents of lower 

status. Among whites, there is no difference between status levels. Regarding more distant 

state and national parks: Fifty-five percent of the urban respondents indicated they had not 

been to such a park in the last 2 years. These parks are more frequently used by whites and 

by middle-class families than by blacks and lower and working class families. Four 

hypotheses are noted as possible explanations for these differences: 1) Differences in use of 

parks may reflect differences in recreation and leisure associated with various social and 

economic status groups; 2) Racial and socioeconomic differences in the more general 

adaptations to urban life are reflected in the differential use patterns for local and national 

parks; 3) Variable access to state and national parks is determined not by lifestyle, but rather 

by the resources which families have at their disposal for recreation (e.g., time required to 

make such trip and transportation expenses); and 4) blacks have developed higher levels of 

community cohesion and a general pattern of not venturing into what has traditionally been 

regarded as white territory. Implications for public policy are provided.

Keywords: Leisure activities, urban parks, Blacks & Whites, social class differences, social 

relationships.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.74

Race/Ethnicity, Gender, Social Class 

Found in the Experiential Education or Recreation & Leisure Literature

(An abbreviated, general listing)

This particular section of references relates to a sample collection of race, ethnicity, gender, 

and/or social class (or any intersection thereof) in the general experiential education or 

recreation and leisure studies literature. They represent the bodies of knowledge that are 

inclusive of these specific variables relating to the outdoors. While many of these references 

listed below include outdoor recreation as one of the factors of interest, we have chosen not 

to annotate these studies because they do not solely pertain to outdoor recreation. However, 

because they are found in the recreation and leisure literature, these references have made a 

contribution, and may prove to be useful and informative for future research on this subject. 

Aguilar, T. E. (1997). A measure of ethnic leisure participation. SOCIOTAM: Revista 

de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades [International Journal of Social Sciences and 

Humanities], 7(1), 23-36.

Allison, M. (1988). Breaking boundaries and barriers: Future directions in crosscultural research. Leisure Sciences, 10, 247-259.

Bialeschki, M.D. & Walbert, K.L (1998). “You have to have some fun to go along 

with your work”: The interplay of race, class, gender, and leisure in the Industrial New 

South. Journal of Leisure Research, 30(1), 79-100.

Carr, D.S. & Williams, D.R. (1991). Outdoor recreation and ethnic group 

membership: A literature review (Final Report for Research Agreement No. PSW-90-

0030CA). Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department 

of Forestry.

Floyd, M. F. (1998). Getting beyond marginality and ethnicity: The challenge for 

race and ethnic studies in leisure research. Journal of Leisure Research, 30(1), 3-22.

Note: This is the "Special Issue Introduction" for this issue of JLR. This paper is not a 

research study, but an overview of the state of research in race/ethnicity and 

recreation/leisure 

Hutchison, R. (1988). A critique of race, ethnicity, and social class in recent leisurerecreation research. Journal of Leisure Research, 20(1), 10-30.

Klobus-Edwards, P. (1982). Race, residence, and leisure style: Some policy 

implications. Leisure Sciences, 4(2), 95-112.

Kraus, R., & Lewis, C. (1986). Ethnic and racial minorities in urban recreation. In: A 

literature review, the President's Commission on Americans Outdoors, (pp. 19-30). U.S. 

Government Printing Office (PR40.8:AM3).
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.75

Magill, A. W. (1995). Multicultural wildland users: A growing communication 

challenge. The Environmental Professional, 17, 51-54.

McDonald, D., & McAvoy, L. (1997). Native Americans and Leisure: State of 

research and future directions. Journal of Leisure Research, 29(2), 145-166.

McMillen, J.B. (1983). The social organization of leisure among Mexican 

Americans. Journal of Leisure Research, 15(2), 164-173.

Meeker, J. W., Woods, W. K., & Lucas, W. (1973, Fall). Red, White, and Black in 

the National Parks. North American Review, 3-7.

Philipp, S.F. (1999). Are we welcome? African American racial acceptance in 

leisure activities and the importance given to children’s leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 

31(4), 385-403.

Philipp, S.F. (1998). Race and gender differences in adolescent peer group approval 

of leisure activities, Journal of Leisure Research, 30(2), 214-232.

Philipp, S. F. (1997). Race, gender, and leisure benefits. Leisure Sciences, 19, 191-

207.

Phillipp, S.F. (1994). Racial differences in perceived leisure constraints. Perceptual 

and Motor Skills, 79, 1339-1343.

