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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

INTRODUCTION AND HIGHLIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER 1: DESCRIPTION OF THE REPORT AND THE SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Overview of NHSDA Main Findings Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

The Sample Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1998 Questionnaire .......................................................... 9

1998 Field Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Interpreting the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Strengths and Limitations of the Household Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

CHAPTER 2: TRENDS IN DRUG USE, 1979 TO 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Comparing Prevalence of Use Across NHSDA Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Prevalence of Drug Use in 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Trends in Drug Use Among the Household Population Aged 12 or Older . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Trends by Age Group for the Most Commonly Used Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Detailed Analysis of Differences in Drug Use Between 1997 and 1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

CHAPTER 3: MARIJUANA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Marijuana Use, by Age Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Marijuana Use, by Age Group and Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Marijuana Use, by Age Group and Race/Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Marijuana Use, by Age Group, Population Density, and Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Marijuana Use, by Adult Educational Attainment and Current Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Marijuana Use, by Age Group, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Frequency of Marijuana Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Use of Marijuana and Other Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

CHAPTER 4: COCAINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Cocaine Use, by Age Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Cocaine Use, by Age Group and Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Cocaine Use, by Age Group and Race/Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Cocaine Use, by Age Group, Population Density, and Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Cocaine Use, by Adult Educational Attainment and Current Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Cocaine Use, by Age Group, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Lifetime Frequency of Cocaine Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Crack Cocaine Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page

vi

CHAPTER 5: INHALANTS, HALLUCINOGENS, AND HEROIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Inhalant Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Hallucinogen Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

PCP Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

LSD Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Heroin Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

CHAPTER 6: NONMEDICAL USE OF PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC DRUGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Nonmedical (Illicit) Use of Any Psychotherapeutic Drug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Use of Any Stimulant and of Methamphetamine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Use of Sedatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Use of Tranquilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Use of Analgesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

CHAPTER 7: ALCOHOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Alcohol Use, by Age Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Alcohol Use, by Age Group and Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Alcohol Use, by Age Group and Race/Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Alcohol Use, by Age Group, Population Density, and Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Alcohol Use, by Age Group, Adult Education, and Current Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Alcohol Use, by Age Group, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Frequency of Alcohol Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

“Binge” and Heavy Alcohol Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Past Month Alcohol Use Among Minors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Alcohol Use and Use of Other Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

CHAPTER 8: CIGARETTES, SMOKELESS TOBACCO, AND CIGARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Cigarette Use, by Age Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Cigarette Use, by Age Group and Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Cigarette Use, by Age Group and Race/Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Cigarette Use, by Age Group, Population Density, and Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Cigarette Use, by Adult Education and Adult Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Cigarette Use, by Age Group, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Heavy Cigarette Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Cigarette Use and Use of Other Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Smokeless Tobacco Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Cigar Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page

vii

CHAPTER 9: PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH MARIJUANA, COCAINE, 

ALCOHOL, AND CIGARETTES .................................................. . 131

Introduction ............................................................. . 131

Measurement of Problems Related to Substance Use .............................. . 131

Marijuana .............................................................. . 133

Cocaine ................................................................ . 133

Alcohol ................................................................ . 134

Cigarettes .............................................................. . 134

Discussion .............................................................. . 135

CHAPTER 10: DRUG USE PATTERNS ............................................ . 141

Introduction ............................................................. . 141

Multiple Drug Use ........................................................ . 141

Age at First Use ......................................................... . 142

Needle Use ............................................................. . 142

Discussion .............................................................. . 143

CHAPTER 11: RISK OF USING DRUGS, EASE OF GETTING DRUGS,

AND RISKY BEHAVIORS ...................................................... . 149

Introduction ............................................................. . 149

Perceptions of Risk of Using Illicit Drugs, Alcohol, and Cigarettes .................... . 149

Perceptions of Ease or Difficulty of Getting Illicit Drugs ........................... . 150

Respondents’ Reports of Having Been Approached by Someone Selling Drugs ........... . 150

Heavy Alcohol and Illicit Drug Use and Risky Driving Behaviors .................... . 151

Discussion .............................................................. . 152

CHAPTER 12: DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE TREATMENT AND 

WORKPLACE PROGRAMS ..................................................... . 159

Introduction ............................................................. . 159

Prevalence of Drug and Alcohol Abuse Treatment ............................... . 159

Prevalence of Treatment, by Frequency of Use ................................... . 160

Perceived Need for Alcohol or Drug Treatment .................................. . 160

Prevalence of Workplace Drug and Alcohol Programs and Policies ................... . 160

Discussion .............................................................. . 161

CHAPTER 13: SUBSTANCE USE AMONG SPECIAL POPULATIONS ................... . 169

Introduction ............................................................. . 169

Drug Use, by Family Income, Health Insurance Status, and Welfare Assistance .......... . 169

Drug Use and Arrests ..................................................... . 170

Drug Use and Criminal Behaviors ............................................ . 171

Drug Use, “Binge” Alcohol Use, Cigarette Use, and Pregnancy ...................... . 172

Drug Use and School Dropout Status .......................................... . 173

Drug Use Among Youths, by Exposure to Prevention Messages ...................... . 174

Discussion .............................................................. . 174
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page

viii

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

APPENDICES

A. Key Definitions: 1972-1998 Survey Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1

B. Quality of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1

C. Sampling and Statistical Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1

D. Sampling and Weighting Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1

E. Adjustment of the 1979-1993 NHSDA Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1

F. Answer Sheets from 1998 Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-1

G. Selected Questionnaire Pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1
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1

Introduction and Highlights

Substance abuse continues to be one of the foremost health and social problems faced by our Nation

today. The use of illicit drugs, alcohol, and tobacco is responsible for more than one in four preventable deaths

each year, as well as substantial health care costs, productivity loss, criminal activity, and unmeasurable

suffering (Institute for Health Policy, 1993). Recent estimates reveal that alcohol and drug abuse cost the

Nation about $246 billion in 1992, $148 billion associated with alcohol abuse and alcoholism and $98 billion

associated with drug abuse and dependence (Harwood, Fountain, & Livermore, 1998). A creditable, national

surveillance system for monitoring the levels of substance abuse in the United States is one of the essential tools

for allowing researchers and policymakers to better understand and control this problem. The National

Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) was established in 1971 for this purpose.

This report presents the main findings of the 1998 NHSDA. The 1998 survey provides information

on the use of illicit drugs, alcohol, and tobacco among the estimated 218 million members of the civilian,

noninstitutionalized population aged 12 or older in the United States (hereinafter referred to as the “surveyed

population”). Specifically, the Main Findings report provides four main types of information: 

• prevalence data on the use of illicit drugs, alcohol, and tobacco for the surveyed

population as a whole and specifically for four age groups: 12 to 17, 18 to 25, 26 to

34, and 35 or older; 

• comparisons across survey years (i.e., “trend analyses”) between 1979 and 1998

regarding the prevalence of use of illicit drugs, alcohol, and tobacco for the surveyed

population; 

• demographic correlates of the use of illicit drugs, alcohol, and tobacco among the

surveyed population; and 

• data on patterns of drug use among the surveyed population regarding problems

arising from this use; perceptions of risk of using illicit drugs, alcohol, or cigarettes;

treatment history of the population; and substance use among special populations. 

The following pages provide highlights of the main findings from each chapter of this report.

Chapter 1

Description of the Report and the Survey. Chapter 1 describes the NHSDA, including its history

and purposes, survey methods, and guidelines for interpreting statistics presented in this report. 

Chapter 2

Trends in Drug Use, 1979 to 1998. Rates of use of illicit drugs, alcohol, and tobacco for the total

household population aged 12 or older in the past year and past month generally decreased between

1979 and 1998, were relatively stable from 1991 to 1998, and did not change appreciably between

1997 and 1998. Lifetime rates of use of most illicit drugs increased for the total population between

1979 and 1998, while lifetime rates of inhalants and psychotherapeutics decreased. Among youths

aged 12 to 17, however, rates of lifetime, past year, and past month use of any illicit drug decreased

significantly between 1997 and 1998. These decreases contrast with increases in drug use among

adolescents during the earlier part of the 1990s. Alcohol use was relatively stable among youths

between 1997 and 1998, while past year cigarette use declined between 1997 and 1998. 
In the interest of readability for this report, “white” is used to indicate “white, non-Hispanic” and “black” 1

to indicate “black, non-Hispanic.” 

2

Chapter 3

Marijuana. Marijuana was the most commonly used illicit drug in 1998. About 33% of the 218

million persons represented in the 1998 NHSDA reported marijuana use in their lifetime, 9% reported

use in the past year, and 5% reported current use (in the past month). Marijuana use in the past year

and past month was more common among males and young adults aged 18 to 25. Additionally, current

marijuana use tended to be lowest in nonmetropolitan areas and among college graduates and highest

among the unemployed. Current users of marijuana were much more likely than nonusers to drink

alcohol, smoke cigarettes, and/or use other illicit drugs.

Chapter 4

Cocaine. After marijuana, more people reported having used cocaine at some point in their lifetime

than any other illicit drug. Around 11% of the persons represented in 1998 reported cocaine use in

their lifetime, 2% reported use in the past year, and nearly 1% reported current use (in the past 30

days). Past year use and current cocaine use were more common among young adult males aged 18

to 25 than among all other age-gender groups. About 3% of the males in the 18 to 25 age group were

current cocaine users. Additionally, past year and current cocaine use tended to be higher among

adults with less than a high school education and among those who were unemployed. An estimated

2% of the surveyed population reported crack use in their lifetime, 0.4% reported past year crack use,

and 0.2% reported current crack use. Reported lifetime and past year crack use were relatively more

common among males, blacks, adults who did not graduate from high school, and the unemployed.1

Chapter 5

Inhalants, Hallucinogens, and Heroin. Approximately 10% of the NHSDA-surveyed population in

1998 reported ever having used hallucinogens, and roughly 6% reported lifetime use of inhalants. The

lifetime prevalence of heroin use remained quite low (1%) compared with most other drugs. In general,

use of inhalants and hallucinogens was more commonly reported among males and whites, and least

reported in nonmetropolitan areas and among blacks. Heroin use was more commonly reported among

males and blacks.

Chapter 6

Nonmedical Use of Psychotherapeutic Drugs. Psychotherapeutic drugs as defined here include

prescription-type (as opposed to over-the-counter) stimulants, sedatives, tranquilizers, and analgesics

that are used without a prescription or other than as prescribed. In 1998, approximately 9% of persons

aged 12 or older (about 20 million persons) reported using at least one psychotherapeutic drug for

nonmedical reasons in their lifetime; 3% (about 6 million persons) reported illicit psychotherapeutic

use in the past year; and 1% (2 million persons) reported use in the past month. With few exceptions,

young adults aged 18 to 25, males, and whites were more likely than persons in the other demographic

subgroups to report the nonmedical use of psychotherapeutic drugs. 

Chapter 7

Alcohol. Since the inception of the NHSDA in 1971, alcohol has been reported as the most commonly

used psychoactive drug in the United States. Approximately 178 million (81%) of the 218 million

people aged 12 or older represented in 1998 reported alcohol use in their lifetime. An estimated 140

million persons (64%) reported use in the past year, and 113 million persons (52%) reported current
3

use (in the previous month). Furthermore, about 12 million persons (6%) reported heavy alcohol use

in the past month (five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of 5 or more days in the past 30

days), and 33 million persons (15%) reported “binge” alcohol use in that period (five or more drinks

on the same occasion on at least 1 day in the past 30 days). Both the prevalence and intensity of

alcohol use were greatest among males. In addition, respondents aged 18 to 34 tended to report higher

rates of past year and current alcohol use than did those in younger or older age groups. Although in

the total population adults with more education were more likely to have used alcohol in the past

month, heavy alcohol use was more common among the less educated. 

Chapter 8

Cigarettes, Smokeless Tobacco, and Cigars. In 1998, approximately 70% of the population aged

12 or older had tried at least a few puffs of a cigarette at some point in their lifetime. Approximately

31% of the population aged 12 or older had smoked within the past year, and 28% were current

smokers (i.e., they had smoked within the past 30 days). Rates of past year and current cigarette use

among young adults aged 18 to 25 increased significantly from the mid-1990s, when they had reached

a low point, to 1998. Use of smokeless tobacco products or cigars was less prevalent than cigarette

use. An estimated 17% of the population aged 12 or older had ever tried smokeless tobacco, 4% had

used it in the past year, and only 3% had used it in the past month. More than one-third of the

population aged 12 or older smoked at least a puff of a cigar in their lifetime, and about 7% reported

that they smoked a cigar in the past month. In 1998, tobacco products were more likely to be used

currently by males than by females; cigarettes were more likely to be used by blacks, while cigars and

smokeless tobacco were more likely to be used by whites. In particular, current smokeless tobacco

use occurred predominantly among white males in the young adult and middle adult age groups.

Adults without a college education also were more likely than adults who had completed college to be

current users of cigarettes or smokeless tobacco.

Chapter 9

Problems Associated with Marijuana, Cocaine, Alcohol, and Cigarettes. During 1998, about

686,000 cocaine users, 3.3 million marijuana users, 10.8 million drinkers of alcohol, and 22 million

cigarette smokers reported three or more problems that are considered potential signs of dependence

on each respective substance. Among those who reported heavy cigarette use (currently smoking about

a pack or more a day) or use of marijuana at least 12 days in the past year, 49% and 28%,

respectively, reported three or more problems. Among heavy drinkers, 66% reported one or more

problems and 36% reported three or more problems. The most frequently reported problems for past

year users of marijuana and alcohol were spending a great deal of time getting or using the drug or

getting over its effects, using the drug more often or in larger amounts than intended, and developing

a tolerance for the substance. Among heavy cigarette smokers, the most frequently reported problems

were wanting or trying to quit or cut down on using cigarettes but not being able to do so, and

spending a great deal of time getting or using cigarettes or getting over their effects. Among past year

users of cocaine aged 12 or older, the most prevalent problem was the occurrence of psychological

problems associated with cocaine use. Among past year users of marijuana, alcohol, and cocaine, as

well as heavy cigarette smokers, users in the younger age groups tended to report higher rates of

problems than older users. 

Chapter 10

Drug Use Patterns. About half of the surveyed population reported having used only alcohol and no

other drug in their lifetime (47%), slightly more than one-third reported using both alcohol and some

illicit drug (35%), and 1% or less reported using only some illicit drug (and no alcohol) in their

lifetime. Lifetime needle use, reported by about 1% of the population aged 12 or older, was relatively
4

more common among males and adults aged 18 or older. Consistent with previous reports, cigarettes,

alcohol, and inhalants tended to be first used at relatively early ages for the 1998 NHSDA population,

while use of cocaine and heroin usually began at later ages. 

Chapter 11

Risk of Using Drugs, Ease of Getting Drugs, and Risky Behaviors. Most people perceived that one

takes great risks of harming oneself with any use of cocaine or heroin and with heavy alcohol use

nearly everyday. About two-thirds of the population assigned great risk to smoking a pack of

cigarettes everyday. The prevalences of perceptions that great risks may be incurred with drug use

were generally lowest among youths aged 12 to 17. Additionally, individuals who had used illicit

drugs were less likely to perceive great risk from use than were those who had not used drugs. The

majority of the total population reported that marijuana was easy to obtain. Between 30% and 38%

thought that cocaine, crack, and LSD might be obtained easily. In general, those who had used at least

one illicit drug were more likely than nonusers to think that getting any of the drugs except heroin

would be easy. About 6% of the population aged 12 or older reported being approached during the

past month by someone offering to sell drugs. Past year illicit drug use and heavy alcohol use were

highly related to other types of high-risk behaviors, such as driving while under the influence.

Chapter 12

Drug and Alcohol Abuse Treatment and Workplace Programs. The number of individuals

receiving treatment for alcohol or drug abuse was much smaller than the number who reported having

problems resulting from their use of substances. Although an estimated 10.8 million people in the U.S.

noninstitutionalized population aged 12 or older reported three or more problems related to their

alcohol use in the past year (see Chapter 9), only about 2.1 million reported receiving treatment for

that use. Similarly, 1.5% and 0.3% of the population reported three or more problems resulting from

marijuana and cocaine use, respectively, while only 0.7% of the population reported receiving

treatment for illicit drug use. Young adults aged 18 to 25 were more likely than other age groups to

have received treatment in the past year, perhaps related to their higher rates of substance use. Past

month use of illicit drugs was lower among employees of larger establishments, and access to drug and

alcohol prevention and treatment resources in the workplace was higher in these establishments. 

Chapter 13

Substance Use Among Special Populations. Family income below $9,000, lack of health insurance,

and having a family member in the same household receiving welfare were associated with any illicit

drug use, marijuana use, and cocaine use in the past year. Past year illicit drug use was associated

with being arrested and booked for a variety of criminal activities. In addition, for both youths and

adults, use of illicit drugs or being drunk on 51 or more days in the past year were consistently related

to a variety of criminal or potentially unlawful behaviors, regardless of whether these behaviors

resulted in an arrest. Pregnant women were less likely than nonpregnant women to report past month

illicit drug use, past month “binge” alcohol use, and past month cigarette use. These differences were

found irrespective of age, race/ethnicity, marital status, and educational attainment. Youths aged 12

to 17 and young adults aged 18 to 25 who had dropped out of school were significantly more likely

than those who were not dropouts to have been past year users of any illicit drug, marijuana, or

cocaine, and to have been drunk on 51 or more days in the past year. Youths who used illicit drugs

in the past year were significantly less likely than nonusers to report that they received prevention

messages as part of a class in school, while youths’ exposure to prevention messages outside school

was unrelated to illicit drug use or being drunk on 51 or more days in the past year.
5

Appendix A presents key NHSDA definitions for the survey years from 1972 to 1998. Appendix B

discusses data collection operations, response rates, and imputation and missing data in the 1998 NHSDA.

Appendix C presents the statistical methods used in this report and information on the sampling variances and

design effects of the 1998 NHSDA estimates. Appendix D discusses sampling and weighting procedures.

Appendix E explains the adjustment procedure conducted on the 1979-1993 NHSDA estimates to account for

the new survey methodology used in the 1994 through 1998 NHSDAs. Appendix F contains the answer sheets

from the 1998 NHSDA questionnaire. Appendix G contains selected pages from the questionnaire, including

demographic and health questions.
6
7

Chapter 1: Description of the Report and the Survey

The 1998 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) is the 18 in a series of studies

th

designed to measure the prevalence and correlates of drug use in the United States and to monitor drug use

trends over time. The National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse sponsored the first two studies

conducted in 1971 and 1972. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) sponsored the NHSDA from 1974

to 1991. In October 1992, responsibility for conducting the NHSDA and preparing reports was moved to the

Office of Applied Studies (OAS) within the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

(SAMHSA).

Three other volumes present data from the 1998 NHSDA: 

• National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Population Estimates 1998 (DHHS Publication

No. SMA 99-3327, NHSDA Series H-9); 

• Summary of Findings from the 1998 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (DHHS

Publication No. SMA 99-3328, NHSDA Series H-10); and 

• National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: 1998 Public Use File and Codebook, which

contains an ASCII dataset and codebook on CD-ROM. The public use files from 1979 to

1997 are available on the World Wide Web (WWW) within the Substance Abuse and Mental

Health Data Archive (SAMHDA) at the University of Michigan: http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/

SAMHDA/nhsda.html. The 1998 file will be available in early 2000 from this source (OAS,

in press b). 

The Population Estimates (OAS, 1999b) and Summary of Findings (OAS, 1999d) reports contain tabulations

of 1998 data. The 1998 Main Findings report contains more detailed tables and a comprehensive analysis and

discussion of the results, including trends, and more detail on the survey methodology. 

Overview of NHSDA Main Findings Report

The 1998 NHSDA Main Findings report provides information about the prevalence of use of specific

illicit drugs, alcohol, and tobacco. This report contains a total of 13 chapters, the first of which focuses on

NHSDA methodology and background. Chapter 2 presents trend estimates for the following years: 1979,

1985, and 1991 through 1998. To account for methodological changes implemented in 1994, a statistical

adjustment procedure was developed and applied to pre-1994 estimates presented in Chapter 2. (See Appendix

E for a description of the adjustment method.) Readers need to be aware that all 1979-1993 data shown in this

report may be different from those previously published in NHSDA Main Findings reports for 1979-1993. 

Chapters 3 through 8 each focus on an individual drug or class of drug. Specifically, Chapter 3

focuses on marijuana use (including hashish); Chapter 4 on cocaine use (including crack); Chapter 5 on use

of inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP]) and heroin; Chapter 6 on the nonmedical use of

psychotherapeutics (e.g., stimulants, sedatives, tranquilizers, and analgesics); Chapter 7 on alcohol use; and

Chapter 8 on tobacco use (including cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, and cigars). Each of these chapters

presents estimates of substance use by demographic correlates (i.e., age, gender, race/ethnicity, population

density, geographic region of residence, educational attainment among those aged 18 years old or older, and

current employment status among those aged 18 or older) (see Appendix A for current and historical definitions

of these variables). Other information presented in these chapters includes (as available) estimates of the
In the interest of readability for this report, “white” is used to indicate “white, non-Hispanic” and “black” 1

to indicate “black, non-Hispanic.” 

8

number of days that the substances were used, other drugs that were used with the chapter’s drug of interest,

and methods of using particular drugs, such as heroin. 

Chapters 9 and 10, respectively, focus on problems associated with substance use and drug use

patterns (i.e., multiple drug use, age at first use, and needle use). Perceived risks from using drugs, perceived

ease of obtaining drugs, and risky substance use-related behaviors (i.e., driving while impaired) are examined

in Chapter 11, and alcohol and drug treatment experiences are examined in Chapter 12.

Chapter 13 presents data on substance use among a variety of special populations. This year’s report

contains sections focusing on (1) drug use by family income, health insurance status, and welfare assistance,

(2) drug use and criminal behaviors, (3) drug use and pregnancy, (4) drug use and school dropout status, and

(5) drug use among adolescents by exposure to drug education and prevention messages.

This report also contains six appendices. Appendix A contains definitions of key terms, including drug

prevalence measures, demographic characteristics, and statistical terms for the 1972 to 1998 surveys.

Appendices B, C, and D include additional information on the quality of the data, sample selection, sampling

errors, confidence intervals, significance testing, and weighting procedures. Appendix E explains the

adjustment procedure that was applied to the 1979-1993 NHSDA estimates in order to facilitate long-term

trend analysis. Appendix F contains the answer sheets from the 1998 NHSDA questionnaire. Appendix G

contains selected pages from the questionnaire, including demographic and health questions.

The Sample Design

The sample for the 1998 NHSDA was designed so that study results could be used to make inferences

about the U.S. civilian, noninstitutionalized population aged 12 years old or older. This 1998 surveyed

population was identical to the surveyed population of the 1991 through 1997 NHSDAs, but 1998's differed

somewhat from pre-1991 NHSDA populations, which were restricted to the household population in the 48

contiguous States. Alaska and Hawaii were included in the sample for the first time in 1991, as were civilians

living on military bases and persons living in noninstitutional group quarters, such as college dormitories,

rooming houses, and shelters. Although this change introduced some minor inconsistencies between the

samples of the 1991-1998 NHSDAs and pre-1991 NHSDA samples, the impact on trends in drug use estimates

is generally inconsequential. Specific details of the sample design and weighting procedures are given in

Appendix D. 

The 1998 NHSDA employed a stratified, multistage area probability sample that resulted in interviews

with 25,500 persons. At the first stage of sample selection, 137 primary sampling units (PSUs) were selected.

PSUs are defined as counties (administrative subdivisions of States) or groups of counties, such as metropolitan

areas. Within each PSU, area segments (such as city blocks or enumeration districts) were selected. In 1998,

2,670 segments were selected, and in each of these segments a listing of all dwelling units was made, from

which a sample of dwelling units was selected. Approximately 76% of the 1998 sample, or 2,030 segments,

overlapped with the 1997 survey year to help reduce the sampling variance for trend estimates and to minimize

field costs. As did the 1991-1997 NHSDAs, the 1998 sample design used a composite size measure

methodology and a specially designed within-dwelling unit selection procedure to meet specified precision

constraints for certain subgroups of interest. In 1998, these subgroups of interest included younger individuals

(aged 12 to 34), blacks, Hispanics, and residents of Arizona and California.1
9

To reduce the number of required screenings and to provide for additional analyses relating the

responses of persons selected from the same dwelling unit, two selections per household were allowed. In each

selected dwelling unit (which can be either households or units within group quarters), a roster recording the

age, race/ethnicity, gender, and marital status of all household members 12 years old or older was completed.

Two, one, or no household members were selected to be interviewed using a random sampling procedure, with

selection probabilities based on the race/ethnicity of the head of household and the ages of each household

member. 

At the conclusion of data collection for the study, sample weights were constructed that reflect the

various stages of sampling described above. The sample weights then were adjusted to account for unit

nonresponse (i.e., persons who could not be found at home or who refused to participate). In pre-1991 surveys,

the weights were adjusted for nonresponse using a common weighting-class approach. In the 1991 through

1998 surveys, a generalized raking procedure based on constrained logistic and exponential regression modeling

was used. This adjustment is an extension of the weighting-class procedure and has the potential for increased

bias reduction through the use of a larger number of response predictors. Finally, these weights were

poststratified to U.S. Bureau of the Census projections of the number of persons in the U.S. civilian,

noninstitutionalized population aged 12 years old or older. The 1993 through 1998 estimates were

poststratified using population projections based on the 1990 Census. The final adjusted weight was used in

deriving estimates. 

1998 Questionnaire

The 1998 NHSDA fielded a questionnaire that essentially replicated the data collection instruments

(excluding new modules discussed below) used in the 1997 data collection, which had implemented a revised

questionnaire first introduced in 1994. The 1994 questionnaire resulted from a series of methodological studies

(e.g., OAS, 1996c) and discussions with consultants. The methodological studies included cognitive

evaluations, cognitive laboratory testing, field testing, interviewer debriefings, analyses of missing and

inconsistent data, and literature reviews. The 1994 questionnaire incorporated improvements in question

wordings (e.g., clearer definitions, less vague terminology, elimination of "hidden" questions) and questionnaire

structure (e.g., more use of skip patterns in non-core sections, improved formatting for the benefit of

interviewers and respondents). Enhanced instructions regarding the reference periods used (i.e., past 30 days,

past 12 months) also were added to the questionnaire, including a reference date calendar to facilitate the

respondent's accurate recall of events. 

A key feature of the NHSDA questionnaire is a core-supplement structure. A core set of questions

that are critical for basic trend measurement of prevalence rates remain in the survey every year and comprise

the first part of the questionnaire. Supplemental questions, or modules, that can be revised, dropped or added

from year to year comprise the remainder of the questionnaire. The core consists of the initial demographic and

health items and the first 12 answer sheets, ending with the sedatives answer sheet (see Appendix F).

Supplemental items include the remaining answer sheets and demographic and health questions (see Appendix

G). It should be mentioned that some of the supplemental portions of the questionnaire have remained in the

survey, relatively unchanged, every year (e.g., insurance, income).

Three of the supplemental modules included in the 1998 NHSDA questionnaire were the 

• youth experiences module administered to respondents aged 12 to 17,

• social environment module administered to respondents aged 18 or older, and
The 1994-B NHSDA differed from previous NHSDAs due to the use of a new version of the NHSDA 2

questionnaire instrument. 

10

• parenting experiences module administered to respondents aged 18 or older who had an

adolescent aged 12 to 17 who also was selected for interviewing. 

Collectively, these three modules collected data related to risk and protective factors, particularly as applied

to studies of the etiology of adolescent drug use (see the questions for Answer Sheets 19, 20, and 21 in

Appendix F). The 1998 NHSDA offered an unprecedented opportunity to collect such data in a large,

nationally representative sample of adults and adolescents in the same household and in a context where the

responses of adults not only can be linked to the responses of their children, but also where the responses of

both can in turn be linked with contextual data concerning the neighborhoods in which they live.

Special topics covered in 1998 that also were contained in previous NHSDA questionnaires were

access to health care (1994-B to 1997); drug testing in the workplace (1994-B and 1997); need for and

2

experience with treatment for drug or alcohol use (1994-B to 1998); criminal history (1995 to 1998); perceived

risk/availability of drugs (1994-B, 1996, and 1997); and cigar use (1997 and 1998).

1998 Field Experience

The data collection method used in the 1998 NHSDA was to conduct in-person interviews with sample

persons, incorporating procedures that would be likely to maximize respondents' cooperation and willingness

to report honestly about their illicit drug use behavior. Introductory letters were sent to sampled addresses,

followed by an interviewer visit. A 5-minute screening procedure involved listing all household members aged

12 or older along with their basic demographic data. Then random sampling procedures were implemented for

selection of sample person(s). This selection process was designed to provide the necessary sample sizes for

specified population groups by selecting either zero, one, or two persons per household, depending on the

composition of the household.

Interviewers were instructed to attempt to conduct interviews in a private place, away from other

household members. The interview averaged about an hour and included a combination of intervieweradministered and self-administered questions. With this procedure, the answers to sensitive questions (such

as those on illicit drug use) were recorded by the respondent and were not seen or reviewed by the interviewer.

After these answer sheets were completed, they were placed by the respondent in an envelope, which was sealed

and mailed to the contractor, Research Triangle Institute, with no personal identifying information attached.

(For more details, see Appendix B.)

Throughout the course of the study, the respondents’ anonymity and the privacy of their responses were

protected by separating identifying information from survey responses. Respondents were assured that their

identities and responses would be handled in the strictest confidence in accordance with Federal law. The

questionnaire itself and the interviewing procedures were designed to enhance the privacy of responses, especially during portions of the interview in which questions of a sensitive nature were posed. Showcards were

displayed when questions concerning illicit drug use were asked, and respondents were asked to mark answer

sheets to record their responses to questions read aloud by the interviewer. The interviewer did not see the

completed answer sheets.

A total of 25,500 completed interviews were obtained between January and December 1998. A

completed interview had to contain, at a minimum, data on the recency of the respondent’s use of marijuana,

cocaine, and alcohol. Strategies for ensuring high rates of participation (described briefly in Appendix B)
11

resulted in unweighted screening and interview response rates for 1998 of 93% and 77.0%, respectively. Table

1.1 presents the number of people interviewed for the 1998 NHSDA (unweighted n) within each age and

demographic group. 

Table 1.2 presents the estimated number of people in the surveyed population represented by the

25,500 respondents to the 1998 NHSDA for age groups and demographic groups. All the numbers in Table

1.2 are in thousands and should be read by adding three zeros. Thus, Table 1.2 shows that the 3,383 males

aged 12 to 17 who were interviewed in 1998 (see Table 1.1) represent approximately 11,608,000 of their

counterparts in the U.S. civilian, noninstitutionalized population.

The percentage distributions of the surveyed population by age group and demographic group are

presented in Table 1.3. This table shows, for instance, that approximately 74% of the weighted sample was

white, 11% was black, 10% was Hispanic, and 4% was from other racial/ethnic groups.

Interpreting the Data

Table Format. Many of the tables in this report present data for the demographic groups shown in

Table 1.1. The rate of use of various drugs in the lifetime, the past year, and the past month (also referred to

as “current use”) is generally shown for the four age groups by gender, race/ethnicity, population density, and

region (and for those aged 18 or older, by educational attainment and current employment status). The

prevalence rates for the age groups can be compared in terms of these basic demographic variables.

Unweighted sample sizes (n’s) for these variables are shown in Table 1.1. When other demographic variables

are used or when data are presented for specific subpopulations, such as current users, the appropriate

unweighted n is presented in parentheses. Generally, estimates in the text are rounded to whole numbers; the

only exceptions are for estimates that are below 5%. 

Most tables in this report do not present estimates of the total numbers of persons using drugs or

having other tabulated characteristics. Such population estimates can be readily computed from the tables of

this report, however, by multiplying the rate, expressed as a percentage, by the corresponding population base

reported in Table 1.2, and dividing by 100. For example, Table 1.2 shows that the estimated number of

persons in the surveyed population in 1998 who were aged 26 to 34 and who resided in the West equaled

approximately 7,890,000. Table 10.5 shows that the percentage of persons in this subgroup who reported drug

use with needles in their lifetime equaled 1.0%. To calculate the estimate, first divide the percentage by 100

and then multiply by the population base. In our example, the estimated number of surveyed population

persons in the West aged 26 to 34 who ever used drugs with needles equals .010 x 7,890,000 = 78,900.

Other important notations about tables and table formats are as follows.

• In all tables in Chapters 2 to 13 in which race/ethnicity is used as a variable, the

“other” respondents not identified as white, black, or Hispanic were eliminated

because the category combines disparate groups with differing patterns of drug use,

making it difficult to interpret the data. 

• Education and employment status for those aged 12 to 17 were excluded from

analyses because most 12 to 17 year olds were in school at the time of the interview;

therefore, educational attainment and employment status were not applicable

measures for this age group and are noted in the tables as such. In the tables, the

totals for those two variables refer to the 18,722 respondents aged 18 or older. 
For a demonstration of the extent to which racial/ethnic differences in drug use prevalence may be influenced 3

by differences in other sociodemographic characteristics measured in the NHSDA, see Flewelling, Ennett, Rachal, and

Theisen (1993).

12

• Estimates of individual rates, percentages, and proportions considered to be unreliable

were omitted from all tables and were noted by asterisks (*). Because of the

relatively large sample sizes for most population subgroups, low precision usually

occurs only for prevalence estimates that are very close to zero or 100% (see

Appendix C for further details).

• Very small estimates that round to zero (i.e., are <.05%) and are not already

suppressed due to low precision are indicated by an asterisk (*) in table cells.

• Estimates are not available for some survey years because of differences in the survey

instruments. These data points are footnoted in the tables and marked with a double

hyphen (--).

Statistical Significance. This report presents results of tests of several different types of comparisons

for statistical significance. The tables in Chapter 2 on trends in drug use include footnotes indicating whether

a change between 1997 and 1998 was statistically significant. Differences in the proportion reporting use of

a drug in 1997 and the proportion reporting use of a drug in 1998 were tested using a differences-in-proportions

test. Chapters 3 through 13 present results of tests of statistical significance for comparisons between

demographic groups for 1998. For these tables in these chapters, differences in levels of drug use between

groups were tested for statistical significance using Z tests. In Chapters 3 through 13, statistically significant

differences between demographic groups are not indicated in the tables, but rather are discussed in the text. 

In general, only differences significant at the .05 level are discussed in the text. However, a few

substantively large and interesting differences also are discussed, even though these are not statistically

significant at the .05 level. A difference between subgroups or between years can fall short of statistical

significance even when the rate for one subgroup or year is twice or more the rate for another subgroup or year.

This seeming incongruity can occur when the rates for both groups are small, when the sample sizes are small,

or both. For example, if the rate of use of one comparison group is 1% and the rate of use of the other is 1.5%,

the difference may be statistically insignificant. Although the rate of use of the second group is 50% higher

than the rate of use of the first group, the NHSDA sample may not be large enough to reliably demonstrate or

detect a difference of this magnitude.

It should be noted that in all chapters of this report, empirical associations between demographic

variables and drug use do not imply causal relationships. In particular, except for stratification by age, this

report does not attempt to control for potentially confounding variables that might help to account for the

observed associations. This point is particularly salient with respect to associations between race/ethnicity and

drug use. Race/ethnicity is highly associated with socioeconomic status, educational attainment, geographic

location, and many other features of the broader social environment. The tables presented in this report,

3

however, are particularly useful for the purpose of identifying demographic subgroups with relatively high and

low levels of drug use, regardless of the underlying causes of drug use.

Sampling and Nonsampling Error. All comparisons, as well as the individual rates themselves, are

subject to sampling error that is readily quantified. Sampling error for an individual rate results from asking

questions of a sample rather than of everyone in the surveyed population. Sampling theory provides the basis

for calculating confidence intervals (CIs) around the estimates and tests of significance in comparing two
13

estimates. The size of the intervals and the tests of significance depend on (a) sample size; (b) the interaction

between the sampling procedure used and the distribution of a particular variable in the population (i.e., the

appropriate design effect); and (c) the degree of confidence required in the interval estimate, or level of

protection against incorrect inferences (“Type 1 error”), required in the test of significance. 

Standard errors (SEs) of the estimates and associated confidence intervals are not presented in this

report, but tables that contain the standard errors are available from OAS. The recommended approach for

computing confidence intervals and statistical comparisons would be to obtain and use these standard error

tables. Generalized standard errors for various percentages and sample sizes, however, are provided in

Appendix C of this Main Findings report. These generalized standard errors and the formulas in Appendix C

provide a means of computing approximate confidence limits for various observed estimates at given effective

sample sizes at the typical confidence level of 95% (also see Turner, Lessler, & Gfroerer, 1992).

Nonsampling error, which includes nonresponse, misreporting, and miscoding, cannot be measured

as satisfactorily as sampling error. A series of studies on the validity and reliability of general population

survey data are reported elsewhere (Turner et al., 1992). The quality control techniques (described in

Appendix B) that were used in the NHSDA questionnaire design, field procedures, and data processing are

those commonly used to minimize nonsampling error. 

Strengths and Limitations of the Household Survey 

The NHSDA is the only survey that regularly produces estimates of drug use among members of the

U.S. civilian, noninstitutionalized population aged 12 years old or older. The survey is an appropriate vehicle

for estimating prevalence rates for different drugs because it reports much drug use that does not ordinarily

come to the attention of administrative, medical, or correctional authorities. In-person interviews with a large

national probability sample seem to be the best way to estimate drug use in virtually the entire population of

the United States. 

Although the NHSDA is useful for many purposes, it has certain limitations. First, the data are selfreports of drug use, and their value depends on respondents’ truthfulness and memory. Several studies have

established the validity of self-report data (e.g., Harrison, Haaga, & Richards, 1993; Turner et al., 1992). The

NHSDA procedures encourage honesty and recall; nevertheless, some under- and overreporting were very

likely. Second, the survey is cross-sectional rather than longitudinal; that is, individuals were interviewed only

once and were not followed for subsequent interviews. Therefore, the surveys provide an overview of the

prevalence of drug use at specific points in time, rather than a view of how the drug use behavior of individuals

changes over time. Third, because the survey population is defined as the U.S. civilian, noninstitutionalized

population, a small proportion (less than 2%) is excluded: those living in institutional group quarters (e.g.,

prisons, nursing homes, treatment centers), homeless people who never use shelters, and active-duty military

personnel (Bray & Marsden, 1999; Bray, Marsden, & Peterson, 1991; Gerstein & Harwood, 1992; NIDA,

1994). If the drug use of these groups differs from that of the household population, the NHSDA may provide

slightly inaccurate estimates of drug use in the total population. This may be particularly true for prevalence

estimates of rarely used drugs, such as heroin.
14

Table 1.1 Number of People Interviewed (Unweighted n), by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 6,778 7,318 4,537 6,867 25,500 

Gender

Male 3,383 3,275 1,864 2,739 11,261 

Female 3,395 4,043 2,673 4,128 14,239 

Race/Ethnicity

White, non-Hispanic 3,091 2,926 1,890 3,802 11,709 

Black, non-Hispanic 1,374 1,798 1,053 1,590 5,815 

Hispanic 1,869 2,187 1,432 1,307 6,795 

Other, non-Hispanic 444 407 162 168 1,181 

Population Density

Large metro 3,400 3,826 2,440 3,320 12,986 

Small metro 1,944 2,229 1,333 2,124 7,630 

Nonmetro 1,434 1,263 764 1,423 4,884 

Region

Northeast 709 739 673 1,000 3,121 

North Central 872 930 754 1,124 3,680 

South 1,997 2,298 1,633 2,576 8,504 

West 3,200 3,351 1,477 2,167 10,195 

Adult Education1

Less than high school N/A 1,929 983 1,736 4,648 

High school graduate N/A 2,645 1,498 2,148 6,291 

Some college N/A 2,170 1,145 1,484 4,799 

College graduate N/A 574 911 1,499 2,984 

Current Employment2

Full-time N/A 3,318 3,099 3,557 9,974 

Part-time N/A 1,443 428 649 2,520 

Unemployed N/A 703 257 239 1,199 

Other N/A 1,854 753 2,422 3

5,029 

N/A: Not applicable.

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 1

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 2

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 3

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
15

Table 1.2 Estimated Number of People (in Thousands) in the U.S. Civilian,

Noninstitutionalized Population, by Age Group and Demographic

Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 22,740 27,966 34,603 133,136 218,445 

Gender

Male 11,608 14,127 17,169 62,293 105,198 

Female 11,132 13,839 17,434 70,842 113,247 

Race/Ethnicity

White, non-Hispanic 15,209 18,753 23,786 104,243 161,991 

Black, non-Hispanic 3,243 3,927 4,360 13,245 24,775 

Hispanic 3,108 3,910 4,672 10,652 22,342 

Other, non-Hispanic 1,180 1,376 1,784 4,995 9,336 

Population Density

Large metro 9,546 11,018 16,429 57,064 94,058 

Small metro 7,997 11,269 11,479 45,966 76,711 

Nonmetro 5,198 5,679 6,695 30,105 47,676 

Region

Northeast 4,061 4,942 6,733 26,619 42,355 

North Central 5,428 6,630 7,836 31,247 51,140 

South 8,042 10,051 12,144 47,092 77,329 

West 5,210 6,343 7,890 28,178 47,620 

Adult Education1

Less than high school N/A 5,441 4,376 23,927 33,745 

High school graduate N/A 9,919 10,997 43,913 64,829 

Some college N/A 9,769 9,389 29,718 48,877 

College graduate N/A 2,836 9,840 35,578 48,254 

Current Employment2

Full-time N/A 13,411 25,207 66,415 105,033 

Part-time N/A 5,942 3,102 13,196 22,239 

Unemployed N/A 1,970 1,467 3,687 7,125 

Other N/A 6,643 4,827 49,837 3

61,307 

N/A: Not applicable.

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 1

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 2

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 3

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
16

Table 1.3 Estimated Percentage of the U.S. Civilian, Noninstitutionalized Population, by

Age Group and Demographic Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic

Characteristic Total 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+

Age Group in Years 

Total (Row Percents) 10.4 12.8 15.8 60.9 100.0 

Gender

Male 51.0 50.5 49.6 46.8 48.2 

Female 49.0 49.5 50.4 53.2 51.8 

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Race/Ethnicity

White, non-Hispanic 66.9 67.1 68.7 78.3 74.2 

Black, non-Hispanic 14.3 14.0 12.6 9.9 11.3 

Hispanic 13.7 14.0 13.5 8.0 10.2 

Other, non-Hispanic 5.2 4.9 5.2 3.8 4.3 

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Population Density

Large metro 42.0 39.4 47.5 42.9 43.1 

Small metro 35.2 40.3 33.2 34.5 35.1 

Nonmetro 22.9 20.3 19.3 22.6 21.8 

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Region

Northeast 17.9 17.7 19.5 20.0 19.4 

North Central 23.9 23.7 22.6 23.5 23.4 

South 35.4 35.9 35.1 35.4 35.4 

West 22.9 22.7 22.8 21.2 21.8 

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Adult Education1

Less than high school N/A 19.5 12.6 18.0 17.2 

High school graduate N/A 35.5 31.8 33.0 33.1 

Some college N/A 34.9 27.1 22.3 25.0 

College graduate N/A 10.1 28.4 26.7 24.7 

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Current Employment2

Full-time N/A 48.0 72.8 49.9 53.7 

Part-time N/A 21.2 9.0 9.9 11.4 

Unemployed N/A 7.0 4.2 2.8 3.6 

Other N/A 23.8 13.9 37.4 3 31.3 

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Note: Column percentages for each characteristic may not total 100.0% because of rounding.

N/A: Not applicable.

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 1

n=18,722).

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 2

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 3

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
	


	
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24

Table 2.1 Percentage and Estimated Number of Users (in Thousands) of Illicit Drugs, Alcohol,

and Tobacco in the U.S. Civilian, Noninstitutionalized Population Aged 12 or Older in

Their Lifetime, the Past Year, and the Past Month: 1998 

Time Period

Drug % (in 1,000s) % (in 1,000s) % (in 1,000s)

Lifetime Past Year Past Month

Number of Number of Number of

Users Users Users

Any Illicit Drug Use1 35.8 78,123 10.6 23,115 6.2 13,615 

Marijuana/hashish 33.0 72,070 8.6 18,710 5.0 11,016 

Cocaine 10.6 23,089 1.7 3,811 0.8 1,750 

 Crack 2.0 4,476 0.4 971 0.2 437 

Inhalants 5.8 12,589 0.9 2,009 0.3 713 

Hallucinogens 9.9 21,607 1.6 3,565 0.7 1,514 

 PCP 3.5 7,640 0.2 346 * * 

Heroin 1.1 2,371 0.1 253 0.1 130 

Nonmedical use of

 any psychotherapeutic 9.2 20,193 2.6 5,759 1.1 2,477 2

 Stimulants 4.4 9,614 0.7 1,489 0.3 633 

 Sedatives 2.1 4,640 0.2 522 0.1 210 

 Tranquilizers 3.5 7,726 0.9 1,940 0.3 655 

 Analgesics 5.3 11,595 1.9 4,070 0.8 1,709 

Any illicit drug other

than marijuana 18.9 41,337 4.9 10,788 2.5 5,388 1

Alcohol 81.3 177,512 64.0 139,807 51.7 112,850 

Cigarettes 69.7 152,313 30.6 66,735 27.7 60,406 

Smokeless Tobacco 17.2 37,667 4.4 9,582 3.1 6,730 

Note: Due to improved survey procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in

NHSDA Main Findings prior to 1994.

*Low precision; no estimate or number reported.

Any illicit drug indicates use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including 1

phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or any prescription-type psychotherapeutic used nonmedically. Any

illicit drug other than marijuana indicates use at least once of any of these listed drugs, regardless of marijuana use; marijuana users who

also have used any of the other listed drugs are included. 

Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter drugs. 2

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
25

Table 2.2 Trends in Percentage of Respondents Aged 12 or Older Reporting Drug Use in Their Lifetime: 1979-1998 

Drug 1979 1985 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

(Unweighted n) (7,224) (8,021) (32,594) (28,832) (26,489) (17,809) (17,747) (18,269) (24,505) (25,500)

Any Illicit Drug Use 31.3 34.4 34.1 33.3 34.2 34.4 34.2 34.8 35.6 35.8 1 b

Marijuana/hashish 27.9 29.4 30.5 30.2 31.0 31.1 31.0 32.0 32.9 33.0 b a a a

Cocaine 8.6 11.2 11.5 10.9 11.3 10.4 10.3 10.3 10.5 10.6 a

 Crack -- -- 2.1 1.5 1.9 1.9 1.8 2.2 1.9 2.0 b

Inhalants -- 7.9 6.1 5.3 5.9 5.8 5.7 5.6 5.7 5.8 b

Hallucinogens 8.9 6.9 8.4 8.3 9.0 8.7 9.5 9.7 9.6 9.9 b a a a

Heroin 1.3 0.9 1.2 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.1 0.9 1.1 

Nonmedical use of any

 psychotherapeutic -- 15.3 11.9 11.0 10.5 10.0 10.1 9.5 9.1 9.2 2 b b

 Stimulants -- 7.3 5.6 5.0 4.8 4.6 4.9 4.7 4.5 4.4 b a

 Sedatives -- 4.8 3.2 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.3 1.9 2.1 b b

 Tranquilizers -- 7.6 5.1 4.7 4.2 4.0 3.9 3.6 3.2 3.5 b b a

 Analgesics -- 7.6 6.8 6.1 6.4 6.0 6.1 5.5 4.9 5.3 b a

Any illicit drug other

 than marijuana -- 22.4 19.8 18.9 19.7 18.8 19.1 18.9 18.9 18.9 1 b

Alcohol 88.5 84.9 83.6 81.9 82.6 84.2 82.3 82.6 81.9 81.3 a b

Cigarettes -- 78.0 74.9 73.1 73.3 73.3 71.8 71.6 70.5 69.7 b b a a

Smokeless Tobacco -- -- 17.5 18.2 15.9 17.2 17.0 17.0 17.3 17.2 

Note: Estimates here for 1979 through 1993 may differ from estimates for these survey years that were published in other NHSDA reports. The estimates shown here for 1979 through 1993

have been adjusted to improve their comparability with estimates based on the new version of the NHSDA instrument that was fielded in 1994 and subsequent NHSDAs. See Appendix E

for further discussion of adjustment procedures.

--Estimate not available.

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .05 level. a

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .01 level. b

 Any illicit drug indicates use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, 1

 or any prescription-type psychotherapeutic used nonmedically. Any illicit drug other than marijuana indicates use at least once of any of these listed drugs, regardless of marijuana use; marijuana users

 who also have used any of the other listed drugs are included.

 Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter drugs. 2

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1979-1998.
26

Table 2.3 Trends in Percentage of Respondents Aged 12 or Older Reporting Drug Use in the Past Year: 1979-1998 

Drug 1979 1985 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

(Unweighted n) (7,224) (8,021) (32,594) (28,832) (26,489) (17,809) (17,747) (18,269) (24,505) (25,500)

Any Illicit Drug Use 17.5 16.3 11.1 9.7 10.3 10.8 10.7 10.8 11.2 10.6 1 b b

Marijuana/hashish 16.6 13.6 8.9 7.9 8.5 8.5 8.4 8.6 9.0 8.6 b b

Cocaine 4.8 5.1 2.6 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.9 1.9 1.7 b b b

 Crack -- -- 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.4 a

Inhalants -- 1.4 1.2 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.9 

Hallucinogens 2.9 1.7 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.7 1.9 1.6 b a

Heroin 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 a a

Nonmedical use of any

 psychotherapeutic -- 6.2 3.6 3.0 3.1 2.9 2.9 3.1 2.8 2.6 2 b a

 Stimulants -- 2.9 1.0 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.7 b

 Sedatives -- 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 b

 Tranquilizers -- 3.2 1.5 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.0 0.9 b a

 Analgesics -- 3.6 2.5 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.9 2.1 1.9 1.9 b

Any illicit drug other

 than marijuana -- 9.7 6.2 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.5 4.9 1 b a

Alcohol 72.9 72.9 68.1 64.7 66.5 66.9 65.4 64.9 64.1 64.0 b b a

Cigarettes -- 40.5 36.2 35.2 33.2 31.7 32.0 32.3 32.7 30.6 b b a a

Smokeless Tobacco -- -- 5.3 5.5 4.4 4.8 4.6 4.7 4.7 4.4 

Note: Estimates here for 1979 through 1993 may differ from estimates for these survey years that were published in other NHSDA reports. The estimates shown here for 1979 through 1993

have been adjusted to improve their comparability with estimates based on the new version of the NHSDA instrument that was fielded in 1994 and subsequent NHSDAs. See Appendix E

for further discussion of adjustment procedures.

--Estimate not available.

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .05 level. a

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .01 level. b

Any illicit drug indicates use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or 1

any prescription-type psychotherapeutic used nonmedically. Any illicit drug other than marijuana indicates use at least once of any of these listed drugs, regardless of marijuana use; marijuana users

who also have used any of the other listed drugs are included.

Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter drugs. 2

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1979-1998.
27

Table 2.4 Trends in Percentage of Respondents Aged 12 or Older Reporting Drug Use in the Past Month: 1979-1998

Drug 1979 1985 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

(Unweighted n) (7,224) (8,021) (32,594) (28,832) (26,489) (17,809) (17,747) (18,269) (24,505) (25,500)

Any Illicit Drug Use 14.1 12.1 6.6 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.1 6.4 6.2 1 b b

Marijuana/hashish 13.2 9.7 5.1 4.7 4.6 4.8 4.7 4.7 5.1 5.0 b b

Cocaine 2.6 3.0 1.0 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 b b

 Crack -- -- 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 a

Inhalants -- 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 

Hallucinogens 1.9 1.2 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.7 a a a a

Heroin 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 

Nonmedical use of any 

 psychotherapeutic -- 3.8 1.9 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.1 2 b a

 Stimulants -- 1.8 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 b

 Sedatives -- 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 

 Tranquilizers -- 2.2 1.1 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 b a a

 Analgesics -- 1.4 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.8 

Any illicit drug other

 than marijuana -- 6.1 3.0 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.6 2.7 2.6 2.5 1 b

Alcohol 63.2 60.2 52.2 49.0 50.8 53.9 52.2 51.0 51.4 51.7 b b

 “Binge” alcohol use -- 20.2 15.5 14.5 14.6 16.5 15.8 15.5 15.3 15.6 3 b

 Heavy alcohol use -- 8.3 6.8 6.2 6.7 6.2 5.5 5.4 5.4 5.9 3 a

Cigarettes -- 38.7 33.0 31.9 29.6 28.6 28.8 28.9 29.6 27.7 b b a a

Smokeless Tobacco -- -- 3.7 4.0 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.1 

Note 1: Estimates here for 1979 through 1993 may differ from estimates for these survey years that were published in other NHSDA reports. The estimates shown here for 1979

through 1993 have been adjusted to improve their comparability with estimates based on the new version of the NHSDA instrument that was fielded in 1994 and

subsequent NHSDAs. See Appendix E for further discussion of adjustment procedures.

Note 2: Estimates for “binge” and heavy alcohol use in this table differ from the corresponding estimates in Chapter 7 because of different treatment of missing values. In this

table, respondents who had a missing response to the item “In the past 30 days, on how many days did you have five or more drinks on the same occasion?” were

excluded from the analysis. Conversely, in Chapter 7, those who had a missing response on this “days of use” item were essentially treated as nonbinge or nonheavy

users.

--Estimate not available.

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .05 level. a

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .01 level. b

Any illicit drug indicates use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide 1

[LSD]), heroin, or any prescription-type psychotherapeutic used nonmedically. Any illicit drug other than marijuana indicates use at least once of any of these listed drugs, regardless

of marijuana use; marijuana users who also have used any of the other listed drugs are included.

Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter drugs. 2

"Binge” alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day in the past 30 days. By “occasion” is meant at the same time or within a couple 3

hours of each other. Heavy alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of 5 or more days in the past 30 days; all heavy alcohol users also are

“binge” alcohol users.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1979-1998.
28

Table 2.5 Trends in Percentage Reporting Drug Use in Their Lifetime, by Age Group: 1979-1998 

Drug/Age Group 1979 1985 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

(Unweighted n) (7,224) (8,021) (32,594) (28,832) (26,489) (17,809) (17,747) (18,269) (24,505) (25,500)

Any Illicit Drug1

12-17 31.8 27.4 18.4 15.1 16.4 20.3 22.2 22.1 23.7 21.3 b a b b a

18-25 69.0 62.9 53.9 50.9 50.2 46.3 45.8 48.0 45.4 48.1 b b

26-34 49.0 59.5 58.9 57.9 58.2 56.1 54.8 53.1 50.8 50.6 a a a a b b

35+ 11.8 18.1 23.7 24.4 26.1 27.7 27.9 29.0 31.5 31.8 b b b b a b b a

Marijuana/Hashish

12-17 26.7 20.1 11.1 9.1 9.9 13.6 16.2 16.8 18.9 17.0 b b b b b a

18-25 66.1 57.6 48.8 46.6 45.7 41.9 41.4 44.0 41.5 44.6 b b a

26-34 45.0 54.1 55.2 54.3 54.9 52.7 51.8 50.5 47.9 47.9 a a a b b

35+ 9.0 13.9 21.1 22.2 23.8 25.4 25.3 27.0 29.4 29.4 b b b b a b b a

Cocaine

12-17 5.5 4.7 2.4 1.7 1.1 1.7 2.0 1.9 3.0 2.2 b b b a

18-25 27.2 24.3 17.8 15.7 12.5 12.1 9.8 10.2 8.9 10.0 b b b b a

26-34 13.4 23.6 25.6 25.1 25.4 23.0 21.6 20.9 18.4 17.1 b b b b b b b

35+ 1.3 4.1 6.8 6.9 8.4 7.9 8.6 8.9 9.9 10.4 b b b b a b a a

Alcohol

12-17 70.8 56.1 46.9 39.8 41.9 41.7 40.6 38.8 39.7 37.3 b b b b a

18-25 * * * 85.8 86.6 86.3 84.4 83.8 83.5 83.2 a

26-34 * * * 91.3 * 91.8 90.1 90.3 88.9 88.2 b a a

35+ * * 85.8 85.4 86.0 89.0 87.1 87.8 87.0 86.6 a

Cigarettes

12-17 -- 50.7 42.4 37.8 38.7 37.6 38.1 36.3 38.7 35.8 b a b

18-25 -- 75.3 71.4 69.0 67.1 69.1 67.7 68.5 67.7 68.8 

26-34 -- 84.7 80.4 78.8 78.1 75.9 75.8 73.8 72.8 71.8 b a b b

35+ -- 82.2 79.5 78.3 79.4 79.8 77.5 77.8 76.0 75.2 b a

Note: Estimates here for 1979 through 1993 may differ from estimates for these survey years that were published in other NHSDA reports. The estimates shown here for 1979 through 

1993 have been adjusted to improve their comparability with estimates based on the new version of the NHSDA instrument that was fielded in 1994 and subsequent NHSDAs. See

 Appendix E for further discussion of adjustment procedures.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

--Estimate not available.

