INQUIRER

in a Small Pool

Page 34

Excuse Me While I 

Beetles Are 

Turn That

Radio

Down!

Page 6

Page 24

Big Fish

Page 39

Flow My Snows

Page 44

Supercool! Supercool

Big Fish

Should Ditches Be

Graded?

Let 

Nature

Take Its Course

Page 12
USDA Forest Service 

Region 4

2002 Planning Team

Dave Tippets

USDA Forest Service 

Rocky Mountain Research

Station

Linda Ries

USDA Forest Service 

Region 4

USDA Forest Service

Scientists highlighted in the

journal:

Barbara Bentz

Karl Birkeland

Laurie Tysdal

Editorial Review Board 

(pictured):

Mr. Thomas Williamson’s 5th

Grade Class,

Thomas W. Baachus

Elementary School, Kearns,

UT 

Produced by:

USDA Forest Service

Research and Development

Washington, DC

USDA Forest Service

Conservation Education

Washington, DC

Salt Lake City, UT

USDA Forest Service

of Communication

Washington, DC

USDA Design Center

Washington, DC

Jessica Tanner, Unive

Georgia, Athens

USDA Forest Service

Resources Valuatio

Use Research, Was

DC

USDA Forest Service

Southern Research 

Athens, GA
Understanding the Life Cycle of 

Mountain Pine Beetles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Let Nature Take Its Course

Helping the Environment Take Care of Itself . . . . 

What Is the Impact of the 

Impact Monster?

Evaluating Environmental Education Programs . 

Should Ditches Be Graded?

Testing Unpaved Roads with a 

Computer Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Goldifinch and the Three Scales

Investigating Songbird Habitats Near Rivers . . . . 

Big Fish in a Small Pool

Habitat Preferences of Cutthroat Trout . . . . . . . . 

Turn That Radio Down!

Tracking the Busy Life of Flammulated 

Owl Dads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Excuse Me While I Flow My Snows

What Makes An Avalanche Happen? . . . . . . . . . . 

Evaluation Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

National Science Education 

Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Inside Bac

What Is the Forest Service? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Bac

Website Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Bac

The Natural Inquirer is reproduced on recycled paper with soy-base

Please pass this journal along or recycle it when you have finished us

1

Page 12

Page 18

Page 39
gy

focusing on inquiry and investigation. This allows the learner to be independent and to

seek answers to questions

throughout the world we live

in. As educators, you are constantly faced with engaging

your students in scientific

inquiry in new and different

ways. Standard teaching

strategies can become monotonous to today’s learners in an

age of abundant technology.

The Natural Inquirer gives a

fresh approach to science and

a view of the outside world

bigger than the classroom that

can be used while still in the

school setting.

The Natural Inquirer is a

science education resource

journal to be used with learners from Grade 5 and up. The

Natural Inquirer contains arti

The 2002 Olympic Winter

Games sidebars show how science is applied to the real

world.The goal of The

Natural Inquirer is critical

thinking about scientific

inquiry and investigation

while learning about our natural resources and the environment.

Past issues and articles from

The Natural Inquirer are

available by visiting the following website: www.naturalinquirer.usda.gov.

Science Education

Standards and Evaluations:

In the back of the journal,

you will find a matrix that

allows you to identify articles

by the national science education standards they address.

You will also find evaluation

p

iting www.naturalinq

usda.gov. 

This journal was cr

the Urban Tree Hous

education program o

USDA Forest Service

have any questions or 

ments, please contact

Dr. Barbara McDo

USDA Forest Servi

320 Green St.

Athens, GA 30602

706.559.4224

barmac@bigfoot.co

Teacher’s Manual:

Please visit The Na

Inquirer website at w

uralinquirer.usda.gov

this site, you may rea

teacher’s manual onli

download it.

2

Visit www.naturalinquirer.usda.gov for previous issues of th

Natural Inquirer, sample lesson plans, word games, the teache

manual, information about the Forest Service, and other resour
Scientists are people who

collect and evaluate information about a wide range

of topics. Some scientists

study the natural environment. To be a successful

environmental scientist, you

must:

• Be curious —You must be

interested in learning.

• Be enthusiastic —You

must be interested in an

environmental topic.

• Be careful —You must be

accurate in everything

that you do.

• Be open minded —You

must be willing to listen

to new ideas.

• Question everything —

You must think about

what you read and

observe.

3

What Are Scientists?

Scientists in this issue

at work.

y

it on the back cover of the journal , or you

can visit The Natural Inquirer website at

www.naturalinquirer.usda.gov. 

All of the research in this journal is concerned with nature, such as trees, forests, animals, insects, outdoor activities, and water.

First, you will “meet the scientist” who con

At the end of each section of the art

you will find a few questions to help y

think about what you have read. Thes

tions are not a test! They should help 

think more about the research. Your t

may use these questions in a class disc
4
“we need to 

protect and care 

for our natu

environment”

Then the Natural Inquirer is for you! This

journal is full of new information on the

natural environment that we call the

Rocky Mountains. In this Natural

Inquirer, you will learn how father owls

feed their young, the dangers that songbirds sometimes face and how beetles

stay warm during the winter. Find out how

avalanches are formed,whether trout

always pick the same place to swim in a

stream and how a computer can be used

to predict soil erosion!

The Rocky Mountains are unique and were

chosen as the location of the most competitive winter sports event in the world

— the Olympic Winter Games of 2002.

People everywhere will see that the Rocky

Mountains are special.And YOU will know

a lot about them, just by reading the

Natural Inquirer!

about the Rocky Mountains and their use as the s

for the Salt Lake 2002 Olympic Winter Games.

I hope that you enjoy learning about the Rocky

Mountains. Being a natural inquirer is fun! 

Sincerely,

Diane Conrad,

Director, Environmental Programs

Salt Lake 2002 Olympic Winter Games

5

body that provide en

cells for survival, gro

reproduction.

carbohydrate (kär bo 

Starches and sugars t

as food by animals.

phloem (flo em): Tiss

transports nutrients f

leaves to the rest of t

pupa (pyoo puh): Int

stage of insect growt

larva and adult.

resin (rez in): Cloudy

stance that oozes fro

trees.

population (pop yoo 

The whole number o

of the same type occu

area.

stand (stand): A grou

growing in a continu

complexity (kälm ple

The state of being co

having many related 

simulate (sim yoo lat

the appearance or eff

thing for purposes of 

indicator species (in 

sez): Type of plant or 

serves as a measure o

ronmental health of 

of Mountain

Pine Beetles

7

Meet Dr. Jesse Logan: 

I like being

a scientist

because of

the excitement of

learning new

things and

the rewards

of being creative. I became interested in

natural resources as a young

boy enjoying the out-of-doors

in the Rocky Mountains.

Meet Dr. Barbara Bentz: 

I like being

a scientist

because I

enjoy the art

of discovery.

I became

interested in

natural

resources

when I was a

young child, traveling and

camping with my family.

Thinking About

Science

Many plants

and animals live

in annual cycles.

They respond to

seasonal temperature changes and changes

in the length of the day. Some

scientists are interested in

studying the effect of these

seasonal changes on the life

cycle of plants and animals.

The science that investigates

these effects is called phenology (fe näl uh je). The science of

phenology also investigates

the influence of climate on the

life cycle of plants and animals. This is important,

because many scientists now

believe that our climate is

changing. In this study, the scientists were interested in

understanding how a change

in climate might affect the life

cycle of a particular species of

beetle. Because they could not

wait a hundred or more years

Pronunciation Guide

a as in ape

ä as in car

e as in me

i as in ice

o as in go

ô 

u 

ü 

oo 

ng 
8

pp

sometimes supercool! This is

what scientists call the beetles’

ability to “chill out” during

the cold winter months, during their larva stage (Figure 1).

During the winter, the beetle

larvae live in the interior of

pine trees. Because mountain

pine beetles are composed

partly of water, they must

have made adaptations to

keep from freezing in the cold

of winter. When water freezes,

it forms six-sided crystals. The

crystals have sharp edges that

could damage the other structures inside of the beetle.

Mountain pine larvae have

found a way to metabolize

carbohydrates, which contain

water, into glycerol (glis ür ol)

during the winter months.

Introduction

Mountain pine beetles live

for only 1 year. Most of the

year is spent “chilling out” in

a condition scientists call

supercool. Because they live in

high mountain environments

where it is very cold, they

spend most of their short life

span being supercool. That

does not give them much time

to lay eggs and reproduce.

When these beetles reproduce,

they lay eggs in the phloem of

pine trees (Figure 2). These

eggs become the larvae that

live in the phloem during the

cold months. In late summer,

pupa become adults and

emerge from the pine trees. As

adults, the beetles must bore

mountain pine beetle

coordinate its activiti

individual beetle did 

things on its own sch

species would not sur

Mountain pine bee

part of an ecosystem. 

beetles kill a stand of 

ened trees, natural fir

follow. When fire bur

trees that have been k

the beetles, the area b

favorable for new tre

grow. This helps the f

renew itself. On the o

hand, when beetles k

of trees, there are few

that can be used for w

products for human n

Remember that mo

pine beetles are depen

warm weather to rep

and they only have pa

summer to lay their e

before dying. If the cl

changes in the future

the beetles adjust? Th

tists in this study wan

explore how mounta

beetles detect when it 

emerge from pine tre

information would h

scientists to predict w

might happen to the b

the climate changes in 

future. 