Scholer, E. A. (1986). Native Americans . In: A literature review, the President's 

Commission on Americans Outdoors (pp. 99-101): U.S. Government Printing Office 

(PR40.8:AM3).

Walker, G., & Virden, R. J. (1992, October). Ethnic group membership, value 

orientations, and leisure participation patterns. Proceedings of the Leisure Research 

Symposium, the National Recreation & Park Association Congress, Cincinnati, OH.

Warren, K. (1999). Unpacking the knapsack of outdoor experiential education: 

Race, gender, and class sensitive outdoor leadership. Ph.D. Dissertation, The Union 

Institute, Cincinnati, OH

Warren, K. (1998). A call for race, gender, and class sensitive facilitation in outdoor 

experiential education. Journal of Experiential Education, 21(1), 21-25.

Woodard, M. D. (1988). Class, regionality, and leisure among urban Black 

Americans: The Post-Civil Rights era. Journal of Leisure Research, 20(2), 87-105.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.76

Race/Ethnicity, Gender, Social Class 

Found in the Environmental Attitudes and Values Literature

(An abbreviated, general listing)

Even more specific than the general recreation and leisure literature, mentioned in the 

section above, the literature pertaining to environmental attitudes and values is a key body of 

knowledge that has lead up to the subject of outdoor recreation. Because research in this 

area has occurred for over three decades, there was no way to develop an exhaustive list in 

this particular report. We have selected a sample of those that we felt were most applicable 

to this project. For a list of approximately 300 studies on environmental attitudes, see 

Dunlap and Van Liere (1978). There are several hundred more research studies in the last 

twenty years since Dunlap and VanLiere’s work also worthy of analysis. Some of the papers 

listed here are empirically- based, others are not. This section also includes elements of 

environmental education, attitudes towards pursuing careers in the environmental field:

Clad, J. (1984). Conservation and Indigenous Peoples: A study of convergent 

interests. Cultural Survival Quarterly, 8(4), 68-73.

deGroot, K. D. (1998). Highlights from the first Latin American congress on national 

parks and other protected areas. International Journal of Wilderness, 4(2), 7-11.

Gramann, J.H., Floyd, M.F., & Ewert, A. (1992). Interpretation and Hispanic 

American ethnicity. In G.E. Machlis and D.R. Field (eds.), On Interpretation: Sociology for 

Interpreters of Natural and Cultural History, Technical Report submitted to the Wildland 

Recreation and Urban Culture Project, Riverside, CA: USDA Forest Service Pacific 

Southwest Research Station.

Dunlap, R.E. & Van Liere, K.D. (1978). Environmental concern: A bibliography of 

empirical studies and brief appraisal of the literature. Public Administration Series 

Bibliography. Monticello, IL: Vance Bibliographies.

Dustin, D., McAvoy, L. L., & Rankin, J. (1991). Land ethics in a culturally diverse 

society. Trends, 28(3), 25-27.

Dwyer, J. F., & Gobster, P. H. (1992, September). Recreation opportunity and 

cultural diversity. Parks & Recreation, 27(9), 22, 24-26, 28, 30-31.

Ewert, A., & Pfister, R. (1991). Cross-cultural land ethics: Motivations, appealing 

attributes and problems. Proceedings of the 56th North American Wildlife and Natural 

Resources Conference, Alberta, Canada.

Frampton, G. T. (1991). Bringing racial diversity to the environmental movement. 

Reconstruction, 1(3), 41-45.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.77

Gibson, B., & Moriah, D. (1989). Meeting the interpretive needs of minorities. 

Proceedings of the Interpretation/Management Sessions, National Interpreters Workshop, 

National Association of Interpretation, St. Paul, Minnesota.

Heberlein, T.A. (1981). Environmental attitudes. Journal of Environmental Policy, 

2, 241-270.

James, K. (1993). A qualitative study of factors influencing racial diversity in 

environmental education, (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1993).

Dissertation Abstracts International. (University Microfilms, No. 9328350).

 Kaplan, R., & Talbot, J. F. (1988). Ethnicity and preference for natural settings: A 

review and recent findings. Landscape and Urban Planning, 15, 107-117.

Kempton, W., Boster, J. S., & Hartley, J. A. (1996). Environmental values in 

American culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Noe, F. P., & Snow, R. (1990). Hispanic cultural influence on environmental concern. 

Journal of Environmental Education, 21(2), 27-34.

Pettus, A., & Giles, M. (1987). Personality characteristics and environmental 

attitudes. Population and Environment, 9(3), 127-137.

