ep Space Chronicle: A Chronology of Deep Space and Planetary Probes, 1958–2000 | Asif A. Siddiqi NASA SP-2002-4524

A Chronology of Deep Space and Planetary Probes 1958–2000 Asif A. Siddiqi Monographs in Aerospace History Number 24 
Cover photo: A montage of planetary images taken by Mariner 10, the Mars Global Surveyor Orbiter, Voyager 1, and Voyager 2, all managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. Included (from top to bottom) are images of Mercury, Venus, Earth (and Moon), Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and its Moon, and Mars) and the outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) are roughly to scale to each other. 
NASA SP-2002-4524 

Deep Space Chronicle
 

A Chronology of Deep Space and Planetary Probes 

1958–2000 

ASIF A. SIDDIQI 

Monographs in Aerospace History
 

Number 24
 

June 2002
 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Office of External Relations 

NASA History Office 

Washington, DC 20546-0001 
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

Siddiqi, Asif A., 1966­

Deep space chronicle: a chronology of deep space and planetary probes, 1958-2000 / by Asif A. Siddiqi.
 

p.cm. – (Monographs in aerospace history; no. 24) (NASA SP; 2002-4524) 


Includes bibliographical references and index. 

1. Space flight—History—20th century. I. Title. II. Series. III. NASA SP; 4524
 

TL 790.S53 2002 

629.4’1’0904—dc21 2001044012 
Table of Contents
 

Foreword by Roger D. Launius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
 

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
 

1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
 

1) Able 1 / “Pioneer 0” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
 

2) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
 

3) Able 2 / “Pioneer 0” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
 

4) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
 

5) Pioneer 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
 

6) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
 

7) Pioneer 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
 

1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
 

8) Cosmic Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
 

9) Pioneer 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
 

10) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
 

11) Second Cosmic Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
 

12) Automatic Interplanetary Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
 

13) Able IVB / “Pioneer” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
 

1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
 

14) Pioneer 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
 

15) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
 

16) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
 

17) Able VA / “Pioneer” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
 

18) no name / [Mars] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
 

19) no name / [Mars] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
 

20) Able VB / “Pioneer” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
 

1961 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
 

21) Tyazhelyy Sputnik / [Venera] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
 

22) Venera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
 

23) Ranger 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
 

24) Ranger 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
 

1962 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
 

25) Ranger 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
 

26) Ranger 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
 

27) Mariner 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
 

28) no name / [Venera] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
 

29) Mariner 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
 

30) no name / [Venera] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
 

31) no name / [Venera] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
 

32) Ranger 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
 

33) no name / [Mars] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
 

34) Mars 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
 

35) no name / [Mars] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
 

Table of Contents i 
1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
 

36) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
 

37) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
 

38) Luna 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
 

39) Kosmos 21 / [Zond] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
 

1964 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
 

40) Ranger 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
 

41) no name / [Zond] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
 

42) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
 

43) Kosmos 27 / [Zond] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
 

44) Zond 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
 

45) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
 

46) Ranger 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
 

47) Mariner 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
 

48) Mariner 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
 

49) Zond 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
 

1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
 

50) Ranger 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
 

51) “Atlas Centaur 5” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
 

52) Kosmos 60 / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
 

53) Ranger 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
 

54) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
 

55) Luna 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
 

56) Luna 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
 

57) Zond 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
 

58) Surveyor Model 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
 

59) Luna 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
 

60) Venera 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
 

61) Venera 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
 

62) Kosmos 96 / [Venera] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
 

63) Luna 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
 

64) Pioneer 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
 

1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
 

65) Luna 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
 

66) Kosmos 111 / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
 

67) Luna 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
 

68) Surveyor Model 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
 

69) Surveyor 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
 

70) Explorer 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
 

71) Lunar Orbiter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
 

72) Pioneer 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
 

73) Luna 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
 

74) Surveyor 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
 

75) Luna 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
 

76) Lunar Orbiter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
 

77) Luna 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
 

ii Deep Space Chronicle 
1967 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
 

78) Lunar Orbiter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
 

79) Surveyor 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
 

80) Lunar Orbiter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
 

81) Kosmos 159 / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
 

82) Venera 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
 

83) Mariner 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
 

84) Kosmos 167 / [Venera] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
 

85) Surveyor 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
 

86) Explorer 35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
 

87) Lunar Orbiter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
 

88) Surveyor 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
 

89) no name / [Zond] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
 

90) Surveyor 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
 

91) no name / [Zond] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
 

92) Pioneer 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
 

1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
 

93) Surveyor 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
 

94) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
 

95) Zond 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
 

96) Luna 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
 

97) no name / [Zond] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
 

98) Zond 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
 

99) Pioneer 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
 

100) Zond 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
 

1969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
 

101) Venera 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
 

102) Venera 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
 

103) no name / [Zond] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
 

104) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
 

105) no name / [N1 launch test] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
 

106) Mariner 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
 

107) no name / [Mars] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
 

108) Mariner 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
 

109) no name / [Mars] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
 

110) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
 

111) no name / [N1 test flight] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
 

112) Luna 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
 

113) Zond 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
 

114) Pioneer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
 

115) Kosmos 300 / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
 

116) Kosmos 305 / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
 

1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
 

117) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
 

118) Venera 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
 

119) Kosmos 359 / [Venera] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
 

120) Luna 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
 

121) Zond 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
 

122) Luna 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
 

Table of Contents iii 
1971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
 

123) Mariner 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
 

124) Kosmos 419 / [Mars] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
 

125) Mars 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
 

126) Mars 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
 

127) Mariner 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
 

128) Apollo 15 Particle and Fields Subsatellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
 

129) Luna 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
 

130) Luna 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
 

1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
 

131) Luna 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
 

132) Pioneer 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
 

133) Venera 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
 

134) Kosmos 482 / [Venera] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
 

135) Apollo 16 Particles and Fields Subsatellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
 

136) no name / [N1 launch test] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
 

1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
 

137) Luna 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
 

138) Pioneer 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
 

139) Explorer 49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
 

140) Mars 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
 

141) Mars 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
 

142) Mars 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
 

143) Mars 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
 

144) Mariner 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
 

1974 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
 

145) Luna 22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
 

146) Luna 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
 

147) Helios 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
 

1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
 

148) Venera 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
 

149) Venera 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
 

150) Viking 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
 

151) Viking 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
 

152) no name / [Luna] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
 

1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
 

153) Helios 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
 

154) Luna 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
 

1977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
 

155) Voyager 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
 

156) Voyager 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
 

iv Deep Space Chronicle 
1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
 

157) Pioneer Venus 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
 

158) Pioneer Venus 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
 

159) ISEE-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
 

160) Venera 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
 

161) Venera 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
 

1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
 

162) Venera 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
 

163) Venera 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
 

1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
 

164) Venera 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
 

165) Venera 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
 

1984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
 

166) Vega 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
 

167) Vega 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
 

1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
 

168) Sakigake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
 

169) Giotto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
 

170) Suisei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
 

1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
 

171) Fobos 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
 

172) Fobos 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
 

1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
 

173) Magellan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
 

174) Galileo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
 

1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
 

175) Hiten/Hagomoro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
 

176) Ulysses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
 

1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
 

177) Mars Observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
 

1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
 

178) Clementine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
 

179) Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
 

1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
 

180) SOHO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
 

Table of Contents v 
1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
 

181) NEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
 

182) Mars Global Surveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
 

183) Mars 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
 

184) Mars Pathfinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
 

1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
 

185) ACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
 

186) Cassini/Huygens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
 

187) Asiasat 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
 

1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
 

188) Lunar Prospector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
 

189) Nozomi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
 

190) Deep Space 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
 

191) Mars Climate Orbiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
 

1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
 

192) Mars Polar Lander/Deep Space 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
 

193) Stardust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
 

Master Table of All Deep Space, Lunar, and Planetary Probes, 1958–2000 . . . . . . . . .179
 

1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
 

1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
 

1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
 

1961 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
 

1962 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
 

1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182
 

1964 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
 

1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
 

1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
 

1967 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
 

1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
 

1969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
 

1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
 

1971 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
 

1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
 

1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
 

1974 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
 

1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
 

1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188
 

1977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
 

1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
 

1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
 

1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
 

1984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
 

1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
 

1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
 

1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
 

1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
 

1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
 

1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
 

1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
 

vi Deep Space Chronicle 
1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
 

1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
 

1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
 

1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
 

Program Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
 

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
 

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
 

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
 

The NASA History Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
 

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
 

Table of Contents vii 

Deep Space Chronicle: 

Foreword
 

From the 1950s to the present, to some 

Americans, space has represented prestige 

and a positive image for the United States on 

the world stage. To others, it has signified 

the quest for national security. Some view it 

as a place to station telecommunications 

satellites and little else. To still others, space 

is, or should be, about gaining greater knowledge of the universe. It represents, for them, 

pure science and the exploration of the 

unknown. Even so, the history of space science and technology is one of the largely neglected aspects in the history of the space 

program. This important monograph by Asif 

A. Siddiqi chronicles the many space probes 

that have been sent from Earth to explore 

other bodies of the solar system. It provides 

a chronological discussion of all space 

probes, both those developed by the United 

States and those developed by the Soviet 

Union/Russia and other nations; basic data 

about them; their findings; and their status 

over time. As such, this monograph is a 

handy reference work that will provide fundamental data for all missions undertaken 

during the twentieth century. 

Since the first flights discussed here, every 

planet of the solar system has been explored 

in a modest way at least once (save Pluto), 

and several of the moons of planetary bodies 

(including our own), as well as some comets 

Foreword
 

and asteroids, have been visited. We have 

placed spacecraft in orbit around our Moon 

and the planets Venus, Mars, and Jupiter; we 

have landed on Venus, Mars, and our Moon. 

NASA’s stunning missions to explore the 

outer Solar System have yielded a treasure of 

knowledge about our universe, how it originated, and how it works. NASA’s exploration 

of Mars—coupled with the efforts of the 

Soviet Union/Russia—has powerfully shown 

the prospect of past life on the Red Planet. 

Missions to Venus (including some that 

landed on it) and Mercury have increased our 

understanding of the inner planets. Lunar 

exploration has exponentially advanced 

human knowledge about the origins and evolution of the solar system. Most importantly, 

we have learned that, like Goldilocks and the 

three bears, Earth is a place in which everything necessary to sustain life is “just right,” 

while all the other planets of our system 

seem exceptionally hostile. 

Planetary exploration has not taken place by 

magic. It required visionary leadership, 

strong-willed management, and persevering 

execution. Like NASA and other aspects of 

the space program, it began as a race 

between the United States and the Soviet 

Union to see who would be the first to get 

some sort of spacecraft near the Moon. It 

expanded in the 1960s when space science 

Foreword 3 
first became a major field of study. During 

that decade, both the United States and the 

Soviet Union began an impressive effort to 

gather information on the planets of the solar 

system using ground-, air-, and space-based 

equipment. Especially important was the creation of two types of spacecraft, one a probe 

that was sent toward a heavenly body, and 

the second an Earth-orbiting observatory 

that could gain the clearest resolution available in telescopes because it did not have to 

contend with the atmosphere. 

The studies resulting from this new data 

have revolutionized humanity’s understanding of Earth’s immediate planetary 

neighbors. These studies of the planets, perhaps as much even as Project Apollo, captured the imagination of people from all 

backgrounds and perspectives. Photographs 

of the planets and theories about the origins 

of the solar system appealed to a very broad 

cross section of the public. As a result, NASA 

had little difficulty in capturing and holding 

a widespread interest in this aspect of the 

space science program. 

Exploration of the Terrestrial (Inner) 

Planets 

During the 1960s, NASA space science 

focused much of its efforts on lunar missions 

with projects Ranger, Surveyor, and Lunar 

Orbiter. Even so, a centerpiece of NASA’s 

planetary exploration effort in that era was 

the Mariner program, originated by NASA in 

the early part of the decade to investigate the 

nearby planets. Built by Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory (JPL) scientists and technicians, 

satellites of this program proved enormously 

productive in visiting both Mars and Venus. 

Mariner made a huge impact in the early 

1960s as part of a race between the United 

States and the Soviet Union to see who would 

be the first to reach Venus. This goal was 

more than just an opportunity to beat the 

rival in the Cold War; scientists in both the 

United States and the Soviet Union recognized the attraction of Venus for the furtherance of planetary studies. Both the evening 

and the morning star, Venus had long 

enchanted humans, and it has done so all the 

more since astronomers realized that it was 

shrouded in a mysterious cloak of clouds permanently hiding the surface from view. As a 

further attraction, it was also the closest 

planet to Earth and a near twin to this planet 

in terms of size, mass, and gravitation. 

After ground-based efforts in 1961 to view 

the planet using radar, which could see 

through the clouds, and after learning, 

among other things, that Venus rotated in a 

retrograde motion opposite from the direction 

of orbital motion, both the Soviet Union and 

the United States began a race to the planet 

with several robotic spacecraft. The United 

States claimed the first success in planetary 

exploration during the summer of 1962, when 

Mariner 1 and Mariner 2 were launched 

toward Venus. Although Mariner 1 was lost 

during a launch failure, Mariner 2 flew by 

Venus on 14 December 1962 at a distance of 

34,827 kilometers. It probed the clouds, estimated planetary temperatures, measured the 

charged particle environment, and looked for 

a magnetic field similar to Earth’s magnetosphere (but found none). After this encounter, 

Mariner 2 sped inside the orbit of Venus and 

eventually ceased operations on 3 January 

1963, when it overheated. In 1967, the United 

States sent Mariner 5 to Venus to investigate 

the atmosphere. Both spacecraft demonstrated that Venus was a very inhospitable 

place for life to exist and determined that the 

entire planet’s surface was a fairly uniform 

425 degrees Celsius. This discovery refuted 

the probability that life—at least as humans 

understood it—existed on Venus. 

The most significant mission to Venus began 

in 1989 when the Magellan spacecraft set out 

for Venus to map the surface from orbit with 

imaging radar. This mission followed the 

Pioneer Venus 1 spacecraft that had been 

orbiting the planet for more than a decade 

and had completed a low-resolution radar 

topographic map, and Pioneer Venus 2, which 

had dispatched heat-resisting probes to penetrate the atmosphere and communicate information about the surface, Venus’s dense 

clouds, and the 425°C temperature. It also 

built on the work of the Soviet Union, which 

had compiled radar images of the northern 

part of Venus and had deployed balloons into 

4 Deep Space Chronicle 
the Venusian atmosphere. Magellan arrived 

at Venus in September 1990 and mapped 99 

percent of the surface at high resolution, parts 

of it in stereo. The amount of digital imaging 

data the spacecraft returned was more than 

twice the sum of all returns from previous 

missions. This data provided some surprises, 

among them the discovery that plate tectonics 

was at work on Venus and that lava flows 

clearly showed the evidence of volcanic 

activity. In 1993, at the end of the mission, 

NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory shut down 

the major functions of the Magellan spacecraft and scientists turned their attention to a 

detailed analysis of its data. 

Mars has attracted significant attention from 

the beginning of the space age. An attraction 

yet to be relinquished by most planetary scientists, Mars prompted many missions. In 

July 1965, Mariner 4 flew by Mars and took 

21 close-up pictures. Mariners 6 and 7, 

launched in February and March 1969, 

respectively, each passed Mars in August 

1969, studying its atmosphere and surface to 

lay the groundwork for an eventual landing 

on the planet. Their pictures verified the 

Moon-like appearance of Mars and gave no 

hint that Mars had ever been able to support 

life. Among other discoveries, these probes 

found that much of Mars was cratered almost 

like the Moon, that volcanoes had once been 

active on the planet, that the frost observed 

seasonally on the poles was made of carbon 

dioxide, and that huge plates indicated considerable tectonic activity. Mariner 9, scheduled to enter Martian orbit in November 

1971, detected a chilling dust storm 

spreading across Mars; by mid-October dust 

obscured almost all of Mars. Mariner 9’s first 

pictures showed a featureless disk, marred 

only by a group of black spots in a region 

known as Nix Olympia (Snows of Olympus). 

As the dust storm subsided, the four spots 

emerged out of the dust cloud to become the 

remains of giant extinct volcanoes dwarfing 

anything on Earth. Olympus Mons, the 

largest of the four, was 483 kilometers across 

at the base with a 72-kilometer-wide crater in 

the top. Rising 32 kilometers from the surrounding plane, Olympus Mons was three 

times the height of Mt. Everest. Later pictures showed a canyon, Valles Marineris, 

4,000 kilometers long and 5.6 kilometers 

deep. As the dust settled, meandering “rivers” 

appeared, indicating that, at some time in the 

past, fluid flowed on Mars. Suddenly, Mars 

fascinated scientists, reporters, and the 

public. 

Project Viking represented the culmination of 

a series of missions to explore Mars that had 

begun in 1964. The Viking mission used two 

identical spacecraft, each consisting of a 

lander and an orbiter. Launched on 20 August 

1975 from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC), 

Florida, Viking 1 spent nearly a year cruising 

to Mars, placed an orbiter in operation around 

the planet, and landed on 20 July 1976 on the 

Chryse Planitia (Golden Plains). Viking 2 was 

launched on 9 September 1975 and landed on 

3 September 1976. The primary mission of the 

Viking project ended on 15 November 1976, 

eleven days before Mars’s superior conjunction (its passage behind the Sun), although 

the Viking spacecraft continued to operate for 

six years after first reaching Mars. The last 

transmission from the planet reached Earth 

on 11 November 1982. 

Since the Viking landings, there have been 

several missions to Mars seeking to further 

unlock its mysteries. These were energized in 

1996 when a team of NASA and Stanford 

University scientists announced that a Mars 

meteorite found in Antarctica contained possible evidence of ancient Martian life. When 

the 1.9-kilogram, potato-sized rock, labeled 

ALH84001, was formed as an igneous rock 

about 4.5 billion years ago, Mars was much 

warmer and probably contained oceans hospitable to life. Then, about 15 million years 

ago, a large asteroid hit the Red Planet and 

jettisoned the rock into space, where it 

remained until it crashed into Antarctica 

around 11,000 B.C.E. The scientists presented 

three compelling, but not conclusive, pieces of 

evidence that suggest that fossil-like remains 

of Martian micro-organisms that date back 

3.6 billion years are present in ALH84001. 

These findings electrified the scientific world, 

but they excited the public just as fully and 

added support for an aggressive set of missions to Mars by the year 2000 to help discover the truth of these theories. 

Foreword 5 
The United States has undertaken several 

missions since then, including the hugely 

popular Mars Pathfinder. After launch in 

December 1996, it sped to Mars and landed 

on 4 July 1997. There, a small, 10.4-kilogram 

robotic rover named Sojourner departed from 

the main lander and began to record weather 

patterns, atmospheric opacity, and the chemical composition of rocks washed down into 

the Ares Vallis flood plain, an ancient outflow 

channel in Mars’s northern hemisphere. 

Pathfinder returned more than 1.2 gigabits 

(1.2 billion bits) of data and over 10,000 tantalizing pictures of the Martian landscape. 

The images from both craft were posted to 

the Internet, and individuals retrieved information about the mission more than 500 million times through the end of July 1997. 

Another mission reached Mars on 11 

September 1997, when the Mars Global 

Surveyor, launched in December 1996, 

entered orbit. That spacecraft’s magnetometer soon detected the existence of a planetary magnetic field. This held important 

implications for the geological history of 

Mars and for the possible development and 

continued existence of life there. Planets like 

Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn generate their 

magnetic fields by means of a dynamo made 

up of moving molten metal at the core. A 

molten interior suggests the existence of 

internal heat sources that could give rise to 

volcanoes and a flowing crust responsible for 

moving continents over geologic time periods. 

These missions, coupled with others, began to 

create a new portrait of the Martian environment through the analysis of data relating to 

weather patterns, atmospheric opacity, and 

the chemical composition of rocks washed 

down into the Ares Vallis flood plain. Despite 

significant setbacks to the Mars exploration 

program with the failure of two missions in 

1999, scientific returns from the Mars Global 

Surveyor reenergized interest in the planet. 

In what may prove a landmark discovery, scientists announced on 22 June 2000 that features observed on the planet suggested that 

there may be sources of liquid water at or 

near the surface. The new images showed the 

smallest features ever observed from 

Martian orbit—the size of an SUV. NASA scientists compared those features to those left 

by flash floods on Earth. 

Everyone agreed that the presence of liquid 

water on Mars would have profound implications for the question of life on Mars. NASA’s 

Associate Administrator for Space Science, 

Ed Weiler, commented, “If life ever did 

develop there, and if it survives to the present 

time, then these landforms would be great 

places to look.” The gullies observed in the 

images were on cliffs—usually in crater or 

valley walls—and showed a deep channel 

with a collapsed region at its upper end and 

at the other end an area of accumulated 

debris that appeared to have been transported down the slope. Relative to the rest of 

the Martian surface, the gullies appeared to 

be extremely young, meaning they may have 

formed in the recent past. It is possible, scientists said, that water could be about 90 

meters to 400 meters below the surface of 

Mars. Some scientists have been skeptical of 

these claims, but all agree that the only way 

to find out what is truly present is to send 

additional missions to Mars. 

Exploration of the Jovian (Outer) 

Planets 

As the heady spaceflight projects of the 

1960s—culminating in the lunar exploration 

effort—suffered from more constrained 

budgets in the 1970s, NASA’s most ambitious 

planetary science expedition was hatched 

amongst its leadership. Once every 176 years, 

the giant planets on the outer reaches of the 

solar system gather on one side of the Sun, 

and such a configuration was due to occur in 

the late 1970s. This geometric line-up made 

possible close-up observation of all the 

planets in the outer solar system (with the 

exception of Pluto) in a single flight, the socalled “Grand Tour.” The flyby of each planet 

would bend the spacecraft’s flight path and 

increase its velocity enough to deliver it to 

the next destination. This would occur 

through a complicated process known as 

“gravity-assist,” something like a slingshot 

effect, whereby the flight time to Neptune 

could be reduced from thirty to twelve years. 

6 Deep Space Chronicle 
In 1964, to prepare the way for the “Grand 

Tour,” NASA conceived Pioneers 10 and 11 as 

outer-solar-system probes. Although severe 

budget constraints prevented the commencement of the project until the fall of 1968 and 

forced a somewhat less ambitious effort, 

Pioneer 10 was launched on 3 March 1972. It 

arrived at Jupiter on the night of 3 December 

1973, and while many were concerned that 

the spacecraft might fall prey to intense radiation discovered in Jupiter’s orbital plane, 

the spacecraft survived, transmitted data 

about the planet, and continued on its way 

out of the solar system, away from the center 

of the Milky Way galaxy. By May 1991, it was 

about 52 astronomical units (AU) from Earth, 

roughly twice the distance from Jupiter to 

the Sun, and still transmitting data. 

In 1973, NASA launched Pioneer 11, providing scientists with their closest view of 

Jupiter, from 42,800 kilometers above the 

cloud tops in December 1974. The close 

approach and the spacecraft’s speed of 

172,800 kph, by far the fastest ever reached 

by an object from Earth, hurled the Pioneer 

11 spacecraft 2.4 billion kilometers across the 

solar system. In 1979, Pioneer 11 encountered 

Saturn, closing to within 20,900 kilometers of 

the planet, where it discovered two new moonlets and a new ring and charted the magnetosphere, its magnetic field, its climate and 

temperatures, and the general structure of 

Saturn’s interior. In 1990, it officially 

departed the solar system by passing beyond 

Pluto and headed into interstellar space 

toward the center of the Milky Way galaxy. 

Both Pioneers 10 and 11 were remarkable 

space probes; they stretched a thirty-month 

design life cycle into a mission of more than 

twenty years and returned useful data, not 

only about the other Jovian planets of the 

solar system, but also about some of the mysteries of the interstellar universe. 

Meanwhile, NASA technicians prepared to 

launch what became known as Voyager. 

Although the four-planet mission was known 

to be possible, it quickly became too expensive 

to build a spacecraft that could go the distance, carry the instruments needed, and last 

long enough to accomplish such an extended 

mission. Thus, the two Voyager spacecraft 

were funded to conduct intensive flyby studies 

only of Jupiter and Saturn, in effect repeating 

on a more elaborate scale the flights of the 

two Pioneers. Even so, the spacecraft builders 

designed as much longevity into the two 

Voyagers as possible with the $865-million 

budget available. NASA launched these from 

Cape Canaveral, Florida; Voyager 2 lifted off 

on 20 August 1977, and Voyager 1 entered 

space on a faster, shorter trajectory on 5 

September 1977. 

As the mission progressed, with the successful achievement of all its objectives at 

Jupiter and Saturn, additional flybys of the 

two outermost giant planets, Uranus and 

Neptune, proved possible—and irresistible— 

to mission scientists. Accordingly, as the 

spacecraft flew across the solar system, 

remote-control reprogramming was used to 

prepare the Voyagers for the greater mission. 

Eventually, between them, Voyager 1 and 

Voyager 2 explored all the giant outer 

planets, forty-eight of their moons, and the 

unique systems of rings and magnetic fields 

those planets possess. 

The two spacecraft returned information to 

Earth that revolutionized solar system science, helped to resolve some key questions, 

and raised intriguing new ones about the 

origin and evolution of the planets. The two 

Voyagers took well over 100,000 images of 

the outer planets, rings, and satellites, as 

well as millions of magnetic, chemical 

spectra, and radiation measurements. They 

discovered rings around Jupiter, volcanoes on 

Io, shepherded satellites in Saturn’s rings, 

new moons around Uranus and Neptune, and 

geysers on Triton. The last sequence of 

images was Voyager 1’s portrait of most of the 

solar system, showing Earth and six other 

planets as sparks in a dark sky lit by a single 

bright star, the Sun. 

It was nearly two decades after Voyager before 

any spacecraft ventured to the outer solar 

system again. In October 1989, NASA’s Galileo 

spacecraft began a gravity-assisted journey to 

Jupiter and sent a probe into the atmosphere 

that observed the planet and its satellites for 

several years beginning in December 1995. 

Jupiter was of great interest to scientists 

Foreword 7 
because it appeared to contain material in its 

original state left over from the formation of 

the solar system, and the mission was 

designed to investigate the chemical composition and physical state of Jupiter’s atmosphere 

and satellites. Because of a unique orbital 

inclination that sent the probe around the Sun 

and back on the way to Jupiter, Galileo came 

back past both Venus and Earth, made the 

first close flyby of asteroid Gaspra in 1991, and 

provided scientific data on all. But the mission 

was star-crossed. Soon after Galileo’s deployment from the Space Shuttle, NASA engineers 

learned that Galileo’s umbrella-like high-gain 

antenna could not be fully deployed. Without 

this antenna, communication with the spacecraft was both more difficult and more timeconsuming, and data transmission was greatly 

hampered. The engineering team that worked 

on the project tried a series of cooling exercises 

designed to shrink the antenna central tower 

and enable its deployment. 

In mid-1995, Galileo deployed the probe that 

would parachute into Jupiter’s dense atmosphere. The two spacecraft then flew in formation the rest of the way to Jupiter, and while 

the probe began its descent into the atmosphere, the main spacecraft went into a trajectory that placed it in a near-circular orbit. On 

7 December 1995, the probe began its 

descent. Its instruments began relaying data 

back to the orbiter about chemical composition; the nature of the cloud particles and 

structure of the cloud layers; the atmosphere’s radiative heat balance, pressure, and 

dynamics; and the ionosphere. The probe 

lasted for about 45 minutes, during which it 

stored and returned the data, before the 

atmosphere and the pressure of the planet 

destroyed it. For months thereafter, because 

the high-gain antenna was inoperative, scientists and technicians coaxed the data back to 

Earth for analysis. Today, Galileo continues 

to transmit scientific measurements back to 

Earth. The result has brought a reinterpretation of human understanding about Jupiter 

and its moons. 

Most significant in terms of results has been 

the discovery of a frozen ocean of water covering Europa, one of the principal moons of 

Jupiter. On 13 August 1996, data from Galileo 

revealed that Europa may harbor “warm ice” or 

even liquid water—a key element in lifesustaining environments. Many scientists and 

science fiction writers have speculated that 

Europa—in addition to Mars and Saturn’s 

moon Titan—is one of the three planetary 

bodies in this solar system that might possess, 

or may have possessed, an environment where 

primitive life existed. Galileo’s photos of 

Europa were taken during a flyby of 

Ganymede some 154,500 kilometers away from 

Europa. They revealed what appeared to be ice 

floes similar to those seen on Earth’s polar 

regions. The pictures also revealed giant cracks 

in Europa’s ice where warm-water “environmental niches” may exist. In early 1997, 

Galileo discovered icebergs on Europa, a discovery that lent credence to the possibility of 

hidden, subsurface oceans. These findings generated new questions about the possibility of 

life on Europa. While NASA scientists stressed 

that the data did not conclusively prove anything, they thought the images exciting, compelling, and suggestive. They called for a 

concerted effort to send a lander to Europa to 

burrow through the ice to reach water beneath. 

NASA’s 2000–01 Near Earth Asteroid 

Rendezvous (NEAR) mission to the asteroid 

Eros achieved excellent results. NEAR was the 

first spacecraft to orbit an asteroid. In one 

year it met all of its scientific goals while 

orbiting the asteroid Eros, and then it undertook a controlled descent to the surface of the 

asteroid on 12 February 2001. The chief goal of 

the controlled descent was to gather close-up 

pictures of the boulder-strewn surface of 433 

Eros, more than 315.4 million kilometers from 

Earth. During its five-year, 3.2-billion-kilometer journey, the NEAR mission provided the 

most detailed profile yet of a small celestial 

body. It began a yearlong orbit of Eros on 14 

February 2000 and collected ten times more 

data than originally planned. The data include 

a detailed model culled from more than 11 million laser pulses; radar and laser data on 

Eros’s weak gravity and solid but cracked interior; x-ray, gamma-ray, and infrared readings 

on its composition and spectral properties; and 

about 160,000 images covering all of the 34­

kilometer bouldered, cratered, dusty-terrain 

asteroid. 

8 Deep Space Chronicle 
Finally, in 1997, NASA launched the Cassini 

spacecraft on its voyage to Saturn. In some 

respects a sister spacecraft to the remarkable 

Galileo vehicle at Jupiter, this spacecraft will 

linger for several years collecting all manner 

of data about Saturn and its moons. Once it 

arrives in 2003, Cassini is expected to provide 

a similar level of stunning scientific data 

about the Saturnine system to the rich harvest that Galileo brought to the human race 

about Jupiter and its moons. 

Conclusion 

The Deep Space Chronicle provides a ready 

reference of deep space missions attempted 

since the opening of the space age in 1957 

and documents the development, testing, and 

implementation of robotic spacecraft. Here 

are a few of its features: 

• A list of significant “firsts” takes readers

from the American Able 1 lunar probe in

August 1958, to the Russian Mars 2 spacecraft impact on Mars in November 1971, to

the American Sojourner’s wheeled touchdown on Mars in 1997, to the American

NEAR spacecraft orbit of Eros in February 

2000. 

• A discussion, with results, of planet flybys

introduces attempts on Mars, Jupiter,

Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

• A detailed bibliography is enclosed, and the

author highly recommends Andrew Wilson’s

Solar System Log for more details regarding 

particular missions.

We are pleased to publish Asif A. Siddiqi’s 

monograph on all planetary missions undertaken during the twentieth century. He is 

also the author of the recently published 

pathbreaking book Challenge to Apollo: The 

Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974 

(NASA SP-2000-4408). He has created in 

Deep Space Chronicle a factual reference 

source that will prove useful to all who are 

interested in planetary exploration. 

Roger D. Launius 

NASA Chief Historian 

Foreword 9 

Deep Space Chronicle: 

Introduction

Introduction 13

Introduction

This monograph contains brief descriptions

of all robotic deep space missions attempted

since the opening of the space age in 1957.

The missions are listed strictly chronologically in order of launch date (not by planetary

encounter).

Different people have different criteria for

which kind of spacecraft to include in a list of

“deep space probes.” In the list that follows, I

have included all robotic spacecraft that satisfied the following guidelines:

1) Any probe that was launched to an

“encounter” with a “planetary body.”

Encounters include the following:

a) flybys,

b) orbiting,

c) atmospheric entry and impacts, and

d) soft-landing.

Planetary bodies include the following:

a) Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,

Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto;

b) Earth’s Moon;

c) asteroids;

d) natural satellites of the planets and

asteroids; and

e) comets.

2) Any probe that was deliberately sent to

heliocentric (solar) orbit without a planetary encounter.

3) Any probe that was sent into a halo orbit

around the L1 libration point (about 1.5

million kilometers from Earth), where

Earth’s and the Sun’s gravitational

forces are exactly equal.

4) Any probe that was launched as part of a

lunar or planetary program into deep

space (i.e., at least to lunar distance) in

order to simulate a deep-space trajectory

(such as Zond 4 and a few early Surveyor

Model mockups).

I have included probes whether they succeeded in their objectives or not. Thus, some

probes never got more than a few meters

beyond the launch pad, while others have

already left the solar system.

From the launch of Sputnik in 1957 until the

late 1980s, the Soviet Union never

announced a mission that failed to reach

Earth orbit. For deep space payloads that

reached Earth orbit but were stranded there,

they did not make an announcement of any

kind until 1963. Beginning with Kosmos 21

in November 1963, the Soviets assigned

Kosmos numbers to deep space payloads that
14 Deep Space Chronicle

remained stranded in Earth orbit. Since such

failed missions had no designation, I thought

it useful to provide a quick indication to

readers of what these missions were about.

For Soviet missions where no name was

assigned, the type of mission is bracketed [ ].

The designation inside the bracket denotes

the class of the mission, such as Luna, Mars,

Venera, Zond, or N1 flight test.

Additionally, some U.S. mission names

appear in quotation marks (“Pioneer 0”) to

indicate unofficial names (that is, not

assigned by NASA or assigned retroactively

by NASA).

For statistical data on U.S. probes (such as

launch vehicle numbers, launch times, list

of instruments), I have used, as much as

possible, original NASA sources such as

press kits and postflight mission reports.

Because in many cases there exist wildly

contradictory data (even within NASA), I

have corroborated statistical data from

other nongovernmental published sources.

Every attempt has been made to present

accurate information, but with a project of

this size, there will naturally be errors.

Corrections are welcome.

In terms of the mission descriptions, I have

kept the focus on mission events rather than

scientific results. Mission descriptions have

been kept relatively short and to the point;

readers interested in learning more details

about particular missions are encouraged to

search the sources listed in the bibliographies. I would particularly recommend

Andrew Wilson’s Solar System Log for deep

space missions up to the mid-1980s.

All spacecraft masses listed in the statistical

tables are masses at launch.

Many thanks to Roger D. Launius, NASA’s

Chief Historian, for his support in facilitating

this monograph. I acknowledge, too, the aid of

his staff in the History Office at NASA

Headquarters, especially Louise Alstork and

Stephen Garber. I also thank Lisa Jirousek

and Joel Vendette for their attention to detail

while proofing, editing, and designing this

manuscript. Special thanks go out to Anoo

Raman.

Asif A. Siddiqi
Deep Space Chronicle: 

1958–2000
 

1958
 

1) 

Able 1 / “Pioneer 0” 

Nation: U.S. (1) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: Able 1 

Spacecraft Mass: 38 kg 

Mission Design and Management: USAF / BMD 

Launch Vehicle: Thor-Able 1 (Thor no. 127) 

Launch Date and Time: 17 August 1958 / 12:18 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) magnetometer 

2) micrometeoroid detector 

3) temperature sensors 

4) infrared camera 

Results: This mission was the first of two U.S. 

Air Force (USAF) launches to the Moon and 

the first attempted deep space launch by any 

country. The Able 1 spacecraft, a squat, conical, fiberglass structure, carried a crude 

infrared TV scanner. This device was a simple 

thermal radiation device comprising a small 

parabolic mirror for focusing reflected light 

from the lunar surface onto a cell that would 

transmit voltage proportional to the light it 

received. Engineers painted a pattern of dark 

and light stripes on the spacecraft’s outer surface to regulate internal temperature. The 

spacecraft was also disinfected with ultraviolet light prior to launch. According to the 

ideal mission profile, Able 1 was designed to 

reach the Moon 2.6 days after launch; then the 

TX-8-6 solid propellant motor would fire to 

insert the vehicle into orbit around the Moon. 

Altitude would have been 29,000 kilometers 

with an optimal lifetime of about two weeks. 

The actual mission, however, lasted only 77 

seconds after the Thor first stage exploded at 

15.2 kilometers altitude. The upper stages hit 

the Atlantic about 123 seconds later. 

Investigators concluded that the accident had 

been caused by a turbopump gearbox failure. 

The mission has been retroactively known as 

“Pioneer 0.” 

2) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (1)
 

Objective(s): lunar impact
 

Spacecraft: Ye-1 (no. 1)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 360 kg (with upper stage)
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. B1-3)
 

Launch Date and Time: 23 September 1958 /
 

09:03:23 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) three-component magnetometer 

2) two gas discharge counters 

3) piezoelectric detector 

4) scintillation counter 

5) ion traps 

Results: The Soviet government approved a 

modest plan for initial exploration of the 

1958 17 
Moon in March 1958. Engineers conceived of 

four initial probes, the Ye-1 (for lunar 

impact), Ye-2 (to photograph the far side of 

the Moon), Ye-3 (to photograph the far side of 

the Moon), and Ye-4 (for lunar impact with a 

nuclear explosion). The Ye-1 was a simple 

probe, a pressurized spherical object made 

from aluminum-magnesium alloy, approximately the size of the first Sputnik, that carried five scientific instruments. The goals of 

the mission were to study the gas component 

of interplanetary matter (using the proton 

traps), meteoric particles and photons in 

cosmic radiation (using the piezoelectric 

detectors), the magnetic fields of the Moon 

and Earth (using the magnetometer), variations in cosmic ray intensity, and heavy 

nuclei in primary cosmic radiation. The 

probe (on its upper stage) also carried one 

kilogram of natrium to create an artificial 

comet on the outbound trajectory that could 

be photographed from Earth. During the 

first Ye-1 launch, the booster developed longitudinal resonant vibrations on the strap-on 

boosters of the launch vehicle. The rocket 

eventually disintegrated at T+93 seconds, 

destroying its payload. 

3) 

Able 2 / “Pioneer 1”
 

Nation: U.S. (2)
 

Objective(s): lunar orbit
 

Spacecraft: Able 2
 

Spacecraft Mass: 38.3 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: AFBMD /
 

NASA
 

Launch Vehicle: Thor-Able I (no. 1 / Thor no.
 

130 / DM-1812-6)
 

Launch Date and Time: 11 October 1958 / 08
 

42:13 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) ionization chamber 

2) magnetometer 

3) micrometeoroid detector 

4) NOTS infrared imaging system 

5) temperature sensor 

Results: Although the USAF actually conducted the mission, this was the first U.S. 

space mission under the aegis of the recently 

formed National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA). The spacecraft was 

very similar in design to the Able 1 probe. 