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .05 level. a

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .01 level. b

Use of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of 1 

 psychotherapeutics at least once.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1979-1998.
29

Table 2.6 Trends in Percentage Reporting Drug Use in the Past Year, by Age Group: 1979-1998 

Drug/Age Group 1979 1985 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

(Unweighted n) (7,224) (8,021) (32,594) (28,832) (26,489) (17,809) (17,747) (18,269) (24,505) (25,500)

Any Illicit Drug1

12-17 24.3 20.7 13.1 10.4 11.9 15.5 18.0 16.7 18.8 16.4 b a b b a

18-25 45.5 37.4 26.6 24.1 24.2 24.6 25.5 26.8 25.3 27.4 b b

26-34 23.0 26.2 15.5 15.4 14.6 14.8 14.6 14.6 14.3 12.7 b b a a a

35+ 3.9 5.5 5.5 4.4 5.5 5.7 5.0 5.3 6.1 5.5 

Marijuana/Hashish

12-17 21.3 16.7 8.5 6.9 8.5 11.4 14.2 13.0 15.8 14.1 a b b b b

18-25 44.2 34.0 22.9 21.2 21.4 21.8 21.8 23.8 22.3 24.1 b b

26-34 20.5 20.2 11.6 11.5 11.1 11.5 11.8 11.3 11.2 9.7 b b a a a

35+ 4.3 4.3 4.6 3.8 4.6 4.1 3.4 3.8 4.4 4.1 

Cocaine

12-17 3.6 3.4 1.3 1.0 0.7 1.1 1.7 1.4 2.2 1.7 b b a b

18-25 17.0 13.6 6.7 5.5 4.4 3.6 4.3 4.7 3.9 4.7 b b a

26-34 5.7 10.5 4.4 4.3 3.8 3.5 3.1 3.5 3.1 2.7 a b b a

35+ 0.4 0.9 1.2 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 1.1 0.9 a

Alcohol

12-17 55.9 52.7 41.2 33.3 35.9 36.2 35.1 32.7 34.0 31.8 b b b b b

18-25 84.6 84.2 80.7 75.6 76.9 78.5 76.5 75.3 75.1 74.2 a a b

26-34 81.7 81.9 79.1 77.3 79.2 78.8 77.0 77.2 74.6 74.5 b a a

35+ 70.1 70.5 65.9 63.5 65.5 66.2 65.0 64.9 64.1 64.6 

Cigarettes

12-17 -- 29.9 23.7 21.4 22.5 24.5 26.6 24.2 26.4 23.8 a a a

18-25 -- 49.9 46.9 46.8 43.7 41.1 42.5 44.7 45.9 47.1 b b

26-34 -- 48.8 41.9 42.8 38.7 36.0 38.4 39.2 37.7 36.6 b a a

35+ -- 36.9 33.8 32.4 30.9 29.6 28.7 29.1 29.7 26.7 b a a b

Note: Estimates here for 1979 through 1993 may differ from estimates for these survey years that were published in other NHSDA reports. The estimates shown here for 1979 through 

1993 have been adjusted to improve their comparability with estimates based on the new version of the NHSDA instrument that was fielded in 1994 and subsequent NHSDAs. See 

Appendix E for further discussion of adjustment procedures.

--Estimate not available.

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .05 level. a

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .01 level. b

Use of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of 1 

 psychotherapeutics at least once.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1979-1998.
30

Table 2.7 Trends in Percentage Reporting Illicit Drug Use in the Past Month, by Age Group: 1979-1998

Drug/Age Group 1979 1985 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

(Unweighted n) (7,224) (8,021) (32,594) (28,832) (26,489) (17,809) (17,747) (18,269) (24,505) (25,500)

Any Illicit Drug1

12-17 16.3 13.2 5.8 5.3 5.7 8.2 10.9 9.0 11.4 9.9 a b b b a a

18-25 38.0 25.3 15.4 13.1 13.6 13.3 14.2 15.6 14.7 16.1 b b a

26-34 20.8 23.1 10.0 11.4 9.5 8.5 8.3 8.4 7.4 7.0 b b a b a a

35+ 2.8 3.9 3.4 2.5 3.0 3.2 2.8 2.9 3.6 3.3 

Marijuana/Hashish

12-17 14.2 10.2 3.6 3.4 4.0 6.0 8.2 7.1 9.4 8.3 a b b b b

18-25 35.6 21.7 12.9 10.9 11.1 12.1 12.0 13.2 12.8 13.8 b a

26-34 19.7 19.0 7.7 9.3 7.5 6.9 6.7 6.3 6.0 5.5 b b a a a

35+ 2.9 2.6 2.6 2.0 2.4 2.3 1.8 2.0 2.6 2.5 a

Cocaine

12-17 1.5 1.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.6 1.0 0.8 b a

18-25 9.9 8.1 2.2 2.0 1.6 1.2 1.3 2.0 1.2 2.0 b b a a

26-34 3.0 6.3 1.9 1.5 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.5 0.9 1.2 a b

35+ 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 a

Note: Estimates here for 1979 through 1993 may differ from estimates for these survey years that were published in other NHSDA reports. The estimates shown here for 1979 through 

1993 have been adjusted to improve their comparability with estimates based on the new version of the NHSDA instrument that was fielded in 1994 and subsequent NHSDAs. See 

Appendix E for further discussion of adjustment procedures.

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .05 level. a

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .01 level. b

Use of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of 1

psychotherapeutics at least once.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1979-1998.
31

Table 2.8 Trends in Percentage Reporting Alcohol and Tobacco Use in the Past Month, by Age Group: 1979-1998

Drug/Age Group 1979 1985 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

(Unweighted n) (7,224) (8,021) (32,594) (28,832) (26,489) (17,809) (17,747) (18,269) (24,505) (25,500)

Alcohol

12-17 49.6 41.2 27.0 20.9 23.9 21.6 21.1 18.8 20.5 19.1 b b b a a

18-25 75.1 70.1 63.1 58.6 58.7 63.1 61.3 60.0 58.4 60.0 b a

26-34 71.6 70.6 62.7 62.3 63.8 65.3 63.0 61.6 60.2 60.9 b a b

35+ 59.7 57.5 50.4 47.4 49.8 54.1 52.6 51.7 52.8 53.1 

“Binge” Alcohol Use1

12-17 -- 21.9 13.2 10.0 11.0 8.3 7.9 7.2 8.3 7.7 b a

18-25 -- 34.4 31.2 29.9 29.1 33.6 29.9 32.0 28.0 31.7 a

26-34 -- 27.5 21.5 22.8 21.9 24.0 24.0 22.8 23.1 22.0 

35+ -- 12.9 10.1 9.0 9.6 11.8 11.8 11.3 11.7 11.9 

Heavy Alcohol Use1

12-17 -- 9.5 6.0 3.4 3.4 2.5 2.8 2.9 3.1 2.9 

18-25 -- 13.8 15.2 15.1 14.0 13.2 12.0 12.9 11.1 13.8 a

26-34 -- 11.5 7.9 8.5 8.5 8.0 7.9 7.1 7.5 7.2 

35+ -- 5.2 4.4 3.9 5.0 4.8 3.9 3.8 4.0 4.4 

Cigarettes

12-17 -- 29.4 20.9 18.4 18.5 18.9 20.2 18.3 19.9 18.2 b

18-25 -- 47.4 41.7 41.5 37.9 34.6 35.3 38.3 40.6 41.6 b b a

26-34 -- 45.7 37.3 38.2 34.2 32.4 34.7 35.0 33.7 32.5 b a

35+ -- 35.5 31.6 30.0 28.2 27.9 27.2 27.0 27.9 25.1 b a a b

Note 1: Estimates here for 1979 through 1993 may differ from estimates for these survey years that were published in other NHSDA reports. The estimates shown here for 1979 through 

1993 have been adjusted to improve their comparability with estimates based on the new version of the NHSDA instrument that was fielded in 1994 and subsequent NHSDAs. See 

Appendix E for further discussion of adjustment procedures.

Note 2: Estimates for “binge” and heavy alcohol use in this table differ from the corresponding estimates in Chapter 7 because of different treatment of missing values. In the present table,

respondents who had a missing response to the item “In the past 30 days, or how many days did you have five or more drinks on the same occasion?” were excluded from the 

analysis. Conversely, in Chapter 7, those who had a missing response on this days of use item were essentially treated as nonbinge or nonheavy users.

--Estimate not available.

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .05 level. a

Difference between this estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .01 level. b

“Binge” alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day in the past 30 days. By “occasion” is meant at the same time or within a couple hours of 1

each other. Heavy alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of 5 or more days in the past 30 days; all heavy alcohol users also are “binge” alcohol 

 users.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1979-1998.
32

Table 2.9 Trends in Percentage of Respondents Reporting Drug Use in Their Lifetime, by Age Group: 1997 and 1998 

Age Group in Years/Survey Year Total

12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ 12+ Years

Drug 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998

(Unweighted n) (7,844) (6,778) (6,239) (7,318) (4,387) (4,537) (6,035) (6,867) (24,505) (25,500)

Any Illicit Drug Use 23.7 21.3 45.4 48.1 50.8 50.6 31.5 31.8 35.6 35.8 1 a

Marijuana/hashish 18.9 17.0 41.5 44.6 47.9 47.9 29.4 29.4 32.9 33.0 a

Cocaine 3.0 2.2 8.9 10.0 18.4 17.1 9.9 10.4 10.5 10.6 a

 Crack 1.3 0.7 2.9 2.7 3.6 3.9 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.0 a

Inhalants 7.2 6.1 10.1 10.8 8.3 9.1 3.8 3.8 5.7 5.8 

Hallucinogens 6.5 5.3 15.0 17.4 15.1 13.2 7.4 8.2 9.6 9.9 a

 PCP 1.4 1.2 2.4 3.0 3.2 4.0 3.3 3.9 3.0 3.5 

Heroin 0.5 0.4 1.0 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.3 0.9 1.1 

Nonmedical use of any 

 psychotherapeutic 7.0 5.6 11.5 11.4 11.7 11.5 8.3 8.8 9.1 9.2 2 a

 Stimulants 2.3 1.7 3.8 3.9 5.2 5.1 4.9 4.8 4.5 4.4 

 Sedatives 0.8 1.0 1.5 1.3 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.5 1.9 2.1 

 Tranquilizers 2.1 1.7 4.9 5.1 4.7 4.6 2.6 3.2 3.2 3.5 

 Analgesics 5.2 4.6 7.5 8.2 6.8 6.6 3.9 4.5 4.9 5.3 

Any illicit drug other

 than marijuana 14.2 12.0 24.6 26.4 28.4 27.2 16.0 16.4 18.9 18.9 1 a

Alcohol 39.7 37.3 83.5 83.2 88.9 88.2 87.0 86.6 81.9 81.3 

Cigarettes 38.7 35.8 67.7 68.8 72.8 71.8 76.0 75.2 70.5 69.7 b

Smokeless Tobacco 9.6 8.9 23.8 24.1 23.9 23.4 15.5 15.6 17.3 17.2 

Difference between 1997 estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .05 level. a

Difference between 1997 estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .01 level. b

Any illicit drug indicates use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or any 1

prescription-type psychotherapeutic used nonmedically. Any illicit drug other than marijuana indicates use at least once of any of these listed drugs, regardless of marijuana use; marijuana users who also 

 have used any of the other listed drugs are included.

Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter drugs. 2

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1997 and 1998.
33

Table 2.10 Trends in Percentage of Respondents Reporting Drug Use in the Past Year, by Age Group: 1997 and 1998 

Age Group in Years/Survey Year Total

12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ 12+ Years

Drug 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998

(Unweighted n) (7,844) (6,778) (6,239) (7,318) (4,387) (4,537) (6,035) (6,867) (24,505) (25,500)

Any Illicit Drug Use 18.8 16.4 25.3 27.4 14.3 12.7 6.1 5.5 11.2 10.6 1 a

Marijuana/hashish 15.8 14.1 22.3 24.1 11.2 9.7 4.4 4.1 9.0 8.6 

Cocaine 2.2 1.7 3.9 4.7 3.1 2.7 1.1 0.9 1.9 1.7 

 Crack 0.8 0.5 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.4 a

Inhalants 4.4 2.9 3.2 3.2 0.7 0.5 0.1 0.2 1.1 0.9 b

Hallucinogens 4.7 3.8 6.6 7.2 1.6 1.1 0.5 0.2 1.9 1.6 

 PCP 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.4 * * 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 

Heroin 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.2 * 0.3 0.1 a

Nonmedical use of any 

 psychotherapeutic 5.0 3.7 5.8 6.4 3.7 3.1 1.6 1.5 2.8 2.6 2 a

 Stimulants 1.7 1.2 1.5 1.9 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.7 

 Sedatives 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 

 Tranquilizers 1.3 1.1 2.5 2.7 1.5 1.1 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.9 

 Analgesics 3.6 3.1 3.8 4.4 2.3 2.0 1.2 1.1 1.9 1.9 

Any illicit drug other

 than marijuana 10.0 7.5 12.1 13.4 6.8 6.1 3.0 2.4 5.5 4.9 1 b

Alcohol 34.0 31.8 75.1 74.2 74.6 74.5 64.1 64.6 64.1 64.0 

Cigarettes 26.4 23.8 45.9 47.1 37.7 36.6 29.7 26.7 32.7 30.6 a b a

Smokeless Tobacco 4.6 3.7 8.3 9.0 6.1 6.0 3.5 3.1 4.7 4.4 

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Difference between 1997 estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .05 level. a

Difference between 1997 estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .01 level. b

Any illicit drug indicates use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or any 1

prescription-type psychotherapeutic used nonmedically. Any illicit drug other than marijuana indicates use at least once of any of these listed drugs, regardless of marijuana use; marijuana users who also 

` have used any of the other listed drugs are included.

Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter drugs. 2

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1997 and 1998.
34

Table 2.11 Trends in Percentage of Respondents Reporting Drug Use in the Past Month, by Age Group: 1997 and 1998 

Age Group in Years/Survey Year Total

12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ 12+ Years

Drug 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998

(Unweighted n) (7,844) (6,778) (6,239) (7,318) (4,387) (4,537) (6,035) (6,867) (24,505) (25,500)

Any Illicit Drug Use 11.4 9.9 14.7 16.1 7.4 7.0 3.6 3.3 6.4 6.2 1 a

Marijuana/hashish 9.4 8.3 12.8 13.8 6.0 5.5 2.6 2.5 5.1 5.0 

Cocaine 1.0 0.8 1.2 2.0 0.9 1.2 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.8 a

 Crack 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 

Inhalants 2.0 1.1 1.0 1.1 0.4 0.1 * 0.1 0.4 0.3 b

Hallucinogens 1.9 1.8 2.5 2.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.8 0.7 

 PCP 0.1 0.1 0.1 * * * 0.1 * 0.1 * 

Heroin 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 * 0.2 * 0.2 0.1 

Nonmedical use of any 

 psychotherapeutic 2.1 1.7 2.4 2.7 1.4 1.3 0.8 0.7 1.2 1.1 2

 Stimulants 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 

 Sedatives 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 * 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 

 Tranquilizers 0.5 0.3 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.3 

 Analgesics 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.8 0.6 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.8 

Any illicit drug other

 than marijuana 5.2 4.0 5.4 6.5 2.8 2.8 1.4 1.3 2.6 2.5 1 a

Alcohol 20.5 19.1 58.4 60.0 60.2 60.9 52.8 53.1 51.4 51.7 

“Binge” alcohol use 8.3 7.7 28.0 31.7 23.1 22.0 11.7 11.9 15.3 15.6 3 a

 Heavy alcohol use 3.1 2.9 11.1 13.8 7.5 7.2 4.0 4.4 5.4 5.9 3 a

Cigarettes 19.9 18.2 40.6 41.6 33.7 32.5 27.9 25.1 29.6 27.7 b a

Smokeless Tobacco 2.0 1.2 4.5 5.4 4.2 4.3 2.9 2.6 3.2 3.1 a

Note: Estimates for “binge” and heavy alcohol use in this table differ from the corresponding estimates in Chapter 7 because of different treatment of missing values. In the present table, respondents 

who had a missing response to the item “In the past 30 days, on how many days did you have five or more drinks on the same occasion” were excluded from the analysis. Conversely, in 

Chapter 7, those who had a missing response on this days of use item were essentially treated as nonbinge or nonheavy users.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Difference between 1997 estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .05 level. a

Difference between 1997 estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .01 level. b

Any illicit drug indicates use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or any 1

prescription-type psychotherapeutic used nonmedically. Any illicit drug other than marijuana indicates use at least once of any of these listed drugs, regardless of marijuana use; marijuana users who also 

 have used any of the other listed drugs are included.

Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter drugs. 2

"Binge” alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day in the past 30 days. By “occasion” is meant at the same time or within a couple hours of each other. 3

 Heavy alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of 5 or more days in the past 30 days; all heavy alcohol users also are “binge” alcohol users.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1997 and 1998.


	





	
	
	

			
		

	
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39

Table 3.1 Percentage Reporting Marijuana Use in Their Lifetime, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 17.0 44.6 47.9 29.4 33.0 

Gender

Male 17.7 49.4 53.2 35.8 38.5 

Female 16.1 39.8 42.7 23.8 27.9 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 17.3 50.6 54.7 31.1 35.5 

Black, non-Hispanic 14.9 37.5 42.1 28.0 30.2 

Hispanic 18.5 30.9 25.5 20.6 23.2 

Population Density

Large metro 16.4 42.3 48.9 32.0 34.6 

Small metro 19.0 48.4 47.4 31.2 34.9 

Nonmetro 14.9 41.6 46.4 21.8 26.8 

Region

Northeast 17.9 43.7 55.1 29.2 33.9 

North Central 17.6 49.6 51.0 29.2 33.9 

South 14.7 41.6 42.4 25.7 29.2 

West 19.1 44.9 47.0 36.2 37.3 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 45.9 45.5 15.9 24.6 

High school graduate N/A 43.9 47.8 25.4 32.0 

Some college N/A 45.2 51.8 36.3 41.1 

College graduate N/A 42.3 45.2 37.7 39.5 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 48.6 49.8 41.9 44.7 

Part-time N/A 42.7 48.4 27.6 34.5 

Unemployed N/A 53.8 48.5 48.0 49.7 

Other N/A 35.5 37.4 11.8 4

16.4 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA 

Main Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 2

n=18,722).

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 3

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
40

Table 3.2 Percentage Reporting Marijuana Use in the Past Year, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 14.1 24.1 9.7 4.1 8.6 

Gender

Male 14.4 28.1 13.0 5.6 10.8 

Female 13.7 20.0 6.5 2.7 6.5 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 14.6 26.5 10.3 3.9 8.4 

Black, non-Hispanic 12.1 24.4 11.8 5.8 10.6 

Hispanic 14.4 16.6 6.4 4.1 8.2 

Population Density

Large metro 13.6 22.8 10.6 4.6 8.7 

Small metro 15.7 27.1 9.9 3.9 9.4 

Nonmetro 12.4 20.7 7.2 3.2 6.9 

Region

Northeast 15.4 22.4 9.9 4.1 8.3 

North Central 15.0 30.0 10.3 3.2 9.1 

South 11.8 20.5 9.3 3.7 7.6 

West 15.5 24.9 9.5 5.4 9.8 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 26.4 11.3 2.7 7.6 

High school graduate N/A 25.1 9.7 4.3 8.4 

Some college N/A 24.2 9.0 4.5 9.3 

College graduate N/A 15.8 9.7 4.4 6.1 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 23.5 9.8 5.8 9.0 

Part-time N/A 26.1 12.4 3.2 10.6 

Unemployed N/A 37.7 16.3 14.0 21.0 

Other N/A 19.4 5.5 1.2 4

3.5 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA 

Main Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 2

n=18,722).

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 3

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
41

Table 3.3 Percentage Reporting Marijuana Use in the Past Month, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 8.3 13.8 5.5 2.5 5.0 

Gender

Male 8.6 17.2 8.1 3.5 6.7 

Female 7.9 10.3 2.9 1.7 3.5 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 8.7 14.9 5.7 2.5 5.0 

Black, non-Hispanic 8.3 15.2 7.4 3.3 6.6 

Hispanic 7.6 9.0 3.2 2.4 4.5 

Population Density

Large metro 8.1 13.0 6.0 3.0 5.2 

Small metro 9.1 16.6 6.0 2.3 5.7 

Nonmetro 7.3 9.8 3.1 2.1 3.7 

Region

Northeast 8.3 12.8 5.4 2.4 4.7 

North Central 9.9 17.9 5.8 2.0 5.5 

South 6.9 11.2 5.2 2.6 4.5 

West 8.6 14.3 5.6 3.3 5.7 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 17.5 6.2 1.6 4.8 

High school graduate N/A 14.5 6.2 3.0 5.3 

Some college N/A 13.2 5.6 2.7 5.3 

College graduate N/A 6.1 4.2 2.5 3.1 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 12.8 5.3 3.5 5.1 

Part-time N/A 15.3 8.7 2.0 6.5 

Unemployed N/A 25.6 10.1 11.5 15.1 

Other N/A 10.9 2.7 0.8 4

2.0 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA 

Main Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 2

n=18,722).

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 3

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
42

Table 3.4 Percentage Reporting Marijuana Use in Their Lifetime, the Past Year, and the

Past Month, by Age: 1998

Time Period

Age Group in Years (Unweighted n) Lifetime Past Year Past Month

Total (25,500) 33.0 8.6 5.0 

12-17 Years (6,778) 17.0 14.1 8.3 

12-13 (2,240) 3.4 3.0 1.7 

14-15 (2,356) 16.9 14.6 8.8 

16-17 (2,182) 31.5 25.3 14.7 

18-25 Years (7,318) 44.6 24.1 13.8 

18-20 (2,981) 44.0 30.8 18.0 

21-25 (4,337) 45.0 19.4 10.9 

26-34 Years (4,537) 47.9 9.7 5.5 

26-29 (2,017) 45.8 10.3 6.1 

30-34 (2,520) 49.6 9.3 4.9 

35+ Years (6,867) 29.4 4.1 2.5 

35-39 (1,381) 51.2 9.5 6.2 

40-44 (1,179) 53.8 6.9 4.4 

45-49 (1,157) 44.4 5.8 3.4 

50+ (3,150) 11.5 1.0 0.6 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA 

Main Findings prior to 1994.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
43

Table 3.5 Percentage Reporting Marijuana Use in Their Lifetime, the Past Year, and the Past

Month, by Age Group, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender: 1998 

Race/Ethnicity1

and Gender 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

(Unweighted n)

White, non-Hispanic male (1,576) (1,367) (805) (1,555) (5,303) 

Black, non-Hispanic male (668) (742) (362) (567) (2,339) 

Hispanic male (910) (974) (622) (537) (3,043) 

White, non-Hispanic female (1,515) (1,559) (1,085) (2,247) (6,406) 

Black, non-Hispanic female (706) (1,056) (691) (1,023) (3,476) 

Hispanic female (959) (1,213) (810) (770) (3,752) 

A. Used Marijuana in Their Lifetime

White, non-Hispanic male 17.2 54.3 59.3 36.9 40.5 

Black, non-Hispanic male 16.3 46.3 50.2 38.0 38.5 

Hispanic male 20.3 35.3 31.7 28.4 29.2 

White, non-Hispanic female 17.4 46.8 50.1 25.9 30.9 

Black, non-Hispanic female 13.5 29.4 35.4 20.4 23.5 

Hispanic female 16.6 26.2 18.6 13.1 16.9 

B. Used Marijuana in the Past Year

White, non-Hispanic male 14.1 29.8 14.0 5.1 10.4 

Black, non-Hispanic male 13.4 31.2 15.3 9.5 14.8 

Hispanic male 14.9 20.9 8.1 6.2 10.5 

White, non-Hispanic female 15.1 23.1 6.7 2.8 6.7 

Black, non-Hispanic female 10.7 18.2 9.0 2.9 7.2 

Hispanic female 13.9 12.0 4.3 2.0 5.8 

C. Used Marijuana in the Past Month

White, non-Hispanic male 8.6 18.1 8.7 3.3 6.5 

Black, non-Hispanic male 9.1 21.4 10.7 6.1 9.9 

Hispanic male 9.1 10.9 3.9 3.5 5.7 

White, non-Hispanic female 8.8 11.6 2.7 1.8 3.6 

Black, non-Hispanic female 7.6 9.5 4.6 1.2 3.8 

Hispanic female 6.1 7.0 2.5 1.3 3.2 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
44

Table 3.6 Percentage Distribution of Days of Marijuana Use in Their Lifetime for the Total

Sample and for Marijuana Users, by Age Group: 1998

Days Used Marijuana

in Their Lifetime 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

A. Total Sample

Did not use 83.0 55.4 52.1 70.6 67.0 

1-2 days 4.5 9.4 11.5 7.0 7.8 

3-11 days 3.4 8.9 11.7 6.0 7.0 

12-100 days 4.2 11.3 11.2 6.4 7.6 

$101 days 4.8 14.9 13.1 9.8 10.4 

Used in lifetime/

 days not reported * * 0.4 0.2 0.2 

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

B. Used Marijuana at Least Once in Their Lifetime

(Unweighted n) (1,291) (3,017) (1,858) (2,206) (8,192) 

1-2 days 26.7 21.2 24.2 24.0 23.7 

3-11 days 20.2 20.0 24.6 20.5 21.4 

12-100 days 24.9 25.3 23.7 22.0 23.1 

$101 days 28.2 33.5 27.6 33.4 31.8 

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Note 1: Because of rounding, column percentages for Parts A and B may not total 100.0%. Estimates for persons who used 

marijuana at least once exclude those who did not report the number of days they used marijuana.

Note 2: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA 

Main Findings prior to 1994.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
45

Table 3.7 Percentage Distribution of Days of Marijuana Use in the Past Month for the Total

Sample and for Past Month Marijuana Users, by Age Group: 1998

Days of Use in 

the Past Month 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

A. Total Sample

Did not use 91.7 86.2 94.5 97.5 95.0 

1-2 days 2.7 4.2 1.8 0.7 1.5 

3-4 days 1.2 1.5 0.8 0.2 0.6 

5-19 days 2.4 3.8 1.7 0.8 1.5 

20-30 days 1.6 4.0 0.9 0.6 1.2 

Used in past month/

 days not reported 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

B. Used Marijuana at Least Once in the Past Month

(Unweighted n) (570) (913) (229) (166) (1,878) 

1-2 days 34.1 31.0 35.1 30.2 32.0 

3-4 days 15.0 10.9 15.4 9.6 12.0 

5-19 days 31.0 28.3 33.0 32.6 30.9 

20-30 days 19.9 29.8 16.6 27.6 25.2 

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Note 1: Because of rounding, column percentages for Parts A and B may not total 100.0%. Estimates for persons who used 

marijuana at least once exclude those who did not report the number of days they used marijuana.

Note 2: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA 

Main Findings prior to 1994.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
46

Table 3.8 Percentage Reporting Use of Selected Drugs in the Past Month, by Age Group

and Marijuana Use in the Past Month: 1998

Age Group in Years/

Drugs Used in the Past Month No Yes Total

Marijuana Use in 

the Past Month

1

Total

(Unweighted n) (23,518) (1,982) (25,500)

Alcohol 49.6 89.5 51.7 

Cigarettes 25.2 74.5 27.7 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.3 25.3 2.5 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.7 8.4 2

1.1 

Cocaine 0.3 11.0 0.8 

12-17 Years 

(Unweighted n) (6,172) (606) (6,778) 

Alcohol 13.4 82.7 19.1 

Cigarettes 13.1 75.8 18.2 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.8 27.6 4.0 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.9 10.3 2

1.7 

Cocaine 0.1 8.6 0.8 

18-25 Years 

(Unweighted n) (6,368) (950) (7,318) 

Alcohol 54.5 94.3 60.0 

Cigarettes 35.1 82.4 41.6 

Drugs other than marijuana 2.7 29.9 6.5 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 1.4 10.8 2

2.7 

Cocaine 0.4 11.5 2.0 

26-34 Years 

(Unweighted n) (4,295) (242) (4,537) 

Alcohol 59.3 88.7 60.9 

Cigarettes 30.3 70.6 32.5 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.6 22.9 2.8 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 1.0 6.7 2

1.3 

Cocaine 0.4 13.7 1.2 

35+ Years 

(Unweighted n) (6,683) (184) (6,867) 

Alcohol 52.1 88.4 53.1 

Cigarettes 24.0 66.9 25.1 

Drugs other than marijuana 0.8 20.2 1.3 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.5 5.7 2

0.7 

Cocaine 0.2 10.2 0.5 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in 

NHSDA Main Findings prior to 1994.

Includes respondents who reported never using marijuana, as well as those who reported previous but not past month use. 1 

Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter 2

drugs.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
Because crack (also called “rock” or “base”) is a form of cocaine, respondents who reported using crack 1

are included under the more general set of cocaine users. 

47

Chapter 4: Cocaine

Introduction

Public concern about cocaine continues, as its use among members of the U.S. population remains a

public health problem. Cocaine use has been linked to physical health problems, such as strokes and heart

attack, as well as thinking and memory disorders (Bolla, Cadet, & London, 1998; Kaku & Lowenstein, 1990;

Kaufman et al., 1998; Mittleman et al., 1999; Petitti, Sidney, Quesenberry, & Berstein, 1998). Cocaine use

also has been linked to high-risk behaviors, including high-risk sexual behaviors (Chirgwin, DeHovitz, Dillon,

& McCormack, 1991; DuRant, Krowchuk, Kreiter, Sinal, & Woods, 1999; Hudgins, McCusker, & Stoddard,

1995; Shrier, Emans, Woods, & DuRant, 1997; Wolfe, Vranizan, Gorter, Keffelew, & Moss, 1992). 

As in previous years of the NHSDA, cocaine was the second most commonly used illicit drug (after

marijuana) in the United States during 1998. In 1998, NHSDA data show that approximately 23 million (or

11%) of individuals aged 12 or older in the United States reported cocaine use in their lifetime (see Table 2.1),

approximately 4 million (or 2%) reported use in the past year, and 1.7 million (or 0.8%) reported current use

(i.e., past 30 day use). Additionally, more than 4 million (or 2%) reported crack use in their lifetime,

1

approximately 1 million (or 0.4%) reported past year crack use, and about 437,000 (or 0.2%) reported current

crack use. Overall, about 19% of lifetime cocaine users had ever used crack, and about 25% of past year and

past month cocaine users had done so (OAS, 1999b, Tables 4A and 5A).

As indicated in the Chapter 2 tables, the percentage of persons reporting cocaine use in the lifetime,

past year, and past month remained relatively stable during the 1990s. Among those aged 18 to 25 and 26 to

34, lifetime and past year cocaine use decreased substantially between 1991 and 1998. 

This chapter discusses the prevalence and correlates of cocaine use. The following sections provide

a detailed description of the prevalence of cocaine use in demographic subgroups defined by age, gender,

race/ethnicity, population density, region, adult education, and current employment status. This chapter also

discusses the frequency of cocaine use and the relationships between use of cocaine and other drugs.

Cocaine Use, by Age Group (Tables 4.1 to 4.4)

Prevalence of cocaine use varied considerably across age groups. Lifetime cocaine use was higher

among 26 to 34 year olds (17%) than all other age groups, while rates of past year and current use were higher

among young adults aged 18 to 25 (5% and 2%, respectively) than all other age groups.

Table 4.4 gives a more refined picture of cocaine use by age. The steepest age gradients in the

prevalence of lifetime, past year, and past month cocaine use occur in the teenage years. In particular, only

about 0.1% of youths aged 12 or 13 had used cocaine in the past year. By ages 14 and 15, the prevalence

increased to 1.4%, and by ages 16 and 17, the prevalence nearly tripled to 3.6%. Past month and past year

use peaked among the 18 to 20 age group. This phenomenon reflects an age-of-onset effect: First-time use

of cocaine occurs most often at these ages (see also Table 10.4). The 1997 Monitoring the Future study

reported a similar phenomenon for any illicit drug use other than marijuana (which includes cocaine use), with
In the interest of readability for this report, “white” is used to indicate “white, non-Hispanic” and “black” 2

to indicate “black, non-Hispanic.” 

48

a proportional increase between 8th and 10th grade students for past year use and current use (Johnston et al.,

1998, 1999).

Cocaine Use, by Age Group and Gender (Tables 4.1 to 4.3)

Lifetime, past year, and past month cocaine use were more common among males than females in the

total sample, but when broken down by age, gender differences were not always found within age groups.

Among all of the adult age groups, males were more likely than females to report past year cocaine use.

Significant gender differences in current use also were found among 18 to 25 year olds and among those 35

or older. For adolescents (i.e., those aged 12 to 17), there were no differences between males and females in

rates of lifetime, past year, or current use. Overall, the 1998 results show that males were about twice as likely

as females to be past year and past month cocaine users. 

Cocaine Use, by Age Group and Race/Ethnicity (Tables 4.1 to 4.3)

Racial/ethnic differences in cocaine use were not as clear as gender differences. Overall and for those

aged 26 to 34, whites had higher lifetime use rates than blacks and Hispanics. Lifetime use also was reported 2

more often by whites and Hispanics than blacks among those aged 12 to 25. In the total sample, no differences

were found by race/ethnicity for past year use, but past month use was higher among blacks and Hispanics than

whites. Somewhat different patterns emerged by age group. Rates of past year and past month use were higher

among whites and Hispanics than blacks in the 18 to 25 age group, but they were higher among blacks than

whites in the 35 or older age group. Among those aged 26 to 34, current use was higher among blacks than

both whites and Hispanics. Between 1997 and 1998, past month rates of cocaine use increased among

Hispanics aged 18 to 25 and Hispanic females (OAS, 1999c, Table 64B)

Cocaine Use, by Age Group, Population Density, and Region (Tables 4.1 to 4.3)

In 1998, few differences in cocaine use were found by population density. Past year use was higher

among 18 to 25 year olds in small metropolitan areas compared with large metropolitan and nonmetropolitan

areas.

There also were few regional differences in past year and current use. In the total population, residents

of the West were more likely to report past year cocaine use than those in all other regions. Among young

adults aged 18 to 25, residents of the West reported higher past year rates than those in the Northeast and

South, and those aged 35 or older in the West reported higher rates than same-aged individuals in the Northeast

and North Central regions. The only significant difference in past month rates was that residents of the North

Central region were less likely to report such use than those in the South and West.

Cocaine Use, by Adult Educational Attainment and Current Employment (Tables 4.1 to 4.3)

An interesting pattern emerged when cocaine prevalence was assessed by education and current

employment. (As noted in Chapter 1, youths aged 12 to 17 were excluded from analyses using adult education

or employment status.) In the total population, past year and past month use were more likely among those

with less than a high school education than those who had attended or graduated from college. Given that the

causes of these associations are not clear from the results alone, factors correlated with education (e.g., income)
An important caveat to these general patterns involves research that suggests that blacks tend to 3

significantly underreport cocaine use. Potential underreporting by black respondents has important implications

for the racial/ethnic comparisons described here (Fendrich & Vaughn, 1994; Research Triangle Institute, 1993). 

49

may be strongly influential, suggesting important issues for future research (Flewelling, Rachal, & Marsden,

1992).

In general, unemployed adults used cocaine at higher rates than did adults in any other employment

classification. Approximately 19% of unemployed adults reported that they had used cocaine at least once in

their lives, 6% had used it in the past year, and 3% were currently using cocaine. In the total population, the

unemployed were significantly more likely to report past year and past month use of cocaine than those in all

other employment categories. 

Cocaine Use, by Age Group, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender (Table 4.5)

Table 4.5 provides additional information on the racial/ethnic distinctions by considering reported

cocaine prevalence simultaneously by gender, race/ethnicity, and age. Overall and among the 18 to 25 and 35

or older age groups, lifetime cocaine prevalence was higher among males than females across racial/ethnic

groups. For 26 to 34 year olds, significant lifetime differences were observed between white males and females

and between Hispanic males and females. In general, past year and past month use among the adult age groups

also were higher among males than females, although only a few of these differences reached statistical

significance. Among males and females aged 18 to 25, past year use was higher among whites and Hispanics

than blacks. Few other differences between racial/ethnic groups by gender were statistically significant.

White and Hispanic males reported some of the highest rates of cocaine use. The highest rates of past

year use were found among white (7%) and Hispanic (7%) males aged 18 to 25 and, for current use, among

Hispanic (4%) males aged 18 to 25.3

Lifetime Frequency of Cocaine Use (Table 4.6)

Table 4.6 provides a measure of cocaine use frequency in the overall sample and among those who

reported using cocaine at least once in their lifetime. Approximately 19% of lifetime users reported cocaine

use on more than 100 days, whereas over half of these respondents reported doing so 11 or fewer days in their

lifetime, and over one-quarter reported using it for only 1 or 2 days. Among those who had used cocaine in

their lifetime, those aged 26 or older were more likely than younger respondents to have used cocaine on more

than 100 days; however, this may reflect their longer period of the possibility of use. 

Crack Cocaine Use (Tables 4.7 and 4.8)

An estimated 4.5 million Americans aged 12 or older had used crack in their lifetime, and an estimated

1 million had used crack in the past year (Table 2.1). As shown in Table 4.7, those aged 26 to 34 were most

likely to have used crack cocaine in their lifetime (4%) and those aged 12 to 17 least likely to have done so

(0.7%). As shown in Table 4.8, past year use of crack was least common among those aged 35 or older

(0.3%), but past year rates for all age groups were under 1%. In the total sample, and the 18 to 25 and 35 or

older age groups, males reported significantly higher rates of lifetime crack use than females; gender differences

also were found for past year use among the total population and the 35 or older age group. Blacks (overall

and those aged 26 or older) were more likely to report lifetime and past year crack use than were either whites

or Hispanics. Among youths aged 12 to 17 and young adults aged 18 to 25, whites, blacks, and Hispanics

reported similar rates of lifetime and past year crack use. Among past year cocaine users, the percentage who
50

used crack was larger among blacks than Hispanics and larger still than among whites (70%, 31%, and 17%,

respectively, based on calculations from data in OAS, 1999b, Tables 4B to 4D and 5B to 5D). 

Few lifetime or past year differences in crack use across population density or regional groups were

significant. In the total population, those living in the West were more likely to report past year use than those

in the Northeast and North Central regions. In general, less education was associated with a greater likelihood

of crack use. Past year crack use also was more likely among unemployed persons than among those in all

other employment categories. 

Discussion

In 1998, cocaine continued to be the second most commonly used illicit drug (following marijuana)

in the United States. Approximately one-tenth of Americans in the civilian, noninstitutionalized population

aged 12 or older used cocaine at some time in their lifetime, and about 1% could be considered to be current

users. The findings in this chapter show that past year and current (i.e., past month) cocaine use were more

common among young adult males aged 18 to 25 than among all other age-gender groups. About 3% of 18-

to 25-year-old males were current cocaine users. Additionally, past year and current cocaine use were

generally higher among adults with less than a high school education and those who were unemployed. Past

year crack use tended to be most common among males, blacks, those with less than a high school education,

and adults who were unemployed. It should be noted, however, that the relationship of cocaine use and the

various demographic characteristics should be investigated carefully. The interrelationships among several of

these variables are likely to be complex. For example, race/ethnicity is intricately associated with educational

attainment and employment status. Multivariate analyses would permit a more thorough examination of the

independent contributions of individual demographic characteristics in determining cocaine use.
51

Table 4.1 Percentage Reporting Cocaine Use in Their Lifetime, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 2.2 10.0 17.1 10.4 10.6 

Gender

Male 2.0 12.3 19.3 13.7 13.1 

Female 2.4 7.7 14.8 7.6 8.2 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 2.4 11.7 19.6 10.9 11.4 

Black, non-Hispanic 0.1 3.5 10.7 11.2 8.5 

Hispanic 3.3 11.0 12.7 8.0 8.9 

Population Density

Large metro 1.6 9.4 18.6 12.4 12.1 

Small metro 2.9 11.3 16.6 10.7 10.9 

Nonmetro 2.3 8.7 13.9 6.2 7.1 

Region

Northeast 1.2 7.1 22.1 11.7 11.8 

North Central 1.5 12.0 14.8 9.1 9.6 

South 2.5 7.7 14.0 7.4 8.0 

West 3.1 13.9 19.7 15.6 14.7 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 14.1 21.6 5.7 9.1 

High school graduate N/A 10.4 17.9 8.7 10.5 

Some college N/A 8.6 19.1 12.8 13.2 

College graduate N/A 6.1 12.3 13.7 13.0 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 11.8 17.5 15.0 15.2 

Part-time N/A 7.9 21.4 9.0 10.5 

Unemployed N/A 15.8 18.0 21.3 19.1 

Other N/A 6.8 11.8 3.9 4

4.8 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
52

Table 4.2 Percentage Reporting Cocaine Use in the Past Year, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 1.7 4.7 2.7 0.9 1.7 

Gender

Male 1.3 5.9 3.6 1.3 2.3 

Female 2.0 3.4 1.9 0.5 1.2 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 1.9 5.5 2.9 0.7 1.7 

Black, non-Hispanic * 1.4 3.4 2.0 1.9 

Hispanic 2.5 5.1 1.9 1.3 2.3 

Population Density

Large metro 1.2 3.8 3.1 1.0 1.7 

Small metro 2.3 6.1 2.8 0.7 2.0 

Nonmetro 1.7 3.4 1.7 0.9 1.4 

Region

Northeast 0.6 3.3 2.5 0.4 1.1 

North Central 1.2 5.4 2.9 0.5 1.6 

South 2.1 3.7 2.6 1.0 1.7 

West 2.3 6.5 2.9 1.6 2.5 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 6.4 5.1 1.5 2.7 

High school graduate N/A 4.9 3.4 0.9 1.9 

Some college N/A 4.4 1.5 0.7 1.6 

College graduate N/A 1.6 2.0 0.6 1.0 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 5.3 2.8 1.0 2.0 

Part-time N/A 3.8 3.2 1.1 2.1 

Unemployed N/A 8.8 3.8 5.5 6.1 

Other N/A 2.9 1.8 0.4 4

0.8 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
53

Table 4.3 Percentage Reporting Cocaine Use in the Past Month, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 0.8 2.0 1.2 0.5 0.8 

Gender

Male 0.6 2.6 1.4 0.7 1.1 

Female 1.0 1.3 0.9 0.2 0.5 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 0.9 2.2 1.0 0.3 0.7 

Black, non-Hispanic * 0.6 2.7 1.3 1.3 

Hispanic 1.4 2.7 1.1 0.9 1.3 

Population Density

Large metro 0.9 1.8 1.4 0.7 0.9 

Small metro 0.9 2.4 1.1 0.3 0.8 

Nonmetro 0.5 1.4 0.7 0.3 0.5 

Region

Northeast 0.2 1.8 1.9 * 0.6 

North Central 0.4 2.3 0.9 0.2 0.6 

South 1.1 1.7 1.1 0.7 1.0 

West 1.3 2.2 0.9 0.7 1.0 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 3.0 2.7 0.8 1.4 

High school graduate N/A 2.0 1.3 0.5 0.8 

Some college N/A 1.9 0.7 0.2 0.7 

College graduate N/A * 0.7 0.4 0.5 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 2.3 1.1 0.6 0.9 

Part-time N/A 1.0 1.1 * 0.5 

Unemployed N/A 5.8 2.9 2.3 3.4 

Other N/A 1.0 0.9 0.2 4

0.4 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
54

Table 4.4 Percentage Reporting Cocaine Use in Their Lifetime, the Past Year, and the

Past Month, by Age: 1998 

Time Period

Age Group in Years (Unweighted n) Lifetime Past Year Past Month

Total (25,500) 10.6 1.7 0.8 

12-17 Years (6,778) 2.2 1.7 0.8 

12-13 (2,240) 0.2 0.1 0.1 

14-15 (2,356) 1.7 1.4 0.7 

16-17 (2,182) 4.8 3.6 1.7 

18-25 Years (7,318) 10.0 4.7 2.0 

18-20 (2,981) 9.0 5.4 2.1 

21-25 (4,337) 10.7 4.2 1.9 

26-34 Years (4,537) 17.1 2.7 1.2 

26-29 (2,017) 13.1 2.9 0.9 

30-34 (2,520) 20.2 2.6 1.4 

35+ Years (6,867) 10.4 0.9 0.5 

35-39 (1,381) 22.6 2.7 1.4 

40-44 (1,179) 19.6 1.2 0.8 

45-49 (1,157) 17.5 1.1 0.6 

50+ (3,150) 2.0 0.2 * 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
55

Table 4.5 Percentage Reporting Cocaine Use in Their Lifetime, the Past Year, and the Past

Month, by Age Group, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender: 1998 

Race/Ethnicity1

and Gender 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

(Unweighted n)

White, non-Hispanic male (1,576) (1,367) (805) (1,555) (5,303) 

Black, non-Hispanic male (668) (742) (362) (567) (2,339) 

Hispanic male (910) (974) (622) (537) (3,043) 

White, non-Hispanic female (1,515) (1,559) (1,085) (2,247) (6,406) 

Black, non-Hispanic female (706) (1,056) (691) (1,023) (3,476) 

Hispanic female (959) (1,213) (810) (770) (3,752) 

A. Used Cocaine in Their Lifetime

White, non-Hispanic male 2.1 14.0 21.8 13.8 13.9 

Black, non-Hispanic male 0.2 5.7 11.9 17.4 12.0 

Hispanic male 2.7 12.9 17.1 11.8 11.9 

White, non-Hispanic female 2.8 9.3 17.4 8.2 9.2 

Black, non-Hispanic female * 1.5 9.7 6.6 5.6 

Hispanic female 3.9 8.9 7.6 4.4 5.8 

B. Used Cocaine in the Past Year

White, non-Hispanic male 1.4 6.7 4.0 0.9 2.1 

Black, non-Hispanic male * 1.9 3.4 3.1 2.5 

Hispanic male 2.0 6.9 2.7 2.4 3.2 

White, non-Hispanic female 2.4 4.3 1.9 0.5 1.3 

Black, non-Hispanic female * 0.9 3.3 1.1 1.3 

Hispanic female 3.1 3.1 0.9 0.3 1.3 

C. Used Cocaine in the Past Month

White, non-Hispanic male 0.7 2.9 1.2 0.5 0.9 

Black, non-Hispanic male * 0.7 3.0 2.1 1.7 

Hispanic male 1.1 3.5 1.6 1.5 1.8 

White, non-Hispanic female 1.2 1.5 0.8 0.2 0.5 

Black, non-Hispanic female * 0.5 2.4 0.7 0.9 

Hispanic female 1.7 1.9 0.5 0.3 0.8 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
56

Table 4.6 Percentage Distribution of Days of Cocaine Use in Their Lifetime for the Total

Sample and for Cocaine Users, by Age Group: 1998 

Days Used Cocaine 

in Their Lifetime 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

A. Total Sample

Did not use 97.8 90.0 82.9 89.6 89.4 

1-2 days 0.9 3.9 4.6 2.3 2.7 

3-11 days 0.7 2.6 4.5 2.9 2.9 

12-100 days 0.3 2.0 4.8 3.1 2.9 

$101 days 0.2 1.5 3.1 2.1 2.0 

Used in lifetime/

 days not reported * * 0.1 * * 

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

B. Used Cocaine at Least Once in Their Lifetime

(Unweighted n) (226) (734) (696) (739) (2,395) 

1-2 days 41.6 39.0 27.2 22.2 25.9 

3-11 days 32.5 25.7 26.3 27.8 27.3 

12-100 days 15.3 20.4 28.2 29.7 27.9 

$101 days 10.6 14.9 18.3 20.3 18.9 

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Note 1: Because of rounding, column percentages for Parts A and B may not total 100.0%. Estimates for persons who used cocaine at

least once exclude those who did not report the number of days they used cocaine.

Note 2: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
57

Table 4.7 Percentage Reporting Crack Use in Their Lifetime, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 0.7 2.7 3.9 1.7 2.0 

Gender

Male 0.7 3.7 4.5 2.4 2.8 

Female 0.8 1.7 3.2 1.0 1.4 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 0.8 3.2 3.6 1.2 1.8 

Black, non-Hispanic * 1.4 6.3 5.4 4.2 

Hispanic 1.1 2.3 2.8 1.5 1.9 

Population Density

Large metro 0.7 2.3 4.3 1.6 2.1 

Small metro 0.9 3.3 3.7 1.4 2.0 

Nonmetro 0.6 2.3 2.9 2.2 2.1 

Region

Northeast 0.4 1.6 3.1 1.4 1.6 

North Central 0.7 3.0 3.3 0.9 1.6 

South 0.8 2.5 4.6 1.7 2.2 

West 1.0 3.6 3.7 2.6 2.7 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 5.2 8.8 2.3 3.6 

High school graduate N/A 2.9 3.9 2.0 2.4 

Some college N/A 1.7 4.4 2.0 2.4 

College graduate N/A 0.5 1.1 0.6 0.7 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 3.1 3.8 1.8 2.5 

Part-time N/A 1.9 3.6 1.3 1.8 

Unemployed N/A 5.1 7.2 8.3 7.2 

Other N/A 1.9 3.1 1.0 4

1.3 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
58

Table 4.8 Percentage Reporting Crack Use in the Past Year, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 0.5 0.8 0.7 0.3 0.4 

Gender

Male 0.3 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.6 

Female 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.3 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.1 0.3 

Black, non-Hispanic * 0.5 2.3 1.5 1.3 

Hispanic 0.7 1.1 0.6 0.6 0.7 

Population Density

Large metro 0.4 0.7 0.9 0.4 0.5 

Small metro 0.7 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.4 

Nonmetro 0.1 0.9 0.6 0.2 0.4 

Region

Northeast 0.2 0.5 1.0 0.2 0.3 

North Central 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.1 0.3 

South 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.5 

West 0.6 1.5 0.8 0.5 0.7 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 1.6 2.1 1.0 1.2 

High school graduate N/A 0.9 0.9 0.2 0.4 

Some college N/A 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 

College graduate N/A * 0.1 * 0.1 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 1.0 0.6 0.2 0.4 

Part-time N/A 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 

Unemployed N/A 1.6 2.4 3.1 2.5 

Other N/A 0.4 1.1 0.3 4

0.3 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
59

Chapter 5: Inhalants, Hallucinogens, and Heroin

Introduction

Although the prevalence of use of inhalants, hallucinogens, and heroin is relatively low, the use of these

drugs is highly dangerous. Use of inhalants has been linked to sudden death and to chronic damage to the heart,

lungs, kidneys, liver, and brain (Flanagan, Ruprah, Meredith, & Ramsey, 1990; Ramsey, Anderson, Bloor, &

Flanagan, 1989; Sawaguchi, Nakada, Ohue, & Kotani, 1989; Shepherd, 1989). In addition, many types of

inhalants are particularly easy to obtain, and inhalants are an early drug of abuse for many adolescents (see

Table 10.4). Use of hallucinogenic drugs can produce unpredictable, erratic, and violent behavior in users that

sometimes leads to serious injuries and death (Prevention Partners, 1999). Use of heroin causes physical and

psychological problems, such as shallow breathing, nausea, panic, insomnia, and a need for increasingly higher

doses of the drug to get the same effect (Epstein & Gfroerer, 1998b). Heroin also is of great concern because

it is usually taken intravenously and can therefore contribute to the spread of the acquired immune deficiency

syndrome (AIDS). 

In 1998, approximately 10% of the U.S. household population reported ever having used

hallucinogens, and roughly 6% reported lifetime use of inhalants (see Table 2.1). The lifetime prevalence level

of heroin use (1.1%) remained quite low compared with most other drugs; however, estimates of heroin use

from the NHSDA may be considered conservative due to probable undercoverage of the population of heroin

users (Bray & Marsden, 1999).

Inhalant Use (Tables 5.1 to 5.3)

Inhalants, defined as fumes or gases that are inhaled to produce a high, include common household

substances, such as glues, aerosols, butane, and solvents. Approximately 12.6 million of the 218 million

persons represented in the 1998 NHSDA, or 6%, reported lifetime inhalant use (see Table 2.1). About 2

million people (0.9%) used in the past year, and 713,000 people (0.3%) used in the past month. 

As shown in Tables 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4, respectively, inhalant use has remained relatively stable since

the early 1990s. There were no significant changes among the total population in lifetime, past year, or past

month prevalence of inhalant use between 1997 and 1998. However, among adolescents, past year and past

month use were significantly lower, by nearly half in 1998 than in 1997. Past year rates among adolescents

were 4.4% in 1997 and 2.9% in 1998, while past month rates were 2.0% and 1.1%, respectively (see Tables

2.10 and 2.11).

As seen in Table 5.1, nitrous oxide and amyl nitrite (i.e., poppers) were the inhalants most frequently

reported in the lifetime (2.8% and 2.4%, respectively). Different age groups, however, appeared to have

different inhalants of choice. Among adolescents (i.e., youths aged 12 to 17), gasoline and glue (2%) were the

inhalants most commonly reported. Nitrous oxide was the inhalant most frequently reported by young adults

aged 18 to 25 (8%), amyl nitrite and nitrous oxide were reported equally frequently by adults aged 26 to 34

(4%), and amyl nitrite was the inhalant most commonly reported by the oldest age group (2%). Among 12 to

17 year olds between 1997 and 1998, there was a significant decrease in the lifetime rate of using amyl nitrite

(from 0.8% in 1997 to 0.3% in 1998), nitrous oxide (from 2.3% to 1.5%), spray paint (from 2.2% to 1.4%),

and other aerosol sprays (from 1.9% to 1.1%) (OAS, 1999c, Table 78B). 
In the interest of readability for this report, “white” is used to indicate “white, non-Hispanic” and “black” to

1

indicate “black, non-Hispanic.” 

Additional information on the use of LSD and PCP is provided in separate sections, following this general

2

discussion on hallucinogens.

60

Inhalant Use, by Age Group, Gender, and Race/Ethnicity. Past year inhalant use was inversely

related to age, being lower for adults aged 26 or older (0.2% to 0.5%) and higher for youths aged 12 to 17 and

young adults aged 18 to 25 (3% for each group).

Inhalant use also varied by gender. Among adults (i.e., those aged 18 or older), males reported higher

prevalences of lifetime inhalant use than their female counterparts. Gender differences in past year use were

found only in the total population and the 18 to 25 age group.

Race/ethnicity also was associated with the prevalence of inhalant use. Past year use among those in

the 18 to 25 age group was higher among whites than both blacks and Hispanics, while among adolescents,

past year use was higher among whites and Hispanics than blacks.1

Inhalant Use, by Other Demographic Characteristics. Other demographic characteristics evidenced

few associations with past year inhalant use. Overall and for young adults aged 18 to 25, respondents living

in small metropolitan areas were significantly more likely to have used inhalants in the past year than were

those residing in large metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas. No significant associations between region,

adult education, or current employment and past year inhalant use were found. 

Hallucinogen Use (Tables 5.4 to 5.8) 2

Hallucinogenic drugs are substances that distort the perception of objective reality. Hallucinogens

include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), phencyclidine (PCP), ecstasy, mescaline, peyote, and psilocybin

(mushrooms). Approximately 21.6 million of the 218 million persons represented in the 1998 NHSDA survey

(10%) used hallucinogens in their lifetime, 3.6 million persons (2%) used them in the past year, and 1.5 million

persons (0.7%) used them in the past month (see Table 2.1). Lifetime hallucinogen use increased from the

mid-1980s (7%) and early 1990s (8%) to 1998 (10%), while past year use was relatively stable during the

1990s. Past month use increased significantly between 1992 (0.4%) and 1998 (0.7%) (see Tables 2.2 to 2.4).