Figure 1. The life stages of the mountain pine beetle, including

egg, larva, pupa, and adult.

Egg Larva Pupa Adult
9

Reflection

Section

• Think about

the variation in

springtime temperatures. How

do scientists know that the

first very warm day is not

the signal used by the beetles to emerge from the

trees? What would happen

to the beetles if they

emerged from the tree on

the first warm day?

• When an ecosystem is balanced, it is healthy. A balanced ecosystem means that

everything depends on

everything else, and no one

plant or animal takes over

the rest. The pine

beetle/pine tree ecosystem is

usually balanced between

the beetles and the pine

trees. This is because the

beetles select the weakest

trees in which to lay their

eggs. Then, the weaker trees

die and make room for new,

healthier trees. In what

ways could the pine

beetle/pine tree ecosystem

become unbalanced?

y 

short time to lay eggs 

they die in the fall or 

All of them must bor

into the pine trees at t

time, or the pine trees 

cessfully repel them w

resin. The scientists n

know the temperatur

whole life cycle of the 

(How many days is th

Hint: Re-read the firs

tence of the Introduct

The scientists used m

ments of the tempera

were made every hou

day for a year. (How 

measurements did the

They used measurem

different years. (Now 

the number of measu

by four – how many m

ments did they use?) 

The scientists alrea

a lot about the beetle

cycle. Using a compu

gram that contained 

temperature measure

they guessed what wo

pen to a beetle if it em

from a tree’s interior 

day of the year. Using 

computer program, t

able to identify which 

would be the best one

beetles to emerge. Th

added 2.5 °C to each 

phloem of pine trees.

Figure 3. A stand of pine trees killed by mountain pine beetles.
10

g

using a computer program to

simulate the emergence of

the beetles? Could the scientists have done the calculations by hand? Why or

why not?

• What do you think will

happen to the beetle population if the temperature

rises by 2.5 °C?

Results

The scientists found that

temperature was the most

important factor affecting the

emergence of beetles from

pine trees. The scientists predicted that if global warming

occurs (represented by the

addition of 2.5 °C to the temperatures), mountain pine

beetles could move farther

north and into higher mountains. This means that their

range could expand. The scientists also predicted that if

mountain pine beetles live in

warmer climates, they may

produce a larger number of

eggs. Changes in temperature

could also change the timing

of their life cycle. The beetles

would probably not always

emerge from the trees at the

future, what do you think

might happen to the population of mountain pine

beetles? Why?

• If the population of mountain pine beetles begins to

increase, what might happen to the population of

pine trees? Could any

changes be balanced by the

lack of beetle teamwork?

Why or why not?

Implications

It is clear that global climate

change would cause a change

in the ecosystem that includes

mountain pine beetles and

pine trees. The scientists

believe that studying mountain pine beetles may help

people understand if and how

the global climate is changing.

If populations of beetles living

in high mountain environments are monitored, any

change in their patterns of

emergence, egg laying, or

range might indicate a change

in climate. The scientists

believe that the mountain pine

beetle is a good indicator

species for environmental

change.

y

global climate chan

monitored?

• What can humans 

reduce the possibil

global climate chan

FACTiv

Did y

know t

tles are 

the mo

numer

of life f

Earth? Beetles live ev

across the Earth, exce

open ocean. And, bee

even older than the d

To be so successful, b

have many advantage

help them survive. In 

FACTivity, we are go

to know beetles close 

a bug box (a clear pla

with plenty of room f

Look outside in your 

yard or at home for b

Find a beetle, and gen

in the bug box. After 

observe the beetle, yo

release it back outsid

same place where it w

found.

We will examine th

of the beetle: the back 

wings, and the mouth
11

illustrations below and compare them with the beetle you

are observing. Let’s start with

the back legs. Can you see

how they are constructed?

What do you think the beetle

does with its back legs? Beetle

legs are designed for digging

into wood or soil. Which do

you think this beetle digs into?

Now look at the wings.

Beetles have two sets of wings.

The back wings are similar to

those of many other flying

insects. You may not be able

to see the back wings when

the beetle is not flying. The

most unusual thing about a

beetle is its front wings. They

are hard, and when folded create a hard shell around the

beetle’s body. Can you see the

hard front wings? What purpose could the hard wings

serve? (Hint: Think about

what the beetle has to do to

get its food or lay its eggs.)

Finally, look at the beetle’s

mouth. A beetle’s mouth is

made for chewing. Other

things that a beetle can do

with its mouth are grasp, tear,

and crush. Think about the

mountain pine beetle. You can

see that it is well designed to

dig into the bark and phloem

of trees.

Now, get a large pi

paper and draw the b

are observing. Use cr

complete the drawing

may want to focus yo

ing on one of the thre

that we examined ab

When you have finish

ing the beetle, don’t f

release it back into th

place where you foun

FACTivity adapted from: Ho

(1994). Eco-Inquiry: A guide 

learning experiences for the u

tary/middle grades. Dubuque

Kendall/Hunt. 1-800-228-08

with permission.

From Logan, Jesse A. and Ben

J. (1999). Model analysis of m

pine beetle (Coleoptera: Scoly

sonality. Environmental Ento

28(6): 924-932.

From Bentz, Barbara J. and M

E. (1999). Ecology of mounta

(Coleoptera: Scolytidae) cold 

the Intermountain West. Env

Entomology, 28(4): 577-587

Thank you to Dr. Dan Miller, 

Forest Service, Southern Rese

for helping us to understand 

tain pine beetles are sometim

Websites:

http://www.usu.edu/~

fuels. The Olympic Winter

Games of 2002, or any event

using the latest in emissionsreducing technologies, they

Hind legs used for pushing

Front wings

Back wings

Grasshopper mouth.

A grasshopper is not

a beetle, but their

mouths look the same.
Meet Dr. Ray Brown: 

I like being a scientist

because it allows me to follow

my passion of learning how

nature works, and how we

interact with nature. I became

interested in natural resources

in high school. I had a great

biology and science teacher

who helped me guide my

interests toward where I am

today. It always seemed that

there was someone to encourage me when I needed it.

Thinking About

Science

Nature sometimes causes

rapid changes,

as in landslides,

fires, and

floods. At other times,

nature’s change is very slow.

Change may take tens, hundreds, or thousands of years.

Sometimes, natural resource

scientists study natural

processes that seem to take a

long time, at least from a

human perspective. In this

study, the scientists wanted to

discover how to help nature

restore native plants to an

alpine meadow area that had

been damaged by human

activities in the 1950’s. When

damage is done to an alpine

area, it takes a long time for

the land to repair itself. In the

1970’s, the scientists began to

help nature repair the damage.

They recorded their activities

and how much the land

responded. Their rese

lasted almost 20 year

can see that natural r

scientists sometimes n

of time and patience t

out their research.

Thinki

About 

Enviro

The n

environ

can be 

by natural and huma

Natural causes includ

like wind, fire, and fl

Humans damage the 

ment by mining, buil

roads and buildings, 

from recreational act

Often, the environme

repair itself over time

the land is severely da

by human activity, th

ronment might need 

become healthy again

natural resource man

help the environment

nature do most of the 

12

Take Care of

Itself

Dr. Ray Brown
was abandoned, plants had

not grown back on the mine

spoil. This left an area that

could not support any plants

or animals, and encouraged

erosion of the mine spoil into

nearby streams.

The scientists in this study

wanted to find a way to help

reestablish the alpine meadow

ecosystem to its pre-mining

condition. They hoped that by

building the soil and planting

a few native plants, normal

environmental processes

would take over and create a

more diverse plant community.

13

y g

Introduction

Until the early 1950’s, people mined copper, gold, and

silver in the Beartooth mountains in Montana (Figure 1).

During mining operations, the

soil near the surface was

removed before the minerals

were taken. All that was left

was mine spoil (Figures 2 and

3). Mine spoil is highly acidic.

The acidic spoil erodes into

waterways and seeps through

the land into groundwater,

polluting the watershed below

the mine. Plants cannot grow

well on acidic mine spoil.

Twenty years after the mining

y p

mal species interac

one another and w

living environment

reestablish (re uh s

bring about or esta

mine spoil (min sp

waste material left 

mining.

acidic (uh si dik): A

ing (Acid is a subst

pH less than 7).

erode (e rod): To w

by water or wind.

watershed (wä tür 

area that delivers w

sediment to a majo

small streams.

erosion (e ro zhun)

process of eroding 

away slowly.

diverse (di vürs): D

from one another.

manure (meh noor

waste products.

organic (ôr geh nik

to or coming from 

organisms.

fragile (fra jul): Eas

destroyed.

y 

Figure 2. Illustration of mine spoil.

Ground 

Surface

Mined

Area

Spoil banks

Acids from

mined area

flow into

streams

below Acids soak

into soil and 

groundwater

Acids soak

into ground and 

groundwater

Pronunciation Guide

a as in ape

ä as in car

e as in me

i as in ice

o as in go

ô 

u 

ü 

oo 

ng 
land in the area (Figure 5).

The disadvantage of lime,

however, is that it causes

organic matter to decompose

quickly. The scientists used the

put the seeds into bag

shook them up, so th

ent kinds of seeds wer

together. They plante

seeds in the newly pre

soil (Figure 6). For th

years, they spread mo

izer over the entire ar

fourth year, they divid

1.6 acres into four eq

Reflection

Section

• Why is it

important to

restore abandoned mining areas to their

pre-mining environmental

condition?