Pfister, R. (1991). Urban National Forests: Land ethics, ethnicity, and the evolution of 

a land ethic. Trends, 28(3), 21-24.

Silverberg, K. E., Backman, K. F., & Backman, S. J. (1996, ). Environmental 

attitudes and nature based travel behavior: A survey of African Americans. In D. Dawson 

(Ed.), Proceedings of the 8th Canadian Congress on Leisure Research, (pp. 258-263). 

Ottawa, Canada: University of Ottawa.

Taylor, D. E. (1994, February). Environmental values, ethics, and depreciative 

behavior in wildland settings. Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Social Aspects and 

Recreation Research, San Diego, CA.

Taylor, D. E. (1989). Blacks and the environment: Toward an explanation of the 

concern and action gap between blacks and whites. Environment and Behavior, 21(2), 175-

205.

Zube, E. H., & Pitt, D. G. (1981). Cross-cultural perceptions of scenic and heritage 

landscapes. Landscape Planning, 8, 69-87.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.78

BIBLIOGRAPHY

In addition to the references annotated, this bibliography also contains some possible 

additional sources of interest relating to this subject. Although several of the citations in this 

section are not research studies, as previously defined in the introduction of this report, they 

may provide supplemental information also of value to race/ethnicity, gender, and social 

class. Consequently, this bibliography is comprehensive of all references included in this 

report.

Aguilar, T. E. (1997). A measure of ethnic leisure participation. SOCIOTAM: Revista 

de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades [International Journal of Social Sciences and 

Humanities], 7(1), 23-36.

Allison, M. (1988). Breaking boundaries and barriers: Future directions in crosscultural research. Leisure Sciences, 10, 247-259.

Arnold, M. L., & Shinew, K. J. (1998). The role of gender, race, and income on park 

use constraints. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 16(4), 39-56.

Baas, J. M., Ewert, A., & Chavez, D. J. (1993). Influence of ethnicity on recreation 

and natural environment use patterns: Managing recreation sites for ethnic and racial 

diversity. Environmental Management, 17(4), 523-529.

Bialeschki, M. D., & Walbert, K. L. (1998). "You have to have some fun to go along 

with your work": The interplay of race, class, gender, and leisure in the Industrial New 

South. Journal of Leisure Research, 30(1), 79-100.

Blahna, D. J., & Black, K. S. (1992, May 17-20, 1992). Racism: A concern for 

recreation resource managers? Proceedings of the 4th North American Symposium on 

Society and Resource Management. Managing urban and high-use recreation settings. 

Selected papers from the "Urban Forestry" and "Ethnic Minorities and the Environment" 

paper sessions. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin.

Busser, J. A., Hyams, A. L., & Carruthers, C. P. (1996). Differences in adolescent 

activity participation by gender, grade, and ethnicity. Journal of Parks and Recreation 

Administration, 14(4), 1-20.

Caro, V., & Ewert, A. (1995). The influence of acculturation on environmental 

concerns: An exploratory study. Journal of Environmental Education, 26(3), 13-21.

Carr, D. S., & Williams, D. R. (1993). Understanding the role of ethnicity in outdoor 

recreation experiences. Journal of Leisure Research, 25(1), 22-38.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.79

Carr, D. S., & Williams, D. R. (1991). Outdoor recreation and ethnic group 

membership: A literature review (Final Report for Research Agreement PSW-90-0030CA). 

Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Forestry.

Chavez, D. J. (1996, October). Leisure experiences of Hispanic families. Proceedings 

of the Leisure Research Symposium, the National Park & Recreation Association Congress, 

Kansas City, MO.

Chavez, D. J. (1992, October). Ethnic research in wildland recreation areas: Values, 

attitudes, and behaviors. Proceedings of the Leisure Research Symposium, the National 

Recreation & Park Association Congress, Cincinnati, OH.

Chavez, D. J. (1991, August 4-7). Crowding and discrimination: The unwelcome 

guests in wildland recreation. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, National 

Convention. "Pacific Rim Forestry: Bridging the World", San Francisco, CA.

Clad, J. (1984). Conservation and Indigenous Peoples: A study of convergent 

interests. Cultural Survival Quarterly, 8(4), 68-73.

deGroot, K. (1998). Highlights from the first Latin American congress on national 

parks and other protected areas. International Journal of Wilderness, 4(2), 7-11.