The rates of hallucinogen use as a whole remained relatively stable between 1997 and 1998, except

among 18 to 25 year olds for whom significantly higher rates of lifetime use were reported in 1998 (17%)

compared to 1997 (15%) (see Tables 2.9 to 2.11). In the total population, the lifetime rate of use of peyote

and psilocybin increased from 1997 to 1998 (peyote, 1.4% to 2.0%; psilocybin, 4.7% to. 5.6%) (OAS, 1999c,

Table 78B). Among 18 to 25 year olds, lifetime use of psilocybin increased from 8% to 11%. 

Overall and in each of the four age categories shown in Table 5.4, LSD was the hallucinogen most

frequently reported, followed by psilocybin. A total of 17.2 million (8%) had ever tried LSD, and 12.3 million

(6%) had ever tried psilocybin in 1998 (OAS, 1999c, Table 78A). Overall, lifetime prevalence rates for other

specific hallucinogenic drugs were 3.5% for PCP, 3.2% for mescaline, 1.5% for ecstasy, and 2.0% for peyote.

Hallucinogen Use, by Age Group, Gender, and Race/Ethnicity. Past year use of hallucinogens was

highest among 18 to 25 year olds (7%), followed by 12 to 17 year olds (4%), 26 to 34 year olds (1%), and

those 35 or older (0.2%).
61

Hallucinogen use also varied by gender. Males were more likely than females to report lifetime

hallucinogen use, both in the overall sample and among each of the adult age groups. Gender differences in

past year use were found only for the total population and the 18 to 25 age group.

Race/ethnicity was associated with the prevalence of hallucinogen use. In the total population and each

age group, whites reported higher levels of lifetime hallucinogen use than Hispanics and blacks. In the three

youngest age groups, Hispanics reported higher lifetime rates of use than blacks. The largest differences in

reported use occurred among 18 to 25 year olds; whites were almost 7 times more likely than blacks to report

lifetime hallucinogen use. In the total population and the two youngest age groups, past year use was higher

among whites and Hispanics than among blacks. 

Hallucinogen Use, by Other Demographic Characteristics. There were few differences in past year

hallucinogen use by population density, region, adult education, and current employment. In the total

population and the 18 to 25 age group, past year hallucinogen use was higher among respondents in small

metropolitan areas than among those in large metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas. Among 18 to 25 year

olds, residents of the North Central region reported higher rates of past year use than residents of the West and

South. In the total population, past year use was lower among college graduates than all other educational

categories, and use was highest among the unemployed.

PCP Use (Table 5.7)

In 1998, an estimated 7.6 million people (4% of the surveyed population) reported ever using PCP,

and 346,000 people (0.2%) reported using PCP in the past year (see Table 2.1). Between 1997 and 1998, no

statistically significant differences were found for any age group for lifetime, past year, and past month use

of PCP (see Tables 2.9 to 2.11). 

Overall and for those aged 35 or older, males were significantly more likely than their female

counterparts to report ever using PCP. Except among adults 35 or older, whites reported a greater prevalence

of PCP use in their lifetime than blacks. In the overall population, whites also reported greater lifetime use than

Hispanics. In the overall population and the 35 or older age group, lifetime PCP use was significantly more

common in the West and North Central regions than in the South. In the total population and the 35 or older

age group, respondents who were unemployed reported higher levels of lifetime PCP use than respondents in

the other three employment categories (full-time, part-time, and other).

LSD Use (Tables 5.8 and 5.9)

In 1998, an estimated 17.2 million people (8% of the surveyed population) reported ever using LSD,

and 1.8 million people (0.8%) reported using LSD in the past year (OAS, 1999c, Tables 134A, 134B, 144A,

and 144B). Between 1997 and 1998, no statistically significant differences in the rates of use were found for

any age group for lifetime, past year, and past month use of LSD. 

Past year LSD use was significantly higher among adolescents (2.6%) and adults aged 18 to 25

(3.4%) than among the older age groups. Overall and for all of the adult age groups, males were significantly

more likely than their female counterparts to report ever using LSD. However, no significant differences by

gender were found for past year use in the total population or in any of the age groups. In the total sample and

the two younger age groups, whites reported higher past year use than Hispanics, who in turn reported higher

rates than blacks. In the total population and the 18 to 25 age group, residents of the North Central region

reported higher past year use than those in the South and West. 
Estimates of heroin use from the survey are likely to be low due to the probable undercoverage of the heroin- 3

using population, many of whom are believed to be outside the sampling frame. For example, 20% of all past year

heroin users were from the nonhousehold population (homeless and the institutionalized), according to the Washington,

DC, Metropolitan Area Drug Study (DC*MADS) (Bray & Marsden, 1999; National Institute on Drug Abuse [NIDA],

1994). 

62

Heroin Use (Tables 5.10 and 5.11) 

Heroin is an illegal opiate drug that is highly addictive. About 2.4 million (1.1%) of the 218 million

persons represented in the 1998 NHSDA reported heroin use in their lifetime, while 253,000 persons (0.1%)

reported use in the past year and 130,000 persons (0.1%) reported use in the past month (see Table 2.1).3

Between 1997 and 1998, no statistically significant differences were found for any age group for lifetime and

past month heroin use (see Tables 2.9 and 2.11). However, past year use among the total population did

decrease from 0.3% in 1997 to 0.1% in 1998 (see Table 2.10).

In the total population, males were more likely than females and blacks were more likely than whites

and Hispanics to report lifetime use of heroin. Lifetime use also was higher among unemployed persons than

those employed full- or part-time. Those aged 12 to 25 were more likely to report past year heroin use than

were those 26 or older (OAS, 1999b, Table 18). 

Heroin can be taken in various ways, such as injection, smoking, sniffing, and snorting. In 1998, about

1.4 million people reported lifetime smoking of heroin, and approximately 1.7 million persons reported having

ever sniffed or snorted heroin (OAS, 1999c, Table 78A). Table 5.11 shows lifetime heroin prevalence for

selected demographic groups by method of administration and by age of respondent in 1998. Fewer than 1%

of the overall population reported ever using a method of heroin administration (i.e., smoking, snorting or

sniffing, or injecting heroin). 

Discussion

In 1998, inhalants, hallucinogens, and heroin continued to be used by a minority of Americans in the

civilian, noninstitutionalized population aged 12 or older. This chapter shows that (a) inhalants had been used

by about 6% of the population at some time in their lifetime and 1% in the past year, (b) hallucinogens had

been used by 10% of the population in their lifetime and 2% in the past year, and (c) heroin had been used by

approximately 1% of the population at least once in their lifetime. Although rates of use of inhalants,

hallucinogens, and heroin were relatively stable between 1997 and 1998 for most groups, inhalant use

decreased among youths aged 12 to 17. 

This chapter also shows that there were important demographic differences in the prevalence of

inhalant, hallucinogen, and heroin use. In general, use of inhalants and hallucinogens was more commonly

reported among males and whites. Heroin use was more commonly reported among males and blacks. 


	 










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to indicate “black, non-Hispanic.” 

76

differentials, however, were found only among 18 to 25 year olds in all three time periods and among lifetime

users aged 35 or older. 

Any Psychotherapeutic Use, by Age Group and Race/Ethnicity. Overall and among all of the adult

age groups, whites were significantly more likely than blacks and Hispanics to have ever used a

psychotherapeutic drug. The only significant associations between race/ethnicity for past year and past month 1

use were found among the 18 to 25 age group, where again whites were more likely than both blacks and

Hispanics to have reported any psychotherapeutic use, and among the 12 to 17 age group, where whites were

more likely than blacks to report past year use.

Any Psychotherapeutic Use, by Age Group, Population Density, and Region. Only one difference

in rates of any psychotherapeutic use was found by population density. Among the total population, residents

in small metropolitan areas were more likely to report past month use of any psychotherapeutic than residents

of large metropolitan areas. 

Additionally, few regional differences reached statistical significance. The most notable differences

were between rates of past year use among the total population and the 26 to 34 age group, where residents

of the West were more likely than residents of the Northeast and North Central regions to have reported such

use. 

Any Psychotherapeutic Use, by Age Group, Adult Education, and Adult Employment. Adult

educational attainment had a somewhat different relationship to psychotherapeutic use depending on the time

frame and the age group. In the total population, college graduates reported lower past year and past month

use than those in all other education categories. The only significant difference in past year use among the age

groups occurred among those aged 35 or older for whom those with some college were more likely to report

use than college graduates and those with less than a high school education. No differences in past month use

were found within specific age groups. 

Adult employment was significantly associated with lifetime, past year, and past month illicit use of

psychotherapeutic drugs, again depending on the time frame and age group. Among the total population,

unemployed workers were more likely than workers in all other employment categories to report past year and

past month use. 

Use of Any Stimulant and of Methamphetamine (Tables 6.4, 6.5, 6.9, and 6.10)

Any Stimulant Use. Table 6.4 shows that approximately 4% of persons aged 12 or older (about 9.6

million persons (see Table 2.1) reported ever using prescription-type stimulants (e.g., Dexedrine, Preludin, and

methamphetamine) for nonmedical reasons in their lifetime. Past year stimulant use was reported by 0.7% of

the population, or 1.5 million persons, and past month use by 0.3% of persons 12 years of age or older (about

633,000 persons [see Table 2.1]). 

Few significant differences were found in past year and past month use of stimulants within

demographic groups. Specifically, past year use was more likely among the two younger age groups than

among the two older age groups, among males (0.9%) than females (0.5%), among residents of the West

(1.1%) than residents of the Northeast (0.3%) and North Central (0.5%) regions, and among the unemployed

(1.9%) than those employed part-time (0.6%). Past month use also was significantly more likely among the


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79

Table 6.1 Percentage Reporting Nonmedical Use of Any Prescription-Type

Psychotherapeutic in Their Lifetime, by Age Group and Demographic

Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 5.6 11.4 11.5 8.8 9.2 

Gender

Male 5.1 13.8 12.8 11.1 11.1 

Female 6.1 8.9 10.1 6.9 7.6 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 6.2 13.7 13.5 9.6 10.3 

Black, non-Hispanic 4.3 7.0 7.0 6.9 6.6 

Hispanic 5.2 7.6 6.4 6.0 6.3 

Population Density

Large metro 5.1 11.2 10.7 9.6 9.5 

Small metro 6.6 12.9 12.3 9.5 10.1 

Nonmetro 5.1 8.7 11.9 6.3 7.2 

Region

Northeast 5.6 9.4 11.2 10.2 9.8 

North Central 5.1 12.2 10.2 6.9 7.9 

South 6.0 10.9 11.2 7.8 8.5 

West 5.6 12.9 13.3 11.5 11.4 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 13.9 13.5 6.4 8.5 

High school graduate N/A 9.9 13.3 6.2 8.0 

Some college N/A 12.0 12.7 12.8 12.6 

College graduate N/A 9.4 7.3 10.5 9.8 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 12.7 11.9 11.6 11.8 

Part-time N/A 11.0 11.5 8.5 9.6 

Unemployed N/A 14.5 11.7 13.7 13.5 

Other N/A 8.1 8.9 4.9 4

5.5 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
80

Table 6.2 Percentage Reporting Nonmedical Use of Any Prescription-Type

Psychotherapeutic in the Past Year, by Age Group and Demographic

Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 3.7 6.4 3.1 1.5 2.6 

Gender

Male 3.4 8.3 3.6 1.9 3.2 

Female 4.0 4.4 2.6 1.3 2.1 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 4.3 8.1 3.5 1.5 2.8 

Black, non-Hispanic 1.9 2.8 2.5 1.7 2.1 

Hispanic 3.4 3.5 2.1 2.3 2.6 

Population Density

Large metro 3.3 5.7 3.0 1.7 2.6 

Small metro 4.4 7.5 3.5 1.7 3.1 

Nonmetro 3.3 5.5 2.8 1.1 2.1 

Region

Northeast 3.5 5.1 2.2 1.1 2.0 

North Central 3.7 6.7 2.6 1.2 2.4 

South 3.8 6.0 2.9 1.7 2.7 

West 3.7 7.6 4.8 2.1 3.5 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 8.3 3.9 1.0 2.6 

High school graduate N/A 5.1 3.9 1.6 2.5 

Some college N/A 7.0 2.9 2.5 3.5 

College graduate N/A 5.3 2.1 1.0 1.5 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 6.9 3.0 1.9 2.8 

Part-time N/A 6.8 4.6 1.0 3.1 

Unemployed N/A 9.9 3.8 4.0 5.6 

Other N/A 3.9 2.5 1.0 4

1.4 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
81

Table 6.3 Percentage Reporting Nonmedical Use of Any Prescription-Type

Psychotherapeutic in the Past Month, by Age Group and Demographic

Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 1.7 2.7 1.3 0.7 1.1 

Gender

Male 1.6 3.6 1.4 0.9 1.4 

Female 1.7 1.7 1.2 0.5 0.9 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 1.9 3.2 1.4 0.6 1.2 

Black, non-Hispanic 1.1 1.8 1.3 0.9 1.1 

Hispanic 1.4 1.6 1.0 0.8 1.1 

Population Density

Large metro 1.6 2.1 1.1 0.5 0.9 

Small metro 2.2 3.1 1.7 0.9 1.5 

Nonmetro 1.1 2.9 1.3 0.5 1.0 

Region

Northeast 2.2 1.9 1.0 0.4 0.9 

North Central 1.8 2.7 1.1 0.5 1.0 

South 1.1 3.1 1.3 0.6 1.1 

West 2.0 2.6 1.9 1.2 1.6 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 3.8 2.6 0.6 1.4 

High school graduate N/A 2.0 1.6 0.6 1.0 

Some college N/A 3.0 1.0 1.2 1.5 

College graduate N/A 1.5 0.8 0.3 0.5 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 3.0 1.3 0.8 1.2 

Part-time N/A 2.2 2.4 0.4 1.1 

Unemployed N/A 4.3 1.9 2.3 2.8 

Other N/A 2.0 0.7 0.5 4

0.7 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
82

Table 6.4 Percentage Reporting Nonmedical Use of Any Prescription-Type Stimulant in

Their Lifetime, by Age Group and Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 1.7 3.9 5.1 4.8 4.4 

Gender

Male 1.8 4.3 5.6 6.7 5.7 

Female 1.7 3.6 4.6 3.1 3.2 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 1.8 4.7 6.2 5.3 5.0 

Black, non-Hispanic 1.7 2.1 2.3 3.6 2.9 

Hispanic 1.6 3.0 2.7 2.7 2.6 

Population Density

Large metro 1.5 3.3 5.0 4.8 4.3 

Small metro 2.3 5.2 5.3 5.6 5.1 

Nonmetro 1.1 2.7 5.0 3.5 3.4 

Region

Northeast 2.1 1.6 4.6 5.7 4.7 

North Central 1.7 4.4 5.1 3.8 3.8 

South 1.2 3.4 4.4 3.6 3.5 

West 2.3 6.2 6.7 6.9 6.3 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 5.2 5.6 2.1 3.0 

High school graduate N/A 3.4 5.3 2.7 3.3 

Some college N/A 4.3 6.6 7.6 6.8 

College graduate N/A 2.0 3.2 6.7 5.7 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 4.0 5.3 7.0 6.2 

Part-time N/A 4.2 5.0 4.4 4.4 

Unemployed N/A 5.5 4.2 8.0 6.5 

Other N/A 3.1 4.3 1.7 4

2.1 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
83

Table 6.5 Percentage Reporting Nonmedical Use of Any Prescription-Type

Methamphetamine in Their Lifetime, by Age Group and Demographic

Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 0.6 2.6 2.6 2.2 2.1 

Gender

Male 0.5 2.6 3.0 3.4 2.9 

Female 0.6 2.5 2.1 1.1 1.4 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 0.7 3.2 3.2 2.5 2.5 

Black, non-Hispanic * 0.9 0.6 1.5 1.0 

Hispanic 0.6 1.8 1.6 0.9 1.2 

Population Density

Large metro 0.6 2.0 2.8 2.3 2.2 

Small metro 0.7 3.5 2.6 2.4 2.4 

Nonmetro 0.3 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.6 

Region

Northeast * * 1.8 3.2 2.3 

North Central 0.5 2.6 2.7 2.1 2.1 

South 0.5 2.3 1.2 1.2 1.3 

West 1.1 5.1 5.1 3.0 3.4 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 3.6 3.2 0.5 1.3 

High school graduate N/A 2.5 2.8 1.4 1.8 

Some college N/A 2.7 3.6 3.6 3.4 

College graduate N/A 0.8 1.0 3.2 2.6 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 2.9 2.7 3.3 3.1 

Part-time N/A 2.3 2.7 2.0 2.2 

Unemployed N/A 3.8 2.7 6.2 4.8 

Other N/A 1.9 1.7 0.5 4

0.7 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
84

Table 6.6 Percentage Reporting Nonmedical Use of Any Prescription-Type Sedative in

Their Lifetime, by Age Group and Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 1.0 1.3 2.0 2.5 2.1 

Gender

Male 0.8 1.4 2.2 3.5 2.7 

Female 1.1 1.1 1.8 1.7 1.6 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 1.0 1.4 2.3 2.6 2.3 

Black, non-Hispanic 1.5 0.9 1.0 2.5 1.9 

Hispanic 0.7 1.4 1.5 1.9 1.5 

Population Density

Large metro 1.2 1.0 1.6 2.5 2.0 

Small metro 0.6 1.5 2.5 2.8 2.3 

Nonmetro 1.3 1.1 1.9 2.4 2.0 

Region

Northeast 1.3 0.8 3.3 3.3 2.8 

North Central 0.9 1.5 1.3 1.7 1.6 

South 1.0 1.6 2.1 1.7 1.7 

West 0.7 0.8 1.3 4.1 2.8 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 1.3 1.9 2.2 2.0 

High school graduate N/A 1.3 1.4 1.8 1.7 

Some college N/A 1.2 3.3 3.3 2.9 

College graduate N/A 0.9 1.4 3.1 2.6 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 1.1 1.9 3.4 2.8 

Part-time N/A 0.6 1.5 2.3 1.7 

Unemployed N/A 1.3 1.9 4.0 2.8 

Other N/A 2.1 2.6 1.3 4

1.5 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
85

Table 6.7 Percentage Reporting Nonmedical Use of Any Prescription-Type Tranquilizer

in Their Lifetime, by Age Group and Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 1.7 5.1 4.6 3.2 3.5 

Gender

Male 1.9 5.9 5.0 4.2 4.3 

Female 1.5 4.2 4.3 2.4 2.8 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 1.9 6.4 5.4 3.4 3.9 

Black, non-Hispanic 1.6 2.6 2.8 3.4 2.9 

Hispanic 1.4 2.7 2.3 2.6 2.4 

Population Density

Large metro 1.2 4.9 3.9 3.3 3.4 

Small metro 2.0 6.1 5.5 3.9 4.2 

Nonmetro 2.2 3.6 4.9 2.1 2.7 

Region

Northeast 1.7 3.7 5.6 4.2 4.1 

North Central 1.1 4.3 2.9 1.7 2.2 

South 2.5 6.9 5.0 3.1 3.8 

West 1.2 4.1 5.0 4.2 4.0 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 5.5 4.9 3.2 3.8 

High school graduate N/A 4.9 5.8 2.4 3.3 

Some college N/A 4.7 4.8 4.0 4.3 

College graduate N/A 6.4 3.1 3.7 3.7 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 6.1 4.8 4.1 4.5 

Part-time N/A 3.6 6.0 3.1 3.6 

Unemployed N/A 7.0 5.2 5.6 5.9 

Other N/A 3.8 2.8 2.0 4

2.2 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
86

Table 6.8 Percentage Reporting Nonmedical Use of Any Prescription-Type Analgesic in

Their Lifetime, by Age Group and Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 4.6 8.2 6.6 4.5 5.3 

Gender

Male 4.4 10.5 8.0 5.2 6.3 

Female 4.8 5.9 5.2 3.8 4.4 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 5.1 9.8 7.3 4.7 5.7 

Black, non-Hispanic 3.7 5.6 5.3 4.5 4.7 

Hispanic 4.1 5.6 3.7 3.4 4.0 

Population Density

Large metro 4.4 8.2 6.2 4.9 5.5 

Small metro 5.4 9.5 6.5 4.8 5.8 

Nonmetro 3.7 5.8 7.6 3.3 4.3 

Region

Northeast 4.2 8.3 4.3 5.3 5.4 

North Central 4.7 8.0 6.2 3.7 4.8 

South 4.8 7.8 7.0 3.7 4.9 

West 4.5 9.2 8.1 5.9 6.5 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 11.2 9.0 3.5 5.4 

High school graduate N/A 6.8 7.9 3.6 4.8 

Some college N/A 8.4 6.2 7.2 7.2 

College graduate N/A 7.0 4.2 4.0 4.2 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 9.5 7.0 5.7 6.5 

Part-time N/A 7.8 6.4 5.0 5.9 

Unemployed N/A 10.5 8.8 5.5 7.6 

Other N/A 5.5 3.8 2.6 4

3.0 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
87

Table 6.9 Percentage Reporting Nonmedical Use of Specific Types of

Psychotherapeutic Drugs in the Past Year, by Demographic

Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic Stimulants Sedatives Tranquilizers Analgesics

Type of Psychotherapeutic Drug

Total 0.7 0.2 0.9 1.9 

Age Group in Years

12-17 1.2 0.6 1.1 3.1 

18-25 1.9 0.5 2.7 4.4 

26-34 0.6 0.1 1.1 2.0 

35+ 0.4 0.2 0.4 1.1 

Gender

Male 0.9 0.3 1.1 2.3 

Female 0.5 0.2 0.7 1.5 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 0.7 0.2 1.0 2.0 

Black, non-Hispanic 0.6 0.4 0.6 1.8 

Hispanic 0.8 0.4 0.7 1.7 

Population Density

Large metro 0.6 0.2 0.8 1.7 

Small metro 0.8 0.3 1.1 2.3 

Nonmetro 0.6 0.3 0.7 1.4 

Region

Northeast 0.3 0.1 0.7 1.5 

North Central 0.5 0.1 0.6 1.7 

South 0.7 0.3 1.1 1.8 

West 1.1 0.3 0.9 2.5 

Adult Education2

Less than high school 0.7 0.2 0.8 2.0 

High school graduate 0.6 0.3 1.0 1.8 

Some college 0.9 0.2 1.0 2.4 

College graduate 0.4 0.1 0.7 0.8 

Current Employment3

Full-time 0.7 0.2 1.0 1.9 

Part-time 0.6 0.1 0.7 2.1 

Unemployed 1.9 0.8 2.0 3.9 

Other 0.3 0.2 0.5 1.0 4

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in

NHSDA Main Findings prior to 1994.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 2

n=18,722).

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 3

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
88

Table 6.10 Percentage Reporting Nonmedical Use of Specific Types of

Psychotherapeutic Drugs in the Past Month, by Demographic

Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic Stimulants Sedatives Tranquilizers Analgesics

Type of Psychotherapeutic Drug

Total 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.8 

Age Group in Years

12-17 0.6 0.2 0.3 1.3 

18-25 0.6 0.2 1.0 1.8 

26-34 0.2 * 0.5 0.9 

35+ 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.5 

Gender

Male 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.9 

Female 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.6 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.8 

Black, non-Hispanic 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.9 

Hispanic 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.7 

Population Density

Large metro 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.7 

Small metro 0.4 0.1 0.5 1.1 

Nonmetro 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.6 

Region

Northeast 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.6 

North Central 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.7 

South 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.8 

West 0.6 0.2 0.4 1.0 

Adult Education2

Less than high school 0.3 * 0.2 1.1 

High school graduate 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.7 

Some college 0.4 0.1 0.4 1.0 

College graduate 0.1 * 0.1 0.3 

Current Employment3

Full-time 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.8 

Part-time 0.2 * 0.3 0.8 

Unemployed 1.2 0.5 1.1 1.5 

Other 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 4

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in

NHSDA Main Findings prior to 1994.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 2

n=18,722).

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 3

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
Estimates for “binge” and heavy alcohol use presented in this chapter differ from corresponding estimates 1

in Chapter 2 because of different treatment of missing values. In the Chapter 2 tables, respondents who had a

missing response to the item “In the past 30 days, on how many days did you have five or more drinks on the same

occasion” were excluded from the analysis. In the Chapter 7 tables, those who had a missing response on this days

of use item were essentially treated as nonbinge or nonheavy users. 

89

Chapter 7: Alcohol

Introduction

Since the NHSDA series began, alcohol has been reported as the most commonly used psychoactive

substance. Approximately 178 million (81%) of the 218 million people aged 12 or older represented in 1998

reported alcohol use in their lifetime; an estimated 140 million persons (64%) reported use in the past year; and

113 million persons (52%) reported current use (in the past month) (see Table 2.1). As shown in the Chapter

2 tables and as evidenced in other studies, the percentage of persons reporting alcohol use has remained

relatively stable since the early 1990s (Bray et al., 1999b; Johnston et al., 1998, 1999).

Alcohol occupies a unique position in American life and culture. Virtually all adults in the U.S.

household population (from 83% of those aged 18 to 25 to 88% of those aged 26 to 34) have used alcohol at

least once in their lifetime (see Table 7.1). Based on the fact that beverage alcohol may be legally used by

adults aged 21 or older, such a finding is not unexpected and is consistent with results from earlier NHSDAs

and from other surveys (Bray et al., 1999b; Wilsnack & Wilsnack, 1991). The high prevalence of use among

the young adults aged 18 to 20 (78% lifetime, 69% past year, and 54% past month, see Table 7.4), however,

suggests that laws prohibiting the purchase, possession, and use of alcohol by young people in this age range

may not be very effective. Furthermore, the high prevalence of use among youths aged 12 to 17 (37% lifetime,

32% past year, and 19% past month) supports this conclusion.

In the following sections of this chapter, more detailed information is provided about the prevalence

and levels of alcohol use by Americans in 1998. 

1

Alcohol Use, by Age Group (Tables 7.1 to 7.4)

Because legal use of alcohol is restricted to adults aged 21 or older, it is not surprising that it is used

more by adults than by youths. Levels of lifetime, past year, and past month alcohol use in 1998 were two or

more times higher among adults than among those aged 12 to 17 (see Tables 7.1 through 7.3). Although past

year use and past month alcohol use were highest among 18 to 34 year olds, adults aged 35 or older still

reported about two times the rate of use as adolescents. Nevertheless, even though alcohol use is illegal for

12 to 17 year olds, significant percentages of adolescents admitted to using alcohol, including 19% (4.3 million)

within the past month (OAS, 1999b, Table 13A). 

Table 7.4 presents a more detailed age analysis for alcohol use. Rates of current alcohol use rose for

each age group until around age 21 to 25, after which the rates of use leveled off. The largest age gradients

in the prevalence of alcohol use occurred among youths in their teenage years. In particular, only about 10%

of youths aged 12 or 13 had used alcohol in the past year. For those aged 14 or 15, the prevalence tripled

(34%), and by ages 16 and 17, more than half (53%) had used alcohol in the past year. Similarly, the rate of

past month use quadrupled from those aged 12 or 13 (5%) to those aged 14 or 15 (21%), and more than

doubled for those aged 18 to 20 (54%). As shown in Table 10.4, this phenomenon reflects an age-of-onset
In the interest of readability for this report, “white” is used to indicate “white, non-Hispanic” and “black” 2

to indicate “black, non-Hispanic.” 

90

effect: First-time use of alcohol occurs most often at these ages (Chen & Kandel, 1995; Dewit, Offord, &

Wong, 1997; Kandel, Yamaguchi, & Chen, 1992; Warren et al., 1997). 

Alcohol Use, by Age Group and Gender (Tables 7.1 to 7.3)

Alcohol use in the lifetime, past year, and past month was generally more prevalent among males than

females, except among the adolescent age group (i.e., those aged 12 to 17) (see Tables 7.1 to 7.3). There were

no significant differences among adolescents by gender in rates of lifetime, past year, or past month use. These

findings are consistent with earlier analyses of the NHSDA data reported for the OAS (Su, Larison, Ghadialy,

Johnson, & Rohde, 1997). 

Alcohol Use, by Age Group and Race/Ethnicity (Tables 7.1 to 7.3)

Among all of the adult age groups, whites were more likely than blacks and Hispanics to report

lifetime, past year, and past month alcohol use (see Tables 7.1 to 7.3). In addition, rates of past year and past 2

month use were more likely among Hispanics than blacks for those aged 35 or older. Among adolescents,

whites and Hispanics were more likely than blacks to report lifetime, past year, and past month use.

Alcohol Use, by Age Group, Population Density, and Region (Tables 7.1 to 7.3)

Overall, rates of past year and past month alcohol use were higher in large and small metropolitan

areas compared with the rates in nonmetropolitan areas. This pattern was found only among adults aged 35

or older, however. No significant differences were found in past year and past month use by population density

among the other three age groups. 

Overall, residents of the South reported significantly lower rates of past year and past month alcohol

use than those residing in all other regions. Among youths, past year use in the North Central region was more

prevalent than in either the West or the South. For persons aged 18 or older, rates of past year and past month

alcohol use were generally highest among residents of the North Central region. 

Alcohol Use, by Age Group, Adult Education, and Current Employment (Tables 7.1 to 7.3)

In contrast with the illicit drug use measures assessed in this survey, past year and past month alcohol

use were positively associated with educational attainment. In general, adults who had attended or graduated

from college reported greater lifetime, past year, and past month use than adults who had not attended college.

For example, those who graduated from college were more likely than those who did not graduate from high

school to report past month use (66% vs. 40%, respectively).

Rates of alcohol use also varied across current employment categories. Overall and in most age

groups, use in the lifetime and past month was most prevalent among persons employed full-time. 

Alcohol Use, by Age Group, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender (Tables 7.5)

Table 7.5 allows a further elaboration of gender and racial/ethnic differences in alcohol use. Among

all three of the adult age groups, the prevalence of past month alcohol use was higher for males than for
91

females within every racial/ethnic group; there were no significant differences for youth aged 12 to 17. Use

also was higher among males than females for lifetime and past year use among the adult age groups, excluding

the differences in the 26 to 34 age group between black males and females in the lifetime and white males and

females in the past year. 

 Overall, white males reported significantly higher rates of lifetime and past month alcohol use than

black and Hispanic males. Except for the youngest age group, white females reported higher levels of lifetime,

past year, and past month alcohol use than black and Hispanic females. Additionally, rates of lifetime, past

year, and past month use among the two oldest age groups were significantly higher among black females than

among Hispanic females. 

.

Frequency of Alcohol Use (Table 7.6)

Table 7.6 indicates that approximately 7% of those aged 12 or older represented in this table were daily

or almost daily drinkers. That is, they consumed alcohol on 20 or more days in the past month. Males were

more than twice as likely as females to drink daily or almost daily in the past month. Daily alcohol use was

more than twice as likely among adults aged 35 or older compared with those aged 18 to 34; a small percentage

of youths aged 12 to 17 (only 0.7%) reported daily or almost daily drinking. Daily drinking was more than

twice as prevalent among whites as among either blacks or Hispanics, whose frequencies of daily drinking were

about equal. Daily drinking did not differ by population density, region, or current employment. With regard

to adult education, the lowest rate of daily drinking occurred among persons who had not completed high

school, and college graduates were two times more likely than those with a high school education to use alcohol

daily or almost daily.

“Binge” and Heavy Alcohol Use (Table 7.7 and 7.8)

“Binge” Alcohol Use. Drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day in the past

30 days is defined as “binge” drinking. In Table 7.7, the prevalence of “binge” drinking in the past month is

presented. Approximately 15% of the total population of household residents aged 12 or older reported at least

one episode of “binge” drinking in the past 30 days. Young adults aged 18 to 25 (31%) were more likely than

all other age groups to have engaged in “binge” drinking, and the rate of “binge” drinking increased

significantly between 1997 and 1998 among this age group (see Table 2.8). Close to half of males aged 18

to 25 (42%) reported at least one episode of binge drinking in the past month. 

Overall and in every adult age group, males were more likely than females to report “binge” drinking;

the ratio was two or three to one. Overall and in the two youngest age groups, whites and Hispanics were more

likely than blacks to have “binged” on alcohol in the past month. Among those aged 12 to 25, the prevalence

of “binge” drinking among whites also was significantly higher than among Hispanics.

Rates of “binge” drinking varied little by population density or region. The only significant difference

was that among those aged 18 to 25, “binge” drinking was significantly higher among those in small

metropolitan areas (37%) compared with those in large and nonmetropolitan areas (26% and 28%,

respectively). Overall and for young adults aged 18 to 25, “binge” drinking was more prevalent in the North

Central region than in all of the other regions; in the 26 to 34 age group, “binge” drinking also was more

prevalent in the North Central region than in the South or West.

Rates of “binge” drinking also varied little by educational attainment. The only significant differences

were that among those aged 18 to 25, those with some college education and college graduates were more likely

to report such behaviors than those with a high school diploma or less. In the total population, rates of “binge”
92

drinking differed significantly across all categories of current employment, with the exception of the

comparison between those employed full-time and those who were unemployed. Among the 18 to 25 age

group, those employed full-time were more likely to report “binge” drinking than those in all other employment

categories.

Heavy Alcohol Use. Another measure of the quantity and frequency of potentially problematic alcohol

use, called “heavy alcohol use,” is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of 5

or more days in the past month. Using alcohol at or in excess of this level for an extended period is likely to

be accompanied or followed by many negative consequences. Persons classified as heavy alcohol users

according to this measure also were included among the category of “binge” drinkers, although not all “binge”

drinkers qualify as heavy drinkers.

Table 7.8 indicates that rates of heavy drinking in the past month were highest among young adults

aged 18 to 25 (13%), whose rates were two to four times higher than those for other age groups. Overall, 6%

were heavy drinkers. The rates of heavy alcohol use increased significantly between 1997 and 1998 only

among the young adult age group (see Table 2.8).

Overall and for every age group, males were more likely than females to report heavy drinking. Heavy

alcohol use, however, increased among 18- to 25-year-old females from 4.3% in 1997 to 7.7% in 1998 (OAS,

1999a). For the two youngest age groups, whites and Hispanics were more likely to report heavy drinking than

were blacks; additionally, among young adults aged 18 to 25, whites reported significantly higher rates of

heavy drinking than Hispanics. 

Rates of heavy alcohol use varied little among the remaining demographic categories. In the 18 to 25

age group, those in small metropolitan areas were more likely than those in large metropolitan areas to report

heavy alcohol use. Overall, among 18 to 25 year olds, and among those 35 or older, residents of the North

Central region were more likely than residents of the Northeast and West to report such use. Overall, those

with a high school education or less, and those with some college were more likely than college graduates to

report heavy alcohol use; among the two oldest age groups, college graduates were less likely to report such

use than were those with less than a high school education. 

Past Month Alcohol Use Among Minors (Table 7.9)

Another view of alcohol use is provided in Table 7.9 where the prevalence of alcohol use in the past

month is shown separately for minors younger than 21 and for adults aged 21 or older. Overall and for most

demographic subgroups, the prevalence of any current alcohol use was lower among minors than among adults

aged 21 or older. Nevertheless, rates of alcohol use among persons younger than 21 were substantial, with

almost one-third of this population reporting past month use, 15% reporting “binge” use, and 7% reporting

heavy use. 

Table 7.9 also provides estimates of the prevalence of “binge” drinking in the past month by persons

younger than 21 compared with those aged 21 or older. Notably, almost all rates of “binge” drinking among

minors under age 21 were roughly equal to, and for some demographic subgroups much higher than, the rates

reported by adults aged 21 or older. For example, the prevalence of “binge” drinking was higher among

females under age 21 than among older women. For every level of education attained by persons 18 years old

or older, “binge” drinking was approximately twice as prevalent among those 18 to 20 as among those who

had reached the age of majority. Similarly, “binge” drinking was from one and a half to over four times more

prevalent among those aged 18 to 20 employed either full-time or part-time or classified in the “other”
Also see, for example, OAS (1996a, Table 7.10) for the 1994 NHSDA; OAS (1997, Table 7.10) for the 3

1995 NHSDA; OAS (1998a, Tables 7.10 and 7.12) for the 1996 NHSDA; and OAS (1999a, Table 7.10) for the

1997 NHSDA. 

93

employment category than among adults aged 21 or older in these employment categories, but it was equally

prevalent among unemployed persons. 

Heavy alcohol use also was equally or more prevalent among minors than among adults aged 21 or

older, overall and for virtually all demographic subgroups. As with “binge” use, females under age 21

reported about double the rate of heavy alcohol use as adult women. About the same proportions of minors and

adults reported drinking heavily within each racial/ethnic group, area of more or less dense population, and

region. Among categories of educational achievement and current employment, however, minors aged 18 to

20 were far more likely than persons aged 21 or older to have used alcohol heavily. The only exception to this

last finding was that the rates of heavy drinking among unemployed minors aged 18 to 20 and adults aged 21

or older were about the same.

Alcohol Use and Use of Other Drugs (Tables 7.10 to 7.12)

Table 7.10 presents the cross-classification of alcohol use and other drug use reported by the

respondents. As past NHSDA reports and other literature have indicated, current use of alcohol was strongly

associated with use of other legal and illegal drugs for each age group (Kandel & Yamaguchi, 1993;

Yamaguchi & Kandel, 1984a, 1984b). Overall, nearly 40% of current alcohol users also used cigarettes in 3

the past month, compared with 18% of current alcohol abstainers. Current alcohol users were about five times

more likely than nonusers to report past month use of any illicit drug (11% vs. 2%).

These associations were especially pronounced among younger drinkers. For example, past month

alcohol users aged 12 to 17 and those aged 18 to 25 were about 13 and 8 times, respectively, as likely as

nonusers within their age groups to report past month illicit drug use. The differences were not as great among

the 26 to 34 age group, but they still represent a well-established association between alcohol use and other

drug use. 

Tables 7.11 and 7.12 show similar and even stronger patterns of the relationship between “binge” and

heavy alcohol use and other drug use. For the total population, “binge” alcohol users were seven times as likely

as those who had not “binged” to have used an illicit drug in the past month (22% vs. 3%, respectively). Heavy

drinkers were six times as likely as those not reporting heavy use to report illicit drug use in the past month

(30% vs. 5%, respectively). About two out of three adolescents who reported past month heavy alcohol use

also used an illicit drug in the past month, most often marijuana. 

Rates of use of certain combinations of “binge” and heavy alcohol use with other drugs have increased

in recent years. Specifically, 12- to 17-year-old heavy alcohol users were more likely to report any past month

illicit drug use in 1998 (69%) than in 1995 (55%) (OAS, 1997). Among those aged 18 to 25, heavy alcohol

drinkers were more likely to report any past month illicit drug use in 1998 than in 1995 (46% vs. 38%), as well

as past month cigarette use (72% vs. 62%) (OAS, 1997). 

Discussion

Alcohol continued to be the psychoactive substance most commonly used by household residents aged

12 or older in the United States. Both the prevalence and frequency of alcohol use were greatest among males.

In addition, respondents aged 18 to 34 tended to report higher rates of past year and current alcohol use than
94

those in younger and older age groups. More generally, rates of past month alcohol use, including “binge” and

heavy use, have been fairly constant in recent years, with the exception of higher rates of “binge” and heavy

use in 1998 than in 1997 among young adults aged 18 to 25 (see Table 2.8).

The findings presented in this chapter illustrate some important differences in user profiles between

any use of alcohol and “binge” or heavy use. Although youths and those under age 21 were less likely than

older persons to report any use of alcohol, they were much more likely to report “binge” or heavy drinking.

Among adults, educational attainment also showed a very different relationship with any use than with “binge”

or heavy use. Whereas college-educated adults were much more likely to use alcohol in the past month, and

even to use it on a daily basis, there were no such differences for “binge” or heavy use.

Finally, very high prevalences of illicit drug use among drinkers and especially heavier drinkers were

found for the total population and all age groups. Even cigarette use, which declined in recent years in the total

population, was reported by a larger percentage of “binge” and heavy drinkers overall and in every age group

than by current users of alcohol at lesser levels. Among heavy drinkers, about one-quarter of those aged 26

to 34 used an illicit drug in the past month. More alarming, almost half the young adult heavy drinkers aged

18 to 25 reported using an illicit drug in the past 30 days, and 69% of the youths aged 12 to 17 who were heavy

drinkers also reported past month use of any illicit drug, most often marijuana. Finally, although the rate of

heavy alcohol use among 12 to 17 year olds has remained relatively constant since 1995, the percentage of

teenage heavy alcohol users who also used any illicit drug in the past month increased by 25% between 1995

and 1998 (from 55% to 69%) (OAS, 1997).
95

Table 7.1 Percentage Reporting Alcohol Use in Their Lifetime, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 37.3 83.2 88.2 86.6 81.3 

Gender

Male 36.6 87.2 90.9 92.2 85.2 

Female 38.1 79.2 85.5 81.6 77.6 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 40.4 87.9 92.8 89.4 85.2 

Black, non-Hispanic 26.7 74.2 81.9 78.6 71.7 

Hispanic 36.4 74.4 78.3 76.2 70.8 

Population Density

Large metro 34.7 80.3 87.9 87.5 81.3 

Small metro 39.4 86.0 88.7 87.7 82.5 

Nonmetro 39.0 83.2 88.1 83.1 79.0 

Region

Northeast 39.4 84.4 89.5 91.2 85.2 

North Central 41.4 91.2 92.2 89.8 85.2 

South 34.5 80.9 87.1 81.7 77.6 

West 35.9 77.6 84.6 86.6 79.6 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 78.1 80.7 76.9 77.6 

High school graduate N/A 81.0 86.2 85.7 85.0 

Some college N/A 86.0 93.1 90.4 90.0 

College graduate N/A 90.8 88.9 91.0 90.6 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 87.8 90.8 90.5 90.3 

Part-time N/A 79.3 88.4 88.2 85.9 

Unemployed N/A 84.2 84.3 90.8 87.6 

Other N/A 77.1 75.1 80.5 4

79.7 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
96

Table 7.2 Percentage Reporting Alcohol Use in the Past Year, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 31.8 74.2 74.5 64.6 64.0 

Gender

Male 31.0 79.3 77.7 70.2 68.3 

Female 32.7 68.9 71.5 59.7 60.0 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 35.1 79.0 79.0 68.0 67.8 

Black, non-Hispanic 22.3 64.2 66.0 48.1 50.4 

Hispanic 29.4 66.2 66.2 60.7 58.5 

Population Density

Large metro 29.9 71.7 75.3 68.4 66.1 

Small metro 33.4 77.2 74.3 65.9 65.4 

Nonmetro 32.8 73.0 73.0 55.5 57.6 

Region

Northeast 33.8 78.0 77.1 71.9 69.8 

North Central 35.7 84.5 82.1 70.5 70.4 

South 29.5 69.3 70.9 56.0 57.3 

West 29.7 68.1 70.5 65.7 62.9 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 67.0 67.9 46.9 52.8 

High school graduate N/A 72.2 72.0 62.3 65.5 

Some college N/A 77.2 78.2 70.0 73.0 

College graduate N/A 84.0 76.8 74.9 75.9 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 79.2 77.3 72.3 74.4 

Part-time N/A 72.7 75.6 71.6 72.5 

Unemployed N/A 77.2 69.6 76.1 75.1 

Other N/A 64.3 61.0 51.7 4

53.8 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
97

Table 7.3 Percentage Reporting Alcohol Use in the Past Month, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 19.1 60.0 60.9 53.1 51.7 

Gender

Male 19.4 68.2 67.7 61.4 58.7 

Female 18.7 51.7 54.2 45.8 45.1 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 20.9 65.0 65.2 56.2 55.3 

Black, non-Hispanic 13.1 50.3 54.8 38.3 39.8 

Hispanic 18.9 50.8 53.1 47.7 45.4 

Population Density

Large metro 17.7 58.2 61.2 57.0 53.9 

Small metro 20.0 63.1 61.5 54.6 53.3 

Nonmetro 20.1 57.4 59.0 43.4 44.7 

Region

Northeast 22.1 64.3 62.4 57.7 55.8 

North Central 20.6 72.1 67.9 58.7 57.8 

South 17.5 54.4 58.3 45.6 45.8 

West 17.4 53.0 56.5 55.0 50.9 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 50.8 51.5 36.0 40.4 

High school graduate N/A 57.6 59.0 49.4 52.3 

Some college N/A 64.6 64.0 57.3 60.1 

College graduate N/A 70.5 64.3 65.5 65.5 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 66.6 64.4 60.9 62.5 

Part-time N/A 56.0 59.9 59.1 58.4 

Unemployed N/A 63.3 54.5 59.8 59.7 

Other N/A 49.4 45.3 40.6 4

41.9 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
98

Table 7.4 Percentage Reporting Alcohol Use in Their Lifetime, the Past Year, and the

Past Month, by Age: 1998

Time Period

Age Group in Years (Unweighted n) Lifetime Past Year Past Month

Total (25,500) 81.3 64.0 51.7 

12-17 Years (6,778) 37.3 31.8 19.1 

12-13 (2,240) 14.4 10.4 4.9 

14-15 (2,356) 38.6 33.7 20.9 

16-17 (2,182) 60.4 52.5 32.0 

18-25 Years (7,318) 83.2 74.2 60.0 

18-20 (2,981) 78.1 69.0 53.5 

21-25 (4,337) 86.7 77.7 64.6 

26-34 Years (4,537) 88.2 74.5 60.9 

26-29 (2,017) 86.2 74.3 61.1 

30-34 (2,520) 89.8 74.7 60.7 

35+ Years (6,867) 86.6 64.6 53.1 

35-39 (1,381) 89.2 75.8 63.5 

40-44 (1,179) 92.2 74.9 61.9 

45-49 (1,157) 88.7 67.8 54.8 

50+ (3,150) 83.5 57.2 46.7 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
99

Table 7.5 Percentage Reporting Alcohol Use in Their Lifetime, the Past Year, and the Past Month,

by Age Group, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender: 1998

Race/Ethnicity1

and Gender 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

(Unweighted n)

White, non-Hispanic male (1,576) (1,367) (805) (1,555) (5,303) 

Black, non-Hispanic male (668) (742) (362) (567) (2,339) 

Hispanic male (910) (974) (622) (537) (3,043) 

White, non-Hispanic female (1,515) (1,559) (1,085) (2,247) (6,406) 

Black, non-Hispanic female (706) (1,056) (691) (1,023) (3,476) 

Hispanic female (959) (1,213) (810) (770) (3,752) 

A. Used Alcohol in Their Lifetime

White, non-Hispanic male 39.4 90.1 94.6 93.7 88.0 

Black, non-Hispanic male 25.9 79.5 82.4 87.3 76.2 

Hispanic male 36.0 82.4 88.8 89.3 80.4 

White, non-Hispanic female 41.5 85.6 91.0 85.7 82.5 

Black, non-Hispanic female 27.5 69.4 81.5 72.0 67.9 

Hispanic female 36.9 65.8 66.3 63.5 60.8 

B. Used Alcohol in the Past Year

White, non-Hispanic male 34.1 82.5 79.8 72.2 70.8 

Black, non-Hispanic male 21.5 70.3 70.8 57.4 56.8 

Hispanic male 28.2 74.8 78.4 73.2 68.3 

White, non-Hispanic female 36.1 75.4 78.2 64.3 65.0 

Black, non-Hispanic female 23.0 58.5 61.9 41.1 45.1 

Hispanic female 30.6 57.0 52.2 48.8 48.4 

C. Used Alcohol in the Past Month

White, non-Hispanic male 21.5 71.7 70.5 63.3 61.2 

Black, non-Hispanic male 12.2 59.4 63.3 51.0 49.0 

Hispanic male 18.8 62.3 67.6 61.1 56.8 

White, non-Hispanic female 20.2 58.2 59.8 50.0 49.7 

Black, non-Hispanic female 14.0 42.0 47.7 28.9 32.3 

Hispanic female 19.1 38.5 36.7 34.7 33.6 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
100

Table 7.6 Percentage Distribution of Days of Alcohol Use in the Past Month, by

Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic (Unweighted n) None 1-4 5-19 20-30

Days of Use

Total (24,295) 50.6 26.5 15.7 7.2 

Gender

Male (10,703) 43.2 26.6 19.8 10.5 

Female (13,592) 57.5 26.5 11.8 4.1 

Age Group in Years

12-17 (6,511) 83.9 11.3 4.1 0.7 

18-25 (6,939) 42.0 30.8 23.6 3.7 

26-34 (4,310) 40.8 35.5 19.6 4.0 

35+ (6,535) 49.2 25.9 15.0 9.9 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic (11,290) 46.6 27.8 17.2 8.4 

Black, non-Hispanic (5,501) 63.4 21.3 11.2 4.1 

Hispanic (6,387) 58.8 26.0 12.2 3.0 

Population Density

Large metro (12,347) 48.4 28.3 16.2 7.1 

Small metro (7,289) 49.1 26.3 16.7 7.9 

Nonmetro (4,659) 57.4 23.4 13.0 6.2 

Region

Northeast (2,979) 46.4 30.6 16.1 6.9 

North Central (3,492) 44.3 28.7 19.6 7.4 

South (8,078) 56.7 23.3 13.3 6.6 

West (9,746) 51.2 25.9 14.9 8.0 

Adult Education2

Less than high school (4,343) 63.2 20.8 10.7 5.4 

High school graduate (5,951) 50.7 27.6 14.6 7.1 

Some college (4,599) 41.4 31.1 19.1 8.5 

College graduate (2,891) 35.6 31.7 22.5 10.2 

Current Employment3

Full-time (9,478) 39.2 32.1 20.3 8.4 

Part-time (2,394) 43.4 32.0 18.0 6.5 

Unemployed (1,126) 42.8 30.4 16.3 10.6 

Other (4,786) 61.3 20.3 11.0 7.4 4

Note 1: Only past month alcohol users who reported the number of days they used alcohol during the past 30 days are included in this table. 

Thus, the actual unweighted n’s are smaller than appear in Table 1.1 because of differing patterns of nonresponse for the question

on days of use.

Note 2: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=17,784). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=17,784). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
101

Table 7.7 Percentage Reporting "Binge" Alcohol Use in the Past Month, by Age Group

and Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 7.5 30.8 21.2 11.5 15.1 

Gender

Male 8.5 41.6 30.4 18.4 22.4 

Female 6.5 19.8 12.1 5.4 8.3 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 9.1 36.8 23.0 11.7 16.0 

Black, non-Hispanic 2.9 15.0 16.0 10.0 10.9 

Hispanic 6.1 23.9 19.3 12.4 15.0 

Population Density

Large metro 6.5 26.2 21.5 11.1 14.2 

Small metro 7.5 36.9 18.9 12.0 16.2 

Nonmetro 9.3 27.8 24.1 11.4 14.9 

Region

Northeast 8.0 31.2 20.6 8.4 13.0 

North Central 8.5 41.2 27.8 14.9 19.6 

South 6.8 26.6 18.6 11.1 13.8 

West 7.0 26.4 19.1 11.3 14.2 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 26.4 21.6 10.7 14.6 

High school graduate N/A 27.4 21.8 12.3 16.2 

Some college N/A 34.8 18.2 11.1 17.2 

College graduate N/A 37.7 23.1 11.4 15.3 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 35.6 24.4 16.3 20.7 

Part-time N/A 29.4 14.1 9.3 15.3 

Unemployed N/A 25.5 21.8 19.8 21.8 

Other N/A 24.1 8.5 5.1 4

7.4 

Note 1: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

Note 2: “Binge” alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day in the past 30 days. By

“occasion” is meant at the same time or within a couple hours of each other.

Note 3: Estimates for “binge” alcohol use in this table differ from the corresponding estimates in Chapter 2 because of different treatment

of missing values. In the present table, those who had a missing response to the item “In the past 30 days, on how many days

did you have five or more drinks on the same occasion?” were essentially treated as nonbinge users. Conversely, in Chapter 2,

those who had a missing response on this days of use item were excluded from the analysis.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
102

Table 7.8 Percentage Reporting Heavy Alcohol Use in the Past Month, by Age Group

and Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 2.9 13.4 6.9 4.2 5.7 

Gender

Male 3.7 19.1 11.5 7.6 9.3 

Female 2.0 7.7 2.5 1.3 2.3 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 3.5 16.4 6.8 4.0 5.8 

Black, non-Hispanic 0.7 5.9 7.4 4.4 4.7 

Hispanic 2.3 10.1 7.3 5.5 6.2 

Population Density

Large metro 2.6 10.3 6.8 3.7 4.9 

Small metro 2.3 17.2 6.7 4.7 6.6 

Nonmetro 4.1 12.1 7.8 4.6 5.9 

Region

Northeast 2.8 12.4 5.7 2.3 4.1 

North Central 3.2 21.2 9.4 6.5 8.5 

South 2.6 10.9 6.6 4.3 5.4 

West 2.9 10.1 6.1 3.3 4.6 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 11.6 10.3 6.0 7.5 

High school graduate N/A 12.0 8.0 4.6 6.3 

Some college N/A 16.3 5.9 3.6 6.6 

College graduate N/A 12.3 5.2 3.0 4.0 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 15.5 8.1 5.8 7.6 

Part-time N/A 11.4 5.9 2.5 5.4 

Unemployed N/A 12.6 8.0 9.8 10.2 

Other N/A 11.3 1.1 2.2 4

3.1 

Note 1: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA

Main Findings prior to 1994.

Note 2: Heavy alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of 5 or more days in the past 

30 days. By “occasion” is meant at the same time or within a couple hours of each other.

Note 3: Estimates for heavy alcohol use in this table differ from the corresponding estimates in Chapter 2 because of different treatment

of missing values. In the present table, those who had a missing response to the item “In the past 30 days, on 

how many days did you have five or more drinks on the same occasion?” were essentially treated as nonheavy users. 

Conversely, in Chapter 2, those who had a missing response on this days of use item were excluded from the analysis.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 2

n=18,722).

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
103

Table 7.9 Percentage of Those Under 21 and 21 or Older Reporting Any Alcohol Use,

"Binge" Alcohol Use, and Heavy Alcohol Use in the Past Month, by

Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Age Group in Years

Under 21 21 or Older

(Unweighted n=9,759) (Unweighted n=15,741)

Demographic Any “Binge” Heavy Any “Binge” Heavy

Characteristic Use Use Use Use Use Use

Total 30.6 14.8 6.8 55.6 15.1 5.5 

Gender

Male 32.5 18.1 9.2 63.9 23.3 9.3 

Female 28.6 11.4 4.2 48.0 7.7 2.0 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 33.4 18.0 8.4 58.8 15.7 5.4 

Black, non-Hispanic 22.9 5.7 2.2 44.1 12.2 5.3 

Hispanic 27.7 11.9 5.4 50.0 15.8 6.5 

Population Density

Large metro 26.7 11.2 4.5 58.6 14.8 5.0 

Small metro 34.8 18.5 8.6 56.9 15.8 6.1 

Nonmetro 30.5 15.2 7.7 47.4 14.8 5.5 

Region

Northeast 31.4 14.5 5.7 59.8 12.7 3.8 

North Central 37.3 19.2 10.7 61.8 19.7 8.0 

South 27.7 13.1 5.5 49.1 14.0 5.3 

West 27.3 13.0 5.2 55.6 14.4 4.5 

Adult Education2

Less than high school 46.8 24.6 12.4 39.7 13.6 7.0 

High school graduate 52.9 28.7 14.6 52.3 15.2 5.7 

Some college 60.5 34.7 16.1 60.0 15.9 5.9 

College graduate * * * 65.5 15.3 4.0 

Current Employment2

Full-time 60.1 36.0 20.3 62.5 20.2 7.1 

Part-time 52.4 28.5 10.9 59.4 12.9 4.3 

Unemployed 60.5 22.5 11.4 59.5 21.7 10.0 

Other 45.4 25.5 13.2 41.7 6.4 3

2.5 

Note 1: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA

Main Findings prior to 1994.