During the mission, the Thor second stage 

shut down 10 seconds early due to incorrect 

information from an accelerometer measuring incremental velocity. The launch 

vehicle thus imparted insufficient velocity for 

the probe to escape the Earth’s gravity. An 

attempt to insert the spacecraft into highEarth orbit at 128,700 x 32,200 kilometers by 

using its retromotor failed because internal 

temperatures had fallen too much for the batteries to provide adequate power. The probe 

did, however, reach an altitude of 115,400 

kilometers by 11:42 UT, verifying the existence of the Van Allen belts and returning 

other useful data before reentering 43 hours 

17 minutes after launch. Investigators later 

concluded that an accelerometer had mistakenly cut off the Able stage because of an 

incorrect setting of a valve. The mission has 

been retroactively known as “Pioneer 1.” 

4) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (2)
 

Objective(s): lunar impact
 

Spacecraft: Ye-1 (no. 2)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 360 kg (with upper stage)
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. B1-4)
 

Launch Date and Time: 11 October 1958 /
 

23:41:58 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) three-component magnetometer 

2) two gas-discharge counters 

3) piezoelectric detector 

4) scintillation counter 

5) ion traps 

Results: The second attempt to impact the 

Moon failed when, again, the probe never left 

Earth’s atmosphere. The launch vehicle 

exploded at T+104 seconds due to longitudinal 

resonant vibrations in the strap-on boosters. 

5) 

Pioneer 2 

Nation: U.S. (3) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: Able 3 

Spacecraft Mass: 39.6 kg 

Mission Design and Management: USAF BMD / 

NASA 

18 Deep Space Chronicle 
Launch Vehicle: Thor-Able I (no. 2 / Thor no.
 

129 / DM-1812-6)
 

Launch Date and Time: 8 November 1958 / 


07:30 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) ionization chamber 

2) magnetometer 

3) temperature sensor 

4) micrometeoroid sensor 

5) proportional counter 

6) imaging system 

Results: For this third Air Force launch of a 

lunar orbiter, engineers introduced a number 

of changes to the Thor-Able launcher. The 

probe included a new TV scanner and a new 

type of battery, as well as a new cosmic-ray 

telescope to study the Cherenkov Effect. 

Pioneer 2, like its predecessors, never reached 

its target. A signal from the ground shut down 

the Thor launch vehicle’s stage 2 earlier than 

planned. Additionally, when the X-248 thirdstage engine separated, it failed to fire. As a 

result, the probe burned up in Earth’s atmosphere only 45 minutes after launch. During 

its brief mission, it reached an altitude of 

1,550 kilometers and sent back data that suggested that Earth’s equatorial region had 

higher flux and energy levels than previously 

thought. The information also indicated that 

micrometeoroid density was higher near 

Earth than in space. Investigators concluded 

that the third-stage engine had failed to fire 

because of a broken wire. 

6) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (3)
 

Objective(s): lunar impact
 

Spacecraft: Ye-1 (no. 3)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 360 kg (with upper stage)
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. B1-5)
 

Launch Date and Time: 4 December 1958 /
 

18:18:44 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) three-component magnetometer 

2) two gas-discharge counters 

3) piezoelectric detector 

4) scintillation counter 

5) ion traps 

Results: This mission was the third failure in a 

row in Soviet attempts to send a Ye-1 lunar 

impact probe to the Moon. The thrust level of 

the core engine of the R-7 booster dropped 

abruptly at T+245 seconds, leading eventually 

to premature engine cutoff. The payload never 

reached escape velocity. Later investigation 

showed that a pressurized seal cooling in the 

hydrogen peroxide pump of the main engine 

had lost integrity in vacuum conditions. The 

malfunction caused the main turbine to cease 

working and thus led to engine failure. 

7) 

Pioneer 3 

Nation: U.S. (4) 

Objective(s): lunar flyby 

Spacecraft: N/A 

Spacecraft Mass: 5.87 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ABMA 

/ JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Juno II (no. AM-11) 

Launch Date and Time: 6 December 1958 / 

05:44:52 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 5 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) photoelectric sensor trigger 

2) two Geiger-Mueller counters 

Results: This mission was the first of two U.S. 

Army launches to the Moon. Pioneer 3 was a 

spin-stabilized probe (up to 700 rpm) whose primary goal was to fly by the Moon. Two special 

0.21-ounce weights were to spin out on 1.5­

meter wires and reduce spin to 12 rpm once the 

mission was under way. The spacecraft carried 

an optical sensor to test a future imaging 

system. If the sensor received, from a source 

such as the Moon, a collimated beam of light 

that was wide enough to pass through a lens 

and fall simultaneously on two photocells, then 

the sensor would send a signal to switch on an 

imaging system (not carried on this spacecraft). 

In the event, the main booster engine shut 

down 4 seconds earlier than planned due to propellant depletion. Once put on its trajectory, 

Pioneer 3 was about 1,030 kilometers per hour 

short of escape velocity. It eventually reached 

102,322 kilometers and burned up over Africa 

38 hours 6 minutes after launch. The spacecraft 

contributed to the major scientific discovery of 

dual bands of radiation around Earth. 

1958 19 

1959
 

8) 

Cosmic Rocket / [Luna 1] 


Nation: USSR (4)
 

Objective(s): lunar impact
 

Spacecraft: Ye-1 (no. 4)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 361.3 kg (with upper stage)
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. B1-6)
 

Launch Date and Time: 2 January 1959 /
 

16:41:21 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) three-component magnetometer 

2) two gas-discharge counters 

3) piezoelectric detector 

4) scintillation counter 

5) ion traps 

Results: Although this Soviet spacecraft was 

the first humanmade object to reach escape 

velocity, its trajectory was less than accurate due to a problem in the guidance 

system, and the probe missed its main 

target, the Moon. The spacecraft (which, 

with its launch vehicle, was referred to as 

“Cosmic Rocket” in the Soviet press) eventually passed by the Moon at a distance of 

6,400 kilometers about 34 hours following 

launch. Before the flyby, at 00:57 UT on 3 

January 1959, the attached upper stage 

released one kilogram of natrium at a distance of 113,000 kilometers from Earth and 

was photographed by astronomers on Earth. 

The first robotic explorer to the Moon, Luna 1. 

Ground controllers lost contact with Cosmic 

Rocket (retroactively named Luna 1 in 

1963) approximately 62 hours after launch. 

The probe became the first spacecraft to 

enter orbit around the Sun. 

1959 21 
The Luna 3 spacecraft returned the first views ever of 

the far side of the Moon. The first image was taken at 

03:30 UT on 7 October at a distance of 65,200 kilometers, after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and looked 

back at the sunlit far side. The last image was taken 

40 minutes later from 66,700 kilometers. Altogether, 

twenty-nine photographs were taken, covering 70 percent of the far side. The photographs were very noisy 

and of low resolution, but many features could be recognized. This was the first image returned by Luna 3; 

taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed that the far 

side of the Moon was very different from the near 

side, most noticeably in its lack of lunar maria (the 

dark areas). The right three-quarters of the disk are the 

far side. The dark spot at upper right is Mare 

Moscoviense; the dark area at lower left is Mare 

Smythii. The small dark circle at lower right with the 

white dot in the center is the crater Tsiolkovskiy and its 

central peak. The Moon is 3,475 kilometers in diameter, and north is up in this image. 

9) 

Pioneer 4 

Nation: U.S. (5) 

Objective(s): lunar flyby 

Spacecraft: N/A 

Spacecraft Mass: 6.1 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA / ABMA 

/ JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Juno II (no. AM-14) 

Launch Date and Time: 3 March 1959 / 

05:10:45 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 5 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) photoelectric sensor trigger 

2) two Geiger-Mueller counters 

Results: Although it did not achieve its primary 

objective to photograph the Moon during a 

flyby, Pioneer 4 was the first U.S. spacecraft to 

reach escape velocity. During the launch, the 

Sergeants of the second stage did not cut off on 

time and caused the azimuths and elevation 

angles of the trajectory to change. The spacecraft thus passed by the Moon at a range of 

59,545 kilometers (instead of the planned 

32,000 kilometers)—not close enough for the 

imaging scanner to function. The closest 

approach was at 10:25 UT on 4 March 1959. 

The craft’s tiny radio transmitted information 

for 82 hours before contact was lost at a distance of 655,000 kilometers from Earth, the 

greatest tracking distance for a humanmade 

object to date. The probe eventually entered 

heliocentric orbit and became the first 

American spacecraft to do so. Scientists 

received excellent data on radiation in space. 

10) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (5)
 

Objective(s): lunar impact
 

Spacecraft: Ye-1A (no. 5)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 390 kg (with upper stage)
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. I1-7)
 

Launch Date and Time: 18 June 1959 / 08:08 UT
 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1
 

Scientific Instruments:
 

1) three-component magnetometer 

2) two gas-discharge counters 

3) piezoelectric detector 

4) scintillation counter 

5) ion traps 

Results: The Soviet Ye-1A probe, like the Ye-1, 

was designed for lunar impact. Engineers had 

incorporated some minor modifications to the 

scientific instruments (a modified antenna 

housing for the magnetometer, six instead of 

four gas-discharge counters, and an improved 

piezoelectric detector) as a result of information received from the first Cosmic Rocket 

(Luna 1) and the American Pioneer 4. The 

launch was originally scheduled for 16 June 

but was postponed for two days as a result of 

the negligence of a young lieutenant who inadvertently permitted fuelling of the upper stage 

with the wrong propellant. During the actual 

launch, one of the gyroscopes of the inertial 

guidance system failed at T+153 seconds, and 

the wayward booster was subsequently 

destroyed by command from the ground. 

22 Deep Space Chronicle 
11) 

Second Cosmic Rocket / Luna 2
 

Nation: USSR (6)
 

Objective(s): lunar impact
 

Spacecraft: Ye-1A (no. 7)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 390.2 kg (with upper stage)
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. I1-7b)
 

Launch Date and Time: 12 September 1959 /
 

06:39:42 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) three-component magnetometer 

2) six gas-discharge counters 

3) piezoelectric detector 

4) scintillation counter 

5) ion traps 

Results: After an aborted launch on 9 

September, the Ye-1A probe successfully 

lifted off and reached escape velocity three 

days later. Officially named the “Second 

Soviet Cosmic Rocket,” the spacecraft 

released its one kilogram of natrium on 12 

September at a distance of 156,000 kilometers from Earth in a cloud that expanded out 

to 650 kilometers in diameter and was clearly 

visible from the ground. Fortunately, this 

sixth attempt at lunar impact was much 

more accurate than its predecessors. The 

spacecraft successfully reached the surface of 

the Moon at 23:02:23 UT on 14 September 

1959, thus becoming the first object of human 

origin to make contact with another celestial 

body. The probe’s impact point was approximately at 30° north latitude and 0° longitude 

on the slope of the Autolycus crater, east of 

Mare Serenitatis. Luna 2 (as it was called 

after 1963) deposited Soviet emblems on the 

lunar surface carried in 9 x 15-centimeter 

metallic spheres. The spacecraft’s magnetometer measured no significant lunar magnetic field as close as 55 kilometers to the 

lunar surface. The radiation detectors also 

found no hint of a radiation belt. 

12) 

Automatic Interplanetary Station / Luna 3 

Nation: USSR (7) 

Objective(s): lunar flyby 

Spacecraft: Ye-2A (no. 1) 

Spacecraft Mass: 278.5 kg 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1 

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. I1-8) 

Launch Date and Time: 4 October 1959 / 

00:43:40 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) Yenisey-2 photographic-TV imaging 

system 

2) micrometeoroid detector 

3) cosmic-ray detector 

Results: This spacecraft, of the Ye-2A class, 

was the first Soviet probe designed to take 

pictures of the far side of the Moon using the 

Yenisey-2 imaging system (replacing the 

Yenisey-1 used on the abandoned Ye-2 probe). 

The TV system consisted of a 35-mm camera 

with two lenses of 200-mm (wide-angle) and 

500-mm (high-resolution) focal lengths and a 

capacity to read up to 40 images. Strictly 

speaking, the probe was not meant to reach 

escape velocity; instead, the launch vehicle 

inserted the spacecraft, called the Automatic 

Interplanetary Station (AMS) in the Soviet 

press, into a highly elliptical orbit around the 

Earth at 48,280 x 468,300 kilometers, sufficient to reach lunar distance. During the 

coast to the Moon, the AMS suffered overheating problems and poor communications, 

but the vehicle eventually passed over the 

Moon’s southern polar cap at a range of 7,900 

kilometers on 6 October before climbing up 

over the Earth-Moon plane. At a distance of 

65,200 kilometers from the Moon, on 7 

October, cameras began taking the first of 29 

pictures of the far side of the Moon. The 

exposed film was then developed, fixed, and 

dried automatically, after which a special 

light beam of up to 1,000 lines per image 

scanned the film for transmission to Earth. 

Images were finally received the next day 

(after a few aborted attempts). Seventeen of 

the images were of usable quality and 

showed parts of the Moon never before seen 

by human eyes. The spacecraft, named Luna 

3 after 1963, photographed about 70 percent 

of the far side and found fewer mare areas on 

the far side, prompting scientists to revise 

their theories of lunar evolution. 

13) 

Able IVB / “Pioneer” 

Nation: U.S. (6) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: P-3 / Able IVB 

Spacecraft Mass: 169 kg 

1959 23 
Mission Design and Management: AFBMD /
 

NASA
 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Able (no. 1 / Atlas D no.
 

20)
 

Launch Date and Time: 26 November 1959 /
 

07:26 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 14 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) high-energy radiation counter 

2) ionization chamber 

3) Geiger-Mueller tube 

4) low-energy radiation counter 

5) two magnetometers 

6) photo-scanning device 

7) micrometeoroid detector 

8) aspect indicator 

9) radio receiver to detect natural radio 

waves 

10) transponder to measure electron 

densities 

Results: This mission used the first of four 

spacecraft designed by Space Technology 

Laboratories for a lunar assault in 1959 and 

1960; two of them had originally been slated 

for Venus orbit (in June 1959), but mission 

planners had redirected their missions 

after the success of the Soviet Luna 3 mission. All the scientific experiments and 

internal instrumentation were powered by 

nickel-cadmium batteries charged from 

1,100 solar cells on 4 paddles. Each probe 

also carried an internal hydrazine monopropellant motor for lunar orbit insertion at a 

range of 8,000 kilometers from the Moon. 

Ideal lunar orbital parameters were 

planned as 6,400 x 4,800 kilometers. The 

missions also inaugurated the first use of 

the Atlas-with-an-upper-stage combination, 

affording increased payload weight. During 

this first launch, the nose fairing began to 

break away just 45 seconds after liftoff. 

Aerodynamic forces then caused the third 

stage and payload to break away and explode. 

The ground lost contact with the tumbling 

booster at T+104 seconds. Investigation 

showed that the 3-meter fiberglass shroud 

failed because there had been no measures to 

compensate for pressure differentials as the 

rocket gained altitude. 

24 Deep Space Chronicle 
14) 

Pioneer 5
 

Nation: U.S. (7)
 

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit
 

Spacecraft: P-2 / Able 6
 

Spacecraft Mass: 43.2 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: NASA GSFC /
 

USAF BMD
 

Launch Vehicle: Thor-Able IV (no. 4 / Thor no.
 

219 / DM-1812-6A)
 

Launch Date and Time: 11 March 1960 /
 

13:00:07 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) magnetometer 

2) ionization chamber 

3) Geiger-Mueller tube 

4) micrometeoroid momentum 

spectrometer 

5) photoelectric cell aspect indicator 

6) proportional counter telescope 

Results: Launched on a direct solar orbit trajectory, Pioneer 5 successfully reached heliocentric 

orbit between Earth and Venus to demonstrate 

deep space technologies and to provide the first 

map of the interplanetary magnetic field. The 

spacecraft had originally been intended for a 

Venus flyby, but the mission was switched to a 

solar flyby. Pioneer 5 carried Telebit, the first 

digital telemetry system operationally used on 

a U.S. spacecraft; it was first tested on Explorer 

6. The system used a 5-watt or a 150-watt 

1960
 

transmitter, with a 5-watt transmitter acting as 

driver. Information rates varied from 64 to 8 to 

1 bit per second. Controllers maintained contact 

with Pioneer 5 until 26 June 1960, to a record 

distance of 36.2 million kilometers from Earth 

(later surpassed by Mariner 2). The probe, 

using its 18.1-kilogram suite of scientific instruments, confirmed the existence of previously 

conjectured interplanetary magnetic fields. 

15) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (8)
 

Objective(s): lunar farside photography
 

Spacecraft: Ye-3 (no. 1)
 

Spacecraft Mass: unknown
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. 1l-9)
 

Launch Date and Time: 15 April 1960 /
 

15:06:44 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) Yenisey-2 photographic-TV imaging 

system 

2) micrometeoroid detector 

3) cosmic-ray detector 

Results: After the spectacular success of Luna 3, 

this spacecraft was launched to return more 

detailed photos of the lunar far side. The Ye-3 

class vehicle was essentially a Ye-2A probe 

using a modified radio-telemetry system, but 

with the old Yenisey-2 imaging system. (A more 

1960 25 
advanced Ye-3 type with a new imaging system 

had been abandoned earlier.) During the 

launch, the probe received insufficient velocity 

after premature third-stage engine cutoff. The 

spacecraft reached an altitude of 200,000 kilometers and then fell back to Earth and burned 

up in Earth’s atmosphere, much like some of 

the early American Pioneer probes. 

16) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (9)
 

Objective(s): farside lunar photography
 

Spacecraft: Ye-3 (no. 2)
 

Spacecraft Mass: unknown
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K72 (no. Il-9a)
 

Launch Date and Time: 19 April 1960 / 


16:07:43 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) Yenisey-2 photographic-TV imaging 

system 

2) micrometeoroid detector 

3) cosmic-ray detector 

Results: This was the last of the “first-generation” Soviet probes to the Moon. Like its 

immediate predecessor, it was designed to 

photograph the far side of the Moon. 

Unfortunately, the probe never left Earth’s 

atmosphere. Instead, immediately after 

launch, at T+10 seconds, the launch vehicle 

began to fall apart. As each strap-on fell 

away, parts of the booster landed separately 

over a large area near the launch site. 

Thundering explosions broke windows in 

many nearby buildings. 

17) 

Able VA / “Pioneer”
 

Nation: U.S. (8)
 

Objective(s): lunar orbit
 

Spacecraft: P-30 / Able VA
 

Spacecraft Mass: 175.5 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: AFBMD /
 

NASA
 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Able (no. 2 / Atlas D no.
 

80)
 

Launch Date and Time: 25 September 1960 /
 

15:13 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) high-energy radiation counter 

2) ionization chamber 

3) Geiger-Mueller tube 

4) low-energy radiation counter 

5) two magnetometers 

6) scintillation spectrometer 

7) micrometeoroid detector 

8) plasma probe 

9) Sun scanner 

Results: This probe, Able VA, had a slightly different instrument complement from that of its 

predecessor Able IVB (launched in November 

1959), but it had similar mission goals. Able 

VA was to enter lunar orbit about 62.5 hours 

after launch with parameters of 4,000 x 2,250 

kilometers in a period of 10 hours. During the 

launch, although the first stage performed 

without problems, the Able second stage 

ignited abnormally and shut down early 

because of an oxidizer system failure. The 

third stage never fired, and the probe burned 

up in Earth’s atmosphere 17 minutes after 

launch. Although the mission was a failure, 

ground controllers fired Able VA’s onboard 

liquid propellant hydrazine rocket engine— 

the first time that an onboard motor was fired 

on a space vehicle. Later, on 15 November 

1960, NASA announced that two objects from 

the Able VA payload had been found in 

Transvaal, South Africa. 

18) 

no name / [Mars] 


Nation: USSR (10)
 

Objective(s): Mars flyby
 

Spacecraft: 1M (no. 1)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 480 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. L1-4M)
 

Launch Date and Time: 10 October 1960 /
 

14:27:49 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) ultraviolet spectrograph 

2) radiation detector 

3) cosmic-ray detector 

Results: This was the first of two Soviet Mars 

spacecraft intended to fly past Mars. It also 

was the first attempt by humans to send 

spacecraft to the vicinity of Mars. Although 

the spacecraft initially included a TV 

imaging system and a spectroreflectometer 

(to detect organic life on Mars), mass constraints forced engineers to remove both 

26 Deep Space Chronicle 
instruments a week before launch. The mission profile called for the probe to first enter 

Earth orbit and then use a new fourth stage 

(called “Blok L”) to gain enough additional 

velocity to fly to a Mars encounter. During 

the launch, violent vibrations caused a gyroscope to malfunction. As a result, the booster 

began to veer from its planned attitude. The 

guidance system failed at T+309 seconds, and 

the third-stage engine was shut down after 

the trajectory deviated to a pitch of greater 

than 7 degrees. The payload eventually 

burned up in Earth’s atmosphere over 

eastern Siberia without reaching Earth orbit. 

The Mars flyby was planned for 13 May 1961. 

19) 

no name / [Mars] 


Nation: USSR (11)
 

Objective(s): Mars flyby
 

Spacecraft: 1M (no. 2)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 480 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. L1-5M)
 

Launch Date and Time: 14 October 1960 /
 

13:51:03 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) ultraviolet spectrograph 

2) radiation detector 

3) cosmic-ray detector 

Results: Like its predecessor, this spacecraft 

never reached Earth orbit. During the launch 

trajectory, there was a failure in the thirdstage engine at T+290 seconds as a result of 

frozen kerosene in the pipeline feeding its 

turbopump (which prevented a valve from 

opening). The third and fourth stages, along 

with the payload, burned up over Earth’s 

atmosphere over eastern Siberia. The Mars 

flyby had been planned for 15 May 1961. 

20) 

Able VB / “Pioneer”
 

Nation: U.S. (9)
 

Objective(s): lunar orbit
 

Spacecraft: P-31 / Able VB
 

Spacecraft Mass: 176 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: AFBMD /
 

NASA
 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Able (no. 3 / Atlas D no.
 

91)
 

Launch Date and Time: 15 December 1960 /
 

09:10 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) micrometeoroid detector 

2) high-energy radiation counter 

3) ionization chamber 

4) Geiger-Mueller tube 

5) low-energy radiation counter 

6) two magnetometers 

7) Sun scanner 

8) plasma probe 

9) scintillation spectrometer 

10) solid state detector 

Results: The mission of Able VB, as with its two 

unsuccessful predecessors, was to enter lunar 

orbit. Scientific objectives included studying 

radiation near the Moon, recording the incidence of micrometeoroids, and detecting a 

lunar magnetic field. Planned lunar orbital 

parameters were 4,300 x 2,400 kilometers with 

a period of 9 to 10 hours. The spacecraft had a 

slightly different scientific instrument complement from that of its predecessors. This was 

third and last attempt by NASA to launch a 

probe to orbit the Moon in the 1959–60 period. 

Unfortunately, the Atlas-Able booster exploded 

68 seconds after launch at an altitude of about 

12.2 kilometers. Later investigation indicated 

that the cause was premature Able stage ignition while the first stage was still firing. 

1960 27 

21) 

Tyazhelyy Sputnik / [Venera]
 

Nation: USSR (12)
 

Objective(s): Venus impact
 

Spacecraft: 1VA (no. 1)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 645 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. L1-7)
 

Launch Date and Time: 4 February 1961 /
 

01:18:04 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) three-component magnetometer 

2) variometer 

3) charged-particle traps 

Results: This mission was the first attempt 

to send a spacecraft to Venus. Original 

intentions had been to send the 1V spacecraft to take pictures of the Venusian surface, but this proved to be far too ambitious 

a goal. Engineers instead downgraded the 

mission and used the 1VA spacecraft for a 

simple Venus atmospheric entry. The 1VA 

was essentially a modified 1M spacecraft 

used for Martian exploration. The spacecraft contained a small globe containing 

various souvenirs and medals commemorating the mission. This flight was also the 

first occasion on which the Soviets used an 

intermediate Earth orbit to launch a spacecraft into interplanetary space. Although 

the booster successfully placed the probe 

1961
 

into Earth orbit, the fourth stage (the Blok 

L) never fired to send the spacecraft to 

Venus. A subsequent investigation showed 

that there had been a failure in the PT-200 

DC transformer that ensured power supply 

to the Blok L guidance system. The system 

had evidently not been designed to work in 

a vacuum. The “spacecraft + upper-stage 

stack” reentered Earth’s atmosphere on 26 

February 1961. The Soviets announced the 

total weight of the combination as 6,483 

kilograms. 

22) 

Venera
 

Nation: USSR (13)
 

Objective(s): Venus impact
 

Spacecraft: 1VA (no. 2)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 643.5 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. L1-6)
 

Launch Date and Time: 12 February 1961 /
 

00:34:37 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) three-component magnetometer 

2) variometer 

3) charged-particle traps 

Results: This was the second of two Venus 

impact probes that the Soviets launched in 

1961. This time, the probe successfully 

exited Earth orbit and headed toward 

1961 29 
The Ranger fleet of spacecraft launched in the mid-sixties 

provided live television transmissions of the Moon. 

These transmissions resolved surface features as small 

as 10 inches across and provided over 17,000 images 

of the lunar surface. These detailed photographs 

allowed scientists and engineers to study the Moon in 

greater detail than ever before, thus allowing for the 

design of a spacecraft that would one day land men of 

Earth on its surface. 
Venus. Despite some initial problems with 

the solar orientation system, the spacecraft 

responded properly during a communications session on 17 February 1961 at a distance of 1.9 million kilometers. Unfortunately, 

controllers were unable to regain contact 

during a subsequent communications 

attempt on 22 February. A later investigation indicated that the spacecraft had lost 

its “permanent” solar orientation due to a 

faulty optical sensor that malfunctioned 

because of excess heat after the spacecraft’s 

thermal control system failed. The inert 

spacecraft eventually passed by Venus on 

19 and 20 May 1961 at a distance of about 

100,000 kilometers and entered heliocentric orbit. 

23) 

Ranger 1 

Nation: U.S. (10) 

Objective(s): highly elliptical Earth orbit 

Spacecraft: P-32 

Spacecraft Mass: 306.18 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena B (no. 1 / Atlas 

D no. 111 / Agena B no. 6001) 

Launch Date and Time: 23 August 1961 / 

10:04 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) electrostatic analyzer 

2) photoconductive particle detectors 

3) Rubidium vapor magnetometer 

4) triple-coincidence cosmic-ray telescope 

5) cosmic-ray integrating ionization 

chamber 

6) x-ray scintillation detectors 

7) micrometeoroid dust particle 

detectors 

8) Lyman alpha scanning telescope 

Results: Ranger 1 was the first in a series of 

standardized spacecraft designed to roughland simple instrumented capsules on the 

surface of the Moon and take photos of the 

lunar surface during its descent to the 

Moon. The spacecraft consisted of a tubular 

central body connected to a hexagonal base 

containing basic equipment required for 

control and communications. Power was 

provided by solar cells and a silver-zinc 

battery. Ranger 1’s specific mission was to 

test performance of the new technologies 

intended for operational Ranger flights and 

to study the nature of particles and fields 

in interplanetary space. Its intended orbit 

was 60,000 x 1.1 million kilometers. Ranger 

1 was the first American spacecraft to use a 

parking orbit around Earth prior to its 

deep space mission. In this case, the Agena 

B upper stage cut off almost immediately 

after its ignition for translunar injection 

(instead of firing for 90 seconds). The probe 

remained stranded in low-Earth orbit (501 

x 168 kilometers), and telemetry ceased by 

27 August, when the main battery went 

dead. The spacecraft reentered Earth’s 

atmosphere three days later. The cause of 

the Agena failure was traced to a malfunctioning switch that had prematurely 

choked the flow the red fuming nitric acid 

to the rocket engine. 

24) 

Ranger 2 

Nation: U.S. (11) 

Objective(s): highly elliptical Earth orbit 

Spacecraft: P-33 

Spacecraft Mass: 306.18 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena B (no. 2 / Atlas 

D no. 117 / Agena B no. 6002) 

Launch Date and Time: 18 November 1961 / 

08:12 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) electrostatic analyzer for solar 

plasma 

2) photoconductive particle detectors 

3) Rubidium vapor magnetometer 

4) triple-coincidence cosmic-ray telescope 

5) cosmic-ray integrating ionization 

chamber 

6) x-ray scintillation detectors 

7) micrometeoroid dust particle 

detectors 

8) Lyman alpha scanning telescope 

Results: Like its predecessor, Ranger 2 was 

designed to operate in a highly elliptical 

Earth orbit that would take it into deep space 

beyond the Moon. Mission planners expected 

that during five months of operation, they 

could verify both the technical design of the 

vehicle and conduct key scientific experiments to study the space environment over a 

prolonged period. Since the Block I Rangers 

1961 31 
Ranger 7 took this image of the Moon on 31 July 1964 at 

13:09 UT (9:09 A.M. EDT), about 17 minutes before 

impacting the lunar surface. The area photographed is 

centered at 13° south latitude and 10° west longitude 

and covers about 360 kilometers from top to bottom. The 

large crater at center right is the 108-kilometer-diameter 

Alphonsus. Above it is Ptolemaeus and below it Arzachel. 

The terminator is at the bottom right corner. Mare Nubium 

is at center and left. North is at about 11:00 at the center 

of the frame. The Ranger 7 impact site is off the frame, to 

the left of the upper left corner. (Ranger 7, B001) The 

Ranger series of spacecraft were designed solely to take 

high-quality pictures of the Moon and transmit them back to 

Earth in real time. The images were to be used for scientific study, as well as for selecting landing sites for the 

Apollo Moon missions. Ranger 7 was the first of the 

Ranger series to be entirely successful. It transmitted 4,308 

high-quality images over the last 17 minutes of flight, the final image having a resolution of 0.5 meters per pixel. 

Ranger 7 was launched on 28 July 1964 and arrived at the Moon on 31 July 1964. 

(Ranger 1 and 2) carried no rocket engine, 

they could not alter their trajectories. On this 

attempt, Ranger 2, like its predecessor, failed 

to leave low-Earth orbit. This time, the Agena 

B stage failed to fire. In its low orbit, Ranger 

2 lost its solar orientation and then eventually lost power; it reentered Earth’s atmosphere on 19 November 1961. The most 

probable cause of the failure was inoperation 

of the roll-control gyroscope on the Agena B 

guidance system. As a result, the stage had 

used up all attitude-control propellant for its 

first orbit insertion burn. At the time of the 

second burn, without proper attitude, the 

engine failed to fire. 

32 Deep Space Chronicle 
25) 

Ranger 3 

Nation: U.S. (12) 

Objective(s): lunar impact 

Spacecraft: P-34 

Spacecraft Mass: 330 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena B (no. 3 / Atlas D 

no. 121 / Agena B no. 6003) 

Launch Date and Time: 26 January 1962 / 

20:30 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) gamma-ray spectrometer 

3) single-axis seismometer 

4) surface-scanning pulse radio 

experiment 

Results: This was the first U.S. attempt to 

achieve impact on the lunar surface. The Block 

II Ranger spacecraft carried a TV camera that 

used an optical telescope that would allow 

imaging down to about 24 kilometers above 

the lunar surface during the descent. The 

main bus also carried a 42.6-kilogram instrument capsule that would separate from the 

bus at 21.4 kilometers altitude and then independently impact on the Moon. Protected by a 

balsa-wood outer casing, the capsule was 

designed to bounce several times on the lunar 

surface before coming to rest. The primary 

onboard instrument was a seismometer. 

1962
 

Because of a malfunction in the Atlas guidance system (due to faulty transistors), the 

probe was inserted into a lunar transfer trajectory with an excessive velocity. A subsequent incorrect course change ensured that 

the spacecraft reached the Moon 14 hours 

early and missed it by 36,793 kilometers on 28 

January. The central computer and sequencer 

failed and the spacecraft returned no TV 

images. The probe did, however, provide scientists with the first measurements of interplanetary gamma-ray flux. Ranger 3 eventually 

entered heliocentric orbit. 

26) 

Ranger 4 

Nation: U.S. (13) 

Objective(s): lunar impact 

Spacecraft: P-35 

Spacecraft Mass: 331.12 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena B (no. 4 / Atlas D 

no. 133 / Agena B no. 6004) 

Launch Date and Time: 23 April 1962 / 

20:50 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) gamma-ray spectrometer 

3) single-axis seismometer 

4) surface-scanning pulse radio 

experiment 

1962 33 
Results: This spacecraft, similar in design to 

Ranger 3, was the first U.S. spacecraft to 

reach another celestial body. A power failure 

in the central computer and sequencer 

stopped the spacecraft’s master clock and 

prevented the vehicle from performing any 

of its preplanned operations, such as 

opening its solar panels. Drifting aimlessly 

and without any midcourse corrections, 

Ranger 4 impacted the Moon on its far side 

at 12:49:53 UT on 26 April 1962. Impact 

coordinates were 15°30' south latitude and 

130°42' west longitude. Although the spacecraft did not achieve its primary objective, 

the Atlas-Agena-Ranger combination performed without fault for the first time. 

27) 

Mariner 1 

Nation: U.S. (14) 

Objective(s): Venus flyby 

Spacecraft: P-37 / Mariner R-1 

Spacecraft Mass: 202.8 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena B (no. 5 / Atlas D 

no. 145 / Agena B no. 6901) 

Launch Date and Time: 22 July 1962 / 

09:21:23 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) microwave radiometer 

2) infrared radiometer 

3) fluxgate magnetometer 

4) cosmic dust detector 

5) solar plasma spectrometer 

6) energetic particle detectors 

Results: After approval by NASA Headquarters 

in September 1961, JPL prepared three spacecraft based on the design of the Ranger Block 

I series (therefore named Mariner R) to fly by 

Venus in late 1962. Each spacecraft carried a 

modest suite (9 kilograms) of scientific instrumentation but had no imaging capability. The 

spacecraft included 54,000 components and 

was designed to maintain contact with Earth 

for 2,500 hours—an ambitious goal given that 

the (still unsuccessful) Ranger was designed 

for only 65 hours of contact. Mariner 1 would 

have flown by Venus at a range of 29,000 kilometers on 8 December 1962, but due to an 

incorrect trajectory during launch, range 

safety had to destroy the booster and its payload at T+290 seconds. 

28) 

no name / [Venera] 


Nation: USSR (14)
 

Objective(s): Venus impact
 

Spacecraft: 2MV-1 (no. 1)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,097 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. T103-12)
 

Launch Date and Time: 25 August 1962 /
 

02:18:45 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: This mission was the first of a second 

generation of Soviet deep space probes based 

on a unified platform called 2MV (“2” for the 

second generation, “MV” for Mars and Venus) 

designed to study Mars and Venus. The series 

included four variants with the same bus but 

with different payload complements: 2MV-1 

(for Venus impact), 2MV-2 (for Venus flyby), 

2MV-3 (for Mars impact), and 2MV-4 (for Mars 

flyby). The landers carried pressurized capsules; the Venus landers were cooled with an 

ammonia-based system, while the Mars landers used a system of air conditioners. Both 

landers were sterilized with a special substance on recommendation from the Academy 

of Sciences’s Institute of Microbiology. The 

buses were powered by solar panels with an 

area of 2.5 square meters capable of providing 

2.6 A. For Venus, the Soviets prepared three 

spacecraft for the August-September 1962 

launch window, one flyby spacecraft and two 

landers. This first spacecraft was successfully 

launched into Earth orbit, but the Blok L 

upper stage cut off its interplanetary burn 

after only 45 seconds (instead of the planned 

240 seconds). Later investigation showed that 

the stage had been set on a tumbling motion 

prior to main engine ignition due to asymmetrical firing of stabilizing motors. The spacecraft remained in Earth orbit for three days 

before reentering Earth’s atmosphere. 

29) 

Mariner 2 

Nation: U.S. (15) 

Objective(s): Venus flyby 

Spacecraft: P-38 / Mariner R-2 

Spacecraft Mass: 203.6 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena B (no. 6 / Atlas D 

no. 179 / Agena B no. 6902) 

34 Deep Space Chronicle 
Launch Date and Time: 27 August 1962 / 

06:53:14 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) microwave radiometer 

2) infrared radiometer 

3) fluxgate magnetometer 

4) cosmic dust detector 

5) solar plasma spectrometer 

6) energetic particle detectors 

Results: NASA brought the Mariner R-2 spacecraft out of storage and launched it just 

thirty-six days after the failure of Mariner 1. 

Mariner 2, as it was known after launch, was 

equipped with an identical complement of 

instrumentation to that of its predecessor (see 

Mariner 1). The mission proved to be the first 

fully successful interplanetary mission performed by any nation. After a midcourse correction on 4 September, the spacecraft flew by 

Venus at a range of 34,762 kilometers on 14 

December 1962. During a 42-minute scan of 

the planet, Mariner 2 gathered significant 

data on the Venusian atmosphere and surface 

before continuing on to heliocentric orbit. 

NASA maintained contact until 07:00 UT on 

3 January 1963, when the spacecraft was 87.4 

million kilometers from Earth, a new record 

for a deep space probe. The data returned 

showed that the surface temperature on Venus 

was at least 425°C with minimal differentiation between the day and night sides of the 

planet. Mariner 2 also found that there was a 

dense cloud layer that extended from 56 to 80 

kilometers above the surface. The spacecraft 

detected no discernable planetary magnetic 

field; this lack is partly explained by the great 

distance of the flyby. After this successful mission, NASA elected to stand down the third 

spacecraft in the series (Mariner R-3), scheduled for the 1964 launch window. 

30) 

no name / [Venera] 


Nation: USSR (15)
 

Objective(s): Venus impact
 

Spacecraft: 2MV-1 (no. 2)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,100 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. T103-13)
 

Launch Date and Time: 1 September 1962 /
 

02:12:30 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: This was the second of three Venus 

spacecraft launched by the Soviets in 1962. 

Like its predecessor launched in August 1962 

(also a Venus impact probe), the spacecraft 

never left parking orbit around Earth because 

of a malfunction in the Blok L upper stage 

designed to send the probe out of Earth orbit 

toward Venus. Evidently, the valve that controlled the delivery of fuel into the combustion 

chamber of the Blok L engine (the S1.5400) 

never opened. As a result, the engine never 

fired. The payload decayed within five days of 

launch. 

31) 

no name / [Venera] 


Nation: USSR (16)
 

Objective(s): Venus flyby
 

Spacecraft: 2MV-2 (no. 1)
 

Spacecraft Mass: unknown
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. T103-114)
 

Launch Date and Time: 12 September 1962 /
 

00:59:13 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

(remainder unknown) 

Results: Like its two predecessors (launched 

on 25 August and 1 September 1962), this 

Soviet Venus probe never left parking orbit 

around the Earth. The Blok L upper stage, 

designed to send the spacecraft toward 

Venus, fired for only 0.8 seconds before shutting down because of unstable attitude. Later 

investigation indicated that the upper stage 

had been put into a tumble by the violent 

shutdown of the third stage. The tumble had 

mixed air bubbles within the propellant 

tanks, preventing a clean firing of the engine. 

Unlike its predecessors, this probe was 

designed for a Venus flyby rather than atmospheric entry and impact. The spacecraft reentered Earth’s atmosphere two days after 

launch. 