• If the soil cannot support

plant life, what is the first

thing that the scientists

should do to help the land

become healthy again?

Methods

The scientists identified a

study area of 1.6 acres (How

many hectares is this?

Multiple 1.6 by .405.) The scientists bulldozed the 1.6 acres

of mine spoil so that it would

be close to the original lay of

the land (Figure 4). Then, they

added lime and steer manure

to the mine spoil area. They

added the lime, which is basic

(the opposite of acidic), to

raise the pH level to match the

pH of other, nondisturbed

14

Figure 3. The McLaren mine site in the early 1970’s, before

Dr. Brown began his research.

Figure 4. Bulldozing the mine

spoil site.

Figure 5. The pH scale.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 

Acidic Neutral

Battery

Acid

Lemon

juice

Tomatoes

Grapes

Urine Sea

water

Soap

solutions

O

cle

Normal

rainwater

Pure

water

Baking

soda

Household

ammonia Orange

juice

Figure 6. Planting see

prepared soil.
Reflection

Section

• What did the

scientists want

to find out

when they

divided the area into four

portions?

• Why did the scientists select

seeds that would have naturally grown in the area?

Results

The scientists found that it

did not help to fertilize the soil

beyond the first 3 years. They

knew this by measuring the

growth of the plants and identifying new plants every year.

In other words, there was no

difference in plant growth

between the four portions for

the first 6 years (look again at

Figure 7). The scientists found

that new plant species grew in

the area over time (Figures 8

and 9). This was considered a

success, since a healthy alpine

meadow has a diversity of

plant species. The seeds from

these new species had come

from nearby areas that had

native plants growing on

them. The seeds were brought

15

y 

stopped that other plant

species were able to grow.

Look at Figure 10 and compare it with Figure 3. These

photographs were taken from

the same place before the

research (Figure 3) and during

• What is the advant

having a wide dive

plant species? Thin

insects and other a

Why would a diver

plant species encou

insects and animals 

into the area?

Figure 7. Dividing the land into four areas to test for t

effects of fertilizing the soil.

Fertilized

for five

years

Fertilized

for four

years

Fertilized

for three

years

Figure 8. Total number of plant species identified per 

50

40

30

20

10

Number of species

77 80 83 86

Year

89 92 9
16

Figure 9. Plants beginning to grow in the area.

Figure 10. The McLaren mine site after plants began to grow.

Implications

The scientists believe that

planting and fertilizing native

grasses for the first 3 to 5

years is an important first step

to restoring native alpine

meadow ecosystems. The

grasses help enrich the soil

and reduce erosion. After a

few years, nature can be left to

take its course, and allow a

diversity of plants to grow.

The scientists recommended

that natural resource managers collect native seeds so

that they can be used to help

repair severely damaged areas.

It is important to protect naturally occurring plants near

areas that have been disrupted. Some areas, such as old

mining sites, need help from

managers to become reestablished. However, managers

should always use native vegetation, and should let nature

do most of the work. 

y 

area preferred over 

spoil? What are the 

of restoring the nat

area? What are the 

vantages of the min

FACTiv

In th

FACTi

will co

two dif

kinds o

You wi

get two shallow cardb

boxes that are about 

long on each side. Yo

teacher may need to c

boxes so that they are 

10” deep and open o

Dig up two different 

soil, along with the p

growing in the soil. D

squares about 15 inch

side so they will fit in

boxes. Try to dig into 

at least 3 inches. One 

soil should be from y

school yard or an are

grass is growing. The 

should be from a woo

that has some plants 

in the soil, but this ar

not have grass. 

First, dig a piece ou

soil block, enough to 

of a 16-ounce mayon
17

(with lid). Do not include the

green plants. Put one type of

soil in each jar. Fill the jars

with water. Close the lids and

shake the jars. Label the jars

“Soil from wooded area” and

“Soil from grassy area.” Set

the jars aside.

Now, observe the soil and

plants in each box. Count the

number of different kinds of

plants in each box. Can you

find any insects? Count the

number of insects you find in

Number of different

plants

Number of insects

Other observations

(different colors)

Other observations

(other objects found)

Other observations

Amount of organic

matter (in inches)

Sample Chart for Soil Observation

Soil from

Grassy Area

Soil from

Wooded Area

each box. What other observations can you make about

each sample of soil? Make a

chart for each box (see an

example below). After 30

minutes, examine the jars.

Organic material will be a

very dark layer floating on or

near the top of the water.

Without disturbing the jars,

measure the amount of organic matter in each jar using a

ruler. 

Which box of soil i

diverse? Which soil h

organic matter? Why

have learned in this a

soil with more organ

al will be more divers

soil with less organic 

that true of the soil sa

you have observed? 

Alternative activitie

two or more areas of 

study outdoors. You 

bring in soil samples 

home; the amount of 

matter can be measur

from many different 

FACTivity adapted from: Ho

(1994). Eco-Inquiry: A guide 

learning experiences for the u

tary/middle grades. Dubuque

Kendall/Hunt. 1-800-228-08

with permission.

From Brown, Ray W.; Amach

C.; Williams, Bryan D.; Mueg

F.; and Kotuby-Amacher, Jan

Ecological restoration of acid

at high elevations: Long-term 

of revegetation and natural su

W. R. Keammerer (Ed.). Proc

Altitude Revegetation Works

June 1996. Colorado Water R

Research Institute, Informati

(No. 83). Colorado State Uni

Website:

http://www.fs.fed.us/

/4301/
Meet Dr. Bill Hendricks: 

I like being a scientist

because I can uncover answers

to complex questions. I

became interested in natural

resources as a child when my

family spent time in a park or

a forest.

Meet Dr. Alan Watson: 

I like being a scientist

because I’m helping to keep

something special for future

Americans. I became interested in natural resources when I

was a kid and my family used

to visit my uncle and aunt’s

farm near Elgin, Kansas. We

ran free and wild there and

learned about nature.

Thinki

Scienc

Whe

ers teac

thing, t

others 

know w

their lessons are wort

There is a branch of s

called evaluation (e v

shen). Evaluation ena

entists to determine t

worth, or condition o

thing. When evaluati

applied to education, 

teachers discover how 

they are teaching stud

Test-taking is one kin

uation. You know tha

help teachers and oth

mine how much you 

learned. But do you k

what else test-taking 

helps the teacher dete

how well he or she is 

In this study, the scien

took a different appr

Evaluating

Environmental

Education

Programs

18

Dr. Bill Hendricks with his

son, Sam Dr. Alan Watson
y pp

that has not been disturbed by

humans. These areas also help

people by preserving biodiversity and unique ecosystems

and providing clean water and

air, homes for wildlife and

endangered species, and an

area for scientists to study

nature that has not been disturbed by humans. 

Introduction

When people visit a wilderness, they should protect it as

much as possible. Wilderness

managers often use education

to teach people how to behave

yp

things in a natural 

ecosystems (e ko s

Community of pla

animals interactin

each other and wit

nonliving environm

endangered specie

jürd spe sez): Wild 

or animals with so 

individual survivo

the species could b

extinct in the area 

naturally lives.

wilderness manag

der nes ma ni jür): 

individual who ma

wilderness area.

survey (sür va): A 

used to ask questio

collect information

associated (uh so s

ted): Closely conn

with another.

facility (fuh sil uh 

building or room f

activity.

19

y

the scientists

wanted to evaluate a lesson about wilderness. When we call an area of

land a wilderness, it means we

have given it a special legal

status. Wilderness areas are

treated differently than other

land areas. They are protected

by law from most human

activities, except for fun things

like camping, hiking, canoeing, and backpacking, and for

scientific activities. People are

not allowed to live in wilderness areas. They can only be

visitors for a short period of

Figure 1. Eagle Creek Wilderness – An example of a wilderness area.

Pronunciation Guide

a as in ape

ä as in car

e as in me

i as in ice

o as in go

ô 

u 

ü 

oo 

ng 
to present the Impact 

Skit. They also taugh

groups of kids, like B

and Girl Scouts. 

Surveys are like tes

there are no right or w

answers. On the surv

Forest Service teacher

asked these four thing

1. How often did you 

the Impact Monst

and where did you 

it?

2. To what age group

you present the sk

ed to be improved. The scientists in this study wanted to

evaluate the Impact Monster

Skit by asking people questions about it. (Remember,

some tests are not graded!)

The scientists wanted to discover three things:

1. Is the Impact Monster Skit

an effective way to learn

how to behave in wilderness areas?

2. Which age groups learn the

most from the skit?

3. What are some problems

with the skit, and how can

it be improved?

Reflection

Section

• If you were

the scientist,

how would you

find out what

people think about the

Impact Monster Skit?

• The Impact Monster Skit is

one way to teach kids how

to behave in wilderness

areas. What are some other

ways that kids could learn

how to behave in wilderness areas?

Methods

The scientists collected their

information by sending a written survey to 83 teachers who

have used the Impact Monster

Skit. Most of the people who

responded to the survey were

not actually school teachers,

but were people who work for

the Forest Service (you can

read about the Forest Service

on the back of this journal, or

go to the The Natural Inquirer

web page at www.

naturalinquirer.usda.gov).

Sometimes, Forest Service

employees went into schools

20

p

on the trail, picks wild flowers, and does other things

Figure 2. Students meet the Impact Monster.