Note 2: “Binge” alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day in the past 30 days. 

By “occasion” is meant at the same time or within a couple hours of each other. Heavy alcohol use is defined as drinking 

five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of 5 or more days in the past 30 days; all heavy alcohol users also are “binge”

alcohol users.

Note 3: Estimates for “binge” and heavy alcohol use in this table differ from the corresponding estimates in Chapter 2 because of

different treatment of missing values. In the present table, those who had a missing response to the item “In the past 30 

days, on how many days did you have five or more drinks on the same occasion” were essentially treated as nonbinge or

nonheavy users. Conversely, in Chapter 2, those who had a missing response on this days of use item were excluded

 from the analysis.

*Low precision; no estimated reported.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education and current employment for those “under 21" exclude youths aged 12 to 17 (i.e., only data for adults aged 2

18 to 20 are included). All other data for those “under 21" include all people aged 12 to 20. 

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 3

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
104

Table 7.10 Percentage Reporting Use of Selected Drugs in the Past Month, by Age

Group and Alcohol Use in the Past Month: 1998

Age Group in Years/ 

Drugs Used in the Past Month No Yes Total

Alcohol Use in 

the Past Month

1

Total (Unweighted n) (14,303) (11,197) (25,500) 

Cigarettes 18.2 36.5 27.7 

Marijuana 1.1 8.7 5.0 

Drugs other than marijuana 0.7 4.1 2.5 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.5 1.7 2

1.1 

Cocaine 0.1 1.5 0.8 

Any illicit drug use 1.7 10.5 3

6.2 

12-17 Years (5,467) (1,311) (6,778) 

Cigarettes 10.0 53.4 18.2 

Marijuana 1.8 35.8 8.3 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.5 14.5 4.0 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.9 5.1 2

1.7 

Cocaine 0.1 4.1 0.8 

Any illicit drug use 2.9 39.9 3

9.9 

18-25 Years (3,331) (3,987) (7,318) 

Cigarettes 21.4 55.0 41.6 

Marijuana 2.0 21.7 13.8 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.1 10.0 6.5 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.5 4.1 2

2.7 

Cocaine 0.3 3.1 2.0 

Any illicit drug use 2.7 25.1 3

16.1 

26-34 Years (1,963) (2,574) (4,537) 

Cigarettes 22.4 39.0 32.5 

Marijuana 1.6 8.0 5.5 

Drugs other than marijuana 0.8 4.1 2.8 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.7 1.7 2

1.3 

Cocaine 0.1 1.9 1.2 

Any illicit drug use 2.4 10.0 3

7.0 

35+ Years (3,542) (3,325) (6,867) 

Cigarettes 19.1 30.3 25.1 

Marijuana 0.6 4.2 2.5 

Drugs other than marijuana 0.4 2.0 1.3 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.4 0.9 2

0.7 

Cocaine * 0.8 0.5 

Any illicit drug use 1.0 5.3 3

3.3 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA

Main Findings prior to 1994.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Includes respondents who reported never using alcohol, as well as those who reported previous but not past month use. 1

Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter drugs. 2

Use of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid 3

diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics at least once.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
105

Table 7.11 Percentage Reporting Use of Selected Drugs in the Past Month, by Age 

Group and "Binge" Alcohol Use in the Past Month: 1998

Age Group in Years/ 

Drugs Used in the Past Month No Yes Total

Binge Alcohol Use in 

the Past Month

1

Total (Unweighted n) (21,618) (3,882) (25,500) 

Cigarettes 22.7 55.6 27.7 

Marijuana 2.6 19.0 5.0 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.3 9.1 2.5 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.7 3.8 2

1.1 

Cocaine 0.3 3.8 0.8 

Any illicit drug use 3.4 22.2 3

6.2 

12-17 Years (6,282) (496) (6,778) 

Cigarettes 14.0 70.9 18.2 

Marijuana 4.6 53.9 8.3 

Drugs other than marijuana 2.4 23.5 4.0 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 1.1 8.6 2

1.7 

Cocaine 0.3 7.4 0.8 

Any illicit drug use 6.0 58.3 3

9.9 

18-25 Years (5,536) (1,782) (7,318) 

Cigarettes 30.8 65.8 41.6 

Marijuana 6.2 30.8 13.8 

Drugs other than marijuana 2.7 15.0 6.5 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 1.1 6.1 2

2.7 

Cocaine 0.5 5.1 2.0 

Any illicit drug use 7.5 35.4 3

16.1 

26-34 Years (3,666) (871) (4,537) 

Cigarettes 27.4 51.5 32.5 

Marijuana 3.3 13.4 5.5 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.8 6.4 2.8 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 1.0 2.6 2

1.3 

Cocaine 0.4 3.9 1.2 

Any illicit drug use 4.5 16.3 3

7.0 

35+ Years (6,134) (733) (6,867) 

Cigarettes 21.8 50.1 25.1 

Marijuana 1.4 11.1 2.5 

Drugs other than marijuana 0.7 5.6 1.3 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.4 2.4 2

0.7 

Cocaine 0.2 2.6 0.5 

Any illicit drug use 2.0 13.6 3

3.3 

Note 1: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in

NHSDA Main Findings prior to 1994.

Note 2: “Binge” alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day in the past 30 days. 

By “occasion” is meant at the same time or within a couple hours of each other.

Note 3: Estimates for “binge” alcohol use in this table differ from the corresponding estimates in Chapter 2 because of different

treatment of missing values. In the present table, those who had a missing response to the item “In the past 30 days, on 

how many days did you have five or more drinks on the same occasion?” were essentially treated as nonbinge users. 

Conversely, in Chapter 2, those who had a missing response on this days of use item were excluded from the analysis.

Includes respondents who reported never using alcohol, as well as those who reported previous but not past month use. 1

Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter drugs. 2

Use of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid 3

diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics at least once.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
106

Table 7.12 Percentage Reporting Use of Selected Drugs in the Past Month, by Age 

Group and Heavy Alcohol Use in the Past Month: 1998 

Age Group in Years/ 

Drugs Used in the Past Month No Yes Total

Heavy Alcohol Use in 

the Past Month

1

Total (Unweighted n) (23,998) (1,502) (25,500) 

Cigarettes 25.4 64.7 27.7 

Marijuana 3.8 25.6 5.0 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.8 13.9 2.5 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.8 6.0 2

1.1 

Cocaine 0.5 6.0 0.8 

Any illicit drug use 4.8 29.5 3

6.2 

12-17 Years (6,587) (191) (6,778) 

Cigarettes 16.5 76.7 18.2 

Marijuana 6.6 65.1 8.3 

Drugs other than marijuana 3.2 30.6 4.0 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 1.4 * 2

1.7 

Cocaine 0.5 11.5 0.8 

Any illicit drug use 8.2 68.5 3

9.9 

18-25 Years (6,582) (736) (7,318) 

Cigarettes 36.9 71.9 41.6 

Marijuana 9.5 41.3 13.8 

Drugs other than marijuana 4.1 21.8 6.5 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 1.5 10.2 2

2.7 

Cocaine 1.1 7.6 2.0 

Any illicit drug use 11.5 46.1 3

16.1 

26-34 Years (4,237) (300) (4,537) 

Cigarettes 30.3 62.1 32.5 

Marijuana 4.4 19.8 5.5 

Drugs other than marijuana 2.1 12.3 2.8 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 1.1 5.0 2

1.3 

Cocaine 0.6 8.3 1.2 

Any illicit drug use 5.7 25.2 3

7.0 

35+ Years (6,592) (275) (6,867) 

Cigarettes 23.6 59.5 25.1 

Marijuana 2.1 12.9 2.5 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.0 7.4 1.3 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.6 3.0 2

0.7 

Cocaine 0.3 3.3 0.5 

Any illicit drug use 2.8 15.8 3

3.3 

Note 1: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in

NHSDA Main Findings prior to 1994.

Note 2: Heavy use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of 5 or more days in the past 30 days.

Note 3: Estimates for heavy alcohol use in this table differ from the corresponding estimates in Chapter 2 because of different

treatment of missing values. In the present table, those who had a missing response to the item “In the past 30 days, on 

how many days did you have five or more drinks on the same occasion?” were essentially treated as nonheavy users. 

Conversely, in Chapter 2, those who had a missing response on this days of use item were excluded from the anslysis.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Includes respondents who reported never using alcohol, as well as those who reported previous but not past month use. 1

Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter drugs. 2

Use of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid 3

diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics at least once.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.


	






	
	
	
					
		
				
	
	


		
		
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115

Table 8.1 Percentage Reporting Cigarette Use in Their Lifetime, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 35.8 68.8 71.8 75.2 69.7 

Gender

Male 36.1 73.0 77.1 82.3 75.1 

Female 35.5 64.5 66.7 68.9 64.7 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 39.7 74.9 76.8 77.6 73.6 

Black, non-Hispanic 26.1 54.1 63.5 71.5 61.4 

Hispanic 32.3 60.0 60.7 64.5 58.4 

Population Density

Large metro 32.0 64.1 71.1 75.2 68.8 

Small metro 36.0 71.6 70.9 75.4 70.1 

Nonmetro 42.6 72.4 75.4 74.6 71.0 

Region

Northeast 36.4 63.5 74.4 75.9 70.5 

North Central 40.5 76.5 73.9 75.5 71.7 

South 35.3 68.8 71.1 74.2 69.0 

West 31.3 64.9 68.9 75.7 68.3 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 74.5 72.2 72.8 73.0 

High school graduate N/A 68.1 73.1 75.6 74.0 

Some college N/A 68.3 77.1 79.3 76.7 

College graduate N/A 62.3 65.3 72.8 70.6 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 74.5 74.1 77.6 76.4 

Part-time N/A 64.4 72.7 76.4 72.7 

Unemployed N/A 74.8 75.3 81.5 78.4 

Other N/A 59.5 58.6 71.1 4

68.8 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 3

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
116

Table 8.2 Percentage Reporting Cigarette Use in the Past Year, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 23.8 47.1 36.6 26.7 30.6 

Gender

Male 23.6 50.3 39.9 28.6 32.8 

Female 23.9 43.9 33.3 24.9 28.4 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 26.9 52.7 38.4 25.7 30.8 

Black, non-Hispanic 16.2 34.3 33.1 33.3 31.2 

Hispanic 20.4 37.7 29.4 29.3 29.6 

Population Density

Large metro 20.8 41.6 36.5 26.7 29.5 

Small metro 24.2 49.8 35.3 25.1 30.1 

Nonmetro 28.6 52.6 39.0 29.1 33.2 

Region

Northeast 24.4 42.2 36.5 23.7 27.9 

North Central 27.8 57.7 43.5 29.3 35.0 

South 22.9 46.3 35.2 27.2 30.5 

West 20.4 41.2 31.9 25.7 28.2 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 58.9 52.3 32.0 39.0 

High school graduate N/A 47.6 42.1 32.5 36.5 

Some college N/A 43.1 38.4 26.8 32.3 

College graduate N/A 36.5 21.7 15.7 18.1 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 50.8 37.4 29.6 34.2 

Part-time N/A 43.2 30.2 21.0 28.2 

Unemployed N/A 60.6 57.6 49.6 54.3 

Other N/A 39.2 30.1 22.5 4

25.0 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 3

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
117

Table 8.3 Percentage Reporting Cigarette Use in the Past Month, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 18.2 41.6 32.5 25.1 27.7 

Gender

Male 18.7 45.3 34.6 26.9 29.7 

Female 17.7 37.8 30.5 23.4 25.7 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 20.5 46.9 34.1 24.1 27.9 

Black, non-Hispanic 13.7 30.7 31.5 32.2 29.4 

Hispanic 15.1 31.5 25.4 27.0 25.8 

Population Density

Large metro 15.7 36.9 31.7 24.9 26.5 

Small metro 18.5 43.6 31.3 23.7 27.2 

Nonmetro 22.5 46.8 36.6 27.5 30.5 

Region

Northeast 18.1 37.7 32.2 22.7 25.5 

North Central 21.6 52.2 38.9 27.8 32.0 

South 18.0 42.1 32.1 25.5 27.9 

West 15.3 32.7 27.0 23.6 24.5 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 54.7 50.1 30.5 36.9 

High school graduate N/A 43.1 39.3 31.0 34.3 

Some college N/A 37.0 34.3 25.0 29.2 

College graduate N/A 27.1 15.4 14.2 15.2 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 45.3 32.7 27.7 31.2 

Part-time N/A 37.0 27.4 19.9 25.5 

Unemployed N/A 53.9 52.3 47.2 50.1 

Other N/A 34.5 28.8 21.2 4

23.3 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 3

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
118

Table 8.4 Percentage Reporting Cigarette Use in Their Lifetime, the Past Year, and the

Past Month, by Age: 1998

Time Period

Age Group in Years (Unweighted n) Lifetime Past Year Past Month

Total (25,500) 69.7 30.6 27.7 

12-17 Years (6,778) 35.8 23.8 18.2 

12-13 (2,240) 16.8 11.4 8.0 

14-15 (2,356) 37.2 24.6 18.2 

16-17 (2,182) 54.5 36.0 29.3 

18-25 Years (7,318) 68.8 47.1 41.6 

18-20 (2,981) 66.2 48.3 43.1 

21-25 (4,337) 70.7 46.3 40.6 

26-34 Years (4,537) 71.8 36.6 32.5 

26-29 (2,017) 69.6 37.7 33.1 

30-34 (2,520) 73.7 35.6 32.0 

35+ Years (6,867) 75.2 26.7 25.1 

35-39 (1,381) 74.1 34.2 32.8 

40-44 (1,179) 77.2 31.4 29.0 

45-49 (1,157) 78.5 31.0 29.8 

50+ (3,150) 74.1 21.8 20.2 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
119

Table 8.5 Percentage Reporting Cigarette Use in Their Lifetime, the Past Year, and the Past

Month, by Age Group, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender: 1998

Race/Ethnicity1

and Gender 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

(Unweighted n)

White, non-Hispanic male (1,576) (1,367) (805) (1,555) (5,303) 

Black, non-Hispanic male (668) (742) (362) (567) (2,339) 

Hispanic male (910) (974) (622) (537) (3,043) 

White, non-Hispanic female (1,515) (1,559) (1,085) (2,247) (6,406) 

Black, non-Hispanic female (706) (1,056) (691) (1,023) (3,476) 

Hispanic female (959) (1,213) (810) (770) (3,752) 

A. Used Cigarettes in Their Lifetime

White, non-Hispanic male 38.5 76.6 79.9 83.7 77.8 

Black, non-Hispanic male 29.7 59.9 68.8 77.6 66.1 

Hispanic male 33.7 69.9 72.9 78.6 69.5 

White, non-Hispanic female 40.9 73.2 73.8 72.2 69.8 

Black, non-Hispanic female 22.6 48.8 59.0 66.9 57.5 

Hispanic female 30.7 49.4 46.9 50.9 47.1 

B. Used Cigarettes in the Past Year

White, non-Hispanic male 25.3 53.6 40.1 26.8 31.9 

Black, non-Hispanic male 19.6 40.3 37.8 37.8 35.6 

Hispanic male 20.8 45.7 34.9 36.1 35.4 

White, non-Hispanic female 28.5 51.8 36.8 24.8 29.8 

Black, non-Hispanic female 12.9 28.9 29.0 30.0 27.6 

Hispanic female 19.9 29.1 23.2 22.8 23.5 

C. Used Cigarettes in the Past Month

White, non-Hispanic male 20.0 48.8 34.5 25.0 28.9 

Black, non-Hispanic male 16.9 36.9 36.2 36.7 33.8 

Hispanic male 15.4 39.5 30.4 33.7 31.4 

White, non-Hispanic female 21.0 44.9 33.6 23.2 26.9 

Black, non-Hispanic female 10.6 25.0 27.6 28.9 25.9 

Hispanic female 14.7 23.0 19.7 20.6 20.0 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
120

Table 8.6 Percentage Distribution of Levels of Past Month Cigarette Use, by

Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Past Month Use1

Demographic (Unweighted Less Than a A Pack or

Characteristic n) None Pack a Day More a Day

Total (25,142) 73.3 15.3 11.4 

Gender

Male (11,075) 71.2 15.4 13.4 

Female (14,067) 75.1 15.2 9.6 

Age Group in Years

12-17 (6,660) 83.3 14.7 2.0 

18-25 (7,203) 59.3 28.9 11.9 

26-34 (4,494) 68.0 19.8 12.2 

35+ (6,785) 75.8 11.4 12.8 

Race/Ethnicity2

White, non-Hispanic (11,574) 73.0 13.8 13.3 

Black, non-Hispanic (5,710) 71.6 21.4 7.1 

Hispanic (6,695) 75.5 19.3 5.2 

Population Density

Large metro (12,801) 74.5 15.6 9.9 

Small metro (7,530) 73.5 15.7 10.8 

Nonmetro (4,811) 70.3 14.2 15.5 

Region

Northeast (3,084) 75.4 14.5 10.2 

North Central (3,605) 69.0 16.0 15.0 

South (8,379) 73.0 15.2 11.8 

West (10,074) 76.4 15.4 8.2 

Adult Education3

Less than high school (4,587) 63.9 18.2 17.9 

High school graduate (6,193) 66.9 17.9 15.2 

Some college (4,743) 71.2 16.4 12.3 

College graduate (2,959) 85.6 9.0 5.4 

Current Employment4

Full-time (9,864) 69.6 16.4 14.1 

Part-time (2,484) 75.3 15.4 9.2 

Unemployed (1,185) 50.1 28.2 21.7 

Other (4,949) 77.8 12.2 10.0 5

Note 1: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

Note 2: Only past month cigarette users who reported the number of cigarettes they smoked per day during the past 30 days are

included in this table. Thus, the actual unweighted n’s are smaller than appear in Table 1.1 because of differing patterns of

nonresponse for the question on cigarettes per day.

Less than a pack a day is defined as averaging 15 cigarettes or fewer per day in the past month. A pack a day or more is defined as 1

averaging 16 or more cigarettes per day in the past month.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 2

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,482). 3

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,482). 4

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 5

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
121

Table 8.7 Percentage Reporting Use of Selected Drugs in the Past Month, by Age Group

and Cigarette Use in the Past Month: 1998

Age Group in Years/

Drugs Used in the Past Month No Yes Total

Cigarette Use in 

the Past Month

1

Total

(Unweighted n) (18,379) (7,121) (25,500)

Alcohol 45.3 68.2 51.7 

Marijuana 1.8 13.6 5.0 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.0 6.3 2.5 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.5 2.7 2

1.1 

Cocaine 0.1 2.5 0.8 

Any illicit drug use 2.5 16.1 3

6.2 

12-17 Years 

(Unweighted n) (5,597) (1,181) (6,778) 

Alcohol 10.9 55.8 19.1 

Marijuana 2.4 34.3 8.3 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.5 14.9 4.0 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.7 6.3 2

1.7 

Cocaine 0.1 3.8 0.8 

Any illicit drug use 3.4 39.1 3

9.9 

18-25 Years 

(Unweighted n) (4,714) (2,604) (7,318) 

Alcohol 46.2 79.4 60.0 

Marijuana 4.2 27.3 13.8 

Drugs other than marijuana 2.2 12.4 6.5 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 1.2 4.8 2

2.7 

Cocaine 0.5 4.0 2.0 

Any illicit drug use 5.4 31.1 3

16.1 

26-34 Years 

(Unweighted n) (3,089) (1,448) (4,537) 

Alcohol 55.0 73.0 60.9 

Marijuana 2.4 11.9 5.5 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.2 6.2 2.8 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.7 2.6 2

1.3 

Cocaine 0.2 3.3 1.2 

Any illicit drug use 3.3 14.7 3

7.0 

35+ Years 

(Unweighted n) (4,979) (1,888) (6,867) 

Alcohol 49.3 64.2 53.1 

Marijuana 1.1 6.8 2.5 

Drugs other than marijuana 0.6 3.2 1.3 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.4 1.6 2

0.7 

Cocaine 0.1 1.6 0.5 

Any illicit drug use 1.6 8.5 3

3.3 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA

Main Findings prior to 1994.

Includes respondents who reported never using cigarettes, as well as those who reported previous but not past month use. 1

Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter drugs. 2

Use of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid 3

diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics at least once.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
122

Table 8.8 Percentage Reporting Smokeless Tobacco Use in Their Lifetime, by Age

Group and Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 8.9 24.1 23.4 15.6 17.2 

Gender

Male 14.2 39.2 40.9 27.9 30.1 

Female 3.2 8.6 6.1 4.8 5.3 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 11.4 32.0 29.5 17.2 20.2 

Black, non-Hispanic 1.9 6.5 9.7 14.4 10.7 

Hispanic 4.1 9.1 9.0 6.6 7.2 

Population Density

Large metro 4.8 16.3 19.3 11.9 13.0 

Small metro 8.7 27.4 24.7 17.0 18.8 

Nonmetro 16.6 32.5 31.2 20.6 23.0 

Region

Northeast 5.4 19.4 20.1 10.1 12.3 

North Central 11.5 30.4 26.5 14.6 18.1 

South 10.6 23.0 24.0 19.6 19.8 

West 6.0 22.8 22.3 15.5 16.5 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 22.0 18.4 18.4 19.0 

High school graduate N/A 24.6 22.8 14.5 17.5 

Some college N/A 25.7 24.4 16.2 19.7 

College graduate N/A 20.4 25.3 14.7 17.2 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 30.3 27.7 18.7 22.3 

Part-time N/A 20.8 13.6 9.3 13.0 

Unemployed N/A 22.8 21.0 18.1 20.0 

Other N/A 14.7 8.2 13.1 4

12.9 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
123

Table 8.9 Percentage Reporting Smokeless Tobacco Use in the Past Year, by Age

Group and Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 3.7 9.0 6.0 3.1 4.4 

Gender

Male 6.6 16.3 11.7 5.7 8.2 

Female 0.7 1.5 0.4 0.8 0.8 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 5.0 12.1 8.1 3.5 5.3 

Black, non-Hispanic 0.6 2.0 1.5 3.3 2.4 

Hispanic 1.5 3.0 1.4 0.9 1.5 

Population Density

Large metro 2.3 4.4 4.3 1.5 2.4 

Small metro 3.6 9.6 5.3 3.1 4.4 

Nonmetro 6.4 16.5 11.7 6.2 8.2 

Region

Northeast 2.3 6.6 4.5 1.4 2.6 

North Central 4.8 11.6 7.2 3.7 5.4 

South 4.5 9.2 6.9 4.2 5.3 

West 2.5 7.7 4.9 2.2 3.4 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 8.6 5.5 5.4 5.9 

High school graduate N/A 9.5 7.6 3.2 4.9 

Some college N/A 9.5 5.7 2.8 4.7 

College graduate N/A 5.8 4.8 1.7 2.6 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 11.3 7.4 3.6 5.5 

Part-time N/A 7.4 3.6 1.7 3.5 

Unemployed N/A 7.2 5.1 2.1 4.1 

Other N/A 6.1 0.9 2.9 4

3.1 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
124

Table 8.10 Percentage Reporting Smokeless Tobacco Use in the Past Month, by Age

Group and Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 1.2 5.4 4.3 2.6 3.1 

Gender

Male 2.1 10.5 8.3 4.8 5.9 

Female 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.5 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 1.6 7.5 5.6 2.9 3.7 

Black, non-Hispanic 0.1 1.1 1.5 2.9 2.0 

Hispanic 0.5 1.2 1.0 0.5 0.8 

Population Density

Large metro 0.5 2.6 3.2 1.2 1.7 

Small metro 0.9 5.6 3.6 2.6 3.0 

Nonmetro 3.0 10.5 8.2 5.2 6.0 

Region

Northeast 0.9 4.6 3.2 1.3 1.9 

North Central 1.1 6.6 5.3 3.1 3.7 

South 1.7 6.1 5.2 3.5 3.9 

West 0.8 3.7 2.8 1.8 2.1 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 6.0 2.6 4.3 4.3 

High school graduate N/A 6.5 6.0 2.7 3.9 

Some college N/A 4.4 4.2 2.4 3.2 

College graduate N/A 4.1 3.2 1.4 1.9 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 7.6 5.2 2.8 4.0 

Part-time N/A 3.9 2.4 1.6 2.3 

Unemployed N/A 3.7 4.1 1.8 2.8 

Other N/A 2.9 0.6 2.6 4

2.5 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
125

Table 8.11 Percentage Reporting Smokeless Tobacco Use in Their Lifetime, the Past Year, and the

Past Month, by Age Group, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender: 1998

Race/Ethnicity1

and Gender 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

(Unweighted n)

White, non-Hispanic male (1,576) (1,367) (805) (1,555) (5,303) 

Black, non-Hispanic male (668) (742) (362) (567) (2,339) 

Hispanic male (910) (974) (622) (537) (3,043) 

White, non-Hispanic female (1,515) (1,559) (1,085) (2,247) (6,406) 

Black, non-Hispanic female (706) (1,056) (691) (1,023) (3,476) 

Hispanic female (959) (1,213) (810) (770) (3,752) 

A. Used Smokeless Tobacco in Their Lifetime

White, non-Hispanic male 18.7 51.8 51.9 31.5 35.8 

Black, non-Hispanic male 3.0 11.0 15.1 20.7 15.5 

Hispanic male 5.6 14.2 14.9 11.1 11.7 

White, non-Hispanic female 3.8 11.5 7.3 4.5 5.6 

Black, non-Hispanic female 0.7 2.4 5.2 9.7 6.8 

Hispanic female 2.5 3.6 2.3 2.3 2.6 

B. Used Smokeless Tobacco in the Past Year

White, non-Hispanic male 8.8 22.0 16.0 6.7 10.2 

Black, non-Hispanic male 1.3 3.1 1.6 3.5 2.8 

Hispanic male 2.1 5.0 2.4 1.2 2.3 

White, non-Hispanic female 0.9 1.8 0.3 0.6 0.7 

Black, non-Hispanic female * 0.9 1.5 3.1 2.1 

Hispanic female 0.9 0.8 0.2 0.7 0.6 

C. Used Smokeless Tobacco in the Past Month

White, non-Hispanic male 2.9 14.4 11.2 5.7 7.3 

Black, non-Hispanic male 0.2 1.6 1.6 2.8 2.0 

Hispanic male 0.7 2.3 1.7 0.8 1.3 

White, non-Hispanic female 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.3 

Black, non-Hispanic female * 0.7 1.4 3.0 2.0 

Hispanic female 0.2 * 0.2 0.3 0.2 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
126

Table 8.12 Percentage Reporting Cigar Use in Their Lifetime, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 18.6 39.3 35.9 36.0 34.6 

Gender

Male 22.3 53.8 52.9 60.5 54.2 

Female 14.8 24.5 19.2 14.5 16.5 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 21.9 45.7 41.6 40.1 39.2 

Black, non-Hispanic 10.9 25.2 26.0 23.7 22.7 

Hispanic 14.8 26.9 21.5 19.1 20.4 

Population Density

Large metro 16.4 34.7 36.2 34.4 32.9 

Small metro 19.4 42.2 34.6 36.8 35.5 

Nonmetro 21.5 42.6 37.6 37.8 36.6 

Region

Northeast 14.8 34.4 33.7 34.1 32.3 

North Central 22.9 41.9 43.0 38.2 37.8 

South 19.3 38.9 32.8 35.5 33.8 

West 16.2 41.1 35.7 36.2 34.6 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 40.5 27.6 28.1 30.0 

High school graduate N/A 38.2 32.6 32.4 33.3 

Some college N/A 40.0 38.3 41.1 40.4 

College graduate N/A 38.5 41.1 41.5 41.3 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 44.4 40.2 42.9 42.4 

Part-time N/A 38.5 31.4 26.9 30.7 

Unemployed N/A 43.1 31.5 36.0 37.1 

Other N/A 28.7 17.9 29.3 4

28.4 

Note: Estimates in this table are based on reports of cigar use collected on a “non-core” section of the NHSDA questionnaire.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
127

Table 8.13 Percentage Reporting Cigar Use in the Past Month, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 5.6 11.9 8.6 5.7 6.9 

Gender

Male 7.5 19.0 14.3 10.4 11.9 

Female 3.7 4.6 3.1 1.5 2.3 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 6.4 13.4 10.0 6.1 7.5 

Black, non-Hispanic 3.5 10.2 7.3 4.5 5.8 

Hispanic 5.3 8.9 4.3 3.7 5.0 

Population Density

Large metro 4.8 9.9 8.9 6.5 7.1 

Small metro 6.2 13.5 7.9 5.8 7.3 

Nonmetro 6.3 12.3 9.4 4.0 6.0 

Region

Northeast 4.3 12.3 8.0 7.4 7.8 

North Central 6.9 13.7 11.4 5.2 7.5 

South 6.1 12.1 7.7 4.8 6.3 

West 4.7 9.3 7.9 6.0 6.6 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 14.8 7.5 4.5 6.5 

High school graduate N/A 11.8 7.6 4.2 5.9 

Some college N/A 11.5 8.2 7.0 8.1 

College graduate N/A 7.8 10.7 7.3 8.0 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 12.8 10.0 8.1 9.1 

Part-time N/A 11.0 7.6 3.3 6.0 

Unemployed N/A 11.5 6.0 14.3 11.8 

Other N/A 10.7 3.2 2.4 4

3.4 

Note: Estimates in this table are based on reports of cigar use collected on a “non-core” section of the NHSDA questionnaire.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
128

Table 8.14 Percentage Reporting Cigar Use in Their Lifetime and the Past Month, by Age Group,

Race/Ethnicity, and Gender: 1998

Race/Ethnicity1

and Gender 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

(Unweighted n)

White, non-Hispanic male (1,576) (1,367) (805) (1,555) (5,303) 

Black, non-Hispanic male (668) (742) (362) (567) (2,339) 

Hispanic male (910) (974) (622) (537) (3,043) 

White, non-Hispanic female (1,515) (1,559) (1,085) (2,247) (6,406) 

Black, non-Hispanic female (706) (1,056) (691) (1,023) (3,476) 

Hispanic female (959) (1,213) (810) (770) (3,752) 

A. Used Cigars in Their Lifetime

White, non-Hispanic male 25.5 61.6 60.6 67.0 61.3 

Black, non-Hispanic male 13.3 37.8 42.0 43.4 37.9 

Hispanic male 19.1 36.1 31.4 28.9 29.4 

White, non-Hispanic female 18.1 29.2 22.7 16.1 18.7 

Black, non-Hispanic female 8.5 13.5 12.5 8.9 10.2 

Hispanic female 10.2 17.0 10.3 9.6 11.1 

B. Used Cigars in the Past Month

White, non-Hispanic male 8.5 21.4 16.3 11.2 12.9 

Black, non-Hispanic male 4.7 16.6 12.0 8.3 9.9 

Hispanic male 6.6 13.4 7.4 5.3 7.4 

White, non-Hispanic female 4.2 5.0 3.7 1.5 2.4 

Black, non-Hispanic female 2.3 4.3 3.4 1.7 2.5 

Hispanic female 3.9 4.0 0.7 2.2 2.5 

Note: Estimates in this table are based on reports of cigar use collected on a “non-core” section of the NHSDA questionnaire. Information

about use of cigars in the past year (but less recently than the past month) was not collected.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
129

Table 8.15 Percentage Reporting Use of Selected Drugs in the Past Month, by Age Group

and Cigar Use in the Past Month: 1998

Age Group in Years/

Drugs Used in the Past Month No Yes Total

Cigar Use in 

the Past Month

1

Total

(Unweighted n) (23,780) (1,720) (25,500) 

Alcohol 49.2 85.0 51.7 

Marijuana 4.1 17.2 5.0 

Drugs other than marijuana 2.0 8.1 2.5 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 1.0 3.3 2

1.1 

Cocaine 0.6 3.6 0.8 

Any illicit drug use 5.2 20.0 3

6.2 

12-17 Years 

(Unweighted n) (6,418) (360) (6,778) 

Alcohol 16.2 67.2 19.1 

Marijuana 6.2 43.4 8.3 

Drugs other than marijuana 3.2 17.5 4.0 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 1.4 6.1 2

1.7 

Cocaine 0.6 4.9 0.8 

Any illicit drug use 7.7 48.3 3

9.9 

18-25 Years 

(Unweighted n) (6,576) (742) (7,318) 

Alcohol 56.2 88.1 60.0 

Marijuana 11.3 31.9 13.8 

Drugs other than marijuana 5.5 13.4 6.5 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 2.4 5.0 2

2.7 

Cocaine 1.5 5.1 2.0 

Any illicit drug use 13.5 35.7 3

16.1 

26-34 Years 

(Unweighted n) (4,241) (296) (4,537) 

Alcohol 58.2 88.9 60.9 

Marijuana 4.7 13.2 5.5 

Drugs other than marijuana 2.6 5.4 2.8 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 1.2 2.8 2

1.3 

Cocaine 1.1 2.0 1.2 

Any illicit drug use 6.1 16.4 3

7.0 

35+ Years 

(Unweighted n) (6,545) (322) (6,867) 

Alcohol 51.1 85.0 53.1 

Marijuana 2.2 7.9 2.5 

Drugs other than marijuana 1.0 5.3 1.3 

Nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic 0.6 2.3 2

0.7 

Cocaine 0.3 3.4 0.5 

Any illicit drug use 2.9 9.8 3

3.3 

Note: Estimates in this table are based on reports of cigar use collected on a “non-core” section of the NHSDA questionnaire.

Includes respondents who reported never using cigars, as well as those who reported previous but not past month use. 1

Nonmedical use of any prescription-type stimulant, sedative, tranquilizer, or analgesic; does not include over-the-counter drugs. 2

Use of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid 3

diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics at least once.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
130
131

Chapter 9: Problems Associated with Marijuana, Cocaine, Alcohol, and Cigarettes

Introduction

The use of marijuana, cocaine, alcohol, or cigarettes can contribute to social, physical, and

psychological problems for the user and for society. Each year, the use or abuse of these substances exacts

a toll on the Nation. Substance use has been associated with increased crime rates and a greater burden on

the health care system, and it can limit the potential of youths and the performance of the workforce (see

Bray, Marsden, & Vincus, 1999a; Institute for Health Policy, 1993). In 1995, the cost of alcohol and drug

abuse to society was an estimated $276.3 billion, primarily accounted for by lost productivity due to

premature death, illness, and criminal victimization (Harwood, Fountain, & Livermore, 1998). For example,

in 1998 nearly 16,000 individuals lost their lives in alcohol-related traffic accidents (National Highway

Traffic Safety Administration, 1999), and in 1996 more than 20,000 new cases of the human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV) were contracted through injection drug use (Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, 1998).

To combat substance abuse’s negative effects, it is necessary to identify individuals most in need of

substance abuse treatment or prevention services. People experiencing multiple, current problems related

to their use of a drug represent a group likely to have a high need for such services. This chapter first

discusses how drug-related problems were measured in the 1998 NHSDA (also see discussion in Greenblatt

and Gfroerer, 1998a). Estimates of the prevalence of problems related to the use of marijuana, cocaine,

alcohol, and cigarettes then are presented. Estimates are given by age group for the total population, for

users of these substances in the past year, and for more frequent or heavier users in the past year or past

month. Although estimates are given for the total population (including nonusers as well as users in the

denominator), the discussion emphasizes problems experienced by people who reported using a given drug

in the past year or who reported more frequent or heavier use in the past year or past month.

A comparison of data from the 1995, 1996, and 1997 NHSDAs indicates that rates of problems

associated with substance use have remained fairly stable over the past 3 years of the survey. In the total

population, problems associated with the use of marijuana have been reported by about 4%, problems from

cocaine use by less than 1%, problems due to alcohol use by roughly 15%, and problems from cigarette use

by about 20% (OAS, 1997, 1998a, 1999a). 

Measurement of Problems Related to Substance Use

Respondents to the 1998 NHSDA who used drugs in the 12 months prior to the interview were

instructed to answer a series of questions about problems associated with their drug use that occurred in the

same 12-month period. Questions on problems related to use of different drugs were patterned after

symptoms of dependence, according to criteria set in the American Psychiatric Association's (APA's)

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM-IV) (APA, 1994). Readers

should not interpret reports of these problems as being necessarily equivalent to a clinical diagnosis of drug

dependence. Such a diagnosis must be made by a professional after careful consideration of many factors.

In general, reports of three or more drug-related problems may be suggestive of dependence and indicate the

need for evaluation or services for drug use.

Respondents were asked whether they had experienced any of the following seven behavioral or

psychological problems in the past year, which potentially and cumulatively suggest drug dependence:
132

1. wanting to or trying to stop or cut down on use of the drug but being unable to do

so;

2. needing larger amounts of the drug to get the same effect; 

3. spending a great deal of time (i.e., at least a month) getting, using, or getting over

the effects of using the drug; 

4. using the drug much more often or in larger amounts than intended; 

5. reducing important activities (e.g., going to work or school, caring for children, or

engaging in recreational activity) due to use of the drug; 

6. experiencing emotional or psychological problems caused by use of the drug; and

7. experiencing physical health problems caused by use of the drug (see Note 2 in

Tables 9.1 through 9.4 for precise question item wordings).

The definitions of these problems differ in number and kind from those used in the 1994 NHSDA and in

earlier years. Consequently, data in this chapter cannot be compared directly with NHSDA data prior to

1995.

In addition to estimates of the prevalence of each of these specific problems, three summary

measures were constructed for marijuana, cocaine, alcohol, and cigarettes:

• occurrence of any of the above seven problems in the past 12 months due to use of

a given drug,

• occurrence of two or more of the above problems in the past 12 months for a given

drug, and

• occurrence of three or more of the above problems in the past 12 months for a

given drug.

These summary measures refer to the number of specific types of problems (from the list of seven) that

occurred during the past year related to the use of a particular drug. These measures do not refer to the total

number of times that each specific problem may have occurred.

As noted previously, respondents who had not used illicit drugs, alcohol, or tobacco in the past year

were instructed to skip these questions. A small proportion of the sample, however, chose to skip these

questions even though they had reported earlier in the interview that they had used at least one of the

substances at some time in the past year. For the analyses in this chapter, these respondents were treated as

though they had no substance-associated problems in the past year. In addition, some respondents who did

not report use of a given drug on that drug’s answer sheet subsequently reported in a later section of the

interview that they experienced problems related to their use of that drug in the past 12 months. Data from

these respondents on drug-related problems also were disregarded in the absence of prior indications of past
This exclusion of data from respondents who reported past year drug problems in the absence of reported 1

use in the past year was not done for the 1994 to 1996 NHSDA Main Findings. Therefore, the 1998 total

population estimates may be somewhat lower than those reported in 1994 to 1996. 

133

year use. Given these exclusions, the data here should be interpreted with some caution because some

1

estimates of drug-related problems may be conservative. This especially may be the case for cocaine, which

had the lowest prevalence of past year use of the four drugs examined in this chapter; consequently,

excluding or including respondents in estimates of cocaine-related problems could have a relatively greater

impact on estimates for cocaine than for the other three drugs.

Marijuana (Table 9.1)

An estimated 3.6% of the total population aged 12 or older experienced one or more problems in the

past 12 months that were related to their use of marijuana in this same time period, 2.3% experienced at least

two problems, and an additional 1.5% experienced at least three components of dependence related to their

marijuana use. Among people aged 12 or older who used marijuana at least once in the past year, 42% had

at least one problem related to their use, 27% had two or more problems, and 17% had at least three

problems. Given an estimate of 18,710,000 past year marijuana users (see Table 2.1), these percentages

translate to almost 8 million past year marijuana users who experienced one or more marijuana-related

problems in this same time period, almost 5 million past year users who experienced two or more problems,

and about 3.3 million past year users who experienced three or more problems. Among those who used

marijuana on 12 or more days during the past year, 59% had at least one problem, 41% had at least two

problems, and 28% experienced three or more symptoms of marijuana dependence. Young adults aged 18

to 25 and youths aged 12 to 17 had the highest percentages of individuals who experienced components of

dependence related to marijuana use. Past year marijuana use also was most prevalent among these two age

groups (see Table 3.2).

The most frequently reported problem related to marijuana use across all age groups and frequencyof-use levels was having had a period of a month or more during the past year in which people spent a great

deal of time getting marijuana, using it, or getting over its effects. About 28% of past year marijuana users

and 42% of people who used marijuana on 12 or more days in the past year reported this problem.

Use of marijuana more often or in larger amounts than intended and building up tolerance to

marijuana’s effects were typically the next most commonly occurring problems among past year users and

among people who used marijuana on 12 or more days in the past 12 months. About 21% of past year

marijuana users built up tolerance to the effects of marijuana, and 20% used the drug more often or in larger

amounts than they intended in the past 12 months. Among people who used marijuana on 12 or more days

in the past year, 33% indicated symptoms suggestive of the development of tolerance, and 30% used the drug

more often or in larger amounts than intended. 

Cocaine (Table 9.2)

An estimated 0.7% of the population aged 12 or older experienced at least one problem that was

related to their cocaine use in the past year, 0.4% experienced at least two problems, and 0.3% experienced

at least three components of dependence. Among people aged 12 or older who used cocaine at least once in

the past year, 38% reported at least one of the seven cocaine-related problems, nearly one-fourth (24%)

experienced two or more problems, and 18% experienced three or more problems. Based on an estimate of

3,811,000 past year cocaine users (Table 2.1), these percentages translate to about 1.4 million past year

cocaine users who experienced one or more problems, about 900,000 users who experienced two or more

problems, and about 686,000 users who experienced three or more problems. About 56% of people aged 12
134

or older who used cocaine on 12 or more days in the past year experienced at least one cocaine-related

problem, and 43% reported two or more problems.

In the total population, the most commonly reported problem among people who used cocaine at least

once in the past year was that cocaine had caused them psychological problems (19%), followed by extended

periods spent getting, using, or getting over the effects of cocaine (18%), wanting or unsuccessfully trying to

cut down on use (17%), and a reduction in important activities (17%). This pattern, however, varied with

age. Among youths aged 12 to 17 who were past year users, the most commonly occurring problem was a

reduction in important activities (20%), followed by wanting or trying to reduce use but not being able to do

so (19%).

Among people aged 12 or older who used cocaine on 12 or more days in the past year, about 34%

experienced a related reduction in important activities. Psychological problems also were experienced by

about 34% of this group of frequent users. About 32% spent an extended period of time getting, using, or

getting over the effects of the drug, and 30% used cocaine more than they had intended. 

Alcohol (Table 9.3)

An estimated 15% of people aged 12 or older reported having had at least one problem related to their

alcohol use in the past year, 8% reported two or more problems, and 5% reported three or more components

of dependence. Among people who consumed at least some alcohol in the past year, more than one in five

(23%), or about 31.9 million people (based on the estimated 139,807,000 past year alcohol users in Table

2.1), experienced at least one alcohol-related problem, about one in eight experienced two or more problems

(13%; or about 18 million users), and almost 8% (about 10.8 million users) experienced three or more

problems. 

The percentages of alcohol-related problems in the past year were considerably higher among heavy

drinkers (defined as people who had five or more drinks per occasion on 5 or more days during the past 30

days). Specifically, over 66% of current heavy drinkers had one or more alcohol-related problems in the past

year, more than half reported two or more problems (52%), and over one-third reported three or more

problems (36%).

Nearly 40% of youths and young adults who used alcohol in the past year experienced at least one

alcohol-related problem. Among heavy alcohol users, 77% of the 12 to 17 year olds and 75% of 18 to 25

year olds reported experiencing at least one alcohol-related problem.

The three most commonly occurring alcohol-related problems in each drinking category (i.e., total

population, past year alcohol users, and heavy drinkers) and within each age group were (a) extended periods

of time spent getting, using, or getting over the effects of alcohol; (b) use of alcohol more often or in larger

amounts than intended; and (c) development of tolerance to the effects of alcohol. Notably, each of these three

problems was reported by at least 20% of youths aged 12 to 17 who used any alcohol in the past year and by

around half of youths who were heavy alcohol drinkers. 

Cigarettes (Table 9.4)

Almost one-fifth of the total population aged 12 or older (18%) reported at least one problem in the

past year associated with smoking cigarettes, 14% had two or more problems, and 10% had three or more

symptoms of dependence. Among past year cigarette smokers (66,735,000 in 1998, see Table 2.1), 60%, or

an estimated 40 million smokers, had at least one problem, 46% (31 million) had two or more problems, and

34% (22 million) had three or more problems attributed to their cigarette use. Among heavy smokers 
135

(defined as currently smoking about a pack or more a day), more than three out of four reported one problem

(77%), 63% reported two or more problems, and 49% reported three or more problems. 

The most frequently cited problems among heavy smokers were wanting or trying to stop or cut down

but not being able to do so and spending a great deal of time getting or using cigarettes or getting over the

effects of cigarettes (58%), followed by smoking more cigarettes or smoking for longer periods than intended

(51%). 

Discussion

During 1998, about 1 in 6 past year marijuana users, 1 in 6 past year cocaine users, 1 in 20 past year

alcohol users, and 1 in 3 past year cigarette smokers reported three or more problems per drug that are

considered potential signs of dependence. Based on the estimated number of users of each drug, these rates

translate to about 3.3 million marijuana users, 686,000 cocaine users, 10.8 million alcohol users, and 22

million cigarette smokers who experienced three or more problems in the past year related to their use of these

drugs. As was noted previously, reports of three or more drug-related problems should not be interpreted as

equivalent to a clinical diagnosis of dependence on these drugs, but rather as an indication that individuals

may be in need of evaluation or services for their drug use.

More frequent or heavier users of each of these four drugs had notably higher rates of dependence

symptoms attributed to their drug use. These results are consistent with previous research, which suggests

a positive relationship between the amount of substance use and the number of associated problems. For

example, in a survey of members of the Armed Forces (Bray et al., 1999b), heavy drinkers had much higher

rates of serious consequences (e.g., drinking-related injury, punishment, or personal problems), productivity

loss at work, and dependence symptoms than those who drank less. Greenblatt and Gfroerer (1998a) also

found problems associated with drug use to be much more common among frequent users.

Among past year users of marijuana, alcohol, and cocaine, as well as heavy cigarette smokers, those

in the younger age groups tended to report higher rates of dependence symptoms than older users. These

findings are consistent with those of previous NHSDA surveys (e.g., 1995, 1996, 1997) and may suggest that

younger users consider themselves to be less able to “manage” their use in order to reduce associated

problems. Alternatively, psychological mechanisms (e.g., denial) may be less established among younger

users than among older users, and as a result younger users may be more willing than older users to

acknowledge the existence of problems. Neither of these hypotheses can be tested with the NHSDA data,

however, because each would require a research design that repeatedly samples these behavioral and

attitudinal measures in the same cohort over time in order to determine the pattern of problems across the

lifetime.
136

Table 9.1 Percentage Reporting Components of Dependence in the Past Year Attributed to Use

of Marijuana for the Total Population, Those Who Used at Least Once in the Past

Year, and Those Who Used Once a Month or More Often in the Past Year, by Age

Group: 1998

Problems in the Past Year 

Attributed to Marijuana Use 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total 1

Age Group in Years

A. Total Population2

Wanted or tried to cut down but couldn’t 2.4 3.2 0.9 0.3 1.0 

Built up tolerance 4.0 6.0 1.5 0.5 1.8 

Spent month or more on drug 4.9 8.0 1.7 0.9 2.4 

Used drug more than intended 4.1 5.7 1.2 0.5 1.7 

Reduced important activities 1.7 1.4 0.4 0.2 0.6 

Caused psychological problems 3.1 4.3 0.9 0.3 1.2 

Caused health problems 1.7 1.7 0.3 0.3 0.6 

Any of the above problems 7.8 12.0 3.0 1.3 3.6 

2 or more of the above problems 5.4 7.7 1.9 0.7 2.3 

3 or more of the above problems 3.8 5.3 1.1 0.4 1.5 

B. Used Marijuana at Least Once in the Past Year

(Unweighted n) (1,035) (1,665) (432) (312) (3,444) 

Wanted or tried to cut down but couldn’t 16.8 13.2 8.9 8.1 11.6 

Built up tolerance 28.8 24.8 15.6 13.4 20.5 

Spent month or more on drug 35.0 33.1 17.9 23.3 27.8 

Used drug more than intended 29.3 23.5 12.6 13.0 19.5 

Reduced important activities 11.8 6.0 3.8 6.1 6.6 

Caused psychological problems 22.2 17.7 9.1 6.3 13.6 

Caused health problems 11.8 7.3 3.5 6.2 7.0 

Any of the above problems 55.7 49.9 30.7 32.6 42.4 

2 or more of the above problems 38.5 32.1 19.4 17.0 26.5 

3 or more of the above problems 27.4 22.1 10.9 9.9 17.4 

C. Used Marijuana on 12 or More Days in the Past Year

(Unweighted n) (542) (972) (228) (192) (1,934) 

Wanted or tried to cut down but couldn’t 22.0 18.4 15.6 12.0 16.6 

Built up tolerance 44.7 38.5 28.5 22.7 33.2 

Spent month or more on drug 53.8 49.2 32.2 32.5 42.2 

Used drug more than intended 47.5 34.0 22.6 20.0 30.2 

Reduced important activities 18.7 8.5 6.7 9.6 10.3 

Caused psychological problems 28.5 21.9 12.9 9.3 17.8 

Caused health problems 18.1 10.3 3.9 9.7 10.4 

Any of the above problems 74.1 67.8 49.3 43.8 58.6 

2 or more of the above problems 57.6 46.6 34.6 26.5 40.5 

3 or more of the above problems 43.3 33.1 19.4 16.7 27.7 

Note 1: The definitions of these problems are different in number and kind from those used in the 1994 NHSDA and earlier years. 

Therefore, data in this table cannot be compared directly with Main Findings data prior to 1995.

Note 2: Questions asked were: In the past 12 months, indicate: (1) If you wanted or tried to stop or cut down on your use of that drug but

found that you couldn’t. (2) Whether you had built up a tolerance for the drug so that the same amount had less effect than

before. (3) Whether you had a period of a month or more when you spent a great deal of time getting or using the drug, or

getting over its effects. (4) Whether you have used that kind of drug much more often or in larger amounts than you intended. 

(5) Whether your use of the drug often kept you from working, going to school, taking care of children, or engaging in

recreational activities. (6) Whether your use of the drug caused you to have any emotional or psychological problems–such as

feeling uninterested in things, feeling depressed, feeling suspicious of people, feeling paranoid, or having strange ideas. (7)

Whether your use of the drug caused you any health problems–such as liver disease, stomach disease, pancreatitis, feet

tingling, numbness, memory problems, an accidental overdose, a persistent cough, a seizure or fit, hepatitis, an accidental

overdose, or abscesses.

Respondents with missing data on problems were coded as not having problems. 1

Beginning in 1997, reports of past year drug-related problems were disregarded in the absence of indications of past year use on the 2

marijuana answer sheet. Thus, the 1998 total population estimates are directly comparable to those from 1997 but not 1995 and 1996,

which included all reports of drug-related problems in such estimates.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
137

Table 9.2 Percentage Reporting Components of Dependence in the Past Year Attributed to

Cocaine Use for the Total Population, Those Who Used at Least Once in the Past

Year, and Those Who Used Once a Month or More Often in the Past Year, by Age

Group: 1998

Problems in the Past Year 

Attributed to Cocaine Use 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total 1

Age Group in Years

A. Total Population2

Wanted or tried to cut down but couldn’t 0.3 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.3 

Built up tolerance 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.2 

Spent month or more on drug 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.3 

Used drug more than intended 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.3 

Reduced important activities 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.3 

Caused psychological problems 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.3 

Caused health problems 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 

Any of the above problems 0.8 1.8 0.6 0.4 0.7 

2 or more of the above problems 0.5 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.4 

3 or more of the above problems 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.3 

B. Used Cocaine at Least Once in the Past Year

(Unweighted n) (166) (335) (119) (89) (709)

Wanted or tried to cut down but couldn’t 18.8 15.4 6.6 * 16.6 

Built up tolerance 17.5 8.2 6.7 * 11.2 

Spent month or more on drug * 13.3 10.2 * 18.0 

Used drug more than intended * 14.1 11.1 18.9 15.5 

Reduced important activities 19.7 11.5 6.5 * 16.6 

Caused psychological problems 16.6 15.5 10.9 * 18.8 

Caused health problems * 6.9 3.5 * 8.9 

Any of the above problems * 39.0 20.4 * 37.8 

2 or more of the above problems * 20.0 13.4 * 23.7 

3 or more of the above problems 20.2 14.8 9.3 * 18.0 

C. Used Cocaine on 12 or More Days in the Past Year

(Unweighted n) (60) (112) (49) (47) (268)

Wanted or tried to cut down but couldn’t * 12.9 * * * 

Built up tolerance * * * * * 

Spent month or more on drug * 30.1 * * 32.1 

Used drug more than intended * 26.9 * * 30.0 

Reduced important activities * * * * 34.3 

Caused psychological problems * * * * 34.3 

Caused health problems * * * * * 

Any of the above problems * * * * 55.8 

2 or more of the above problems * * * * 42.7 

3 or more of the above problems * * * * * 

Note 1: The definitions of these problems are different in number and kind from those used in the 1994 NHSDA and earlier years. 

Therefore, data in this table cannot be compared directly with Main Findings data prior to 1995.

Note 2: Questions asked were: In the past 12 months, indicate: (1) If you wanted or tried to stop or cut down on your use of that drug

but found that you couldn’t. (2) Whether you had built up a tolerance for the drug so that the same amount had less effect than

before. (3) Whether you had a period of a month or more when you spent a great deal of time getting or using the drug, or

getting over its effects. (4) Whether you have used that kind of drug much more often or in larger amounts than you intended. 

(5) Whether your use of the drug often kept you from working, going to school, taking care of children, or engaging in

recreational activities. (6) Whether your use of the drug caused you to have any emotional or psychological problems–such as

feeling uninterested in things, feeling depressed, feeling suspicious of people, feeling paranoid, or having strange ideas. (7)

Whether your use of the drug caused you any health problems–such as liver disease, stomach disease, pancreatitis, feet

tingling, numbness, memory problems, an accidental overdose, a persistent cough, a seizure or fit, hepatitis, an accidental

overdose, or abscesses.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Respondents with missing data on problems were coded as not having problems. 1

Beginning in 1997, reports of past year drug-related problems were disregarded in the absence of indications of past year use on the 2

cocaine answer sheet. Thus, the 1998 total population estimates are directly comparable to those from 1997 but not 1995 and 1996,

which included all reports of drug-related problems in such estimates.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
138

Table 9.3 Percentage Reporting Components of Dependence in the Past Year Attributed to

Alcohol Use for the Total Population, Past Year Users, and Those Who Had Five

or More Drinks on the Same Occasion on 5 or More of the Past 30 Days, by Age

Group: 1998 

Problems in the Past Year 

Attributed to Alcohol Use 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total 1

Age Group in Years

A. Total Population2

Wanted or tried to cut down but couldn’t 4.1 7.2 5.0 3.1 4.1 

Built up tolerance 6.4 18.2 8.7 4.3 7.0 

Spent month or more on drug 6.7 16.2 9.0 6.6 8.2 

Used drug more than intended 6.5 15.9 10.2 5.6 7.7 

Reduced important activities 2.0 5.1 2.5 1.3 2.0 

Caused psychological problems 3.2 5.7 3.1 1.8 2.6 

Caused health problems 1.5 2.9 1.5 1.2 1.5 

Any of the above problems 12.4 29.5 18.5 10.8 14.6 

2 or more of the above problems 8.0 18.3 9.8 5.7 8.2 

3 or more of the above problems 4.9 11.7 5.6 3.3 4.9 

B. Any Alcohol Use in the Past Year

(Unweighted n) (2,159) (5,127) (3,179) (4,131) (14,596)

Wanted or tried to cut down but couldn’t 12.9 9.7 6.8 4.9 6.4 

Built up tolerance 20.0 24.5 11.7 6.6 10.9 

Spent month or more on drug 21.2 21.9 12.1 10.2 12.9 

Used drug more than intended 20.3 21.5 13.7 8.7 12.1 

Reduced important activities 6.3 6.9 3.4 2.0 3.2 

Caused psychological problems 10.0 7.7 4.2 2.7 4.1 

Caused health problems 4.6 3.9 2.0 1.9 2.3 

Any of the above problems 39.0 39.8 24.8 16.7 22.8 

2 or more of the above problems 25.1 24.6 13.2 8.9 12.9 

3 or more of the above problems 15.4 15.7 7.6 5.1 7.7 

C. Five or More Drinks on Each of 5 or More Occasions in the Past 30 Days

(Unweighted n) (191) (736) (300) (275) (1,502)

Wanted or tried to cut down but couldn’t 31.9 23.0 23.1 25.4 24.6 

Built up tolerance 47.3 59.6 39.7 31.3 42.3 

Spent month or more on drug 59.2 55.4 37.5 39.9 45.1 

Used drug more than intended 54.8 53.9 45.6 38.3 45.3 

Reduced important activities 18.7 18.3 13.0 11.5 14.2 

Caused psychological problems 23.9 19.6 18.4 15.2 17.6 

Caused health problems 11.5 11.1 10.7 10.9 10.9 

Any of the above problems 76.8 75.0 64.3 60.2 66.4 

2 or more of the above problems 65.3 63.4 45.7 45.1 51.8 

3 or more of the above problems 46.8 49.6 33.5 26.9 36.1 

Note 1: The definitions of these problems are different in number and kind from those used in the 1994 NHSDA and earlier years. 