32) 

Ranger 5 

Nation: U.S. (16) 

Objective(s): lunar impact 

Spacecraft: P-36 

Spacecraft Mass: 342.46 kg 

1962 35 
Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL
 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena B (no. 7 / Atlas D
 

no. 215 / Agena no. 6005)
 

Launch Date and Time: 18 October 1962 /
 

16:59:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) gamma-ray spectrometer 

3) single-axis seismometer 

4) surface-scanning pulse radio 

experiment 

Results: This was the third attempt to impact 

the lunar surface with a Block II Ranger 

spacecraft. On this mission, just 15 minutes 

after normal operation, a malfunction led to 

the transfer of power from solar to battery 

power. Normal operation never resumed; battery power was depleted after 8 hours, and all 

spacecraft systems died. The first midcourse 

correction was never implemented, and 

Ranger 5 passed the Moon at a range of 724 

kilometers on 21 October and entered heliocentric orbit. It was tracked to a distance of 

1,271,381 kilometers. Before loss of signal, the 

spacecraft sent back about 4 hours of data 

from the gamma-ray experiment. 

33) 

no name / [Mars] 


Nation: USSR (17)
 

Objective(s): Mars flyby
 

Spacecraft: 2MV-4 (no. 1)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 900 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. T103-15)
 

Launch Date and Time: 24 October 1962 /
 

17:55:04 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) magnetometer 

Results: This was the first of three “secondgeneration” interplanetary probes (two flyby 

probes and one impact probe), designed to 

reach Mars, prepared by the Soviets for the 

late-1962 launch window. Because of the 

repeated failures of the Blok L upper stage 

during deep space missions, engineers elected 

to outfit the stage for the Mars missions with 

supplementary control and measurement 

equipment. As a result, most of the scientific 

instruments were removed from the Mars 

spacecraft. The three missions were primarily 

technological test flights rather than scientific 

missions. In this case, the Blok L interplanetary stage failed again. Just 17 seconds after 

trans-Mars injection ignition, the main 

engine (the S1.5400A1) turbopump exploded, 

destroying the payload. The problem was 

traced to leaking lubricant. As many as 

twenty-four fragments were later tracked, the 

largest of which reentered on 29 October. The 

original probe was designed to fly by Mars on 

17 June 1963. 

34) 

Mars 1
 

Nation: USSR (18)
 

Objective(s): Mars flyby
 

Spacecraft: 2MV-4 (no. 4)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 893.5 kilograms
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. T103-16)
 

Launch Date and Time: 1 November 1962 /
 

16:14:16 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) magnetometer 

Results: The second of three Soviet spacecraft 

intended for the 1962 Mars launch window, 

Mars 1 was the first spacecraft sent by any 

nation to fly past Mars. Its primary mission 

was to photograph the surface. This time the 

upper stage successfully fired the probe 

toward Mars, but immediately after engine 

cutoff, controllers discovered that pressure in 

one of the nitrogen gas bottles for the spacecraft’s attitude-control system had dropped to 

zero (due to incomplete closure of a valve). On 

6 and 7 November, controllers used a backup 

gyroscope system to keep the solar panels 

constantly exposed to the Sun during the 

coast phase, although further midcourse corrections became impossible. Controllers 

maintained contact with the vehicle until 21 

March 1963, when the probe was 106 million 

kilometers from Earth. Mars 1 eventually 

silently flew by Mars at a distance of 197,000 

kilometers on 19 June 1963. Prior to loss of 

contact, scientists were able to collect data on 

interplanetary space (on cosmic-ray intensity, 

Earth’s magnetic fields, ionized gases from 

the Sun, and meteoroid impact densities) up 

to a distance of 1.24 AU. 

36 Deep Space Chronicle 
35) 

no name / [Mars] 


Nation: USSR (19)
 

Objective(s): Mars impact
 

Spacecraft: 2MV-3 (no. 1)
 

Spacecraft Mass: unknown
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. T103-17)
 

Launch Date and Time: 4 November 1962 /
 

15:35:15 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: This was the third and last of the 

Soviet “second-generation” Mars attempts in 

1962 and also the only lander in the series. 

During the trans-Mars injection firing of the 

Blok L stage, the main engine (the S1.5400A1) 

prematurely shut down after 33 seconds due 

to a malfunction in the programmed timer for 

the stage. The problem was later traced to 

excessive vibrations of the second stage during 

liftoff. These vibrations evidently also jarred 

loose a pyrotechnic igniter from its support, 

preventing the Blok L upper stage from firing. 

The spacecraft remained stranded in orbit and 

reentered Earth’s atmosphere on 5 November. 

The spacecraft had been intended to fly by 

Mars on 21 June 1963. 

1962 37 

36) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (20)
 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing 


Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 2)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,420 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. T103-09)
 

Launch Date and Time: 4 January 1963 / 


08:49 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) radiation detector 

Results: This spacecraft was the first “secondgeneration” Soviet lunar probe (known as Ye6). These were designed to accomplish a 

survivable landing on the surface of the 

Moon. The Ye-6 probes were equipped with 

simple lander capsules (called the ALS) 

whose primary objective was to send back 

photographs from the lunar surface. Each 

egg-shaped ALS was installed on a roughly 

cylindrical-shaped main bus. Like the Mars 

and Venera deep space probes, the Ye-6 Luna 

spacecraft were also launched by the fourstage 8K78 (Molniya) booster but modified 

for lunar missions. Like many of its deep 

space predecessors, this first Luna probe 

failed to escape Earth orbit because of a 

failure in the Blok L translunar injection 

stage. There was apparently a failure in the 

1963
 

inverter in the power system of the I-100 

guidance system (which controlled both the 

Blok L and the spacecraft), which failed to 

issue a command to fire the Blok L engine. 

The spacecraft remained in Earth orbit, 

unacknowledged by the Soviets. 

37) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (21)
 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 3)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,420 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. G103-10)
 

Launch Date and Time: 3 February 1963 /
 

09:29:14 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) radiation detector 

Results: This was the second Soviet attempt to 

accomplish a soft-landing on the Moon. This 

time, the spacecraft failed to reach Earth orbit. 

Following separation of the second stage, the 

booster lost attitude control and deposited its 

third and fourth stages in the Pacific Ocean 

near Midway Island. Later investigation indicated that the I-100 guidance system provided 

incorrect information to the booster’s trajectory control system. 

1963 39 
38) 

Luna 4
 

Nation: USSR (22)
 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 4)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,422 kilograms
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. G103-11)
 

Launch Date and Time: 2 April 1963 / 


08:16:37 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) radiation detector 

Results: The third Soviet attempt to perform a 

lunar soft-landing was the first in which the 

spacecraft actually left Earth orbit. During the 

coast to the Moon, the spacecraft’s Yupiter 

astronavigation system suffered a major 

failure (probably in its thermal control 

system) and left the probe in an incorrect attitude. As a result, Luna 4 was unable to perform its planned midcourse correction. 

Although communications were maintained 

with the spacecraft, it passed by the Moon at a 

range of 8,500 kilometers on 6 April and eventually entered heliocentric orbit (after being in 

an intermediate barycentric orbit). 

39) 

Kosmos 21 / [Zond] 


Nation: USSR (23)
 

Objective(s): lunar flyby
 

Spacecraft: 3MV-1A (no. 1)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 800 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. G103-18)
 

Launch Date and Time: 11 November 1963 /
 

06:23:35 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) radiation detector 

2) charged-particle detector 

3) magnetometer 

4) piezoelectric detector 

5) atomic hydrogen detector 

6) radio telescope 

7) ultraviolet and Roentgen solar radiation experiment 

8) technology experiment 

9) plasma engines 

Results: This was the first of the Soviet 

Union’s “third-generation” deep space planetary probes of the 3MV series. Like the 

second generation, Soviet engineers projected 

four types of the 3MV: the 3MV-1 (for Venus 

impact), 3MV-2 (for Venus flyby), 3MV-3 (for 

Mars impact), and 3MV-4 (for Mars flyby). 

The primary difference over the second generation was vastly improved (and in many 

cases doubled) orientation system elements. 

While these four versions were meant to 

study Mars and Venus, the Soviets conceived 

of two additional variants of the series, similar but not identical to the 3MV-1 and 3MV4 versions. These “test variants” were 

designed to verify key technological systems 

during simpler missions on flyby missions to 

the Moon and the near planets. On this particular launch, the first to fly a “test variant,” 

the third and fourth stages separated abnormally; after the craft reached Earth orbit, 

ground control lost telemetry from the Blok L 

upper stage designed to send the vehicle past 

the Moon. The stage’s main engine turbopump probably exploded upon ignition, 

destroying the payload. With this mission, 

the Soviets began the practice of giving 

Kosmos designations to lunar and planetary 

probes that remained stranded in Earth 

orbit. 

40 Deep Space Chronicle 
40) 

Ranger 6 

Nation: U.S. (17) 

Objective(s): lunar impact 

Spacecraft: P-53 / Ranger-A 

Spacecraft Mass: 364.69 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena B (no. 8 / Atlas D 

no. 199 / Agena B no. 6008) 

Launch Date and Time: 30 January 1964 / 

15:49:09 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system (six TV cameras) 

Results: This fourth American attempt at 

lunar impact was the closest success. The 

spacecraft, the first Block III type vehicle 

with a suite of six TV cameras, was sterilized 

to avoid contaminating the lunar surface. The 

series would also serve as a test bed for 

future interplanetary spacecraft by deploying 

systems (such as solar panels) that could be 

used for more ambitious missions. The Block 

III spacecraft carried a 173-kilogram TV unit 

(replacing the impact capsule carried on the 

Block II Ranger spacecraft). The six cameras 

included two full-scan and four partial-scan 

cameras. Ranger 6 flew to the Moon successfully and impacted precisely on schedule at 

09:24:32 UT on 2 February. Unfortunately, the 

power supply for the TV camera package had 

short-circuited three days previously during 

1964
 

Atlas booster separation and left the system 

inoperable. The cameras were to have transmitted high-resolution photos of the lunar 

approach from 1,448 kilometers to 6.4 kilometers range in support of Project Apollo. 

Impact coordinates were 9°24' north latitude 

and 21°30' east longitude. 

41) 

no name / [Zond] 


Nation: USSR (24)
 

Objective(s): Venus flyby
 

Spacecraft: 3MV-1A (no. 4A)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 800 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. T15000-19)
 

Launch Date and Time: 19 February 1964 /
 

05:47:40 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) radiation detector 

2) charged-particle detector 

3) magnetometer 

4) piezoelectric detector 

5) atomic hydrogen detector 

6) radio telescope 

7) ultraviolet and Roentgen solar radiation experiment 

8) technology experiment 

9) plasma engines 

Results: This was another Soviet “thirdgeneration” deep space probe that failed to 

1964 41 
accomplish its mission of a Venus flyby. This 

spacecraft failed to reach Earth orbit due to a 

malfunction in the launch vehicle’s third 

stage. Later investigation indicated that a 

liquid oxygen leak through an unpressurized 

valve seal froze propellant in the main 

pipeline. As a result, the pipeline cracked, 

leading to an explosion in the third stage. 

42) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (25)
 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 6)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,420 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. T15000-20)
 

Launch Date and Time: 21 March 1964 /
 

08:15:35 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) radiation detector 

Results: This fourth Soviet attempt to achieve a 

soft-landing on the Moon failed to reach an 

intermediate orbit around Earth. During the 

boost phase, the launcher’s third-stage 

engine’s main liquid oxygen valve failed to 

open when the valve rod broke off. As a result, 

the third-stage engine never reached full 

thrust and eventually cut off prematurely at 

T+489 seconds. The spacecraft never reached 

Earth orbit. 

43) 

Kosmos 27 / [Zond] 


Nation: USSR (26)
 

Objective(s): Venus impact
 

Spacecraft: 3MV-1 (no. 5)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 948 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. T15000-22)
 

Launch Date and Time: 27 March 1964 /
 

03:24:42 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

Bus: 

1) radiation detector 

2) charged-particle detector 

3) magnetometer 

4) piezoelectric detector 

5) atomic hydrogen detector 

Lander: 

1) barometer 

2) thermometer 

3) radiation detector 

4) micro-organism detection experiment 

5) atmospheric composition experiment 

6) acidity measurement experiment 

7) electro-conductivity experiment 

8) luminosity experiment 

Results: The probe, designed to accomplish 

atmospheric entry into Venus, successfully 

reached Earth orbit but failed to leave for 

Venus when the Blok L upper stage malfunctioned. The upper stage evidently lost stable 

attitude due to a failure in the circuit of the 

power supply for the attitude-control system. 

The spacecraft burned up in Earth’s atmosphere the following day. Had this mission been 

successful, it would probably have been given 

a Zond designation. 

44) 

Zond 1
 

Nation: USSR (27)
 

Objective(s): Venus impact
 

Spacecraft: 3MV-1 (no. 4)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 948 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. T15000-23)
 

Launch Date and Time: 2 April 1964 / 


02:42:40 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

Bus: 

1) radiation detector 

2) charged-particle detector 

3) magnetometer 

4) piezoelectric detector 

5) atomic hydrogen detector 

Lander: 

1) barometer 

2) thermometer 

3) radiation detector 

4) micro-organism detection experiment 

5) atmospheric composition experiment 

6) acidity measurement experiment 

7) electro-conductivity experiment 

8) luminosity experiment 

Results: Although this Venus impact probe was 

successfully sent toward Venus, ground controllers discovered a series of major malfunctions in the spacecraft during its coast to the 

planet. These included depressurization of the 

42 Deep Space Chronicle 
main spacecraft bus when the glass cover of a 

solar-stellar attitude-control sensor cracked. 

Additionally, the internal radio transmitters of 

the spacecraft were automatically switched on 

at the wrong time—during depressurization, 

when the gas discharge created high-voltage 

currents that shorted out the system. Contact 

was maintained with the still-pressurized 290­

kilogram lander module until 25 May 1964, by 

which time controllers had managed to conduct 

two major course corrections (at 560,000 kilometers and 13 to 14 million kilometers from 

Earth, respectively), the first time such actions 

had been performed on a Soviet interplanetary 

spacecraft. The inert spacecraft eventually flew 

by Venus on 19 July 1964 at a range of 110,000 

kilometers. The Soviets later published some 

data on cosmic-ray flux measured by Zond 1. 

45) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (28)
 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 5)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,420 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. T15000-21)
 

Launch Date and Time: 20 April 1964 / 


08:08:28 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) radiation detector 

Results: This was the fifth Soviet attempt at a 

lunar soft-landing. The mission was aborted 

early when during the ascent to Earth orbit, 

the launch vehicle’s third-stage engine prematurely shut down. A subsequent investigation indicated that the engine cut off due to 

loss of power when a circuit between a battery in the fourth stage (which powered the 

third-stage engine) and the I-100 guidance 

unit was broken. 

46) 

Ranger 7 

Nation: U.S. (18) 

Objective(s): lunar impact 

Spacecraft: P-54 / Ranger-B 

Spacecraft Mass: 365.6 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena B (no. 9 / Atlas D 

no. 250 / Agena B no. 6009) 

Launch Date and Time: 28 July 1964 / 

16:50:07 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system (six TV cameras) 

Results: Ranger 7, the second of the Block III 

Ranger series, was the first unequivocal success in U.S. efforts to explore the Moon—after 

thirteen consecutive failures. In some ways, it 

marked a major milestone in American deep 

space exploration because the ratio in favor of 

successes increased dramatically after this 

point. After a nominal midcourse correction 

on 29 July, Ranger 7 approached the Moon 

precisely on target two days later. Just 15 

minutes prior to impact, the suite of TV cameras began sending back spectacular photos 

of the approaching surface to JPL’s Goldstone 

dish in California. The last of 4,316 images 

was transmitted only 2.3 seconds prior to 

impact at 13:25:49 UT on 31 July 1964. The 

impact point was at 10°38' south latitude and 

20°36' west longitude on the northern rim of 

the Sea of Clouds. Scientists on the ground 

were more than satisfied with Results; image 

resolution was, in many cases, one thousand 

times better than photos taken from Earth. 

Scientists concluded that an Apollo crewed 

landing would be possible in the mare regions 

of the lunar surface, given their relative 

smoothness. 

47) 

Mariner 3 

Nation: U.S. (19) 

Objective(s): Mars flyby 

Spacecraft: Mariner-64C / Mariner-C 

Spacecraft Mass: 260.8 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena D (no. 11 / Atlas 

D no. 289 / Agena D no. AD68/6931) 

Launch Date and Time: 5 November 1964 / 

19:22:05 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 13 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) cosmic dust detector 

3) cosmic-ray telescope 

4) ionization chamber 

5) magnetometer 

6) trapped radiation detector 

7) solar plasma probe 

8) occultation experiment 

1964 43 
Results: NASA approved two probes for the 

Mariner-Mars 1964 project in November 1962. 

The primary goal of the two spacecraft was to 

photograph the Martian surface using a single 

TV camera fixed on a scan platform that could 

return up to twenty-one pictures after an 

eight-month journey. During the launch of 

Mariner 3, the first of the two probes, the 

booster payload shroud failed to separate from 

the payload. Additionally, battery power mysteriously dropped to zero (at T+8 hours 43 

minutes), and the spacecraft’s solar panels 

apparently never unfurled to replenish the 

power supply. As a result, ground control lost 

contact with the spacecraft, which eventually 

entered heliocentric orbit. A later investigation indicated that the shroud’s inner fiberglass layer had separated from the shroud’s 

outer skin, thus preventing jettisoning. 

48) 

Mariner 4 

Nation: U.S. (20) 

Objective(s): Mars flyby 

Spacecraft: Mariner-64D / Mariner-D 

Spacecraft Mass: 260.8 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena D (no. 12 / Atlas 

D no. 288 / Agena D no. AD69 / 6932) 

Launch Date and Time: 28 November 1964 / 

14:22:01 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) cosmic dust detector 

3) cosmic-ray telescope 

4) ionization chamber 

5) magnetometer 

6) trapped radiation detector 

7) solar plasma probe 

8) occultation experiment 

Results: The Mariner 4 mission, the second of 

two Mars flyby attempts in 1964 by NASA, was 

one of the great early successes of the Agency, 

returning the very first photos of another 

planet from deep space. Using a new all-metal 

shroud, the spacecraft lifted off without any 

problems and was successfully boosted toward 

Mars by the Agena D upper stage. A single midcourse correction on 5 December ensured that 

the spacecraft would fly between 8,000 and 

9,660 kilometers from the Martian surface. 

Approximately 40 minutes prior to closest 

Eleventh picture of Mars from Mariner 4 (in “raw” state) 

taken through the green filter from 12,500 kilometers 

away, showing a crater 121 kilometers in diameter in the 

Atlantis region. Mariner 4 was the first spacecraft to get 

a close look at Mars. Flying as close as 9,846 kilometers, 

Mariner 4 revealed Mars to have a cratered, rust-colored 

surface, with signs on some parts of the planet that liquid 

water had once etched its way into the soil. Mariner 4 

was launched on 28 November 1964 and arrived at 

Mars on 14 July 1965. 

approach (which was at 01:00:57 UT on 15 July 

1965 at a range of 9,846 kilometers), the TV 

camera began taking the first of twenty-one 

images (plus twenty-two lines of a twentysecond) through red and green filters. About 

1.25 hours after the encounter, Mariner 4 

dipped behind the right-hand side of Mars (as 

viewed from Earth) in order to refract its radio 

signals through the Martian atmosphere. Data 

indicated that surface pressure was quite low— 

future Mars landers would have to be equipped 

with retro-rocket engines in addition to parachutes. The probe detected daytime surface 

temperatures of about –100°C. A very weak 

radiation belt, about 0.1 percent of that of 

Earth’s, was also detected. The day after the 

closest encounter, Mariner 4 began transmitting its photos back to Earth. The images 

clearly showed Mars to be an ancient Moon-like 

body with widespread cratering. Given the thin 

atmosphere, scientists believed it unlikely that 

Mars harbored any life. NASA maintained contact with the spacecraft until 1 October 1965, 

when the probe was 309 million kilometers 

from Earth. Two years later, in October 1967, 

the spacecraft was reactivated for attitude con44 Deep Space Chronicle 
trol tests in support of the Mariner 5 mission to 

Venus, which used a similar spacecraft bus. 

Final contact was lost on 21 December 1967. 

49) 

Zond 2 

Nation: USSR (29) 

Objective(s): Mars flyby 

Spacecraft: 3MV-4 (no. 2) 

Spacecraft Mass: 996 kg 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 

Launch Date and Time: 30 November 1964 / 

13:12 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) radiation detector 

2) charged-particle detector 

3) magnetometer 

4) piezoelectric detector 

5) radio telescope 

6) nuclear component of cosmic-ray 

experiment 

7) ultraviolet and Roentgen solar radiation experiment 

8) imaging system 

Results: Zond 2 was the Soviet Union’s first 

third-generation (“3MV”) spacecraft sent 

toward Mars. This particular model, the 3MV4, was designed to fly by the planet and take 

photographs. After the spacecraft successfully 

entered a trans-Mars trajectory, ground controllers discovered that the probe’s solar 

panels had not completely unfurled, which 

deprived the vehicle of full power. Later investigation indicated that a tug cord, designed to 

pull the panels free at the moment of separation from the Blok L upper stage, had broken 

off. Controllers were able to fully open the 

panel only on 15 December 1964, but by then 

the time for the first midcourse correction to 

fly by Mars had already passed. Additionally, 

between communications sessions, there had 

been a failure in the onboard programmed 

timer immediately after transinterplanetary 

injection that led to inappropriate thermal 

conditions for the spacecraft. On 18 December, 

before loss of contact, Zond 2 successfully fired 

six plasma electric rocket engines (twice) as a 

technology demonstrator for future deep space 

missions. The spacecraft was to have flown by 

Mars on 6 August 1965. It eventually entered 

heliocentric orbit. 

1964 45 

50) 

Ranger 8 

Nation: U.S. (21) 

Objective(s): lunar impact 

Spacecraft: Ranger-C 

Spacecraft Mass: 366.87 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena B (no. 13 / Atlas 

D no. 196 / Agena B no. 6006) 

Launch Date and Time: 17 February 1965 / 

17:05:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: Imaging system (six TV 

cameras) 

Results: As successful as its predecessor, 

Ranger 8 returned 7,137 high-resolution photographs of the lunar surface prior to its 

scheduled impact at 09:57:37 UT on 20 

February. Unlike Ranger 7, however, Ranger 8 

turned on its cameras about 8 minutes earlier 

to return pictures with resolution comparable 

to Earth-based telescopes (for calibration and 

comparison purposes). Controllers attempted 

to align the cameras along the main velocity 

vector (to reduce imagine smear) but abandoned this maneuver to allow greater area 

coverage. There had also been a mysterious 

loss of telemetry during a midcourse correction on 18 February that gave rise for concern, although the mission was completed 

successfully. Ranger 8 impacted at 2°43' 

north latitude and 24°38' east longitude, 

1965
 

just 24 kilometers from its intended target 

point in the equatorial region of the Sea of 

Tranquillity—an area that Apollo mission 

planners were particularly interested in 

studying. 

51) 

“Atlas-Centaur 5” 

Nation: U.S. (22) 

Objective(s): highly elliptical orbit 

Spacecraft: SD-1 

Spacecraft Mass: 951 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-5 / Atlas C 

no. 156D / Centaur C) 

Launch Date and Time: 2 March 1965 / 

13:25 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36A 

Scientific Instruments: none 

Results: This mission was designed to rehearse a 

complete Centaur upper-stage burn in support 

of the Surveyor lunar lander program. On a 

nominal mission, the Centaur would boost its 

payload on a direct-ascent trajectory to the 

Moon. On this test flight, SD-1, a nonfunctional 

dynamic model, would be boosted on a simulated lunar transfer trajectory to a hypothetical 

Moon with an orbit of 167 x 926,625 kilometers. 

During the actual launch, less than 1 second 

after liftoff, a faulty valve caused both Atlas 

main engines to shut down. As a result, the 

booster fell back onto the pad and exploded. 

1965 47 
52) 

Kosmos 60 / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (30)
 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 9)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,470 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. R103-25)
 

Launch Date and Time: 10 April 1965 / N/A
 

Launch Site: NIIP-5
 

Scientific Instruments:
 

1) imaging system 

2) radiation detector 

Results: Yet another Soviet attempt to soft-land 

a Ye-6 probe on the lunar surface ended in 

failure when the Blok L upper stage failed to 

fire for the translunar injection burn. Instead, 

the spacecraft remained stranded in Earth 

orbit. A later investigation indicated that 

there had been a short circuit in an inverter 

within the I-100 guidance system of the spacecraft (which also controlled the Blok L stage) 

preventing engine ignition. The spacecraft’s 

orbit decayed five days later. 

53) 

Ranger 9 

Nation: U.S. (23) 

Objective(s): lunar impact 

Spacecraft: Ranger-D 

Spacecraft Mass: 366.87 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena B (no. 14 / Atlas 

D no. 204 / Agena B no. 6007) 

Launch Date and Time: 21 March 1965 / 

21:37:02 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system (six TV cameras) 

Results: Ranger 9 was the final Ranger mission 

of the Block III series and closed out the program as a whole. Since both Ranger 7 and 

Ranger 8 had provided sufficient photographs 

of the mare regions (potential landing sites for 

the early Apollo missions), Ranger 9 was targeted to the more geologically interesting 

Alphonsus crater in the lunar highlands, at 

that time a possible site for recent volcanic 

activity. Following a midcourse correction on 

23 March, the spacecraft headed directly to its 

impact point. Only 20 minutes prior to impact, 

Ranger 9 began taking the first of 5,814 pictures from an altitude of 2,100 kilometers. 

Unlike its predecessors, the cameras this time 

were aimed directly in the direction of travel 

and provided some spectacular shots as the 

spacecraft approached the lunar surface. 

These pictures were converted for live viewing 

on commercial TV. Best resolution was up to 

25 centimeters just prior to impact. The spacecraft crashed into the Moon at 14:08:20 UT on 

24 March at 12.83° south latitude and 357.63° 

east longitude, about 6.5 kilometers from its 

scheduled target. 

54) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (31)
 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 8)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,470 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. R103-26)
 

Launch Date and Time: 10 April 1965 / N/A
 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1
 

Scientific Instruments:
 

1) imaging system 

2) radiation detector 

Results: This was the seventh consecutive 

failure to accomplish a lunar soft-landing by 

the Soviets. On this mission, engineers 

redesigned the problematic I-100 guidance 

system that had caused most of the previous 

failures. Previously, the I-100 unit had 

controlled both the Blok L upper stage and 

the spacecraft itself. On this mission (and 

subsequent Lunas), the fourth stage and 

the Ye-6 spacecraft had separate systems. 

Unfortunately, this probe never reached Earth 

orbit. During the launch, depressurization of a 

nitrogen pipe for the liquid oxygen tank on the 

third stage had prevented third-stage engine 

ignition. The spacecraft broke up over the 

Pacific without reaching orbit. 

55) 

Luna 5
 

Nation: USSR (32)
 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 10)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,476 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. U103-30)
 

Launch Date and Time: 9 May 1965 / 


07:49:37 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

48 Deep Space Chronicle 
Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) radiation detector 

Results: In May 1965, Luna 5 became the first 

Soviet probe to head for the Moon in two 

years. Following the midcourse correction on 

10 May, the spacecraft began spinning around 

its main axis due to a problem in a flotation 

gyroscope in the I-100 guidance system unit. A 

subsequent attempt to fire the main engine 

failed because of ground control error, and the 

engine never fired. After loss of control as a 

result of the gyroscope problem, Luna 5 

crashed. Landing coordinates were 31° south 

latitude and 8° west longitude. It was the 

second Soviet spacecraft to land on the Moon 

(following Luna 2 in 1959). 

56) 

Luna 6 

Nation: USSR (33) 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing 

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 7) 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,442 kg 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. U103-31) 

Launch Date and Time: 8 June 1965 / 07:40 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) radiation detector 

Results: On this ninth Soviet attempt at a 

lunar soft-landing, the mission proceeded as 

planned until the major midcourse correction 

late on 9 June. Although the main retro-rocket 

engine (the S5.5A) ignited on time, it failed to 

cut off and continued to fire until propellant 

supply was exhausted. An investigation later 

indicated that the problem had been due to 

human error; a command had been mistakenly sent to the timer that ordered the main 

engine to shut down. Although the spacecraft 

was sent on a completely wrong trajectory, 

ground controllers put the spacecraft through 

a series of steps to practice an actual landing, 

all of which were satisfactorily accomplished. 

Luna 6 passed by the Moon late on 11 June at 

a range of 161,000 kilometers and eventually 

entered heliocentric orbit. Contact was maintained to a distance of 600,000 kilometers 

from Earth. 

57) 

Zond 3 

Nation: USSR (34) 

Objective(s): lunar flyby 

Spacecraft: 3MV-4 (no. 3) 

Spacecraft Mass: 950 kg 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 

Launch Date and Time: 18 July 1965 / N/A 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) ultraviolet spectrograph 

3) ultraviolet and infrared 

spectrophotometer 

4) meteoroid detectors 

5) radiation sensors (cosmic rays, solar 

wind) 

6) magnetometer 

7) ion thrusters 

8) radio telescope 

Results: This “third-generation” deep space 

probe had originally been slated for a Mars 

flyby in late 1964 but could not be prepared 

on time. Instead, Soviet designers diverted 

the mission for a simple lunar flyby in 1965 

to test its basic systems and photograph the 

far side of the Moon. After a successful 

translunar injection burn, Zond 3 approached 

the Moon after only a 33-hour flight. Its 

imaging mission began on 20 July at a range 

of 11,570 kilometers from the near side of the 

Moon. The camera system used a similar 

system to that of Luna 3, with onboard exposure, development, fixing, and drying prior to 

scanning for transmission to Earth. In total, 

the spacecraft took twenty-five visual and 

three ultraviolet images during its flyby. The 

closest approach was to 9,220 kilometers. 

These pictures were successfully transmitted 

back to Earth on 29 July, nine days after Zond 

3’s lunar encounter, when it was 2.2 million 

kilometers from Earth. Further communications sessions occurred on 23 October 

(involving photo transmissions) when Zond 3 

was 31.5 million kilometers from Earth. The 

last contact was sometime in early March 

1966, when the spacecraft was 153.5 million 

kilometers away. During the mission, it had 

photographed the unseen 30 percent of the 

far side of the Moon. Zond 3 also demonstrated successful course correction using 

1965 49 
both solar and stellar orientation, a first for a 

Soviet spacecraft. 

58) 

Surveyor Model 1 

Nation: U.S. (24) 

Objective(s): highly elliptical orbit 

Spacecraft: SD-2 

Spacecraft Mass: 950 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-6 / Atlas D 

no. 151D / Centaur D) 

Launch Date and Time: 11 August 1965 / 

14:31:04 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36B 

Scientific Instruments: none 

Results: This was the second attempt to launch 

a dummy Surveyor lunar lander spacecraft 

into a barycentric orbit toward a simulated 

Moon. Unlike the results of the previous 

attempt (in March 1965), all systems worked 

without fault; the Surveyor dynamic model 

was inserted on a simulated lunar trajectory 

so precise that it would have landed on the 

Moon without a trajectory correction on an 

actual mission. The spacecraft reentered 

Earth’s atmosphere after thirty-one days. 

59) 

Luna 7 


Nation: USSR (35)
 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 11)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,506 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. U103-27)
 

Launch Date and Time: 4 October 1965 /
 

07:56:40 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) radiation detector 

Results: Unlike its predecessors, Luna 7 successfully carried out its midcourse correction 

on 5 October on the way to the Moon, in anticipation of a soft-landing two days later. 

Unfortunately, immediately prior to planned 

retro-fire during the approach to the lunar 

surface, the spacecraft suddenly lost attitude 

control and failed to regain it. Automatic programmed systems then prevented the main 

engine from firing. As controllers observed 

helplessly, Luna 7 plummeted to the lunar surface at a very high speed, crashing at 22:08:24 

UT on 7 October west of the Kepler crater, relatively near the actual intended target. 

Impact coordinates were 9° north latitude and 

49° west longitude. Later investigation indicated that the optical sensor of the astronavigation system had been set at the wrong angle 

and had lost sight of Earth during the critical 

attitude-control maneuver. It was the tenth 

consecutive failure in the Ye-6 program. 

60) 

Venera 2 

Nation: USSR (36) 

Objective(s): Venus flyby 

Spacecraft: 3MV-4 (no. 4) 

Spacecraft Mass: 963 kg 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M 

Launch Date and Time: 12 November 1965 / N/A 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 31 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) three-component magnetometer 

2) imaging system 

3) solar x-radiation detector 

4) cosmic-ray gas-discharge counters 

5) piezoelectric detectors 

6) ion traps 

7) photon Geiger counter 

8) cosmic radio emission receivers 

Results: Although the 3MV-3 and 3MV-4 type 

spacecraft were originally intended for Mars 

exploration, the Soviets re-equipped three of 

the series, left over from the 1964 Mars 

launch windows, for Venus exploration in 

1965. This particular vehicle was scheduled 

to fly past the sunlit side of Venus at no more 

than a 40,000-kilometer range and take photographs. During the outbound flight, communications with the spacecraft were poor. 

Immediately before closest approach in late 

February 1966, ground control commanded to 

switch on all the onboard scientific instrumentation. The closest approach to the planet 

was at 02:52 UT on 27 February 1966 at 

about a 24,000-kilometer range. After its 

flyby, when the spacecraft was supposed to 

relay back the collected information, ground 

control was unable to regain contact. 

Controllers finally gave up all attempts at 

communication on 4 March. Venera 2 eventually entered heliocentric orbit. Later investigation indicated that improper functioning of 

50 Deep Space Chronicle 
40 thermal radiator elements caused a sharp 

increase in gas temperatures in the spacecraft. As a result, elements of the receiving 

and decoding units failed, the solar panels 

overheated, and contact was lost. Ironically, 

the scientific instruments may have collected 

valuable data, but none of it was ever transmitted back to Earth. 

61) 

Venera 3 

Nation: USSR (37) 

Objective(s): Venus impact 

Spacecraft: 3MV-3 (no. 1) 

Spacecraft Mass: 958 kg 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M 

Launch Date and Time: 16 November 1965 / N/A 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 31 

Scientific Instruments: 

Bus: 

1) radiation detector 

(rest unknown) 

Results: This was the second of three 3MV 

spacecraft the Soviets attempted to launch 

toward Venus in late 1965. Venera 3 successfully left Earth orbit and released a small 0.9­

meter-diameter, 337-kilogram (some sources 

say 310-kilogram) landing capsule to explore 

the Venusian atmosphere and transmit data 

on pressure, temperature, and composition of 

the Venusian atmosphere back to Earth 

during the descent by parachute. During the 

outbound trajectory, ground controllers successfully performed a midcourse correction on 

26 December 1965 and completed 93 communications sessions. However, contact was lost 

on 16 February 1966, shortly before the 

Venusian encounter, although the spacecraft 

automatically released its sterilized lander 

probe, which landed inertly on the Venusian 

surface at 06:56 UT on 1 March 1966. It was 

the first time a humanmade object had made 

physical contact with another planetary body 

besides the Moon. Later investigation confirmed that Venera 3 suffered many of the 

same failures as Venera 2, such as overheating 

of internal components and the solar panels. 

62) 

Kosmos 96 / [Venera] 

Nation: USSR (38) 

Objective(s): Venus flyby 

Spacecraft: 3MV-4 (no. 6) 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 950 kg 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M 

Launch Date and Time: 23 November 1965 / N/A 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 31 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) three-component magnetometer 

2) imaging system 

3) solar x-radiation detector 

4) cosmic-ray gas-discharge counters 

5) piezoelectric detectors 

6) ion traps 

7) photon Geiger counter 

8) cosmic radio emission receivers 

Results: This was the third and last spacecraft 

prepared for a Venus encounter by the 

Soviets in 1965. All three spacecraft had originally been intended for Mars exploration in 

1964 and 1965. However, during coast to 

orbit, a combustion chamber in the booster’s 

third-stage engine exploded due to a crack in 

the fuel pipeline. Although the payload 

reached Earth orbit, the Blok L upper stage 

was tumbling and was unable to fire for 

trans-Venus trajectory injection. The probe 

remained stranded in Earth orbit, and the 

Soviets named it Kosmos 96 to disguise its 

true mission. The probe’s orbit decayed on 9 

December 1965. 

63) 

Luna 8
 

Nation: USSR (39)
 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6 (no. 12)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,552 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: OKB-1
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78 (no. U103-28)
 

Launch Date and Time: 3 December 1965 /
 

10:46:14 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 31 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) radiation detector 

Results: This, the tenth Soviet attempt to 

achieve a lunar soft-landing, nearly succeeded. After a successful midcourse correction on 4 December, the spacecraft headed 

toward the Moon without any apparent problems. Just prior to the planned retro-fire 

burn, a command was sent to inflate cushioning airbags around the ALS lander probe. 

1965 51 
Unfortunately, a plastic mounting bracket 

apparently pierced one of the two bags. The 

resulting expulsion of air put the spacecraft 

into a spin of 12 degrees per second. The 

vehicle momentarily regained attitude, long 

enough for a 9-second retro-engine firing, but 

then lost it again. Without a full retro-fire 

burn to reduce approach velocity sufficient 

for a survivable landing, Luna 8 plummeted 

to the lunar surface and crashed at 21:51:30 

UT on 6 December just west of the Kepler 

crater. Impact coordinates were 9°8' north 

latitude and 63°18' west longitude. 

64) 

Pioneer 6 

Nation: U.S. (25) 

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit 

Spacecraft: Pioneer-A 

Spacecraft Mass: 62.14 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA ARC 

Launch Vehicle: Thor-Delta E (no. 35 / Thor no. 

460/DSV-3E) 

Launch Date and Time: 16 December 1965 / 

07:31:21 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) single-axis fluxgate magnetometer 

2) Faraday-cup plasma probe 

3) plasma analyzer 

4) cosmic-ray telescope 

5) cosmic-ray-anisotropy detector 

6) radio wave propagation experiment 

7) celestial mechanics experiment 

Results: Pioneer 6 was the first of four NASA 

spacecraft designed to study interplanetary 

phenomena in space. The spacecraft successfully provided simultaneous scientific measurements at widely dispersed locations in 

heliocentric orbit. It returned the first data 

on the tenuous solar atmosphere and later 

recorded the passage of Comet Kohoutek’s 

tail in 1974. Along with Pioneers 7, 8, and 9, 

the spacecraft formed a ring of solar weather 

stations spaced along Earth’s orbit. 

Measurements by the four Pioneers were 

used to predict solar storms for approximately 1,000 primary users, including the 

Federal Aviation Administration; commercial airlines; power companies; communication companies; military organizations; and 

entities involved in surveying, navigation, 

and electronic prospecting. By December 

1990, Pioneer 6 had circled the Sun twentynine times (traveling 24.8 billion kilometers) 

and had been operational for twenty years— 

a record for a deep space probe. Its original 

slated lifetime had been only six months. On 

15 December 1996, the spacecraft’s primary 

transmitter failed, but during a track on 

11 July 1996, ground controllers switched on 

the backup transmitter. Of the spacecraft’s 

six scientific instruments, two (the plasma 

analyzer and the cosmic-ray detector) still 

continue to function. NASA maintains contact with the spacecraft once or twice each 

year. For example, 1 hour’s worth of scientific 

data was collected on 29 July and 15 

December 1995 (although the primary transmitter failed soon after that), and again on 6 

October 1997, more than thirty years after 

launch. The probe’s solar arrays continue to 

deteriorate, although the transmitters can 

be turned on at perihelion when the solar 

flux is strong enough to provide sufficient 

power. On 8 December 2000, to commemorate its thirty-fifth anniversary of operation, 

ground controllers established successful 

contact with the spacecraft for about 2 hours. 