Dunlap, R. E., & Liere, K. D. V. (1978). Environmental concern: A bibliography of 

empirical studies and brief appraisal of the literature . Public Administration Series 

Bibliography: Monticello, IL: Vance Bibliographies.

Dustin, D., McAvoy, L. L., & Rankin, J. (1991). Land ethics in a culturally diverse 

society. Trends, 28(3), 25-27.

Dwyer, J. F. (1994). Customer diversity and the future demand for outdoor recreation

(General Technical Report, No. RM-252). St. Paul, MN: North Central Forest Experiment 

Station.

Dwyer, J. F., & Gobster, P. H. (1992, September). Recreation opportunity and 

cultural diversity. Parks & Recreation, 27(9), 22, 24-26, 28, 30-31.

Dwyer, J. F., & Hutchison, R. (1990). Outdoor recreation participation and 

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Natural Resource Recreation Management (pp. 49-67). Boulder: Westview Press.

Ewert, A. W., Chavez, D. J., & Magill, A. W. (Eds.). (1993). Culture, conflict, and 

communication in the wildland-urban interface. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Ewert, A., & Pfister, R. (1991, March). Cross-cultural land ethics: Motivations, 

appealing attributes and problems. Proceedings of the 56th North American Wildlife and 

Natural Resources Conference, Alberta, Canada.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.80

Floyd, M. (1999). Race, ethnicity and use of the National Park System. Social 

Science Research Review, Spring/Summer ed., Vol. 1, pp. 1-24. Department of the Interior: 

National Park Service.

Floyd, M. F. (1998). Getting beyond marginality and ethnicity: The challenge for 

race and ethnic studies in leisure research. Journal of Leisure Research, 30(1), 3-22.

Floyd, M. F., & Gramann, J. H. (1995). Perceptions of discrimination in a recreation 

context. Journal of Leisure Research, 27(2), 192-199.

Floyd, M. F., Shinew, K. J., McGuire, F. A., & Noe, F. P. (1994). Race, class, and 

leisure activity preferences: Marginality and ethnicity revisited. Journal of Leisure Research, 

26(2), 158-173.

Floyd, M. F., Gramann, J. H., & Saenz, R. (1993). Ethnic factors and the use of 

public outdoor recreation areas: The case of Mexican Americans. Leisure Sciences, 15, 83-

98.

Floyd, M. F., & Grammann, J. H. (1993). Effects of acculturation and structural 

assimilation in resource-based recreation: The case of Mexican Americans. Journal of 

Leisure Research, 25(1), 6-21.

Floyd, M. F., & Gramann, J. (1992, October). Perceived benefits of outdoor 

recreation participation: Comparison of Anglo-Americans and Mexican Americans. 

Proceedings of the Leisure Research Symposium, the National Recreation & Park 

Association Congress, Cincinnati, OH.

Frampton, G. T. (1991). Bringing racial diversity to the environmental movement. 

Reconstruction, 1(3), 41-45.

Gibson, B., & Moriah, D. (1989). Meeting the interpretive needs of minorities. 

Proceedings of the Interpretation/Management Sessions, National Interpreters Workshop: 

National Association of Interpretation, St. Paul, Minnesota.

Gobster, P. H. (1993, ). Managing urban open spaces for naturalness: Preferences of 

Chicago Housing Authority Children. Proceedings of the Northeast Recreation Research 

Symposium, Saratoga Springs, NY.

Goldsmith, J. (1994). Designing for diversity. National Parks, 68, 20-21.

Gramann, J. H., Shaull, S. L., & Saenz, R. (1995, October). Cultural assimilation and 

the importance of family-related and nature-related recreation experiences among Hispanic 

Americans in California. Proceedings of the Leisure Research Symposium, the National 

Recreation & Park Association Congress, San Antonio, TX.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.81

Hartmann, L. A., & Cordell, H. K. (1989, January). An overview of the relationship 

between social and demographic factors and outdoor recreation participation. In A.E. 

Watson (Ed.), Outdoor Recreation Benchmark 1988 (pp. 255-274). Proceedings of the 

National Outdoor Recreation Forum, January 13-14, 1988. Tampa, FL. (General Technical 

Report SE-52). Asheville, NC: U.S. Forest Service Southeastern Forest Experiment Station.

Hartmann, L. A., & Overdevest, C. (1990). Race, ethnicity, and outdoor recreation 

participation: A state-of-the-knowledge review and theoretical perspective. In K. Zera (Ed.), 

Proceedings of the Southeastern Recreation Research Conference, vol. 11, pp. 53-63, 

(February 15-17, 1989), Asheville, NC. Athens, GA: Institute for Behavioral Research.