Therefore, data in this table cannot be compared directly with Main Findings data prior to 1995.

Note 2: Questions asked were: In the past 12 months, indicate: (1) If you wanted or tried to stop or cut down on your use of that drug but

found that you couldn’t. (2) Whether you had built up a tolerance for the drug so that the same amount had less effect than

before. (3) Whether you had a period of a month or more when you spent a great deal of time getting or using the drug, or

getting over its effects. (4) Whether you have used that kind of drug much more often or in larger amounts than you intended. 

(5) Whether your use of the drug often kept you from working, going to school, taking care of children, or engaging in

recreational activities. (6) Whether your use of the drug caused you to have any emotional or psychological problems–such as

feeling uninterested in things, feeling depressed, feeling suspicious of people, feeling paranoid, or having strange ideas. (7)

Whether your use of the drug caused you any health problems–such as liver disease, stomach disease, pancreatitis, feet

tingling, numbness, memory problems, an accidental overdose, a persistent cough, a seizure or fit, hepatitis, an accidental

overdose, or abscesses.

Respondents with missing data on problems are coded as not having problems. 1

Beginning in 1997, reports of past year drug-related problems were disregarded in the absence of indications of past year use on the 2

alcohol answer sheet. Thus, the 1998 total population estimates are directly comparable to those from 1997 but not 1995 and 1996,

which included all reports of drug-related problems in such estimates.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
139

Table 9.4 Percentage Reporting Components of Dependence in the Past Year Attributed to

Cigarette Use for the Total Population, Past Year Users, and Those Who Currently

Smoke a Pack or More a Day, by Age Group: 1998 

Problems in the Past Year 

Attributed to Cigarette Use 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total 1

Age Group in Years

A. Total Population2

Wanted or tried to cut down but couldn’t 8.4 20.7 16.2 11.1 12.8 

Built up tolerance 7.5 18.1 11.7 6.9 9.1 

Spent month or more on drug 8.8 22.0 16.1 10.7 12.8 

Used drug more than intended 7.8 19.5 14.0 9.4 11.3 

Reduced important activities 2.1 2.9 1.7 1.6 1.9 

Caused psychological problems 1.2 2.5 1.8 1.3 1.5 

Caused health problems 3.1 5.9 3.7 3.5 3.8 

Any of the above problems 13.3 29.8 22.9 15.6 18.3 

2 or more of the above problems 10.0 24.3 17.9 11.8 14.2 

3 or more of the above problems 7.3 18.6 13.1 8.3 10.3 

B. Smoked Cigarettes at Least Once in the Past Year

(Unweighted n) (1,534) (3,022) (1,618) (2,013) (8,187)

Wanted or tried to cut down but couldn’t 35.2 43.8 44.2 41.5 42.0 

Built up tolerance 31.6 38.5 31.9 25.8 29.9 

Spent month or more on drug 37.1 46.8 44.1 40.3 42.0 

Used drug more than intended 32.9 41.5 38.4 35.2 36.8 

Reduced important activities 8.9 6.2 4.7 6.2 6.1 

Caused psychological problems 5.2 5.3 4.8 5.0 5.0 

Caused health problems 13.2 12.5 10.0 13.0 12.3 

Any of the above problems 56.0 63.3 62.6 58.4 60.0 

2 or more of the above problems 42.0 51.6 48.9 44.1 46.3 

3 or more of the above problems 30.9 39.5 35.9 31.2 33.7 

C. Currently Smoke About a Pack or More Per Day

(Unweighted n) (79) (525) (437) (815) (1,856)

Wanted or tried to cut down but couldn’t * 62.6 63.4 55.1 57.7 

Built up tolerance * 59.3 45.9 35.6 41.0 

Spent month or more on drug * 70.2 61.5 53.7 57.5 

Used drug more than intended * 65.5 55.9 46.4 50.8 

Reduced important activities * 9.0 8.2 7.5 8.1 

Caused psychological problems * 8.6 6.5 6.4 6.8 

Caused health problems * 20.4 18.8 19.8 20.0 

Any of the above problems * 84.5 79.5 75.2 77.4 

2 or more of the above problems * 74.6 68.1 59.2 63.1 

3 or more of the above problems * 65.3 55.6 43.1 48.5 

Note 1: The definitions of these problems are different in number and kind from those used in the 1994 NHSDA and earlier years. 

Therefore, data in this table cannot be compared directly with Main Findings data prior to 1995.

Note 2: Questions asked were: In the past 12 months, indicate: (1) If you wanted or tried to stop or cut down on your use of that drug but

found that you couldn’t. (2) Whether you had built up a tolerance for the drug so that the same amount had less effect than

before. (3) Whether you had a period of a month or more when you spent a great deal of time getting or using the drug, or getting

over its effects. (4) Whether you have used that kind of drug much more often or in larger amounts than you intended. (5)

Whether your use of the drug often kept you from working, going to school, taking care of children, or engaging in recreational

activities. (6) Whether your use of the drug caused you to have any emotional or psychological problems–such as feeling

uninterested in things, feeling depressed, feeling suspicious of people, feeling paranoid, or having strange ideas. (7) Whether

your use of the drug caused you any health problem–such as liver disease, stomach disease, pancreatitis, feet tingling,

numbness, memory problems, an accidental overdose, a persistent cough, a seizure or fit, hepatitis, an accidental overdose, or

abscesses.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Respondents with missing data on problems are coded as not having problems. 1

Beginning in 1997, reports of past year drug-related problems were disregarded in the absence of indications of past year use on the 2

tobacco answer sheet. Thus, the 1998 total population estimates are directly comparable to those from 1997 but not 1995 and 1996,

which included all reports of drug-related problems in such estimates.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
140
See, for example, NIDA (1991) for the 1990 NHSDA; OAS (1993) for the 1991 NHSDA; OAS (1995a) for the 1992 1

NHSDA; OAS (1995b) for the 1993 NHSDA; OAS (1996a) for the 1994 NHSDA; OAS (1997) for the 1995 NHSDA; OAS

(1998a) for the 1996 NHSDA; and OAS (1999a) for the 1997 NHSDA. 

141

Chapter 10: Drug Use Patterns

Introduction

Preceding chapters in this report present findings from the 1998 NHSDA mainly in terms of individual

drugs and problems associated with use of those drugs. Presenting information on drugs individually allows

the inspection of correlates of use for the various substances, as well as age-related patterns of use. Another

important perspective on drug use in America, however, involves patterns of use. Examination of drugs used

in combination, age at first use of various drugs, and use of needles (which puts individuals at high risk of

contracting the human immunodeficiency virus [HIV]) can reveal a more complete picture of substance use.

A few tables shown earlier in this report (e.g., Tables 3.8, 7.10, 8.7) presented estimates about drugs

used in combination with other drugs. These tables show a consistent pattern; use of one type of drug often

is associated with use of other drugs. These findings are consistent with the literature on multiple drug use

(e.g., Bachman, Wadsworth, O’Malley, Johnston, & Schulenberg, 1997; Everett, Giovino, Warren, Crossett,

& Kann, 1998). Individuals may use more than one drug for a variety of reasons, including substituting (or

preventing withdrawal) when a primary drug is unavailable, enhancing or altering the effect of a primary drug,

or masking its side effects (Stimmel, 1993).

This chapter further examines patterns of multiple drug use (excluding tobacco) among the 1998

NHSDA-surveyed population. It also includes important findings on age at first drug use and rates of needle

use. Consistent with previous NHSDA Main Findings and other research (e.g., Chen & Kandel, 1995; Dewit

et al., 1997; Kandel et al., 1992; Warren et al., 1997), cigarettes, alcohol, and inhalants tend to be first used

at relatively early ages, whereas use of cocaine and heroin usually begins later. 

1

Needle use continues to be an important public health and policy issue. The well-established link

between needle use and HIV infection suggests that the continued surveillance of national trends in needle use

is essential. Although the NHSDA may underrepresent some subpopulations whose members are most likely

to inject drugs (e.g., homeless people), the data provide important information on needle use in the U.S. civilian,

noninstitutionalized population aged 12 or older.

Multiple Drug Use (Tables 10.1 to 10.3)

As indicated in Table 10.1, nearly half of the respondents in the 1998 NHSDA reported using only one

substance in their lifetime (47%). For almost all of these single-substance users, the substance used was

alcohol (98% of the single-substance users). Almost 19% reported using two substances, and 16% reported

using three or more substances. Multiple drug use was more common among young adults (aged 18 to 34) than

among adolescents or adults aged 35 or older.

Tables 10.2 and 10.3 provide information about drug use patterns for the surveyed population during

the past year and past month. Use of alcohol only was the most common pattern of substance use for all age

groups for both of these time periods. Rates of use of alcohol only were particularly high among respondents

aged 26 or older. The rate of using both alcohol and an illicit drug was highest among respondents aged 18

to 25 for both past year (27%) and past month (15%). The most common combination of drugs used was
142

alcohol and marijuana only, accounting for more than half of those who used two or more drugs in the past year

and past month. Overall, about 10% of the total population used two or more substances in the past year and

6% in the past month. Since 1994, the percentage of 12 to 25 year olds reporting using alcohol only in the past

month decreased from 15% to 12% among 12 to 17 year olds and from 51% to 45% for those aged 18 to 25

(see OAS, 1996a, Table 10.3).

Age at First Use (Table 10.4)

Table 10.4 presents data on the average age at first use of cigarettes, alcohol, and other drugs.

Consistent with a substantial body of literature (e.g., Kandel & Yamaguchi, 1993; Yamaguchi & Kandel,

1984a, 1984b), the NHSDA-surveyed population initiated cigarette use at a younger average age (15.5 years)

than any other drug. Alcohol, inhalant, and marijuana use also began at earlier ages than the use of other

drugs, such as hallucinogens, heroin, and cocaine. Among adults aged 18 to 34, cigarette use typically began

around age 15; alcohol, marijuana, and inhalants first were used around age 16; and other drugs (e.g., cocaine,

hallucinogens, psychotherapeutics, and heroin) first were used between the ages of 17 and 21. 

Table 10.4 appears to show much lower average age of drug use initiation for persons aged 12 to 17

than for older age groups. This pattern, however, is at least partially due to the fact that the average age of

initiation cannot be greater than the age of the respondents in that group. Consequently, for the 12 to 17 year

olds, only relatively young ages of first use (i.e., 17 years or less) are included in the computation of average

age of initiation. There might be real differences in the average age of drug use initiation for the birth cohorts

presented in Table 10.4, but such differences cannot be readily discerned from data on reported age of first use

until all cohorts have passed through early adulthood.

Going back as far as 1965, NHSDA data have been used to estimate the incidence (or number of

occurrences) of first time use of selected substances in each year (see Johnson et al., 1996, and OAS, 1999d,

for details). These procedures also provide estimates of the average age of first-time users in each year. These

estimates indicate that the mean age of first use for most substances has declined over the past 30 years. The

mean age of first use of marijuana declined from a high of 20.0 years among those who first used the drug in

1966 to 17.1 among new users in 1997 (OAS, 1999d, Table 41). The mean age of first use was somewhat

higher in 1997 than in 1996 (16.6); continued monitoring is needed to determine if age of first use is increasing.

The mean age of first use of cocaine generally increased from the early 1970s to the late 1980s, then showed

a relatively steady decrease until 1997, when the mean age at first use increased from 19.0 (1996) to 20.3

(1997) (OAS, 1999d, Table 42). As with marijuana, it remains to be seen whether this increase is the beginning

of an upward trend in age at first use of cocaine. The mean age of first use of alcohol declined from around

18 among new alcohol users in the late 1960s to 16.1 among new users in 1996 (the last available year of data)

(OAS, 1999d, Table 46). In contrast, the mean age of first use of cigarettes remained fairly stable between

15 and 16 years of age from the early 1960s to 1996 (OAS, 1999d, Table 47).

Needle Use (Table 10.5)

Approximately 1.3% of the respondents in the 1998 NHSDA reported drug use with needles in their

lifetime. As indicated in Table 10.5, persons aged 18 or older were two to four times more likely than youths

aged 12 to 17 to have used an illicit drug with a needle. Youths aged 12 to 17 were less likely than any other

age group to have injected drugs, but there were no significant differences among the adult age groups.

Some gender differences were found in lifetime injection drug use. In the total population and among

18 to 25 year olds and those 35 or older, needle use was significantly more common among males than females.

Among 12 to 17 year olds and 26 to 34 year olds, there were no gender differences in the rates of needle use.
143

Lifetime needle use was not related to race/ethnicity, population density, region, or education for the total

population or any age group. Few differences in needle use by current employment were found: For the total

population, needle use was higher among full-time than part-time workers and higher among the unemployed

than part-time workers.

Discussion

Almost half of the respondents had used only one substance in their lifetime, and for 98% of these

single-substance users (47% of the total population), that substance was alcohol. An additional 35% reported

using alcohol in combination with at least one illicit drug in their lifetime, and 1.0% had used illicit drugs but

had not used alcohol. In the past month, 46% of the total population had used only alcohol, 5% had used

alcohol and another substance, and 0.8% had used only illicit drugs. The most common pattern of use of

alcohol and illicit drugs was the use of alcohol and marijuana.

For each time frame, rates of use of alcohol only were higher among adults age groups than among

youths aged 12 to 17. For illicit drug use only, however, rates were highest among 12 to 17 year olds. Use

of both alcohol and illicit drugs in the past year and past month was highest among young adults aged 18 to

25.

As in previous NHSDA surveys, estimated average ages of drug use initiation were lower for

cigarettes, alcohol, inhalants, and marijuana than for hallucinogens, cocaine, heroin, and nonmedical use of

psychotherapeutic drugs. Finally, lifetime rates of needle use were relatively low. Needle use was more

common among males than females, and among adults aged 18 or older compared to 12 to 17 year olds. No

significant relationships were found between needle use and race/ethnicity or population density, and few

differences were found by region, level of educational attainment, and current employment status. 


	 



 

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148

Table 10.5 Percentage Reporting Drug Use with a Needle in Their Lifetime, by Age Group 

and Demographic Characteristics: 1998

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 0.3 1.1 1.1 1.5 1.3 

Gender

Male 0.5 1.7 1.2 2.0 1.7 

Female 0.2 0.4 1.1 1.1 0.9 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 0.4 1.3 1.2 1.5 1.3 

Black, non-Hispanic 0.1 0.5 1.0 2.3 1.5 

Hispanic 0.3 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.9 

Population Density

Large metro 0.3 1.2 1.2 1.6 1.3 

Small metro 0.4 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.1 

Nonmetro 0.4 1.0 0.9 1.7 1.4 

Region

Northeast 0.2 0.9 * 1.5 1.1 

North Central 0.4 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.0 

South 0.2 1.0 1.9 1.4 1.3 

West 0.5 1.3 1.0 2.2 1.7 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 1.3 2.8 1.5 1.6 

High school graduate N/A 0.9 1.6 1.4 1.3 

Some college N/A 1.5 0.6 2.4 1.9 

College graduate N/A * * 1.0 0.8 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 1.3 1.1 1.9 1.6 

Part-time N/A 0.5 0.3 1.2 0.9 

Unemployed N/A 1.1 2.8 6.2 4.1 

Other N/A 1.2 1.1 0.8 4

0.8 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA 

Main Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 2

n=18,722).

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 3

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
149

Chapter 11: Risk of Using Drugs, Ease of Getting Drugs, and Risky Behaviors

Introduction

Since 1996, the NHSDA has included questions on respondents’ perceptions of the risk of using

various drugs, their perceptions of the ease of obtaining such drugs, and other topics related to obtaining and

using drugs (i.e., reports of having been approached by someone offering to sell drugs, driving while under the

influence of drugs or alcohol, and riding without a seat belt). The relationships between substance use and the

above topics are examined in this chapter. Previous studies of adolescent and adult populations repeatedly

showed that perceptions of risk from using substances and perceptions of the ease of obtaining substances are

highly correlated with substance use (Bachman, Johnson, & O’Malley, 1998; Fromme, Katz, D’Amico, 1997;

Harrison & Pottieger, 1996; OAS, 1994; Resnicow, Smith, Harrison, & Drucker, 1999; Yarnold, 1998), as

is driving without a seatbelt (Goldbaum, Remington, Powell, Hogelin, & Gentry, 1996; Maron et al., 1986;

Oleckno & Blacconiere, 1990). 

It should be noted, however, that analyses conducted in this chapter are based on cross-sectional tests

of association; therefore, causal linkages cannot be established and should not be inferred. For example, it

cannot be determined whether perceptions of few risks from substance use caused respondents to use

substances, or whether their use of substances influenced their reported perception of the risks of use. 

Perceptions of Risk of Using Illicit Drugs, Alcohol, and Cigarettes (Tables 11.1 and 11.2)

Table 11.1 presents respondents’ perceptions of how much people risk harming themselves by using

marijuana, cocaine, heroin, alcohol, and cigarettes in various frequencies and quantities. A majority of

respondents perceived great risk for people who smoked marijuana regularly (once or twice a week: 58%), used

cocaine at least once a month (76%), tried heroin once or twice (79%), had four or five alcoholic drinks nearly

every day (76%), had five or more drinks once or twice a week (54%), or smoked one or more packs of

cigarettes a day (68%). Only about 42%, however, perceived occasional marijuana use (once a month) as

putting one at great risk. More than 90% considered use of cocaine or heroin once or twice a week to be very

risky.

In all of the adult age categories, the percentage reporting great risk from using marijuana, cocaine,

heroin, alcohol, or cigarettes increased steadily with age. For example, although only about 44% of 18 to 25

year olds saw regular marijuana smoking as a great risk, approximately 52% of adults aged 26 to 34 and 63%

of adults age 35 or older saw this type of drug use as a great risk. Approximately 54% of adolescents perceived

great risk of harm from regular marijuana use, 31% perceived great risk from occasional marijuana use, and

47% perceived great risk from drinking five or more drinks of alcohol once or twice a week. For every other

drug use behavior, however, youths aged 12 to 17 were less likely than any other age group to report

perceptions of great risk. This difference was especially noteworthy for risks regarding trying heroin once or

twice, which was perceived to be a great risk by only 53% of youths compared to more than 70% of those aged

18 or older.

Table 11.1 also shows that there were few differences in perceptions of great risk between the 1997

and 1998 NHSDAs. Specifically, those aged 18 to 25 were less likely to report perceptions of great risk from

smoking marijuana once a month in 1998 than in 1997 (26% vs. 29%), and those aged 26 to 34 were less likely

to perceive great risk from using cocaine once a month (72% in 1998 vs. 76% in 1997) and from trying heroin

once or twice (77% in 1998 vs. 80% in 1997). 
150

In Table 11.2, the prevalences of perceptions of great risk resulting from use of different drugs are

presented by whether respondents had used any illicit drugs in the past year. Generally, respondents who had

used any illicit drug in the past year were less likely than those who had not used illicit drugs to report perceiving

great risk from use of the various drugs. For example, only 18% of those who had used any illicit drug in the

past year perceived great risk from smoking marijuana once or twice a week compared with approximately 63%

of those who had not used any illicit drug in the past year. The only exceptions to this general pattern were

among adolescents where youths who had or had not used any illicit drug in the past year were about equally

likely to perceive great risk from using cocaine once or twice a week and where youths who had used an illicit

drug in the past year were more likely than those who had not to perceive great risk from trying heroin once or

twice. 

Perceptions of Ease or Difficulty of Getting Illicit Drugs (Tables 11.3 and 11.4)

Table 11.3 presents the percentages of respondents who reported that they thought drugs were fairly easy

or very easy to get, if one wanted to get such drugs. Generally, nearly two times as many respondents perceived

that it would be easy to obtain marijuana compared with “crack,” lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and heroin.

Although heroin was the substance reported by the smallest percentage of respondents as easy or fairly easy to

obtain, the percentage was substantial (28%). Even among adolescents, 21% perceived that heroin would be easy

to obtain.

Table 11.3 also shows that there were several differences in perceptions of ease of obtaining substances

between the 1997 and 1998 NHSDAs, particularly among the two oldest age groups. Overall and among adults

aged 26 to 34, fewer respondents in 1998 than in 1997 perceived that cocaine would be easy or fairly easy to

obtain (41% in 1997 vs. 38% in 1998 for the total population, and 46% in 1997 vs. 42% in 1998 for 26 to 34

year olds). Additionally, in the total population and the two oldest age groups, crack cocaine and LSD were

significantly less likely to have been perceived as easy to obtain in 1998 compared to 1997. Similarly, heroin

was less likely to have been perceived as easy to obtain among the total population and the 35 or older age group

in 1998 compared to 1997. 

In Table 11.4, the percentages who reported that they thought getting each drug would be fairly or very

easy are presented by whether respondents reported any illicit drug use in the past year. Generally, respondents

who had used any illicit drug in the past year were more likely than those who had not used any illicit drug to

perceive that it would be easy or fairly easy to obtain various drugs. For example, approximately 88% of those

who had used any illicit drug in the past year perceived that it would be easy or fairly easy to get marijuana

compared with 55% of those who had not used any illicit drug in the past year. The exceptions to this general

pattern were the perceived ease of obtaining heroin among all age groups and the perceived ease of obtaining LSD

among adults aged 26 or older. In each of these comparisons, those who had used or had not used illicit drugs

in the past year were equally likely to perceive that these substances would be easy or fairly easy to obtain.

Respondents’ Reports of Having Been Approached by Someone Selling Drugs (Table 11.5)

Table 11.5 shows the percentage of respondents who reported that they had been approached by someone

selling illicit drugs in the past month. Overall, nearly 6% of the total population aged 12 or older said they had

been approached. Young adults aged 18 to 25 (17%) were the most likely to report having been approached by

an illicit drug seller, followed by adolescents (13%), adults aged 26 or older (6%), and older adults (2%). Overall

and among each age group, males were more likely than females to report having been approached by someone

selling illicit drugs. 
In the interest of readability for this report, “white” is used to indicate “white, non-Hispanic” and “black” 1

to indicate “black, non-Hispanic.”

151

Overall and for the two older age groups, blacks and Hispanics were more likely than whites to report

having been approached by someone selling illicit drugs. Among 12 to 17 year olds, white and Hispanic youths 1

were more likely than black youths to report having been approached by an illicit drug seller.

Overall and for the youngest age group, respondents living in large and small metropolitan areas were

more likely than those in nonmetropolitan areas to report having been approached by someone who was selling

illicit drugs. No differences among regions were found.

Adult education and current employment were factors associated with whether one had been approached

by someone selling illicit drugs. Overall and among young adults and those aged 26 to 34, those with less than

a high school education were significantly more likely than respondents in each of the other educational categories

to report such contact. Overall and among those aged 26 to 34, unemployed adults were more likely than those

in the other employment categories to report having been approached by someone selling illicit drugs. Among

those aged 18 to 25, unemployed adults were more likely than those employed part-time to have been approached

by someone selling drugs.

Heavy Alcohol and Illicit Drug Use and Risky Driving Behaviors (Table 11.6)

Table 11.6 presents the associations between heavy alcohol and illicit drug use and high-risk driving

behaviors that might result in harm to one’s self or others. Two kinds of high-risk driving behaviors are shown.

The first is driving under the influence of either a drug or alcohol during the past year. The second is often driving

or riding without wearing a seat belt. Only persons aged 16 or older are included in Table 11.6 because younger

persons are not legally able to drive in most States.

Past year illicit drug users were over three times as likely as the total population aged 16 or older to

report having driven under the influence (38% vs. 11%), and past month heavy alcohol users were nearly five

times as likely as the total population to have done so (50% vs. 12%). Males who used an illicit drug in the past

year were three times as likely as the total population of males to have driven under the influence (43% vs. 16%,

respectively), while females who used an illicit drug were nearly five times as likely as all females (31% vs. 7%,

respectively). Among past year illicit drug users aged 16 or older, those most likely to have driven under the

influence in the past year were males, those aged 18 to 25, whites, those living in small metropolitan areas, those

with some college or more, and those who were employed full- or part-time.

Males aged 16 or older who reported past month heavy alcohol use were around three times as likely as

the total population to report driving under the influence in the past year (49% vs. 16%, respectively). Among

past month heavy alcohol users, females were more likely to report driving under the influence than males (53%

vs. 49%, respectively). Among past month heavy alcohol users, over half of those aged 18 to 34, whites, those

living in small metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas, those living in the North Central and West regions, those

with some college and college graduates, and those employed full- or part-time reported driving under the

influence in the past year. Among heavy alcohol users, those most likely to report driving under the influence

in the past year were those aged 18 to 25, those with some college, and those employed part-time (61% to 72%).

Past year illicit drug users and past month heavy alcohol users were twice as likely as the total population

to report riding without a seat belt. Among past year illicit drug users, those most likely to report riding without

a seat belt were males (25%), those 20 years old or younger (24% to 25%), those living in nonmetropolitan areas

(31%), those with a high school education or less (27% to 28%), and those who were unemployed (36%).
152

Males aged 16 or older who reported heavy alcohol use in the past month were more likely than the total

population of males to have ridden without a seat belt (25% vs. 15%, respectively); females who reported heavy

alcohol use also were more likely than the total population of females to report having ridden without a seat belt

(20% vs. 8%, respectively). Among past month heavy alcohol users, those most likely to report riding without

a seat belt were those 20 years old or younger (approximately 30%), blacks (29%), those living in

nonmetropolitan areas (33%), those living in the Northeast (32%) and North Central regions (28%), and those

with a high school diploma (36%).

Discussion

Most people perceived that one takes great risks of harming oneself with any use of cocaine or heroin

and with heavy alcohol use nearly every day. About two-thirds of the population assigned great risk to smoking

a pack of cigarettes every day. Over half considered regular marijuana use and weekly heavy drinking to entail

great risk, although only two in five persons perceived that great risk may be associated with occasional

marijuana use. More than 90% perceived use of cocaine or heroin once or twice a week to be very risky. The

prevalences of perceptions that great risks may be incurred with drug use were generally lowest among youths

aged 12 to 17 and lower among persons who had used any illicit drug in the past year. In general, strong

associations were found between substance use and perceived risk of substance use, with respondents who used

substances being less likely to perceive great risk from use.

Clear majorities of the total population and all age groups reported that marijuana is fairly easy or very

easy to obtain. Around 40% of the adult population thought that cocaine and crack might be easily obtained,

while around 30% of adolescents thought these substances could be easily obtained. About a third of all adults

aged 18 or older considered it fairly or very easy to get heroin; only about one of five youths believed heroin

could be obtained this easily. In general, there were also strong associations between drug use and perceived ease

of obtaining drugs, with respondents who used drugs being more likely to perceive that it is easy to obtain them.

About 6% of the population aged 12 or older reported being approached during the past month by

someone offering to sell an illicit drug. Such contact initiated by a drug seller was more prevalent among those

aged 12 to 25 than among older age groups. Among adolescents and young adults, being approached by a drug

seller was generally more common among males, whites and Hispanics, and those residing in large and small

metropolitan areas.

Finally, past year illicit drug use and heavy alcohol use were highly related to high-risk driving behaviors.

In particular, driving while under the influence during the past year was reported by half of the heavy drinkers

and by about 40% of past year illicit drug users. The co-occurrence of the use of illicit drugs or heavy amounts

of alcohol with driving under the influence and other risky behaviors provides support for the view that substance

use is one of several behaviors that make up a syndrome of problem behaviors (Donovan, Jessor, & Costa, 1999;

Hawkins, Arthur, & Catalano, 1997; Hawkins, Catalano, & Miller, 1992; Kandel, Simcha-Fagan, & Davies,

1986; Newcomb & Felix-Ortiz, 1992) and that this pattern occurs among adults as well as adolescents.
153

Table 11.1 Trends in Percentage Reporting Perceptions of Great Risk of Using Illicit Drugs, Alcohol, or Cigarettes, by Age Group: 1997

and 1998 

Age Group in Years/Survey Year

12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Risk Behavior 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998

(Unweighted n) (7,844) (6,778) (6,239) (7,318) (4,387) (4,537) (6,035) (6,867) (24,505) (25,500)

Marijuana

Smoke once a month 30.9 30.8 28.8 26.3 35.3 32.8 51.0 49.4 43.4 41.8 a

 (Unweighted n) (7,784) (6,734) (6,187) (7,268) (4,338) (4,497) (5,940) (6,758) (24,249) (25,257)

Smoke once or twice a week 54.0 54.4 46.1 43.9 52.8 51.5 64.1 63.2 58.8 57.9 

 (Unweighted n) (7,724) (6,647) (6,132) (7,213) (4,301) (4,455) (5,871) (6,666) (24,028) (24,981)

Cocaine

Use once a month 54.4 54.3 70.6 69.0 76.1 72.4 84.0 82.8 77.9 76.4 a a

 (Unweighted n) (7,787) (6,730) (6,193) (7,274) (4,344) (4,497) (5,951) (6,774) (24,275) (25,275)

Use once or twice a week 82.4 81.6 90.8 89.6 92.9 91.7 94.9 94.1 92.8 91.8 a

 (Unweighted n) (7,760) (6,708) (6,162) (7,250) (4,330) (4,467) (5,922) (6,730) (24,174) (25,155)

Heroin

Try once or twice 53.5 52.8 72.5 72.0 80.0 76.9 87.7 86.2 80.9 79.4 a

 (Unweighted n) (7,778) (6,731) (6,184) (7,272) (4,346) (4,497) (5,947) (6,776) (24,255) (25,276)

Use once or twice a week 82.2 81.7 92.8 92.4 95.6 94.5 96.5 96.5 94.4 94.1 

 (Unweighted n) (7,749) (6,689) (6,157) (7,245) (4,326) (4,471) (5,916) (6,730) (24,148) (25,135)

Alcohol

Four or five drinks nearly

 every day 65.3 66.4 68.4 67.9 76.3 74.7 80.2 79.5 76.5 75.9 

 (Unweighted n) (7,785) (6,737) (6,196) (7,282) (4,344) (4,496) (5,965) (6,794) (24,290) (25,309)

Five or more drinks once 

 or twice a week 46.5 47.0 42.7 41.8 47.8 48.2 60.6 59.6 54.8 54.2 

 (Unweighted n) (7,789) (6,727) (6,177) (7,278) (4,342) (4,489) (5,949) (6,762) (24,257) (25,256)

Cigarettes

Smoke one or more 

 packs per day 53.6 54.1 61.3 59.9 68.3 67.0 70.9 72.2 67.4 67.9 

 (Unweighted n) (7,818) (6,755) (6,215) (7,298) (4,358) (4,519) (5,997) (6,823) (24,388) (25,395)

Note 1: Questions asked were: How do you think people risk harming themselves physically and in other ways when they do each of the following activities? Response choices were for each of 11

activities: (1) no risk, (2) slight risk, (3) moderate risk, and (4) great risk. The unweighted n’s for each age group are smaller than those shown in Table 1.1 because of differing patterns of

nonresponse to the risk questions across age groups.

Note 2: Due to improved procedures, these estimates are not comparable with previous year estimates and should not be used for trends with pre-1994 data.

-- Not available.

Difference between 1997 estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .05 level. a

Difference between 1997 estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .01 level. b

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1997 and 1998.
154

Table 11.2 Percentage Reporting Perceptions of Great Risk of Using Illicit Drugs, by 

Use of Any Illicit Drug in the Past Year and Age Group: 1998 

Age Group in Years/Percentage Reporting

Great Risk of Using Drugs No Yes Total

Any Illicit Drug

Use in Past Year

Total

Smoke marijuana once or twice a week 62.7 18.1 57.9 

Use cocaine once or twice a week 93.0 82.2 91.8 

Try LSD once or twice 74.5 43.1 71.1 

Try heroin once or twice 80.8 68.3 79.4 

12-17 Years 

Smoke marijuana once or twice a week 61.5 18.0 54.4 

Use cocaine once or twice a week 81.9 79.7 81.6 

Try LSD once or twice 49.9 36.5 47.7 

Try heroin once or twice 51.5 59.2 52.8 

18-25 Years 

Smoke marijuana once or twice a week 55.0 14.7 43.9 

Use cocaine once or twice a week 91.8 83.8 89.6 

Try LSD once or twice 63.2 36.9 56.0 

Try heroin once or twice 73.2 69.0 72.0 

26-34 Years 

Smoke marijuana once or twice a week 56.1 20.3 51.5 

Use cocaine once or twice a week 92.9 83.4 91.7 

Try LSD once or twice 70.2 47.4 67.3 

Try heroin once or twice 77.9 70.3 76.9 

35+ Years 

Smoke marijuana once or twice a week 65.7 20.6 63.2 

Use cocaine once or twice a week 94.8 81.2 94.1 

Try LSD once or twice 81.1 50.5 79.4 

Try heroin once or twice 87.1 70.9 86.2 

Note 1: Questions asked were: How much do you think people risk harming themselves physically and in other ways when they do each

of the following activities? Response choices were for each of 11 activities: (1) no risk, (2) 

slight risk, (3) moderate risk, and (4) great risk.

Note 2: The unweighted n’s for each age group are smaller than those shown in Table 1.1 because of differing patterns of 

nonresponse to the risk questions across age groups.

Note 3: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in 

NHSDA Main Findings prior to 1994.

LSD=lysergic acid diethylamide.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
155

Table 11.3 Trends in Percentage of Respondents Reporting Illicit Drugs Are Fairly Easy to Get or Very Easy to Get, by Age Group: 1997 

and 1998 

Age Group in Years/Survey Year

12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total 12+ Years

Drug 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998 

(Unweighted n) (7,844) (6,778) (6,239) (7,318) (4,387) (4,537) (6,035) (6,867) (24,505) (25,500)

Marijuana

(fairly or very easy to get) 57.9 56.3 77.0 77.1 68.4 66.9 54.5 52.2 60.1 58.2 

(Unweighted n) (7,782) (6,714) (6,186) (7,259) (4,336) (4,472) (5,880) (6,708) (24,184) (25,153)

Cocaine

(fairly or very easy to get) 30.4 29.9 44.1 44.2 46.3 41.6 39.9 37.6 40.5 38.3 b a

(Unweighted n) (7,765) (6,697) (6,166) (7,237) (4,322) (4,471) (5,859) (6,679) (24,112) (25,084)

“Crack”

(fairly or very easy to get) 28.9 28.7 41.1 38.8 43.0 38.3 39.0 35.7 38.8 35.8 b a b

(Unweighted n) (7,770) (6,699) (6,167) (7,246) (4,321) (4,470) (5,859) (6,682) (24,117) (25,097)

LSD

(fairly or very easy to get) 28.0 26.1 39.4 39.7 31.5 28.6 32.8 29.6 32.9 30.4 a a b

(Unweighted n) (7,744) (6,690) (6,156) (7,225) (4,311) (4,457) (5,844) (6,670) (24,055) (25,042)

Heroin

(fairly or very easy to get) 21.4 21.2 30.7 28.3 30.6 28.4 32.7 29.6 30.9 28.3 a b

(Unweighted n) (7,771) (6,703) (6,165) (7,242) (4,315) (4,468) (5,855) (6,678) (24,106) (25,091)

Note 1: Questions asked were: How difficult do you think it would be for you to get each of the following types of drugs, if you wanted some? Response choices were for each of five 

drugs: (1) probably impossible, (2) very difficult, (3) fairly difficult, (4) fairly easy, and (5) very easy.

LSD=lysergic acid diethylamide.

Difference between 1997 estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .05 level. a

Difference between 1997 estimate and 1998 estimate is statistically significant at the .01 level. b

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1997 and 1998.
156

Table 11.4 Percentage Reporting That Illicit Drugs Are Fairly or Very Easy to Obtain, by 

Use of Any Illicit Drug in the Past Year and Age Group: 1998 

Age Group in Years/Percentage Saying 

Drug Is Easy or Fairly Easy to Obtain No Yes Total

Any Illicit Drug

Use in Past Year

Total

Marijuana 54.6 88.2 58.2 

LSD 29.3 39.4 30.4 

Cocaine 36.6 52.8 38.3 

“Crack” 34.8 43.7 35.8 

Heroin 28.2 29.7 28.3 

12-17 Years 

Marijuana 50.1 87.8 56.3 

LSD 21.8 47.7 26.1 

Cocaine 27.4 42.8 29.9 

“Crack” 27.3 35.9 28.7 

Heroin 20.7 23.9 21.2 

18-25 Years 

Marijuana 70.8 93.7 77.1 

LSD 36.2 48.9 39.7 

Cocaine 39.9 55.5 44.2 

“Crack” 37.3 42.6 38.8 

Heroin 28.4 28.3 28.3 

26-34 Years 

Marijuana 63.7 88.4 66.9 

LSD 28.0 33.0 28.6 

Cocaine 39.3 56.9 41.6 

“Crack” 36.8 48.7 38.3 

Heroin 28.1 30.5 28.4 

35+ Years 

Marijuana 50.4 82.5 52.2 

LSD 29.6 29.0 29.6 

Cocaine 36.7 52.6 37.6 

“Crack” 35.1 45.9 35.7 

Heroin 29.3 33.8 29.6 

Note 1: Questions asked were: How difficult do you think it would be for you to get each of the following types of drugs, if you

wanted some? Response choices were for each of five drugs: (1) probably impossible, (2) very difficult, (3) fairly difficult,

(4) fairly easy, and (5) very easy.

Note 2: The unweighted n’s for each age group are smaller than those shown in Table 1.1 because of differing patterns of

nonresponse to the risk questions across age groups.

Note 3: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA

Main Findings prior to 1994.

LSD=lysergic acid diethylamide.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
157

Table 11.5 Percentages Reporting Being Approached in the Past Month by

Someone Offering to Sell Drugs, by Age Group and Demographic

Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total 13.4 16.5 6.1 2.4 6.0 

Gender

Male 14.9 22.6 8.2 3.4 8.0 

Female 11.9 10.3 4.0 1.5 4.0 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 14.1 17.4 5.2 1.6 5.2 

Black, non-Hispanic 9.6 15.0 10.7 6.7 9.1 

Hispanic 15.5 16.6 7.9 4.8 9.0 

Population Density

Large metro 14.6 16.0 6.7 3.0 6.4 

Small metro 14.2 18.2 6.2 2.0 6.3 

Nonmetro 10.1 14.3 4.5 1.9 4.6 

Region

Northeast 13.3 16.9 4.4 2.1 5.3 

North Central 13.0 17.7 7.2 1.7 5.8 

South 13.2 16.1 6.5 3.0 6.3 

West 14.3 15.6 5.8 2.6 6.2 

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 22.2 13.5 2.6 7.2 

High school graduate N/A 16.1 7.5 2.7 5.6 

Some college N/A 16.2 3.1 2.2 5.2 

College graduate N/A 8.2 4.2 2.1 2.9 

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 16.9 6.1 3.2 5.7 

Part-time N/A 15.7 6.9 2.2 6.5 

Unemployed N/A 21.4 13.4 6.2 11.9 

Other N/A 15.0 3.3 1.1 4

2.8 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA

Main Findings prior to 1994.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 2

n=18,722).

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted 3

n=18,722).

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
158

Table 11.6 Percentage of Those Aged 16 or Older Reporting Driving Under the Influence of Alcohol or Illicit

Drugs in the Past Year or Often Driving or Riding in a Car Without Wearing a Seat Belt, by Past 

Year Illicit Drug Use, Heavy Alcohol Use, and Demographic Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic in the Wearing in the Wearing in the Wearing

Characteristic Past Year Seat Belt Past Year Seat Belt Past Year Seat Belt

Illicit Drug Use Heavy Alcohol Use

in the Past Year in the Past Month Total

Drove Drove or Drove Drove or Drove Drove or

Under the Rode Under the Rode Under the Rode

Influence Without Influence Without Influence Without

Often Often Often

Total 38.3 21.0 50.2 23.8 11.0 11.5 

Gender

Male 42.8 25.4 49.3 24.8 15.7 15.1 

Female 31.3 14.3 53.3 19.6 6.7 8.2 

Age Group in Years

16-17 26.8 24.2 37.4 32.3 8.9 15.3 

18-20 46.3 24.7 67.9 28.5 21.1 17.4 

21-25 50.9 23.4 62.0 24.9 22.1 16.7 

25-34 37.3 21.2 52.7 25.9 14.3 13.4 

35+ 31.0 17.0 40.4 20.4 8.0 9.6 

Race/Ethnicity1

White, non-Hispanic 42.1 21.0 54.5 24.0 12.5 11.3 

Black, non-Hispanic 23.6 21.0 28.9 29.0 5.8 13.7 

Hispanic 33.1 19.0 35.0 17.5 7.6 11.5 

Population Density

Large metro 34.5 16.5 44.2 19.5 10.5 10.4 

Small metro 41.8 21.9 55.2 22.5 12.0 12.0 

Nonmetro 39.9 30.9 50.8 33.1 10.6 12.7 

Region

Northeast 34.6 23.5 41.4 32.2 10.7 13.7 

North Central 37.7 25.1 52.9 28.1 13.5 14.0 

South 40.3 23.2 48.9 21.2 9.5 11.1 

West 39.0 12.8 54.2 13.3 11.2 7.5 

Adult Education2

Less than high school 30.2 26.7 39.7 22.8 6.7 14.8 

High school graduate 38.7 26.8 46.1 35.5 9.9 14.6 

Some college 43.1 17.5 61.0 16.7 13.4 10.6 

College graduate 43.3 8.8 57.0 * 13.4 5.2 

Current Employment3

Full-time 40.7 20.5 50.6 24.0 14.8 12.6 

Part-time 44.5 17.7 71.5 23.4 11.4 10.0 

Unemployed 33.1 35.9 * * 13.5 19.3 

Other 33.1 15.6 45.9 16.1 4.4 4

8.8 

Note 1: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main Findings

prior to 1994.

Note 2: Illicit drug use indicates use at least once in the past month of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants,

hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics.

Note 3: Heavy alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of 5 or more days in the past 30 days. By

“occasion” is meant at the same time or within a couple hours of each other.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for youths aged 12 to 17. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older (unweighted n=18,722). 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
The percentages receiving substance abuse treatment may include people receiving treatment for conditions related 1

to drug and/or alcohol abuse, as well as those in treatment to stop drug and/or alcohol use. For a more detailed analysis

of NHSDA treatment data using earlier survey years, see Gerstein, Foote, and Ghadialy (1997).

159

Chapter 12: Drug and Alcohol Abuse Treatment and Workplace Programs

Introduction

Many drug and alcohol abusers need treatment, but relatively few in need of treatment receive it.

Based on NHSDA data adjusted for underestimation of hard-core drug users, Epstein and Gfroerer (1998a)

estimated that in 1996 about 9.4 million persons were in need of drug abuse treatment. Of this total, 4.1

million had less severe problems and 5.3 million more severe problems needing treatment. Only about one-third

(37%) or almost 2 million of those with more severe problems received treatment. The estimates of treatment

need were based on the proportion of the population with dependence symptoms, heavy drug use, injection drug

use, or having received treatment in the past year. As noted in Chapter 9, 1.5% of the total population reported

three or more problems with marijuana use that are considered potential signs of dependence, 0.3% reported

three or more problems with cocaine use, and 5% reported three or more problems with alcohol use. 

In this chapter, the prevalence of substance abuse treatment in the past year, the prevalence of

treatment by frequency of substance use, the perceived need for treatment, and substance abuse resources

provided in the workplace by establishment location size are discussed for the population surveyed. Because

the population surveyed by the NHSDA does not include other populations, such as homeless people not in

shelters and institutionalized persons, among whom the prevalence of drug abuse and the receipt of treatment

may be higher than in the general population (Bray & Marsden, 1999), the figures reported here may be

underestimates of the portion of the population receiving treatment. 

Prevalence of Drug and Alcohol Abuse Treatment (Table 12.1 and 12.2)

About 1% of the household population aged 12 or older (representing about 2.4 million persons)

reported receiving some type of substance abuse treatment in the past year (Table 12.1). Fewer received

treatment for drug abuse than for alcohol abuse. An estimated 0.7% (representing about 1.4 million persons)

received treatment for drug abuse, and 1.0% (representing about 2.1 million persons) received treatment for

alcohol abuse. 

1

Persons aged 18 to 25 were more likely than other age groups to have received treatment in the past

year (Table 12.2). About 2% of those aged 18 to 25 received some form of substance abuse treatment in the

past year, compared with about 1% of those aged 12 to 17 and those 26 or older. Young adults aged 18 to 25

were more likely than those in older age groups to have received drug abuse treatment in the past year and more

likely to have received alcohol abuse treatment than were those aged 12 to 17 and those 35 or older. These

higher rates of treatment among 18 to 25 year olds are consistent with their generally higher rates of drug and

alcohol use compared with other age groups.

Males were about twice as likely as females (2% vs. 1%) to have received any substance abuse

treatment in the past year. This difference was statistically significant for any substance abuse treatment and

alcohol abuse treatment. There were no significant differences across racial/ethnic categories, population

density categories, or regions in the percentage receiving treatment for alcohol abuse, drug abuse, or either.
In the interest of readability for this report, “white” is used to indicate “white, non-Hispanic” and “black” 2

to indicate “black, non-Hispanic.” 

Data reported here refer to drug and alcohol programs and policies in the location where the respondent 3

worked, not to all locations of the establishment. 

160

Prevalence of Treatment, by Frequency of Use (Table 12.3 and 12.4)

Table 12.3 presents the estimated percentages of past year marijuana and cocaine users who reported

receiving drug abuse treatment by frequency of use. Note that the percentages receiving treatment are

substantially higher than for the total population, which includes persons who use drugs and who do not.

Although only about 3% of those who used marijuana on fewer than 12 days in the past year reported receiving

drug treatment, about 6% of those who used marijuana daily or almost daily in the past year reported receiving

drug treatment. For cocaine, the NHSDA samples of heavy users were too small to allow a detailed

examination of differences in receipt of treatment.

Table 12.4 shows corresponding information for alcohol use and alcohol treatment. Respondents who

drank on 51 or more days in the past year (2.0%) were more than three times as likely as those who drank on

fewer than 12 days in the past year (0.6%) to report having received treatment for alcohol abuse.

Perceived Need for Alcohol or Drug Treatment (Table 12.5)

An estimated 0.6% of the surveyed population aged 12 or older reported they did not receive treatment

for drug or alcohol abuse in the past year and reported they perceived the need for some type of substance

abuse treatment in the past year. Perceived need for treatment was similar among age groups and by gender

among those who had not received treatment. Overall and among those aged 26 or older, blacks were more

likely than whites to perceive the need for treatment. Overall, those living in large metropolitan areas were 2

more likely than those in nonmetropolitan areas to perceive they needed treatment. Among those aged 35 or

older, residents of the Northeast were more likely than those in the North Central region to perceive the need

for treatment. Among the total population and those aged 18 to 34, those with less than a high school

education were more likely than those with more education to perceive the need for treatment. Among the total

population and those aged 18 to 25, those who were unemployed were more likely than those who were

employed full- or part-time to have perceived the need for treatment in the past year. 

Prevalence of Workplace Drug and Alcohol Programs and Policies (Table 12.6)

Table 12.6 shows that past month use of illicit drugs was lower among employees of larger

establishments although access to drug and alcohol resources in the workplace was higher among these

employees. About 5% of individuals employed in establishments with 500 or more employees used drugs in 3

the past month compared with 9% in establishments with 1 to 24 employees and 8% in establishments with 25

to 499 employees. In both small and larger establishments drug use was greater among those aged 18 to 25

than other age groups. More than 90% of individuals in large establishments with 500 or more employees

compared with about half of individuals in establishments with 1 to 24 employees were in establishments that

provided information or had a written policy about drug or alcohol abuse. Three-fourths of employees in large

establishments had access to an Employee Assistance Program (EAP) or were in establishments that tested

for drugs compared with about half of employees in medium-sized establishments or one-fourth of employees

in small establishments. 
161

Discussion

In 1998, the number of individuals receiving treatment for alcohol or drug abuse was much smaller

than the number who reported having problems resulting from their use of substances. For example, although

an estimated 10.8 million people in the U.S. noninstitutionalized population aged 12 or older reported three or

more problems related to their alcohol use in the past year (see Chapter 9), only about 2.1 million reported

receiving treatment for that use. Similarly, 1.5% and 0.3% of the population reported three or more problems

resulting from marijuana and cocaine use, respectively, while only 0.7% of the population reported receiving

treatment for illicit drug use. Young adults aged 18 to 25 were more likely than other age groups to have

received treatment in the past year, perhaps related to their higher rates of substance use.

Finally, one finding that needs further investigation and that has potentially serious implications is the

relationship between substance use and employee reports of resources concerning substance abuse in the

workplace. Namely, 1998 data show that past month use of illicit drugs was lower in larger establishments

while access to drug and alcohol resources in the workplace tended to be higher. These findings may indicate

that workplace policies and programs are having a significant and positive effect on preventing or reducing

substance use. Alternatively, larger establishments may have more stringent hiring procedures that screen out

potential alcohol and drug abusers.


	 









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Table 12.3 Percentage of Past Year Users of Marijuana or Cocaine Who Received 

Treatment in the Past Year for Drug Abuse, by Frequency of Drug Use: 1998 

Frequency of Drug Use Treatment (Unweighted n)

Percentage

Receiving

1

A. Used Marijuana in the Past Year

Total 3.7 (3,444) 

Number Receiving Treatment (in 1,000s) (701) 

Number of Days Used in Past Year 

Fewer than 12 days 3.0 (1,510) 

12-50 days (1-4 days per month) 2.8 (697) 

51-300 days (1-6 days per week) 4.6 (852) 

More than 300 days (daily or almost 6.3 (385) 

daily)

12 or more days (1+ days per month) 4.3 (1,934) 

51 or more days (1+ days per week) 5.1 (1,237) 

B. Used Cocaine in the Past Year

Total 9.9 (709) 

Number Receiving Treatment (in 1,000s) (375) 

Number of Days Used in Past Year 

Fewer than 12 days 8.5 (441) 

12-50 days (1-4 days per month) 10.3 (144) 

51-300 days (1-6 days per week) * (101) 

More than 300 days (daily or almost * (23) 

daily)

12 or more days (1+ days per month) 12.0 (268) 

51 or more days (1+ days per week) * (124) 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA 

Main Findings prior to 1994.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

The percentage receiving drug abuse treatment may include people receiving treatment related to drug abuse, as well as to those 1

in treatment to stop drug use. This category also may include some individuals who have also received alcohol abuse treatment.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.


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To ensure acceptable reliability of estimates for pregnant women and school dropouts, estimates for 1

women of childbearing age and estimates by school dropout status include data from the 1997 and 1998 NHSDAs.

Measures of family income and welfare assistance in 1998 are not strictly comparable to corresponding 2

measures in prior years. In the 1998 NHSDA, family income and receipt of welfare assistance were measured for

calendar year 1997. In comparison, these measures in the 1997 NHSDA pertained to the 12-month period prior to

the interview. In 1998, receipt of welfare assistance also was measured through multiple questions asking about

receipt at any time during 1997 of (a) “any government payments, such as temporary assistance for needy families

or public assistance, because of low income” and (b) “any other kind of welfare assistance, such as help with

getting a job, placement in education or job training programs, or help with transportation, child care, or housing.” 

In the 1997 NHSDA, respondents were asked whether they or any other family members living in the household (if

applicable) received “public assistance or welfare payments from the state or local welfare office.”

For example, the Contract With America Advancement Act of 1996 (Public Law 104-121, enacted March 3

29, 1996) stipulates that alcoholism and drug addiction may no longer be considered disabilities under the Federal

Social Security Act (42 U.S.C. 423(d)(2)). For a cost-benefit analysis of drug treatment for welfare recipients, see

Gerstein, Johnson, Larison, Harwood, and Fountain (1996).

169

Chapter 13: Substance Use Among Special Populations

Introduction

The large NHSDA sample sizes allow estimates of the prevalence of drug use to be made for a variety

of special populations, in addition to demographic subgroups defined by age, gender, race/ethnicity, population

density, region, adult education, and current employment. This chapter presents drug use prevalence

information by the following characteristics: (a) indicators of socioeconomic status, including family income,

health insurance coverage, and receipt of welfare assistance; (b) arrests or criminal-type behaviors in the past

12 months; (c) pregnancy status among women of childbearing age (i.e., ages 15 to 44); and (d) school dropout

status. Findings from this chapter are expected to be useful to policymakers and service providers who work 1

with members of these special populations and more generally to extend knowledge of how substance abuse

behaviors are distributed across important population subgroups. The final set of findings presented in this

chapter focuses on drug use among youths and their exposure to drug prevention messages.

Drug Use, by Family Income, Health Insurance Status, and Welfare Assistance (Tables 13.1 and

13.2)

This section examines the relationships of past year drug use and total family income, health insurance

status, and receipt of welfare assistance by age group. Considering the important public policy interest in drug 2

use among welfare recipients, this type of information is critical. These variables, however, are highly

3

correlated with one another. Therefore, more complex multivariate analyses would be needed to understand

fully the independent or combined effects of these socioeconomic characteristics.

Table 13.1 shows past year rates of any illicit drug use, marijuana use, and cocaine use by total family

income for calendar year 1997 and health insurance status; estimates are shown for each age group and for the

total population. For the total population, people whose total family income in 1997 was at the lowest level

(less than $9,000) were significantly more likely than people in the other income levels to have used any illicit

drug, marijuana, or cocaine in the past 12 months. Overall, people with total family incomes of $75,000 or

more also had a significantly lower rate of cocaine use compared with people having incomes of $9,000 to

$74,999, although the differences were not large. Among youths aged 12 to 17, rates of drug use were unrelated

to family income level. Among young adults aged 18 to 25, rates of any illicit drug use and marijuana use were

significantly higher for people with family incomes less than $9,000 compared with those whose family
The NHSDA estimates presented above for the percentage of youths and young adults among people in 4

households receiving welfare assistance are lower than the Census population data because the latter are restricted

to actual recipients of benefits. In comparison, NHSDA respondents would still be included in the “do receive”

welfare assistance category even if they were not the direct recipients of assistance—as long as someone in the

household was a recipient. Thus, for example, a respondent over the age of 35 who was living in the same

household with a grandchild receiving AFDC would be included in the “do receive” welfare assistance category.

170

incomes ranged from $9,000 to less than $75,000. Among young adults, those with family incomes of $75,000

or more were more likely than those with incomes of $20,000 to $74,999 to have used any illicit drug or

marijuana. Among adults aged 26 to 34, those with family incomes of less than $9,000 were about twice as

likely to use any illicit drug and marijuana compared with those with family incomes of $20,000 to $74,999.

Few differences in cocaine use by income level were found by age group. 

In the total population, people without health insurance were more than twice as likely as those with

insurance to have used any illicit drug (20% vs. 9%), marijuana (17% vs. 7%), or cocaine (4% vs. 1%) in the

past year. Drug use was not significantly related, however, to health insurance status for youths.