52 Deep Space Chronicle 
65) 

Luna 9 

Nation: USSR (40) 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing 

Spacecraft: Ye-6M (no. 202) 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,538 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. U103-32) 

Launch Date and Time: 31 January 1966 / 

11:41:37 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 31 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) SBM-10 radiation detector 

Results: With this mission, the Soviets accomplished another spectacular first in the space 

race, the first survivable landing of a humanmade object on another celestial body. Luna 9 

was the twelfth attempt at a soft-landing by 

the Soviets; it was also the first deep space 

probe built by the Lavochkin design bureau, 

which ultimately would design and build 

almost all Soviet (and Russian) lunar and 

interplanetary spacecraft. All operations 

prior to landing occurred without fault, and 

the 58-centimeter spheroid ALS capsule 

landed on the Moon at 18:45:30 UT on 3 

February 1966 west of the Reiner and Marius 

craters in the Ocean of Storms (at 7°8' north 

latitude and 64°22' west longitude). 

Approximately 5 minutes after touchdown, 

1966
 

Luna 9 began transmitting data to Earth, but 

it was 7 hours (after the Sun climbed to 7° 

elevation) before the probe began sending the 

first of nine images (including five 

panoramas) of the surface of the Moon. These 

were the first images sent from the surface of 

another planetary body. The radiation 

detector, the only scientific instrument on 

board, measured a dosage of 30 millirads per 

day. Perhaps the most important discovery of 

the mission was determining that a foreign 

object would not simply sink into the lunar 

dust, that is, that the ground could support a 

heavy lander. Last contact with the spacecraft was at 22:55 UT on 6 February 1966. 

66) 

Kosmos 111 / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (41)
 

Objective(s): lunar orbit
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6S (no. 204)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,580 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. N103-41)
 

Launch Date and Time: 1 March 1966 / 


11:03:49 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 31 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) magnetometer 

2) gamma-ray spectrometer 

3) five gas-discharge counters 

1966 53 
4) two ion traps and a charged-particle 

trap 

5) piezoelectric micrometer detector 

6) infrared detector 

7) low-energy x-ray photon counters 

Results: In early 1966, the Soviets began 

hastily putting together an interim lunar 

orbiter program, the Ye-6S, partly to upstage 

the American Lunar Orbiter project and 

partly to commemorate the 23rd Congress of 

the Communist Party held in March 1966. 

Engineers quickly designed a set of two rudimentary probes using the old Ye-6 (lander) 

buses for these missions. The first of them was 

prepared in less than a month but failed to 

leave Earth orbit. During Earth orbit operations, the Blok L upper stage lost roll control 

and failed to fire to send the probe towards 

the Moon. The official Soviet media named the 

stranded satellite Kosmos 111; it reentered 

Earth’s atmosphere two days after launch. 

67) 

Luna 10 

Nation: USSR (42) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: Ye-6S (no. 206) 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,582 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. N103-42) 

Launch Date and Time: 31 March 1966 / 

10:47 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 31 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) magnetometer 

2) gamma-ray spectrometer 

3) five gas-discharge counters 

4) two ion traps and a charged-particle 

trap 

5) piezoelectric micrometer detector 

6) infrared detector 

7) low-energy x-ray photon counters 

Results: After a midcourse correction on 1 

April, Luna 10, the second of two hastily prepared Soviet Ye-6S probes (that is, the 

backup), successfully entered lunar orbit two 

days later at 18:44 UT, thus becoming the 

first humanmade object to go into orbit 

around another planetary body. A 245-kilogram instrument compartment separated 

from the main bus, which was in a 350 x 

1,000-kilometer orbit inclined at 71.9° to the 

lunar equator. The spacecraft carried a set of 

solid-state oscillators that had been programmed to reproduce the notes of the 

Internationale so that it could be broadcast 

live to the 23rd Communist Party Congress. 

During a rehearsal on the night of 3 April, 

the playback went well, but the following 

morning, controllers discovered a missing 

note and played the previous night’s tape to 

the assembled gathering at the Congress– 

claiming it was a live broadcast from the 

Moon. Luna 10 conducted extensive research 

in lunar orbit, gathering important data on 

the weakness of the Moon’s magnetic field, its 

radiation belts, and the nature of lunar rocks 

(which were found to be comparable to terrestrial basalt rocks), cosmic radiation, and 

micrometeoroid density. Perhaps its most 

important finding was the first evidence of 

mass concentrations (called “mascons”)— 

areas of high density below the mare basins 

that distort lunar orbital trajectories. Their 

discovery has usually been credited to the 

American Lunar Orbiter series. Last contact 

was on 30 May 1966. 

68) 

Surveyor Model 2 

Nation: U.S. (26) 

Objective(s): highly elliptical orbit 

Spacecraft: SD-3 

Spacecraft Mass: 784 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-8 / Atlas 

no. 184D / Centaur D) 

Launch Date and Time: 8 April 1966 / 

01:00:02 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36B 

Scientific Instruments: none 

Results: This was a test to launch a dummy 

Surveyor lunar lander spacecraft into a 

barycentric orbit toward a simulated Moon. 

Unlike the two previous Surveyor mass model 

tests, this flight was supposed to demonstrate 

a restart capability for the Centaur upper 

stage. The Centaur-Surveyor combination 

successfully achieved parking orbit around 

Earth, but at the desired time, the Centaur 

engines fired for only a few seconds. A thrust 

imbalance left the payload tumbling. The 

problem was later traced to a hydrogen peroxide leak in the ullage motors of the Centaur 

stage. With no hope of reaching its ultimate 

54 Deep Space Chronicle 
orbit, the spacecraft reentered Earth’s atmosphere on 5 May 1966. 

69) 

Surveyor 1 

Nation: U.S. (27) 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing 

Spacecraft: Surveyor-A 

Spacecraft Mass: 995.2 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-10 / Atlas 

D no. 290 / Centaur D) 

Launch Date and Time: 30 May 1966 / 

14:41:01 UT 

Launch Site: ETR, launch complex 36A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

Results: NASA initially (c. 1963) conceived of 

the Surveyor program as a landing and 

orbiting robotic lunar project, but it scaled 

down plans to a more specific program of ten 

lunar soft-landers (seven were eventually 

launched) geared toward basic engineering 

goals rather than scientific exploration. The 

primary “scientific instrument” was an 

imaging system. Unlike the Soviet Luna landers, Surveyor was a true soft-lander, comprising a 3-meter-tall vehicle based on a 

27-kilogram, thin-walled aluminum triangular structure with one of three legs at each 

corner and a large solid-propellant retrorocket engine (that comprised over 60 percent 

of the spacecraft’s overall mass) in the center. 

The spacecraft was equipped with a Doppler 

velocity-sensing system that fed information 

into the spacecraft computer to implement a 

controllable descent to the surface. Each of 

the three landing pads also carried aircrafttype shock absorbers and strain gauges to 

provide data on landing characteristics, 

important for future Apollo missions. 

Surveyor 1, the first in the series, was an 

unprecedented success. NASA accomplished 

the first true soft-landing on the Moon on its 

very first try when the probe landed in the 

southwest region of the Ocean of Storms at 

06:17:36 UT on 2 June 1966, just 63.6 

hours after launch from Cape Canaveral. 

Touchdown coordinates were 2°27' south latitude and 43°13' west longitude, just 14 kilometers from the planned target. At landing, 

the spacecraft weighed 294.3 kilograms. The 

initial panoramic views from the lunar surface indicated that Surveyor 1 was resting in 

a 100-kilometer-diameter crater that contained boulders of more than 1 meter in 

length scattered all around. The photos 

showed crestlines of low mountains in the 

distant horizon. The lander transmitted 

11,350 images over two separate communications sessions by 6 July. Although the primary mission was completed by 13 July, 

NASA maintained contact until 7 January 

1967. Without doubt, Surveyor 1 was one of 

the great successes of NASA’s early lunar and 

interplanetary program. 

Image of Surveyor 1’s shadow against the lunar surface in the late lunar afternoon, 

with the horizon at the upper right. Surveyor 1 was the first U.S. mission to make a 

successful soft-landing on the Moon. In addition to transmitting over 11,000 pictures, 

it sent information on the bearing strength of the lunar soil, the radar reflectivity, and 

temperature. 

1966 55 
70) 

Explorer 33 

Nation: U.S. (28) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: IMP-D 

Spacecraft Mass: 93.4 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA GSFC 

Launch Vehicle: Thor-Delta E-1 (no. 39 / Thor 

no. 467 / DSV-3E) 

Launch Date and Time: 1 July 1966 / 

16:02:25 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments : 

1) fluxgate magnetometers
 

2) thermal ion probe
 

3) ion chamber
 

4) tubes plus p-on-n junction
 

5) Faraday-cup probe
 

Results: Explorer 33 was designed to become 

the first U.S. spacecraft to enter lunar orbit 

(planned parameters were 1,300 x 6,440 kilometers at 175° inclination), but the Thor 

Delta E-1 second stage accelerated too rapidly for compensation by the probe’s retrorocket to achieve lunar orbit. Instead, the 

spacecraft (56.7 kg by this time) went into an 

eccentric Earth orbit of 15,897 x 435,330 

kilometers. The main solid-propellant retrorocket engine later stabilized the orbit to a 

less eccentric 30,550 x 449,174-kilometer 

orbit at 28.9° inclination. In its new orbit, the 

probe returned key data on Earth’s magnetic 

tail, the interplanetary magnetic field, and 

radiation. 

71) 

Lunar Orbiter 1 

Nation: U.S. (29) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: LO-A 

Spacecraft Mass: 385.6 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA LaRC 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena D (no. 17 / Atlas 

D no. 5801 / Agena D no. AD121 / 6630) 

Launch Date and Time: 10 August 1966 / 

19:26:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 13 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system
 

2) micrometeoroid detectors
 

3) radiation dosimeters
 

Results: The Lunar Orbiter program originated 

as a response to the need to obtain 1-meterresolution photographs of potential Apollo 

landing sites. NASA planned launches of a 

series of three-axis stabilized spacecraft with 

four solar panels and a main engine (derived 

from an Apollo attitude control thruster) for 

lunar orbit insertion. The primary instrument 

on board was a 68-kilogram Eastman-Kodak 

imaging system (using wide- and narrowangle lenses) that could develop exposed film, 

scan the images, and send them back to Earth. 

The narrow-angle pictures provided resolution 

of up to 60 to 80 meters, while the wide-angle 

photos showed resolutions up to 0.5 kilometers. Lunar Orbiter 1 entered a 191 x 1,854­

kilometer orbit around the Moon on 24 

August, becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to 

do so. The spacecraft’s primary mission was to 

photograph nine potential Apollo landing 

sites, seven secondary areas, and the Surveyor 

1 landing site. During its mission, the probe 

took 207 frames of the lunar surface covering 

an area of 5.18 million square kilometers. The 

high-resolution photos were blurred from 

smearing, but the medium-resolution images 

were the best lunar surface images returned 

to date. One of the images returned, taken on 

23 August, was the first picture of Earth from 

the Moon. Lunar Orbiter 1 returned its last 

picture on 30 August and was commanded to 

crash on to the lunar surface on 29 October to 

prevent its transmissions from interfering 

with future Lunar Orbiters. Impact coordinates were 6°42' north latitude and 162° east 

longitude (at 13:30 UT). 

72) 

Pioneer 7 

Nation: U.S. (30) 

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit 

Spacecraft: Pioneer-B 

Spacecraft Mass: 62.75 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA ARC 

Launch Vehicle: Thor-Delta E-1 (no. 40 / Thor 

no. 462 / DSV-3E) 

Launch Date and Time: 17 August 1966 / 

15:20:17 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) single-axis fluxgate magnetometer 

2) Faraday-cup plasma probe 

3) plasma analyzer 

4) cosmic-ray telescope 

5) cosmic-ray-anisotropy detector 

56 Deep Space Chronicle 
6) radio wave propagation experiment 

7) celestial mechanics experiment 

Results: Identical to Pioneer 6, Pioneer 7 

was put into heliocentric orbit at 0.814 x 

0.985 AU to study the solar magnetic field, 

the solar wind, and cosmic rays at widely 

separated points in solar orbit. On 7 

September 1968, the spacecraft was correctly aligned with the Sun and Earth to 

begin studying Earth’s magnetic tail. In 

1977, eleven years after its launch, Pioneer 7 

registered the magnetic tail 19.3 million 

kilometers out, three times further into 

space than recorded previously. On 20 

March 1986, the spacecraft flew within 

12.3 million kilometers of Halley’s Comet 

and monitored the interaction between the 

cometary hydrogen tail and the solar wind. 

As with Pioneer 6 and Pioneer 8, NASA 

continues to maintain intermittent contact 

with Pioneer 7, more than thirty years 

after its mission began. On 31 March 1995, 

for example, the plasma analyzer was 

turned on during 2 hours of contact with 

the ground. 

73) 

Luna 11 

Nation: USSR (43) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: Ye-6LF (no. 101) 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,640 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. N103-43) 

Launch Date and Time: 24 August 1966 / 

08:03 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) gamma-ray detector 

3) magnetometer 

4) radiation detectors 

5) infrared radiometer 

6) meteoroid detectors 

7) R-1 gear transmission experiment 

Results: This subset of the “second-generation” 

Luna spacecraft, the Ye-6LF, was designed to 

take the first photographs of the surface of 

the Moon from lunar orbit. A secondary objective was to obtain data on mass concentrations (“mascons”) on the Moon first detected 

by Luna 10. Using the basic Ye-6 bus, a suite 

of scientific instruments (plus an imaging 

system similar to the one used on Zond 3) 

replaced the small lander capsule used on the 

soft-landing flights. The resolution of the 

photos was reportedly 15 to 20 meters. A 

technological experiment included testing the 

efficiency of gear transmission in vacuum as 

a test for a future lunar rover. Luna 11, 

launched only two weeks after the U.S. Lunar 

Orbiter, successfully entered lunar orbit at 

21:49 UT on 27 August. Parameters were 160 

x 1,193 kilometers. During the mission, the 

TV camera failed to return usable images 

because the spacecraft lost proper orientation 

to face the lunar surface when a foreign 

object was lodged in the nozzle of one of the 

attitude-control thrusters. The other instruments functioned without fault before the 

mission formally ended on 1 October 1966 

after the power supply had been depleted. 

74) 

Surveyor 2 

Nation: U.S. (31) 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing 

Spacecraft: Surveyor-B 

Spacecraft Mass: 995.2 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-7 / Atlas D 

no. 194 / Centaur D) 

Launch Date and Time: 20 September 1966 / 

12:32:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

Results: Surveyor 2, similar in design to its 

predecessor, was aimed for a lunar softlanding in Sinus Medii. During the coast to 

the Moon, at 05:00 UT on 21 September, one 

of three thrusters failed to ignite for a 9.8­

second midcourse correction and thus put the 

spacecraft into an unwanted spin. Despite as 

many as thirty-nine repeated attempts to fire 

the recalcitrant thruster, the engine failed to 

ignite, and Surveyor 2 headed to the Moon 

without proper control. Just 30 seconds after 

retro-fire ignition at 09:34 UT on 22 

September, communications fell out, and the 

lander crashed on to the surface of the Moon 

at 5°30' north latitude and 12° west longitude, just southeast of Copernicus crater. 

1966 57 
75) 

Luna 12 

Nation: USSR (44) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: Ye-6LF (no. 102) 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,620 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. N103-44) 

Launch Date and Time: 22 October 1966 / 08:42 

UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 31 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) gamma-ray detector 

3) magnetometer 

4) radiation detectors 

5) infrared radiometer 

6) meteoroid detectors 

7) R-1 gear transmission experiment 

Results: Luna 12 was launched to complete the 

mission that Luna 11 had failed to accomplish—take high-resolution photos of the 

Moon’s surface from lunar orbit. Luna 12 successfully reached the Moon on 25 October 1966 

and entered a 133 x 1,200-kilometer orbit. The 

Soviet press released the first photos taken of 

the surface on 29 October—pictures that 

showed the Sea of Rains and the Aristarchus 

crater. Resolution was as high as 15 to 20 

meters. Film was developed, fixed, dried automatically, and scanned for transmission to 

Earth. No further photos were ever released. 

After completing its main imaging mission, 

Luna 12 was put into a spin-stabilized roll to 

carry out its scientific mission, which was fulfilled quite successfully. Contact was finally 

lost on 19 January 1967 after 302 communications sessions. 

76) 

Lunar Orbiter 2 

Nation: U.S. (32) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: LO-B 

Spacecraft Mass: 385.6 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA LaRC 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena D (no. 18 / Atlas 

D no. 5802 / Agena D no. AD122 / 6631) 

Launch Date and Time: 6 November 1966 / 

23:21:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 13 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) micrometeoroid detectors 

3) radiation dosimeters 

Results: Lunar Orbiter 2’s mission was to photograph thirteen primary and seventeen secondary landings sites for the Apollo program 

in the northern region of the Moon’s near side 

equatorial area. On 10 November 1966, the 

spacecraft entered a 196 x 1,871-kilometer 

orbit around the Moon. By 6 December, when 

the probe transmitted back its last photograph, 211 pictures had been taken of both 

the near side and large areas of the far side. 

These photos covered nearly four million 

square kilometers of the lunar surface. The 

high-gain transmitter failed on the same day, 

but did not significantly affect the coverage 

afforded by the photos. Lunar Orbiter 2 

returned perhaps the most memorable photo 

of any in the series, a spectacular shot 

looking across the Copernicus crater from an 

altitude of only 45 kilometers, which vividly 

emphasized the three-dimensional nature of 

the lunar surface. On 8 December, after the 

main photographic mission was over, Lunar 

Orbiter 2 fired its main engine to change its 

orbital plane in order to provide tracking 

data of the Moon’s gravitational field over a 

wider swath. Finally, on 11 October 1967, 

when attitude control gas was almost 

depleted, a retro-burn deliberately crashed 

the spacecraft onto the lunar surface at 4° 

south latitude and 98° east longitude on the 

far side to prevent communications interference on future missions. 

77) 

Luna 13 

Nation: USSR (45) 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing 

Spacecraft: Ye-6M (no. 205) 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,620 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. N103-45) 

Launch Date and Time: 21 December 1966 / 

10:17 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) TV cameras 

2) infrared radiometer 

3) penetrometer 

58 Deep Space Chronicle 
4) radiation densitometer 

5) radiation detector 

Results: Luna 13 became the second Soviet 

spacecraft to successfully soft-land on the 

surface of the Moon. The probe landed in the 

Ocean of Storms at 18:01 UT on 24 December 

1966, between the Krafft and Seleucus 

craters at 18°52' north latitude and 62°3' 

west longitude. Unlike its predecessor, 

the heavier Luna 13 lander (113 kilograms) 

carried a suite of scientific instruments in 

addition to the usual imaging system. A 

three-axis accelerometer within the pressurized frame of the lander recorded the landing 

forces during impact to determine the soil 

structure down to a depth of 20 to 30 centimeters. A pair of spring-loaded booms was 

also deployed. Both were equipped with titanium-tipped rods that were driven into the 

ground with a powerful force by small explosive charges to measure soil density (found at 

roughly 0.8 grams per cubic centimeter). Four 

radiometers recorded infrared radiation from 

the surface indicating a noon temperature of 

117 ± 3°C while a radiation detector indicated that radiation levels would be less than 

hazardous for humans. The lander returned a 

total of five panoramas of the lunar surface, 

showing a more smooth terrain than seen by 

Luna 9. One of the two cameras (intended to 

return stereo images) failed, but this did not 

diminish the quality of the photographs. 

After a fully successful mission, contact was 

lost at 06:13 UT on 28 December when the 

onboard batteries were exhausted. 

1966 59 

78) 

Lunar Orbiter 3 

Nation: U.S. (33) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: LO-C 

Spacecraft Mass: 385.6 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA LaRC 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena D (no. 20 / Atlas 

D no. 5803 / Agena D no. AD128 / 6632) 

Launch Date and Time: 5 February 1967 / 

01:17:01 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 13 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) micrometeoroid detectors 

3) radiation dosimeters 

Results: Lunar Orbiter 3 was the final Lunar 

Orbiter mission to study potential Apollo 

landing sites; further missions would be dedicated to scientific and global surveys. The 

spacecraft arrived in lunar orbit on 7 

February 1967. Initial orbital parameters 

were 200 x 1,850 kilometers at 21° inclination. During its eight-month mission, the 

spacecraft took 211 frames of pictures, 

although only 182 were actually returned to 

Earth because of a problem on 24 February 

with the motor that rewound the film. 

Despite the minor glitch, Lunar Orbiter fulfilled its original mission objectives, 

returning images of 15.5 million square kilometers of the near side and 650,000 square 

1967
 

kilometers of the far side. On 30 August 1967, 

ground controllers commanded the vehicle to 

circularize its orbit to 160 kilometers in order 

to simulate an Apollo trajectory. Later, on 9 

October 1967, the probe was intentionally 

crashed onto the lunar surface at 14°36' 

north latitude and 91°42' west longitude. The 

photographs from the first three Lunar 

Orbiters allowed NASA scientists to pick 

eight preliminary landing sites for Apollo by 

early April 1967, including site 2 in the Sea of 

Tranquillity, where Apollo 11 would land, and 

site 5 in the Ocean of Storms, where Apollo 12 

(and also Surveyor 3) would disembark. 

79) 

Surveyor 3 

Nation: U.S. (34) 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing 

Spacecraft: Surveyor-C 

Spacecraft Mass: 997.9 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-12 / Atlas 

D no. 292 / Centaur D) 

Launch Date and Time: 17 April 1967 / 

07:05:01 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) surface sampler 

Results: Surveyor 3 was the third engineering 

flight of the series; for the first time, it car1967 61 
Charles Conrad, Jr., Apollo 12 Commander, examines the unpiloted Surveyor 3 spacecraft during the second 

extravehicular activity (EVA-2). The Lunar Module (LM) Intrepid is in the right background. This picture was taken 

by astronaut Alan L. Bean, Lunar Module pilot. The Intrepid landed on the Moon’s Ocean of Storms only 600 feet 

from Surveyor 3. The television camera and several other components were taken from Surveyor 3 and brought 

back to Earth for scientific analysis. Surveyor 3 soft-landed on the Moon on 19 April 1967. 
ried a soil-sampling instrument that could 

reach up to 1.5 meters from the lander and 

dig up to 0.5 meters deep. Unlike the previous Surveyors, Surveyor 3 began its mission from parking orbit around Earth with 

a burn from the Centaur upper stage, now 

capable of multiple firings. Although the 

landing radar cut out prematurely, basic 

inertial control ensured that Surveyor 3 

landed on the lunar surface with minimal 

vertical velocity at 00:04:17 UT on 20 April 

1967 in the southeastern region of Oceanus 

Procellarum, at 2°56' north latitude and 

23°20' west longitude. A fairly strong sideways motion made the lander hop twice 

before coming to a standstill. Less than an 

hour after landing, the spacecraft began 

transmitting the first of 6,315 TV pictures 

of the surrounding areas. The most exciting 

experiment of the mission was the deployment of the remote scooper arm, which, via 

commands from Earth, dug four trenches 

and performed four bearing tests and thirteen impact tests. Based on these experiments, scientists concluded that lunar soil 

had a consistency similar to wet sand, with 

a bearing strength of 0.7 kilograms per 

square centimeter—solid enough for an 

Apollo Lunar Module. Last contact was 

made on 4 May 1967, two days after the 

lunar night began. More than three years 

later, Apollo 12 astronauts Charles Conrad, 

Jr., and Alan L. Bean landed the Intrepid 

LM near the inactive Surveyor 3 lander on 

18 November 1969. The astronauts recovered parts from Surveyor 3, including the 

soil scoop and camera system, to allow scientists to evaluate the effects of nearly two 

and one-half years of exposure on the 

Moon’s surface. 

80) 

Lunar Orbiter 4 

Nation: U.S. (35) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: LO-D 

Spacecraft Mass: 385.6 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA LaRC 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena D (no. 22 / Atlas 

D no. 5804 / Agena D no. AD131 / 6633) 

Launch Date and Time: 4 May 1967 / 

22:25:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 13 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) micrometeoroid detectors 

3) radiation dosimeters 

Results: Lunar Orbiter 4 was the first in the 

series dedicated to scientific surveys of the 

Moon. After a burn at 21:54 UT on 8 May 

1967, the spacecraft entered a 2,705 x 6,034­

kilometer orbit inclined at 85.48 degrees, 

becoming the first vehicle to enter polar orbit 

around the Moon. Controllers successfully 

overcame a problem with the Thermal 

Camera Door, and subsequently, during its 

two-month mission, the orbiter took pictures 

of 99 percent of the near side and 75 percent 

of the far side of the Moon in a total of 193 

frames. The images had a resolution of up to 

60 meters. In early June, controllers lowered 

the spacecraft’s orbit to match that of Lunar 

Orbiter 5 so that scientists could collect gravitational data in support of the latter mission. 

Before losing contact on 17 July, Lunar 

Orbiter 4 took the first photos of the lunar 

south pole and discovered a 240-kilometerlong crustal fault on the far side. Since contact 

was lost before controlled impact, the spacecraft naturally crashed onto the Moon on 6 

October 1967 due to gravitational anomalies. 

81) 

Kosmos 159 / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (46)
 

Objective(s): highly elliptical orbit around
 

Earth
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6LS (no. 111)
 

Spacecraft Mass: unknown
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. Ya716-56)
 

Launch Date and Time: 16 May 1967 / 


21:43:57 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: This spacecraft was a one-off highapogee Earth satellite developed to acquire 

data on trajectory measurement techniques on 

future lunar orbital missions. By perfecting 

such techniques, engineers could accurately 

measure trajectories of future lunar orbiters 

affected by anomalies in the Moon’s gravitational field. Mission designers had planned to 

send the probe into a highly elliptical orbit 

with an apogee of 250,000 kilometers, but the 

1967 63 
Blok L upper stage evidently cut off too early. 

Instead, the spacecraft, named Kosmos 159, 

entered a lower orbit of 260 x 60,710 kilometers at 51.7° inclination. Despite the incorrect 

orbit, controllers no doubt used the spacecraft 

for its original mission. No data is available on 

when the ground lost contact with the spacecraft. Kosmos 159 reentered Earth’s atmosphere on 11 November 1967. 

82) 

Venera 4 

Nation: USSR (47) 

Objective(s): Venus impact 

Spacecraft: 1V (no. 310) 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,106 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M 

Launch Date and Time: 12 June 1967 / 

02:39:45 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

Lander: 

1) radio altimeter 

2) aneroid barometer 

3) eleven gas-analyzer cartridges 

4) two resistance thermometers 

5) ionization densitometer 

Bus: 

1) magnetometer 

2) cosmic-ray counters 

3) charged-particle traps 

4) ultraviolet photometer 

Results: Venera 4 was the first Venus probe 

built by the Lavochkin design bureau, 

although Lavochkin engineers retained the 

basic design layout of the earlier Korolev 

probes. The spacecraft consisted of a main bus 

about 3.5 meters high and a 383-kilogram 

lander probe designed to transmit data as it 

descended through the Venusian atmosphere. 

This capsule was designed to endure loads as 

high as 350 g and land on both land and liquid. 

For atmospheric entry, it was equipped with a 

thick ablative heatshield. After a midcourse 

correction on 29 July 1967, Venera 4 

approached Venus on 18 October and released 

the lander at 04:34 UT, immediately prior to 

entry of the bus. Parachuting into the planet’s 

atmosphere, the lander turned on its scientific 

instruments 5 minutes later when the rate of 

descent lowered to 10 meters per second (at 55 

kilometers altitude). The probe continued to 

transmit for 93 minutes as it slowly fell 

through the atmosphere. Initially, Soviet scientists believed that the probe transmitted 

until contact with the surface. In reality, transmissions ceased at an altitude of 27 kilometers 

when the high atmospheric pressure and temperatures crushed the probe. The data implied 

that surface temperatures and pressure were 

500°C and 75 atmospheres respectively. 

Venera 4’s gas analyzers also found that the 

planet’s atmosphere was composed of 90 to 95 

percent carbon dioxide with no nitrogen. The 

spacecraft bus measured the planet’s weak 

magnetic field and found no ring of radiation 

belts. It detected a very weak atmosphere of 

atomic hydrogen about 9,900 kilometers above 

the planet. Venera 4 was the first spacecraft to 

transmit data from a planet’s atmosphere. 

83) 

Mariner 5 

Nation: U.S. (36) 

Objective(s): Venus flyby 

Spacecraft: Mariner-67E / Mariner-E 

Spacecraft Mass: 244.9 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena D (no. 23 / Atlas 

D no. 5401 / Agena D no. AD157 / 6933) 

Launch Date and Time: 14 June 1967 / 

06:01:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 12 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) ultraviolet photometer 

2) S-band occultation experiment 

3) dual-frequency occultation 

experiment 

4) solar plasma probe 

5) magnetometer 

6) trapped-radiation detector 

7) celestial mechanics experiment 

Results: In December 1965, NASA approved a 

project to modify the Mariner 4 backup spacecraft to conduct a closer flyby of Venus than 

the only other NASA probe to fly past Venus, 

Mariner 2. Unlike Mariner 4, however, 

Mariner 5 did not carry an imaging instrument. Initially, NASA had planned to send 

Mariner 5 on a flyby at a miss distance of 

8,165 kilometers, but the Agency altered its 

plan in favor of a more modest 75,000-kilometer flyby in order to prevent the nonsterilized vehicle from crashing into the planet. 

64 Deep Space Chronicle 
After a midcourse correction on 19 June, 

Mariner 5 began transmitting data about 

Venus on 19 October during its encounter. 

Closest approach was at 17:34:56 UT at a 

range of 4,094 kilometers. Mariner 5 found no 

radiation belts trapped by Venus’ magnetic 

field. The ultraviolet photometer detected a 

hydrogen corona (as did the Soviet Venera 4), 

but no oxygen emission. Mariner 5’s instruments indicated that the planet’s surface temperature and pressure were 527°C and 75 to 

100 atmospheres respectively—which countered the Soviet claim that its Venera 4 spacecraft had managed to transmit from the 

planet’s surface. On 4 December 1967, NASA 

lost contact with the spacecraft, although controllers briefly regained contact on 14 October 

1968. The spacecraft did not transmit any further telemetry, and NASA eventually stopped 

attempts to communicate with the vehicle, 

now in heliocentric orbit. 

84) 

Kosmos 167 / [Venera] 

Nation: USSR (48) 

Objective(s): Venus impact 

Spacecraft: 1V (no. 311) 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,100 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M 

Launch Date and Time: 17 June 1967 / 

02:36:38 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

Lander: 

1) radio altimeter 

2) aneroid barometer 

3) eleven gas-analyzer cartridges 

4) two resistance thermometers 

5) ionization densitometer 

Bus: 

1) magnetometer 

2) cosmic-ray counters 

3) charged-particle traps 

4) ultraviolet photometer 

Results: This identical twin craft to Venera 4 

failed to leave Earth orbit when its Blok L 

transinterplanetary stage failed to fire, apparently because the engine’s turbopump had not 

been cooled prior to ignition. The spacecraft 

remained stranded in Earth orbit and reentered Earth’s atmosphere on 25 June 1967. 

85) 

Surveyor 4 

Nation: U.S. (37) 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing 

Spacecraft: Surveyor-D 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,037.4 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas Centaur (AC-11 / Atlas 

D no. 291 / Centaur D) 

Launch Date and Time: 14 July 1967 / 

11:53:29 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system
 

2) surface sampler
 

3) soil magnet
 

Results: Like Surveyor 3, Surveyor 4 was 

equipped with a surface claw (with a magnet in 

the claw) to detect and measure ferrous elements in the lunar surface. The mission was 

completely successful until all communications 

were abruptly lost 2 seconds prior to retrorocket cutoff at 02:03 UT on 17 July 1967, with 

only 2.5 minutes left to landing on the Moon. 

The landing target was Sinus Medii (Central 

Bay) at 0.4° north latitude and 1.33° west longitude. NASA concluded that the lander might 

have exploded when contact was lost. 

86) 

Explorer 35 / International Monitoring Platform 6 

Nation: U.S. (38) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: IMP-E 

Spacecraft Mass: 104.3 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA GSFC 

Launch Vehicle: Thor-Delta E-1 (no. 50 / Thor 

no. 488 / DSV-3E) 

Launch Date and Time: 19 July 1967 / 

14:19:02 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) magnetometers 

2) thermal ion detector 

3) ion chambers and Geiger tubes 

4) Geiger tubes and p-on-n junction 

5) micrometeoroid detector 

6) Faraday cup 

Results: Explorer 35 was designed to study 

interplanetary space phenomena—particularly the solar wind, the interplanetary magnetic field, dust distribution near the Moon, 

the lunar gravitational field, the weak lunar 

1967 65 
This image from Lunar Orbiter 5 shows crater Copernicus, 93 kilometers wide and located within the Mare 

Imbrium Basin at the northern near side of the Moon (10° north latitude and 20° west longitude). The picture shows 

the crater floor, floor mounds, rim, and rayed ejecta. Rays from the ejecta are superposed on all other surrounding 

terrains, which places the crater in its namesake age group: the Copernican system, established as the youngest 

assemblage of rocks on the Moon. 

ionosphere, and the radiation environment. 

The spacecraft left Earth on a direct ascent 

trajectory and entered lunar orbit on 21 July 

1967. Initial orbital parameters were 800 x 

7,692 kilometers at 147° inclination. The 

spacecraft, similar to Explorer 33, also in 

lunar orbit, found that the Moon has no magnetosphere, that solar wind particles impact 

directly against the surface, and that the 

Moon creates a “cavity” in the solar wind 

stream. After six years of successful operation, the satellite was turned off on 24 June 

1973. Explorer 35 was launched by the 

fiftieth Thor-Delta booster, of which only 

three had failed, giving the booster a success 

rating of 94 percent. 

87) 

Lunar Orbiter 5 

Nation: U.S. (39) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: LO-E 

Spacecraft Mass: 385.6 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA LaRC 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena D (no. 24 / Atlas 

D no. 5805 / Agena D no. AD159 / 6634) 

Launch Date and Time: 1 August 1967 / 

22:33:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 13 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) micrometeoroid detectors 

3) radiation dosimeters 

Results: Lunar Orbiter 5 was the last in a 

series of highly successful missions to map the 

Moon for potential landing sites and conduct 

general observational surveys. Two days after 

a midcourse correction on 3 August, it entered 

lunar orbit at 16:48 UT. Initial orbital parameters were 196 x 6,040 kilometers at 85.0° 

inclination. The spacecraft photographed 

thirty-six different areas on the near side and 

mapped most of the far side via a set of 212 

frames during its first month in orbit. These 

included five potential Apollo landing sites, 

as well as possible targets for Surveyor missions. Controllers also extensively used the 

spacecraft to map the Moon’s gravitational 

field in order to predict orbital perturbations 

66 Deep Space Chronicle 
on future lunar orbital missions. The probe 

also obtained spectacular high-quality photos 

of Earth showing Africa and the Middle East. 

Lunar Orbiter 5 was commanded to land on 

the lunar surface and did so at 0° north latitude and 70° west longitude on 31 January 

1968. In total, the five Lunar Orbiters photographed 99 percent of the lunar surface. 

88) 

Surveyor 5 

Nation: U.S. (40) 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing 

Spacecraft: Surveyor-E 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,006 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-13 / Atlas 

3C no. 5901C / Centaur D-1A) 

Launch Date and Time: 8 September 1967 / 

07:57:01 UT 

Launch Site: ETR, launch complex 36B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) alpha-scattering instrument 

3) surface sampler 

4) footpad magnet 

Results: Brilliantly overcoming a near-fatal 

helium leak in a pressure regulator, engineers 

from JPL and Hughes Aircraft Company (the 

prime contractor for the spacecraft) managed 

to safely deposit Surveyor 5 on the surface of 

the Moon in the south-eastern region of Mare 

Tranquillitatis at 1°25' north latitude and 

23°11' east longitude at 00:46:42 UT on 11 

September 1967. The malfunction put the 

lander about 29 kilometers away from its 

target in an angular incline within the slope of 

the rimless crater. Surveyor 5 was, however, 

the most successful of the series. The lander 

returned 18,006 photos before lunar night 

descended on 24 September. Controllers successfully commanded the vehicle to take further photographs during the second lunar day 

between 15 and 24 October 1967 and the 

fourth lunar day in December. In total, 20,018 

pictures were transmitted. In another experiment, on 13 September, controllers fired the 

main engine for 0.55 seconds to examine the 

effects of disturbing the lunar surface. NASA 

announced that no new craters were created, 

nor was there any significant dust cloud. The 

alpha-scattering instrument had earlier been 

released onto the surface and found the soil to 

be composed of more than half oxygen with 

amounts of silicon and aluminum. Contact 

was lost with the lander on 16 December 1967. 

89) 

no name / [Zond] 


Nation: USSR (49)
 

Objective(s): circumlunar flight
 

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 4L)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

229-01 / Blok D no. 12L)
 

Launch Date and Time: 27 September 1967 /
 

22:11:54 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: This spacecraft, a 7K-L1 type, was the 

first of a series of spacecraft that the Soviets 

tried to send on circumlunar missions as part 

of a larger project to send cosmonauts around 

the Moon. The program, which was officially 

approved in October 1965, was set off by two 

technological flights in Earth orbit in March 

and April 1967. The 7K-L1 spacecraft was a 

stripped-down version of the larger 7K-OK 

Soyuz spacecraft intended for Earth-orbital 

operations. During this launch, one of the six 

first-stage engines failed to fire because of 

blockage of a propellant line, and the launch 

vehicle was destroyed at T+97.4 seconds. 

90) 

Surveyor 6 

Nation: U.S. (41) 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing 

Spacecraft: Surveyor-F 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,008.3 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-14 / 

Atlas 3C no. 5902C / Centaur D-1A) 

Launch Date and Time: 7 November 1967 / 

07:39:01 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) alpha-scattering instrument 

3) surface sampler 

4) footcomplex magnet 

Results: Surveyor 6 landed safely on the Moon 

at 01:01:04 UT on 10 November 1967 in the 

Sinus Medii (Central Bay) at 2.45° south latitude and 43.21° west longitude. The spacecraft 

1967 67 
returned 29,952 images of the lunar surface
 

during less than two weeks of operation before
 

the onset of lunar night on 24 November.
 

Although controllers regained contact briefly
 

on 14 December 1967, primary landing operations had ceased by this time. On 17 November
 

1967, before termination of operations,
 

Surveyor 6 was commanded to fire its three
 

main liquid-propellant thrusters for 2.5 seconds. As a result, the lander became the first
 

spacecraft to be launched from the lunar surface. Surveyor 6 lifted up to about 3 meters
 

before landing 2.5 meters west of its original
 

landing point. Cameras then studied the original landing footprints in order to determine
 

the soil’s mechanical properties and, now that
 

the source point had been displaced, also
 

accomplish some stereo imaging.
 