Heberlein, T. A. (1981). Environmental attitudes. Journal of Environmental Policy, 

2, 241-270.

Henderson, K.A. (1998). Researching diverse populations. Journal of Leisure 

Research, 30, 157-170.

Henderson, K. A., & Roberts, N. S. (1998, Fall). An integrative review of the 

literature on women in the outdoors. Proceedings of the Coalition for Education in the 

Outdoors Fourth Research Symposium, (pp. 9-21). January 9-11, 1998. Bradford Woods, 

IN.

Henderson, K.A., Bialeschki, M.D., Shaw, S.M., Freysinger, V.J. (1996). Both gains 

and gaps: Feminist perspectives on women’s leisure. State College, PA: Venture.

Hutchison, R., & Fidel, K. (1984). Mexican-American recreation activities: A reply to 

McMillen. Journal of Leisure Research, 16(4), 344-349.

Hutchison, R. (1987). Ethnicity and urban recreation: Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics 

in Chicago's public parks. Journal of Leisure Research, 19, 205-222.

Hutchison, R. (1988). A critique of race, ethnicity, and social class in recent leisurerecreation research. Journal of Leisure Research, 20(1), 10-30.

Irwin, P. N., Gartner, W. C., & Phelps, C. C. (1990). Mexican-American/Anglo 

cultural differences as recreation style determinants. Leisure Sciences, 12, 335-348.

James, K. (1993). A qualitative study of factors influencing racial diversity in 

environmental education, Doctoral Dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1993). Dissertation 

Abstracts International . (University Microfilms, No. 9328350).

Johnson, C. Y. (1998). A consideration of collective memory in African American 

attachment to wildland recreation places. Human Ecology Review, 5(1), 5-15.
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.82

Johnson, C. Y., Bowker, J. M., English, D. B. K., & Worthen, D. (1998). Wildland 

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Johnson, C. Y., Horan, P. M., & Pepper, W. (1997). Race, rural residence, and 

wildland visitation: Examining the influence of sociocultural meaning. Rural Sociology, 62, 

89-110.

Kaplan, R., & Talbot, J. F. (1988). Ethnicity and preference for natural settings: A 

review and recent findings. Landscape and Urban Planning, 15, 107-117.

Kempton, W., Boster, J. S., & Hartley, J. A. (1995). Environmental values in 

American culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Klobus-Edwards, P. (1982). Race, residence, and leisure style: Some policy 

implications. Leisure Sciences, 4(2), 95-112.

Knopf, R. C., Allison, M. T., Robertson, R. D., & Leatherberry, E. C. (1987, 

Summer). Under-representation and over-representation in outdoor recreation: Who gets 

what and why? Proceedings of the Institute for Leisure Behavior, San Diego, CA: San 

Diego State University.

Kraus, R., & Lewis, C. (1986). Ethnic and racial minorities in urban recreation . In: A 

literature review, the President's Commission on Americans Outdoors (pp. 19-30): U.S. 

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Littlejohn, M. (1993a). Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, Visitor 

Study (Spring 1993). Visitor Services Project, Report #55. University of Idaho Cooperative 

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Littlejohn, M. (1993b). Bent’s Old Fort National Historic Site, Visitor Study 

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Madison, D. (1994). Whitman Mission National Historic Site, Visitor Study 

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Magill, A. W. (1995). Multicultural wildland users: A growing communication 

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McAvoy, L. H., & Dustin, D. L. (1987, Summer). Justice in outdoor recreation 

resource allocation. Proceedings of the Institute for Leisure Behavior, San Diego, CA: San 

Diego State University.

McDonald, D., & McAvoy, L. (1997). Native Americans and Leisure: State of 

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McDonald, J. M., & Hutchison, I. J. (1986). Minority and ethnic variations in outdoor 

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McGuire, F. A., O'Leary, J. T., Alexander, P. B., & Dottavio, F. D. (1987). A 

comparison of outdoor recreation preferences and constraints of Black and White elderly. 

Activities, Adaptation & Aging, 9(4), 95-105.

McMillen, J. B. (1983). The social organization of leisure among Mexican 

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Meeker, J. W., Woods, W. K., & Lucas, W. (1973, Fall). Red, White, and Black in 

the National Parks. North American Review, 3-7.

Nelson, I. (1974). Minority demand for resident youth camping in the South. 