For the total population, the estimates of drug use were nearly twice as high among people who

reported that they or someone in their household received welfare assistance during calendar year 1997 (Table

13.2). For example, 18% of people in households where someone had received welfare in 1997 reported illicit

drug use in the 12 months prior to the interview compared with about 10% of those in households where no

family member received welfare. Among adults aged 35 or older, those who received welfare were four times

more likely than nonrecipients to have used cocaine in the past year. Findings were not consistent for other age

groups or across drugs, however. For example, no significant differences in any illicit drug use, marijuana use,

or cocaine use were found between welfare recipients and nonrecipients aged 18 to 25.

Because significant relationships between drug use and receipt of welfare assistance were not

consistently observed across the different age groups, the previous findings should be interpreted with caution.

In particular, the prevalences of past year use of any illicit drug and marijuana in 1998 were highest among

young adults and youths (see Table 2.10). Further analysis of these NHSDA data also indicate that people

aged 12 to 25 comprised about 35% of the people in households where someone received welfare assistance

(data not shown in Table 13.2), even though these two age groups comprised less than one-fourth of the total

population aged 12 or older in 1998 (Table 1.3). These NHSDA estimates are consistent with U.S. Bureau

of the Census data, which show that more than three-fourths of people receiving Aid to Families with

Dependent Children (AFDC) or General Assistance benefits were under the age of 18, and that more than threefourths of mothers receiving AFDC were under the age of 35 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996). Therefore, 4

the relationships between drug use and welfare assistance in the total population may be due in part to a

disproportionate representation of youths and young adults in the “do receive” welfare assistance category.

Multivariate analyses could help establish whether receipt of welfare assistance is an independent predictor of

drug use, or whether the observed relationship between drug use and welfare assistance in the total population

is an artifact due to the confounding influence of age. 

Drug Use and Arrests (Table 13.3)

Table 13.3 shows the relationships between past year illicit drug use, episodes of drunkenness, and

being arrested and booked for a criminal offense in the past year. Although the percentages of people who

reported being arrested and booked in the past year were low, those who used illicit drugs in the past year were

about 10 times more likely than people who had not used illicit drugs to have been arrested and booked in the

past year (8.0% vs. 0.8%). In addition, past year illicit drug users were about 12 times more likely than
Carrying a handgun would be considered a criminal behavior if a person carried an unregistered handgun 5

or carried a concealed handgun where this was not permitted.

171

nonusers to report being arrested and booked for larceny/theft; more than 20 times more likely to be arrested

and booked for such offenses as possession or sale of drugs, drunkenness, or liquor law violations; about 7

times more likely to be arrested and booked for driving under the influence; and about 6 times more likely to

be arrested and booked for burglary or on an assault charge other than aggravated assault.

Similarly, people who were drunk on 51 or more days in the past year were about 7 times more likely

to have been arrested and booked compared with people who had not been drunk this often (9.2% vs. 1.3%).

With regard to specific offenses, people who were drunk on 51 or more days in the past year were nearly 20

times more likely than people who had not been drunk this often to be arrested and booked for drunkenness or

liquor law violations; 8 times more likely to be arrested and booked for driving under the influence; and 5 to

11 times more likely to be arrested and booked for larceny or theft, assaults, and possession or sale of drugs.

Drug Use and Criminal Behaviors (Tables 13.4 and 13.5)

The 1998 NHSDA included questions about criminal or other potentially unlawful behaviors,

regardless of whether these behaviors resulted in an arrest. Both youths and adults were asked whether they

did any of the following in the past 12 months: stole or tried to steal something worth more than $50; sold

illegal drugs; carried a handgun; or attacked someone with the intent to cause serious injury. Youths also were 5

asked whether they got into a serious fight at school or took part in a gang fight in the past 12 months.

Tables 13.4 and 13.5 indicate the percentages of youths and adults, respectively, who engaged in these

different behaviors in the past year according to whether they used illicit drugs or got drunk on 51 or more days

during that same period. Also shown are estimated percentages of youths and adults who engaged in any of

the behaviors shown in the respective tables. Where estimates had adequate precision to be reported, youths

and adults who used illicit drugs or got drunk on 51 or more days in the past year were significantly more likely

than their counterparts to have engaged in each of these different behaviors. In particular, 57% of youths who

used illicit drugs and 75% of youths who were drunk on 51 or more days in the past year engaged in one or

more of the six behaviors shown in Table 13.4. These rates were more than twice the rates for youths who did

not use illicit drugs (24%) or get drunk on 51 or more days in the past year (29%). Similarly, 21% of adults

who used illicit drugs and 26% of adults who got drunk on 51 or more days in the past year engaged in one or

more of the four behaviors shown in Table 13.5 compared with about 7% to 8% of adults who did not use illicit

drugs or get drunk on 51 or more days. 

These relationships between substance use and other behaviors among youths are consistent with a

body of literature showing positive associations between delinquent behaviors and alcohol or illicit drug use

(e.g., Donovan & Jessor, 1985; DuKarm, Byrd, Auinger, & Weizman, 1996; DuRant, Kahn, Beckford, &

Woods, 1997; Ellickson, Saner, & McGuigan, 1997; Elliott, Huizinga, & Menard, 1989). Due to the crosssectional design of the NHSDA, however, these findings do not establish a causal link between illicit drug use

or being drunk on a frequent basis and these other criminal or problem behaviors. Nevertheless, these findings

do suggest the importance of framing drug abuse prevention efforts within the broader context of adolescent

behavior.
In the interest of readability for this report, “white” is used to indicate “white, non-Hispanic” and “black” 6

to indicate “black, non-Hispanic.” 

172

Drug Use, “Binge” Alcohol Use, Cigarette Use, and Pregnancy (Table 13.6)

Given the deleterious effects of drug use on human embryos and fetuses, substantial public health

attention has been directed toward estimating the number of pregnant women who use licit and illicit drugs and

trying to reduce these numbers (NIDA, 1996; Su et al., 1997). Consistent with this attention, Table 13.6

explores the relationship between pregnancy among females aged 15 to 44 and past month illicit drug use,

“binge” alcohol use (drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day during the past 30

days), and past month cigarette use. Except for women who had been pregnant for less than 1 month, these

measures of past month use indicate use during pregnancy. To ensure adequate precision of estimates for

pregnant women, estimates in Table 13.6 are based on combined data from the 1997 and 1998 NHSDAs and

represent annual average estimates for these 2 years. 

Among women aged 15 to 44 who were currently pregnant, about 3% used one or more illicit drugs

in the past month, 2% had engaged in “binge” alcohol use, and 22% were past month cigarette users. These

percentages translate to approximately 57,000 pregnant women who used any illicit drug in the past month,

48,000 who were “binge” drinkers, and almost half a million who smoked cigarettes (OAS, 1999c, Tables 18A,

22A, 23A). Women in this age group who were not pregnant were about 3 to 6 times more likely than pregnant

women to report illicit drug use or “binge” alcohol use in the past month. Women who were not pregnant also

were significantly more likely than pregnant women to be current smokers (32% vs. 22%). These findings

suggest that most women who use illicit drugs, alcohol, or cigarettes reduce or curtail their use when they

become pregnant. Other NHSDA data, however, suggest that many women who used these substances before

becoming pregnant resume their substance use after giving birth (OAS, 1998c, Table 17B). 

Although the general pattern was for pregnant women to have significantly lower rates of current illicit

drug use, “binge” alcohol use, and cigarette use compared with women who were not pregnant, there were some

notable exceptions. Specifically, rates of illicit drug use among pregnant black and Hispanic women did not

differ significantly from the corresponding rates among their counterparts who were not pregnant. Similarly, 6

black women and unmarried women who were pregnant had rates of past month cigarette use that were

comparable to the rates among their counterparts who were not pregnant.

Among women who were pregnant, those who were aged 15 to 25 or unmarried were significantly more

likely than women aged 25 to 44 and married women to have used illicit drugs in the past month; these patterns

were consistent with higher rates of illicit drug use among younger and unmarried women who were not

pregnant. With respect to race/ethnicity, black women who were pregnant were significantly more likely than

their white counterparts to be past month illicit drug users. In comparison, rates of illicit drug use in the past

month did not differ significantly between black and white women who were not pregnant. The prevalence of

current cigarette use also was significantly lower among Hispanic pregnant women compared with black

women who were pregnant.

These analyses did not control for associations between age, marital status, and education, except to

exclude pregnant women under the age of 18 from the education estimates. Consequently, associations between

substance use and marital status among pregnant women may reflect the higher rates of use among younger

pregnant women. Similarly, associations between some rates of substance use and race/ethnicity among

pregnant women could reflect racial/ethnic differences in the age and marital status of pregnant women

(National Center for Health Statistics [NCHS], 1998). Multivariate analyses would help to establish whether
Defined as persons aged 17 to 22 who were not enrolled in high school and had not completed 4 years of 7

college.

Respondents who were interviewed during summer months when school was not likely to be in session 8

and reported that they were not currently enrolled in school were not classified as school dropouts. In addition, one

respondent who reported zero years of education was classified as being a dropout despite reporting current

enrollment. 

Including respondents who left school in order to learn a skilled trade. 9

173

characteristics such as race/ethnicity and marital status are independent risk factors for substance use among

pregnant women, when associations between these and other demographic characteristics are taken into

account.

Drug Use and School Dropout Status (Table 13.7)

Most research to date suggests that adolescents who do not complete high school are more likely to

be substance users compared with students who remain in school (Mensch & Kandel, 1988). An analysis of

adolescents in the 1991 NHSDA also showed that 16 and 17 year olds who had dropped out of school were

significantly more likely than those who were currently enrolled to be heavy alcohol users, heavy cigarette

smokers, and frequent users of marijuana, cocaine, and psychotherapeutics in the past year (Flewelling et al.,

1993). Similarly, Gfroerer, Greenblatt, and Wright (1997) analyzed 1991 through 1993 NHSDA data for the

college-age population and found that high school dropouts were significantly more likely to be current users 7

of marijuana and cigarettes compared with those who completed high school or were currently enrolled in

college. Other studies have shown that drug use often precedes dropping out of school (Friedman, Glickman,

& Utada, 1985; Mensch & Kandel, 1988; Newcomb & Bentler, 1986), although drug use in and of itself has

not been demonstrated to be a definitive cause of dropping out, nor is it a common reason given by dropouts

to explain why they left school (McMillen, 1994). In addition to these studies demonstrating a relationship

between drug use and dropping out of high school, Newcomb and Bentler (1988) found that young adults who

had used illicit drugs during adolescence were less likely than nonusers to pursue a college education. 

Table 13.7 compares rates of substance use among youths aged 12 to 17 and young adults aged 18

to 25 according to whether they could be considered school dropouts. Youths and young adults were classified

as being school dropouts if they (a) had less than 12 years of education (i.e., had not completed high school),

(b) reported that they were not currently enrolled in school, and (c) did not report being students in the

employmentstatus question. Among school dropouts, Table 13.7 also shows rates of substance use according 8

to whether a person left school to get a job, or for some other (or unknown) reason. In addition, Table 13.7 9

shows estimates for two groups of youths: those aged 12 to 15 and those aged 16 to 17. Estimates are not

shown for adults older than 25 because the event of dropping out of school would be more distant in time from

any substance use that occurred in the more recent past (i.e., the past year). Table 13.7 shows annual average

estimates from the combined 1997 and 1998 NHSDAs in order to increase the sample sizes of school dropouts

and improve the precision of estimates. 

Among people aged 12 to 25 overall and among youths aged 16 to 17, school dropouts were

significantly more likely than those who were not dropouts to be past year users of any illicit drug, marijuana,

and cocaine and to have been drunk on 51 or more days in the past year. In particular, more than half of youths

aged 16 to 17 who were dropouts used any illicit drug or marijuana in the past year compared with about 25%

to 28% of their counterparts who had not dropped out of school. Similarly, the rates of cocaine use and being

drunk on 51 or more days in the past year were about 3 to 4 times higher for those aged 16 to 17 who had

dropped out of school compared with those who were not dropouts. 
174

Among young adults aged 18 to 25, rates of substance use shown in Table 13.7 did not differ

significantly between those who had dropped out of school and those who were not classified as dropouts.

However, more detailed examination of the reasons that young adults left school indicated that those who left

school for reasons other than to get a job or learn a skilled trade had significantly higher rates of illicit drug

and marijuana use compared with those who were not classified as dropouts. Furthermore, young adults who

left school to get a job had somewhat lower rates of illicit drug and marijuana use compared with those who

were not dropouts. The lack of significant differences in rates of being drunk on 51 or more days in the past

year among young adults is consistent with findings of Gfroerer et al. (1997) that educational status was not

a significant predictor of heavy alcohol use in the college-age population. However, these findings should be

interpreted with caution because the NHSDA variable focusing on the motivation for dropping out of school

appears to be related to race/ethnicity. In particular, Hispanic respondents in the NHSDA who had dropped

out of school were more likely than their white or black counterparts to report that they left school to get a job

(data not shown in Table 13.7). Therefore, further analyses of relationships between drug use and motivations

for leaving school would need to take into account potential interactions between race/ethnicity (or other

demographic characteristics) and specific reasons for dropping out of school.

Drug Use Among Youths, by Exposure to Prevention Messages (Table 13.8)

Table 13.8 presents findings on selected measures of substance use among youths and exposure to

different sources of prevention messages. Youths who used illicit drugs in the past year were significantly less

likely than youths who had not used drugs to report that they received prevention messages in a special class

about alcohol or other drugs at school or as part of another regular class, such as a health class, although these

differences were not large. Nearly half of youths who used illicit drugs in the past year reported that they

received education or information about alcohol or other drugs as part of a regular class at school, and nearly

30% of youths who used illicit drugs reported being in a special class about alcohol or other drugs at their

schools. Youths who were drunk on 51 or more days in the past year did not differ significantly from their

counterparts with regard to receipt of alcohol or other drug education as part of a special class. 

In addition, findings from Table 13.8 suggest that youths’ exposure to prevention messages outside

school, such as through the media, was fairly widespread but appeared to be unrelated to illicit drug use or

being drunk on 51 or more days in the past year. Nearly 80% of youths who used illicit drugs and more than

three-fourths of youths who were drunk on 51 or more days in the past year reported being exposed to

prevention messages outside school. Youths who did not use illicit drugs in the past year were somewhat more

likely than youths who used drugs to have been exposed to prevention activities as part of their classes in

school. 

Discussion

This chapter has addressed the issue of drug use among several special populations. Principal findings

were as follows:

• In general, family income below $9,000, lack of health insurance, and having a family

member in the same household receiving welfare were associated with the highest past

year prevalences of any illicit drug use, marijuana use, and cocaine use.

• In agreement with previous research using numerous data sources (Dembo, 1994;

Harrison & Gfroerer, 1992), past year illicit drug use was consistently associated

with being arrested and booked for criminal activities. 
175

• For both youths and adults, use of illicit drugs or being drunk on 51 or more days in

the past year were consistently related to a variety of criminal or potentially unlawful

behaviors, regardless of whether these behaviors resulted in an arrest. For youths,

these findings are consistent with other studies demonstrating associations between

substance use and delinquent behaviors.

• Pregnant women were less likely than nonpregnant women to report past month illicit

drug use, past month “binge” alcohol use, and past month cigarette use. These

differences tended to be consistent irrespective of age, race/ethnicity, marital status,

and educational attainment. However, other findings suggest that after giving birth,

many women return to their previous levels of substance use.

• Among women who were currently pregnant, those aged 15 to 25 were significantly

more likely to have used illicit drugs in the past month compared with women aged

26 to 44. Rates of illicit drug use and cigarette use among pregnant women also were

higher among unmarried women and black women.

• Consistent with other literature, youths aged 12 to 17 and young adults aged 18 to 25

who had dropped out of school were significantly more likely than those who were not

dropouts to have been past year users of any illicit drug, marijuana, or cocaine and

to have been drunk on 51 or more days in the past year.

• Youths who used illicit drugs in the past year were significantly less likely than

nonusers to report that they received prevention messages as part of a class in school.

Youths’ exposure to prevention messages outside school, such as through the media,

was fairly widespread but was seemingly unrelated to illicit drug use or being drunk

on 51 or more days in the past year.

It should be noted that the analyses in this chapter did not control for potential confounding

demographic differences that might explain higher rates of substance use among some groups. In particular,

the association between drug use and receipt of welfare assistance may reflect the younger age composition of

households in which someone received welfare assistance. 

In addition, the cross-sectional design and other features of the NHSDA do not permit any definite

causal inferences to be made regarding associations between drug use and other characteristics of interest, such

as criminal behaviors or dropping out of school. Nevertheless, the findings of significantly higher rates of drug

use among youths who have dropped out of school underscore the importance of efforts to decrease school

dropout rates. Likewise, the associations between drug use and other criminal or potentially unlawful

behaviors clearly demonstrate that drug use does not occur in a vacuum. Consequently, these findings

underscore the importance of drug prevention efforts taking into account all behaviors and their contexts, as

opposed to focusing just on substance use data.
176

Table 13.1 Percentage Reporting Any Illicit Drug Use, Marijuana Use, and Cocaine Use in the

Past Year, by Age Group, Total Family Income, and Health Insurance Status: 1998 

Health Insurance Status/

Total Family Income 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Total Family Income

(Unweighted n) 

Less than $9,000 (525) (1,004) (288) (527) (2,344) 

$9,000 - $19,999 (1,333) (1,700) (875) (1,278) (5,186) 

$20,000 - $39,999 (1,964) (2,298) (1,550) (2,000) (7,812) 

$40,000 - $74,999 (2,001) (1,650) (1,345) (1,986) (6,982) 

$75,000 or more (955) (666) (479) (1,076) (3,176) 

Health Insurance Status 

(Unweighted n)

With health insurance (5,652) (5,026) (3,426) (5,939) (20,043) 

Without health insurance (1,126) (2,292) (1,111) (928) (5,457) 

A. Any Illicit Drug Use in the Past Year

Total Family Income 

Less than $9,000 21.2 36.9 22.2 6.2 18.2 

$9,000 - $19,999 17.2 26.2 15.9 3.6 10.5 

$20,000 - $39,999 16.8 24.4 12.3 6.1 10.7 

$40,000 - $74,999 15.3 23.9 11.2 6.4 9.9 

$75,000 or more 15.9 31.8 12.1 4.4 9.0 

Health Insurance Status 

With health insurance 16.0 25.0 11.6 4.9 9.2 

Without health insurance 19.4 34.1 17.7 11.9 20.0 

B. Used Marijuana in the Past Year

Total Family Income 

Less than $9,000 19.9 32.9 17.1 4.0 15.3 

$9,000 - $19,999 14.3 22.6 12.5 2.3 8.3 

$20,000 - $39,999 13.9 21.2 9.5 4.9 8.8 

$40,000 - $74,999 13.6 21.0 8.2 4.7 7.9 

$75,000 or more 13.2 28.8 9.6 3.2 7.3 

Health Insurance Status 

With health insurance 13.9 22.3 8.8 3.5 7.4 

Without health insurance 15.4 29.1 13.9 9.9 16.5 

C. Used Cocaine in the Past Year

Total Family Income 

Less than $9,000 2.9 6.1 5.2 2.1 3.7 

$9,000 - $19,999 1.8 3.7 4.0 0.9 1.9 

$20,000 - $39,999 2.0 4.1 2.6 0.9 1.7 

$40,000 - $74,999 1.5 4.1 2.8 1.0 1.7 

$75,000 or more 1.0 6.9 1.0 0.3 1.1 

Health Insurance Status 

With health insurance 1.5 3.7 2.5 0.8 1.4 

Without health insurance 3.1 7.4 3.6 2.0 3.9 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
177

Table 13.2 Percentage Reporting Any Illicit Drug Use, Marijuana Use, and Cocaine Use

in the Past Year, by Age Group and Receipt of Welfare Assistance: 1998 

Receipt of Welfare

Assistance 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total

Age Group in Years

Welfare Assistance 

(Unweighted n)

Do receive (799) (950) (530) (477) (2,756) 

Do not receive (5,979) (6,368) (4,007) (6,390) (22,744) 

A. Any Illicit Drug Use in the Past Year

Do receive 22.8 28.9 21.3 9.8 18.0 

Do not receive 15.8 27.3 12.0 5.3 10.1 

B. Used Marijuana in the Past Year

Do receive 18.4 25.5 15.4 6.2 13.9 

Do not receive 13.7 24.0 9.3 4.0 8.3 

C. Used Cocaine in the Past Year 

Do receive 1.2 4.3 6.3 3.2 3.8 

Do not receive 1.7 4.7 2.4 0.8 1.6 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main

Findings prior to 1994.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
178

Table 13.3 Percentage of Past Year Illicit Drug and Alcohol Users and Nonusers Reporting

Having Been Arrested and Booked for Breaking a Law: 1998 

In Past Year Arrested

and Booked for: Yes No Yes No Total

(Unweighted n) (4,133) (21,367) (1,182) (24,318) (25,500)

Illicit Drug Use in Drunk 51 or More

Past Year Days in Past Year

Larceny or Theft 1.2 0.1 1.0 0.2 0.3 

Burglary or Breaking

 and Entering 0.6 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.1 

Aggravated Assault 0.8 * 1.1 0.1 0.1 

Other Assault 1.1 0.2 1.0 0.2 0.3 

Motor Vehicle Theft 0.3 * 0.3 * * 

Robbery 0.4 * 0.6 * 0.1 

Arson 0.1 * 0.2 * * 

Driving Under the Influence 2.3 0.3 3.1 0.4 0.5 

Drunkenness or Liquor

 Law Violation 2.1 0.1 3.9 0.2 0.3 

Possession or Sale of Drugs 2.7 0.1 2.6 0.3 0.3 

Any of the Above 8.0 0.8 9.2 1.3 1.6 

Note 1: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main Findings

prior to 1994.

Note 2: Any illicit drug use indicates use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including

phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics at least once.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
179

Table 13.4 Percentage of Past Year Illicit Drug and Alcohol Users and Nonusers Aged 12 to

17 Reporting Criminal Behaviors: 1998 

In the Past Year, Respondent: Yes No Yes No Total

Illicit Drug Use in Drunk 51 or More

Past Year Days in Past Year

Stole or Tried to Steal Something

Worth More Than $50 16.9 2.0 32.5 3.7 4.4 

(Unweighted n) (1,211) (5,455) (171) (6,495) (6,666) 

Sold Illegal Drugs 17.3 0.8 36.0 2.6 3.5 

(Unweighted n) (1,210) (5,454) (169) (6,495) (6,664) 

Carried a Handgun 8.4 1.4 14.3 2.2 2.5 

(Unweighted n) (1,210) (5,458) (170) (6,498) (6,668) 

Attacked Someone with the Intent

to Seriously Hurt Them 19.9 4.3 28.8 6.2 6.8 

(Unweighted n) (1,211) (5,459) (171) (6,499) (6,670) 

Got into a Serious Fight at School

or Work 35.7 17.2 * 19.4 20.2 

(Unweighted n) (1,206) (5,452) (169) (6,489) (6,658) 

Took Part in a Gang Fight 29.2 11.5 40.5 13.7 14.4 

(Unweighted n) (1,207) (5,451) (171) (6,487) (6,658) 

Any of the Above 57.0 24.4 74.7 28.6 29.7 

(Unweighted n) (1,209) (5,441) (171) (6,479) (6,650) 

Note: Any illicit drug use indicates use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including

phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics at least once.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
180

Table 13.5 Percentage of Past Year Illicit Drug and Alcohol Users and Nonusers Aged 18 or

Older Reporting Criminal Behaviors: 1998 

In the Past Year, Respondent: Yes No Yes No Total

Illicit Drug Use in Drunk 51 or More

Past Year Days in Past Year

Stole or Tried to Steal Something

Worth More Than $50 4.5 0.4 6.0 0.6 0.8 

(Unweighted n) (2,849) (15,572) (986) (17,435) (18,421) 

Sold Illegal Drugs 9.5 0.2 10.8 0.8 1.2 

(Unweighted n) (2,850) (15,572) (987) (17,435) (18,422) 

Carried a Handgun 10.6 6.2 12.6 6.4 6.7 

(Unweighted n) (2,853) (15,572) (990) (17,435) (18,425) 

Attacked Someone with the Intent

to Seriously Hurt Them 6.7 0.7 9.6 1.0 1.3 

(Unweighted n) (2,849) (15,577) (987) (17,439) (18,426) 

Any of the Above 21.2 7.0 26.2 7.7 8.4 

(Unweighted n) (2,854) (15,562) (985) (17,431) (18,416) 

Note: Any illicit drug use indicates use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including

phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics at least once.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
181

Table 13.6 Percentage Reporting Past Month Illicit Drug Use, "Binge" Alcohol Use, and Cigarette

Use in the U.S. Population of Females Aged 15 to 44, by Pregnancy Status and

Demographic Characteristics: Annual Averages Based on 1997 and 1998 Samples

Combined 

Past Month Past Month Past Month

Illicit Drug Use “Binge” Alcohol Use Cigarette Use

Demographic Not Not Not

Characteristic Pregnant Pregnant Pregnant Pregnant Pregnant Pregnant

Total 2.5 7.3 2.1 12.9 21.6 32.4 

Age Group in Years

15-25 4.2 12.3 2.1 16.8 26.2 34.0 

26-44 1.2 4.8 2.1 11.1 17.9 31.7 

Race/Ethnicity1

White 1.6 7.6 1.8 15.1 22.9 35.8 

Black 7.2 8.1 1.7 7.5 27.9 29.2 

Hispanic 3.0 5.3 3.8 8.3 13.7 22.2 

Marital Status

Married 1.6 3.2 1.5 9.0 15.8 27.7 

Not married 4.6 11.7 3.3 17.2 34.4 37.6 2

Trimester3

First 2.9 N/A 3.3 N/A 22.9 N/A

Second 2.4 N/A 1.9 N/A 19.1 N/A

Third 1.1 N/A * N/A 21.0 N/A

Adult Education4

Less than high school 4.9 8.6 2.3 12.1 34.8 46.4 

High school graduate 2.9 7.0 1.9 13.4 28.4 40.4 

Some college * 7.0 * 14.6 17.7 32.7 

College graduate * 3.7 2.4 11.5 * 15.8 

Note 1: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA Main Findings

prior to 1994.

Note 2: Illicit drug use indicates use at least once in the past month of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens

(including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics.

Note 3: “Binge” alcohol use is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day in the past 30 days. By “occasion”

is meant at the same time or within a couple hours of each other.

Note 4: The sum of the pregnant and not pregnant females aged 15 to 44 is less than the total of all females aged 15 to 44 because of item

nonresponse to the pregnancy question.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Not married includes never married, divorced, separated, and widowed. 2

Trimester not reported by all pregnant respondents. 3

Data on adult education not shown for persons aged 15 to 17. Estimates for adult education are for persons aged 18 to 44. 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1997 and 1998.
182

Table 13.7 Percentage Reporting Any Illicit Drug Use, Marijuana Use, Cocaine Use, and

Alcohol Use in the Past Year, by Age Group, School Dropout Status, and 

Reasons for Leaving School: 1997 and 1998 

School Dropout Status/

Reason for Leaving School 12-15 16-17 18-25 Total

Age Group in Years

1

School Dropout Status 

(Unweighted n)

School dropout (34) (246) (2,029) 2

(2,309) 

Left school to get a job (2) (32) (561) 3

(595) 

Left school other/unknown reason (32) (214) (1,468) (1,714) 

Not a school dropout (9,818) (4,524) (11,528) (25,870) 

A. Any Illicit Drug Use in the Past Year

School dropout * 52.8 29.2 2

31.2 

Left school to get a job * * 21.3 3

21.4 

Left school other/unknown reason * 55.7 32.1 34.4 

Not a school dropout 12.2 27.9 26.0 21.8 

B. Used Marijuana in the Past Year

School dropout * 51.4 25.4 2

27.6 

Left school to get a job * * 15.1 3

15.4 

Left school other/unknown reason * 54.1 29.1 31.6 

Not a school dropout 9.5 25.4 23.0 18.9 

C. Used Cocaine in the Past Year 

School dropout * 14.7 5.5 2

6.3 

Left school to get a job * * 4.5 3

4.4 

Left school other/unknown reason * 16.2 5.9 6.9 

Not a school dropout 0.8 4.0 4.1 3.0 

D. Drunk Alcohol on 51 or More Days in the Past Year 

School dropout * 13.3 9.4 2

9.8 

Left school to get a job * * 8.6 3

8.3 

Left school other/unknown reason * 14.7 9.7 10.3 

Not a school dropout 1.4 4.7 9.0 5.9 

Note: Due to improved procedures implemented in 1994, these estimates are not comparable with those presented in NHSDA 

Main Findings prior to 1994.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Total is for youths and young adults aged 12 to 25. 1 

Did not graduate from high school, not currently enrolled in school, and did not report an employment status of “in school only.” 2 

 However, respondents who were interviewed during summer months when school was not likely to be in session and reported that

 they were not currently enrolled in school were not classified as school dropouts.

Includes leaving school to enter an apprenticeship or learn a trade. 3 

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
183

Table 13.8 Percentage of Past Year Illicit Drug and Alcohol Users and Nonusers Aged

12 to 17 Reporting Exposure to Drug Education and Prevention Classes

and Messages: 1998 

In the Past Year, Received

Drug or Alcohol Education

or Prevention Information: Yes No Yes No Total

Illicit Drug Use in Drunk 51 or More

Past Year Days in Past Year

(Unweighted n) (1,234) (5,544) (172) (6,606) (6,778) 

At School in Special Class

About Drugs or Alcohol 28.4 35.2 26.7 34.3 34.1 

At School in Regular Class

(e.g., Health Class) 47.7 55.7 * 54.6 54.4 

At School Outside 

Regular Class (e.g.,

Special Assemblies) 31.8 30.1 33.8 30.3 30.4 

Outside School (e.g., TV,

Radio) 77.4 79.6 75.6 79.3 79.2 

Note: Any illicit drug use indicates use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including

phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD]), heroin, or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics at least once.

*Low precision; no estimate reported.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
184




	

	
		
	

	







  
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A-1

APPENDIX A

KEY DEFINITIONS

1972-1998 Survey Years
A-2
A-3

Appendix A: Key Definitions, 1972-1998 Survey Years

This appendix is essentially a glossary providing definitions for the use of illicit drugs, alcohol, and tobacco; demographic characteristics; and

other terms used in this report. It also describes major changes in definitions across the survey years that may have an impact on interpretation of trends.

Each entry begins with the current definition of the term, followed by previous definitions that differ from the current definition. Cross-references are

included for related terms. Also included is other information regarding interpretation of the data, including such topics as decision rules with regard

to rounding. 

The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) was conducted in 1971, 1972, 1974, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1982, 1985, 1988, 1990,

1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998. The first survey (1971) is not directly comparable to the other surveys and is not generally

included in trend analyses. Since 1972, however, there has been a great deal of consistency in the questions designed to develop estimates of the

prevalence of drug use. Minor changes in question wording have been made throughout the survey series to ensure more complete and accurate responses,

but these changes are not expected to affect comparability of survey responses. Questions also have been added to the NHSDA at different points in

time to reflect changes in the drugs of abuse. For example, questions about the use of the form of cocaine known as “crack” were added in 1988.

Questions about smokeless tobacco products and additional questions about cigarette use were added in 1985. 

The 1994 NHSDA fielded two questionnaires: NHSDA 1994-A (old), which replicated the data collection instruments and methodology used

in 1985, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992, and 1993; and NHSDA 1994-B (new), which was a revised questionnaire. The new revised questionnaire was designed

to facilitate respondent cooperation, enhance the clarity of the questions, improve the accuracy of responses, and increase the reliability of measurements

of drug use across survey years (OAS, 1996c). The 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 NHSDAs fielded questionnaires that replicated the data collection

instruments and methodology used in 1994-B. Although data from the new questionnaires used in 1994-B, 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 may be used

for measuring trends from 1994 to 1998, these data cannot be compared to those presented in NHSDA Main Findings prior to 1994. For this reason,

an adjustment procedure was applied to data for years prior to 1994 in order to produce the trend analysis presented in this report.

Other changes in methodology and question wording that may have an effect on trend estimates also are noted in this appendix. For example,

the NHSDA has used private, self-administered answer sheets to gather information on illicit drug use since 1972. Beginning in 1979, responses to the

alcohol questions also were marked on private answer sheets rather than being spoken to the interviewer as in earlier surveys. Because of this change,

caution should be used in interpreting changes in reported alcohol use from pre-1979 and post-1979 surveys. Changes in the definition of cigarette use

in 1979 (i.e., had to have smoked five or more packs of cigarettes in their lifetime to be asked questions about current use) suggest that data from 1979

may not be directly comparable to data from other years. In 1994-B, 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998, questions about tobacco use (i.e., cigarettes and

smokeless tobacco) were asked using a self-administered answer sheet. In prior survey years, the questions about tobacco use were intervieweradministered.
A-4

Another change worth noting that may have an effect on trend analysis (but that is not otherwise noted in this appendix) concerns the treatment

of missing data. From 1972 through 1982, if recency of use of a particular drug had not been determined, the case was treated as a nonuser in the past

year or past month. In 1985, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, and 1994-A, both logical and statistical imputation procedures were used to impute, where

possible, the values for missing data on the recency-of-use questions. This involved checking any other variables in a record that could yield evidence

of use of that specific subject drug or class of drugs. For the 1994-B (new questionnaire), 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 questionnaires, new procedures

for imputing data were developed. (For a discussion of the impact of this change, see OAS, 1996a, Appendix E.) Similar to previous years, logical

imputation was carried out in the earliest stage of editing for the original recency-of-use variables. In 1994-B, 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998, however,

this procedure involved checking, for each recency-of-use variable, other variables in the same answer sheet only that could yield evidence of use of that

specific subject drug or class of drugs.
A-5

Adult Education SEE: “Education.”

Age Age of the respondent was defined as “age at time of interview.” This definition corresponds to

the definition used in previous Main Findings, but differs from the definition used in the 1985

Population Estimates report, where age is defined as “age as of July 1, 1985.”

Age Group For the reported analyses, respondents were divided into four age groups: 12 to 17 (youths), 18

to 25 (young adults), 26 to 34 (middle adults), and >35 (older adults). 

Alcohol 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of alcohol in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month were

developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it been since you

last drank an alcoholic beverage?”

Feeder question: “The next questions are about alcoholic beverages, such as, [beer, wine, liquor,

brandy, and mixed drinks].”

1985-1994-A: “When was the most recent time that you had an alcohol drink, that is, of beer, wine, or liquor

or a mixed alcoholic drink?”

1991-1994-A: “. . . [beer, wine and liquor, like whiskey, gin, or scotch, including mixed alcoholic drinks like

gin and tonic, and drinks like wine coolers, fortified wine, and champagne].”

1985-1990: “. . . [beer, wine and liquor, like whiskey, gin, or scotch, including mixed alcoholic drinks like gin

and tonic].”

1982: “. . . [beer, wine, and liquor, like whiskey or gin].”

1979: “. . . [alcoholic beverages -- beer, wine, whiskey, gin, other ‘hard’ liquors].”

1974-1977: “. . . [alcoholic beverages -- beer, wine, and whiskey, or anything else to drink with alcohol in

it].”

1972: “. . . [beer; wine; hard liquor like cocktails or highballs, or on the rocks, or straight shots].”

SEE: “Current Drinker,” “Heavy Use of Alcohol,” “Prevalence,” and “Recency of Use.”
A-6

Alcohol Abuse Treatment 1998: Two new questions were added to the survey. One focuses on whether respondents had

received treatment or counseling for use of alcohol or any drug, not counting cigarettes, during

the past 12 months. Another addresses the sources of payment for ANY treatment or

counseling the respondent had received.

The response set was expanded to include other payment options (a public assistance program

other than Medicaid paid for last treatment; last treatment was ordered and paid for by the courts;

last treatment was paid for by CHAMPUS or TRICARE, CHAMPVA, the VA, or by some 

other military health care) for the question asking respondents to indicate which sources paid

for their last treatment or counseling.

1997: Question TX-8 was reworded to focus on the respondent’s primary, not last, place of treatment,

as follows: “What was the primary place where you received treatment the last time you started

treatment for your alcohol or other drug use, not counting cigarettes?”

1994-B-1996: Respondents were asked to: “Please mark one box beside each type of treatment place [hospital

overnight or inpatient; rehabilitation center overnight; rehabilitation center outpatient; mental

health center outpatient, emergency room, private doctors office, prison or jail, self-help group,

other place] to indicate whether you have received treatment for your alcohol use in that type of

facility during the past 12 months.”

1991-1994-A: Respondents were asked: “During the past 12 months, have you gotten any treatment for

drinking--such as from a clinic, self-help group, counselor, doctor, or other professional?”

The measure based on this question may include people who had received treatment for conditions

related to alcohol use in addition to those who had received treatment to stop drinking.

Analgesics 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of analgesics in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month were

developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it been since you

last used a pain killer that was not prescribed for you, or that you took only for the experience

or feeling it caused?”
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Feeder question: “This section is about the use of pain killers, which are known as analgesics.

The questions ask only about prescription pain killers. Do not include over-the-counter pain

killers, such as aspirin, Tylenol, Advil, Anacin, or others available over-the-counter. We’re

interested only in use of prescription analgesics or pain killers that were not prescribed for you,

or that you took only for the experience or feeling they caused.”

1985-1994-A: “When was the most recent time you took any analgesic for nonmedical reasons?”

Feeder question: “The next questions are about the use of analgesics. Analgesics are usually

taken as painkillers, but people sometimes use them for other reasons. We’re interested in

nonmedical use--using analgesics or painkillers on your own.”

1982: Respondents were told that this pill class includes painkilling pills that, unlike aspirin, are usually

available only with a doctor’s prescription. 

1979: “Sometimes doctors prescribe these pills to relieve pain. But besides the medical uses, people

sometimes take these pills on their own to see how they work or just to feel good.”

SEE: “Nonmedical Use of Any Psychotherapeutic,” “Pill Cards,” “Prevalence,” and “Recency of Use.”

Answer Sheets Since 1972, answer sheets have been used to ensure privacy of responses for questions on use of

illicit drugs and other issues pertaining to the use of drugs. Beginning in 1979, answer sheets

were used for alcohol use. The new design was implemented to (1) provide respondent training

on the answer sheet procedure prior to its use for illicit substances, and (2) provide the same

conditions of privacy for this drug as for the illicit drugs to encourage full disclosure. Answer

sheets were added in 1982 for the nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics. 

1998: Answer sheets were added for the social environment and parenting experiences modules. The

workplace issues answer sheet was removed, and the drug experiences and youth experiences

answer sheets were heavily revised.

1997: Answer sheets were added for youth experiences, drug experiences, and workplace issues. 
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1994-B-1996: In 1994-B, answer sheets were added for cigarettes and smokeless tobacco. In addition, a new

“core” self-administered answer sheet was used to measure the use of each drug. The wording

of questions was made to be consistent across different core answer sheets, and each new core

answer sheet includes fewer questions than were used in the corresponding answer sheet of the

old questionnaire.

Any Illicit Drug 

Other Than Marijuana 1995-1998: This indicates use of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens

(including phencyclidine [PCP] and lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD], heroin, or any prescriptiontype psychotherapeutic used nonmedically, regardless of marijuana use. Marijuana users who

also have used any of the other listed drugs are included. 

Base The base number or actual number of respondents in each age group by demographic

characteristic (i.e., unweighted Ns) is found in Table 1.1 of this report. The percentages shown

in the tables are based on weighted numbers of respondents.

Binge Use of Alcohol 1995-1998: “Binge use of alcohol” was defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on at

least 1 day in the past 30 days.

Black 1985-1998: Black, not of Hispanic origin.

SEE: “Race/Ethnicity.”

Booked for Breaking

a Law 1995-1998: “Booked” was defined as “taken into custody and processed by the police or by someone

connected with the courts, even if you were then released.”

Cigarettes 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of cigarettes in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month were

developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it been since you

last smoked a cigarette?”

1985-1994-A: “When was the most recent time you smoked a cigarette?”

1990: In 1990, the option “(6) not sure” was deleted from the response set.
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1982: Lifetime prevalence was based on the question, “About how old were you when you first tried a

cigarette?” All respondents were asked about current use, which was defined as “smoked in the

past 30 days.”

1979: Lifetime prevalence was based on the question, “About how old were you when you first tried a

cigarette?” Current use was defined as “smoked in past 30 days”; only those respondents who

had smoked as many as five packs of cigarettes during their lifetime were asked about current

use.

1974-1977: Lifetime prevalence was based on the question, “Have you ever smoked cigarettes?” Current use

was defined as “smoked within past month”; all respondents were asked about current use. 

1972: No data provided on lifetime prevalence. Current use was defined as smoked at “the present

time”; all respondents were asked about current use. 

NOTE: The 1979 questions on recency of cigarette use are not comparable with other years because a

different operational definition was employed in 1979; that is, in 1979, only respondents who had

smoked five or more packs in their lifetime were asked about recency of use. 

NOTE: The 1994-B questions about tobacco use (i.e., cigarettes and smokeless tobacco) were asked

using a self-administered answer sheet. In prior survey years, the questions about tobacco use

were interviewer-administered.

SEE: “Cigars,” “Current Smoker,” “Prevalence,” and “Recency of Use.”

Cigars 1997, 1998: Measures of use in the respondent’s lifetime were developed from responses to the following

questions: “Have you ever smoked a cigar, even one or two puffs?” “Have you smoked at least

50 cigars in your lifetime?” “. . .During the past 30 days, on how many days did you smoke a

cigar?” 

SEE: “Cigarettes,” “Current Smoker,” and “Drug Experiences.”

Cocaine 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of cocaine in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month were

developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it been since you

last used any form of cocaine?”
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1991-1994-A: “When was the most recent time that you used cocaine in any form?”

1998: Feeder question: “The questions in this section are about cocaine, including all the different

forms of cocaine, such as powder, ‘crack,’ free base, and coca paste.”

1991-1997: Feeder question: “The [next questions] are . . .”

1985-1990: The question read, “When was the most recent time that you used cocaine?”

SEE: “Crack,” “Prevalence,” and “Recency of Use.”

Crack 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of crack cocaine in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month

were developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it been since

you last used ‘crack’?”

1988-1994-A: “When was the most recent time you used the form of cocaine known as ‘crack’?”

1998: Feeder question: “The next 6 questions refer only to ‘crack,’ that is, cocaine in rock or chunk

form, and not the other forms of cocaine.”

1988-1997: Feeder question: “The [next questions] . . .”

SEE: “Cocaine,” “Prevalence,” and “Recency of Use.”

Criminal Behavior 1998: Adult respondents were asked a series of four questions: “During the past 12 months, how

many times have you” . . . “stolen or tried to steal anything worth more than $50?” “sold 

illegal drugs?” “carried a handgun?” and “attacked someone with the intent to seriously hurt

them?” Adolescents aged 12 to 17 were asked the same four questions, as well as questions about

two additional behaviors: . . .“gotten into a serious fight at school or work?” and “took part in

a fight where a group of your friends fought against another group?” For both adults and

adolescents, responses to each question were dichotomized into a yes/no variable. Summary

measures also were created to indicate an affirmative response to any of the above questions.
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1997: The youth checklist was replaced with a series of questions on youth experiences. Among the 

questions are two that address illegal activities. Adolescent respondents were asked: “During 

the past 12 months, how many times have you gotten into a gang fight?” and “During the past

12 months, how many times have you taken something from a store without paying for it?”

1996, 1997: The number of potentially illegal activities that adults might engage in was reduced to three:

driving a vehicle while under the influence of a combination of alcohol and illegal drugs, driving

a vehicle while under the influence of alcohol, and driving a vehicle while under the influence

of illegal drugs.

1995: The series of questions on adult criminal behavior was reintroduced, with two items added to

the list of activities that might be against the law: driving while under the influence of alcohol

and driving while under the influence of illegal drugs.

1994-B: Questions on adult criminal behavior were dropped, and a youth checklist was added to the

survey instrument. Three items in the checklist, which focuses on the thoughts, emotions, and

activities of adolescents, address illegal activity. Youths were asked whether they “steal

at home,” “steal from places other than home,” and “physically attack people.”

1992-1994-A: Adults were asked a series of questions related to being arrested and booked for breaking a law.

They also were asked to identify types of activities they had engaged in that might be illegal,

such as selling illegal drugs, breaking into a house, and stealing money or property.

SEE: “Gang Fighting,” “Stealing,” and “Youth Experiences.”

Current Drinker 1982-1998: Reported use of alcohol during the month prior to the interview.

1974-1979: Drank in the past month.

1972: Drank in the past 7 days.

SEE: “Alcohol,” “Prevalence,” and “Recency of Use.”

Current Employment Employment status during the past week.

SEE: “Employment.”
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Current Smoker 1982-1998: Reported use of cigarettes during the month prior to the interview.

1979: Smoked in past 30 days and have smoked as many as five packs of cigarettes during their lifetime. 

1974-1977: Smoked within past month. 

1972: Smoke at “the present time.”

NOTE: The 1979 questions on cigarettes are not comparable with other years because a different operational definition was employed in 1979. 

NOTE: The 1994-B, 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 questions about tobacco use (i.e., cigarettes and

smokeless tobacco) were asked using a self-administered answer sheet. In prior survey years, the

questions about tobacco use were interviewer-administered.

SEE: “Cigarettes,” “Cigars,” “Prevalence,” and “Recency of Use.”

Current Use Any reported use of a specific drug in the past month.

SEE: “Prevalence,” “Recency of Use,” and “Use in the Past Month.”

Drug Abuse Treatment 1998: Two new questions were added to the survey. One focuses on whether respondents had

received treatment or counseling for use of alcohol or any drug, not counting cigarettes, during

the past 12 months. Another addresses the sources of payment for ANY treatment or counseling

the respondent had received.

The response set was expanded to include other payment options (a public assistance program

other than Medicaid paid for last treatment; last treatment was ordered and paid for by the courts;

last treatment was paid for by CHAMPUS or TRICARE, CHAMPVA, the VA, or by some 

other military health care) for the question asking respondents to indicate which sources paid

for their last treatment or counseling.

1997: Question TX-8 was reworded to focus on the respondent’s primary, not last, place of treatment,

as follows: “What was the primary place where you received treatment the last time you started

treatment for your alcohol or other drug use, not counting cigarettes?”
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1994-B-1996: Respondents were asked to: “Please mark one box beside each type of treatment place [hospital

overnight or inpatient; rehabilitation center overnight; rehabilitation center outpatient; mental

health center outpatient, emergency room, private doctor’s office, prison or jail, self-help group,

other place] to indicate whether you have received treatment for your use of other drugs, not

counting cigarettes and alcohol, in that type of facility during the past 12 months.”

In 1994-B, 1995, and 1996, respondents also were asked: “What was the primary drug you

received treatment or counseling for during the last time you were treated?”

1993, 1994-A: In 1993 and 1994-A, respondents also were asked: “How many times in your life have you

received treatment or counseling for your use of any drug, not counting cigarettes or alcohol?”

and “What was the primary drug you received treatment or counseling for during the last time

you were treated?”

1991-1994-A: Respondents were asked: “During the past 12 months, have you received treatment for other drug

use, not counting cigarettes or alcohol?” 

This was the first in a series of eight questions about treatment for drug use. The remaining

seven questions ask about treatment in various specific settings. The measure of drug abuse

treatment is based only on responses to the first question stated above. This measure may include

some people who had received treatment for conditions related to drug use in addition to those

who had received treatment to stop drug use.

Drug Experiences 1998: The series of 23 drug-related questions introduced in 1997 was pared down to four: one on use

of marijuana or hashish use and cocaine use and three on cigar smoking. The wording for these

questions was retained from the 1997 survey. 

1997: A new series of drug-related questions dealing with cigars, marijuana or hashish, and the different

forms of cocaine (powder, “crack,” free base, and coca paste) was introduced in 1997. Among

the questions, 3 focus on cigar smoking, 10 address marijuana or hashish use, and 10 deal with

cocaine use.
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Education This is the measure of educational attainment among respondents aged 18 years old or older. It

contains the respondents’ reports of their highest level of education completed: less than high

school, high school graduate, some college, and college graduate. Persons who completed

postgraduate work are classified as college graduates.

Employment Respondents aged 18 or older were asked to look at a card and tell which statement best described

their present work situation: “Working full-time, 35 hours or more a week”; “Working part-time,

less than 35 hours a week”; “Have a job, but not at work because of extended illness, maternity

leave, furlough, or strike”; “Have a job but not at work because it is seasonal work”;

“Unemployed or laid off and looking for work”; “Unemployed or laid off and not looking for

work”; “Full-time homemaker”; “In school only”; “Retired”; “Disabled for work”; and “Other

(specify).” 

Full-time “Full-time” in the tables includes both “working full-time” and “have a job but not at work.” 

Part-time “Part-time” in the tables refers exclusively to those reporting they worked part-time. 

Unemployed “Unemployed” in the tables includes those giving either of the two “unemployed” answers.

Other “Other” includes all other responses, including being a student, a housewife, retired, disabled, or

other miscellaneous work statuses. 

Ethnicity 1985-1998: Ethnicity is used to refer to the respondent’s self-classification as to ethnic origin and

identification. Tabular data were presented separately throughout the 1985, 1988, 1990, 1991,

1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 Main Findings for the three largest ethnic

categories: white, not Hispanic; black, not Hispanic; and Hispanic. Because the percentage of

persons not classified in one of these three categories was so small and there were several

different ethnic groups represented, the “others” were not shown separately in the tables, but were

included in the calculation of prevalence rates for the total sample. 

SEE: “Black,” “Hispanic,” “Race/Ethnicity,” and “White.”

Ever Used SEE: “Lifetime Prevalence.”
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Exposure to Drug Education

and Prevention 1998: Adolescents were asked in 1998: “Please indicate if you have had any of these alcohol or drug

education classes or experiences in school during the past 12 months . . .

Have you had a special class about drugs or alcohol?

Have you had films, lectures, discussions, or printed information about drugs or alcohol in one

of your regular classes, such as health, physical education, etc.?

Have you had films, lectures, discussions, or printed information about drugs or alcohol outside

of one of your regular classes, such as in special assemblies?”

Youths also were asked: “During the past 12 months, have you seen or heard any alcohol or

drug prevention messages from sources outside school, such as in posters, pamphlets, and radio

or TV ads?” 

SEE: “Youth Experiences.”

Family Income 1998: The question on family income was reworded in 1998 as follows: “Of these income groups, which

best represents the total combined family income during 1997 (that is, yours and your

[mother’s/father’s/stepmother’s/stepfather’s/wife’s/husband’s/etc.])? Include wages, salaries, and

other items we just talked about. Income data is important in analyzing the health information

we collect. For example, the information helps us to learn whether persons in one income group

use certain types of medical care services or have conditions more or less often than those in

another group.”

1997: The question on family income was reworded in 1997 as follows: “Of these income groups, which

best represents the total combined family income during the past 12 months (that is, yours and

your [mother’s/father’s/stepmother’s/stepfather’s/wife’s/husband’s/etc.])? Include wages,

salaries, and other items we just talked about. Income data is important in analyzing the health

information we collect. For example, the information helps us to learn whether persons in one

income group use certain types of medical care services or have conditions more or less often than

those in another group.”

1994-B-1996: A single question was asked: “Of these income groups, which best represents the total combined

family income, during the past 12 months (that is, yours and your

[mother’s/father’s/stepmother’s/ stepfather’s/wife’s/husband’s/etc.])? Include wages, salaries, and

other items such as: money from all jobs, social security, retirement income, unemployment
A-16

payments, public assistance, and so forth. Also include income from interest, dividends, net

income from business, farm, or rent, and another money income you received.”

1992-1994-A: A series of questions was asked to determine the amount of income the respondent and every

member of his/her family received during the past month from a variety of sources, including

employment, Social Security, Railroad Retirement, Supplemental Security Income, public

assistance, AFDC, interest, dividends, rents, royalties, trusts, child support, and any other source.

Imputations were made, monthly estimates were multiplied by 12, and variables were summed

to obtain the total family income. 

NOTE: For youths and those unable to respond to income questions, proxy responses were accepted from

1991 to 1998. 

1990: A single question was asked: “The last few questions are about the total income during the past

year for all members of your family who lived here then, from all sources. We would like for you

to combine everyone’s income--that is, yours (your [mother’s/ father’s

stepmother’s/stepfather’s/wife’s/husband’s]). Include money from wages and salaries, social

security, retirement income, unemployment payments, public assistance, and so forth. Also

include income from interest, dividends, net income from business, farm, or rent, and any other

money income received.”

Respondents were handed a card with a series of response alternatives and asked to indicate the

letter that best described their total family income from all sources. Respondents also were asked

to indicate how much every member of their family received from each possible income source.

Both the total categorical variable and each of the individual continuous income sources were

compared and imputed to obtain the family income variable.

Gang Fighting 1998: The single question on gang fighting in the 1997 survey was combined into a series of items that

asked youths about other criminal behaviors.

1997: Respondents were asked how many times during the past 12 months they had gotten into a gang

fight. Response alternatives were (1) never, (2) 1 or 2 times, (3) 3 or 4 times, or (4) 5 or more

times.

SEE: “Criminal Behavior,” “Stealing,” and “Youth Experiences.”
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Hallucinogens 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of hallucinogens in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month

were developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it been since

you last used LSD, PCP, or any other hallucinogen?”

1998: Feeder question: “The questions in this section are about substances like LSD, peyote, mescaline,

and PCP, which is also known as ‘angel dust.’ These drugs are called hallucinogens because

they often cause people to feel that they are seeing or experiencing things that are not real.”

1994-A-1997: Feeder question: “The [next questions] . . .”

1985-1994-A: Measures of use of hallucinogens in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month

were developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “When was the most recent

time you used LSD or PCP or another hallucinogen?” Specific types of hallucinogens came from

the questions on the hallucinogens answer sheets, with “other” responses coded to specific types

as appropriate (e.g., acid to LSD).

1985-1994-A: “. . .[PCP or ‘angel dust,’ peyote, and mescaline].” 

1982: “. . .[LSD and other hallucinogens, such as PCP or phencyclidine, mescaline, peyote, psilocybin,

DMT].” Data for PCP are included within general data on hallucinogens and also provided

separately. 

1979: “. . .[LSD and other hallucinogens such as PCP or phencyclidine, mescaline, peyote, psilocybin,

DMT].” Data for PCP are included within general data on hallucinogens and also provided

separately. 

1976, 1977: “. . .[LSD and other hallucinogens like mescaline, peyote, psilocybin, and DMT].” Separate data

are provided for PCP. 

1974: “. . .[LSD or other hallucinogens].” 

1972: “. . .[LSD or something like it, such as mescaline, psilocybin, MSA, STP].” 
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NOTE: In the 1985 Population Estimates report, PCP was included as a hallucinogen only if the

respondent identified PCP specifically when answering the recency question for hallucinogens.

This led to slight differences with the 1985 Main Findings, where PCP use was always included

as a hallucinogen.

SEE: “Prevalence” and “Recency of Use.”

Health Insurance

Status 1998: A series of questions was introduced in the survey’s demographics section to identify whether

respondents did not have health insurance coverage during the past 12 months, the length of time

they were without coverage, the type of insurance they last held, and the reasons for not being

covered.

1991-1997: A series of questions was asked to determine what kinds of insurance the respondent was covered

under in the last full calendar month. Types of coverage asked about included Medicare,

Medicaid, CHAMPUS, CHAMPVA, the VA, TRICARE, other military health care, private

insurance obtained through a current or former employer, or by paying premiums directly to the

health insurance company. An indicator variable was created that shows if the respondent was

covered by any of these plans.

NOTE: For youths and those respondents who were unable to respond to the insurance questions, proxy

responses were accepted from 1991 to 1998. 

1990: A single question was asked: “We are interested in all kinds of health insurance plans, except

those that only cover accidents. Are you now covered by a health insurance plan which pays any

part of a hospital, doctor’s, or surgeon’s bill?” The response alternatives were: (1) yes and (2)

no.

Heavy Use of Alcohol 1985-1998: “Heavy use of alcohol” was defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion (i.e.,

within a couple of hours) on 5 or more days in the past 30 days.

SEE: “Alcohol.”