8.PDF, pages 42-45 o

PDF file.
y

veys are used in

society? Think about what

you hear in the news. For

example, “The latest survey

(or poll) shows that....”

• The scientists asked questions of people who presented the Impact Monster

Skit to students. Who else

could they ask about the

effectiveness of the skit?

Results

Fifty-five people responded

to the survey. According to

those 55 responses, the Impact

Monster Skit was used most

often in schools. Table 1

shows the settings where the

Impact Monster Skit was

used.

The Impact Monster Skit

was presented to students

from kindergarten through

high school. The skit was

ranked as most effective for

fourth, fifth, third, and sixth

grade, in that order. Table 2

presents how many people

thought the Impact Monster

Skit was effective. 

The last question looked at

problems encountered when

presenting the Impact

Monster Skit. The most frequently stated problems were

students being afraid of the

toy weapon used in the skit,

Forest Service teachers getting

tired of presenting the skit,

and students thinking it would

be cool to be like the Impact

Monster rather than as a person who takes care of the

wilderness.

21

Reflec

Sectio

• Look 

1. Whe

Forest 

teacher

the skit most often

• Do you think it is i

to learn about wild

Why or why not?

Cub/Boy Scouts 19 3

Environmental education camps 16 2

Girl Scouts/campfires 14 2

Church 12 2

Leave No Trace training courses 11 2

Local fairs 10 1

Table 1. Impact Monster Skit locations.

Table 2. Overall program effectiveness of the

Impact Monster Skit.

Rating Frequency Perce

Excellent 9 16.

Very good 22 40.

Good 13 23.

Fair 8 14.

Poor 3 5.
22

y g

changes in the program to

include local types of plants

and animals. By evaluating

educational programs such as

the Impact Monster Skit, you

can see that these programs

can be improved.

Reflection

Section

• Do you think

your teacher

can tell how

well you are

learning without asking

you? Why or why not?

• In what ways does your

teacher determine how

effective a particular program is in your classroom?

FACTivity

You have

learned how

important it is

to evaluate education programs. Now

you will have a chance to do

it! You can either evaluate this

article or another article from

The Natural Inquirer. All students in your class must evaluate the same article. Have

your teacher copy the student

evaluation form on page 49

(or if you are on the website,

go to the “Student’s Corner”).

Every student should have a

copy of and complete this

evaluation form. Once everyone has completed the form,

it’s time to summarize the

results. When you summarize,

you take all of the information

collected from everyone and

reduce it to a single number.

Why do you think yo

reduce it? It would ta

time to present each s

response to each ques

Instead, you calculate 

summary for each qu

Begin with question 

a student volunteer to 

the class’ responses o

blackboard. Count h

students answered ea

choices in question 2

you start, you need to know

that every circle contains

360°. The circle and the dot

have already been supplied.

Draw a line from the dot to

any place on the circle. This

is your starting point. You

can see that the rating of

excellent will take up 16.4

percent of the circle.

Multiply 360° by .164 (why

should you use .164?). The

slices of different size

slice represents one o

ratings. Color the pie 

different colors. Labe

pie chart by writing d

rating each slice repre

(for example, “excell

and “very good”).

Sample pie chart

Very easy

Easy

Hard

Very hard
23

you will need to calculate the

percentage of the whole class

each choice represents. Divide

the number of students

responding to each question

by the total number of students in the class. If there are

25 students in your class and

11 of you said the article was

very easy to understand, you

will divide 11 by 25, or 25

into 11. The answer is .44, or

44 percent. You can do this

with questions 2-9. What kind

of change must you make to

do this calculation with question 11? You will not be able

to do this kind of summary for

question 10. Instead, you can

list everyone’s response. You

can make a table for each of

the questions 2-9 and for

question 11. You can also create a pie chart for each. See

the example chart below.

After calculating the

responses to these 11 questions and considering your

findings, do you think that the

article was easy or hard for

your classmates to understand? Was it interesting or

boring for your classmates?

Do you think your classmates

learned something from the

article? How do you know?

What other things can you say

about the article, based on this

evaluation?

When you have finished this

FACTivity, have your teacher

collect your forms and send

them to Dr. Barbara

McDonald, USDA Forest

Service, 320 Green St.,

Athens, GA 30602-2044.

Your responses will be added

to the responses of stu

from around the coun

Then, all of the respo

from around the coun

be summarized and li

The Natural Inquirer 

From Hendricks, William W. 

Alan E. (1999). Wilderness ed

evaluation of the Impact Mon

gram. USDA Forest Service R

Paper RMRS-RP-15.

Website

http://www.wilderne

pold/

http://www.wilderne

many things to protect the

When people learn more

Re_ _ _ _ _.

Very interesting to understand

Easy to understand

Hard to understand

Very hard to understand

TOTAL 100 

The article was: Number of

students

responding

Perce

Respo

Question 2.
Meet Dr. Laurie Tysdal:

I like being a scientist

because I learned the building

blocks of how things work in

the natural world around us.

And now I can figure out new

things on my own, using those

building blocks. I became

interested in natural resources

when I traveled new places

and saw plants and rocks and

rivers that were different than

the ones at home. I wanted to

know why.

in the natural world a

complicated that scie

not always successful 

ing what might happ

the use of computers, 

tists are able to consi

relationship of many 

variables at the same 

With computers, they 

study more complica

tems. This is because 

ers can keep track of 

of bits of information 

In this study, the scien

compared their actua

vations and measurem

soil erosion with the 

made by a computer 

They wanted to know 

well the computer pr

could estimate actual 

sion. If it could estim

erosion fairly well, th

puter program could 

a useful tool for pred

other places. This is a 

example of how scien

help society and the e

ment.

Thinki

About 

Enviro

Whe

human

someth

24

Testing Unpaved Roads

With a Computer Program

Dr. Laurie Tysdal
and sedimentation reduce the

diversity of the natural environment. When soil is eroded

and sedimentation occurs,

important nutrients are carried away from the soil. The

nutrients and sediments eventually run into streams and

rivers. When sediment flows

into streams and rivers, it can

estimates (es tuh m

Calculated values t

close to the actual 

sedimentation (se 

shen): The process 

ing soil and other p

carried by wind or 

insloping (in slop i

Hillside road surfa

slopes down and in 

tion of the uphill s

complex (kälm ple

Complicated and h

many different rela

cutslope (kut slop)

bank along a hillsi

culvert (kul vürt): 

placed under a roa

watershed (wä tür 

Land area with sm

that delivers water 

ment to a larger str

data (da tuh): Fact

surement informat

associated (uh so s

Closely connected 

tion.

25

yg p

with it. If sediment from roads

reaches streams, it can harm

the fish or other animals and

plants that live in the stream.

Scientists want to know how

to build roads that do not

cause sediment to reach forest

streams. Because people want

to use these kinds of roads,

scientists are looking for ways

to design roads that minimize

soil erosion and sedimentation. Whenever humans build

something, it is always wise to

look for ways to reduce harm

to the environment.

Introduction

Although it may not seem

like it, the way water runs

Figure 1. An unpaved mountain road.

Figure 2. Cutaway view of

insloping road. 

Upper

hillside

Insloping

road surface

Lower

hillside

Ditch

Cutslope

Figure 3. Illustration of

insloping road.

Upper

hillside

Lower

hillside

Waterway

Rain

Ditch

Cutslope

Culvert

(buried under

the road)

Pronunciation Guide

a as in ape

ä as in car

e as in me

i as in ice

o as in go

ô 

u 

ü 

oo 

ng 
p

represented roads of 

lengths, or combinati

represented roads of 

steepness (or grade). 

changed only one of t

acteristics at a time. T

they were able to use 

puter program to ide

which characteristics 

affected soil erosion a

mentation (Figure 5).

Reflec

Section

• Why 

scientis

data fr

unpave

y

seen sheets of

water flowing

across a paved

road during a heavy rain?

Do you think the road is

causing soil erosion? Why

or why not?

• What basic force causes

water to run downhill? Do

you think there is a way to

stop water from running

downhill? Why is this

important for people who

build roads?

Methods

The scientists decided to test

a computer program that had

been developed for agricultural lands. The computer program was designed to look at

an area of cropland as a

watershed, and to predict how

much soil erosion might occur.

The scientists decided that an

unpaved, insloping road could

be considered a watershed

also. They selected 74 sections

of unpaved road along the

mountainous coast of Oregon.

From those sections they collected data on cutslope height

and plant cover, road length

and steepness (or grade), and

the characteristics of the ditch

soil erosion was close to what

the computer program had

calculated it would be.

Therefore, they were able to

26

Figure 4. Culvert pipe and

collection bucket used to

measure soil erosion.

Figure 5. Computer image of an insloping road.
to check the computer program? 

• How did the scientists know

when a road characteristic

affected soil erosion?

Results

From the computer program, the scientists found that

longer unpaved roads, and

roads with steeper grades

cause greater soil erosion. In

all cases, the ditch also experienced some soil erosion.

Graded ditches (those that are

maintained using large

machines that smooth and

clean them) caused more erosion than ditches that were left

alone. Higher cutslopes or

those with fewer plants eroded

more than lower cutslopes or

ones with more plants growing

on them. However, cutslopes

were not responsible for very

much erosion. This is because

the soil on cutslopes is better

able to absorb water. Most of

the water that causes erosion

flows across the road and into

the ditch. After water flows

into the ditch, it flows through

a culvert and down the hillside. When it flows down the

hillside, it may follow a waterway that is natural or one that

humans have created. The scientists found that long waterways cause less sedimentation

into streams and rivers below.