91)
 

no name / [Zond] 


Nation: USSR (50)
 

Objective(s): circumlunar flight
 

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 5L)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K
 

no. 230-01 / Blok D no. 13L)
 

Launch Date and Time: 22 November 1967 /
 

19:07:59 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: This was the second Soviet attempt at 

a robotic circumlunar mission. On this launch, 

one of the four second-stage engines of the 

Proton rocket failed to ignite at T+125.5 seconds due to a break in the engine nozzle. The 

wayward booster was then destroyed on command from the ground at T+129.9 seconds. 

92) 

Pioneer 8 

Nation: U.S. (42) 

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit 

Spacecraft: Pioneer-C 

Spacecraft Mass: 65.36 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA ARC
 

Launch Vehicle: Thor-Delta E-1 (no. 55 / Thor
 

no. 489 / DSV-3E)
 

Launch Date and Time: 13 December 1967 /
 

14:08 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) single-axis fluxgate magnetometer 

2) plasma analyzer 

3) cosmic-ray telescope 

4) radio-wave propagation experiment 

5) cosmic-ray gradient detector 

6) electric field detector 

7) cosmic dust detector 

8) celestial mechanics experiment 

Results: Pioneer 8, like its two predecessors, 

was sent to heliocentric orbit to study interplanetary space, particularly to carry collected 

information on magnetic fields, plasma, and 

cosmic rays. Although the spacecraft carried a 

different complement of scientific instruments 

from those of Pioneers 6 and 7, its findings 

were correlated with those of the other two 

probes. The spacecraft was launched into a 

path ahead of Earth to provide the vehicle 

with added velocity in solar orbit in order to 

move out beyond Earth’s orbit at 1.0 x 1.1. AU. 

It arrived at Earth’s magnetospheric bounds 

at 19:00 UT on 15 December 1967. Later, on 18 

January 1968, Pioneer 8, the Sun, and Earth 

were perfectly aligned to allow investigation of 

Earth’s magnetic tail in detail, first performed 

by Pioneer 7 in 1968. Controllers have intermittently maintained contact with the spacecraft for nearly thirty years, although only one 

instrument, the electric field detector, 

remained operational past 1982. During 

tracking on 23 July 1995, NASA was unable to 

switch on Pioneer 8’s transmitter, probably 

because the spacecraft was too far away from 

the Sun to charge the solar panels. On 22 

August 1996, contact was reacquired via a 

backup transmitter. The electric field detector 

remains functional as of June 2001, nearly 

thirty-six years after launch. 

68 Deep Space Chronicle 
93) 

Surveyor 7 

Nation: U.S. (43) 

Objective(s): lunar soft-landing 

Spacecraft: Surveyor-G 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,040.1 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-15 / Atlas 

3C no. 5903C / Centaur D-1A) 

Launch Date and Time: 7 January 1968 / 

06:30:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) alpha-scattering instrument 

3) surface sampler 

4) footpad magnet 

Results: Since Surveyors 1, 3, 5, and 6 successfully fulfilled requirements in support of 

Apollo, NASA opted to use the last remaining 

Surveyor for a purely scientific mission outside of exploring a potential landing site for 

the early Apollo flights. After an uneventful 

coast to the Moon, Surveyor 7 successfully set 

down at 01:05:36 UT on 10 January 1968 on 

the ejecta blanket emanating from the bright 

Tycho crater in the south of the near side. 

Landing coordinates were 40.86° south latitude and 11.47° west longitude, about 29 kilometers north of Tycho’s rim and 2.4 

kilometers from the craft’s target. Initial 

photos from the surface showed surprisingly 

1968
 

few craters, much like the mare sites, 

although the general area was rougher. About 

21 hours after landing, ground controllers 

fired a pyrotechnic charge to drop the alphascattering instrument on the lunar surface. 

When the instrument failed to move, controllers used the robot arm to force it down. 

The scoop on the arm was used numerous 

times for picking up soil, digging trenches, 

and conducting at least sixteen surfacebearing tests. Apart from taking 21,274 photographs (many of them in stereo), Surveyor 

7 also served as a target for Earth-based 

lasers (of 1-watt power) to accurately 

measure the distance between Earth and the 

Moon. Although it was successfully reactivated after the lunar night, Surveyor 7 

finally shut down on 21 February 1968. In 

total, the five successful Surveyors returned 

more than 87,000 photos of the lunar surface 

and demonstrated the feasibility of softlanding a spacecraft on the lunar surface. 

94) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (51)
 

Objective(s): lunar orbit
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6LS (no. 112)
 

Spacecraft Mass: unknown
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. Ya716-57)
 

1968 69 
Launch Date and Time: 7 February 1968 / 

10:43:54 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: During launch to Earth orbit, the 

third-stage engine cut off prematurely because 

of an excessive propellant consumption rate 

via the gas generator. The spacecraft never 

reached Earth orbit. The goal of the mission 

was evidently to test communications systems 

in support of the N1-L3 human lunar landing 

program. 

95) 

Zond 4
 

Nation: USSR (52)
 

Objective(s): deep space mission
 

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 6L)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

232-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 2 March 1968 / 


18:29:23 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: The Soviets decided to send this next 

7K-L1 spacecraft, not on a circumlunar flight, 

but to about 330,000 kilometers into deep 

space in the opposite direction of the Moon in 

order to test the main spacecraft systems 

without the perturbing effects of the Moon 

(much like the Surveyor model test flights in 

1965 and 1966). The spacecraft was successfully boosted on its trajectory and reached an 

apogee of 354,000 kilometers. During the 

flight, although a key attitude-control sensor 

worked only intermittently, controllers managed to aim the spacecraft for a guided reentry 

back into Earth’s atmosphere. Unfortunately, 

the same sensor failed at reentry, preventing 

the vehicle from maintaining stable orientation. Instead, Zond 4 began to carry out a direct 

ballistic reentry for landing in the Indian 

Ocean. An emergency destruct system, however, destroyed the returning capsule over the 

Gulf of Guinea to prevent foreign observers 

from recovering the wayward spacecraft. 

96) 

Luna 14 

Nation: USSR (53) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: Ye-6LS (no. 113)
 

Spacecraft Mass: unknown
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M (no. Ya716-58)
 

Launch Date and Time: 7 April 1968 / 


10:09:32 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: Luna 14 successfully entered lunar 

orbit at 19:25 UT on 10 April 1968. Initial 

orbital parameters were 160 x 870 kilometers 

at 42° inclination. The primary goal of the 

flight was to test communications systems in 

support of the N1-L3 piloted lunar landing 

project. Ground tracking of the spacecraft’s 

orbit also allowed controllers to accurately 

map lunar gravitational anomalies in order to 

predict trajectories of future lunar missions 

such as those of the LOK and LK lunar 

landing vehicles. Luna 14 also carried scientific instruments to study cosmic rays and 

charged particles from the Sun, although few 

details have been revealed. 

97) 

no name / [Zond] 


Nation: USSR (54)
 

Objective(s): circumlunar flight
 

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 7L)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton K no.
 

232-01 / Blok D no. 15L)
 

Launch Date and Time: 22 April 1968 / 


23:01:27 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: During this third attempt at a circumlunar mission, the Proton rocket’s secondstage engine spuriously shut down at 

T+194.64 seconds due to an erroneous signal 

from the payload. The emergency rescue 

system was activated, and the 7K-L1 capsule 

was later recovered about 520 kilometers from 

the launch pad. 

98) 

Zond 5 

Nation: USSR (55) 

Objective(s): circumlunar flight 

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 9L) 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg 

70 Deep Space Chronicle 
Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D upper stage 

(Proton-K no. 234-01 / Blok D no. 17) 

Launch Date and Time: 14 September 1968 / 

21:42:11 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) biological payload 

2) radiation detectors 

3) imaging system 

Results: Zond 5 was the first Soviet spacecraft 

to complete a successful circumlunar mission—after three failures. During the flight to 

the Moon, the main stellar attitude control 

sensor failed due to contamination of the 

sensor’s optical surface. Controllers used less 

accurate backup sensors to perform two midcourse corrections. The spacecraft successfully 

circled around the far side of the Moon at a 

range of 1,950 kilometers on 18 September, 

taking high-resolution photos of the Moon and 

Earth. On the return leg of the flight, a second 

attitude-control sensor failed and the spacecraft’s three-axis stabilization platform 

switched off the guided reentry system. As a 

result, Zond 5 performed a direct ballistic 

reentry (instead of a guided one) and splashed 

down safely in the backup target area in the 

Indian Ocean at 32°38' south latitude and 

65°33' east longitude, about 105 kilometers 

from the nearest Soviet tracking ship. Landing 

time was 16:08 UT on 21 September. Zond 5 

carried an extensive biological payload 

including two steppe tortoises to measure the 

effects of circumlunar flight. The tortoises survived the trip and were returned to Moscow. 

99) 

Pioneer 9 

Nation: U.S. (44) 

Objective(s): solar orbit 

Spacecraft: Pioneer-D 

Spacecraft Mass: 65.36 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA ARC 

Launch Vehicle: Thor-Delta E-1 (no. 60 / Thor 

no. 479 / DSV-3E) 

Launch Date and Time: 8 November 1968 / 

09:46:29 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) triaxial fluxgate magnetometer 

2) plasma analyzer 

3) cosmic-ray-anisotropy detector 

4) cosmic-ray gradient detector 

5) radio wave propagation experiment 

6) electric field detector 

7) cosmic dust detector 

8) celestial mechanics experiment 

Results: Pioneer 9 was the fourth in a series of 

probes designed to study interplanetary 

space from heliocentric orbit. In its 297.5-day 

orbit at 0.75 x 1.0 AU, the cylindrical, spinstabilized spacecraft obtained valuable data 

on the properties of the solar wind, cosmic 

rays, and interplanetary magnetic fields. The 

Delta launch vehicle also carried the Test and 

Training Satellite (TETR-B), which was put 

into Earth orbit to test ground-based communications systems in support of the Apollo 

program. NASA maintained contact with 

Pioneer 9 until 19 May 1983. Subsequent 

attempts to use Search for Extraterrestrial 

Intelligence (SETI) equipment to establish 

contact with the probe on 3 March 1987 

failed, and the Agency officially declared the 

spacecraft inactive. 

100)
 

Zond 6
 

Nation: USSR (56)
 

Objective(s): circumlunar flight
 

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 12L)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

235-01 / Blok D no. 19)
 

Launch Date and Time: 10 November 1968 /
 

19:11:31 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) biological payload 

2) radiation detectors 

3) imaging system 

4) photo-emulsion camera 

5) micrometeoroid detector 

Results: Zond 6 was the second spacecraft that 

the Soviets sent around the Moon. Soon after 

translunar injection, ground controllers discovered that the vehicle’s high-gain antenna 

had failed to deploy. Given that the main attitude-control sensor was installed on the 

antenna boom, controllers had to make plans 

to use a backup sensor for further attitude 

control. The spacecraft circled the far side of 

the Moon at a range of 2,420 kilometers, once 

again taking black-and-white photographs of 

1968 71 
the Moon. During the return flight, temperatures in a hydrogen peroxide tank for the 

attitude-control thrusters dropped far below 

acceptable levels. Engineers attempted to 

heat the tank by direct sunlight, but as they 

later discovered, such a procedure affected 

the weak pressurization seal of the main 

hatch and led to slow decompression of the 

main capsule. Despite the failures, Zond 6 

successfully carried a fully automated guided 

reentry into the primary landing zone in 

Kazakhstan. A radio altimeter, not designed 

for work in depressurized spacecraft, issued 

an incorrect command to jettison the main 

parachutes. As a result, the spacecraft plummeted to the ground and was destroyed. 

Although the main biological payload was 

lost, rescuers salvaged film from the cameras. 

72 Deep Space Chronicle 
101) 

Venera 5 

Nation: USSR (57) 

Objective(s): Venus landing 

Spacecraft: 2V (no. 330) 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,130 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M 

Launch Date and Time: 5 January 1969 / 

06:28:08 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

Lander: 

1) radio altimeter 

2) aneroid barometer 

3) eleven gas analyzer cartridges 

4) two resistance thermometers 

5) ionization densitometer 

6) photoelectric sensors 

Bus: 

1) magnetometer 

2) cosmic-ray counters 

3) charged-particle traps 

4) ultraviolet photometer 

Results: Veneras 5 and 6 were two identical 

spacecraft designed to penetrate Venus’s 

atmosphere and transmit a variety of scientific to Earth during descent. Both spacecraft were targeted to reach Venus only a 

day apart, thus allowing some cross-calibration of data. Although both spacecraft used 

1969
 

a similar bus-lander system as the 1V-type 

spacecraft (flown as Venera 4), the two new 

landers (each weighing 405 kilograms) were 

designed to endure g-loads as high as 450 

(as opposed to 300 for their predecessors). 

The landers also used smaller parachutes 

for descent, allowing the probes to descend 

faster through the atmosphere to increase 

chances of operating close to the surface. 

After performing seventy-three communications sessions with ground control and completing one midcourse correction on 14 

March 1966, Venera 5 approached the dark 

side of Venus on 16 May 1969 and detached 

its lander, whose speed reduced from 

1,100.17 meters per second to 210 meters 

per second after it hit the Venusian atmosphere at 06:01 UT. One minute later, controllers reestablished contact with the 

lander and began receiving transmitted 

data on pressure, temperature, and composition of the Venusian atmosphere for 53 

minutes. Contact was lost at an altitude of 

about 24 to 26 kilometers when the pressure exceeded 26.1 atmospheres. Impact 

coordinates were 3° south latitude and 18° 

longitude. Information extrapolated from 

Venera 5’s data suggested that ground temperature and pressure at the Venusian surface were 140 atmospheres and 530°C, 

respectively. 

1969 73 
102) 

Venera 6 

Nation: USSR (58) 

Objective(s): Venus landing 

Spacecraft: 2V (no. 331) 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,130 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M 

Launch Date and Time: 10 January 1969 / 

05:51:52 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 1 

Scientific Instruments: 

Lander: 

1) radio altimeter 

2) aneroid barometer 

3) eleven gas-analyzer cartridges 

4) two resistance thermometers 

5) ionization densitometer 

6) photoelectric sensors 

Bus: 

1) magnetometer 

2) cosmic-ray counters 

3) charged-particle traps 

4) ultraviolet photometer 

Results: Identical to Venera 5, Venera 6 

reached Venus after performing sixty-three 

communications sessions with Earth and one 

midcourse correction at a range of 15.7 million kilometers from Earth on 16 March 

1969. Its 405-kilogram lander separated from 

the main bus 25,000 kilometers from the 

planet and entered the Venusian atmosphere 

at a velocity of 11.17 kilometers per second at 

06:05 UT on 17 May 1969. The Venera 6 capsule transmitted data for 51 minutes before 

contact was lost, probably at an altitude of 

about 10 to 12 kilometers. Pressure was similar at the time to that measured by Venera 5 

at a much higher altitude, indicating that 

Venera 6 may have come down over a mountain or high plateau. Landing coordinates 

were -5° latitude and 23° longitude. Results 

from the Venera 5 and 6 missions, published 

by the Soviets in March 1970, seemed to confirm and sharpen earlier findings from 

Venera 4. The two new spacecraft found that 

Venus’s atmosphere was composed of roughly 

93 to 97 percent carbon dioxide (the 

remainder was split among nitrogen, oxygen, 

and inert gases). Data from Venera 6 suggested that the ground pressure was about 60 

atmospheres and ground temperature was 

about 400°C. This compared with Venera 4’s
 

readings, which indicated pressure at 75
 

atmospheres and temperature at 500°C.
 

103)
 

no name / [Zond] 


Nation: USSR (59)
 

Objective(s): circumlunar flight
 

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 13L)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K
 

no. 237-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 20 January 1969 /
 

04:14:36 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: This was the sixth attempt at a 

robotic circumlunar flight in support of the 

L1 piloted lunar program and the first after 

the resounding success of the American 

Apollo 8 in December 1968. The Proton 

launch vehicle lifted off on time, and firststage operation was nominal. However, 

during second-stage firing, one of the four 

engines of the stage mysteriously switched 

off at T+313.66 seconds. The other engines 

continued firing, but subsequently, the primary third-stage engine also switched off 

during its firing sequence at T+500.03 seconds due to a breakdown in the main pipeline 

feeding fuel to the fuel gas generator. After a 

near-ballistic flight, the L1 payload landed 

near the border between the USSR and 

Mongolia. 

104) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (60)
 

Objective(s): lunar roving operations
 

Spacecraft: Ye-8 (no. 201)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,700 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton no.
 

239-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 19 February 1969 /
 

06:48:15 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) 	 imaging system (two low-resolution 

TVs and four high-resolution 

photometers) 

74 Deep Space Chronicle 
2) x-ray spectrometer 

3) penetrometer 

4) laser reflector 

5) radiation detectors 

6) x-ray telescope 

7) odometer/speedometer 

Results: The Ye-8 represented the “third generation” of Soviet robotic lunar probes. The 

basic Ye-8 comprised a lander stage (the 

“KT”) topped off by an eight-wheeled, remotecontrolled lunar rover (the “8YeL”) for 

exploring the Moon’s surface. Essentially a 

pressurized magnesium alloy container on 

wheels, the 8YeL was designed to operate 

over a period of three lunar days (roughly 

three Earth months) and collect scientific 

data from various points on the lunar surface. This first attempt to put the rover on the 

Moon was a complete failure. At T+51 seconds, the payload stack disintegrated and the 

booster eventually exploded. Later investigation indicated that maximum dynamic pressure during the ascent trajectory tore a new 

payload shroud off at its weakest tension 

points. Despite an intensive effort, searchers 

were unable to find the polonium-20 radioactive isotope heat source in the rover. 

Unconfirmed rumors still abound that soldiers at the launch site used the isotope to 

heat their barracks during the bitter winter 

of 1968. 

105) 

no name / [N1 launch test] 


Nation: USSR (61)
 

Objective(s): lunar orbit
 

Spacecraft: 7K-L1S (no. 2)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 6,900 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM
 

Launch Vehicle: N1 (no. 15003)
 

Launch Date and Time: 21 February 1969 /
 

09:18:07 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 110P 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: This was the first attempted launch of 

the giant N1 booster as part of early test operations in the Soviet piloted lunar landing program. N1 development began in 1962 after 

two years of initial R&D on heavy booster 

designs. Although the first launch had been 

originally planned for 1965, a major redesign 

of the booster in 1964 and financial and organizational difficulties delayed the launch by 

four years. On this first launch, the N1 carried 

a basic 7K-L1 spacecraft (openly known as 

Zond) modified for operations in lunar orbit 

(rather than for circumlunar flight). Known as 

the 7K-L1S, the spacecraft was equipped with 

an Engine Orientation Complex (DOK) for 

attitude control in lunar orbit. During the 

launch, two first-stage engines initially shut 

down, but the remainder of the engines operated until T+70 seconds when the control 

system shut them down. The booster crashed 

about 50 kilometers from the launch site, and 

the payload successfully used its launch 

escape system to descend without problem 32 

to 35 kilometers from the pad. Investigators 

believed that booster failed when a pipe for 

measuring fuel pressure broke at T+23.3 seconds that set in motion a sequence of events 

that led to a huge fire at T+54.5 seconds in the 

tail of the first stage. The fire short-circuited 

the control system and shut down all the 

engines at approximately T+70 seconds. 

106) 

Mariner 6 

Nation: U.S. (45) 

Objective(s): Mars flyby 

Spacecraft: Mariner-69F / Mariner-F 

Spacecraft Mass: 381 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-20 / Atlas 

3C no. 5403C / Centaur D-1A) 

Launch Date and Time: 25 February 1969 / 

01:29:02 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system (two TV cameras) 

2) infrared spectrometer 

3) ultraviolet spectrometer 

4) infrared radiometer 

5) celestial mechanics experiment 

6) S-band occultation experiment 

Results: Mariners 6 and 7, identical spacecraft 

intended to fly by Mars, were the first 

Mariner spacecraft launched by the AtlasCentaur, permitting a heavier instrument 

suite. Both spacecraft were intended to study 

the surface and atmosphere of Mars during 

close flybys. All onboard instrumentation was 

designed to collect data on Mars; there were 

no experiments for study of interplanetary 

space. The 3.35-meter-tall spacecraft was 

constructed around an eight-sided magne1969 75 
sium framework with four rectangular solar 

panels for 449 watts power. The heart of the 

spacecraft was the 11.8-kilogram Control 

Computer and Sequencer (CC&S), which was 

designed to operate Mariner independently 

without intervention from ground control. 

After a midcourse correction on 1 March 1969 

and preliminary imaging sessions (fifty 

photos) on 28 July, Mariner 6 flew by Mars at 

05:19:07 UT on 31 July at a distance of 3,429 

kilometers. Just 15 minutes prior to closest 

approach (just south of the Martian equator), 

the two TV cameras on a scan platform began 

taking photos of the planet automatically 

every 42 seconds. During a period of 17 minutes, Mariner 6 took twenty-four nearencounter photos that were stored and later 

transmitted to Earth. The photos showed 

heavily cratered and chaotic areas not unlike 

parts of the Moon. Images of the south polar 

region showed intriguing detail of an irregular border. The scientific instruments indicated that the polar cap gave off infrared 

radiation consistent with solid carbon 

dioxide. Mariner 6 found surface pressure to 

be equal to about 30.5 kilometers above 

Earth’s surface. Atmospheric composition 

was about 98 percent carbon dioxide. Surface 

temperatures ranged from –73°C at night to 

–125°C at the south polar cap. 

107) 

no name / [Mars] 


Nation: USSR (62)
 

Objective(s): Mars orbit
 

Spacecraft: M-69 (no. 521)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 3,800 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton no.
 

240-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 27 March 1969 /
 

10:40:45 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) radiometer 

2) instrument to measure water vapor 

levels 

3) ultraviolet spectrometer 

4) radiation detector 

5) gamma spectrometer 

6) hydrogen/helium mass spectrometer 

7) spectrometer 

8) low-energy ion spectrometer 

9) imaging system (three cameras) 

Results: The M-69 series of Mars spacecraft 

was the first of a new generation of Mars 

probes designed by the Lavochkin design 

bureau for launch on the heavy Proton booster. 

Although the 1969 missions were originally 

meant for both Mars orbit and landing, weight 

constraints late in mission design forced engineers to delete the lander and focus only on a 

Mars orbit mission. The probes were designed 

around a single large spherical tank to which 

three pressurized compartments were 

attached. After two en route midcourse corrections, the spacecraft were intended to enter 

orbit around Mars at roughly 1,700 x 34,000 

kilometers at 40° inclination. After an initial 

photography mission, the probes would lower 

their pericenter to about 500 to 700 kilometers 

for a second imaging mission. Total mission 

lifetime would be about three months. During 

the launch of the first M-69, the Proton’s third 

stage stopped firing at T+438.66 seconds, after 

its turbopump had caught on fire because of a 

faulty rotor bearing. The probe, scheduled to 

reach Mars orbit on 11 September 1969, never 

even reached Earth orbit. 

108) 

Mariner 7 

Nation: U.S. (46) 

Objective(s): Mars flyby 

Spacecraft: Mariner-69G 

Spacecraft Mass: 381 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-19 / Atlas 

3C no. 5105C / Centaur D-1A) 

Launch Date and Time: 27 March 1969 / 

22:22:01 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system (two TV cameras) 

2) infrared spectrometer 

3) ultraviolet spectrometer 

4) infrared radiometer 

5) celestial mechanics experiment 

6) S-band occultation experiment 

Results: Identical to Mariner 6, Mariner 7 had 

a similar mission of flying by Mars. After 

Mariner 6 had returned intriguing photos of 

Mars’s south polar cap, controllers reprogrammed Mariner 7’s control system to 

increase the number of scans of the south pole 

76 Deep Space Chronicle 
for the second spacecraft from twenty-five to 

thirty-three. Following a perfect midcourse 

correction on the way to Mars on 8 April 1969, 

on 30 July, just 7 hours before Mariner 6 was 

scheduled to fly by Mars, the deep space 

tracking station at Johannesburg, South 

Africa, lost contact with the spacecraft’s highgain antenna. One of two stations in Madrid, 

Spain, was diverted from its original mission 

of tracking Pioneer 8 and joined the search for 

Mariner 7. Fortunately, the Pioneer station at 

Goldstone picked up faint signals from the 

spacecraft. Controllers sent commands to 

Mariner 7 to switch to the low-gain antenna, 

which worked well afterwards. Despite problems with positional calibration, Mariner 7 

recorded ninety-three far-encounter and 

thirty-three near-encounter images of the 

planet, showing heavily cratered terrain very 

similar to images recorded by Mariner 6. The 

closest approach to Mars was at 05:00:49 UT 

on 5 August 1969, at a distance of 3,430 kilometers. Oddly, despite the high resolution of 

300 meters, Mariner 7 found the center of 

Hellas to be devoid of craters. The spacecraft 

found a pressure of 3.5 millibars and a temperature of –90°F at 59° south latitude and 

28° east longitude in the Hellespontus region, 

suggesting that this area was elevated about 

6 kilometers above the average terrain. One 

photo from Mariner 7 showed the moon 

Phobos. Although surface features were not 

visible, the picture clearly showed the moon to 

be irregularly shaped. 

109) 

no name / [Mars] 


Nation: USSR (63)
 

Objective(s): Mars orbit
 

Spacecraft: M-69 (no. 522)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 3,800 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton no.
 

233-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 2 April 1969 / 


10:33:00 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) radiometer 

2) instrument to measure water vapor 

levels 

3) ultraviolet spectrometer 

4) radiation detector 

5) gamma spectrometer 

6) hydrogen/helium mass spectrometer 

7) spectrometer 

8) low-energy ion spectrometer 

9) imaging system (three cameras) 

Results: The second M-69 spacecraft was identical to its predecessor (launched six days 

before) and was intended to enter orbit around 

Mars on 15 September 1969. Like its twin, it 

never reached intermediate-Earth orbit. At 

launch, at T+0.02 seconds, one of the six firststage engines of the Proton exploded. 

Although the booster lifted off using the 

remaining five engines, it began veering off 

course and eventually assumed horizontal 

attitude, at which point all the remaining 

first-stage engines shut down. At T+41 seconds, the booster impacted 3 kilometers from 

the launch site in a massive fireball. 

110) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (64)
 

Objective(s): lunar sample return
 

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 402)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,700 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D 


(Proton no. 238-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 14 June 1969 / 


04:00:47 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) stereo imaging system 

2) remote arm for sample collection 

3) radiation detector 

Results: The Ye-8-5 was a variant of the basic 

Ye-8 lunar rover spacecraft developed by the 

Lavochkin design bureau. This particular version, whose development began in 1968, was 

designed to recover a small portion of soil from 

the lunar surface and return it to Earth. It had 

the same basic lander stage (“KT”) as that of 

the rover variant (built around a structure 

comprising four spherical propellant tanks 

linked together in a square), which was 

installed with a robot arm to scoop up lunar 

soil. The rover was replaced by a new “ascent 

stage” that was built around three spherical 

propellant tanks that consisted of a main 

rocket engine to lift off from the Moon, a pres1969 77 
surized compartment for electronics, and a 

small, 39-kilogram spherical capsule that 

would detach from the stage and reenter 

Earth’s atmosphere with its valuable payload 

of lunar dust. On the first launch attempt of 

the Ye-8-5 robot scooper, the first three stages 

of the Proton worked without fault, but the 

Blok D fourth stage, which was to fire to attain 

orbital velocity, failed to ignite due to a disruption in the circuit of its guidance system. The 

spacecraft reentered Earth’s atmosphere over 

the Pacific without reaching orbit. 

111) 

no name / [N1 test flight] 


Nation: USSR (65)
 

Objective(s): lunar orbit
 

Spacecraft: 7K-L1S
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 6,900 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM
 

Launch Vehicle: N1 (no. 15005)
 

Launch Date and Time: 3 July 1969 / 


20:18:32 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 110P 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: This was the second attempt to launch 

the giant N1 rocket. As with its predecessor, its 

payload consisted of a basic 7K-L1 (“Zond”) 

spacecraft equipped with additional instrumentation and an attitude-control block to 

enable operations in lunar orbit. Moments 

after launch, the first stage of the booster 

exploded in a massive inferno that engulfed 

the entire launch pad and damaged nearby 

buildings and structures for several kilometers around the area. Amazingly, the payload’s 

launch escape system operated without fault, 

and the Zond descent apparatus (or descent 

module) was recovered safely 2 kilometers 

from the pad. An investigation commission 

traced the cause of the failure to the entry of a 

foreign object into the oxidizer pump of one of 

the first-stage engines at T-0.25 seconds. The 

ensuing explosion started a fire that began to 

engulf the first stage. The control system shut 

down all engines except one by T+10.15 seconds. The booster lifted about 200 meters off 

the pad and then came crashing down in a 

massive explosion. 

112) 

Luna 15
 

Nation: USSR (66)
 

Objective(s): lunar sample return 

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 401) 

Spacecraft Mass: 5,700 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D 

(Proton no. 242-01) 

Launch Date and Time: 13 July 1969 / 

02:54:42 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) stereo imaging system 

2) remote arm for sample collection 

3) radiation detector 

Results: Luna 15, launched only three days 

before the historic Apollo 11 mission to the 

Moon, was the second Soviet attempt to 

recover and bring lunar soil back to Earth. In 

a race to reach the Moon and return to Earth, 

the parallel missions of Luna 15 and Apollo 11 

were, in some ways, the culmination of the 

Moon race that defined the space programs of 

both the United States and the Soviet Union 

in the 1960s. After a midcourse correction the 

day after launch, Luna 15 entered lunar orbit 

at 10:00 UT on 17 July 1969. The spacecraft 

remained in lunar orbit for two days while 

controllers checked all onboard systems and 

performed two orbital maneuvers. After astronauts Armstrong and Aldrin had already set 

foot on the Moon, Luna 15 fired its main retrorocket engine to initiate descent to the surface 

at 15:47 UT on 21 July 1969. Unfortunately, 

transmissions ceased only 4 minutes after 

deorbit at a calculated altitude of 3 kilometers. 

The spacecraft had probably crashed onto the 

side of a mountain. Impact coordinates were 

17° north latitude and 60° east longitude in 

Mare Crisium. 

113) 

Zond 7 

Nation: USSR (67) 

Objective(s): circumlunar flight 

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 11) 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg 

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D 

(Proton no. 243-01) 

Launch Date and Time: 7 August 1969 / 

23:48:06 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

78 Deep Space Chronicle 
Scientific Instruments: 

1) biological payload 

2) radiation detectors 

3) imaging system 

Results: Following a spate of partial successes 

and catastrophic failures, Zond 7 was the first 

fully successful Soviet circumlunar mission. 

The spacecraft had been the last 7K-L1 vehicle 

manufactured for robotic flight. In the original 

schedule, the next flight would have been 

piloted. Like its predecessors, Zond 7 carried a 

set of biological specimens, including four male 

steppe tortoises that were part of a group of 

thirty selected for an experiment. After a midcourse correction on 8 August, the spacecraft 

successfully circled the far side of the Moon 

two days later at a range of 1,200 kilometers. 

Zond 7 performed color imaging sessions on 8 

August (of Earth) and 11 August (two sessions 

of both Earth and the Moon). The only major 

malfunction during the mission was the 

failure to deploy the main parabolic antenna 

(due to a problem in the securing cables), but 

this did not prevent fulfillment of all the primary goals of the mission. Zond 7 successfully 

carried out a guided reentry over Earth’s 

atmosphere and landed without problem 

south of Kustanay in Kazakhstan after a 6­

day 18-hour 25-minute flight. 

114) 

Pioneer 

Nation: U.S. (47) 

Objective(s): solar orbit 

Spacecraft: Pioneer-E 

Spacecraft Mass: 65.4 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA ARC 

Launch Vehicle: Thor-Delta L (no. 73 / Thor no. 

540) 

Launch Date and Time: 27 August 1969 / 

15:59 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) three-axis magnetometer 

2) cosmic-ray telescope 

3) radio propagation detector 

4) electric field detector 

5) quadrispherical plasma analyzer 

6) cosmic-ray-anisotropy detector 

7) cosmic dust detector 

8) celestial mechanics experiment 

Results: At T+31 seconds in the launch of this 

Pioneer probe, the hydraulics system of the first 

stage of the booster developed a problem that 

eventually culminated in complete loss of pressure at T+213 seconds, only 4 seconds prior to 

main-engine cutoff of the first stage. Although 

second-stage performance was nominal, there 

was no way to compensate for the large 

pointing error introduced by the malfunctions 

in the first stage. With the booster veering off 

course, ground control sent a command to 

destroy the vehicle at T+484 seconds. Pioneer-E 

was the last in a series of probes intended for 

studying interplanetary space from heliocentric 

orbit. An additional payload on the Thor-Delta 

L was a Test and Training Satellite (TETR) to 

test the Apollo ground tracking network. 

115) 

Kosmos 300 / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (68)
 

Objective(s): lunar sample return
 

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 403)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,700 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton no.
 

244-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 23 September 1969 /
 

14:07:36 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) stereo imaging system 

2) remote arm for sample collection 

3) radiation detector 

Results: This was the third attempt to send a 

sample return spacecraft to the Moon (after 

failures in June and July 1969). On this 

attempt, the spacecraft successfully reached 

Earth orbit but failed to inject itself on a 

translunar trajectory. Later investigation indicated that the Blok D upper stage had failed to 

fire a second time for translunar injection 

because of a problem with a fuel injection 

valve that had become stuck during the first 

firing of the Blok D (for Earth orbital insertion). As a result, all the liquid oxygen in the 

Blok D was depleted. The Soviet press named 

the vehicle Kosmos 300 without alluding to its 

lunar goal. The payload’s orbit decayed about 

four days after launch. 

116) 

Kosmos 305 / [Luna] 

Nation: USSR (69) 

1969 79 
Objective(s): lunar sample return
 

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 404)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,700 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton no.
 

241-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 22 October 1969 /
 

14:09:59 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) stereo imaging system 

2) remote arm for sample collection 

3) radiation detector 

Results: Exactly one lunar month after the 

failure of Kosmos 300, the Soviets launched 

another Ye-8-5 lunar sample return spacecraft. Once again, the spacecraft failed to leave 

Earth orbit. When the Blok D upper stage was 

meant to fire for translunar injection, 

telemetry readings went off scale and communications were lost. There had apparently 

been a programming failure in one of the 

radio-command blocks designed to command 

the Blok D to fire. The Soviet press merely 

referred to the probe as Kosmos 305. The 

spacecraft’s orbit decayed over Australia 

before the craft completed a single orbit of 

Earth. 

80 Deep Space Chronicle 
117) 

no name / [Luna] 


Nation: USSR (70)
 

Objective(s): lunar sample return
 

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 405)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,700 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton no.
 

247-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 6 February 1970 /
 

04:16:06 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) stereo imaging system 

2) remote arm for sample collection 

3) radiation detector 

Results: This attempt continued the spate of 

failures on the robotic lunar sample return 

program. On this fifth attempt to recover soil 

from the Moon, the Proton booster failed to 

deposit its payload in Earth orbit. An erroneous command shut down the second stage 

at T+127 seconds, and the booster was 

destroyed. Subsequently, the design organization responsible for the Proton, the 

TsKBM, implemented a thorough review of 

the Proton’s performance and completed a 

simple suborbital diagnostic flight in August 

1970 to verify corrective measures. 

1970
 

118) 

Venera 7 

Nation: USSR (71) 

Objective(s): Venus landing 

Spacecraft: 3V (no. 630) 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,180 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M 

Launch Date and Time: 17 August 1970 / 

05:38:22 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 31 

Scientific Instruments: 

Bus:
 

1) solar wind detector
 

2) cosmic-ray detector
 

Lander:
 

1) resistance thermometer
 

2) aneroid barometer
 

Results: Venera 7 was one of a pair of spacecraft 

prepared by the Soviets in 1970 to make a survivable landing on the surface of Venus. The 

spacecraft were quite similar in design to 

Veneras 4, 5, and 6, with a main bus and a 

spherical lander (now with a mass of 500 kilograms). After the last mission, engineers 

redesigned the landing capsule to withstand 

pressures of up to 180 atmospheres and temperatures of up to 540°C. Venera 7 successfully 

left Earth orbit and implemented two midcourse corrections on 2 October and 17 

November, respectively, before beginning its 

1970 81 
Venus encounter operations on 12 December 

1970 when the lander probe’s batteries were 

charged up (using solar panels on the bus) and 

the internal temperature lowered. At 04:58:44 

UT on 15 December, the lander separated from 

the bus and entered the Venusian atmosphere 

at an altitude of 135 kilometers and a velocity 

of 11.5 kilometers per second. When aerodynamic drag had reduced velocity down to 200 

meters per second at an altitude of 60 kilometers, the parachute system deployed. 

Within 35 minutes, at 05:34:10 UT, the capsule 

was on the Venusian landscape. Although 

transmissions appeared to have ended at the 

moment of landing, Soviet ground tracking 

stations recorded what at first proved to be 

unintelligible noise. After computer processing 

of the data, Soviet scientists discovered a valuable 22 minutes 58 seconds of information 

from the capsule—the first transmissions of 

spacecraft from the surface of another planet. 

Quite likely, the initial loss of signal occurred 

when the capsule tipped over on its side. 

Venera 7’s data indicated a surface temperature of 475 ± 20°C and a pressure of 90 ± 15 

atmospheres. The information was a good fit 

with previous Soviet and American estimates. 

Impact point was 5° south latitude and 351° 

longitude. 

119) 

Kosmos 359 / [Venera] 

Nation: USSR (72) 

Objective(s): Venus landing 

Spacecraft: 3V (no. 631) 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,200 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M 

Launch Date and Time: 22 August 1970 / 

05:06:09 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 31 

Scientific Instruments: 

Bus: 

1) solar wind detector 

2) cosmic-ray detector 

Lander: 

1) resistance thermometer 

2) aneroid barometer 

Results: This was the second of a pair of probes 

designed to land on Venus and transmit information back to Earth. In this case, after the 

spacecraft had reached Earth orbit, the main 

engine of the Blok L upper stage was late in 

igniting and cut off early (after only 25 seconds) due to incorrect operation of a sequencer 

and a failure in the DC transformer in the 

power supply system. The payload remained 

stranded in orbit, eventually reentering 

Earth’s atmosphere on 6 November 1970. The 

spacecraft was named Kosmos 359 by the 

Soviet press to disguise the failure. 

120) 

Luna 16
 

Nation: USSR (73)
 

Objective(s): lunar sample return
 

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 406)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 5,727 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

248-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 12 September 1970 /
 

13:25:53 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) stereo imaging system 

2) remote arm for sample collection 

3) radiation detector 

Results: Luna 16 was a landmark success for 

the Soviets in their deep space exploration 

program; the mission accomplished the first 

fully automatic recovery of soil samples from 

the surface of the Moon. The success came 

after five failures. After a successful coast to 

the Moon (which included one midcourse correction), Luna 16 entered circular lunar orbit 

(at 110 kilometers with a 70° inclination) on 

17 September. Two further orbital adjustments on 18 and 19 September altered both 

altitude and inclination in preparation for 

descent to the Moon. At perilune at 05:12 UT 

on 20 September, Luna 16 fired its main 

engine to begin its descent to the surface. Six 

minutes later, the spacecraft safely soft-landed 

in its target area at 0°41' south latitude and 

56°18' east longitude, in the northeast area of 

the Sea of Fertility, approximately 100 kilometers east of Webb crater. The mass of the 

spacecraft at landing was 1,880 kilograms. 