Heroin 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of heroin in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month were

developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it been since you

last [used heroin]?”
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1976-1994-A: “When was the most recent time you [used heroin]?”

1993: “. . .[sniffed (“snorted”) heroin]?”

1972-1974: “. . .[tried heroin]?”

SEE: “Prevalence” and “Recency of Use.”

Hispanic 1985-1998: “Hispanic” was included as anyone of Hispanic origin (i.e., individuals from Puerto Rico,

Mexico, Cuba, Central America, the Caribbean, South America, or other Hispanic countries).

The individual may be racially white, black, or other. 

SEE: “Black,” “Race/Ethnicity,” and “White.”

Illicit Drugs 1979-1998: Illicit drugs include marijuana, cocaine, inhalants, hallucinogens (including phencyclidine [PCP]),

heroin, or nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics, which include stimulants, sedatives,

tranquilizers, and analgesics. Illicit drug use has referred to use of any of these drugs. A

composite measure, “any illicit drug use,” was constructed from data for the 1979 and later

surveys.

Income SEE: “Family Income.”

Inhalants 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of inhalants in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month were

developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it been since you

last used any inhalant for kicks or to get high?”

1985-1994-A: “When was the most recent time you used an inhalant; that is, sniffed or inhaled something to get

high or for kicks?”

Data on specific types of inhalants have come from the questions on the inhalants answer sheet

with “other” responses coded to specific types as appropriate. 

NOTE: Lighter gases (butane, propane) were added as a response option in 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, and

1995.
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1994-B-1998: Feeder question: “The questions in this section are about liquids, sprays, and gases that people

sniff or inhale to get high or to make them feel good. Lighter fluid, glue, paint thinners, ether,

‘poppers,’ and certain aerosol sprays are examples of substances people breathe in or sniff for

kicks or to get high. The questions use the term ‘inhalants’ to include all the things listed on

Card 5, as well as any other substances that people sniff or inhale for kicks or to get high.”

1991-1994-A: “These next questions are about inhalants that people sniff or breathe in, to get high or to make

them feel good. I am referring to things like lighter fluids and gases, aerosol sprays like Pam,

glue, amyl nitrate, ‘poppers,’ or locker room odorizers. The questions use the term ‘inhalant’

which refers to any and all of the items listed on this card.”

1985-1990: “. . . [I am referring to things like lighter fluids, aerosol sprays . . . ]”

1972-1979: Comparable questions on recency of use were used to derive prevalence rates for inhalants in

1972 through 1979. There were no questions on inhalant use in the 1982 survey. 

SEE: “Prevalence” and “Recency of Use.”

Large Metropolitan

Area 1991-1998: In 1991 through 1998, large metropolitan areas included Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs)

with a 1990 population of 1,000,000 or more. Large metropolitan areas included cities and

surrounding areas as defined by the U.S. Bureau of the Census. Other population density areas

defined are “Small Metropolitan Area” and “Nonmetropolitan Area.”

As of October 1991, the definition of the 1988 and 1990 large metropolitan areas was revised to

match the 1991 definition. Estimates reported by population density for 1988 and 1990 since that

revision may therefore differ from and are not strictly comparable to similarly labeled, earlier

estimates.

1988, 1990: In 1988 and 1990, large metropolitan areas included Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas

(SMSAs) with a 1980 population of 1,000,000 or more. 

1985: In 1985, large metropolitan areas included SMSAs with a 1980 population of 250,000 or more.

1982: Include SMSAs with a population of 1,000,000 or more in 1970. 
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1979: A county or group of contiguous counties that contains at least one city with at least 50,000

inhabitants or more, or “twin cities” with a minimum combined population of 50,000. 

1972-1977: Includes the top 25 SMSAs as of 1970 according to the U.S. Bureau of the Census. 

SEE: “Nonmetropolitan Area” and “Small Metropolitan Area.” 

Lifetime Frequency 1994-B-1998: Respondents were asked: “Think about the entire time since you first used X drug. Altogether,

on how many days in your life have you used X drug: more than 300 days, 101 to 300 days, 12

to 100 days, 3 to 11 days, 1 to 2 days?” 

1979-1994-A: Respondents were asked: “About how many times in your life have you used X drug: 1-2 times,

3-5 times, 6-10 times, 11-49 times, 50-99 times, 100-199 times, 200 or more times, never?” 

Lifetime Prevalence The percentage who have “ever” used the drug regardless of the number of times it was used.

SEE: “Ever Used” and “Recency of Use.”

Low Precision 1991-1998: Prevalence estimates based on only a few respondents were not shown in the 1988, 1990, 1991,

1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 Main Findings tables, but have been replaced

with an asterisk (*) and noted as “low precision.” These estimates have been omitted because one

cannot place a high degree of confidence in their accuracy. In statistical terms, low precision

estimates were those for which the natural log of the relative standard error (i.e., the ratio of the

standard error to the prevalence estimate) was .175 or greater. 

1988, 1990: In statistical terms, low precision estimates were those for which the relative standard error (i.e.,

the ratio of the standard error to the prevalence estimate) was .50 or greater.

1972-1985: An asterisk (*) was used in report tables to indicate prevalence rates of less than .5%. 

Marijuana 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of marijuana in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month were

developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it been since you

last used [marijuana or hashish]?”
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1985-1994-A: “When was the most recent time you used [marijuana or hash]?”

1982: “. . .[marijuana and hashish].”

1979: “. . .[marijuana and (or) hashish].”

1972-1977: Data reported are for marijuana only.

1994-B-1998: Feeder question: “The next questions are about marijuana and hashish. Marijuana is also called

pot or grass. Marijuana is usually smoked--either in cigarettes called joints, or in a pipe. It is

sometimes cooked in food.”

NOTE: Although the data in 1979 and 1982 pertain to use of either of these substances, experience in the

earlier surveys indicated that most respondents who reported using hashish had also used

marijuana.

SEE: “Prevalence” and “Recency of Use.”

Needle Use 1995-1998: Needle use was derived from specific questions about use of cocaine, heroin, or amphetamines

with a needle and from general questions about needle use with other drugs.

1994-B: “. . . cocaine, heroin, anabolic steroids, or amphetamines with a needle and from general questions

about needle use with other drugs.”

1988-1994-A: “. . . cocaine, heroin, or amphetamines with a needle.”

NOTE: In 1995, additional questions were asked about reusing needles, using bleach to clean needles

before use, and where the needles were obtained.

NOTE: Estimates of needle use in 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1995 are not comparable to those

published in the 1988 Main Findings. The 1990-1995 estimates were based on a more extensive

set of questions about needle use available in the NHSDA for these years.

NOTE: In 1994-B and 1995, respondents were not asked to answer detailed questions about needle use

if they reported never having injected a drug for nonmedical reasons.
A-23

Neighborhood 1998: Adults and adolescents were asked a series of four questions about their neighborhoods, including

how long they have lived there, how many times they have moved in the past 5 years, and how

neighbors would react to drug use in the neighborhood. Youths and adults also were asked:

“How much do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements about your

neighborhood?

There is a lot of crime in my neighborhood.

A lot of drug selling goes on in my neighborhood.

People in my neighborhood often help each other out.

Family violence is a big problem in my neighborhood.

Most people who live in my neighborhood are from the same racial or ethnic group.

There is conflict or tension between people from different racial or ethnic groups in my

neighborhood.

There are lots of street fights in my neighborhood.

There are many empty or abandoned buildings in my neighborhood.

People in my neighborhood often visit in each other’s homes.

There is a lot of graffiti in my neighborhood.

My neighborhood is very safe.

People move in and out of my neighborhood often.”

Adults also were asked about the following: “People in my neighborhood share the same values.”

SEE: “Social Environment” and “Youth Experiences.”

Nonmedical Use of Any

Psychotherapeutic 1998: The section of the interview instrument and the answer sheets dealing with nonmedical use of four

classes of psychotherapeutics was introduced as follows:

Feeder question: “The next four answer sheets are about drugs that people are supposed to take

only if they have a prescription from a doctor. For the questions on these next four answer sheets

we are only interested in your use of a drug if: the drug was not prescribed for you, or if you took

the drug only for the experience or feeling it caused.”

1994-B-1997: Feeder question: “For the [answers] on these next four answer sheets . . .”
A-24

1991-1994-A: Feeder question: “The next questions will be about prescription-type drugs. There will be

separate questions for sedatives, tranquilizers, stimulants, and analgesics. 

“As you can see on this card, [sedatives include barbiturates, sleeping pills, and Seconal;

sedatives are sometimes referred to as ‘downers.’] Tranquilizers include antianxiety drugs like

Librium, Valium, Ativan, and Meprobamate. [Stimulants include amphetamines and Preludin;

stimulants are often called ‘uppers’ or ‘speed.’] Analgesics include painkillers like Darvon,

Demerol, Percodan, and Tylenol with codeine.”

“Now, please read the information below the line on the card while I say it aloud. This is a very

important point about the next set of questions. We are interested in the nonmedical use of these

prescription-type drugs. Nonmedical use of these drugs is any use on your own, that is, either:

without your own prescription from a doctor, or in greater amounts than prescribed, or more often

than prescribed, or for kicks, to get high, to feel good, or curiosity about the pill’s effect, or for

any reasons other than a doctor said you should take them.”

“Now, read with me below the line on the card because this is very important. We are interested

in the nonmedical use of these prescription-type drugs. Nonmedical use of these drugs is any use

on your own, that is, either: without a doctor’s prescription, or in greater amounts, or more often,

or for any reasons other than a doctor said that you should take them--such as for kicks, to get

high, to feel good, or curiosity about the pill’s effect.” 

NOTE: The pill card contains pictures and names of specific drugs within each psychotherapeutic

category. For example, pictures and the names of Valium, Librium, and other tranquilizers are

shown when the section on tranquilizers is introduced. Pill cards were introduced in 1972 for all

but analgesics. A pill card for analgesics was introduced in 1979. Pill cards have been modified

over the years to reflect changes in available psychotherapeutic drugs. 

1985-1990: “. . . [sedatives include downers, barbiturates, and Seconal].”

“. . . [Stimulants include uppers, amphetamines, speed, and Preludin].” 

1982: Use of a pill or other drug(s) from any of the four psychotherapeutic drug categories in order to

get high or to enjoy the feeling or just for kicks or curiosity or for any other nonmedical purpose.

The four categories are sedatives, tranquilizers, stimulants, and analgesics.
A-25

1974-1979: A “yes” or “not sure” response to any one (or more) of the following three items: “(1) Did you

ever take any of these kinds of pills just to see what it was like and how it would work? (2) Did

you ever take any of these kinds of pills just to enjoy the feeling they give you? (3) Did you ever

take any of the pills for some other nonmedical reason, and not because you needed it?”

1972: A “yes” response to any one (or more) of the following five items: “(1) Have you ever taken

these pills to help you get along with your family or other people? (2) Have you ever taken any

of these pills to help you accomplish something? (3) Did you ever take any of these kinds of pills

just to see what it was like and how it would work? (4) Have you ever taken any of these pills

before going out, so that you could enjoy yourself more with other people? (5) Did you ever take

these kinds of pills just to enjoy the feeling they give you?”

NOTE: In 1977 only, questions about nonmedical experience were assigned to a random half of the

households in which interviews were conducted.

SEE: “Analgesics,” “Pill Cards,” “Sedatives,” “Stimulants,” and “Tranquilizers.”

Nonmetropolitan

Area 1991-1998: Those areas of the United States that were not part of a Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) as

of 1990, according to the U.S. Bureau of the Census. In general, these areas include small

communities, rural nonfarm areas, and farm areas. Other population density areas defined are

“Large Metropolitan Area” and “Small Metropolitan Area.”

As of October 1991, the definition of the 1988 and 1990 nonmetropolitan areas was revised to

match the 1991 definition. Estimates reported by population density for 1988 and 1990 since that

revision may therefore differ from and are not strictly comparable to similarly labeled, earlier

estimates.

1985-1990: Areas that were not part of a Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) as of 1980,

according to the U.S. Bureau of the Census.

1972-1982: Nonmetropolitan generally includes smaller communities, rural nonfarm areas, and farm areas

according to the standards set in 1970 U.S. Bureau of the Census classifications. 

SEE: “Large Metropolitan Area” and “Small Metropolitan Area.” 
A-26

North Central The States included are the East North Central States—Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and

Wisconsin—and the West North Central States—Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska,

North Dakota, and South Dakota.

SEE: “Region.”

Northeast The States included are the New England States—Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New

Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont—and the Middle Atlantic States—New Jersey, New York,

Pennsylvania. 

SEE: “Region.”

Parenting Experiences 1998: The 1998 interview instrument and answer sheets contain a new series of five questions

on the experience of parents whose 12- to 17-year-old child also was selected to complete the

survey. Questions focus on the parents’ experience with the child’s drug use, their discussions

with their child about drugs, and their feelings about possible preventive measures.

PCP 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of phencyclidine (PCP) in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past

month were developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it

been since you last used LSD, PCP, or any other hallucinogen?”

1982-1994-A: “When was the most recent time you used PCP?”

1979: The following questions were used to generate lifetime and past-month PCP prevalence rates:

“Have you ever used PCP or Angel Dust?” “In the past 30 days, did you use PCP or Angel

Dust?” 

1976-1977: A question on lifetime prevalence was included: “Have you ever used PCP or Angel Dust?” 

NOTE: In the 1985 Main Findings, the measure of PCP differs slightly from that reported earlier in the

1985 Population Estimates report because of a difference in the treatment of missing data. 

SEE: “Hallucinogens,” “Prevalence,” and “Recency of Use.”
A-27

Perceived Risk/

Harmfulness 1997, 1998: The list of activities in which people risk harming themselves was expanded to include trying and

using lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and heroin. 

Respondents were asked to gauge the accessibility of LSD, in addition to the other drugs

previously surveyed: marijuana, cocaine, “crack,” and heroin. 

The following new questions were fielded about the respondent’s risk-taking behaviors: “How

often do you get a real kick out of doing things that are a little dangerous?” “. . .like to test

yourself by doing something a little risky?” “. . .wear a seatbelt when you ride in the front

passenger seat of a car?” “. . . wear a seatbelt when you drive a car?” Response alternatives for

the non-driving questions were (1) never, (2) seldom, (3) sometimes, and (4) always. The

response alternative, “I don’t drive,” was added to the question on driving.

1985-1994-A, 

1994-B, 1996: Respondents were asked to assess the extent to which people risk harming themselves physically

and in other ways when they use various illicit drugs, alcohol, and cigarettes, with various levels

of frequency. These questions were first asked in 1985. 

NOTE: The 1994-B and 1996 questionnaires substitute more specific language into the questions, such

as the substitution of “How much do you think people risk harming themselves physically and

in other ways when they use X drug [regularly]?” for “... [once for twice a week]?” and “How

much do you think people risk harming themselves physically and in other ways when they use

X drug [occasionally]?” for “...[once a month]?”

1995: Term not used.

Percentages The percentages in the tables are based on weighted data, and they are presented to one decimal

place. In this report, all the 1998 tables contain percentages based on weighted data.

SEE: “Rounding.”
A-28

Pill Cards The pill cards contain pictures and names of specific drugs within each psychotherapeutic

category. For example, pictures and the names of Valium, Librium, and other tranquilizers are

shown when the questionnaire section on tranquilizers is introduced. Pill cards were introduced

in 1972 for sedatives, stimulants, and tranquilizers. A pill card for analgesics was introduced in

1979. Pill cards have been modified over the years to reflect changes in available

psychotherapeutic drugs. 

Population Density See “Large Metropolitan Area,” “Nonmetropolitan Area,” and “Small Metropolitan Area.”

Prevalence General term used to describe the estimates for lifetime, past year, and past month use.

SEE: “Recency of Use.”

Psychotherapeutic

Drugs 1985-1998: Psychotherapeutic drugs are generally prescription medications that also can be used illicitly to

“get high” or for other mental effects. These include analgesics, sedatives, stimulants, and

tranquilizers. Also included are such drugs as “speed” or “ice.” 

NOTE: In 1994-B, 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998, “ice” is not included.

SEE: “Analgesics,” “Nonmedical Use of Any Psychotherapeutic,” “Sedatives,” “Stimulants,” and

“Tranquilizers.” 

Race/Ethnicity 1985-1998: Data were presented separately for whites, not of Hispanic origin; blacks, not of Hispanic origin;

Hispanics; and others. Others include American Indians, Alaskan Natives (Aleuts, Eskimos), and

Asian or Pacific Islanders (including Asian Indians).

1972-1982: In previous versions of this survey, the racial categories were “white” and “black and other

races.” 

SEE: “Black,” “Ethnicity,” “Hispanic,” and “White.”

Recency of Use The recency question for each drug was the source for the lifetime, past year, and past month

prevalence rates. 
A-29

1994-B-1998: The question was essentially the same for all classes of drugs. The question was: “How long has

it been since you last used [drug name]?” For the four classes of psychotherapeutics, the phrase

“that was not prescribed for you, or that you took only for the experience or feeling it caused”

was added after the name of the drug. 

The response alternatives were (1) within the past 30 days; (2) more than 30 days ago but within

the past 12 months; (3) more than 12 months ago but within the past 3 years; (4) more than 3

years ago.

1993, 1994-A: The question was essentially the same for all classes of drugs. The question was: “When was

the most recent time/that you used/you took/[drug name]?” For the four classes of

psychotherapeutics, the phrase “for nonmedical reasons” was added after the name of the drug.

The response alternatives were the same for each drug with the exception of marijuana, cocaine,

and inhalants. The response alternatives were (1) within the past month (30 days); (2) more than

1 month ago but less than 6 months ago; (3) 6 or more months ago but less than 1 year ago; (4) 1

or more years ago but less than 3 years ago; and (5) 3 or more years ago. For marijuana,

inhalants, and cocaine, the first two response alternatives are (1) within the past week (7 days)

and (2) more than 1 week ago but less than 1 month (30 days) ago.

The recency questions, however, were recoded to contain the best available information on each

drug. (See Appendix C for more details.)

Region Region was grouped in this study into four categories: Northeast, North Central, South, and

West. These regions are based on classifications developed by the U.S. Bureau of the Census.

See the map on the following page for this division.

SEE: “North Central,” “Northeast,” “South,” and “West” for listings of the States included in each

region. 
A-30
A-31

Rounding The decision rules for rounding of percentages were as follows. If the second number to the right

of the decimal point was greater than or equal to 5, the first number to the right of the decimal

point was rounded up to the next higher number. If the second number to the right of the decimal

point was less than 5, the first number to the right of the decimal point remained the same. Thus,

a prevalence rate of 16.55% would be rounded to 16.6%, while a rate of 16.44% would be

rounded to 16.4%. Although the percentages in the 1997 tables generally total 100%, the use of

rounding sometimes produces a total of slightly less than or more than 100%. 

SEE: “Percentages.”

School Dropout 1998: For respondents aged 12 to 25, school dropout status was determined in 1998 from the highest

Status and Reasons level of education completed, current employment status, and the following question about 

for Leaving School current school enrollment: “Are you now enrolled in any kind of school?” Respondents aged

12 to 25 were classified as school dropouts if they (a) had less than 12 years of education (i.e.,

had not completed high school), (b) reported that they were not currently enrolled in school,

and (c) did not report being students in the employment status question. However, respondents

who were interviewed during summer months when school was not likely to be in session and

reported that they were not currently enrolled in school were not classified as school dropouts.

Among respondents aged 12 to 25 who were classified as school dropouts, reasons for leaving

school were determined from the following question: “Please look at this card and tell me which

one of these reasons best describes why you left school?” Dropouts were catergorized into one

of the following groups: (a) those who left school to get a job, start an apprenticeship, or learn

a trade, and (b) those who left school for other or unknown reasons.

Sedatives 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of sedatives in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month were

developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it been since you

last used a sedative that was not prescribed for you, or that you took only for the experience or

feeling it caused?”

Feeder question: “The questions in this section are about sedatives and barbiturates. These drugs

are also called ‘downers’ and sleeping pills. People take these drugs to help them relax or to stay

calm. We’re interested only in use of prescription sedatives that were not prescribed for you, or

that you took only for the experience or feeling they caused.”
A-32

1985-1994-A: Measures of use of sedatives in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month were

developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “When was the most recent time

you took any sedative for nonmedical reasons?”

Feeder question: “We’ll start by talking about barbiturates and other sedatives. People

sometimes take barbiturates and other sedatives to help them go to sleep or to help them stay calm

during the day. We’re interested in the use of sedatives, also called downers, on your own, or

nonmedically.”

1982: Barbiturates and other sedatives (often referred to as sleeping pills). Respondents were told that

doctors sometimes prescribe these pills to help people go to sleep or to help them calm down

during the day or for some other medical purpose. 

1979: “These pills are barbiturates and other sedatives. Sometimes doctors prescribe these pills to calm

people down during the day or to help them sleep at night. But besides medical use, people

sometimes take these pills on their own, to help them relax, or just to feel good.” 

1974-1977: “Doctors sometimes prescribe these to help relax during the day and to get a better night’s sleep.

People also use these on their own, to help relax and just feel good. These are barbiturates or

sedatives and are sometimes called ‘downs’ or ‘downers.’”

1972: “Doctors prescribe these to help relax and to get a better night’s sleep. People also use these on

their own--to help relax and just feel good. These are barbiturates and are sometimes called

‘downs’ or ‘downers.’”

NOTE: In 1977 only, questions about sedatives were assigned to a random half of the households in

which interviews were conducted. 

SEE: “Nonmedical Use of Any Psychotherapeutic,” “Pill Cards,” “Prevalence,” and “Recency of Use.”

Significance In tables in which trends are shown (Chapter 2), the levels of significance for the changes between

the two most recent survey years are noted as follows: .05, .01, and .001. A significance level

of .05 is used in comparing two rates in the text for demographic subgroups of the most recent

survey sample.
A-33

Small Metropolitan 1991-1998: Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) with a 1990 population of 50,000 to 999,999 constituted

Area small metropolitan areas. Other population density areas defined were “Large Metropolitan

Area” and “Nonmetropolitan Area.”

As of October 1991, the definition of 1988 and 1990 small metropolitan areas was revised to

match the 1991 definition. Estimates reported by population density for 1988 and 1990 since that

revision may therefore differ from and are not strictly comparable to similarly labeled, earlier

estimates.

1988-1990: Small metropolitan areas included Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs) with a 1980

population of 50,000 to 999,999.

1985: In 1985, small metropolitan areas included SMSAs with a 1980 population of under 250,000.

1979-1982: Small metropolitan areas included SMSAs under 1,000,000 population in 1970. 

NOTE: From 1972 to 1977, “Other Metropolitan” was used as the categorization rather than “Small

Metropolitan.” 

SEE: “Large Metropolitan Area” and “Nonmetropolitan Area.” 

Smokeless

Tobacco Use 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of smokeless tobacco in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past

month were developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it

been since you last used chewing tobacco or snuff?”

1985-1994-A: “When was the most recent time you used chewing tobacco or snuff or other smokeless tobacco?”

NOTE: The 1994-B and later questions about tobacco use (i.e., cigarettes and smokeless tobacco) were

asked using a self-administered answer sheet. In prior survey years, the questions about tobacco

use were interviewer-administered.

SEE: “Prevalence” and “Recency of Use.”
A-34

SMSA Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area.

SEE: “Large Metropolitan Area,” “Nonmetropolitan Area,” and “Small Metropolitan Area.” 

Social Environment 1998: A new series of 16 questions on the respondent’s social environment was introduced in the 1998

interview instrument and the answer sheets. Questions ask respondents about their neighborhood,

household occupants, spouse/partner, stress level, friends, criminal behavior, and drug use.

SEE: “Criminal Behavior” and “Neighborhood.”

South This Census classification contains the South Atlantic States—Delaware, District of Columbia,

Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia; the

East South Central States—Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Tennessee; and the West South

Central States—Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, and Oklahoma. 

SEE: “Region.”

Stealing 1998: The single question on stealing in the 1997 survey was combined into a series of items that

asked youths about other criminal behaviors.

1997: Respondents were asked how many times during the past 12 months they have taken something

from a store without paying for it. Response alternatives were (1) never, (2) 1 or 2 times, (3) 3

or 4 times, or (4) 5 or more times.

SEE: “Criminal Behavior,” “Gang Fighting,” and “Youth Experiences.”

Stimulants 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of stimulants in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month were

developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it been since you

last used a stimulant that was not prescribed for you, or that you took only for the experience or

feeling it caused?”
A-35

Feeder question: “This section is about the use of drugs like amphetamines that are known as

stimulants or ‘uppers.’ People sometimes take these drugs to lose weight or to stay awake. The

questions ask only about prescription stimulants. Do not include over-the-counter stimulants such

as Dexatrim or No-Doz. We’re interested only in use of prescription stimulants, uppers, and

speed that were not prescribed for you, or that you took only for the experience or feeling they

caused.”

1985-1994-A: “When was the most recent time you took any amphetamine or other stimulant for nonmedical

reasons?”

Feeder question: “The next questions are about the use of amphetamines and other stimulants.

People sometimes take stimulants to help them lose weight or to help them stay awake. We’re

interested in nonmedical use—taking stimulants, also called uppers, on your own.”

1982: Amphetamines or other stimulants. Respondents were told that these pills are sometimes used

to help people lose weight and they are usually available only with a doctor’s prescription. 

1979: “These pills are amphetamines and other stimulants. Doctors sometimes prescribe these for

losing weight. But besides medical uses, people sometimes take them on their own to make them

feel more wide-awake, peppy, and alert.” 

1974-1977: “Doctors sometimes prescribe these for losing weight. But besides medical uses, people

sometimes take them on their own to make them feel more wide-awake, peppy, and alert. They

are sometimes called ‘ups’ or ‘uppers,’ ‘speed,’ or ‘bennies.’”

1972: “Doctors prescribe these mostly for losing weight, and sometimes to give people more energy.

People also use these on their own, just to feel good. These are amphetamines. They are

sometimes called ‘ups’ or ‘uppers,’ ‘speed,’ or ‘bennies.’”

NOTE: In 1977 only, questions about stimulants were assigned to a random half of the households in

which interviews were conducted. 

SEE: “Nonmedical Use of Any Psychotherapeutic,” “Pill Cards,” “Prevalence,” and “Recency of Use.”
A-36

Tobacco See “Cigarettes,” “Cigars,” and “Smokeless Tobacco Use.”

Total Family Income SEE: “Family Income.”

Tranquilizers 1994-B-1998: Measures of use of tranquilizers in the respondent’s lifetime, the past year, and the past month

were developed from responses to the question about recency of use: “How long has it been since

you last used a tranquilizer that was not prescribed for you, or that you took only for the

experience or feeling it caused?”

Feeder question: “This section is about the use of tranquilizers. Tranquilizers are usually

prescribed to relax people, to calm people down, or to relieve depression. Some people refer to

tranquilizers as ‘nerve pills’ since they usually reduce anxiety and stress. We are interested only

in use of prescription tranquilizers, that were not prescribed for you, or that you took only for the

experience or feeling they caused.”

1985-1994-A: “When was the most recent time you took any tranquilizer for nonmedical reasons?”

Feeder question: “The next few questions are about the use of tranquilizers, on your own. People

sometimes take tranquilizers to help them calm down or to relax their muscles or to relieve

depression. They are sometimes called ‘nerve pills.’”

1982: Respondents were told that the tranquilizer pill class includes pills that are usually available only

with a doctor’s prescription and are prescribed to help people calm down or to relax their

muscles, etc. 

1979: “These pills are tranquilizers. Doctors sometimes prescribe them to calm people down, quiet their

nerves, or relax their muscles. But besides the medical uses, people sometimes take these pills

on their own to help them relax, or just feel good.” 

1974-1977: “Doctors sometimes prescribe these to calm people down, or quiet their nerves, or relax their

muscles. People also take them on their own to help them feel better. These are tranquilizers.”

1972: “These help people to calm down, and to quiet their nerves. Doctors sometimes prescribe them.

People also take them on their own to help them feel better. These are tranquilizers.” 

NOTE: In 1977 only, questions about tranquilizers were assigned to a random half of the households in

which interviews were conducted. 
A-37

SEE: “Nonmedical Use of Any Psychotherapeutic,” “Pill Cards,” “Prevalence,” and “Recency of Use.”

Treatment for Drug

or Alcohol Abuse 1998: Two options related to health insurance coverage were added to the response set for the question

asking respondents why they did not obtain treatment or counseling for their drug or alcohol

use during the past 12 months.

1997: Two questions were reworded to replace the phrase “received treatment or counseling” with the

phrase “started into treatment or counseling.”

1994-B-1996: “Have you ever received treatment or counseling for your use of alcohol or any drug not counting

cigarettes?” 

1992-1994-A: The measure of treatment for drug or alcohol abuse was developed from the responses to two

questions, one asking whether the respondent had received treatment for drinking in the past 12

months and the other asking whether the respondent had received treatment for drug use in the

past 12 months. Respondents who answered “yes” to either of those questions were counted as

having received treatment for drug or alcohol abuse.

SEE: “Alcohol Abuse Treatment” and “Drug Abuse Treatment.”

Use in the Past Month 1982-1998: Respondent reported use within the month (30 days) prior to the interview date. Also referred to

as “current use.”

1976-1979: Reported use within “past week,” “past month,” or 1 or more days within the past 30 days. 

1974: Had used within past month. 

1972: Marijuana only—self-designated current users who reported use “once a month or less,” as well

as those who reported more frequent use. Other drugs—had used within past month.

SEE: “Recency of Use.”
A-38

Use in the Past Year 1985-1998: Respondent reported use within the past year prior to the interview date.

1982: Respondent reported use one or more times during the year prior to the interview date. Included

persons reporting that their most recent use occurred in the past month or past year, as well as

those persons who (though categorized as “not sure” of most recent use) indicated that their first

use of the drug occurred during the past year. 

1979: Respondent reported use one or more times during the year prior to the interview date. 

1977: Respondent reported use one or more times within the past calendar year. 

1972-1976: Respondent reported use within the past year. 

SEE: “Recency of Use.”

Weight A weighted variable was used to adjust percentage estimates to represent the approximate age

group by gender by race/ethnicity distribution in the U.S. civilian, noninstitutionalized population.

(See Appendices B and D for details.) 

Welfare Assistance 1998: Respondents were asked whether they received “any time during 1997, even for one month, . . .

any government payments, such as temporary assistance for needy families or public assistance,

because of low income” and whether they received in 1997 “any other kind of welfare assistance,

such as help with getting a job, placement in education or job training programs, or help with

transportation, child care, or housing.”

1991-1997: Respondents were asked whether they received “public assistance or welfare payments from the

state or local welfare office.”

NOTE: For youths and those respondents who were unable to respond to the insurance or income

questions, proxy responses were accepted in 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1995.

West This census classification includes the States of Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii,

Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.

SEE: “Region.” 

White 1985-1998: White, not of Hispanic origin. 

1982: Those individuals who chose the category white or Hispanic as the category that best describes

them. 
A-39

1979: Those individuals who stated that their family origin is white or that they are of SpanishAmerican origin. 

1977: Those individuals who stated that their family origin is white. 

1972-1976: Those individuals whose racial background, according to interviewer observation, was determined

to be white. 

SEE: “Race/Ethnicity.”

Youth Experiences 1998: The youth experiences module was heavily revised after its introduction in 1997. Additional

questions broaden the issues covered in 1997—school, parents, close friends, extracurricular

activities, criminal behavior—and address new concerns, including the respondent’s

neighborhood, peers, friends, and stress level.

1997: A new series of questions was introduced in 1997 on the unique experiences of youths. Questions

focus on educational level, extracurricular activities, jobs, parents, close friends, gang fighting,

and stealing.

SEE: “Criminal Behavior,” “Exposure to Drug Education and Prevention,” “Gang Fighting,”

“Neighborhood,” and “Stealing.”
A-40
B-1

APPENDIX B

QUALITY OF THE DATA
B-2
B-3

Appendix B: Quality of the Data

All aspects of survey design and execution affect data quality. This appendix discusses the procedures

used to ensure the quality of the data from the 1998 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) and

in this Main Findings report. Quality control efforts and results in the survey are discussed in terms of

respondent cooperation, response rates for the various subsamples, interview and data keying verification, and

data editing. Variable recodes, assessment of missing data on key drug use variables, and procedures for

dealing with missing data in the analyses are considered where they affect the analytical results and their

presentation in the 1998 Main Findings. All phases of survey design, sample selection, data collection, and

data preparation were conducted by Research Triangle Institute (RTI) under the direction of the Office of

Applied Studies (OAS) of the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA).

Field Data Collection Period and Data Preparation

Data Collection Instruments. The 1998 NHSDA fielded a questionnaire (see Appendix E) that was

similar to the data collection instruments and methodology used in the 1997 data collection. The mental health

module was removed for 1998 as was the section on workplace issues. New modules were added, including

sections on the adult social environment and parenting experiences, and significant changes were made to the

questions on youth experiences. The 1998 questionnaire, answer sheets, and show cards were translated into

Spanish.

The 1998 NHSDA retained the quarterly data collection schedule that had been used for the NHSDA

since 1992. Year-round data collection provides for a more immediate and continuous picture of the Nation’s

drug problem and eliminates seasonal effects on NHSDA estimates.

Interviewer Recruitment, Selection, and Training. Field interviewers for the 1998 NHSDA were

selected from prior NHSDAs, especially the 1997 survey, the contractor’s national interviewer file, other

survey organizations, and local government employment agencies. Our target goal was for the 15 field

supervisors to hire 266 field interviewers plus 20 traveling field interviewers by December 22, 1997. Initially,

269 field interviewers were hired, and 266 successfully completed training and began working. Of the 269 field

interviewers, 181 were veterans who completed home study training activities; the others were new-to-project

staff who went through an in-person training session. The demographic composition of the interviewing staff

at the beginning of the first quarter included 26 (10%) who were black and 52 (20%) who were Hispanic. At

the beginning of the final quarter, there were 301 interviewers working. Of those, 35 (12%) were black and

57 (19%) were Hispanic. A total of 63 (21%) of those recruited were bilingual in Spanish and English.

Throughout the entire survey period, a total of 413 interviewers were trained. Of these, 123 attrited during the

year, for a total attrition rate of 29.8%.

As in the 1996 NHSDA, which used nearly the same segments surveyed in the 1995 NHSDA, the 1998

NHSDA revisited the 1997 NHSDA sample. Approximately 76% of the 1998 sample, or 2,030 of the 2,670

segments, consisted of the unused units of the pairwise segment sample selected at the same time that the 1997

segment samples were drawn. The remaining 24%, or 640 segments, were new segments either replacing

1997's segments with inadequate dwelling unit sample sizes or segments representing newly defined

noncertainty primary sampling units (PSUs). A combination of the pairwise sampling feature and the overlap

feature helped reduce the sampling variance and minimized field costs.
B-4

Territorial assignments were allocated roughly equally to the 15 field supervisors. The assignments

were based primarily on geographical location and previous territorial field assignments. Before the

interviewing portion of data collection began, the field supervisors recruited the interviewer staff, prepared and

monitored interviewers’ assignments, and assisted with interviewer training on data collection methods. 

All interviewers working on the 1998 NHSDA participated in a comprehensive training program.

Veteran interviewers (those 181 interviewers who had worked on the 1997 NHSDA and were certified to work

on the 1998 NHSDA) were trained using an extensive home study program. The home study package consisted

of a copy of the 1998 NHSDA Field Interviewer Manual, a memo from the national field director reviewing

the few study changes from 1997 to 1998, and a workbook with questions from the interviewer manual,

screening exercises, and a copy of the questionnaire and answer sheets. In addition to answering the questions

in the workbook, veteran interviewers also had to complete a read-through of the questionnaire with their field

supervisors. 

New interviewer staff trained in January attended an in-person training session in Research Triangle

Park, North Carolina; Los Angeles, California; or Houston, Texas. For those interviewers who were unable

to attend the early January training session, a makeup session was conducted in late January. Additional

replacement training sessions to compensate for interviewer attrition were held in February, March, May, June,

August, September, and November 1998. Those trained at later makeup and replacement sessions were trained

in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina; Los Angeles, California; or Torrance, California.

Prior to attending the session, each trainee received the following items: 

C a copy of the 1998 NHSDA Field Interviewer Manual,

C an RTI General Interviewer’s Manual,

C an audiotape on the pronunciations of drug-related terms,

C a memo from the national field director, and 

C home study exercises taken from the 1998 NHSDA Field Interviewer Manual. 

The 1998 NHSDA Field Interviewer Manual provided detailed, study-specific descriptions of all the

procedures that the interviewers were to follow during the data collection period. This manual was designed

to serve as both a training manual and a reference source during the fieldwork.

The in-person training session consisted of 4 days of project-specific training. Bilingual staff

participated in an extra half-day of training to familiarize them with administering the Spanish-language version

of the data collection instrument. Field interviewers who were new to survey research arrived at training 1 day

early to attend a general orientation on field interviewing. All sessions were conducted by the contractor’s

senior survey operations staff, assisted by the regional supervisors and field supervisors for the area who had

received training earlier for their roles in training the field interviewers. 

Fieldwork—Preliminary Activities. Before the initial fieldwork of counting and listing segments

began, segment kits were prepared and mailed to listers for each of the new segments that required listing. For

the 1998 NHSDA, 640 (24%) of the 2,670 segments required counting and listing because the majority of

segments selected were re-sampled from those used in the 1997 NHSDA. Seventy-nine listers were hired and

certified using the procedures implemented for the 1997 NHSDA.

Upon receiving their counting and listing assignments, interviewers listed the address or description

of up to 400 dwelling units in each segment, then returned the segment kit to the contractor. Sample dwelling

units (SDUs) were selected from segment listings using a routine designed by the sampling statisticians. A

label containing study identification information and housing unit address was printed for each SDU and
B-5

attached to a screening form. On the form was printed the different person-selection procedures the interviewer

was to follow, depending on the type of SDU and ages of the residents. The screening forms were sent to the

field supervisors for assignment to field interviewers.

Field interviewers made initial contact with SDUs by mailing an introductory letter from the study

director to each residence 1 week before the first visit. The letter provided a brief description of the study and

its methods, informed the recipient that participation was voluntary, and assured confidentiality. 

Fieldwork—Interviewing. Interviewers had received training in introducing themselves and the study

to SDU residents, answering questions, and soliciting cooperation. They also had received training in

completing the screening form, including rostering household members aged 12 or older, and the

person-selection procedures to select respondents randomly from the age-race/ethnicity strata appropriate for

the dwelling unit. When the sampled respondent was available and cooperative, the interview was conducted

immediately following screening and person selection. Interviewers were required to make at least four

callbacks to an SDU at different times of day and different days of the week to complete screening and

interviewing. In reality, however, unlimited callbacks were made as long as the field supervisor believed there

was a reasonable chance the screening or the interview could be completed. In particular, repeated visits were

made to interview sampled respondents. Similarly, initial refusals were not simply accepted but were assigned

to other interviewers and sometimes even to the field supervisors for conversion. When these efforts were

unsuccessful, the field supervisor had the option of sending a refusal letter or unable to contact letter to help

convert the reluctant respondent. 

After each completed interview, the respondent was asked to complete a verification form by entering

his or her address and telephone number so that the field interviewer’s work could be verified. This form was

sealed in a preaddressed envelope separate from the envelope used for mailing the interview data collection

forms to the contractor. Upon receipt by the contractor, these forms were keyed into a database. A random

sample of the verification forms in this database was selected for telephone verification. When a selected

verification form did not have a telephone number but did have an address, verification by mail was attempted.

Discrepancies were identified, and the appropriate field supervisor was notified by electronic mail for

resolution; all discrepancies were satisfactorily resolved. Verification interviews, follow-up letters, and records

of any discrepancies and their resolution were filed by case ID number in a 1998 NHSDA verification file.

Imputations. The questionnaire items on the 1998 NHSDA screening and interview instrument that

were used during the imputation procedures (i.e., completeness and replacement) were nearly identical to the

questions used during the 1997 NHSDA imputation procedures. As in the 1997 NHSDA, a State-supplemental

sample large enough to provide reliable estimates for Arizona and California was drawn for quarters 1 through

4 of the 1998 NHSDA; thus, a State (Arizona, California, and the remainder of the United States) indicator

was used among the sorting and explanatory variables during some of the statistical imputation process.

Population estimates were based on either the total sample or all cases in a subgroup, including where missing

data for some recency-of-use and frequency-of-use variables were replaced with logically or statistically

imputed (i.e., replaced) values. The interview classification “minimally complete” (a status necessary for a

case to be included in the database) required that data on the recency of use of alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine

be present.

Logical Imputations. To determine case completeness, an editing procedure was employed to replace

missing data for those substances based on information supplied by the respondent elsewhere in the

questionnaire. After this editing, case completeness was determined. When necessary, additional logical

imputation also was done to replace other inconsistent, missing, or otherwise faulty data.
B-6

Statistical Imputations. For selected variables of interest, which still had missing values after the

application of logical imputation, statistical imputation was used to replace missing responses with statistically

imputed responses. Two types of statistical imputations were used. The technique of sequential hot-deck

imputation involves the replacement of a missing value by the last encountered nonmissing response from

another respondent who is “similar” and has complete data. Regression-based models also were used to

determine replacement values for some variables. In general, analysts of NHSDA data are advised to use the

statistically imputed data when creating tabular summaries and other descriptive analyses for population

subgroups of interest for trend data analysis. When forming population estimates, statistical imputations often

will reduce the bias associated with the estimate. For example, data with missing responses that are not

statistically imputed will produce estimates of totals that will necessarily be underestimated and consequently

biased because the total population will not be accounted for in the estimates. Also, the bias in per-unit type

estimates, such as the estimate of a population mean, can be reduced with statistical imputation, particularly

when the imputation procedure accounts for differential nonresponse patterns and differential reporting patterns

among subgroups of the population. Although the statistically imputed data will not totally eliminate the bias

associated with estimates produced from these data, the imputation should help reduce the bias depending on

the type of analyses.

For analyses of relationships involving multiple data items, use of the variables revised by statistical

imputation may not be appropriate. Usually, these analyses span data items that were not jointly used in

defining the imputation procedure. In this situation, use of nonimputed data items may be best. In summary,

statistically imputed responses were created for the following variables: the drug recency-of-use items, the past

year frequency-of-use items, cigar use, age, race, gender, the Hispanic origin items, marital status, work status,

education, high school graduate indicator, total and private health insurance, and the personal earnings and

family income items. 

In the 1998 NHSDA, imputations for all imputation-revised variables (except for the personal earnings

and family income variables and frequency of use for alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine) were constructed using

hot-deck imputation. The first step in this procedure was to sort the data file with a progressive sorting series,

using data on recency of use of alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, age, gender, Hispanic origin, race, or State

(Arizona, California, and the remainder of the United States). The second step of the hot-deck imputation

procedure was to replace the missing item(s) on a particular record with the last encountered nonmissing

response from an adjacent record on the sorted database. The hot-deck imputation procedure was appropriate

for the recency-of-use and demographic variables because these variables’ levels of item nonresponse were low.

Missing data for all personal and family income variables, and the frequency of use for alcohol,

cocaine, and marijuana were statistically imputed using a regression-based method of imputation. This

imputation procedure involved estimating a polytomous logistic model using item respondent data. After the

model parameters were estimated, the resulting model was used to predict a categorical response for each item

nonrespondent. Demographic variables, including State, served as the explanatory variables in the income

models. In addition to these variables, the frequency-of-use models included recency of use (four levels) of

alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine. Because the income and frequency-of-use variables have a large number of

response categories, the regression-based model method was used to first impute collapsed response

categories, then the collapsed categories were expanded to more levels using the hot-deck method. The modelbased imputation procedure was appropriate for these variables for two reasons: (a) the level of nonresponse

to these questions was larger than observed for the recency-of-use and demographic items; and (b) the modelbased imputation procedure allows a greater number of statistically significant explanatory variables to affect

an imputed response than is possible with the hot-deck method.
B-7

Evaluation of the 1998 NHSDA

In the tables and discussion that follow, an assessment of the 1998 NHSDA is presented in terms of

screening and interviewing response rates (including numbers of interviews targeted and achieved),

interviewers’ perceptions of respondents’ cooperation and comprehension, and number of visits necessary to

achieve the interviews.

Screening and Interviewing Response Rates. Table B.1 presents the screening response results for

the total United States, the Arizona/California supplemental strata, and the total United States, excluding the

Arizona/California supplemental strata. The overall completed screening response rate for eligible cases was

93.0%. Screenings not completed are identified by reason. Refusals (3.3%) and no one at home (2.0%)

resulted in the highest proportions of incomplete screenings. 

Interview response rates are presented in Table B.2 by age group and race/ethnicity. The interview

response rate was 77.0% across the sample of 33,128 eligible housing unit members. Response rates tended

to be inversely related to age, with the highest response rate (81.8%) among 12- to 17-year-old sample

members. Conversely, refusal rates rose slightly with age. Hispanics had higher response rates than did

non-Hispanic sample members. The inability to find the selected person at home was lowest among whites.

Response rates by race/ethnicity ranged from 74.1% for whites to 80.5% for Hispanics.

Table B.3 presents interview response rates by age group and region, Table B.4 by race/ethnicity and

region, and Table B.5 by race/ethnicity and population density. Response rates varied by region and were

generally higher in the South and North Central, and lower in the West and Northeast. Overall, the lowest

response rates were found among non-Hispanic whites living in the Northeast (67.9%) and among non-Hispanic

whites aged 35 or older living in the West (69.7%). The highest response rates were found among blacks not

living in metropolitan statistical areas (i.e., non-MSAs) (89.9%), 12 to 17 year olds in the South (86.7%), and

Hispanics living in the South (85.4%).

Number of Visits and Response Rates. Table B.6 shows the results of initial and repeated visits to

SDUs to complete a household screening and to obtain an interview. Close to half (45.3%) of all interviews

were completed on the initial visit, and more than 75% of all interviews had been completed after three visits.

Up to 9 callbacks yielded still substantial increases in the number of interviews completed (95.6%), but 10 or

more callbacks resulted in only slight improvements in the overall response rate (97.1%).

Privacy and Respondent Cooperation and Comprehension. Based on interviewers’ assessments,

most of the interviews were conducted in complete privacy, as shown in Table B.7. At least two-thirds of the

interviews in each racial/ethnic group were conducted in complete privacy. Interviews with whites were more

likely to be completely private than those with Hispanics or blacks. The youngest age group, 12 to 17 year

olds, was the most likely to have another person constantly present during an interview (6.3% to 9.2%).

The vast majority of the respondents were rated as very cooperative by interviewers, as shown in Table

B.8. At least 96% of respondents in each racial/ethnic category were reported as being very or fairly

cooperative, with those aged 12 to 17 having the highest rate of cooperation over all other age groups. Most

respondents—more than 89% of each racial/ethnic group—were perceived as experiencing only a little or no

difficulty in level of understanding during the interview.
B-8

Table B.1 Number and Percentage of Sampled Housing Units Screened, 1998

U.S., Excluding

AZ/CA AZ/CA Total U.S.

Screening Results n n n

Percent- 

 age

 Percent- Percent-

 age age

Total Sample

 Ineligible cases

 Eligible cases

63,138 100.0 31,585 100.0 94,723 100.0

9,831 15.6 4,026 12.8 13,857 14.6

53,307 84.4 27,559 87.3 80,866 85.4

Ineligible Cases

 Vacant

 Not primary residence

 Not a dwelling unit

 Other ineligible

9,831 100.0 4,026 100.0 13,857 100.0

7,105 72.3 2,789 69.3 9,894 71.4

1,202 12.2 612 15.2 1,814 13.1

1,412 14.4 484 12.0 1,896 13.7

112 1.1 141 3.5 253 1.8

Eligible Cases

 Screening completed

 Selected for interview

 Not selected for interview

53,307 100.0 27,559 100.0 80,866 100.0

49,793 93.4 25,374 92.1 75,167 93.0

16,141 30.3 8,825 32.0 24,966 30.9

33,652 63.1 16,549 60.0 50,201 62.1

 Screening not completed 3,514 6.6 2,185 7.9 5,699 7.0

 No one at home 1,077 2.0 506 1.8 1,583 2.0

 Respondent unavailable 138 0.3 31 0.1 169 0.2

 Physical/mental

 incompetent 59 0.1 19 0.1 78 0.1

 Language

 barrier—Hispanic 50 0.1 3 0.0 53 0.1

 Language barrier—other 95 0.2 63 0.2 158 0.2

 Refusal 1,560 2.9 1,087 3.9 2,647 3.3

 Other, eligible 32 0.1 8 0.0 40 0.0

 Other, access denied 246 0.5 195 0.7 441 0.5

 Segment not accessible 0 0.0 132 0.5 132 0.2

 Screener not returned 219 0.4 129 0.5 348 0.4

 Fraudulent case 38 0.1 12 0.0 50 0.1

AZ = Arizona; CA = California. 

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
B-9

Table B.2 Interview Results, by Age Group and Race/Ethnicity, 1998

Age Group in Years

12-17 18-25 26-34 $35 Total 

Race/Ethnicity n age n age n age n age n age

Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- PercentHispanic

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

2,166 100.0 2,780 100.0 1,803 100.0 1,688 100.0 8,437 100.0

1,869 86.3 2,187 78.7 1,432 79.4 1,307 77.4 6,795 80.5

 90 4.2 259 9.3 142 7.9 134 7.9 625 7.4

 53 2.4 191 6.9 140 7.8 156 9.2 540 6.4

 113 5.2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 113 1.3

 41 1.9 143 5.1 89 4.9 91 5.4 364 4.3

Black, Non-Hispanic

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

1,629 100.0 2,253 100.0 1,396 100.0 2,020 100.0 7,298 100.0

1,374 84.3 1,798 79.8 1,053 75.4 1,590 78.7 5,815 79.7

 82 5.0 227 10.1 156 11.2 110 5.4 575 7.9

 37 2.3 144 6.4 137 9.8 221 10.9 539 7.4

 85 5.2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 85 1.2

 51 3.1 84 3.7 50 3.6 99 4.9 284 3.9

White, Non-Hispanic

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

4,487 100.0 4,580 100.0 2,817 100.0 5,509 100.0 17,393 100.0

3,535 78.8 3,333 72.8 2,052 72.8 3,970 72.1 12,890 74.1

 185 4.1 415 9.1 220 7.8 280 5.1 1,100 6.3

 191 4.3 637 13.9 450 16.0 899 16.3 2,177 12.5

 483 10.8 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 483 2.8

 93 2.1 195 4.3 95 3.4 360 6.5 743 4.3

Total

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

8,282 100.0 9,613 100.0 6,016 100.0 9,217 100.0 33,128 100.0

6,778 81.8 7,318 76.1 4,537 75.4 6,867 74.5 25,500 77.0

 357 4.3 901 9.4 518 8.6 524 5.7 2,300 6.9

 281 3.4 972 10.1 727 12.1 1,276 13.8 3,256 9.8

 681 8.2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 681 2.1

 185 2.2 422 4.4 234 3.9 550 6.0 1,391 4.2

N/A: Not applicable. 

HU = housing unit. 

Results include interviewer codes for no one at home after repeated visits and codes for respondent unavailable after repeated visits. 1

Parental refusals were assigned to persons aged 12 to 17 only. 2

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
B-10

Table B.3 Interview Results, by Age Group and Region, 1998

Age Group in Years

12-17 18-25 26-34 $35 Total 

Region n age n age n age n age n age

Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent- PercentNortheast

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

 929 100.0 1,048 100.0 960 100.0 1,418 100.0 4,355 100.0

 709 76.3 739 70.5 673 70.1 1,000 70.5 3,121 71.7

 76 8.2 159 15.2 133 13.9 130 9.2 498 11.4

 44 4.7 98 9.4 121 12.6 183 12.9 446 10.2

 73 7.9 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 73 1.7

 27 2.9 52 5.0 33 3.4 105 7.4 217 5.0

North Central

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

1,078 100.0 1,185 100.0 975 100.0 1,492 100.0 4,730 100.0

 872 80.9 930 78.5 754 77.3 1,124 75.3 3,680 77.8

 52 4.8 112 9.5 71 7.3 85 5.7 320 6.8

 43 4.0 99 8.4 111 11.4 200 13.4 453 9.6

 91 8.4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 91 1.9

 20 1.9 44 3.7 39 4.0 83 5.6 186 3.9

South

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

2,304 100.0 2,767 100.0 2,068 100.0 3,196 100.0 10,355 100.0

1,997 86.7 2,298 83.1 1,633 79.0 2,576 80.6 8,504 82.3

 80 3.5 205 7.4 161 7.8 150 4.7 596 5.8

 56 2.4 179 6.5 195 9.4 319 10.0 749 7.2

 117 5.1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 117 1.1

 54 2.3 85 3.1 79 3.8 151 4.7 369 3.6

West

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

3,971 100.0 4,613 100.0 2,013 100.0 3,111 100.0 13,708 100.0

3,200 80.6 3,351 72.6 1,477 73.4 2,167 69.7 10,195 74.4

 149 3.8 425 9.2 153 7.6 159 5.1 886 6.5

 138 3.5 596 12.9 300 14.9 574 18.5 1,608 11.7

 400 10.1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 400 2.9

 84 2.1 241 5.2 83 4.1 211 6.8 619 4.5

Total

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

8,282 100.0 9,613 100.0 6,016 100.0 9,217 100.0 33,128 100.0

6,778 81.8 7,318 76.1 4,537 75.4 6,867 74.5 25,500 77.0

 357 4.3 901 9.4 518 8.6 524 5.7 2,300 6.9

 281 3.4 972 10.1 727 12.1 1,276 13.8 3,256 9.8

 681 8.2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 681 2.1

 185 2.2 422 4.4 234 3.9 550 6.0 1,391 4.2

N/A: Not applicable. 

HU = housing unit. 

Results include interviewer codes for no one at home after repeated visits and codes for respondent unavailable after repeated visits. 1

Parental refusals were assigned to persons aged 12 to 17 only. 2

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
B-11

Table B.4 Interview Results, by Race/Ethnicity and Region, 1998

Hispanic Non-Hispanic Non-Hispanic Total 

Black, White,

Region n age n age n age n age

Percent- Percent- Percent- PercentNortheast

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

 890 100.0 1,205 100.0 2,260 100.0 4,355 100.0

 692 77.8 894 74.2 1,535 67.9 3,121 71.7

 84 9.4 177 14.7 237 10.5 498 11.4 

 39 4.4 77 6.4 330 14.6 446 10.2 

 13 1.5 15 1.2 45 2.0 73 1.7

 62 7.0 42 3.5 113 5.0 217 5.0

North Central

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

 431 100.0 1,239 100.0 3,060 100.0 4,730 100.0

 340 78.9 964 77.8 2,376 77.6 3,680 77.8

 39 9.0 105 8.5 176 5.8 320 6.8

 21 4.9 97 7.8 335 10.9 453 9.6

 2 0.5 21 1.7 68 2.2 91 1.9

 29 6.7 52 4.2 105 3.4 186 3.9

South

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

 2,194 100.0 4,319 100.0 3,822 100.0 10,335 100.0

 1,874 85.4 3,573 82.7 3,057 80.0 8,504 82.3

 148 6.7 254 5.9 194 5.1 596 5.8

 92 4.2 285 6.6 372 9.7 749 7.2

 8 0.4 43 1.0 66 1.7 117 1.1

 72 3.3 164 3.8 133 3.5 369 3.6

West

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

 4,922 100.0 535 100.0 8,251 100.0 13,708 100.0

 3,889 79.0 384 71.8 5,922 71.8 10,195 74.4

 354 7.2 39 7.3 493 6.0 886 6.5

 388 7.9 80 15.0 1,140 13.8 1,608 11.7

 90 1.8 6 1.1 304 3.7 400 2.9

 201 4.1 26 4.9 392 4.8 619 4.5

Total

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

 8,437 100.0 7,298 100.0 17,393 100.0 33,128 100.0

 6,795 80.5 5,815 79.7 12,890 74.1 25,500 77.0

 625 7.4 575 7.9 1,100 6.3 2,300 6.9

 540 6.4 539 7.4 2,177 12.5 3,256 9.8

 113 1.3 85 1.2 483 2.8 681 2.1

 364 4.3 284 3.9 743 4.3 1,391 4.2

HU = housing unit. 