This is because sediment is left

along the waterway as the

water flows downhill. If a

waterway is short and the

water enters a stream quickly,

it carries more sediment from

the road into the stream.

Reflection

Section

• If the

unpaved road

had not been

built, what

would have happened to

the rain water as it fell into

the forest?

• When water runs across an

unpaved road in the forest,

27

where does it event

end up?

Implications

By using a compute

gram, the scientists w

to better understand 

ferent road character

affect the amount of s

sion and sedimentatio

Imagine how difficult 

be to find real unpave

sections with such a l

ety of different chara

Even if the scientists c

find that many road s

they would have to o

and measure the amo

erosion on each one. 

could only do that wh

was raining! And, the

surements would be d

depending on how ha

raining and for how l

rain fell. You can see 

ful a computer progr

be. When scientists w

study something very 

plex, such as soil eros

unpaved roads, it is h

have a computer prog

ners discovered that not everyone agreed on the best way or

opinion was heard. The finished road met everyone’s

really works!
28

p

Name three other examples

of complex situations in

which computer programs

might be used.

• Imagine that you are the

scientist. What would you

tell people who ask you for

the best way to design

unpaved forest roads?

Remember, you can vary

some of the characteristics

(see Figure 1), but not all of

them.

FACTivity

In this

FACTivity, you

will build your

own insloping

road! Get two

large cardboard

boxes about 30 inches square

and at least 12 inches high.

Your teacher should remove

the lid flaps from the boxes.

Line the boxes’ bottom and

sides with plastic. Fill each

box about half full with soil. 

g y

need to cut the edge of the

straw before burying it under

the road (see illustration).

Then, build a waterway from

the “culverts” down the hillside by creating ditches down

the hillside. The waterways

should go down to the lowest

corner of the box. In one of

the boxes, put plugs of grass

(small sections of grass dug up

with about 1 inch of soil) on

the upper hillside, the cutslope, and the downslope (but

not on the road or waterway). 

of insloping mountai

What could you do to 

erosion for your own 

ing road?

From Tysdal, Laurie M.; Ellio

J.; Luce, Charles H.; and Blac

A. (1999). Modeling erosion 

ing low-volume roads with W

shed model. National Academ

Transportation Research Rec

2(1652): 250-256.

Website:

http://forest.moscow

edu/

Cutslope Lower

hillside

Upper

hillside

Soil is at

its highest

Soil is at

its lowest

Cut straw 

lay it so th

it catches w

in the ditch

Ditch

Straw

(culvert)

Waterway
29

away, you are observ

ent scales.

species diversity (spe 

suh te): Number of d

of plants or animals i

biodiversity (bi o duh 

A measure of the diff

between the types an

living things in a natu

species (spe sez): Gro

organisms that resem

another in appearanc

chemical processes, a

structure.

native (na tiv): Natur

ring in an area.

nonnative (nän na tiv

rally occurring in an 

dependent (de pen du

on.

cottonwood (kä ten w

type of poplar tree th

with cottony hairs.

hectare (hek tär): A m

sure of land area equ

acre.

landscape (land scap

land forms of a regio

relationship (re la sh

When two or more th

connected in some fa

wetland (wet land): A

with lots of soil mois

Meet Dr. Vicki Saab:

I like being a scientist

because it is exciting to discover new information about

our natural world and to solve

problems that will help save

animals and plants from

extinction.

Thinking About

Science

Scientists who

study ecology

are called ecologists. Ecologists

study the natural environment at different

habitat scales, often focusing

on studying a large area so

that they can better understand how plants, animals,

and the land interact.

Scientists may also focus on a

small scale, as when they

study the habitat in the immediate natural area where an

animal lives. In this study, the

scientist was interested in

comparing different sizes, or

Investigating Songbird

Habitats Near Rivers

Dr. Vicki Saab

Pronunciation Guide

a as in ape

ä as in car

e as in me

i as in ice

o as in go

ô 

u 

ü 

oo 

ng 
30

ypy

is a measure of how many different kinds of species live in

an area and the numbers of

each species. For a natural

area to be healthy, it should

have many different forms of

life. It is best when those

species are native to the area.

When nonnative species move

into an area, they sometimes

compete with the native

species for food and homes.

An example of a nonnative

bird is the brown-headed cowbird. The scientist in this study

was interested in the diversity

of native songbird species living in riparian forests.

Riparian forests are forests

located on or near the banks

of waterways. Dr. Saab wondered whether nonnative bird

species were moving into the

forests. If they were moving

into the forests, they might be

pushing native songbirds out.

This would reduce the songbird species diversity. She

thought that agriculture and

home building on the land

surrounding the forests might

be creating habitats more

favorable for nonnative bird

species.

y 

either side of the South Fork

of the Snake River in southeastern Idaho (Figure 1). In

the past, large riparian cottonwood forests grew along the

river (Figure 2). Now only

gy

outside of the forest, 

would conclude that 

species are mostly dep

on their immediate n

environment, and no

larger environment o

their immediate fores

Reflec

Section

• If Dr

finds th

ent typ

songbi

are nesting in fores

with different type

roundings, what sh

conclude about son

dependency on nat

environments?

• If you were the scie

how would you fin

what kinds of song

in the riparian cott

forests along the So

Fork of the Snake R

Methods

Dr. Saab divided th

areas into three categ

songbird habitat. She 

the smallest area a m

tat (as in microcompu

meaning small compu

microhabitat include

Figure 1. Location of the

study area—The South Fork

of the Snake River, Idaho.

Figure 2. Cottonwood tree.

Canada

Utah

Montana

Study

Area

Oregon Wyoming

Washington

Nevada
31

trees, shrubs, and other plants

within a small area of cottonwood forest. She called the

cottonwood forests macrohabitats, and measured their

size (in hectares). Dr. Saab

called the microhabitat, the

macrohabitat, and the land

beside it a landscape (Figure

4). The landscape might have

included houses and yards,

croplands, wetlands, and different kinds of forests that

were found beside the cottonwood forests, as well as the

cottonwood forest itself. Dr.

Saab identified the type of

songbirds in each of the

microhabitats of the cottonwood forests. (Remember that

macrohabitat and the 

scape. 

Figure 3. Types of land around the South Fork of the

Snake River.

Other Forest

Home & yard

Figure 4. Microhabitat (small circle), macrohabitat (middle circle), and landscape (large circle). Notice that the microhabitat

and macrohabitat are completely contained within the riparian

forest. Dr. Saab studied many of these sites along the river.

Figure 5. Dr. Saab us

of binoculars to look 

River

Riparian Forest

Agriculture

Wetland

Other Forest

Home & yard

Dr. Saab holds a Laz

bunting after she pla

band on its leg. The b

help her to identify th

the future. After plac

band on the bird’s leg

Saab released it back 

habitat along the Sna
32

• Why is it important to

know whether songbird

species are affected by the

lands outside of their immediate forest home?

Results

Dr. Saab found that nonnative songbirds were mostly living in cottonwood forests near

agricultural and residential

lands. These nonnative birds

sometimes compete with

native songbirds for habitat

needs, such as nest sites and

food. She found that the greatest diversity of native birds

live in cottonwood forests

next to natural areas, such as

wetlands or other forest areas

(not agriculture or residential). Thus, Dr. Saab concluded that landscapes were just as

important as microhabitat or

macrohabitat for native and

nonnative songbirds, meaning

that birds of cottonwood

forests are dependent on a

larger scale of natural area

than just their immediate forest home. Dr. Saab found that

cottonwood forests cannot

support native bird species

very well if areas around them

are developed into agriculture

• Should we be

concerned

about the loss

of native songbirds in natural areas? Why

or why not?

• Should we be concerned

about the loss of species

diversity in natural areas?

Why or why not?

Implications

Dr. Saab was interested in

looking at different scales

when studying the natural

environment. In this study, she

wanted to know whether the

type of land outside the riparian cottonwood forest was

important to songbirds living

in these forests. If we want to

preserve species diversity of

songbirds, we should consider

natural areas larger than just

the forest that is the birds’

immediate home. 

Reflection

Section

• Do you think

that the landscape around

small forested

environments might impact

other animals (such as rac

unders

songbi

tat, Dr. 

wanted 

at the b

ture. In this FACTivit

going to make observ

different scales, just l

Saab. To do this FAC

your class will becom

spaceship full of Mar

entists. Your spacesh

just landed on Earth. 

Martian leader (your 

has asked for a repor

the Earth’s environm

of your class will be “

scale Martian scientis

some will be “medium

Martian scientists,” a

ers will be “large-scal

Martian scientists.” 

The Martian leader 

divide your class into 

groups, each represen

different scale. The sm

Martian group shoul

only two students (re

– small scale!). The m

scale Martian group s

not have more than s

dents. The large-scale 

group should include 

of the students, and s

work in teams of six 

scientists each.
33

Using a large ball of string

or twine, the Martian leader

should cut one string 36 inches and one 50 feet. Tie the

ends of each string together to

make two circles with the two

strings. After you go outside,

place the two string circles on

different areas of the

ground—the smaller circle

should be placed inside the

larger circle. The larger circle

should include an “edge.” An

edge defines a change in the

environment, such as from a

grassy area to a wooded area.