Less than an hour after landing, at 06:03 UT, 

an automatic drill penetrated the lunar surface to collect a soil sample. After drilling for 

7 minutes, the drill reached a stop at 35 millimeters depth and then withdrew its sample 

82 Deep Space Chronicle 
and lifted it in an arc to the top of the spacecraft, depositing the precious cargo in a small 

spherical capsule mounted on the main spacecraft bus. Finally, at 07:43 UT on 21 

September, the spacecraft’s upper stage lifted 

off from the Moon. Three days later, after a 

direct ascent traverse with no midcourse corrections, the capsule, with its 105 grams of 

lunar soil, reentered Earth’s atmosphere at a 

velocity of 11 kilometers per second. The capsule parachuted down 80 kilometers southeast 

of the town of Dzhezkazgan in Kazakhstan at 

05:25 UT on 24 September 1970. Analysis of 

the dark basalt material indicated a close 

resemblance to soil recovered by the American 

Apollo 12 mission. 

121) 

Zond 8 

Nation: USSR (74) 

Objective(s): circumlunar flight 

Spacecraft: 7K-L1 (no. 14) 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,375 kg 

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K 

no. 250-01) 

Launch Date and Time: 20 October 1970 / 

19:55:39 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) solar wind collector packages 

2) imaging system 

Results: Zond 8 was the last in the series of circumlunar spacecraft designed to rehearse a 

piloted circumlunar flight. The project was initiated in 1965 to compete with the Americans 

in the race to the Moon but lost its importance 

once three astronauts circled the Moon on the 

Apollo 8 mission in December 1968. After a 

midcourse correction on 22 October at a distance of 250,000 kilometers from Earth, Zond 8 

reached the Moon without any apparent problems, circling its target on 24 October at a 

range of 1,200 kilometers. The spacecraft took 

black-and-white photographs of the lunar surface during two separate sessions. After two 

midcourse corrections on the return leg, Zond 8 

flew a return over Earth’s northern hemisphere instead of the standard southern 

approach profile, allowing Soviet ground control stations to maintain near-continuous contact with the ship. The guidance system 

evidently malfunctioned on the return leg, and 

the spacecraft performed a simple ballistic 

(instead of a guided) reentry into Earth’s 

atmosphere. The vehicle’s descent module 

splashed down safely in the Indian Ocean at 

13:55 UT on 27 October about 730 kilometers 

southeast of the Chagos Islands, 24 kilometers 

from its original target point. 

122) 

Luna 17 / Lunokhod 1 


Nation: USSR (75)
 

Objective(s): lunar roving operations
 

Spacecraft: Ye-8 (no. 203)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 5,700 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

251-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 10 November 1970 /
 

14:44:01 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system (two low-resolution 

TVs and four high-resolution 

photometers) 

2) x-ray spectrometer 

3) penetrometer 

4) laser reflector 

5) radiation detectors 

6) x-ray telescope 

7) odometer/speedometer 

Results: Luna 17 continued the spate of successes in Soviet lunar exploration begun by 

Luna 16 and Zond 8. Luna 17 carried 

Lunokhod 1, the first in a series of robot lunar 

roving vehicles whose conception had begun in 

the early 1960s, originally as part of the 

piloted lunar landing operations. This was the 

second attempt to land such a vehicle on the 

Moon after a failure in February 1969. The 

descent stage was equipped with two landing 

ramps for the “ascent stage,” that is, the rover, 

to disembark onto the Moon’s surface. The 

756-kilogram rover stood about 1.35 meters 

high and was 2.15 meters across. Each of its 

eight wheels could be controlled independently for two forward and two reverse speeds. 

Its top speed was about 100 meters per hour, 

with commands issued by a five-man team of 

“drivers” on Earth who had to deal with the 5­

second delay. The set of scientific instruments 

was powered by solar cells (installed on the 

inside of the hinged top lid of the rover) and 

1970 83 
The Soviet Moon lander, Lunokhod 1. 

chemical batteries. After two midcourse corrections en route to the Moon, Luna 17 entered 

lunar orbit and then landed on the lunar surface at 03:46:50 UT on 17 November 1970 at 

38°17' north latitude and 35° west longitude, 

about 2,500 kilometers from the Luna 16 site 

in the Sea of Rains. The Lunokhod 1 rover 

rolled over the ramps and onto the lunar surface at 06:28 UT. The rover had an expected 

lifetime of three lunar days but operated for 

eleven. During its 322 Earth days of operation, 

the rover traveled 10.54 kilometers and 

returned more than 20,000 TV images and 

206 high-resolution panoramas. In addition, 

Lunokhod 1 performed twenty-five soil 

analyses with its RIFMA x-ray fluorescence 

spectrometer and used its penetrometer at 500 

different locations. Controllers finished the 

last communications session with Lunokhod 1 

at 13:05 UT on 14 September 1971. Attempts 

to reestablish contact were finally discontinued on 4 October. 

84 Deep Space Chronicle 
123) 

Mariner 8 

Nation: U.S. (48) 

Objective(s): Mars orbit 

Spacecraft: Mariner-71H / Mariner-H 

Spacecraft Mass: 997.9 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-24 / Atlas 

3C no. 5405C / Centaur D-1A) 

Launch Date and Time: 9 May 1971 / 

01:11:01 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) ultraviolet spectrometer 

3) infrared spectrometer 

4) infrared radiometer 

5) S-band occultation experiment 

6) celestial mechanics experiment 

Results: Mariner-71H (also called Mariner-H) 

was the first of a pair of American spacecraft 

intended to explore the physical and dynamic 

characteristics of Mars from Martian orbit. 

The overall goals of the series were to search 

for an environment that could support life; to 

collect data on the origin and evolution of the 

planet; to gather information on planetary 

physics, geology, planetology, and cosmology; 

and to provide data that could aid future 

spacecraft such as the Viking Landers. Launch 

of Mariner-71H was nominal until just after 

separation of the Centaur upper stage, when a 

1971
 

malfunction occurred in the stage’s flightcontrol system, leading to loss of pitch control 

at an altitude of 148 kilometers at T+4.7 minutes. As a result, the stack began to tumble 

and the Centaur engines shut down. The stage 

and its payload reentered Earth’s atmosphere 

approximately 1,500 kilometers downrange 

from the launch site. 

124) 

Kosmos 419 / [Mars] 


Nation: USSR (76)
 

Objective(s): Mars orbit
 

Spacecraft: M-71S (no. 170)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 4,549 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

253-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 10 May 1971 / 


16:58:42 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) fluxgate magnetometer 

2) infrared radiometer 

3) infrared photometer 

4) spectrometer 

5) photometer 

6) radiometer 

7) ultraviolet photometer 

8) cosmic-ray detector 

9) charged-particle spectrometer 

1971 85 
10) imaging system 

11) Stereo antenna 

Results: Kosmos 419 was the first of the “fifthgeneration” Soviet Mars probes (after those 

launched in 1960, 1962, 1963–64, and 1969). 

The original plan was to launch two orbiterlander combinations known as M-71 during 

the 1971 Mars launch window, but in order to 

preempt the American Mariner H/I vehicles, 

Soviet planners added a third mission, the M71S, a simple orbiter that could become the 

first spacecraft to go into orbit around Mars. 

The orbiter could also collect data important 

for aiming the two landers at precise locations in the Martian system. The spacecraft 

entered Earth orbit successfully, but the Blok 

D upper stage failed to fire the second time to 

send the spacecraft to Mars. Later investigation showed that there was human error in 

programming the firing time for the Blok D; 

an eight-digit code to fire the engine had been 

issued by an operator in reverse order. The 

stranded spacecraft, which was named 

Kosmos 419 by the Soviet press, reentered 

Earth’s atmosphere within two days of 

launch. The Soviets had promised the French 

that two of their Stereo instruments would be 

sent to Mars. Since one was lost on Kosmos 

419, Soviet officials were forced to lie about 

its ultimate fate to cover up the failure. 

125) 

Mars 2
 

Nation: USSR (77)
 

Objective(s): Mars orbit and landing
 

Spacecraft: M-71 (no. 171)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 4,650 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

255-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 19 May 1971 / 


16:22:44 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

Orbiter: 

1) three-component magnetometer 

2) infrared radiometer 

3) radiotelescope 

4) infrared photometer/CO2 absorption 

strips 

5) ultraviolet photometer 

6) imaging system (two cameras) 

7) photometer in visible part of electromagnetic spectrum 

8) cosmic-ray particle detector 

9) energy spectrometer 

10) spectrometer to determine water 

vapor 

11) Stereo antenna 

Lander: 

1) gamma-ray spectrometer 

2) x-ray spectrometer 

3) thermometer 

4) wind velocity recorder 

5) barometer 

6) imaging system (two cameras) 

7) penetrometer (on mobile PROP-M) 

8) gamma-ray densitometer 

(on PROP-M) 

Results: Mars 2 was the first of two orbiterlander combination spacecraft sent to Mars 

by the Soviets during the 1971 launch 

window. The orbiters were roughly cylindrical 

structures fixed to a large propellant tank 

base. The landers were egg-shaped modules 

with petals that would open on the Martian 

surface. The 1,000-kilogram landers (of which 

350 kilograms was the actual capsule) were 

fastened to the top of the bus and protected 

by a braking shell for entry into the Martian 

atmosphere. After jettisoning the shell, the 

landers would deploy parachutes to descend 

to the Martian surface. On the Mars 2 trip to 

the Red Planet, controllers performed two 

successful midcourse corrections on 17 June 

and 20 November 1971, respectively. On 27 

November 1971, Mars 2 implemented its 

final midcourse correction, after which the 

lander probe separated to initiate atmospheric entry. At this point, the onboard computer was designed to implement final 

corrections to the trajectory, spin the lander 

around its longitudinal axis, and fire a solidpropellant engine to initiate reentry in a specific direction. During the flight, after the 

final midcourse correction, the trajectory of 

the spacecraft was so accurate that there was 

no need for further corrective measures. 

Because of pre-programmed algorithms that 

assumed a deviated trajectory, the lander was 

put into an incorrect attitude after separation to compensate for the “error.” When the 

reentry engine fired, the angle of entry 

proved to be far too steep. The parachute 

system never deployed, and the lander even86 Deep Space Chronicle 
The Soviet Mars 3 spacecraft. 

tually crashed onto the Martian surface at 4° 

north latitude and 47° west longitude. It was 

the first humanmade object to make contact 

with Mars. Meanwhile, the Mars 3 orbiter 

successfully entered orbit around Mars at 

20:19 UT on 27 November 1971. Parameters 

were 1,380 x 25,000 kilometers at 48.9° inclination. (See entry under Mars 3 for the 

planned Mars 2 orbiter program.) 

126) 

Mars 3
 

Nation: USSR (78)
 

Objective(s): Mars orbit and landing
 

Spacecraft: M-71 (no. 172)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 4,650 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

249-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 28 May 1971 / 


15:26:30 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

Orbiter: 

1) 	three-component magnetometer 

2) 	infrared radiometer 

3) 	radiotelescope 

4) 	infrared photometer/CO2 absorption 

strips 

5) 	ultraviolet photometer 

6) 	 imaging system (two cameras) 

7) 	 photometer in visible part of electromagnetic spectrum 

8) 	 cosmic-ray particle detector 

9) 	energy spectrometer 

10) spectrometer to determine water 

vapor 

Lander: 

1) 	gamma-ray spectrometer 

2) 	x-ray spectrometer 

3) 	thermometer 

4) 	 wind velocity recorder 

5) 	barometer 

6) 	 imaging system (two cameras) 

7) 	 penetrometer (on mobile PROP-M) 

8) 	gamma-ray densitometer 

(on PROP-M) 

1971 87 
Results: Like its predecessor, Mars 3 was successfully sent on a trajectory to the Red 

Planet. The spacecraft completed three midcourse corrections on 8 June, 14 November, 

and 2 December 1971. At 09:14 UT on 2 

December 1971, the lander separated from the 

orbiter and, 4.5 hours later, began entry into 

the Martian atmosphere. Finally, at 13:47 UT, 

the probe successfully set down intact on the 

Martian surface, becoming the first humanmade object to perform a survivable landing 

on the planet. Landing coordinates were 45° 

south latitude and 158° west longitude. The 

bus, meanwhile, entered orbit around Mars 

with parameters of 1,500 x 190,700 kilometers 

at 48.9° inclination, significantly different 

from the originally planned orbit. At 13:50:35 

UT, immediately after landing, the lander 

probe began transmitting a TV image of the 

Martian surface, although transmissions 

abruptly ceased after 20 seconds. Because of a 

violent dust storm that raged across the 

planet, controllers surmised that coronal discharge may have shorted all electric instrumentation on the lander. The received image 

showed only a gray background with no detail, 

probably because the two imaging “heads” had 

still not deployed in 20 seconds to their full 

height to see the surface. After the initial contact, the ground lost all contact with the lander 

probe. The Mars 3 orbiter, like the Mars 2 

orbiter, had problems with its imaging mission. Because the orbiters had to perform their 

imaging mission soon after entering orbit, 

they could not wait until the dust storms subsided on the surface. As a result, the orbiter 

photographs showed few details of the surface. 

Additionally, controllers had set the cameras 

at the wrong exposure setting, making the 

photos far too light to show much detail. 

Despite the failure of the imaging mission, 

both orbiters carried out a full cycle of scientific experiments returning valuable data on 

the planet until contact with both was lost 

almost simultaneously in July 1972. 

127) 

Mariner 9 

Nation: U.S. (49) 

Objective(s): Mars orbit 

Spacecraft: Mariner-71I / Mariner-I 

Spacecraft Mass: 997.9 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-23 / Atlas
 

3C no. 5404C / Centaur D-1A)
 

Launch Date and Time: 30 May 1971 / 


22:23:04 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) ultraviolet spectrometer 

3) infrared spectrometer 

4) infrared radiometer 

5) S-band occultation experiment 

6) celestial mechanics experiment 

Results: Mariner 9 was the second in the pair 

of identical spacecraft launched in 1971 to 

orbit Mars. The first spacecraft, Mariner 8, 

failed to reach Earth orbit. Based on a wide 

octagonal structure, these vehicles used a 

bipropellant propulsion system with a fixed 

thrust of 136 kilograms for orbital insertion 

around Mars. All scientific instrumentation 

on the spacecraft was mounted on a movable 

scan platform “underneath” the main bodies. 

The span of the spacecraft over its extended 

solar panels was 6.9 meters. Following an en 

route midcourse correction on 5 June 1971, 

Mariner 9 ignited its main engine for 915.6 

seconds on 14 November 1971 at 00:18 UT, 

becoming the first humanmade object to 

enter orbit around a planet. Initial orbital 

parameters were 1,398 x 17,916 kilometers 

at 64.3° inclination. The primary goal of the 

mission was to map about 70 percent of the 

surface during the first three months of operation. The dedicated imaging mission began 

in late November, but because of the major 

dust storm at the planet during this time, 

photos taken prior to about mid-January 

1972 did not show great detail. Once the dust 

storm had subsided, Mariner 9 began to 

return spectacular photos of the deeply 

pitted Martian landscape, showing for the 

first time such features as the great system 

of parallel rilles stretching more than 1,700 

kilometers across Mare Sirenum. The vast 

amount of incoming data countered the 

notion that Mars was geologically inert. 

There was some speculation on the possibility of water having existed on the surface 

during an earlier period, but the spacecraft 

data could not provide any conclusive proof. 

By February 1972, the spacecraft had identified about twenty volcanoes, one of which, 

later named Olympus Mons, dwarfed any 

88 Deep Space Chronicle 
The most conspicuous feature observed on Mars by 

Mariner 9 was the darkish spot located near the top 

of this picture. It was tentatively identified as Nix 

Olympica, a curious ring-shaped feature photographed by Mariners 6 and 7 in 1969 and a point 

which radar indicates is one of the highest on Mars. 

One possible explanation suggests a high mountain or 

plateau rising up through the bright dust surrounding 

the rest of the planet. The picture, one of a series of 

thirty-one recorded on the first tape-load during 

approach to Mars, was taken at 8:46 A.M. PST, 11 

November 1971, at a range of about 408,000 miles. 

North is at the top. Mariner 9 was the first spacecraft 

to orbit another planet. The spacecraft was designed 

to continue the atmospheric studies begun by Mariners 

6 and 7 and to map over 70 percent of the Martian 

surface from the lowest altitude (1,500 kilometers) and 

at the highest resolutions (1 kilometer per pixel to 100 

meters per pixel) of any previous Mars mission. 

Mariner 9 was launched on 30 May 1971 and 

arrived on 14 November 1971. 
similar feature on Earth. Olympus Mons, 

part of Nix Olympica—a “great volcanic pile” 

possibly formed by the eruption of hot 

magma from the planet’s interior—is 25 kilometers high and has a base with a diameter 

of 600 kilometers. On 11 February 1972, 

NASA announced that Mariner 9 had 

achieved all its goals. By the time of last contact at 22:32 UT on 27 October 1972, the 

spacecraft had mapped 85 percent of the 

planet at a resolution of 1 to 2 kilometers, 

returning 7,329 photos. 

128) 

Apollo 15 Particle and Fields Subsatellite 

Nation: U.S. (50) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: Apollo 15 P&FS 

Spacecraft Mass: 35.6 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA MSC 

Launch Vehicle: Apollo 15 CSM-112 (itself 

launched by Saturn V SA-510) 

Launch Date and Time: 26 July 1971 / 

13:34:00 UT (subsatellite ejection on 4
 

August 1971 / 20:13:19 UT)
 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 39A
 

Scientific Instruments:
 

1) magnetometer 

2) S-band transponder 

3) charged-particle detectors 

Results: This small satellite was deployed by 

the Apollo 15 crew shortly before leaving 

lunar orbit. The probe was designed around a 

35.6-centimeter-diameter hexagonal structure that was equipped with three instrument booms. Power supply came from solar 

panels and chemical batteries. The instruments measured the strength and direction 

of interplanetary and terrestrial magnetic 

fields, detected variations in the lunar 

gravity field, and measured proton and electron flux. The satellite confirmed Explorer 

35’s finding that while Earth’s magnetic field 

deflects the incoming solar wind into a tail, 

the Moon acts as a physical barrier due to its 

weak field and creates a “hole” in the wind. 

An electronic failure on 3 February 1972 formally ended the mission. Although it originally had a one-year design life, all mission 

objectives were fulfilled. 

129) 

Luna 18
 

Nation: USSR (79)
 

Objective(s): lunar sample return
 

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no. 407)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,750 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

256-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 2 September 1971 /
 

13:40:40 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) stereo imaging system 

2) remote arm for sample collection 

3) radiation detector 

4) radio altimeter 

Results: This mission was the seventh Soviet 

attempt to recover soil samples from the surface of the Moon and the first after the success of Luna 16. After two midcourse 

corrections on 4 and 6 September 1971, Luna 

18 entered a circular orbit around the Moon 

on 7 September at 100 kilometers altitude 

with an inclination of 35°. After several more 

orbital corrections, on 11 September, the 

vehicle began its descent to the lunar surface. 

Unfortunately, contact with the spacecraft 

was abruptly lost at 07:48 UT at the previously determined point of lunar landing. 

Impact coordinates were 3°34' north latitude 

and 56°30' east longitude, near the edge of 

the Sea of Fertility. Officially, the Soviets 

announced that “the lunar landing in the 

complex mountainous conditions proved to be 

unfavorable.” Later, in 1975, the Soviets published data from Luna 18’s continuous-wave 

radio altimeter that determined the mean 

density of the lunar topsoil. 

130) 

Luna 19
 

Nation: USSR (80)
 

Objective(s): lunar orbit
 

Spacecraft: Ye-8LS (no. 202)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,700 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

257-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 28 September 1971 /
 

10:00:22 UT 

90 Deep Space Chronicle 
Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) gamma-ray spectrometer 

3) radio altimeter 

4) meteoroid detectors 

5) magnetometer 

6) cosmic-ray detectors 

7) radiation detectors 

Results: Luna 19 was the first of “advanced” 

lunar orbiters whose design was based upon 

the same Ye-8-class bus used for the lunar 

rovers and the sample collectors. For these 

orbiters, designated Ye-8LS, the basic “lander 

stage” was topped off by a wheelless 

Lunokhod-like frame that housed all scientific instrumentation in a pressurized container. Luna 19 entered orbit around the 

Moon on 2 October 1972 after two midcourse 

corrections on 29 September and 1 October. 

Initial orbital parameters were 140 x 140 

kilometers at 40.58° inclination. Soon after, 

the spacecraft began its main imaging mission—to provide panoramic images of the 

mountainous region of the Moon between 30° 

and 60° south latitude and between 20° and 

80° east longitude. Other scientific experiments included extensive studies on the 

shape and strength of the lunar gravitation 

field and the locations of mascons. 

Occultation experiments in May and June 

1972 allowed scientists to determine the concentration of charged particles at an altitude 

of 10 kilometers. Additional studies of the 

solar wind were evidently coordinated with 

those performed by the Mars 2 and 3 orbiters 

and Veneras 7 and 8. Communications with 

Luna 19 were terminated sometime between 

3 and 20 October 1972 after a year of operations, during more than 4,000 revolutions of 

the Moon. 

1971 91 

131) 

Luna 20
 

Nation: USSR (81)
 

Objective(s): lunar sample return
 

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5 (no.408)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,750 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

258-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 14 February 1972 /
 

03:27:59 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) stereo imaging system 

2) remote arm for sample collection 

3) radiation detector 

4) radio altimeter 

Results: This was the eighth Soviet spacecraft 

launched to return lunar soil to Earth. It was 

evidently sent to complete the mission that 

Luna 18 had failed to accomplish. After a 4.5­

day flight to the Moon, which included a 

single midcourse correction on 15 February, 

Luna 20 entered orbit around the Moon on 18 

February. Initial orbital parameters were 100 

x 100 kilometers at 65° inclination. Three 

days later, at 19:13 UT, the spacecraft fired 

its main engine for 267 seconds to begin 

descent to the lunar surface. A second firing 

further reduced velocity before Luna 20 set 

down safely on the Moon at 19:19 UT on 21 

1972
 

February 1972 at coordinates 3°32' north latitude and 56°33' east longitude, only 1.8 kilometers from the crash site of Luna 18. After 

collecting a small sample of lunar soil, the 

spacecraft’s ascent stage lifted off at 22:58 

UT on 22 February and quickly accelerated to 

2.7 kilometers per second velocity—sufficient 

to return to Earth. The small spherical capsule eventually parachuted down safely on an 

island in the Karkingir River, 40 kilometers 

north of the town of Dzhezkazgan in 

Kazakhstan, at 19:19 UT on 25 February 

1972. The 55-gram soil sample differed from 

that collected by Luna 16 in that the majority 

(50 to 60 percent) of the rock particles in the 

newer sample were ancient anorthosite 

(which consists largely of feldspar) rather 

than the basalt of the earlier one (which contained about 1 to 2 percent of anorthosite). 

Like the Luna 16 soil, samples of the Luna 20 

collection were shared with American and 

French scientists. 

132) 

Pioneer 10 

Nation: U.S. (51) 

Objective(s): Jupiter flyby 

Spacecraft: Pioneer-F 

Spacecraft Mass: 258 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA ARC 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-27 / Atlas 

3C no. 5007C / Centaur D-1A) 

1972 93 
The Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft, which were the first humanmade objects to escape from the solar system into 

interstellar space, carried this pictorial plaque. It was designed to show scientifically educated inhabitants of other 

star systems, who might intercept it millions of years from now, when Pioneer was launched, from where, and by 

what kind of beings (with the hope that those who found the craft would not invade Earth). The design is etched 

into a 6-inch by 9-inch gold-anodized aluminum plate attached to the spacecraft’s antenna support struts in a position to help shield it from erosion by interstellar dust. The radiating lines at left represents the positions of 14 pulsars, a cosmic source of radio energy, arranged to indicate our sun as the home star of our civilization. The “1-” 

symbols at the ends of the lines are binary numbers that represent the frequencies of these pulsars at the time of 

launch of Pioneers 10 and 11 relative of that to the hydrogen atom shown at the upper left with a “1” unity symbol. 

The hydrogen atom is thus used as a “universal clock,” and the regular decrease in the frequencies of the pulsars 

will enable another civilization to determine the time that has elapsed since Pioneer was launched. Across the 

bottom are the planets, ranging outward from the Sun, with the spacecraft trajectory arching away from Earth, 

passing Mars, and swinging by Jupiter. 

Launch Date and Time: 2 March 1972 / 10) Jovian trapped-radiation detector 

01:49:04 UT 11) meteoroid detector 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36A Results: Pioneer 10, the first NASA mission to 

Scientific Instruments: the outer planets, garnered a series of firsts 

1) imaging photopolarimeter perhaps unmatched by any other robotic 

2) magnetometer spacecraft in the space era: the first vehicle 

3) infrared radiometer placed on a trajectory to escape the solar 

4) plasma analyzer system into interstellar space; the first space5) ultraviolet photometer craft to fly beyond Mars; the first to fly 

6) charged-particle composition through the asteroid belt; the first to fly past 

instrument Jupiter; the first to use all-nuclear electrical 

7) cosmic-ray telescope power; and the first humanmade object to 

8) Geiger tube telescopes leave this solar system. After launch by a 

9) asteroid/meteoroid detector three-stage version of the Atlas-Centaur (with 

94 Deep Space Chronicle 
This view of Jupiter shows the giant planet’s cloud tops taken by the Pioneer 10 spacecraft as it flew past Jupiter 

in December 1973. This view was taken from 2,695,000 kilometers away. It shows the 40,200-kilometer-long 

Great Red Spot, which is large enough to swallow up several Earths. Individual cloud formations are visible in 

some detail. The bright zones appear to become split up into the detailed flow patterns of Jupiter’s atmosphere 

and clouds. The area surrounding the Spot in the bright South Tropical Zone suggests a flow pattern about the 

Spot that bulges toward the north by the Spot. The gigantic cloud swirls are thousands or more kilometers 

across. Pioneer 10 flew past Jupiter in December 1973. A sister spacecraft, Pioneer 11, reached Jupiter in 

December 1974. The Pioneer project was managed by NASA’s Ames Research Center, Mountain View, 

California. The spacecraft was built by TRW Systems. 

a TE-M-364-4 solid-propellant engine modified 

from the Surveyor lander), Pioneer 10 reached 

an initial speed of 51,800 kilometers per hour, 

faster than any previous humanmade object. 

There were some initial problems during the 

outbound voyage when direct sunlight caused 

heating problems. On 15 July 1972, the spacecraft entered the asteroid belt, emerging in 

February 1973 after a 435-million-kilometer 

voyage through the relatively densely packed 

rings. During this period, the spacecraft 

encountered some asteroid hits (although 

many fewer than expected) and also measured 

the density of Zodiacal light in interplanetary 

space. On 7 August, in conjunction with 

Pioneer 9 (in solar orbit), Pioneer 10 recorded 

details of one of the most violent solar storms 

in recent record. The spacecraft entered 

Jupiter’s bow-shock wave (where the solar 

wind interacts with the planet’s magnetic 

field) on 26 November, crossed the magnetopause, reentered the magnetic field on 1 

December, and then crossed the magnetopause for the second time. By the following 

day, the spacecraft was returning better 

quality photos than possible with the best 

Earth-based telescopes—it had already begun 

imaging as early as 6 November 1973. Also 

during this period, Pioneer 10 took about 300 

photos of Jupiter that included images of the 

planet’s terminator and the Great Red Spot. 

Command-and-return time was up to 92 minutes by this time. Pioneer 10’s closest approach 

to Jupiter was at 02:25 UT on 4 December 

1972 95 
Mariner 10’s first image of Mercury acquired on 24 

March 1974. During its flight, Mariner 10’s trajectory 

brought it behind the lighted hemisphere of Mercury, 

where this image was taken, in order to acquire important measurements with other instruments. This picture 

was acquired from a distance of 5,380,000 kilometers 

from the surface of Mercury. The diameter of Mercury 

(4,878 kilometers) is about one-third that of Earth. 

Images of Mercury were acquired in two steps, an 

inbound leg (images acquired before passing into 

Mercury’s shadow) and an outbound leg (after exiting 

from Mercury’s shadow). More than 2,300 useful 

images of Mercury were taken, both at moderate resolution (3–20 kilometers/pixel) color and at high resolution (better than 1 kilometer/pixel) black-and-white 

coverage. 
1973, when the spacecraft raced by the planet 

at a range of 130,354 kilometers and a speed 

of 132,000 kilometers per hour. Of the spacecraft’s eleven scientific instruments, six operated continuously through the encounter. The 

spacecraft passed by a series of Jovian moons, 

obtaining photos of Callisto, Ganymede, and 

Europa (but not Io). Pioneer 10 fulfilled all 

objectives except one (that one failure was due 

to false commands triggered by Jupiter’s 

intense radiation). Based on incoming data, 

scientists identified plasma in Jupiter’s magnetic field. The spacecraft crossed Saturn’s 

orbit in February 1976, recording data that 

indicated that Jupiter’s enormous magnetic 

tail, almost 800 million kilometers long, covered the whole distance between the two 

planets. Still operating nominally, Pioneer 10 

crossed the orbit of Neptune (then the outermost planet) on 13 June 1983, thus becoming 

the first humanmade object to escape the solar 

system. Now the spacecraft is generally 

heading in the direction of the red star 

Aldebaran, a star that forms the eye of the 

Taurus constellation. It is expected to pass by 

Aldebaran in about two million years. In case 

of an intercept by intelligent life, Pioneer 10 

carries an aluminum plaque with diagrams of 

a man and a woman, the solar system, and its 

location relative to fourteen pulsars. Pioneer 

10 is heading out of the solar system in a 

direction very different from those of the two 

Voyager probes and Pioneer 11, that is, 

heading in an opposite direction toward the 

nose of the heliosphere in an upstream direction relative to the inflowing interstellar gas. 

NASA officially terminated routine contact 

with the vehicle at 19:35 UT on 31 March 1997 

for budgetary reasons, although intermittent 

contact continues (as permitted by the 

onboard power source) with collection of data 

from the Geiger tube telescope and the 

charged-particle instrument. For example, 

ground control received a signal from the 

spacecraft on 28 April 2001. Pioneer 10 was 

the farthest humanmade object in existence 

until 17 February 1998, when Voyager 1 

exceeded its range. By 1 July 2001, Pioneer 10 

was 11.83 billion kilometers from Earth, traveling at 12.24 kilometers per second relative to 

the Sun. 

133) 

Venera 8 

Nation: USSR (82) 

Objective(s): Venus landing 

Spacecraft: 3V (no. 670) 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,184 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M 

Launch Date and Time: 27 March 1972 / 

04:15:01 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 31 

Scientific Instruments: 

Bus:
 

1) cosmic-ray detector
 

2) solar wind detector
 

3) ultraviolet spectrometer
 

Lander:
 

1) thermometer
 

2) barometer
 

3) radio altimeter
 

4) photometer
 

5) gamma-ray spectrometer
 

6) gas analyzer
 

7) wind speed recorder
 

Results: Venera 8 was the first in another pair 

of Soviet spacecraft designed to explore Venus. 

Although similar in design to its predecessors, 

the 495-kilogram lander was substantially 

modified based on the Results from Venera 7. 

The new capsule was designed to withstand 

pressures of “only” 105 atmospheres (versus 

180 atmospheres on Venera 7) and carried 

extra scientific instrumentation. After one 

midcourse correction on 6 April 1972, Venera 

8’s lander separated from the flyby bus and 

entered the Venusian atmosphere at 08:37 UT 

on 22 July 1972 at a velocity of 11.6 kilometers 

per second. Successful landing took place at 

09:32 UT, about 500 kilometers from the 

morning terminator on the sunlit side of 

Venus. Landing coordinates were 10° south 

latitude and 335° longitude. The probe transmitted data for another 50 minutes 11 seconds 

from the hostile surface before succumbing to 

ground conditions. The transmitted information indicated that temperature and pressure 

at the landing site were 470 ± 8°C and 90 ± 1.5 

atmospheres respectively. Wind speed was 

less than 1 kilometer per second below 10 kilometers altitude. The spacecraft also recorded a 

sharp change in illumination between 30 and 

35 kilometers altitude. The data indicate that 

1972 97 
visibility on the ground was about one kilometer at the time Venera 8 landed. 

134) 

Kosmos 482 / [Venera] 

Nation: USSR (83) 

Objective(s): Venus landing 

Spacecraft: 3V (no. 671) 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 1,180 kg 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K78M 

Launch Date and Time: 31 March 1972 / 

04:02:33 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 31 

Scientific Instruments: 

Bus:
 

1) cosmic-ray detector
 

2) solar wind detector
 

3) ultraviolet spectrometer
 

Lander:
 

1) thermometer
 

2) barometer
 

3) radio altimeter
 

4) photometer
 

5) gamma-ray spectrometer
 

6) gas analyzer
 

7) wind speed recorder
 

Results: This was the sister craft to Venera 8 

(launched four days earlier). Unfortunately, 

the spacecraft never left Earth orbit. The Blok 

L escape stage’s main engine prematurely cut 

off after only 125 seconds of firing due to a 

failure in the onboard timer. As a result, the 

spacecraft entered an elliptical orbit around 

Earth. Officially, the Soviets named the probe 

Kosmos 482 to disguise its true mission. The 

spacecraft reentered Earth’s atmosphere in 

May 1981. 

135) 

Apollo 16 Particle and Fields Subsatellite 

Nation: U.S. (52) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: Apollo 16 P&FS 

Spacecraft Mass: 42 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA 

Launch Vehicle: Apollo 16 CSM-113 (itself 

launched by Saturn V SA-511) 

Launch Date and Time: 16 April 1972 / 

17:54:00 UT (subsatellite ejection on 24 

April 1972 / 09:56:09 UT) 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 39A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) magnetometer 

2) S-band transponder 

3) charged-particle detectors 

Results: Nearly identical to its predecessor, the 

Apollo 16 Particle and Fields Subsatellite was 

ejected from the Apollo 16 Command and 

Service Module about 4 hours prior to the 

crew’s trans-Earth injection burn, which sent 

them home from the Moon. Because of problems with the Apollo CSM main engine, the 

crew was forced to release the subsatellite in a 

low lunar orbit of 100 x 100 kilometers at 10° 

inclination. Thus, the probe eventually 

crashed onto the lunar surface after thirtyfour days in orbit rather than the planned one 

year. Impact point was at 10.2° north latitude 

and 112° east longitude at 21:00 UT on 29 

May 1972. However, because of its low orbit, 

the spacecraft did return some valuable lowaltitude data. 

136) 

no name / [N1 launch test] 


Nation: USSR (84)
 

Objective(s): lunar orbit
 

Spacecraft: 7K-LOK (no. 6A)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 9,500 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: TsKBEM
 

Launch Vehicle: N1 (no. 15007)
 

Launch Date and Time: 23 November 1972 /
 

06:11:55 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 110L 

Scientific Instruments: unknown 

Results: This was the fourth test launch of the 

giant Soviet N1 booster. The first two, 

launched in 1969, attempted to send rigged-up 

7K-L1 (“Zond”) spacecraft to lunar orbit. The 

third booster carried a payload mockup for 

tests in Earth orbit. All three failed. This 

fourth launch was intended to send a fully 

equipped 7K-LOK spacecraft (similar to a 

beefed-up Soyuz) on a robotic lunar orbiting 

mission during which the spacecraft would 

spend 3.7 days circling the Moon (over 42 

orbits), taking photographs of future landing 

sites for piloted missions. The booster lifted off 

without problems, but a few seconds prior to 

first-stage cutoff, at T+107 seconds, a powerful 

explosion ripped apart the bottom of the first 

stage, destroying Soviet hopes of ever sending 

cosmonauts to the Moon. There was never a 

conclusive reason for the explosion; some sug98 Deep Space Chronicle 
gested that there had been an engine failure, structural shock wave that eventually caused 

and others were convinced that the scheduled the explosion. 

shutdown of six central engines had caused a 

1972 99 

137) 

Luna 21
 

Nation: USSR (85)
 

Objective(s): lunar roving operations
 

Spacecraft: Ye-8 (no. 204)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,950 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

259-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 8 January 1973 /
 

06:55:38 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) 	 imaging system (three low-resolution 

TVs and four high-resolution 

photometers) 

2) x-ray spectrometer 

3) penetrometer 

4) laser reflector 

5) radiation detectors 

6) x-ray telescope 

7) odometer/speedometer 

8) visible/ultraviolet photometer 

9) magnetometer 

10) photodetector 

Results: Luna 21 carried the second successful 

Soviet “8YeL” lunar rover, Lunokhod 2, and 

was launched less than a month after the last 

Apollo lunar landing. After a midcourse correction the day after launch, Luna 21 entered 

orbit around the Moon on 12 January 1973. 

1973
 

Parameters were 100 x 90 kilometers at 60° 

inclination. On 15 January, the spacecraft 

deorbited and, after multiple engine firings, 

landed on the Moon at 22:35 UT the same day, 

inside the LeMonnier crater at 25°51' north 

latitude and 30°27' east longitude, between 

Mare Serenitatis and the Taurus Mountains. 

Less than 3 hours later, at 01:14 UT on 16 

January, the rover disembarked onto the 

lunar surface. The 840-kilogram Lunokhod 2 

was an improved version of its predecessor 

and was equipped with a third TV camera, an 

improved eight-wheel traction system, and 

additional scientific instrumentation. By the 

end of its first lunar day, Lunokhod 2 had 

already traveled further than Lunokhod 1 in 

its entire operational life. On 9 May, the rover 

inadvertently rolled into a crater and dust 

covered its solar panels, disrupting temperatures in the vehicle. Attempts to save the 

rover failed, and on 3 June, the Soviet news 

agency announced that its mission was over. 

Before last contact, the rover took 80,000 TV 

pictures and 86 panoramic photos and had 

performed hundreds of mechanical and chemical surveys of the soil. The Soviets later 

revealed that during a conference on planetary exploration in Moscow, 29 January to 2 

February 1973 (that is, after the landing of 

Luna 21), an American scientist had given 

photos of the lunar surface around the Luna 

21 landing site to a Soviet engineer in charge 

1973 101 
of the Lunokhod 2 mission. These photos, 

taken prior to the Apollo 17 landing, were 

later used by the “driver team” to navigate the 

new rover on its mission on the Moon. 