Results include interviewer codes for no one at home after repeated visits and codes for respondent unavailable after repeated visits. 1

Parental refusals were assigned to persons aged 12 to 17 only. 2

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
B-12

Table B.5 Interview Results, by Race/Ethnicity and Population Density, 1998

Hispanic Non-Hispanic Non-Hispanic Total 

Black, White, 

Population Density n age n age n age n age

Percent- Percent- Percent- Percent1,000,000+

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

5,642 100.0 3,744 100.0 7,915 100.0 17,301 100.0

4,561 80.8 2,819 75.3 5,606 70.8 12,986 75.1

 439 7.8 377 10.1 570 7.2 1,386 8.0

 362 6.4 349 9.3 1,071 13.5 1,782 10.3 

 65 1.2 46 1.2 255 3.2 366 2.1

 215 3.8 153 4.1 413 5.2 781 4.5

50,000 to 999,999

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

2,081 100.0 2,360 100.0 5,399 100.0 9,840 100.0

1,679 80.7 1,923 81.5 4,028 74.6 7,630 77.5

 148 7.1 145 6.1 337 6.2 630 6.4

 133 6.4 162 6.9 699 12.9 994 10.1 

 23 1.1 33 1.4 137 2.5 193 2.0

 98 4.7 97 4.1 198 3.7 393 4.0

Non-MSA

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

 714 100.0 1,194 100.0 4,079 100.0 5,987 100.0

 555 77.7 1,073 89.9 3,256 79.8 4,884 81.6

 38 5.3 53 4.4 193 4.7 284 4.7

 45 6.3 28 2.3 407 10.0 480 8.0

 25 3.5 6 0.5 91 2.2 122 2.0

 51 7.1 34 2.8 132 3.2 217 3.6

Total

 Eligible HU members

 Interview completed

 No respondent home1

 Refusal

 Parental refusal2

 Other

8,437 100.0 7,298 100.0 17,393 100.0 33,128 100.0

6,795 80.5 5,815 79.7 12,890 74.1 25,500 77.0

 625 7.4 575 7.9 1,100 6.3 2,300 6.9

 540 6.4 539 7.4 2,177 12.5 3,256 9.8

 113 1.3 85 1.2 483 2.8 681 2.1

 364 4.3 284 3.9 743 4.3 1,391 4.2

HU = housing unit; MSA = metropolitan statistical area. 

Results include interviewer codes for no one at home after repeated visits and codes for respondent unavailable after repeated visits. 1

Parental refusals were assigned to persons aged 12 to 17 only. 2

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
B-13

Table B.6 Number of Visits Required to Complete Interviews, 1998

Visits Interviews Percentage Percentage

Cumulative

1 11,564 45.3 45.3

2 5,890 23.1 68.4

3 2,386 9.4 77.8

4 1,484 5.8 83.6

5-9 3,043 11.9 95.6

10+ 406 1.6 97.1

Missing 726 2.8 100.0

Total 25,500 -- --

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
B-14

Table B.7 Interviewer’s Assessment of Respondent’s Level of Privacy During

 Interview, by Age and Race/Ethnicity of Respondent, 1998

Race/Ethnicity and

Interviewer Assessment

Age Group in Years

12-17 18-25 26-34 $35 Total

Hispanic

Total number 1,869 2,187 1,432 1,307 6,795

Level of privacy (percentage of total)

 01 - Completely private 59.2 70.8 68.2 68.9 66.7

 02 - Person(s) in room < 1/4 of time 21.3 14.5 15.9 17.6 17.3

 03 - Person in Room 1/4 to 1⁄2 time 8.0 6.0 5.9 5.1 6.4

 04 - Serious interruptions > 1⁄2 time 2.8 2.3 2.8 2.4 2.6

 05 - Constant presence of other people 7.2 5.3 5.8 4.6 5.8

 06 - Not sure 1.5 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.3

Black, Non-Hispanic

Total number 1,374 1,798 1,053 1,590 5,815

Level of privacy (percentage of total)

 01 - Completely private 54.4 69.2 70.5 77.7 68.3

 02 - Person(s) in room < 1/4 of time 24.7 15.9 13.5 10.8 16.1

 03 - Person in Room 1/4 to 1⁄2 time 8.4 5.0 5.1 3.1 5.3

 04 - Serious interruptions > 1⁄2 time 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.6 2.0

 05 - Constant presence of other people 9.2 5.8 7.5 5.0 6.7

 06 - Not sure 1.2 2.0 1.5 1.8 1.7

White, Non-Hispanic

Total number 3,535 3,333 2,052 3,970 12,890

Level of privacy (percentage of total)

 01 - Completely private 59.8 72.8 71.9 77.0 70.4

 02 - Person(s) in room < 1/4 of time 21.6 13.7 14.2 11.7 15.3

 03 - Person in Room 1/4 to 1⁄2 time 8.7 5.7 6.2 4.2 6.2

 04 - Serious interruptions > 1⁄2 time 2.2 1.7 1.9 1.5 1.8

 05 - Constant presence of other people 6.3 5.0 4.7 4.5 5.2

 06 - Not sure 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
B-15

Table B.8 Interviewer’s Assessment of Respondent’s Level of Cooperation and

 Understanding, by Age and Race/Ethnicity of Respondent, 1998

Race/Ethnicity and

Interviewer Assessment

Age Group in Years

12-17 18-25 26-34 $35 Total

Hispanic

Total number 1,869 2,187 1,432 1,307 6,795

Level of cooperation (percentage of total)

 Very cooperative 92.1 89.1 89.7 86.8 89.6

 Fairly cooperative 5.9 8.7 7.8 9.1 7.8

 Not very cooperative 0.6 1.1 1.5 2.4 1.3

 Openly hostile 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.3

 No response 1.2 1.1 0.7 1.2 1.1

Level of understanding (percentage of total)

 No difficulty 75.3 77.4 72.8 64.3 73.8

 Just a little difficulty 17.5 13.4 16.6 18.1 16.1

 A fair amount of difficulty 4.8 5.3 6.3 10.6 6.4

 A lot of difficulty 0.7 1.5 2.4 5.1 2.2

 No response 1.7 2.4 1.9 2.0 2.0

Black, Non-Hispanic

Total number 1,374 1,798 1,053 1,590 5,815

Level of cooperation (percentage of total)

 Very cooperative 88.4 84.7 84.2 82.3 84.8

 Fairly cooperative 9.8 11.5 12.4 13.9 11.9

 Not very cooperative 0.9 1.7 1.7 2.2 1.7

 Openly hostile 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.3

 No response 0.7 1.8 1.4 1.1 1.3

Level of understanding (percentage of total)

 No difficulty 73.9 85.4 83.4 69.1 77.9

 Just a little difficulty 18.2 9.7 10.2 13.9 12.9

 A fair amount of difficulty 5.0 1.9 3.8 8.7 4.8

 A lot of difficulty 1.5 0.9 0.8 6.2 2.5

 No response 1.4 2.1 1.9 2.1 1.9

White, Non-Hispanic

Total number 3,535 3,333 2,052 3,970 12,890

Level of cooperation (percentage of total)

 Very cooperative 93.3 92.5 92.4 90.8 92.2

 Fairly cooperative 5.2 6.2 5.4 6.9 6.0

 Not very cooperative 0.5 0.5 1.1 1.2 0.8

 Openly hostile 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1

 No response 0.9 0.7 1.1 0.9 0.9

Level of understanding (percentage of total)

 No difficulty 83.9 91.1 91.5 86.0 87.6

 Just a little difficulty 11.8 6.2 5.0 7.7 8.0

 A fair amount of difficulty 2.3 1.1 1.2 2.7 2.0

 A lot of difficulty 0.7 0.5 0.3 2.2 1.0

 No response 1.4 1.3 1.9 1.5 1.5

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
B-16
C-1

APPENDIX C

SAMPLING AND STATISTICAL INFERENCE
C-2
L ' ln[Pd

/(1&Pd)] ,

A ' Lˆ & K

var(pd)

pd(1&pd)

B ' Lˆ % K

var(pd)

pd(1&pd)

,

pd,lower '

1

1 % exp (&A)

pd,upper'

1

1 % exp (&B)

,

Lˆ ' ln[pd/(1&pd)]

C-3

Appendix C: Sampling and Statistical Inference

Sampling Error and Confidence Intervals

In the 1998 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA), sampling error occurs due to the

random process of sampling the total population of inferential interest (i.e., the civilian, noninstitutionalized

population aged 12 or older within the United States). Other NHSDA reports have used 95% confidence

intervals to quantify sampling error. Because the estimates in the NHSDA are frequently small percentages,

the confidence intervals are based on logit transformations. Logit transformations yield asymmetric interval

boundaries that provide a more suitable measure of sampling error for small percentages.

To illustrate, let the proportion Pd represent the true prevalence rate for a particular analysis domain "d."

Then the logit transformation of P , commonly referred to as the "log odds," is defined as d

where "ln" denotes the natural logarithm.

Letting p be the estimate of the proportion, the log odds estimate becomes . d

Then the lower and upper limits of L are calculated as

where var(pd) is the variance estimate of pd, and K is the constant chosen to yield the proper level of confidence

(e.g., K = 1.96 for 95% confidence limits). 

Applying the inverse logit transformation to A and B above yields a confidence interval for p as follows: d
Nˆ

d

Yˆ

d

' Nˆ

d

( pd,

RSE[&ln(p)] > 0.175 when p # 0.5

RSE[&ln(1&p)] > 0.175 when p > 0.5 .

Nˆ

d

pd

Yˆ

d

Nˆ

d

Yˆ

d

var(Yˆ

d

) ' Nˆ

2

d

( var(pd) .

This approach treats the estimated domain size, , as fixed. This is a good approximation in most 1

cases because ratio adjustments tend to control the variability of estimates of domain sizes.

C-4

where "exp" denotes the inverse log transformation. The upper and lower limits of the percentage estimate are

obtained by simply multiplying the upper and lower limits of p by 100. 

Corresponding to the percentage estimates, the number of drug users, Y , can be estimated as d

where

 = estimated population total for domain d and

 = estimated proportion for domain d.

The confidence interval for is obtained by multiplying the lower and upper limits of the proportion 

confidence interval by . In addition, the variance of can be estimated as

1

For the 1998 NHSDA, the design-based variance was estimated using a Taylor series linearization. For

a given variance estimate, the associated design effect is the ratio of the design-based variance estimate over

the variance that would have been obtained from a simple random sample of the same size. Because the

combined design features of stratification, clustering, and unequal weighting are expected to increase the

variance estimates, the design effect should virtually always be greater than one. For prevalence rates near

zero, however, the variance inflating effects of unequal weighting and clustering were sometimes

underestimated, resulting in design effects of less than one. Because the corresponding variance estimates were

considered anomalously small, two other variance estimates were computed as quality control measures. The

first was based only on the stratification and unequal weighting effects, and the second was based on no effects

or simple random sampling. The reported variance estimate was then the maximum of these three estimates.

As in other publications, estimates with low precision were not reported. The criterion used for

suppressing estimates was based on the relative standard error (RSE). The RSE is defined as the ratio of the

standard error (SE) of the estimate over the estimate. For the 1998 NHSDA reports, the log transformation

of the proportion estimate was used to calculate the RSE. Specifically, percentages and corresponding

population estimates were suppressed if

or

For computational purposes, this is equivalent to
SE(p)/p

&ln(p)

> 0.175 when p # 0.5

SE(p)/(1&p)

&ln(1&p)

> 0.175 when p > 0.5 ,

Z '

p1 & p2

var(p1) % var(p2) & 2cov(p1, p2)

,

C-5

or

where SE(p) equals the standard error estimate of p. The log transformation of p is used to provide a more

balanced treatment of measuring the quality of small, large, and intermediate p values. The switch to (1-p) for

p greater than 0.5 provides a symmetric suppression rule across the range of possible p values. 

Statistical Significance of Differences

This section describes the methods that were used to compare prevalence estimates. Customarily, the

observed difference between estimates is evaluated in terms of its statistical significance. "Statistical

significance" refers to the probability that a difference as large as that observed would occur due to random

error in the estimates if there were no difference in the prevalence rates for the population groups being

compared. In Chapters 2 and 11, comparisons were made between estimates in the 1997 NHSDA survey and

the 1998 survey and in the other chapters between estimates within the 1998 survey. The significance of

observed differences is reported in Chapters 2 and 11 at the 0.05 and 0.01 levels, and in the other chapters at

the 0.05 level. However, the reader may wish to compare prevalence estimates from two groups for which the

significance of the difference is not reported.

To compare the prevalence of drug use for 1997 versus 1998, one can test the hypothesis of no

difference in prevalence rates using the standard difference in proportions test, expressed as

where

p1 = 1997 estimated proportion,

var(p1) = variance estimate for p1, 

p2 = 1998 estimated proportion, 

var(p2) = variance estimate for p2, and

cov(p1, p2) = covariance between p1 and p2. 

Under the null hypothesis of no difference in prevalence rates, Z is asymptotically distributed as a normal

random variable; calculated values of Z can, therefore, be referred to the unit normal distribution to determine

the corresponding probability level (i.e., p value). Because the 1997 and 1998 NHSDAs used a high

percentage (76%) of overlapping sample segments (see Appendix D), the covariance term in the formula for

Z is greater than zero in comparisons of the 1997 and 1998 surveys.
C-6

For comparing prevalence estimates within the same survey, the same Z statistic quoted above can be

used. The covariance term in the formula for Z is again greater than zero because of the small positive

covariance expected between any two nonindependent prevalence estimates. 

Sample Design Effects and Generalized Standard Errors

This section describes the methods used to approximate sampling variability by computing generalized

standard errors (SEs). (The SE estimate is the square root of the variance estimate, as described below.)

The best variance estimation approach is to use commercially available variance estimation software

packages, such as the Research Triangle Institute (RTI) SUDAAN package (Shah, Barnwell, & Bieler, 1997).

Most software packages compute variance estimates for means, percentages, and other statistics based on firstorder Taylor series approximation of the deviations of estimates from their expected values. SEs have been

computed using SUDAAN for all parameter estimates appearing in this report and are available from the Office

of Applied Studies (OAS) upon request. Whenever possible, these estimates should be used to compute

confidence intervals (CIs) and perform statistical comparisons. It is the goal here, however, to provide future

users of the 1998 NHSDA database with approximate SE estimates for situations when the NHSDA’s SE

estimates are not available.

Two approaches for approximating SE estimates are presented in this section. The first uses median

domain design effects. The second is based on a prediction equation obtained from modeling design effects.

These alternatives to the published SE estimates are described below.

As noted previously, the design effect is the ratio of the design-based variance estimate divided by the

variance estimate that would have been obtained from a simple random sample of the same size. Therefore,

the design effect summarizes the effects of stratification, clustering, and unequal weighting on the variance of

a complex sample design. Because clustering and unequal weighting are expected to increase the variance, the

design effect should virtually always be greater than one.

As also discussed earlier, however, design effects were frequently less than one for prevalence rates near

zero. Because these values were considered spurious, another design effect estimate based only on stratification

and unequal weighting effects was substituted if it was greater than the total design effect. Moreover, if both

design effect estimates were less than one, a value of one was substituted.

For the 1998 NHSDA, the median design effects were based on estimates from the following: 

C 15 illicit drug use categories: any illicit drug use; marijuana/hashish; cocaine; crack;

inhalants; hallucinogens; lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), phencyclidine (PCP);

heroin; nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic; nonmedical use of stimulants;

nonmedical use of sedatives; nonmedical use of tranquilizers; nonmedical use of

analgesics; any illicit drug except marijuana; and 

• 3 licit drug use categories: cigarettes, alcohol, and smokeless tobacco;

• for each of 3 recency-of-use categories: lifetime use, past year use, and past month

use.

The estimates of past month heavy drinking and binge drinking also were included in the licit drug use category,

bringing the total number of estimates used for median calculations to 56.
var(pd

)

appx

' DEFFd,MED ([pd(1&pd)/nd] ,

DEFF(p) ' var(p)/[p(1&p)/n] ,

log[DEFF(p)] ' $0% $1log(p) % $2log(1&p) % $3log(n) ,

C-7

(C-1)

For each specified domain within the 1998 NHSDA, a median design effect was calculated from the

above estimates as opposed to calculating an average design effect. Because extreme values of some design

effects would have distorted the associated averages, medians were chosen to provide a better measure of the

central value. The domains were defined by cross-classifications of age by gender, race/ethnicity, population

density, geographic region of residence, adult education, and current employment. Domains for Arizona and

California also were included. Design effects associated with percentage estimates exhibiting low precision

were not used. Because the design effects from the licit drug use estimates tended to be larger than the design

effects from the illicit drug use estimates, the median design effects were computed separately for these two

classifications.

Table C.1 presents the median design effects for the illicit drugs, and Table C.2 presents the median

design effects for the licit drugs. These tables can be used to calculate an approximate variance estimate for

a particular domain of the 1998 NHSDA as follows:

where

p = estimated proportion for domain d, d

nd = sample size for domain d, and

DEFF = median design effect for domain d . d,MED

The approximate SE estimate for p , SE(p ) , is simply the square root of var(p ) . d d appx d appx

When a median design effect for a domain under investigation is not listed in Tables C.1 or C.2, an

alternative SE approximation is recommended. This approximation uses a prediction equation obtained from

modeling estimated design effects. The definition of the design effect is the basis for the regression model:

where

var(p) = design-based variance estimate of p, and

[p(1-p)/n] = simple random sample variance estimate of p . 

Taking the log (base 10) of both sides of the above equation leads to the following log-linear model:

where

$ , $ , $ , $ = regression coefficients for the intercept, log(p), log(1-p), and log(n), respectively. 0 1 2 3
SEi

(p)

appx

'

10(b0i

/2)

( p

(1%b1i)/2

( (1&p)

(1%b2i)/2

n

(1&b3i)/2

,

SE(pillicit)

appx

'

1.1869 ( p

(0.7640) ( (1&p)(0.5916)

n

(0.4259)

.

SE(plicit)

appx

'

0.8817 ( p

(0.5043) ( (1&p)(0.5393)

n

(0.4068)

.

C-8

(C-2)

(C-3)

Separate models were fit for the licit and illicit drug use estimates in the 1998 NHSDA. The design effects

used to calculate the medians in Tables C.1 and C.2 were used to fit the licit and illicit drug use models for the

1998 NHSDA. Estimated proportions less than 0.5 were converted to 1- p for the models.

By substituting the fitted model into the definition of the design effect, a prediction equation for the

approximate SE is obtained:

where

b , b , b , b = regression coefficients estimates for the intercept, log(p), log(1-p), 0i 1i 2i 3i

 and log(n), respectively.

The index-i indicates whether the SE approximation is for a licit drug or illicit drug prevalence estimate.

After solving for the regression coefficients, the above approximation reduces to the following two

prediction equations:

Tables C.3 and C.4 present generalized SEs for various percentages (from 1% to 99%) and sample sizes (from

100 to 25,500) for the 1998 NHSDA, predicted from Equations (C-2) and (C-3). 

In summary, the user may obtain 1998 NHSDA SE estimates from the following recommended order

of sources:

1. commercially available variance estimation software packages, such as SUDAAN;

otherwise,

2. published SEs from this or other reports using data from the 1998 NHSDA (obtainable

upon request from the OAS at SAMHSA); otherwise,

3. median domain design effects appearing in Tables C.1 and C.2 and application of

Equation (C-1); otherwise,

4. model-based prediction, using Equations (C-2) and (C-3) or Tables C.3 and C.4 for

national or regional estimates. 
C-9

Once the variance estimates have been obtained, the user may apply the methods discussed in previous

sections to compute confidence intervals or make statistical comparisons.
C-10

Table C.1 Median Design Effects of Illicit Drug Use Estimates, by Age Group

and Demographic Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total 

Age Group in Years

Total 2.40 3.58 1.92 1.79 2.88

Gender 

Male 2.18 3.46 1.76 1.45 2.49

Female 2.69 2.89 1.94 1.69 2.36

Race/Ethnicity 

1

White, non-Hispanic 1.84 2.42 1.37 1.50 1.95

Black, non-Hispanic 2.19 1.94 1.57 1.76 2.39

Hispanic 1.73 2.03 1.76 1.66 2.12

Population Density

Large metro 2.98 3.22 2.23 1.82 2.90

Small metro 1.97 3.15 1.82 1.48 2.51

Nonmetro 2.00 2.93 1.73 2.12 2.89

Region 

Northeast 1.57 2.11 1.67 2.22 1.75

North Central 1.54 2.02 1.36 1.41 2.00

South 1.93 3.59 2.39 1.99 2.97

West 3.47 3.54 2.24 1.79 3.96

Adult Education2

Less than high school N/A 3.76 3.26 1.64 2.28

High school graduate N/A 3.01 1.91 1.79 2.26

Some college N/A 3.89 1.80 1.72 2.61

College graduate N/A 2.21 1.39 1.77 2.00

Current Employment3

Full-time N/A 3.10 1.95 2.01 2.47

Part-time N/A 2.63 2.16 1.48 2.00

Unemployed N/A 2.72 1.52 2.05 3.18

Other N/A 3.69 2.00 1.47 1.97 4

Arizona/California

Arizona 1.54 1.84 1.43 1.32 3.14

California 1.79 1.84 2.13 1.42 2.72

Note: These design effects apply to the following drugs: any illicit drug use; marijuana/hashish; cocaine; crack; inhalants;

hallucinogens; lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD); phencyclidine (PCP); heroin; nonmedical use of any psychotherapeutic;

nonmedical use of stimulants; nonmedical use of sedatives; nonmedical use of tranquilizers; nonmedical use of analgesics;

and any illicit drug except marijuana.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for 12 to 17 year olds. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older. 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for 12 to 17 year olds. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older. 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
C-11

Table C.2 Median Design Effects of Licit Drug Use Estimates, by Age Group and

Demographic Characteristics: 1998 

Demographic 

Characteristic 12-17 18-25 26-34 35+ Total 

Age Group in Years

Total 2.59 4.28 2.32 2.52 4.98 

Gender

 Male

 Female

2.30 3.93 1.96 2.05 4.04 

3.05 4.46 2.04 2.02 4.04 

Race/Ethnicity1

 White, non-Hispanic

 Black, non-Hispanic

 Hispanic

1.86 3.84 1.75 1.83 3.31 

2.07 2.38 1.56 1.98 3.64 

2.07 1.94 1.79 1.78 2.89 

Population Density 

 Large metro

 Small metro

 Nonmetro

3.52 3.41 2.36 2.13 5.05 

2.20 5.06 2.21 2.47 5.24 

2.40 3.09 2.02 2.12 4.68 

Region

 Northeast

 North Central

 South

 West

2.00 2.40 2.24 2.01 2.44 

1.60 2.84 1.79 1.71 3.20 

1.98 3.34 2.19 3.01 5.13 

3.56 6.93 2.26 2.59 8.13 

Adult Education2

 Less than high school

 High school graduate

 Some college

 College graduate

N/A 3.37 2.56 2.75 4.21 

N/A 3.15 2.00 1.95 3.33 

N/A 4.77 2.32 2.17 3.58 

N/A 2.57 1.94 1.79 2.27 

Current Employment3

 Full-time

 Part-time

 Unemployed

 Other4

N/A 3.15 1.99 2.24 3.53 

N/A 3.74 2.05 1.77 2.95 

N/A 2.57 2.22 2.13 3.74 

N/A 5.44 2.14 2.33 3.33 

Arizona/California

 Arizona

 California

1.44 1.75 1.86 1.50 4.02 

1.40 2.46 2.28 1.65 3.56 

Note: These design effects apply to the following drugs: cigarettes, alcohol, smokeless tobacco, binge drinking, and heavy drinking.

N/A: Not applicable.

The category “other” for race/ethnicity is not included. 1

Data on adult education are not applicable for 12 to 17 year olds. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older. 2

Data on current employment are not applicable for 12 to 17 year olds. Total refers to adults aged 18 or older. 3

Retired, disabled, homemaker, student, or “other.” 4

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
C-12

Table C.3 Generalized Standard Errors for Estimated Percentages of Illicit Drug

Use Estimates: 1998

Sample Size Estimated Percentage (Proportion, p, Multiplied by 100)

for Base of

Percentage, n 50 40, 60 30, 70 20, 80 10, 90 5, 95 3, 97 2, 98 1, 99

 100 6.52 6.57 6.24 5.43 3.95 2.73 2.05 1.62 1.09 

 300 4.09 4.12 3.91 3.40 2.47 1.71 1.28 1.02 0.68

 500 3.29 3.31 3.14 2.74 1.99 1.37 1.03 0.82 0.55

 700 2.85 2.87 2.72 2.37 1.72 1.19 0.89 0.71 0.47

 900 2.56 2.58 2.45 2.13 1.55 1.07 0.80 0.64 0.43

 1,000 2.45 2.47 2.34 2.04 1.48 1.02 0.77 0.61 0.41

 1,250 2.23 2.24 2.13 1.85 1.35 0.93 0.70 0.55 0.37

 1,500 2.06 2.07 1.97 1.71 1.25 0.86 0.65 0.51 0.34

 2,000 1.82 1.83 1.74 1.52 1.10 0.76 0.57 0.45 0.30

 2,500 1.66 1.67 1.58 1.38 1.00 0.69 0.52 0.41 0.28

 3,000 1.53 1.54 1.47 1.28 0.93 0.64 0.48 0.38 0.26

 4,000 1.36 1.37 1.30 1.13 0.82 0.57 0.43 0.34 0.23

 5,000 1.23 1.24 1.18 1.03 0.75 0.52 0.39 0.31 0.21

 7,500 1.04 1.05 0.99 0.86 0.63 0.43 0.33 0.26 0.17

10,000 0.92 0.92 0.88 0.76 0.56 0.38 0.29 0.23 0.15

15,000 0.77 0.78 0.74 0.64 0.47 0.32 0.24 0.19 0.13

18,000 0.71 0.72 0.68 0.60 0.43 0.30 0.22 0.18 0.12

25,5001 0.62 0.62 0.59 0.51 0.37 0.26 0.19 0.15 0.10

Note: Generalized standard errors are predicted from the following equation: SE = 100*[ 1.1869p *(1-p) /n ]. (.7640) (.5916) (.4259)

The total sample size for the 1998 NHSDA is 25,500. 1

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
C-13

Table C.4 Generalized Standard Errors for Estimated Percentages of Licit Drug

Use Estimates: 1998

Sample Size Estimated Percentage (Proportion, p, Multiplied by 100)

for Base of

Percentage, n 50 40, 60 30, 70 20, 80 10, 90 5, 95 3, 97 2, 98 1, 99

 100 6.57 6.39 5.91 5.08 3.71 2.62 2.01 1.63 1.12

 300 4.20 4.09 3.78 3.25 2.37 1.68 1.29 1.04 0.72

 500 3.41 3.32 3.07 2.64 1.93 1.36 1.05 0.85 0.58

 700 2.98 2.89 2.68 2.30 1.68 1.19 0.91 0.74 0.51

 900 2.69 2.61 2.42 2.08 1.52 1.07 0.82 0.67 0.46

 1,000 2.58 2.50 2.32 1.99 1.45 1.03 0.79 0.64 0.44

 1,250 2.35 2.29 2.12 1.82 1.33 0.94 0.72 0.58 0.40

 1,500 2.18 2.12 1.96 1.69 1.23 0.87 0.67 0.54 0.37

 2,000 1.94 1.89 1.75 1.50 1.10 0.78 0.60 0.48 0.33

 2,500 1.77 1.72 1.60 1.37 1.00 0.71 0.54 0.44 0.30

 3,000 1.65 1.60 1.48 1.27 0.93 0.66 0.50 0.41 0.28

 4,000 1.47 1.42 1.32 1.13 0.83 0.59 0.45 0.36 0.25

 5,000 1.34 1.30 1.20 1.04 0.76 0.53 0.41 0.33 0.23

 7,500 1.13 1.10 1.02 0.88 0.64 0.45 0.35 0.28 0.19

10,000 1.01 0.98 0.91 0.78 0.57 0.40 0.31 0.25 0.17

15,000 0.86 0.83 0.77 0.66 0.48 0.34 0.26 0.21 0.15

18,000 0.79 0.77 0.72 0.61 0.45 0.32 0.24 0.20 0.14

25,5001 0.69 0.67 0.62 0.53 0.39 0.28 0.21 0.17 0.12

Note: Generalized standard errors are predicted from the following equation: SE = 100*[.8817p *(1-p) /n ]. (.5043) (.5393) (.4068)

The total sample size for the 1998 NHSDA is 25,500. 1

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
C-14
D-1

APPENDIX D

SAMPLING AND WEIGHTING PROCEDURES
D-2
D-3

Appendix D: Sampling and Weighting Procedures

The respondent universe for the 1998 NHSDA was the civilian, noninstitutionalized population aged

12 years or older within the United States, including residents of noninstitutional group quarters (e.g., shelters,

rooming houses, dormitories), as well as residents of civilian housing on military bases. Persons excluded from

the universe included those with no fixed address, residents of institutional quarters (such as jails and

hospitals), and active military personnel. The survey used basically the same multistage area probability

sample design that has been employed since the 1988 NHSDA. This design uses a composite size measure

methodology and a specially designed within-dwelling selection procedure to ensure that desired sample sizes

would be achieved for subpopulations defined by age and race/ethnicity. Oversampling was used to meet

specified precision constraints for these subpopulations. As in the 1988 through 1997 NHSDAs, the 1998

NHSDA oversampled Hispanics in areas of high Hispanic concentration to reduce survey costs. Like the 1996

NHSDA, which used virtually the same segments surveyed in the 1995 NHSDA, the 1998 NHSDA basically

revisited the 1997 NHSDA segment sample. Approximately 76% of the 1998 sample, or 2,030 segments,

consisted of the unused members of the pairwise segment sample selected at the same time the 1997 segment

samples were drawn. The remaining 24%, or 640 segments, were new segments either replacing 1997

segments with inadequate remaining dwelling unit sample sizes or segments representing newly defined

noncertainty primary sampling units (PSUs). A combination of the pairwise sampling feature and the overlap

feature helped reduce the sampling variance (of year-to-year difference estimates), as well as minimized field

costs.

Similar to the 1997 NHSDA, the 1998 survey incorporated an Arizona and California supplemental

sample large enough to yield defensible State-level estimates, in addition to contributing to national estimates.

However, unlike the 1997 survey, the supplemental sample was included as part of the original design to allow

for separate Arizona and California stratum definitions and was present in all four quarters of the survey.

As in previous NHSDAs, the basic sample design of the 1998 NHSDA involved five selection stages:

! the selection of PSUs (e.g., counties), 

! the selection of subareas (blocks or block groups) within PSUs, 

! the selection of listing units (housing units or individual dwelling units within

noninstitutionalized group quarters occupied by one or more civilians) within these

subareas, 

! the selection of age domains (age groups 12 to 17, 18 to 25, 26 to 34, 35 to 49, and

50 or older) within sampled listing units, and 

! the selection of eligible individuals within the sampled age domains. 

The following sections describe these selection stages. A more complete description of the sample design can

be found in the 1998 Methodological Resource Book (OAS, in press a).
In the interest of readability for this report, “white” is used to indicate “white, non-Hispanic” and “black” 1

to indicate “black, non-Hispanic.” 

D-4

Selection of Primary Sampling Units

The 1998 national edition of the NHSDA used the same 115 PSUs selected for the 1995 through 1997

NHSDAs, 6 supplemental PSUs from Arizona and California, and an additional 16 noncertainty PSUs from

13 purposely selected States. These PSUs were selected to represent the Nation’s total eligible population,

including areas of high Hispanic concentration. The PSUs were defined as metropolitan areas, counties, groups

of counties, Census tracts, and independent cities. The 115 PSUs in the national study comprised 43 certainty

PSUs and 72 noncertainty PSUs. The 43 certainty PSUs were metropolitan areas with high Hispanic

concentration that had been included in the NHSDA with certainty since 1988. The 72 noncertainty PSUs were

selected with probability proportional to size (PPS) and minimal replacement to represent the balance of the

Nation outside the 43 certainty PSUs. The national sample was supplemented by a PPS selection of four

noncertainty PSUs from Arizona and two noncertainty PSUs from California. The additional 16 noncertainty

PSUs were added in States with a small sample size to increase the reliability of estimates. Because the

national sample provided representation for certainty PSUs in each State, no additional certainty PSUs were

added to either sample.

The segments that formed the 43 certainty PSUs were partitioned into five strata:

C Stratum 1: Certainty-high-concentration Hispanic area segments. These

segments had 71% or more Hispanics according to the 1990

Census.

C Stratum 2: Certainty-moderate-concentration Hispanic area segments.

These segments had between 20% and 71% Hispanics

according to the 1990 Census.

C Stratum 3: Certainty-low-concentration Hispanic area segments. These

segments had fewer than 20% Hispanics but more than 2% of

the combined Hispanic and black population according to the

1990 Census, and furthermore included fewer than 70% of the

black population according to the 1990 Census.1

C Stratum 4: Certainty-high-concentration black area segments. These segments had fewer than 20% Hispanics but more than 2% of the

combined Hispanic and black population according to the 1990

Census, and furthermore included at least 70% of the black

population according to the 1990 Census.

C Stratum 5: Certainty-high-concentration white area segments. These

segments had 2% or fewer of the combined Hispanic and black

population according to the 1990 Census.

To complete the stratum definitions for the remainder of the national study, an initial global noncertainty

stratum was created for the residual portion of the United States and defined as the initial noncertainty stratum

representing the balance of the Nation.
D-5

Following the final two stages of within-segment dwelling unit person sampling, segments in the

noncertainty stratum for the national study were partitioned into five substrata to improve the efficiency of the

design by reducing the size of the screening sample.

Prior to the formation of the final strata, an optimal allocation procedure was used to allocate the

sample to the five strata listed above. The results of the allocation suggested that total survey costs would be

minimized for fixed precision when Hispanics were oversampled in the national study strata in which they were

concentrated. Once sufficient screening interviews were conducted to identify the required number of Hispanic

dwellings, more than enough black and white dwellings would be identified so that these interviews could be

proportionally allocated to strata in the national study. For the Arizona/California supplement, there was no

oversampling of Hispanics because each State’s Hispanic allocation in the national study component was large

enough to satisfy State-level precision requirements. Consequently, the three racial/ethnic groups were sampled

in the supplement so that the combined national study and supplemental samples would result in a

proportionally allocated sample.

The 43 certainty PSUs for the national study contained about 80% of the Hispanic population in the

United States, according to the 1990 Census. They also contained approximately 50% of the black and about

40% of the white U.S. population. The segments of Stratum 1, high Hispanic, had about 85% Hispanic

dwellings on average and contained about 11% of the U.S. Hispanic population. At the same time, Stratum

12, high Hispanic for California, had 82% Hispanic dwellings and about 7% of the Hispanic population. The

segments of Stratum 2, medium Hispanic, had about 41% Hispanic dwelling units and contained about 17%

of the U.S. Hispanic population. California Stratum 13, defined the same as Stratum 2, had approximately

40% Hispanic dwelling units and contained 17% of the Hispanic population. Stratum 9 was a combination

of definitions of Strata 1 and 2 for Arizona only; it had roughly 55% Hispanic dwelling units and contained

1.5% of the Hispanic population. The segments of Stratum 3 had about 11% Hispanic dwelling units and

contained about 11% of the U.S. Hispanic population. California’s Stratum 14 had 13% Hispanic dwellings

and contained 11% of the Hispanic population, and Arizona’s Stratum 10 had 13% Hispanic dwellings and

contained 1.2% of the Hispanic population. 

The remaining 72 noncertainty PSUs for the national study were selected from Stratum 6. The

noncertainty PSUs, single counties, were selected with probability proportional to a composite size measure.

The composite size measure was defined as the sum of racial/ethnic group dwelling counts weighted by the

specified racial/ethnic sampling rates. This selection scheme allowed for targeting particular racial/ethnic

subpopulation sample sizes. Chromy’s (1979) probability minimum replacement sequential sampling scheme

was used to select these 72 PSUs with probabilities proportional to their composite size measures. The use

of a composite size measure ensured (a) roughly equal sample sizes per sample subarea (the second-stage unit

of selection) and (b) roughly equal probabilities of selecting eligible individuals (the fifth- or final-stage unit

of selection) within race/ethnicity, and age group.

A State-supplementary sample large enough to provide reliable estimates for Arizona and California

was selected to participate in quarters 1 through 4 of the 1998 NHSDA. The certainty PSUs included in the

supplement also were included in the national study. This supplement consisted of no additional certainty PSUs

because a representative certainty-PSU sample from both States was already participating in the national study.

The same first-stage sampling frame used for the noncertainty national sample also was the basis for

selecting an independent supplement of four PSUs from Arizona and two PSUs from California. Because the

noncertainty counties in Arizona were large geographically relative to population density, the counties

representing the residual outside the certainty counties in Arizona were subdivided into smaller areas (Census

tracts). Groups of these tracts satisfying a minimum population size requirement were defined as PSUs so that
D-6

data collection would be more manageable. For the noncertainty California PSU sample, no subdivision of

counties was necessary; hence, each noncertainty-county was a single PSU.

Selection of the Second-Stage Sample: Subareas Within Primary Sampling Units

The 1998 NHSDA used all available segments that had adequate listing units from the 1997 NHSDA.

Only 24% of the 1998 sample, or 640 segments, consisted of a new segment sample selected for the 1998

NHSDA. The remaining 76%, or 2,030 segments, overlapped with the 1997 survey year. The overlap feature

was used to help to reduce the sampling variance for trend estimates, as well as minimize field costs.

 

The 1998 second-stage sampling frame was based on the 1990 Decennial Census. Census blocks were

combined with adjacent blocks based on the block identification number to create nonoverlapping area

segments with at least 90 occupied dwelling units. The sample segment size allocations, based on optimal

allocation and the expected precision requirements of individual strata, are given in Table D.1 for each stratum.

These allocations assumed that about nine interviews would be completed per sample segment.

The area segments from each stratum of each of the PSUs were selected with probabilities proportional

to a size measure. For each stratum, a composite size measure was defined to equal a weighted sum of the

numbers of all dwelling units with weights proportional to the desired racial/ethnic sampling rates. Segments

within the national Strata 1 to 5 were sorted to implicitly stratify the sampling frame to reduce sampling

variability and to control the distribution of the sample. Segments in Strata 1 and 5 were sorted by

metropolitan size, PSU number, and socioeconomic status (SES) percentile based on a composite rental value

index. Segments in Stratum 2 were sorted by metropolitan size, PSU number, percentage Hispanic, percentage

black, and SES percentile. Segments in Strata 3 and 4 were sorted by metropolitan size, PSU number,

percentage black, and SES percentile. Chromy’s (1979) sequential selection routine was used to select the

segments from the sorted segments within each stratum. A variable number of segments was selected from

each PSU in Strata 1 to 5 based upon each PSU’s composite size measure.

Prior to selecting segments from the national initial noncertainty stratum, the PSUs were divided into

two groups: (a) high minority PSUs with 50% or more combined Hispanic and black eligible population, and

(b) PSUs that had fewer than 50% minority population. Segments in high minority PSUs were sorted by the

complement of the percentage Hispanic or the complement of the percentage black. The complement

percentages were used to make the sorting transition proceed more smoothly from high minority to low

minority. Segments in low minority PSUs were ordered by SES percentile. Chromy’s (1979) sequential

selection procedure was used to select segments from the sorted list, selecting 12 segments from each PSU with

the probability proportional to the composite size measure.

In the Arizona and California supplements, a slightly different sorting of the sampling frame was used

to control the distribution of the sample. Segments from Arizona’s noncertainty PSUs were first ordered by

percentage Hispanic, then by SES percentile. California’s noncertainty PSU segments were ordered first by

a rural/urban indicator, then by SES percentile. Chromy’s (1979) sequential selection procedure was used to

select nine area segments from each PSU with the probability proportional to their composite size measure.

There were no additional segments selected from the certainty PSUs because the certainty PSUs for both States

were well represented in the national study component. 

 

After area segments were selected from within the initial noncertainty stratum, sample segments were

poststratified to allow for oversampling of concentrated minority population segments at the dwelling unit and

person sampling stages. This poststratification of noncertainty segments contributed to the cost efficiency of

the sample design by ultimately reducing the screening sample.
j

i

wi' estimated size of target population

D-7

 (D-1)

 This cost efficiency was achieved by noting that the size of the screening sample could be reduced

significantly by partitioning the initial noncertainty stratum into high racial/ethnic concentration strata. The

following three noncertainty strata (numbered 6, 7, and 8, respectively) were created: high black, high white,

and the remainder of noncertainty segments. These strata were defined based on dwelling unit and target

population percentages of a segment as determined by the 1990 Census block data. The third-stage sample

of dwelling units was allocated to the strata of Table D.1, and separate within-household person sampling

probabilities were set by these strata to meet the design precision requirements at minimum cost.

Selection of the Third-Stage Sample: Listing Units Within Subareas 

Projections indicated that screenings had to be completed for approximately 73,000 dwelling units in

order to identify sufficient dwelling units for the national and State samples to yield Hispanic and black agedomain samples of the desired size. Assuming an average 94% screening completion rate and a projected

average 84.5% listing unit eligibility rate implied that approximately 92,000 listings had to be selected for both

study components. A listing unit was ineligible for the study if it was (a) vacant; (b) a vacation, second, or

temporary home; (c) not a dwelling unit; (d) a military facility whose occupants were only military personnel;

or (e) an institutional housing facility.

Dwelling unit listings were selected using systematic sampling. The sampled listings then were sent

to the field for screening. After first determining that a sampled listing was eligible for the study, the

interviewer completed a dwelling roster that listed all residents aged 12 or older with their age and

race/ethnicity. This roster formed the basis for the within-dwelling unit sampling of individuals.

Within-Dwelling Unit Sampling 

The 1998 NHSDA used basically the same within-dwelling unit sample selection approach as the 1997

NHSDA. Following the third-stage sampling, interviewers screened each sampled dwelling unit. Based on the

screening, the dwelling was classified according to the race/ethnicity of the head of the dwelling. The

interviewers also determined the age domains represented by individuals residing in the dwelling in terms of

presence or absence of individuals aged 12 to 17, 18 to 25, 26 to 34, 35 to 49, and 50 or older. Interviewers

were provided a mechanism for selecting none, one, or two age domains and, subsequently, one sample person

from each selected domain. The age domain selection probabilities were based on the desired sample sizes for

each age group by racial/ethnic domain. If a dwelling unit contained two or more individuals in the same age

domain, the probability of selecting a particular individual was based on the number of individuals in the age

domain. In some instances, two individuals, usually one 12 to 17 year old and one adult, were selected from

the same dwelling unit.

Weighting Procedures

The estimates of this report are based on sample survey data rather than on complete data for the

population. This means that the data must be weighted to obtain unbiased estimates of drug use in the

population represented by the 1998 NHSDA. The “final sampling weight” of the ith respondent, say wi, can

be interpreted as the number of persons in the NHSDA target population who are represented by the ith

respondent. The sum of the weights over all respondents estimates the size of the total target population: 
D-8

where the summation is over all NHSDA respondents in the 1998 NHSDA.

The final household and person-level sample weights for the 1998 NHSDA are a product of several

factors, each representing either a probability of selection at some particular stage or some form of nonresponse

or poststratification adjustment. The first seven factors are defined for all screener-complete dwelling units

and reflect the fully adjusted dwelling unit sample weight. The latter five components reflect person-level

selection within each screened dwelling unit, as well as any additional adjustments for person nonresponse and

coverage error.

The first five components in the dwelling sample weight reflect the probability of selecting the dwelling

unit. The five components are derived from (1) the probability of selecting the PSU, (2) the probability of

selecting the geographic segment within each selected PSU, (3) a quarter segment weight adjustment, (4) a

subsegmentation inflation factor (an adjustment that accounts for the subselection process), and (5) the

probability of selecting a dwelling unit from within each counted, listed, and sampled segment. It should be

noted that in the 1992 NHSDA, weight component (3) was used for the calculation of independent, quarterlevel sample weights, but as with the 1993 through 1997 NHSDAs, this factor was not needed for the 1998

survey. Subsequently, weight component (3) has been set to one for all 1998 NHSDA selections. Also, when

the field interviewers responsible for counting and listing traveled to a specified segment, occasionally they may

have found that the number of potential dwelling units was much greater than what the sample frame

(constructed from adjusted 1990 U.S. Census data) indicated. This error occurred either because of errors in

the frame or, more commonly, due to rapid growth in a particular geographic area. When this occurred, the

original segment was partitioned and a subsegment was randomly selected. 

Weight component (6) is a dwelling unit weight smoothing adjustment. The weights were normalized

by strata and quarter in order to force equal weights for each strata-by-quarter combination. (The sample of

dwelling units was designed to yield equal probability sample.) This adjustment served as a measure to control

for unequal weighting in the interest of reducing variance of estimates. 

Weight component (7) is a dwelling unit nonresponse adjustment. After dwelling units were selected,

a field interviewer was sent to the dwelling unit to screen the residence. Failure to obtain the screening

interview from eligible dwelling units represented the first type of nonresponse in the study. Sample weights

(computed as the product of the first five components) were adjusted for this type of nonresponse using an

exponential regression model. This procedure uses exponential regression to model the expected value of a

zero-one response indicator, given a set of predictor variables available for both respondents and

nonrespondents. In 1998, the potential predictor variables included the State indicator (Arizona, California,

or remainder of the United States), which was implicitly defined by stratum, NHSDA field supervisor

designation, quarter of the year when interview(s) in the dwelling unit were conducted, region, population

density of the sample segment (e.g., segment located in a metropolitan area with 1 million or more persons),

type of dwelling unit (dormitory, other group quarters, or not group quarters), and other variables based on

1990 Census block and enumeration district characteristics, including percentage Hispanic, percentage black,

percentage owner-occupied households, and a combined median housing and rent value. The NHSDA field

supervisor designation variable identified the areas covered by each supervisor and was included to adjust for

differential nonresponse among the field supervisors. After obtaining the final models, the adjustment factor

was calculated as the inverse of the estimated response propensity.

After the completion of weight component (7), the final dwelling unit weight was calculated as the

product of weight components (1-7) described above. This adjusted weight can be used to compute dwelling
Dwelling unit level estimates using interview questionnaire data cannot be created using the product of 2

these seven weight components because this requires proper nonresponse adjustment for only dwelling units with

at least one selected interview and zero respondents, which is not accounted for in weight component (7). 

D-9

unit level estimates from the screener data. In addition, these seven weight component factors become the first 2

seven weight components of the final interview respondent sample weight. The remaining five weight

components discussed below account for the person probability of selection for those people from whom an

NHSDA interview was sought, as well as account for the person-level nonresponse and coverage errors

resulting from the last stages of the sample design.

The probability of selecting a person is accounted for by weight components (8) and (9). A screening

interview was considered complete only after a member of the unit told the field interviewer certain

demographic information (age, race, gender, ethnicity, and marital status) about all survey eligible residents

of the dwelling unit. A subset of these variables (race, ethnicity, and age group) was used to form demographic

groups. One or two age groups were randomly selected using a race/ethnicity-specific sampling rate

predetermined during the design of the 1998 study. The inverse of this rate, or the inverse of the probability

of selecting a particular age group within the dwelling unit, represents weight component (8), the age group

selection weight. Weight component (9) represents the inverse of the probability of selecting a person when

more than one occupant of a dwelling unit has been classified in a selected age group.

Weight component (10) is a combined roster and person nonresponse adjustment. The sample weights

of the interview respondents were adjusted to the weighted demographic distributions based on the full roster

sample and the associated final weights for screened eligible dwellings. This adjustment was created using an

exponential regression model for each stratum. The variables considered for this adjustment included a State

indicator implicitly defined by stratum, age group, region, quarter, gender, population density, Hispanic

indicator, relationship of person to householder, marital status, group quarters, segment characteristics (such

as percentage Hispanic, percentage black, percentage owner-occupied dwelling units, and combined

rent/housing value).

Weight component (11) is a weight trimming factor. To minimize the effect of extreme weights on the

unequal weighting effect observed on the sample weights, computed using previous weight adjustment factors

(1-10), the largest sample weights were truncated or “trimmed.” To accomplish this weight trimming,

maximum weight thresholds were determined within classes defined by design strata, race/ethnicity, and age

group. If the sample weight for any respondent was greater than this threshold within each group, this

adjustment factor was set to bring the sample weight down to equal the threshold.

Weight component (12) is a person poststratification adjustment. This adjustment forced weighted

respondent sample data to equal specified control totals obtained from the Census Bureau’s projections of the

civilian, noninstitutionalized population aged 12 or older. The main effect control totals used for person

poststratification were State indicator, age group, gender, quarter, Hispanic indicator, and race. Various twoway (such as age group by gender) and three-way (such as age group, gender, and Hispanic indicator) control

totals also were used.
D-10

Table D.1 Final Stratum Definitions and Sample Sizes for the Full Sample

Stratum Description of Stratum

Number of

Segments

Allocated

National

 1 Certainty high Hispanic 70

 2 Certainty moderate Hispanic 153

 3 Certainty low Hispanic 319

 4 Certainty high black, non-Hispanic 118

 5 Certainty high non-black, non-Hispanic 70

 6 Noncertainty high black, non-Hispanic 115

 7 Noncertainty high non-black, non-Hispanic 315

 8 Noncertainty remainder 602

National Total 1,762

Arizona

 9 Certainty Arizona medium-high Hispanic 70

 10 Certainty Arizona low Hispanic 214

 11 Noncertainty Arizona remainder 72

Arizona State Supplement Total 356

California

 12 Certainty California high Hispanic 48

 13 Certainty California medium Hispanic 174

 14 Certainty California low Hispanic 306

 15 Noncertainty California remainder 24

California State Supplement Total 552

Total 2,670

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1998.
E-1

APPENDIX E

ADJUSTMENT OF 1979-1993 NHSDA ESTIMATES
E-2
yi

wi

R '

j

i0S1994&B

wiyi

j

i0S1993 ^ 1994&A

wiy

i

'

y ̄

1994&B

y ̄

1993 ^ 1994&A

E-3

Appendix E: Adjustment of 1979-1993 NHSDA Estimates

Adjustment of 1979-1993 NHSDA Estimates to Account for the New Survey Methodology

Used in the 1994 and Later NHSDAs

The NHSDA is an important source of data for policymakers, not only because it provides measures

of substance abuse for a single year, but also because the series of surveys over the past several years provides

a measure of change in substance abuse in the population over time. Beginning in 1994, the NHSDA began

using an improved questionnaire and estimation procedure based on a series of studies and consultations with

drug survey experts and data users. Because this new methodology produces estimates that are not directly

comparable to previous estimates, the 1979-1993 NHSDA estimates presented in Chapter 2 of this report were

adjusted to account for the new methodology that was begun in 1994.

Nearly all of the 1979-1993 substance use prevalence estimates presented in Chapter 2 were adjusted

using a simple ratio correction factor that was estimated at the total population level using data from the pooled

1993 and 1994 NHSDAs. The remaining substance use prevalence estimates were adjusted by formally

modeling the effect of the new methodology, relative to the old methodology, using data from the 1994

NHSDA. The modeling procedure was used for the more prevalent substance use measures that changed

significantly between the old- and new-version NHSDA questionnaires. The modeling procedure was

particularly desirable for the more prevalent measures because the procedure was able to use a greater number

of potentially significant explanatory variables in the adjustment compared with the simple ratio correction

factor. Each of the procedures is discussed below.

Ratio Adjustment

Most of the 1979-1993 NHSDA estimates were adjusted using a ratio correction factor that measured

the effect of the new methodology, relative to the old methodology, using data from the 1993 and 1994

NHSDAs. As explained in the introduction to Advance Report No. 18 (OAS, 1996b), the 1994 NHSDA was

designed to generate two sets of estimates. The first set of estimates, which in previous reports was referred

to as the 1994-A set of estimates, was based on the same questionnaire and editing method that was used in

1993 (and earlier). The second set of estimates, referred to as the 1994-B set, was based on the new NHSDA

survey methodology. Because the 1994-A estimates were generated from a sample that was roughly one-fourth

the size of the 1994-B, to increase the precision of the ratio correction factor, the 1994-A sample was pooled

with the 1993 sample.

The 1979-1993 NHSDA estimates that were adjusted using the ratio correction factor included

estimates of lifetime, past year, and past month use of cocaine, crack, inhalants, hallucinogens (including PCP

and LSD), heroin, any psychotherapeutic, stimulants, sedatives, tranquilizers, analgesics, any illicit drug other

than marijuana, and smokeless tobacco, as well as estimates of past year frequency of use of marijuana,

cocaine, and alcohol. This adjustment was computed at the total sample level and was applied equally to all

corresponding estimates computed among subgroups of the total population. Consequently, for example, the

same ratio adjustment was used to correct all estimates of past year cocaine use, regardless of the demographic

subgroup under consideration. Mathematically, this ratio adjustment can be expressed as follows: Suppose

i denotes the sampled respondent, denotes a 0/1 variable to indicate nonuse or use of some particular

substance, and denotes the sample weight. Then the ratio adjustment was computed as
Ri

'

L(U&1) % U(1&L)e

&AXi$

(U&1) % (1&L)e

&AXi$

Ri'

Probability of Reporting Use with the New Survey Methodology

Probability of Reporting Use with the Old Survey Methodology

U&L ÷ (1&L)(U&1) $

Xi

Ri

L # Ri# U for all i and for any value of Xi

$

Ri' e

&Xi$

$

j

i0S1994&A

wiRiX

T

i

y

i

' j

i0S1994&B

wiX

T

i

y

i

Ri

Xi

Xi

Ri

E-4

The latter equality is true because the sample weights in the pooled 1993 and 1994-A sample were

adjusted slightly so that they would sum to the same demographic control totals as the 1994-B sample across

the variables typically used in the NHSDA poststratification procedure.

Model-Based Adjustment

A model-based method of computing adjustments that would account for the changes in the NHSDA

methodology was used for estimates of the use of the more prevalent drugs, including lifetime, past year, and

past month use of alcohol, marijuana, cigarettes, and any illicit drug, as well as past month binge drinking and

past month heavy drinking. The model that was used is based on a constrained exponential model originally

proposed by Deville and Särndal (1992). Similar to the ratio adjustment, this method of adjusting previous

estimates models the combined effect of all measurement error differences between the new and old

methodologies. This model offers the primary advantages of allowing (a) a greater number of potentially

significant explanatory variables in the adjustment and (b) bounding the resulting adjustment between

predetermined thresholds. This a priori bounding eliminates extreme adjustments that might otherwise occur,

particularly for small subpopulations. Additionally, the model-fitting procedure used to compute the

adjustment forces the adjusted 1994-A estimates to equal the 1994-B estimates within the subpopulations

represented by the dummy variables in the vector of model predictors. Mathematically, this model can be

expressed as follows:

(1)

where the ratio adjustment R can be interpreted as I

In equation (1), the constant A is simply a scale factor set equal to , are

the model coefficients, and is a vector of explanatory variables. The explanatory variables considered in

the models consisted of the categorical indicator variables for age group and race/ethnicity. The parameters

L and U are the predetermined constants that force the estimated to be

.

Notice that if the constant L is set equal to zero and U approaches 4 , then the constant A approaches

1, and equation (1) reduces to the familiar, unconstrained exponential model:

.

The model parameter vector in (1) was estimated by solving the generalized raking equations:

subject to the constraints.

Notice from the above raking equations that the estimated adjustment forces the 1994-A estimate

to equal the 1994-B estimate for any subpopulation represented by an indicator variable in . Therefore, for

example, if an appropriate indicator for the age group = 12 to 17 year olds was included in , then the modelbased estimate of the ’s would produce an adjusted prevalence estimate using the 1994-A sample that

exactly equaled the prevalence estimate generated from the 1994-B sample for the 12 to 17 age group.
F-1

APPENDIX F

ANSWER SHEETS FROM 1998 QUESTIONNAIRE

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G-1

APPENDIX G

SELECTED QUESTIONNAIRE PAGES

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