It might include the edge of a

stream, the edge of a parking

lot, a sidewalk, or any other

kind of change in the environment. If you are a small-scale

Martian scientist, you will

explore the small circle. If you

are a medium-scale Martian

scientist, you will explore the

large circle. If you are a largescale Martian scientist, you

will explore the whole schoolyard. 

Spend 15 minutes exploring

your area and record what

you find. You may use the

chart below as an example.

With other Martians in your

group, compare what you

found and prepare an oral

report to present to the

Martian leader and the rest of

the class. In this report, you

must explain what the schoolyard environment on Earth is

like, based on your explorations within your study

area.

After the presentations, discuss what each Martian group

discovered with the rest of the

class. How were the observations similar? How were they

different? If the observations

were different, why? Which

area had the greatest variety

of things? Which was 

accurate description o

schoolyard environm

Which was the most 

to describe? Why? W

this exercise tell you a

making observations 

ent scales?

From: Saab, Victoria. (1999)

of spatial scale to habitat use 

birds in riparian forests: A hi

analysis. Ecological Applicat

135-151.

Website: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/

/riparian/riparian.htm

Observations: Record

number and description of plants, colors,

textures, ground features, insects and

other animals, surfaces, etc. You may

draw illustrations,

record movements.

You may record how

things feel to the

touch. Observe carefully and completely!

Sample chart

Which scale? ❑ Small ❑ Medium ❑ Large
Meet Dr. Michael Young:

I like being a scientist

because I am fascinated by the

natural world. I enjoy the

process of discovery, and I

want to make sure we conserve wild creatures and wild

places.

Thinking About

Science

For natural

resource scientists to be fairly

certain about

something, they

often do many similar

research studies. If they get

34

similar results in diffe

tings or with differen

species, they are mor

dent about their resul

scientists in this study 

to know where cutth

would prefer to live i

stream, if more domi

trout were not presen

removed the largest c

trout from a stream t

what would happen. 

expected remaining t

move into the same lo

that larger, more dom

trout had occupied. T

was similar to other s

with other species of 

Dr. Michael Young
patch of orange or red on their

throats! Cutthroat trout live

in the Western United States,

from southeastern Alaska to

northern California. The scientists in this study wanted to

find out if cutthroat trout

behave like other salmonids.

Other salmonids had been

found to swim into preferred

locations once more dominant

fish had been removed. This

helps scientists learn about the

favorite locations of these fish.

Dr. Young and his colleagues

guessed that when they

removed the most dominant

cutthroat trout from a mountain river, other trout would

quickly move into the locations the more dominant fish

had occupied. 

dominant (dä muh 

Being able to cont

others, or being in 

majority.

habitat (ha buh ta

environment wher

plant or animal na

grows and lives.

salmonids (sa muh 

Long, bony fishes 

salmon or trout.

vacant (va kunt): N

occupied.

pool (pool): A qui

place in a stream.

riffle (ri fül): A sha

place in a stream w

water and small w

fish biologist (fish 

jist): A person who 

fish and the proces

support fish.

Thinking 

About the

Environment

In the natural

world, you

might find that

two different bird species

would like to build their nest

in the same place, perhaps a

place that is safe from predators. You might also find that

members of the same species

would like to occupy the same

place, such as one that provides a lot of their favorite

kind of food. Since there is a

limit to the number of individuals one place can support,

usually the largest or most

dominant individuals of a

species get to live in the best

35

Figure 1. Cutthroat trout

Pronunciation Guide

a as in ape

ä as in car

e as in me

i as in ice

o as in go

ô 

u 

ü 

oo 

ng 
p

lem for scientists trying to

study fish in a free-flowing

river?

Methods

Because natural rivers are

free flowing, scientists cannot

be sure fish will remain in an

area while the scientists are

studying them. To solve this

problem, Dr. Young and his

colleagues placed wire fences

at various places in the North

Fork of the Little Snake River

(Figures 2, 3, and 4). They created eight sections to study.

They identified the kind of

habitat in all of the fenced sec- tions as either pools or riffles.

They removed the largest and

most dominant fish from the

areas between the fences.

Then, they placed one new

large cutthroat trout into each

fenced section of the river. By

creating eight sections, the scientists were able to study the

favorite locations of eight new

trout.

Fish can be hard to distinguish from one another, and

may be especially hard to

locate in a mountain river. To

keep track of the new trout,

the scientists surgically

implanted radio transmitters

into the trout before releasing

them into the fenced 

of the river. They reco

each trout’s location 

movement for 1 week

identified whether th

trout preferred pools 

and whether the new 

preferred the same lo

as the trout that had 

removed (Figure 5).

Reflec

Section

• Why 

think it 

good id

create e

tions to study, inste

just one?

36

Figure 4. Fence installed in the river.

Figure 2. The North Fork of

the Little Snake River.
• The scientists expected the

new trout to prefer the

same locations as the trout

that had been removed.

What do you think they

found?

Results

Right after they were placed

into the river, the new cutthroat trout swam around

much more than normal. The

scientists think that was

because the trout had just

been handled by humans.

Once the trout became accustomed to their new home, the

scientists discovered that most

of the trout preferred to swim

in pools rather than riffles

(Figure 6). This did not surprise the scientists, for they

already knew that trout prefer

to swim in pools. However,

the new trout did not always

select the same pools that

were selected by the trout that

had been removed from the

stream sections. This was a

surprise to the scientists. It

surprised them because other

studies had shown something

different. Other studies had

found that salmonids consistently selected the same pools

as their favorite place to swim. 

Reflection

Section

• What might

be some of the

reasons the new

cutthroat trout

did not swim in the same

g

occupy the same loca

the old trout because 

were not familiar wit

river and did not kno

those preferred locati

were. Second, they gu

that cutthroat trout m

more than 1 week to 

oughly explore the ad

and disadvantages of 

locations in a river. T

they guessed that man

tions within a river m

equally preferred by t

not necessarily just th

tions preferred by old

(removed) trout.

37

Figure 5. Marking locations in the river.

Figure 6. Pie charts showing (a) percentage of availab

and riffles and (b) percentage of trout that occupied p

riffles.

Available trout habitat Habitat occupied by t

Pools - 52%

Pools - 32%

Riffles - 68% Riffles - 48%

a b
38

The scientists concluded

that natural resource scientists

should be careful when they

identify some locations as the

most preferred habitat for

fish. This is especially true

when they base that identification on the location of the

most dominant fish. 

Reflection

Section

• Often, natural resource

managers

change natural

resources to create better

habitat for a species. What

might happen if natural

resource scientists incorrectly identify a favorite

type of habitat?

• Once this research was finished, what should the scientists have done with the

fences they put in the river?

FACTivity

In order to

learn about

trout habitat,

the scientists in

this study had

to learn how to carefully

observe and record their

observations. In this

FACTivity, you will learn how

to improve your observation

skills. Bring a natural object

for observation, such as a

stick, rock, or a leaf to class.

Place the item on your desk in

front of you. Just sit and

observe the item. What color

is it? Is it the same color all

over? What shape is it? What

else can you observe about the

item? Write down everything

you observe about the item.

Use the chart below as a sample. You may have many more

than five observations! After

you have finished observing

your own item, choose another student as a partner to

exchange your item with.

Repeat your observat

your partner’s item.

Compare your obs

with those of your pa

How are they similar

are they different? W

this tell you about ob

tion? Have a class dis

about how observatio

same item can be sim

different. Why do you 

observations of the sa

may be different for d

people?

From Young, Michael K.; Me

Isaak, Daniel J.; and Wilkison

(1998). Habitat selection and 

by individual cutthroat trout 

absence of competitors. Journ

Freshwater Ecology, 13(4): 3

Website:

http://www.fs.fed.us/

labs/laramie/rmrs435

Name of object:

Observation 1:

Observation 2:

Observation 3:

Observation 4:

Observation 5:

Sample chart for recording observations.
Relating to or occur

night.

habitat (ha buh tat)

Environment where 

animal naturally gro

lives.

breeding habitat (b

buh tat): Environme

animal nests and rep

opposed to where it 

the rest of the year.

population (pop yo

The total number o

of a species living in 

forage (for ij): (1) F

mals usually taken b

or grazing and (2) t

taking such food.

day-roost (da rust): 

with wings rest or s

the day.

tree crown (tre krou

upper green section 

with leaves or needl

wildlife manager (w

ma ni jür): Skilled in

who manages natur

for wildlife.

forest manager (for 

jür): Skilled individu

takes care of natura

resources.

39

Meet Dr. Brian Linkhart:

I like being a scientist

because it’s exciting discovering new things about unusual

animals, and trying to understand the needs of animals so

that we may help ensure their

survival in the future. I became

interested in natural resources

when I began spending a lot of

time backpacking and fly fishing in the mountains of

Colorado as a young teenager.

Tracking the Busy

Life of Flammulated

Owl Dads

Dr. Brian Linkhart

Pronunciation Guide

a as in ape

ä as in car

e as in me

i as in ice

o as in go

ô 

u 

ü 

oo 

ng 
g g 

mals’ normal behavior and

movements. The scientists in

this study used radiotelemetry

to study the behavior and

movements of Flammulated

(fla mu la ted) owl fathers.

Radiotelemetry involves

attaching a small electronic

transmitter to the animal. The

device sends out a signal that

is detected by an electronic

receiver. The scientist can then

identify the location of the

animal, even as the animal

moves from place to place in

its habitat. It is important not

to disturb wildlife even when

we are trying to learn more

about it. Technology helps scientists to do this.