138) 

Pioneer 11 

Nation: U.S. (53) 

Objective(s): Jupiter flyby, Saturn flyby 

Spacecraft: Pioneer-G 

Spacecraft Mass: 258.5 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA ARC 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-30 / Atlas 

3D no. 5011D / Centaur D-1A) 

Launch Date and Time: 6 April 1973 / 02:11 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging photopolarimeter 

2) magnetometer 

3) infrared radiometer 

4) plasma analyzer 

5) ultraviolet photometer 

6) charged-particle composition 

instrument 

7) cosmic-ray telescope 

8) Geiger tube telescopes 

9) asteroid/meteoroid detector 

10) Jovian trapped radiation detector 

11) meteoroid detector 

12) fluxgate magnetometer 

Results: Pioneer 11, the sister spacecraft to 

Pioneer 10, was the first humanmade object to 

fly past Saturn and also returned the first pictures of the polar regions of Jupiter. After two 

midcourse corrections (on 11 April 1973 and 7 

November 1974), Pioneer 11 penetrated the 

Jovian bow shock on 25 November 1974. The 

spacecraft’s closest approach to Jupiter 

occurred at 05:22 UT on 3 December 1974 at a 

range of 42,760 kilometers from the planet’s 

cloud tops, three times closer than Pioneer 10. 

It was traveling faster than any humanmade 

object at the time—171,000 kilometers per 

hour. Because of its high speed during the 

encounter, the spacecraft’s exposure to radiation was much less than that of its predecessor. Pioneer 11 repeatedly crossed Jupiter’s 

bow shock, indicating that the Jovian magnetosphere changes its boundaries as it is buffeted by the solar wind. Pioneer 11 used 

Jupiter’s massive gravitational field to swing 

back across the solar system to set itself on a 

flyby course with Saturn. After its Jupiter 

encounter, on 16 April 1975, the micrometeoroid detector was turned off because it was 

issuing spurious commands that were interfering with other instruments. Pioneer 11 

detected Saturn’s bow shock on 31 August 

1979, about 1.5 million kilometers out from 

the planet, thus providing the first conclusive 

evidence of the existence of Saturn’s magnetic 

field. The spacecraft crossed the planet’s ring 

plane beyond the outer ring at 14:36 UT on 1 

September 1979 and then passed by the 

planet at 16:31 UT for a close encounter at a 

range of 20,900 kilometers. It was moving at a 

relative speed of 114,100 kilometers per hour 

at the point of closest approach. Among 

Pioneer 11’s many discoveries was a narrow 

ring outside the A ring named the “F” ring and 

a new satellite 200 kilometers in diameter. The 

spacecraft recorded the planet’s overall temperature at –180°C and photographs indicated 

a more featureless atmosphere than that of 

Jupiter. Analysis of data suggested that the 

planet was primarily made of liquid hydrogen. 

After leaving Saturn, Pioneer 11 headed out of 

the solar system in a direction opposite to that 

of Pioneer 10—that is, to the center of galaxy 

in the general direction of Sagittarius. Pioneer 

11 crossed the orbit of Neptune on 23 

February 1990, thus becoming the fourth 

spacecraft (after Pioneer 10 and Voyagers 1 

and 2) to do so. By 1995, twenty-two years 

after launch, two instruments were still operational on the vehicle. NASA Ames Research 

Center finally terminated routine contact with 

the spacecraft on 30 September 1995. 

Scientists received a few minutes of good engineering data on 24 November 1995 but lost 

final contact once Earth permanently moved 

out of view of the spacecraft’s antenna. Like 

Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11 also carries a plaque 

with a message for any intelligent beings. 

139) 

Explorer 49 

Nation: U.S. (54) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: RAE-B 

Spacecraft Mass: 330.2 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA GSFC 

Launch Vehicle: Delta 1913 (no. 95 / 

Thor no. 581) 

Launch Date and Time: 10 June 1973 / 

14:13:00 UT 

102 Deep Space Chronicle 
Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) galactic studies experiment 

2) sporadic low-frequency solar radio 

bursts experiment 

3) sporadic Jovian bursts experiment 

4) radio emission from terrestrial 

magnetosphere experiment 

5) cosmic source observation 

experiment 

Results: This was the final U.S. lunar mission 

for twenty-one years (until Clementine in 

1994). After launch on a direct ascent trajectory to the Moon and one midcourse correction 

on 11 June, Explorer 49 fired its insertion 

motor at 07:21 UT on 15 June to enter orbit 

around the Moon. Initial orbital parameters 

were 1,334 x 1,123 kilometers at 61.3° inclination. On 18 June, the spacecraft jettisoned its 

main engine and, using its Velocity Control 

Propulsion System, circularized its orbit. The 

spacecraft, with a partially deployed radioantenna array measuring 183 meters from tip 

to tip, remains the largest spacecraft in physical dimensions to ever enter lunar orbit. 

Although the antennas did not deploy to full 

length, the mission goals were not affected. 

During its mission, Explorer 49 studied lowfrequency radio emissions from the solar 

system (including the Sun and Jupiter) and 

other galactic and extra-galactic sources. It 

was placed in lunar orbit to avoid terrestrial 

radio interference. NASA announced completion of the mission in June 1975. Last contact 

was in August 1977. 

140) 

Mars 4
 

Nation: USSR (86)
 

Objective(s): Mars orbit
 

Spacecraft: M-73 (no. 52S)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 3,440 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

261-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 21 July 1973 / 


19:30:59 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) atmospheric radio-probing 


instrument
 

2) radiotelescope
 

3) infrared radiometer 

4) spectrophotometer 

5) narrow-band photometer 

6) narrow-band interference-polarization photometer 

7) imaging system 

8) photometers 

9) two polarimeters 

10) ultraviolet photometer 

11) scattered solar radiation photometer 

12) gamma spectrometer 

13) magnetometer 

14) plasma traps 

15) multichannel electrostatic analyzer 

Results: Mars 4 was one of four Soviet spacecraft of the 3M (or M-73) series launched in 

1973. Soviet planners were eager to preempt 

the American Viking missions planned for 

1976 but were limited by the less advantageous positions of the planets that allowed the 

Proton boosters to launch limited payloads 

toward Mars. The Soviets thus separated the 

standard pair of orbiter-lander payload combinations into two orbiters and two landers. Less 

than four months prior to launch, ground 

testing detected a major problem with the 

2T312 transistors used on all four vehicles. An 

analysis showed that the transistors’ failure 

rate began to increase after 1.5 to 2 years of 

operation—that is, just about when the spacecraft would reach Mars. Despite the roughly 

50-percent odds of success, the government 

decided to proceed with the missions. The first 

spacecraft, Mars 4, successfully left Earth 

orbit and headed toward Mars and accomplished a single midcourse correction on 30 

July 1973, but soon two of three channels of 

the onboard computer failed due to the faulty 

transistors. As a result, the second midcourse 

correction could not be implemented. With no 

possibility for Mars orbit insertion, Mars 4 

flew by the Red Planet at 15:34 UT on 10 

February 1974 at a range of 1,844 kilometers. 

Ground control was able to command the 

vehicle to turn on its imaging system at 

15:32:41 UT to begin a short photography session of the Martian surface during the flyby. 

During 6 minutes, cameras performed one regular cycle of imaging that included two 

panoramas of the surface. The spacecraft 

eventually entered heliocentric orbit. 

1973 103 
141) 

Mars 5
 

Nation: USSR (87)
 

Objective(s): Mars orbit
 

Spacecraft: M-73 (no. 53S)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 3,440 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

262-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 25 July 1973 / 


18:55:48 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) atmospheric radio-probing 

instrument 

2) radiotelescope 

3) infrared radiometer 

4) spectrophotometer 

5) narrow-band photometer 

6) narrow-band interferencepolarization photometer 

7) imaging system 

8) photometers 

9) two polarimeters 

10) ultraviolet photometer 

11) scattered solar radiation photometer 

12) gamma spectrometer 

13) magnetometer 

14) plasma traps 

15) multichannel electrostatic analyzer 

Results: Mars 5 was the sister Mars orbiter to 

Mars 4. After two midcourse corrections on 3 

August 1973 and 2 February 1974, Mars 5 successfully fired its main engine at 15:44:25 UT 

to enter orbit around the planet. Initial orbital 

parameters were 1,760 x 32,586 kilometers at 

35°19’17’’ inclination. Soon after orbital insertion, ground controllers detected the slow 

depressurization of the main instrument compartment on the orbiter—probably as a result 

of an impact with a particle during or after 

orbital insertion. Calculations showed that at 

the current rate of loss of air, the spacecraft 

would be operational for approximately three 

weeks. Scientists drew up a special accelerated science program that included imaging of 

the surface at 100 meters resolution. Five 

imaging sessions between 17 and 26 February 

1974 produced a total of 180 frames of 43 

usable photographs. Additionally, Mars 5 took 

five panoramas of the surface. The last communication with Mars 5, when the final 

panorama was transmitted back to Earth, 

took place on 28 February 1974, after which 

pressure in the spacecraft decreased to below 

working levels. Mars 5 photos, some of which 

were of comparable quality to those of Mariner 

9, clearly showed surface features that indicated erosion caused by free-flowing water. 

Mars 5 was supposed to act as a data relay for 

the Mars 6 and Mars 7 landers but was obviously unable to do so. 

142) 

Mars 6
 

Nation: USSR (88)
 

Objective(s): Mars flyby and Mars landing
 

Spacecraft: M-73 (no. 50P)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 3,260 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

281-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 5 August 1973 /
 

17:45:48 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

Bus: 

1) magnetometer 

2) plasma traps 

3) cosmic-ray sensors 

4) micrometeoroid detectors 

5) Zhemo instrument for study of solar 

proton and electron fluxes 

Lander: 

1) thermometer 

2) barometer 

3) accelerometer 

4) radio-altimeter 

5) mass spectrometer 

6) soil analyzer 

Results: Mars 6 was one of two landers 

launched by the Soviet Union during the 

1973 launch window. The landers were very 

similar in design to the Mars 2 and Mars 3 

landers dispatched by the Soviets in 1971, 

except that the spacecraft was now composed 

of a flyby vehicle (instead of an orbiter) and 

a lander. Mars 6 completed its first midcourse correction en route to Mars on 13 

August 1973. A few days later, there was a 

major failure in the telemetry system that 

transmitted scientific and operations data 

from the spacecraft. Only two channels 

remained operational, neither of which pro104 Deep Space Chronicle 
vided the ground with any data on the status 

of the flyby vehicle’s systems. Amazingly, the 

flyby spacecraft automatically performed all 

its functions, and on 12 March 1974, the 

lander successfully separated from its 

mother ship at a distance of 48,000 kilometers from Mars. Three hours later, it entered 

the Martian atmosphere. The parachute 

system deployed correctly at an altitude of 

20 kilometers, and scientific instruments 

began to record data as the probe descended. 

Data seemed to indicate that the lander was 

rocking back and forth under its parachute 

far more vigorously than expected. Moments 

before expected landing, the ground lost contact with the probe. The last confirmed data 

was information on ignition of the softlanding engines at 08:58:20 UT. The probe 

landed at 09:11 UT at 23°54' south latitude 

and 19°25' west longitude. Later investigation never conclusively identified a single 

cause of loss of contact. Probable reasons 

included failure of the radio system or 

landing in a geographically rough area. All 

data from the Mars 6 lander was transmitted 

via the Mars 6 flyby bus, which also collected 

scientific information during its short flyby. 

143) 

Mars 7
 

Nation: USSR (89)
 

Objective(s): Mars flyby and Mars landing
 

Spacecraft: M-73 (no. 51P)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 3,260 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

281-02)
 

Launch Date and Time: 9 August 1973 /
 

17:00:17 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

Bus: 

1) magnetometer 

2) plasma traps 

3) cosmic-ray sensors 

4) micrometeoroid detectors 

5) Zhemo instrument for study of solar 

proton and electron fluxes 

6) Stereo antenna 

Lander: 

1) thermometer 

2) barometer 

3) accelerometer 

4) radio-altimeter 

5) mass spectrometer 

6) soil analyzer 

Results: Mars 7 was the last of the four Soviet 

spacecraft sent to Mars in the 1973 launch 

window (although it arrived at Mars prior to 

Mars 6). On its way to Mars, the spacecraft 

performed a single midcourse correction on 16 

August 1973. En route to Mars, there were 

failures in the communications systems, and 

controllers were forced to maintain contact via 

the only remaining radio communications 

complex. On 9 March 1974, the flyby spacecraft ordered the lander capsule to separate 

for its entry into the Martian atmosphere. 

Although the lander initially refused to 

“accept” the command to separate, it eventually did accept it. Ultimately, the lander’s main 

retro-rocket engine failed to fire to initiate 

entry into the Martian atmosphere. As a 

result, the lander flew by the planet at a range 

of 1,300 kilometers and eventually entered 

heliocentric orbit. The flyby probe did, however, manage to collect data during its short 

encounter with the Red Planet. The failures on 

both Mars 4 (computer failure) and Mars 7 

(retro-rocket ignition failure) were probably 

due to the faulty transistors, installed in the 

circuits of the onboard computer, which were 

detected prior to launch. 

144) 

Mariner 10 

Nation: U.S. (55) 

Objective(s): Mercury flyby, Venus flyby 

Spacecraft: Mariner-73J / Mariner-J 

Spacecraft Mass: 502.9 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-34 / Atlas 

3D no. 5014D / Centaur D-1A) 

Launch Date and Time: 3 November 1973 / 

05:45:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) infrared radiometer 

3) ultraviolet airglow spectrometer 

4) ultraviolet occultation spectrometer 

5) two magnetometers 

6) charged-particle telescope 

7) plasma analyzer 

1973 105 
Results: Mariner 10 was the first (and only) 

spacecraft sent to the planet Mercury, the first 

mission to explore two planets (Mercury and 

Venus) during a single mission, the first to use 

gravity-assist to change its flight path, the first 

to return to its target after an initial encounter, 

and the first to use the solar wind as a major 

means of spacecraft orientation during flight. 

The primary goal of Mariner 10 was to study 

the atmosphere (if any), surface, and physical 

characteristics of Mercury. Soon after leaving 

Earth orbit, the spacecraft returned photos of 

both Earth and the Moon as it sped to its first 

destination, Venus. During the coast, there 

were numerous technical problems, including 

malfunctions in the high-gain antenna and the 

attitude-control system. After midcourse corrections on 13 November 1973 and 21 January 

1974, Mariner 10 approached Venus on 5 

February 1974 and returned a total of 4,165 

photos of the planet and collected important 

scientific data during its encounter. The 

closest flyby range was 5,768 kilometers at 

17:01 UT. Assisted by Venusian gravity, the 

spacecraft now headed to the innermost 

planet, which it reached after another midcourse correction on 16 March 1974. As 

Mariner 10 approached Mercury, its photos 

began to show a very Moon-like surface with 

craters, ridges, and chaotic terrain. The spacecraft’s magnetometers revealed a weak magnetic field. Radiometer readings suggested 

nighttime temperatures of –183°C and maximum daytime temperatures of 187°C. The 

closest encounter was at 20:47 UT on 29 

March 1974 at a range of 703 kilometers. 

Having looped around the Sun, Mariner 10 

flew by Mercury once more on 21 September 

1974 at a more distant range of 48,069 kilometers. The spacecraft used solar pressure on 

its solar panels and high-gain antenna for attitude control. A third and final encounter, the 

closest to Mercury, took place on 16 March 

1975 at a range of 327 kilometers. Contact 

with the spacecraft was terminated on 

24 March 1975. 

106 Deep Space Chronicle 
145) 

Luna 22
 

Nation: USSR (90)
 

Objective(s): lunar orbit
 

Spacecraft: Ye-6LS (no. 220)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 5,700 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

282-02)
 

Launch Date and Time: 29 May 1974 / 


08:56:51 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) gamma-ray spectrometer 

3) radio-altimeter 

4) meteoroid detectors 

5) magnetometer 

6) cosmic-ray detectors 

7) radiation detectors 

Results: Luna 22 was the second of two 

“advanced” lunar orbiters (the first being Luna 

19) designed to conduct extensive scientific 

surveys from orbit. Launched about a year 

after the termination of Lunokhod 2 operations on the lunar surface, Luna 20 performed 

a single midcourse correction en route the 

Moon on 30 May before entering lunar orbit on 

2 June 1974. Initial orbital parameters were 

219 x 222 kilometers at 19°35' inclination. In 

addition to its primary mission of surface pho1974
 

tography, Luna 22 also performed investigations to determine the chemical composition of 

the lunar surface, recorded meteoroid activity, 

searched for a lunar magnetic field, measured 

solar and cosmic radiation flux, and continued 

studies of the irregular magnetic field. 

Through various orbital changes, Luna 22 

performed without any problems and continued to return photos fifteen months into 

the mission, although its primary mission had 

ended by 2 April 1975. The spacecraft’s 

maneuvering propellant was finally depleted 

on 2 September, and the highly successful 

mission was formally terminated in early 

November 1975. Luna 21 remains the final 

Soviet or Russian lunar orbiter. 

146) 

Luna 23
 

Nation: USSR (91)
 

Objective(s): lunar sample return
 

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5M (no. 410)
 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,800 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: GSMZ
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

285-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 28 October 1974 /
 

14:30:32 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) stereo imaging system 

1974 107 
2) improved drill for sample collection 

3) radiation detector 

4) radio-altimeter 

Results: Luna 23 was the first modified lunar 

sample return spacecraft, designed to return a 

deep core sample of the Moon’s surface (hence 

the change in index from Ye-8-5 to Ye-8-5M). 

While Luna 16 and 20 had returned samples 

from a depth of 0.3 meters, the new spacecraft 

was designed to dig to 2.5 meters. After a midcourse correction on 31 October, Luna 23 

entered orbit around the Moon on 2 November 

1974. Parameters were 104 x 94 kilometers at 

138° inclination. Following several more 

changes to the orbit, the spacecraft descended 

to the lunar surface on 6 November and 

landed in the southernmost portion of Mare 

Crisium. Landing coordinates were 13° north 

latitude and 62° east longitude. During 

landing in “unfavorable” terrain, the lander’s 

drilling device was evidently damaged, preventing fulfillment of the primary mission, the 

return of lunar soil to Earth. Scientists 

devised a makeshift plan to conduct a limited 

science exploration program with the stationary lander. Controllers maintained contact 

with the spacecraft until 9 November 1974. 

147) 

Helios 1 

Nation: Federal Republic of Germany and 

U.S. (1) 

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit 

Spacecraft: Helios-A 

Spacecraft Mass: 370 kg 

Mission Design and Management: DFVLR and 

NASA GSFC 

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIE-Centaur (TC-2 / 

Titan no. 23E-2 / Centaur D-1T) 

Launch Date and Time: 10 November 1974 / 

07:11:02 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 41 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) plasma detector 

2) two flux gate magnetometers 

3) plasma and radio wave experiment 

4) cosmic-ray detectors 

5) electron detector 

6) zodiacal light photometer 

7) micrometeoroid analyzer 

8) celestial mechanics experiment 

Results: Helios 1 was a joint GermanAmerican deep space mission to study the 

main solar processes and solar-terrestrial 

relationships. Specifically, the spacecraft’s 

instruments were designed to investigate 

phenomena such as solar wind, magnetic and 

electric fields, cosmic rays, and cosmic dust in 

regions between Earth’s orbit and approximately 0.3 AU from the Sun. It was the 

largest bilateral project to date for NASA, 

with Germany paying about $180 million of 

the total $260-million cost. Germany provided the spacecraft and NASA the launch 

vehicles. After a successful launch, Helios 1 

passed within 47 million kilometers of the 

Sun at a speed of 238,000 kilometers per 

hour on 15 March 1975, the closest any 

humanmade object had been to our nearest 

star. During its mission, the spacecraft spun 

once every second to evenly distribute the 

heat coming from the Sun, 90 percent of 

which was reflected by optical surface mirrors. Its data indicated the presence of fifteen 

times more micrometeorites close to the Sun 

than there are near Earth. Helios 1’s data 

was correlated with the Interplanetary 

Monitoring Platform (IMP) Explorers 47 and 

50 in Earth orbit, the Pioneer solar orbiters, 

and Pioneers 10 and 11 while leaving the 

solar system. Control was maintained from a 

German center outside of Munich. Data was 

received until late 1982. 

108 Deep Space Chronicle 
148) 

Venera 9
 

Nation: USSR (92)
 

Objective(s): Venus orbit and landing
 

Spacecraft: 4V-1 (no. 660)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 4,936 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: NPO Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

286-01)
 

Launch Date and Time: 8 June 1975 / 


02:38:00 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

Orbiter: 

1) imaging system 

2) infrared radiometer 

3) ultraviolet imaging spectrometer 

4) magnetometer 

5) photopolarimeter 

6) ion/electron detectors 

7) optical spectrometer 

Lander: 

1) panoramic imaging system 

2) thermometer 

3) barometer 

4) mass spectrometer 

5) anemometer 

6) photometers 

7) nephelometer 

8) gamma-ray spectrometer 

9) radiation densitometer 

10) accelerometers 

1975
 

Results: Venera 9 was the first of a new generation of Soviet space probes (“4V”) 

designed to explore Venus. Launched by the 

more powerful Proton launch booster, the 

new spacecraft were nearly five times 

heavier than their predecessors. Each spacecraft comprised both an orbiter and a lander. 

The 2,300-kilogram orbiters (at Venus orbit 

insertion) were designed to spend their missions photographing the planet in ultraviolet 

light and conducting other scientific investigations. The landers, of a completely new 

design, employed aerodynamic braking 

during Venusian atmospheric entry and contained a panoramic photometer to take 

images of the surface. Without any apparent 

problems and with two trajectory corrections 

(on 16 June and 15 October), Venera 9’s 

lander separated from its parent on 20 

October 1975, and two days later, it hit 

Venus’s turbulent atmosphere at a speed of 

10.7 kilometers per hour. After using a series 

of parachutes, the lander set down on the 

planet’s day side at 05:13 UT on 22 October. 

Landing coordinates were 32° north latitude 

and 291° longitude at the base of a hill near 

Beta Regio. During its 53 minutes of transmissions from the surface, Venera 9 took and 

transmitted the very first picture of the 

Venusian surface from a height of 90 centimeters. These were, in fact, the very first 

photos received of the surface of another 

1975 109 
planet. The lander was supposed to transmit 

a full 360° panorama, but because one of the 

two covers on the camera failed to release, 

only a 180° panorama was received. 

Illumination was akin to that of a cloudy day 

on Earth. The image clearly showed flat 

rocks strewn around the lander. The Venera 

9 orbiter meanwhile entered a 1,500 x 

111,700-kilometer orbit around the planet at 

34°10' inclination and acted as a communications relay for the lander. It became the 

first spacecraft to go into orbit around Venus. 

The Soviets announced on 22 March 1976 

that the orbiter’s primary mission, which 

included using French-made ultraviolet cameras to obtain photographs in 1,200­

kilometer swaths, had been fulfilled. 

149) 

Venera 10
 

Nation: USSR (93)
 

Objective(s): Venus orbit and landing
 

Spacecraft: 4V-1 (no. 661)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 5,033 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: NPO
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no.
 

285-02)
 

Launch Date and Time: 14 June 1975 / 


03:00:31 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

Orbiter: 

1) imaging system 

2) infrared radiometer 

3) ultraviolet imaging spectrometer 

4) magnetometer 

5) photopolarimeter 

6) ion/electron detectors 

7) optical spectrometer 

Lander: 

1) panoramic imaging system 

2) thermometer 

3) barometer 

4) mass spectrometer 

5) anemometer 

6) photometers 

7) nephelometer 

8) gamma-ray spectrometer 

9) radiation densitometer 

10) accelerometers 

Results: Venera 10, like its sister craft Venera 9, 

fully accomplished its mission to soft-land on 

Venus and return data from the surface. The
 

spacecraft followed an identical mission to that
 

of its twin, arriving only a few days later after
 

two trajectory corrections on 21 June and 18
 

October 1975. The 660-kilogram lander separated from its parent on 23 October and
 

entered the atmosphere two days later at 01:02
 

UT. During reentry, the lander survived gravity
 

acceleration as high as 168 g and temperatures
 

as high 12,000°C. It performed its complex
 

landing procedures without fault and landed
 

without incident at 02:17 UT approximately
 

2,200 kilometers from the Venera 9 landing
 

site. Landing coordinates were 16° north latitude and 291° longitude. Venera 10 transmitted for a record 65 minutes from the
 

surface, although it was designed to last only
 

30 minutes. A photo of the Venera 10 landing
 

site showed a smoother surface than that of its
 

twin. Like Venera 9, the Venera 10 lander was
 

supposed to take a 360° panorama but covered
 

only 180° of the surroundings because of a
 

stuck lens cover. Meanwhile, the Venera 10
 

orbiter entered a 1,400 x 114,000-kilometer
 

orbit around Venus inclined at 29°30'. Soviet
 

officials later revealed that the termination of
 

data reception from both Veneras 9 and 10 was
 

not caused by the adverse surface conditions
 

but by the flying out of view of the orbiter
 

relays for both spacecraft. Gamma-ray spectrometer and radiation densitometer data indicated that the surface layer was akin to basalt
 

rather than granite as hinted by the information from Venera 8.
 

150)
 

Viking 1
 

Nation: U.S. (56)
 

Objective(s): Mars landing and orbit
 

Spacecraft: Viking-B
 

Spacecraft Mass: 3,527 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: NASA LaRC
 

(overall) and NASA JPL (Orbiter)
 

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIE-Centaur (TC-4 /
 

Titan no. E-4 / Centaur D-1T)
 

Launch Date and Time: 20 August 1975 /
 

21:22:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 41 

Scientific Instruments: 

Orbiter: 

1) imaging system 

2) atmospheric water detector 

3) infrared thermal mapper 

110 Deep Space Chronicle 
Lander: 

1) imaging system 

2) gas chromatograph mass 

spectrometer 

3) seismometer 

4) x-ray fluorescence 

5) biological laboratory 

6) weather instrument package 

(temperature, pressure, wind 

velocity) 

7) remote sampler arm 

Aeroshell: 

1) retarding potential analyzer 

2) upper-atmosphere mass 

spectrometer 

Results: Viking 1 was the first of a pair of complex deep space probes that were designed to 

reach Mars and collect evidence on the possibility (or lack thereof) for life on Mars. Each 

spacecraft was composed of two primary elements, an Orbiter (2,339 kilograms) and a 

Lander (978 kilograms). The Orbiter design 

heavily borrowed from the Mariner buses, 

while the Lander looked superficially like a 

much larger version of the Surveyor lunar 

lander. Prior to launch, the batteries of the 

first spacecraft were discharged, prompting 

NASA to replace the original first spacecraft 

with the second, which was launched as 

Viking 1. After three midcourse corrections 

(on 27 August 1975 and 10 and 15 June 1976), 

the spacecraft entered orbit around Mars on 

19 June 1976. Initial orbital parameters were 

1,500 x 50,300 kilometers. The following day, 

when the Orbiter began transmitting back 

photos of the primary landing site in the 

Chryse region, scientists discovered that the 

area was rougher than expected. Using the 

new photos, scientists targeted the lander to a 

different site on the western slopes of Chryse 

Planitia. The Lander separated from the 

Orbiter, and after a complex atmospheric 

entry sequence, during which the probe took 

air samples, Viking 1 Lander set down safely 

at 22.483° north latitude and 47.94° west longitude at 11:53:06 UT on 20 July 1976. Once 

down, the spacecraft began taking highquality photographs (in three colors) of its 

surroundings. Instruments recorded temperatures ranging from –86°C (before dawn) to 

–33°C (in the afternoon). The seismometer on 

the Lander was inoperable. On 28 July, the 

lander’s robot arm scooped up the first soil 

samples and deposited them into a special
 

biological laboratory that included a gas chromatograph mass spectrometer. While some
 

data could be construed as indicating the
 

presence of life, a major test for organic compounds gave negative Results. The Lander
 

continued to return daily (and then eventually weekly) weather reports until loss of contact on 1 February 1983. Further attempts to
 

regain contact proved unsuccessful. The
 

Orbiter was shut down on 7 August 1980,
 

after it ran out of attitude-control propellant.
 

151)
 

Viking 2
 

Nation: U.S. (57)
 

Objective(s): Mars landing and orbit
 

Spacecraft: Viking-A
 

Spacecraft Mass: 3,527 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: NASA LaRC
 

(overall) and NASA JPL (Orbiter)
 

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIE-Centaur (TC-3 /
 

Titan no. E-3 / Centaur no. D-1T)
 

Launch Date and Time: 9 September 1975 /
 

18:39:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 41 

Scientific Instruments: 

Orbiter: 

1) imaging system 

2) atmospheric water detector 

3) infrared thermal mapper 

Lander: 

1) imaging system 

2) gas chromatograph mass 

spectrometer 

3) seismometer 

4) x-ray fluorescence 

5) biological laboratory 

6) weather instrument package (temperature, pressure, wind velocity) 

7) remote sampler arm 

Aeroshell: 

1) retarding potential analyzer 

2) upper-atmosphere mass 

spectrometer 

Results: Viking-A was scheduled to be 

launched before Viking-B but had to be 

launched second due to a problem with its 

batteries that had to be repaired. After a successful launch and a midcourse correction on 

19 September 1975, Viking 2 entered orbit 

around Mars on 7 August 1976, nearly a year 

after launch. As with Viking 1, photographs 

1975 111 
The boulder-strewn field of red rocks reaches to the horizon nearly two miles from Viking 2 on Mars’s Utopian Plain. 

Scientists believe that the colors of the Martian surface and sky in this photo represent their true colors. Fine particles 

of red dust have settled on spacecraft surfaces. The salmon color of the sky is caused by dust particles suspended in 

the atmosphere. Color calibration charts for the cameras are mounted at three locations on the spacecraft. Note the 

blue starfield and red stripes of the flag. The circular structure at top is the high-gain antenna, pointed toward Earth. 

Viking 2 landed on 3 September 1976, some 4,600 miles from its twin, Viking 1, which touched down on 20 July. 

of the original landing site indicated rough 

terrain, prompting mission planners to select 

a different site at Utopia Planitia near the 

edge of the polar ice cap where water was 

located, that is, where there was a better 

chance of finding signs of life. The Lander 

separated from the Orbiter without incident 

on 3 September 1976 and, after atmospheric 

entry, landed safely at 22:37:50 UT about 

6,460 kilometers from the Viking 1 landing 

site. Touchdown coordinates were 47.968° 

north latitude and 225.71° west longitude 

Photographs of the area showed a rockier, 

flatter site than that of Viking 1. The Lander 

was in fact tilted 8.5° to the west. The biology 

experiments with scooped-up soil produced 

similar results to that of its twin—inconclusive on the question of whether life exists or 

ever has existed on the surface of Mars. 

Scientists believed that Martian soil contained reactants created by ultraviolet bombardment of the soil that could produce 

characteristics of organisms living in Earth 

soil. The Orbiter continued its successful 

imaging mission, approaching as close as 28 

kilometers to the Martian moon Deimos in 

May 1977. A series of leaks prompted the termination of Orbiter 2 operations on 24 July 

1978, while Lander 2 continued to transmit 

data until 12 April 1980. In total, the two 

Orbiters returned 51,539 images of Mars at 

300 meters resolution, that is, about 97 percent of the surface. The Landers returned 

4,500 photos of the two landing sites. 

152) 

no name / [Luna] 

Nation: USSR (94) 

112 Deep Space Chronicle 
Objective(s): lunar sample return 

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5M (no. 412) 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,800 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NPO 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D (Proton-K no. 

287-02) 

Launch Date and Time: 16 October 1975 / 

04:04:56 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) stereo imaging system 

2) improved drill for sample collection 

3) radiation detector 

4) radio-altimeter 

Results: This was the second attempt by the 

Soviet Union to send an “advanced” lunar 

sample return craft to the Moon, equipped 

with the capability to dig for a deeper core. The 

first spacecraft (Luna 23) was damaged during 

landing on the Moon in October 1974. On this 

mission, the first three stages of the Proton-K 

launch vehicle worked without fault, but the 

Blok D stage, during its first burn for insertion 

into Earth orbit, failed. The expensive payload 

burned up in Earth’s atmosphere without ever 

reaching Earth orbit. 

1975 113 

153) 

Helios 2 

Nation: Federal Republic of Germany and 

U.S. (2) 

Objective(s): solar orbit 

Spacecraft: Helios-B 

Spacecraft Mass: 370 kg 

Mission Design and Management: DFVLR and 

NASA GSFC 

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIE-Centaur (TC-5 / 

Titan no. E-5 / Centaur D-1T) 

Launch Date and Time: 15 January 1976 / 

05:34:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 41 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) plasma detector 

2) two flux gate magnetometers 

3) search-coil magnetometer 

4) plasma and radio wave experiment 

5) cosmic-ray detectors 

6) electron detectors 

7) zodiacal light photometer 

8) micrometeoroid analyzer 

9) celestial mechanics experiment 

10) Faraday rotation experiment 

11) occultation experiment 

Results: Helios 2 was the second spacecraft 

launched to investigate solar processes as part 

of a cooperative project between the Federal 

Republic of Germany and the United States in 

which the former provided the spacecraft and 

the latter the launch vehicle. Like its twin, the 

1976
 

spacecraft was put into heliocentric orbit. In 

contrast to Helios 1, however, Helios 2 flew 

three million kilometers closer to the Sun, 

achieving perihelion on 17 April 1976 at a distance of 0.29 AU (or 43.432 million kilometers). 

As a result, the spacecraft was exposed to 10 

percent more heat than was its predecessor. 

The spacecraft provided important information 

on solar plasma, the solar wind, cosmic rays, 

and cosmic dust, and also performed magnetic 

field and electrical field experiments. 

154) 

Luna 24 

Nation: USSR (95) 

Objective(s): lunar sample return 

Spacecraft: Ye-8-5M (no. 413) 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 5,800 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NPO 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok DM (Proton-K 

no. 288-02) 

Launch Date and Time: 9 August 1976 / 

15:04:12 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) stereo imaging system 

2) improved drill for sample collection 

3) radiation detector 

4) radio-altimeter 

Results: Luna 24 was the third attempt to 

recover a sample from the unexplored Mare 

1976 115 
Crisium (after Luna 23 and a launch failure in 

October 1975), the location of a large lunar 

mascon. After a trajectory correction on 11 

August 1976, Luna 24 entered orbit around 

the Moon three days later. Initial orbital 

parameters were 115 x 115 kilometers at 120° 

inclination. After further changes to its orbit, 

Luna 24 set down safely on the lunar surface 

at 06:36 UT on 18 August 1976 at 12°45' north 

latitude and 62°12' east longitude, not far from 

where Luna 23 had landed. After appropriate 

commands from ground control, the Lander 

deployed its sample arm and pushed its 

drilling head about 2 meters into the nearby 

soil. The sample was safely stowed in the 

small return capsule, and after nearly a day on 

the Moon, Luna 24 lifted off successfully from 

the Moon at 05:25 UT on 19 August 1976. 

After an uneventful return trip, Luna 24’s capsule entered Earth’s atmosphere and parachuted down to Earth safely at 05:55 UT on 23 

August 1976, about 200 kilometers southeast 

of Surgut in western Siberia. Study of the 

recovered 170.1 grams of soil indicated a laminated type structure, as if laid down in successive deposits. Tiny portions of the sample 

were shared with NASA in December 1976. 

Luna 24 remains the last Soviet or Russian 

probe to the Moon. An American spacecraft 

(Clementine) returned to the Moon over fourteen years later. 

116 Deep Space Chronicle 
155)
 

Voyager 2
 

Nation: U.S. (58)
 

Objective(s): Jupiter flyby, Saturn flyby,
 

Uranus flyby, Neptune flyby
 

Spacecraft: Voyager-2
 

Spacecraft Mass: 2,080 kg (822 kg mission
 

module)
 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL
 

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIE-Centaur (TC-7 /
 

Titan no. 23E-7 / Centaur D-1T)
 

Launch Date and Time: 20 August 1977 /
 

14:29:44 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 41 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system
 

2) ultraviolet spectrometer
 

3) infrared spectrometer
 

4) planetary radio astronomy 


experiment 

5) photopolarimeter 

6) magnetometers 

7) plasma particles experiment 

8) low-energy charged-particles 

experiment
 

9) plasma waves experiment
 

10) cosmic-ray telescope
 

Results: Although launched after Voyager 1, 

Voyager 2, the second in a pair of spacecraft 

designed to explore the outer planets, exited 

the Asteroid Belt after its twin and then followed it to Jupiter and Saturn. Its primary 

1977
 

radio transmitter failed on 5 April 1978, and 

the spacecraft has used its backup ever since. 

Voyager 2 began transmitting images of 

Jupiter on 24 April 1979 for time-lapse movies 

of atmospheric circulation. During its 

encounter, it relayed back spectacular photos of 

the entire Jovian system, including its moons 

Amalthea, Io, Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa, 

all of which had already been surveyed by 

Voyager 1. Voyager 2’s closest encounter with 

Jupiter was at 22:29 UT on 9 July 1979 at a 

range of 645,000 kilometers. It transmitted 

new data on the planet’s clouds and its newly 

discovered four moons and ring system. 

Following a midcourse correction 2 hours after 

its closest approach to Jupiter, Voyager 2 sped 

to Saturn. Its encounter with the sixth planet 

began on 22 August 1981, two years after 

leaving the Jovian system, with imaging of the 

moon Iapetus. Once again, Voyager 2 repeated 

the photographic mission of its predecessor, 

although it actually flew 23,000 kilometers 

closer to Saturn. The closest encounter was at 

01:21 UT on 26 August 1981 at a range of 

101,000 kilometers. The spacecraft provided 

more detailed images of the ring spokes and 

kinks, as well as the F-ring and its shepherding 

moons. Voyager 2’s data suggested that 

Saturn’s A-ring was perhaps only 300 meters 

thick. It also photographed the Saturn moons 

Hyperion, Enceladus, Tethys, and Phoebe. 

1977 117 
The little spacecraft that could, Voyager, which flew on a “grand tour” of the outer planets during the latter 1970s 

and early 1980s and is now departing the solar system. 

118 Deep Space Chronicle 
This Voyager 2 view, focusing on Saturn’s C-ring (and to a lesser extent, the B-ring at top and left) was compiled from 

three separate images taken through ultraviolet, clear, and green filters. On 23 August 1981, when it acquired these 

frames, Voyager 2 was 2.7 million kilometers from the planet. In general, C-ring material is very bland and gray, the 

color of dirty ice. Color differences between this ring and the B-ring indicate differing surface compositions for the 

material composing these complex structures. More than sixty bright and dark ringlets are evident here; the small, 

bland squares are caused by the removal of reseau (reference) marks during processing. 

Although Voyager 2 had fulfilled its primary 

mission goals with the two planetary encounters, mission planners directed the veteran 

spacecraft to Uranus on a 4.5-year journey, 

during which it covered 33 AU. The geometry 

of the Uranus encounter was defined by 

the possibility of a future encounter with 

Neptune: Voyager 2 had only 5.5 hours of close 

study during its flyby, the first of any humanmade spacecraft past the planet Uranus. 

Long-range observations of the planet began 

on 4 November 1985, when signals took 

approximately 2.5 hours to reach Earth. Light 

conditions were 400 times less than terrestrial 

conditions. The closest approach to Uranus 

took place at 17:59 UT on 24 January 1986 at 

a range of 71,000 kilometers. During its flyby, 

Voyager 2 discovered ten new moons, two new 

1977 119 
rings in addition to the “older” nine, and a 

magnetic field tilted at 55° off-axis and offcenter. The spacecraft found that wind speeds 

in the atmosphere of Uranus were as high as 

724 kilometers per hour and found evidence of 

a boiling ocean of water some 800 kilometers 

below the top cloud surface. Voyager 2 also 

returned spectacular photos of Miranda, 

Oberon, Ariel, Umbriel, and Titania, five 

larger moons of Uranus. 