Proceedings of the Outdoor Recreation Research Symposium: Applying the Results, (pp. 98-

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Noe, F. P., & Snow, R. (1990). Hispanic cultural influence on environmental concern. 

Journal of Environmental Education, 21(2), 27-34.

O'Leary, J. T., & Benjamin, P. (1981). Ethnic variations in leisure behavior, studies, 

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Patterson, M. (1996a). Booker T. Washington National Monument, Visitor Study 

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Patterson, M. (1996b). Bandelier National Monument, Visitor Study (Summer 1995). 

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Pawelko, K. A., Drogin, E. B., & Graefe, A. R. (1997, October). Ethnic/cultural 

origin and its impact on river recreationists' experiences: The case of Hispanic Americans. 

Proceedings of the Leisure Research Symposium, the National Recreation & Park 

Association Congress, Salt Lake City, UT.

Pettus, A., & Giles, M. (1987). Personality characteristics and environmental 

attitudes. Population and Environment, 9(3), 127-137.

Pfister, R. E. (1991). Urban National Forests: Land ethics, ethnicity, and the evolution 

of a land ethic. Trends, 28(3), 21-24.

Philipp, S.F. (1999). Are we welcome? African American racial acceptance in 

leisure activities and the importance given to children’s leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 

31(4), 385-403.

Philipp, S.F. (1998). Race and gender differences in adolescent peer group approval 

of leisure activities, Journal of Leisure Research, 30(2), 214-232.

Philipp, S. F. (1997). Race, gender, and leisure benefits. Leisure Sciences, 19, 191-

207.

Philipp, S. F. (1995). Race and leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 17, 109-120.

Philipp, S.F. (1994). Racial differences in perceived leisure constraints. Perceptual 

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11-28.

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State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.88

Keywords

Adolescents (junior high and high school), African American, Anglos, Anglo-Americans, 

Alaskan Natives, attitudes, attitudes and experiences, age, adventure programs, assimilation, 

acculturation, activity preferences, analyze trends

Behaviors, beliefs, belief systems, Black Americans, Blacks

Constraints, constraints/barriers, Central Americans, Chicanos, culture, cultural diversity 

cultural values, cultural identity, cultural resources, cultural assimilation, cross-cultural 

perceptions, crowding, class, class differences, class polarization, community, case studies

Discrimination, displacement, disability

Ethnicity, ethnic groups, ethnic minority, environmental issues, environmental concerns, 

ethnic/cultural differences, experiential education, elderly, empowerment, education

Forest recreation, forest use, forest and park recreation, First Nations, feminist theory, family 

structure, family recreation

Gender, grounded theory

Hispanic Americans, Hispanics, Hispanic recreation, historical perspective

Income, interviews, inner city children, Indian lands, inter-racial relations

Leisure, leisure benefits, leisure constraints, leisure behavior, leisure values, leisure styles, 

leisure preferences, leisure meanings, leisure participation, locus of control, land ethics, 

leadership, literature review

Middle-class, myths, Mexican Americans, marginality, motivation, minorities, minority 

groups, multiple hierarchy stratification perspective, model development, management 

implications.

Natural areas, nature-based recreation, national forests, Native Americans, natural resourcebased destinations.

Outdoor recreation, outdoor activities, outdoor recreation behavior, outdoor recreation 

participation, outdoor recreation preferences, outdoor adventure activities, open space

Parks, park programs, protected areas, personality, people of color, preferences, perception, 

perceived discrimination, public land management, participation, prejudice, perceived 

benefits of participation, passive recreation, participation patterns, photographs 

(continued)
State-of-the-Knowledge Report, p.89

Race, race and culture, race and ethnicity, racism, racial barriers, racial and ethnic groups, 

recreation, recreation preferences, recreation programming, recreational pursuits, recreation 

participation, recreational sports, recreation studies, recreation behavior, recreational fishing, 

recreation facilities, rural residence, rural perceptions, recreation on public lands, recreation 

resources, resource development and Indian lands, research assessment 

Social class, subjective social class, socio-economics, socioeconomic status, social grouping, 

stereotypes, subculture, social distance, self-perceptions, sports, social justice, spirituality, 

scenic landscape perceptions, sociological aspects of leisure behavior, subculture

Tourism

Urban, urban parks, urban open space, urban nature experiences, urban/rural residence, urban 

recreation, urban region parks, urban community, user conflicts

Values, visits to national parks 

Whites, West Indian, wildlands, wildland recreation, wildland meaning, wildlife refuges, 

women, women of color

Youth camps