Thinking 

About the

Environment

Flammulated

owls make their

nests and raise

their young in old conifer

forests (Figure 1). Old forests

are forests whose trees have

not been cut down or disturbed for hundreds of years.

In addition to large living

trees, old forests have large

numbers of standing dead

trees. These dead trees, or

snags, are preferred by owls

because they can make their

nests in the dead trees’ cavities

(Figure 2). These cavities are

usually created by woodpeckers. The needles, limbs, and

trunks of old conifers are

good places to find insects and

spiders, which male

Flammulated owls feed to

their young. Old forests, as

opposed to forests composed

y

from growing too big 

pete with the older tr

can see that there is a 

ship between small, n

occurring forest fires 

Flammulated owl bab

Introduction

When pairs of Flam

owls get ready to rep

they must find a plac

their nest. They need 

tion convenient to a f

ply suitable for baby

Flammulated owls. T

tists wanted to know 

kind of habitat Flamm

owls prefer to use wh

ing their young. Alth

scientists knew gener

kind of forest these o

in, they did not know 

about the specific are

owls use to raise their 

They wanted to know 

kind of trees were mo

favored by Flammula

parents. Flammulated 

are widespread acros

Western United State

small and shy, and th

hard to study. The sci

needed to develop a m

study these owls, but 

not want to disturb th

while they studied th

40

Figure 1. Old conifer forest.

Figure 2. Flammulated owl in

a tree cavity.
entists waited until after the

mother owl had laid her eggs.

Then, male Flammulated owls

were briefly captured, outfitted with a radio transmitter,

and released. The scientists

knew the location of the

father owls throughout the

day and night because they

received radio signals from the

transmitters. The scientists

identified where the owls were

located, then went to that area

of the forest to observe the

owls in person. They recorded

what the owls were doing at

the time. They sometimes used

flashlights to see the owls and

record the owls’ behavior.

The scientists classified the

father owls’ behavior into

four activities. These activities

were: (1) Foraging, (2)

Territorial singing, (3)

Resting, and (4) Day-roosting.

When they observed the father

owls doing any of these activities, they recorded the activity

and the kind of tree in which

they found the father owl.

Reflection

Section

• If the preferred breeding

habitat of

Flammulated

owls is not available, what

might happen to the

Flammulated owl population?

• What might cause the

breeding habitat of

Flammulated owls to

become unavailable?

Methods

The scientists identified an

area to study within a forest in

Colorado where they knew

Flammulated owls had been

seen. For this study, the scientists focused on the behavior

of the father owl. Male

Flammulated owls are the

breadwinners in the family!

They gather insects and spiders throughout part of the

night and bring them back for

the baby owls to eat. The sci41

g

of the owls’ behavi

Results

The scientists were 

ed in the kinds of tree

father owls used whil

were raising their you

While the mother ow

ting on the nest, the f

did three kinds of act

during the night: He 

for food and provide

babies, he sang (hoo, 

hoo) to establish and 

his territory, and he r

During the day, the fa

roosted. Table 1 pres

scientists’ findings.

From this table, yo

that most of the fathe

activities occurred in 

fir and Ponderosa pin

More than half the ti

father owls foraged fo

in Douglas-fir trees. W

father owls sang to es

and defend their terri

usually sang from the 

part of the tree crown

the trunk. They only 

from Douglas-fir and

Ponderosa pine trees. 

work of father owls i

therefore, they often 

rest after they fed the

They rested mostly in

Figure 3. Flammulated owls are shy, nocturnal small owls,

about 6 inches high (smaller than a robin!). Flammulated owls

eat mostly insects, capturing them by swooping down and

grasping the insects with their talons (claws).
Douglas-fir and Ponderosa

pine trees. When father owls

roosted during the day, they

usually selected Douglas-fir

and Ponderosa pine trees. The

average age of the trees used

by father Flammulated owls is

shown in Table 2.

The fathers usually fed their

babies in the early evening.

During that time, they were

very busy! They usually made

about 16 trips per hour to the

nest. (About how many minutes did they spend foraging

and delivering each meal?)

Each time, they delivered only

one small kind of prey, such as

a spider or moth. You can see

why it is important for owls to

build their nests close to their

food supply!

Reflection

Section

• What kind of

trees do

Flammulated

owl fathers prefer? Why do you think they

prefer these trees? 

• If you were a wildlife manager, what would you do

with Douglas-fir and

Ponderosa pine forests?

How would you balance

the needs of the owls with

the needs of humans for

wood products?

Implications

Father Flammulated owls

are usually found in old

Douglas-fir/Ponderosa pine

forests. In the past, these old

trees were protected naturally

by frequent, small ground

fires. These small fire

brush and most of th

trees from growing u

competing with the la

trees. These naturally 

ring small ground fire

not reach the high tre

crowns, and the trun

too big to catch on fir

fire eventually died o

own. Then, humans b

putting these fires ou

than letting them bur

did this because they 

they were protecting 

est, and they also wan

protect houses and ot

buildings. Putting the 

out, along with cuttin

trees for wood produ

changed some of the 

forests. There are no 

many old trees for

Flammulated owls to 

their young.

Reflec

Section

• We u

think t

forest f

should 

42

TOTAL PERCENT 100 100 100 100 

Table 1. Percent of locations identified for each of the four activities

according to the type of tree.

Table 2. Average age of the trees used by father owls

for three activities.

Foraging Territorial singing Day-roosting

Average age 

of trees 199 years 289 years 207 years
out. We now know that

some kinds of natural fires

are good for the forest. In

what ways could some natural fires be good for a forest and the animals that live

there?

• What should the scientists

do with the radio transmitters that they placed on the

father owls?

FACTivity

In this

FACTivity, we

are going to create concept

maps. Concept

maps are like drawings, but

they show how ideas and

things are linked together.

They usually start with a main

idea, and then other ideas are

linked by lines that show relationships to each concept.

Words are also used to

describe those relationships.

Words that can be used

include:

becomes, includes, make,

for, need, is/are, has/have,

release, uses, used by, with,

shows, from, like, can be,

cause, contain, go between,

such as, release

Figure 4 shows the beginning of a concept map for

Flammulated owls. It is your

job to complete this concept

map. You can base your concept map on what you learned

from the article, as well as

what you already know about

owls. Some of the ideas you

might add include insects,

water, humans, and fire. But

don’t stop there! Think about

all of the things that baby

Flammulated owls need to live.

FACTivity adapted from: Ho

(1994). Eco-Inquiry: A guide 

learning experiences for the u

mentary/middle grades. Dubu

Kendall/Hunt. 1-800-228-08

Reprinted with permission.

From Linkhart, Brian D., Rey

Richard T., and Ryder, Ronal

Home range and habitat of b

Flammulated owls in Colorad

Bulletin, 110(3): 342-352

Website:

http://www.fs.fed.us/

labs/flagstaff/rmrs42

For more informatio

owls, visit

www.owlpages.com/

43

they did about this? Could

was longer, cost more money,
44

What Makes an 

Avalanche Happen?

Meet Dr. Karl Birkeland: 

I like being a scientist

because I get to play detective.

I search for answers to

avalanche problems faced by

people who work and play in

the mountains. I became interested in avalanches in college

while I was working as a ski

patroller. Being an avalanche

scientist combined my love of

skiing, mountains, snow, and

science.

Thinking About

Science

Natural

resource scientists help to

solve some of

society’s problems by discovering new information about the

environment. Sometimes, just

learning new things about the

environment helps citizens

make better decisions. In this

study, the scientists were interested in discovering which

gg 

tain areas during thos

er conditions. In way

this, the work of natu

resource scientists can 

people make decision

keep them safe.

Thinki

About 

Enviro

Avala

are sno

that su

release and flow dow

side. Avalanches are m

common on steeper s

such as those over 30

can travel faster than 

(160 km/h) (Figure 1)

the weight of skiers o

Dr. Karl Birkeland
45

ted): Closely conn

with another.

relationship (re la 

ship): Being relate

nected.

water vapor pressu

tür va pür pre shur

amount of pressur

forth by the water 

air at different tem

tures.

crystallize (kris tu

form crystals. Wat

tals are formed wh

vapor cools and w

ecules are pulled to

manager (ma ni jü

skilled person who 

or manages somet

, 

slides, floods, and tornadoes.

Such large-scale environmental forces usually occur naturally. However, when humans

are affected, their impact may

be disastrous for individuals

and society.

Introduction

Slab avalanches are the

most dangerous kind of

avalanche. A slab is a layer of

new snow sitting on top of a

layer of snow, called a weak

layer. Scientists call this a

weak layer because the bonds

that hold the snow crystals

together are weak. Added

weight, such as more new

snow, may be piled on top of

the weak layer. When this

happens, part of the new slab

can break off and slide down

the mountain. The scientists in

this study wanted to learn

how the weak layer is formed.

Although there had been studies of the formation of other

weak layers of snow in other

places, no one had studied this

particular weak layer in

Montana. 

Although the scientists

knew that these weak layers

were being formed, they did

not know how snow tempera

y

Reflection

Section

• The scientists

wanted to study

the temperature

of the snow at

its surface and below the

surface. If you were the scientist, how would you measure snow temperature at

these locations?

• What danger, if any, did the

scientists face when they

conducted their research?

How do you think they

reduced the danger to themselves?

Methods

The scientists wanted to

measure snow temperature at

the surface and down to 20

centimeters into the snow.

(How many inches is this?

Multiply 20 by .394 to find

out!) They measured the snow

temperature by glueing thermometers along a plastic pipe.

They protected each thermometer by placing all but its

end in a stainless steel tube

before glueing it to the pipe.

They glued two thermometers

to the top end of the pipe, 1

Pronunciation Guide

a as in ape

ä as in car

e as in me

i as in ice

o as in go

ô 

u 

ü 

oo 

ng 
46

gy ppp

with the thermometers into

the snow (Figure 3). The scientists were interested in

studying avalanches on steep

slopes. However, they made their temperature measurements in a flat area at the bottom of a steep slope because it

was safer and a more convenient place to record snow

temperatures.

The scientists were interested in comparing the snow

temperature at the different

depths and times of the day

and night. Then, when the

weak layer had been buried by

a new layer of snow, the scientists observed its relationship

to avalanches in the area.

Reflection

Section

• Do you think

the snow’s surface temperature changed

more or less between day

and night than the snow

temperature under the surface? Why?

• What are two advantages of

using a device to measure

temperature automatically?

snow under the surfa

snow under the surfa

close to the same tem

the whole time (Figur

With such wide varia

temperature between 

face snow and the un

snow, the water vapo

sure in the snow also 

widely. During the co

water vapor traveled 

the surface. While ne

surface, it became ver

and froze on nearby e

crystals. During the w

the process reversed. 

the crystals became w

vapor again, and the 

traveled down into th

When water vapor re

lizes near the surface, 

becomes crystals with 

angles and flat sides (

5). When new snow f

the old layer, it does n

well to the flat crysta

creates dangerous ava

conditions.

Following the form

the layer of crystals, n

fell in the area of the 

For up to 9 days, ther

avalanches in the regi

avalanches were form

because the new snow 

not stick to the weak 

Figure 2. The thermometers

used by the scientists.

Figure 3. The placement of

the thermometers in the snow.

Weak layer and new layer of

snow.
47

The new snow built up so

much weight that it broke

apart on the weak layer. Once

it broke apart, huge pieces slid

down the slope in an

avalanche.

Reflection

Section

• Why do you

think the snow

under the surface stayed

about the same temperature, regardless of whether

it was day or night?

• Once an avalanche begins,

what force makes it continue? Can you think of two

other things that allow an

avalanche to continue to

slide?

Implications

The scientists discovered

that a weak, crystallized layer

of snow is formed during periods of clear, sunny days and

clear, cold nights. Under these

conditions, the snow surface

temperature varies widely

compared to the temperature

py 

periods of clear weath

lowed by new snowfa

Reflec

Section

• Imag

are the 

of a sno

ered m

area. A group of sk

come to you and w

skiing during a per

clear weather and n

snowfall. You know 

conditions are righ

avalanche. What w

tell the skiers? Why

• What can a manag

increase the safety 

areas?

FACTiv

Get a 

board 

about 2 

square

with St

peanuts. Take it outsi

the sunlight. Get thre

mometers. Place one 

mometer into the cen

box, right in the midd

Styrofoam peanuts. L

second thermometer 

one layer of the peanu

Figure 4. Comparison of temperature gradient between the

top and lower layers of snow.

Figure 5. A crystal from a weak layer of snow.
48

the third thermometer just

outside of the box. Record the

temperatures on all three thermometers every hour throughout the day. You may use the

chart below or make one of

your own. You will have to

take the thermometers out of

the box, then replace them in

the same places after recording the temperature. Create a

bar chart from your table.

Study the table and the bar

chart. What do they tell you

about the insulating characteristics of Styrofoam? How is

Styrofoam like snow? How is

it not like snow?

Based on this FACTivity,

consider the following questions:

1. Why is it useful to measure

the air temperature as well

as the temperature in the

box?

2. How is this FACTivity similar to what the scientists

did?

3. Of the temperatures inside

the box, which has the

greatest change in temperature? Why?

From Birkeland, Karl W.; Johnson, Ron

F.; and Schmidt, D. Scott (1998). Nearsurface faceted crystals formed by diurnal

recrystallization: A case study of weak

layer formation in the mountain snowpack and its contribution to snow

avalanches. Arctic and Alpine Research,

30(2): 200-204.

Website: 

http://www.avalanch

~uafc/

Kid’s snow page:

www.teelfamily.com

ties/snow

Snow crystals page:

www.its.caltech.edu/

ic/snowcrystals/prim

.htm

hazard in Utah. To increase

people’s safety, 2002 Games

can find out which areas and

weather conditions are dan

about avalanches, vis

www.avalanche.org o

www.csac.org

9:00 a.m.

10:00 a.m.

11:00 a.m.

12:00 noon

1:00 p.m.

2:00 p.m.

Sample Chart:

Date Temperature

in the box

Temperature

on top layer

of box

Air 

temp
49

■ Goldifinch and the Three Scales

■ Big Fish in a Small Pool

■ Turn That Radio Down!

■ Excuse Me While I Flow My Snows

Circle the answer that best describes how you

feel about the article you just read.

2. The article was:

Easy to understand

Hard to understand

Very hard to understand

3. The article was:

Very interesting to read

Somewhat interesting to read

Not interesting to read

4. Did you learn something from reading 

the article? ■ Yes ■ No

5. Did you try to answer the 

Reflection Questions? 

■ Yes ■ No ■ Some of them

If you read and tried to answer any of the

reflection questions, did they help you to

think about the article? ■ Yes ■ No

9. Are you a girl or a boy?

■ Girl ■ Boy

Now write in your answer:

10. What did you learn from reading 

the article?

11. What is your favorite subject in s

Along with your class or by yourself, 

please send this form to:

Dr. Barbara McDonald

USDA Forest Service

320 Green St.

Athens, GA 30602-2044

Thank you!
the required statewide science curriculum

standards? ■ Yes ■ No

2.How close to the appropriate reading and

comprehension level for your students is this

article written?

■ Very close

■ Somewhat close

■ Not close

3.If the article is somewhat close or not close

to the appropriate reading and comprehension

level, is it:

■ Too hard

■ Too easy

4.Would or did you use this article in your

classroom as an educational resource?

■ Yes ■ No ■ Why or why not? 

Introduction 1 2 3 

Methods 1 2 3 

Results 1 2 3 

Graphs, figures, photos 1 2 3 

Reflection Section 1 2 3 

2002 Games Sidebar 1 2 3 

6. For any of the sections you rated w

a “one” or a “two” in question 5, ple

cate why the section was not useful o

can be improved:

FACTivity

Glossary

Introduction

Methods

51

PLEASE CONTINUE THIS EVALUATION ON THE NEXT P
52

2002 Games Sidebar

7.Was the “Note to the Teacher” useful 

to you?

■ Yes ■ No ■ Somewhat

8.What grade(s) do you teach? ______

9.What subject(s) do you teach?

Please send this evaluation, along with your students’ evaluations, to:

Dr. Barbara McDonald

USDA Forest Service 

320 Green St. 

Athens, GA 30602-2044

Thank you! Your evaluations will help us to continually improve The Natural Inquire
Abilities necessary to do 

scientific inquiry

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Understandings about 

scientific inquiry

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Life Science

Structure & function in 

living systems

Reproduction & heredity

XX

Regulation & behaviorXX

Populations & ecosystemsXXXX

Diversity & adaptations 

of organisms

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Earth & Space Science

Structure of the earth system

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Science & Technology

Understandings about science 

& technology

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Science in personal & 

social perspective

Populations, resources 

& environments

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Natural hazardsXXXXX

Risks & benefitsXX

Science & technology in societyXXXXXXX

History & nature of science

Science as a human endeavor

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Nature of scienceXXXXXXX

Physical Science

Motions & forces

X
streams, and grasslands.

National forests are similar in

some ways to national parks.

Both national forests and

national parks provide clean

water, homes for animals that

live in the wild, and places for

people to do fun things in the

outdoors. National forests

also provide resources for

people to use, such as trees

for lumber, minerals, and

natural environment is

healthy, now and into the

future.

The U.S. Department of

Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and

activities on the basis of race, color,

national origin, sex, religion, age,

disability, political beliefs, sexual

orientation, and marital or family

status. (Not all prohibited bases

apply to all programs.) Persons

with disabilities who require alter

Independence Avenue, SW

Washington, DC 20250-

call (202) 720-5964 (voi

TDD). USDA is an equa

nity provider and emplo

United States Department o

Forest Service

Visit these websites for more information:

USDA Forest Service:

www.fs.fed.us

The Natural Inquirer:

www.naturalinquirer.usda.gov

Conservation Education:

www.fs.fed.us/outdoors/nrce/

Rocky Mountain Research Station:

www.fs.fed.us/rm/

NatureWatch:

www.fs.fed.us/outdoors/naturewatch/

default.htm

Woodsy Owl:

www.fs.fed.us/spf/woodsy

Smokey Bear:

www.smokeybear.com

National Forest Information:

www.fs.fed.us/recreation/map.shtml

National Forest Recreation:

www.fs.fed.us/recreation/recreation.s

USDA Kid’s Page:

www.usda.gov/news/usdakids/index.

Olympic Winter Games of 2002

www.saltlake2002.com

2002 Olympic Winter Games Educa

www.uen.org/2002

FS-692