Following the Uranus Encounter, the spacecraft performed a single midcourse correction 

on 14 February 1986 to set it on a precise 

course to Neptune. Voyager 2’s encounter with 

Neptune capped a 7-billion-kilometer journey 

when on 25 August 1989, at 03:56 UT, it flew 

4,500 kilometers over the cloud tops of the 

giant planet, the closest of its four flybys. 

It was the first humanmade object to fly by 

the planet. Its ten instruments were still 

in working order at the time. During the 

encounter, the spacecraft discovered five new 

moons and four new rings. The planet itself 

was found to be more active than previously believed, with 1,100-kilometer winds. 

Hydrogen was found to be the most common 

atmospheric element, although the abundant 

methane gives the planet its blue appearance. 

Voyager data on Triton, Neptune’s largest 

moon, revealed the coldest known planetary 

body in the solar system and a nitrogen ice 

“volcano” on its surface. Once past the 

Neptune system, Voyager 2 followed a course 

below the elliptic plane and out of the solar 

system. Approximately 56 million kilometers 

past the encounter, Voyager 2 instruments 

were put in low-power mode to conserve 

energy. After the Neptune encounter, NASA 

formally renamed the entire project the 

Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM). In 

November 1998, twenty-one years after 

launch, nonessential instruments were permanently turned off, leaving seven instruments 

still operating. By 1 June 2001, the spacecraft 

was 9.6 billion kilometers from Earth and 

traveling at 15.75 kilometers per second (relative to the Sun). NASA’s JPL continues to 

receive regular ultraviolet and fields/particles 

data. For example, on 12 January 2001, an 

immense shock wave that had blasted out of 

the outer heliosphere on 14 July 2000 finally 

reached Voyager 2. During the six-month
 

journey, the shock wave had ploughed through
 

the solar wind, sweeping up and accelerating
 

charged particles. The spacecraft provided
 

important information on high-energy shock-


energized ions. Data from the operating
 

instruments could be received as late as 2020,
 

when power levels are expected to reduce to
 

the minimum 230 watts.
 

156)
 

Voyager 1
 

Nation: U.S. (57)
 

Objective(s): Jupiter flyby, Saturn flyby
 

Spacecraft: Voyager-1
 

Spacecraft Mass: 2,080 kg (822 kg mission
 

module)
 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL
 

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIE-Centaur (TC-6 /
 

Titan no. 23E-6 / Centaur D-1T)
 

Launch Date and Time: 5 September 1977 /
 

12:56:01 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 41 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) ultraviolet spectrometer 

3) infrared spectrometer 

4) planetary radio astronomy 

experiment 

5) photopolarimeter 

6) magnetometers 

7) plasma particles experiment 

8) low-energy charged-particles 

experiment 

9) plasma waves experiment 

10) cosmic-ray telescope 

Results: The two-spacecraft Voyager missions 

were designed to replace original plans for a 

“Grand Tour” of the planets that would have 

used four complex spacecraft to explore the five 

outer planets during the late 1970s. NASA canceled the plan in 1972 and instead proposed to 

send two spacecraft to Jupiter and Saturn in 

1977. The two spacecraft were designed to 

explore the two gas giants in more detail than 

the two Pioneers (Pioneers 10 and 11) that preceded them. Each of the two spacecraft was 

equipped with slow-scan color TV to take live 

television images from the planets, and each 

also carried an extensive suite of instruments to 

record magnetic, atmospheric, lunar, and other 

data about the planets. The original design of 

120 Deep Space Chronicle 
This picture of Neptune was produced from the last whole planet images taken through the green and orange filters 

on the Voyager 2 narrow-angle camera. The images were taken at a range of 7.1 million kilometers from the planet, 

4 days and 20 hours before closest approach. The picture shows the Great Dark Spot and its companion bright 

smudge; on the west limb, the fast-moving bright feature called Scooter and the little dark spot are visible. These clouds 

were seen to persist for as long as Voyager’s cameras could resolve them. North of these, a bright cloud band similar to the south polar streak may be seen. Years later, when the Hubble telescope was focused on the planet, these 

atmospheric features had changed, indicating that Neptune’s atmosphere is dynamic. 

the spacecraft was based on that of the older 

Mariners. Power was provided by three plutonium oxide radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) mounted at the end of a boom. 

Voyager 1 was launched after Voyager 2, but 

because of a faster route, it exited the 

asteroid belt earlier than its twin. It began its 

Jovian imaging mission in April 1978 at a 

range of 265 million kilometers from the 

planet; images sent back by January the following year indicated that Jupiter’s atmosphere was more turbulent than during the 

Pioneer flybys in 1973 and 1974. On 10 

February 1979, the spacecraft crossed into 

the Jovian moon system, and in early March, 

it had already discovered a thin (less than 30 

kilometers thick) ring circling Jupiter. Flying 

past Amalthea, Io, Europa, Ganymede, and 

Callisto (in that order) on 5 March, Voyager 1 

returned spectacular photos of their terrain, 

opening up a completely new world for plan1977 121 
etary scientists. The most interesting find 

was on Io, where images showed a bizarre 

yellow, orange, and brown world with at least 

eight active volcanoes spewing material into 

space, making it one of the most (if not the 

most) geologically active planetary bodies in 

the solar system. The spacecraft also discovered two new moons, Thebe and Metis. 

Voyager 1’s closest encounter with Jupiter 

was at 12:05 UT on 5 March 1979 at a range 

of 280,000 kilometers. 

Following the Jupiter encounter, Voyager 1 

completed a single course correction on 9 

April 1979 in preparation for its rendezvous 

with Saturn. A second correction on 10 

October 1979 ensured that the spacecraft 

would not hit Saturn’s moon Titan. Its flyby 

of the Saturn system in November 1979 was 

as spectacular as its previous encounter. 

Voyager 1 found five new moons and a ring 

system consisting of thousands of bands, 

discovered a new ring (the “G-ring”), and 

found “shepherding” satellites on either 

side of the F-ring satellites that keep the 

rings well defined. During its flyby, the 

spacecraft photographed Saturn’s moons 

Titan, Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, 

and Rhea. Based on incoming data, all the 

moons appeared to be largely composed of 

water ice. Perhaps the most interesting 

target was Titan, which Voyager 1 passed at 

05:41 UT on 12 November at a range of 

4,000 kilometers. Images showed a thick 

atmosphere that completely hid the surface. 

The spacecraft found that the Moon’s 

atmosphere was composed of 90 percent 

nitrogen. Pressure and temperature at the 

surface was 1.6 atmospheres and –180° C, 

respectively. Voyager 1’s closest approach to 

Saturn was at 23:45 UT on 12 November 

1980 at a range of 124,000 kilometers. 

Following the encounter with Saturn, Voyager 1 

headed on a trajectory escaping the solar 

system at a speed of about 3.5 AU per year, 35° 

out of the ecliptic plane to the north, in the general direction of the Sun’s motion relative to 

nearby stars. Because of the specific requirements for the Titan flyby, the spacecraft was not 

directed to Uranus and Neptune. The official 

goal of the Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM), 

as the dual Voyager flights have been called 

since 1989, is to extend NASA’s exploration of 

the solar system beyond the neighborhood of 

the outer planets to the outer limits of the Sun’s 

sphere of influence, and possibly beyond. 

Specific goals include collecting data on the 

heliopause boundary, the outer limits of the 

Sun’s magnetic field, and the outward flow of 

the solar wind. As with Voyager 2, there are 

seven instruments that remain operational on 

Voyager 1 and continue to transmit data regularly back to Earth. On 17 February 1998, 

Voyager 1 became the most distant humanmade object in existence when it surpassed 

Pioneer 10’s range from Earth. By 1 June 2001, 

Voyager 1 was 12.033 billion kilometers from 

Earth and traveling at 17.25 kilometers per 

second relative to the Sun. 

122 Deep Space Chronicle 
157) 

Pioneer Venus 1 

Nation: U.S. (60) 

Objective(s): Venus orbit 

Spacecraft: Pioneer Venus Orbiter 

Spacecraft Mass: 582 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA ARC 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-50 / Atlas 

no. 5030D) 

Launch Date and Time: May 20 1978 / 

13:13:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) charged-particle retarding potential 

analyzer 

2) charged-particle mass spectrometer 

3) thermal electron temperature 

Langmuir probe 

4) neutral-particle mass spectrometer 

5) cloud photopolarimeter/imaging 

system 

6) temperature sounding infrared 

radiometer 

7) magnetic field fluxgate 

magnetometer 

8) solar wind plasma analyzer 

9) surface radar mapper 

10) electric field experiment 

11) transient gamma-ray burst 

experiment 

12) gas and plasma environment 

experiment 

1978
 

13) radio occultation experiment 

14) atmospheric and solar corona 

turbulence experiment 

15) drag measurements experiment 

16) internal density distribution 

experiment 

17) celestial mechanics experiment 

Results: The Pioneer Venus project comprised 

two spacecraft to explore the atmosphere and 

surface of Venus. Both spacecraft used a basic 

cylindrical bus. Pioneer Venus 1, the orbiter, 

was designed to spend an extended period in 

orbit around Venus mapping the surface 

using a radar package. The orbiter entered an 

elliptical orbit around Venus on 4 December 

1978 after a 6.5-month journey. The initial 

orbital period was 23.4 hours, which was 

altered within two orbits to the desired 24 

hours—a maneuver that would allow the 

orbit’s high and low points (about 150 kilometers) to occur at the same time each Earth 

day. Data from the radar mapper allowed scientists to produce a topographical map of 

most of the Venusian surface between 73° 

north and 63° south latitude at a resolution 

of 75 kilometers. The data indicated that 

Venus was much smoother and more spherical than Earth. The orbiter identified the 

highest point on Venus as Maxwell Montes, 

which rises 10.8 kilometers above the mean 

surface. Infrared observations revealed a 

clearing in the planet’s atmosphere over the 

1978 123 
north pole. In addition, ultraviolet light 

photos showed dark markings that covered 

the clouds in the visible hemisphere. 

Cameras also detected almost continuous 

lightning activity in the atmosphere. The 

spacecraft confirmed that Venus has little, if 

any, magnetic field. Although the mapping 

radar was switched off on 19 March 1981, it 

was reactivated again in 1991, thirteen years 

after launch, to explore the previously inaccessible southern portions of the planet. In 

May 1992, Pioneer Venus 1 began the final 

phase of its mission, maintaining its periapsis between 150 and 250 kilometers until 

propellant depletion. The last transmission 

was received at 19:22 UT on 8 October 1992, 

as its decaying orbit no longer permitted 

communications. The spacecraft burned in 

the atmosphere soon after, ending a successful fourteen-year mission that was 

planned to last only eight months. 

158) 

Pioneer Venus 2 

Nation: U.S. (61) 

Objective(s): Venus impact 

Spacecraft: Pioneer Venus Multiprobe 

Spacecraft Mass: 904 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA ARC 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur (AC-51 / Atlas 

no. 5031D) 

Launch Date and Time: 8 August 1978 / 

07:33 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 36A 

Scientific Instruments: 

Bus: 

1) neutral mass spectrometer 

2) ion mass spectrometer 

3) differential long baseline interferometry experiment 

4) atmospheric propagation experiment 

5) atmospheric turbulence experiment 

Large probe: 

1) neutral mass spectrometer 

2) solar flux radiometer 

3) gas chromatograph 

4) infrared radiometer 

5) cloud particle size spectrometer 

6) atmospheric structure experiment 

Small probes (each): 

1) atmospheric structure experiment 

2) cloud particles experiment 

3) net flux radiometer 

Results: Pioneer Venus 2, the twin to Pioneer 

Venus 1, comprised a main bus, a large probe 

(316.5 kilograms), and three identical small 

probes, all of which were designed to collect 

data during independent atmospheric entry 

into Venus. Each probe was shaped like a cone 

and not designed to survive past surface 

impact. After a course correction on 16 August 

1978, Pioneer Venus 2 released the 1.5-meterdiameter large probe on 16 November 1978, at 

about 11.1 million kilometers from the planet. 

Four days later, the bus released the three 

small probes while 9.3 million kilometers 

from Venus. All five components reached the 

Venusian atmosphere on 9 December 1978, 

with the large probe entering first. Using a 

combination of air drag and a parachute, the 

large probe descended through the atmosphere until it impacted on the Venusian surface at 4.4° north latitude and 304.0° 

longitude at a speed of 32 kilometers per hour. 

Transmissions ceased at impact as expected. 

The three 76-centimeter-diameter small 

probes arrived in the atmosphere within minutes of the bigger one and descended rapidly 

through the atmosphere without the benefit 

of parachutes. Amazingly, two of three probes 

survived the hard impact. The so-called Day 

Probe transmitted data from the surface for 

67.5 minutes before succumbing to the high 

temperatures and power depletion. All three 

small probes suffered instrument failures, but 

none significant enough to jeopardize their 

main missions. Their landing coordinates 

were 59.3° north latitude and 4.8° longitude 

(North Probe); 31.3° south latitude and 317.0° 

longitude (Day Probe); and 28.7° south latitude and 56.7° longitude (Night Probe). The 

main bus, meanwhile, burned up in the 

atmosphere at an altitude of 120 kilometers— 

about 1.5 hours after the other probes—and 

provided key data on higher regions. Data 

from the probes indicated that between 10 

and 50 kilometers, there is almost no convection in the atmosphere. Below a haze layer at 

30 kilometers, the atmosphere appears to be 

relatively clear. 

159) 

ISEE-3
 

Nation: U.S. (62)
 

Objective(s): Earth-Sun L1 Libration Point,
 

Comet Giacobini-Zinner flyby, lunar flybys
 

124 Deep Space Chronicle 
Spacecraft: ISEE-C
 

Spacecraft Mass: 479 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: NASA GSFC
 

Launch Vehicle: Delta 2914 (no. 144 / Thor no.
 

633)
 

Launch Date and Time: 12 August 1978 / 


15:12 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 17B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) solar wind plasma experiment 

2) magnetometer 

3) low-energy cosmic-ray experiment 

4) medium-energy cosmic-ray 

experiment 

5) high-energy cosmic-ray experiment 

6) plasma waves experiment 

7) protons experiment 

8) cosmic-ray electrons experiment 

9) x-rays and electrons experiment 

10) radio mapping experiment 

11) plasma composition experiment 

12) high-energy cosmic-rays experiment 

13) ground-based solar studies 

experiment 

Results: ISEE-3 was the third of three 

International Sun-Earth Explorers (ISEE) 

designed and operated by NASA in cooperation with the European Space Agency. NASA 

built the first and third spacecraft, while 

ESA built the second. The three spacecraft 

were to simultaneously investigate a wide 

range of phenomena in interplanetary space. 

After launch, on 20 November 1978, ISEE-3 

was successfully placed at Libration Point 1 

(L1) on the Sunward side of Earth, a point 1.5 

million kilometers from Earth, where the 

gravitational forces of Earth and the Sun are 

exactly counterbalanced. ISEE 3 became not 

only the first spacecraft to be put into orbit 

around a Libration Point, but also the first 

spacecraft to monitor the solar wind 

approaching Earth. ISEE-3 completed its primary mission in 1981, but Goddard Space 

Flight Center scientists proposed sending the 

spacecraft first through Earth’s magnetic tail 

and second into position to intercept a comet. 

By 10 June 1982, the spacecraft began to use 

its thrusters to move into the geotail. ISEE-3 

completed the first deep survey of Earth’s tail 

and detected a huge plasmoid of electrified 

gas that was ejected from Earth’s magnetosphere. Subsequently, after a series of five 

complex flybys of the Moon (the last on 22 

December 1983 at a range of only 120 kilometers), ISEE-3 was sent on a trajectory to 

encounter the Comet Giacobini-Zinner. At 

this point, the spacecraft was renamed the 

International Cometary Explorer (ICE). On 

11 September 1985 at 11:02 UT, ICE passed 

within 7,862 kilometers of the comet’s core, 

becoming the first spacecraft to fly past a 

comet. The spacecraft returned excellent data 

on the comet’s tail, confirming theories that 

comets are essentially “dirty snowballs” of 

ice, with surface material sleeting off during 

motion. ICE also flew to 40.2 million kilometers of the sunward side of Comet Halley on 

28 March 1986 and provided upstream solar 

wind data. ICE remains in heliocentric orbit 

at about 1 AU; it continued to return information until NASA authorized termination 

of operations on 5 May 1997. On 10 August 

2014, ICE will return to the vicinity of Earth, 

where it could possibly be captured for 

analysis of its exterior for dust impacts. If it 

is recovered, NASA will donate the spacecraft 

to the Smithsonian Institution for display. 

160) 

Venera 11 

Nation: USSR (96) 

Objective(s): Venus flyby and landing 

Spacecraft: 4V-1 (no. 360) 

Spacecraft Mass: 4,450 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NPO 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok DM (Proton-K 

no. 296-01 / Blok DM no. 3L) 

Launch Date and Time: 9 September 1978 / 

03:25:39 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: 

Flyby bus: 

1) plasma spectrometer 

2) Konus gamma-ray detector 

3) Sneg-2MZ gamma- and x-ray burst 

detector 

4) ultraviolet spectrometer 

5) magnetometer 

6) solar wind detectors 

7) cosmic-ray detectors 

Lander: 

1) imaging system 

2) Sigma gas chromatograph 

3) mass spectrometer 

4) gamma-ray spectrometer 

1978 125 
5) Groza lightning detector 

6) temperature and pressure sensors 

7) nephelometer 

8) anemometer 

9) optical spectrophotometer 

10) remote soil collector 

11) x-ray fluorescence cloud aerosol 

analyzer 

12) Arakhis x-ray fluorescence spectrometer and drill 

Results: Venera 11 was one of two identical 

probes (the other being Venera 12) that followed up on the highly successful Soviet 

missions to Venus in 1975. Veneras 11 and 

12 differed from their predecessors principally in the fact each carried a flyby 

bus/lander combination instead of the previous orbiter/lander combination. Engineers 

reverted to the flyby combination partly 

because of the weight limitations of the 1978 

launch window, but also because flyby 

probes afforded better transmission time for 

landers. Several of the scientific instruments were also modified and new ones 

added. Venera 11 arrived at Venus after two 

course corrections on 16 September and 17 

December 1978. On 23 December 1978, the 

lander separated from the flyby probe and 

entered the Venusian atmosphere two days 

later. The lander probe safely landed on 

Venus at 03:24 UT on 15 December 1978 

and then relayed 95 minutes of data from 

the surface. Landing coordinates were 14° 

south latitude and 299° longitude. The point 

of cutoff was determined by the range of visibility of the flyby probe. A soil-drilling 

instrument collected soil for chemical and 

physical analysis, but soil analysis was 

unsuccessful because the soil was not properly deposited to an examination container 

for analysis (probably due to leaking air that 

disturbed the soil). The lander also failed to 

take color panoramas of the Venusian surface due to a failure of the lens covers of the 

camera system to open. While extensive 

atmospheric data was later released, the 

Soviets have published relatively little data 

from surface measurements. The flyby probe 

entered heliocentric orbit after flying past 

the planet at a range of 35,000 kilometers. 

161) 

Venera 12 

Nation: USSR (97) 

Objective(s): Venus flyby and landing 

Spacecraft: 4V-1 (no. 361) 

Spacecraft Mass: 4,461 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NPO 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok DM (Proton-K 

no. 296-02 / Blok DM no. 4L) 

Launch Date and Time: 14 September 1978 / 

02:25:13 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 81P 

Scientific Instruments: 

Flyby bus: 

1) plasma spectrometer 

2) Konus gamma-ray detector 

3) Sneg-2MZ gamma- and x-ray burst 

detector 

4) ultraviolet spectrometer 

5) magnetometer 

6) solar wind detectors 

7) cosmic-ray detectors 

Lander: 

1) imaging system 

2) Sigma gas chromatograph 

3) mass spectrometer 

4) gamma-ray spectrometer 

5) Groza lightning detector 

6) temperature and pressure sensors 

7) nephelometer 

8) anemometer 

9) optical spectrophotometer 

10) remote soil collector 

11) x-ray fluorescence cloud aerosol 

analyzer 

12) Arakhis x-ray fluorescence spectrometer and drill 

Results: Venera 12 was the identical sister craft 

to Venera 11. Launched successfully towards 

Venus, the spacecraft performed two midcourse corrections on 21 September and 14 

December 1978. As with its twin, two days 

prior to the planetary encounter, the flyby 

probe released its lander. On 21 December, the 

lander entered the Venusian atmosphere at a 

velocity of 11.2 kilometers per second and performed a descent profile almost identical to 

that of the earlier Veneras 9 and 10 in 1975. 

The lander safely touched down at 03:30 UT 

on 21 December 1978 after a descent lasting 

about an hour. Landing coordinates were 7° 

south latitude and 294° longitude, about 800 

kilometers from its twin. From the ground, the 

probe relayed data for a record 110 minutes, 

126 Deep Space Chronicle 
although like Venera 11, the spacecraft suffered two major failures: its soil sample 

delivery instrument failed to deposit the soil 

appropriately for scientific analysis; and lens 

covers on the imaging system failed to release, 

effectively rendering the color imaging system 

useless. The flyby probe passed by the planet 

at a range of 35,000 kilometers after performing its data transmission mission and 

then entered heliocentric orbit. 

1978 127 

162) 

Venera 13 

Nation: USSR (98) 

Objective(s): Venus flyby and landing 

Spacecraft: 4V-1M (no. 760) 

Spacecraft Mass: 4,363 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NPO 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok DM (Proton-K 

no. 311-01 / Blok DM no. 5L) 

Launch Date and Time: 30 October 1981 / 

06:04 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 200P 

Scientific Instruments: 

Flyby bus: 

1) magnetometer 

2) cosmic-ray detector 

3) solar wind detectors 

4) Signe-2MS3 gamma-ray burst 

detector 

Lander: 

1) x-ray fluorescence spectrometer and 

drill 

2) x-ray fluorescence spectrometer for 

aerosols 

3) imaging system 

4) pressure and temperature sensors 

5) mass spectrometer 

6) Groza-2 lightning detector 

7) gas chromatograph 

8) nephelometer 

9) spectrophotometer 

1981
 

10) accelerometer 

11) humidity sensor 

12) prop soil mechanical/electrical 

probe 

13) seismometer 

Results: Venera 13 was one of the third pair of 

heavy Venus flyby/lander probes launched 

towards Venus by the Soviet Union in the 

1970s (after Venera 9/10 and Venera 11/12). 

The Soviets picked the landing site for Venera 

13 based on information passed on by NASA 

from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter vehicle. The 

Venera 13/14 combination had an improved 

set of instruments (such as the spectrophotometer, the gas chromatograph, and the mass 

spectrometer), including a redesigned soil 

sampler. After two midcourse corrections on 10 

November 1981 and 21 February 1982, the 

Venera 13 lander separated from its parent on 

27 February 1982. The capsule entered the 

Venusian atmosphere and began relaying 

atmospheric data back to the flyby probe, 

which continued to fly past the planet after a 

36,000-kilometer-range encounter. After a 

roughly 1-hour-long descent, the lander set 

down on the Venusian surface at 03:57:21 UT 

on 1 March 1982. Landing coordinates were 

7.5° south latitude and 303° longitude. The 

probe continued to transmit for another additional 127 minutes, far beyond the planned 

lifetime of 32 minutes. The probe found temperature and pressure to be 465°C and 89.5 

1981 129 
atmospheres, respectively. Venera 13 repeated 

the attempts at color surface photography 

(using red, green, and blue filters) that failed 

on Veneras 11 and 12 and succeeded by 

relaying to Earth the first color photographs of 

the surface of Venus. Venera 13 returned eight 

successive panoramas showing a field of 

orange-brown angular rocks and loose soil. 

Successful soil analysis (which failed on 

Veneras 11 and 12) showed soil similar to terrestrial leucitic basalt with a high potassium 

content. The flyby module entered heliocentric 

orbit. Its engine was fired on 10 June 1982 as 

part of a test for the anticipated Halley’s 

Comet flyby. 

163) 

Venera 14 

Nation: USSR (99) 

Objective(s): Venus flyby and landing 

Spacecraft: 4V-1M (no. 761) 

Spacecraft Mass: 4,363.5 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NPO 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok DM (Proton-K 

no. 311-02 / Blok DM no. 6L) 

Launch Date and Time: 4 November 1981 / 

05:31 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 200L 

Scientific Instruments: 

Flyby bus: 

1) magnetometer 

2) cosmic-ray detector 

3) solar wind detectors 

4) Signe-2MS3 gamma-ray burst 

detector 

Lander: 

1) 	 x-ray fluorescence spectrometer and 

drill 

2) 	 x-ray fluorescence spectrometer for 

aerosols 

3) 	imaging system 

4) 	 pressure and temperature sensors 

5) 	mass spectrometer 

6) 	 Groza-2 lightning detector 

7) 	gas chromatograph 

8) 	nephelometer 

9) 	spectrophotometer 

10) accelerometer 

11) humidity sensor 

12) prop soil mechanical/electrical 

probe 

13) seismometer 

Results: Venera 14 was identical to its twin, 

Venera 13. The spacecraft carried out three 

midcourse corrections on the way to Venus: on 

14 November 1981, 23 November 1981, and 25 

February 1982. Russian sources indicate that 

one of the corrections was incorrect (probably 

the first) and could have jeopardized the mission. The lander probe separated from its flyby 

parent on 3 March 1982 before the entry cycle 

began. The probe’s main parachute opened at 

an altitude of 62 to 63 kilometers, thus activating the atmospheric instruments. The 

parachute was released at an altitude of 47 

kilometers, and the 760-kilogram lander fell to 

the surface using only the atmosphere as a 

retarding medium. The probe made safe contact with the Venusian surface at 07:00:10 UT 

on 3 March 1982 and continued with 57 minutes of transmissions. Landing coordinates 

were 13.25° south latitude and 310° longitude, 

about 1,000 kilometers from the Venera 13 

landing site. As with its twin, Venera 14 

returned color photographs of its surroundings and examined a soil sample (about 1 cubic 

centimeter taken from a 30-millimeter-deep 

sample). Soil was deposited in a chamber 

sealed off from the outside environment and 

was then progressively transferred through a 

series of chambers by blowing air until the 

sample was deposited in its final chamber 

with a temperature of only 30°C. Here it was 

examined by the x-ray fluorescence spectrometer. Temperature and pressure outside were 

considerably higher than at the Venera 13 site: 

470°C and 93.5 atmospheres, respectively. The 

flyby probe, meanwhile, passed Venus at a 

range of 36,000 kilometers and entered heliocentric orbit, continuing to provide data on 

solar x-ray flares. It performed one trajectory 

change on 14 November 1982. 

130 Deep Space Chronicle 
164) 

Venera 15 

Nation: USSR (100) 

Objective(s): Venus orbit 

Spacecraft: 4V-2 (no. 860) 

Spacecraft Mass: 5,250 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NPO 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok DM (Proton-K 

no. 321-01 / Blok DM no. 8L) 

Launch Date and Time: 2 June 1983 / 

02:38:39 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 200L 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) Polyus-V side-looking radar
 

2) Omega radiometric system
 

3) Radio occultation experiment
 

4) infrared spectrometer
 

5) cosmic-ray detectors
 

6) solar wind detectors
 

Results: Venera 15 and Venera 16 were a pair of 

dedicated radar mappers designed to extend 

the studies begun by the American Pioneer 

Venus Orbiter in constructing a detailed map 

of the surface down to a resolution of about 1 

to 2 kilometers. For these missions, Soviet 

engineers lengthened the central bus of the 

earlier Veneras (by 1 meter), installed much 

larger solar batteries, and attached a large 

side-looking radar antenna in place of the 

descent lander module on the earlier spacecraft. Venera 15 carried out two midcourse cor1983
 

rections (on 10 June 1983 and 1 October 1983) 

before successfully entering orbit around 

Venus at 03:05 UT on 10 October. Initial 

orbital parameters were 1,000 x 65,000 kilometers at 87° inclination—that is, a near-polar 

orbit. The spacecraft’s mapping operations 

began six days after entering orbit over the 

north pole. Because of the nature of the spacecraft’s orbit, the two orbiters mapped only the 

area from 30° north latitude to the pole— 

about 115 million square kilometers—before 

the mission was completed on 10 July 1984. 

165) 

Venera 16 

Nation: USSR (101) 

Objective(s): Venus orbit 

Spacecraft: 4V-2 (no. 861) 

Spacecraft Mass: 5,300 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NPO 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok DM (Proton-K 

no. 321-02 / Blok DM no. 9L) 

Launch Date and Time: 7 June 1983 / 02:32 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 200P 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) Polyus-V side-looking radar 

2) Omega radiometric system 

3) Radio occultation experiment 

4) infrared spectrometer 

5) cosmic-ray detectors 

6) solar wind detectors 

1983 131 
Results: Venera 16 arrived at Venus at 06:22 

UT on 14 October 1983 after en route course 

corrections on 15 June and 5 October 1983. It 

began its mapping operations six days later in 

its 24-hour-period near-polar orbit. Mapping 

resolution of both Veneras 15 and 16 was comparable to that possible with the 300-meter 

dish at Arecibo in Puerto Rico, although the 

Soviet orbiters provided coverage over latitudes higher than 30°, too far north for Earthbased observations. Both spacecraft also used 

an East German infrared spectrometer to 

map the planet in infrared wavelengths in 

order to provide a “heat atlas” of the atmosphere. Although the primary missions of both 

spacecraft were fulfilled by 10 July 1984, at 

least one of the pair was still operational in 

November 1984. If there were plans to change 

its orbit to provide coverage of lower latitudes, 

these were never carried out. 

132 Deep Space Chronicle 
166) 

Vega 1 

Nation: USSR (102) 

Objective(s): Venus atmospheric entry and 

landing, Halley’s Comet flyby 

Spacecraft: 5VK (no. 901) 

Spacecraft Mass: c. 4,920 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NPO 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok DM (Proton-K 

no. 329-01 / Blok DM no. 11L) 

Launch Date and Time: 15 December 1984 / 

09:16:24 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 200L 

Scientific Instruments: 

Lander: 

1) Malakhit mass spectrometer

2) Sigma-3 gas chromatograph

3) VM-4 hygrometer

4) GS-15-SCV gamma-ray

spectrometer

5) UV spectrometer

6) BDRP-AM25 x-ray fluorescence

spectrometer and drill

7) ISAV nephelometer/scatterometer

8) temperature and pressure sensors

9) IFP aerosol analyzer

Balloon:

1) temperature and pressure sensors

2) vertical wind anemometer

3) nephelometer

4) light level/lighting detector

1984
 

Bus: 

1) imaging system

2) infrared spectrometer

3) ultraviolet, visible, infrared imaging

spectrometer

4) shield penetration detector

5) dust detectors

6) dust mass spectrometer

7) neutral gas mass spectrometer

8) APV-V plasma energy analyzer

9) energetic-particle analyzer

10) magnetometer

11) wave and plasma analyzers

Results: The twin-spacecraft Vega project was 

perhaps the most ambitious deep space Soviet 

mission to date. The mission had three major 

goals: to place advanced lander modules on 

the surface of Venus, to deploy balloons (two 

each) in the Venusian atmosphere, and, by 

using Venusian gravity, to fly the remaining 

buses past the Comet Halley. The entire mission was a cooperative effort among the 

Soviet Union (who provided the spacecraft 

and launch vehicle) and Austria, Bulgaria, 

Hungary, the German Democratic Republic 

(East Germany), Poland, Czechoslovakia, 

France, and the Federal Republic of Germany 

(West Germany). Although the landers were 

similar to ones used before for exploring 

Venus, the balloon gondolas were completely 

new French-made vehicles that carried 

American-French nephelometers to measure 

1984 133 
aerosol distribution in the atmosphere. The 

cometary flyby probes, which contained a 120­

kilogram scientific package for investigations, 

were protected against high-velocity impacts 

from dust particles. After a successful flight to 

Venus, Vega 1 released its 1,500-kilogram 

descent module on 9 June 1985, two days 

before atmospheric entry. At 61 kilometers 

altitude, as the lander descended, it released 

the first helium-inflated plastic balloon with a 

hanging gondola underneath it. Mass was 

around 20.8 kilograms. As the balloon drifted 

through the Venusian atmosphere (controlled 

partly by ballast), it transmitted important 

data on the atmosphere back to a network of 

tracking antennas on Earth. Balloon 1 survived for 46.5 hours, eventually terminating 

operations because of battery failure. The 

lander set down safely on the ground at 

03:02:54 UT on 11 June 1985 at 7.2° north 

latitude and 177.8° longitude, on the night 

side of Venus in the Mermaid Plain north of 

Aphrodite, and transmitted from the surface 

for 56 minutes. Having deployed before it 

reached the surface, the soil sample drill 

failed to complete its soil analysis, but the 

mass spectrometer returned important data. 

The Vega 1 bus flew by Venus at a range of 

39,000 kilometers and then headed for its 

encounter with Halley. After a course correction on 10 February 1986, the spacecraft 

began its formal studies of the comet on 4 

March, when it was 14 million kilometers 

from its target. During the 3-hour encounter 

on 6 March 1986, the spacecraft approached 

to within 8,889 kilometers (at 07:20:06 UT) of 

Halley. Vega 1 took more than 500 pictures 

via different filters as it flew through the gas 

cloud around the coma. Although the spacecraft was battered by dust, none of the instruments were disabled during the encounter. 

Vega 1 collected a wealth of information on 

Halley, including data on its nucleus, its dust 

production rate, its chemical composition, 

and its rotational rate. After subsequent 

imaging sessions on 7 and 8 March 1986, 

Vega 1 headed out to deep space. 

167) 

Vega 2 

Nation: USSR (103)
 

Objective(s): Venus atmospheric entry,
 

Halley’s Comet flyby
 

Spacecraft: 5VK (no. 902)
 

Spacecraft Mass: 4,920 kg
 

Mission Design and Management: NPO
 

Lavochkin
 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok DM (Proton-K
 

no. 325-02 / Blok DM no. 12L)
 

Launch Date and Time: 21 December 1984 /
 

09:13:52 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 200P 

Scientific Instruments: 

Lander: 

1) Malakhit mass spectrometer

2) Sigma-3 gas chromatograph

3) VM-4 hygrometer

4) GS-15-SCV gamma-ray spectrometer

5) UV spectrometer

6) BDRP-AM25 x-ray fluorescence

spectrometer and drill

7) ISAV nephelometer/scatterometer

8) temperature and pressure sensors

9) IFP aerosol analyzer

Balloon:

1) temperature and pressure sensors

2) vertical wind anemometer

3) nephelometer

4) light level/lighting detector

Bus:

1) imaging system

2) infrared spectrometer

3) ultraviolet, visible, infrared imaging

spectrometer

4) shield penetration detector

5) dust detectors

6) dust mass spectrometer

7) neutral gas mass spectrometer

8) plasma energy analyzer

9) energetic-particle analyzer

10) magnetometer

11) wave and plasma analyzers

Results: Vega 2 was the sister spacecraft to 

Vega 1 and essentially performed a near-identical mission to its twin. The main lander 

probe set down without problems at 03:00:50 

UT on 15 June 1985 in the northern region of 

Aphrodite, about 1,500 kilometers southeast of 

Vega. Landing coordinates were 6.45° south 

latitude and 181.08° longitude. The spacecraft 

transmitted from the surface for 57 minutes. 

134 Deep Space Chronicle 
135 

Unlike its twin, the Vega 2 lander was able to 

collect and investigate a soil sample; the 

experiment identified an anorthosite-troctolite 

rock—rarely found on Earth, but present in 

the lunar highlands. According to the lander’s 

data, the area was probably the oldest 

explored by any Venera vehicle. The mass 

spectrometer did not return any data. The balloon, released upon entry into the atmosphere, 

flew through the Venusian atmosphere, collecting data like its twin, and survived for 46.5 

hours of data transmission. 

After releasing its lander, the flyby probe 

continued on its flight to Comet Halley. The 

spacecraft initiated its encounter on 7 

March 1986 by taking 100 photos of the 

comet from a distance of 14 million kilometers. Vega 2’s closest approach to Halley was 

at 07:20 UT two days later when the spacecraft was traveling at a speed of 76.8 kilometers per second (slightly lower than Vega 

1’s 79.2 kilometers per second). During the 

encounter, Vega 2 took 700 images of the 

comet—of much better resolution than those 

from the spacecraft’s twin, partly due to the 

presence of less dust outside of the coma 

during this transit. Ironically, Vega 2 sustained an 80-percent power loss during the 

encounter (as compared to Vega 1’s 40 percent). Seven instruments between the two 

spacecraft were partially damaged, 

although no instrument on both was incapacitated. After further imaging sessions on 

10 and 11 March 1986, Vega 2 finished its 

primary mission and headed out into heliocentric orbit. 

1984 

137 

168) 

Sakigake 

Nation: Japan (1) 

Objective(s): Halley’s Comet flyby 

Spacecraft: MS-T5 

Spacecraft Mass: 138.1 kg 

Mission Design and Management: ISAS 

Launch Vehicle: Mu-3S-II (no. 1) 

Launch Date and Time: 7 January 1985 / 

19:26 UT 

Launch Site: Kagoshima / launch complex M1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) solar wind ion detector

2) plasma wave probe

3) magnetometer

Results: The MS-T5 spacecraft (named 

Sakigake after launch) was the first deep 

space spacecraft launched by any country 

apart from the Soviet Union and the United 

States (the two German Helios probes had 

been launched by NASA). Japan’s goal had 

been to launch a single modest probe to fly 

past Halley. As part of a test to prove out the 

technologies and mission operations of the 

actual mission, the country’s Institute of 

Space and Astronautical Sciences (ISAS) 

launched this test spacecraft known as MST5, nearly identical to the “actual” vehicle 

launched later. The spin-stabilized spacecraft 

was launched by a new Japanese launch 

vehicle, the Mu-3S-II. Following two course 

corrections on 10 January and 14 February 

1985
 

1985, Sakigake was sent on a long-range 

encounter (about 7.6 million kilometers) with 

Halley. The spacecraft served as a reference 

vehicle to permit scientists to eliminate 

Earth atmospheric and ionospheric contributions to the variations in Giotto’s transmissions from within the coma. The spacecraft’s 

closest approach to Halley was at 04:18 UT 

on 11 March 1986, when it was 6.99 million 

kilometers from the comet. Nearly six years 

after the Halley encounter, Sakigake flew by 

Earth on 8 January 1992 at a range of 88,790 

kilometers. After two more distant flybys 

through Earth’s magnetic tail (in June 1993 

and July 1994), Sakigake maintained weekly 

contact with the ground until telemetry was 

lost on 15 November 1995, although the 

ground continued to receive a beacon signal 

until all contact was terminated on 7 January 

1999. 

169) 

Giotto 

Organization: European Space Agency (1) 

Objective(s): Halley’s Comet flyby 

Spacecraft: Giotto 

Spacecraft Mass: 960 kg 

Mission Design and Management: ESA 

Launch Vehicle: Ariane 1 (V14) 

Launch Date and Time: 2 July 1985 / 

11:23:16 UT 

Launch Site: Kourou / ELA-1 

1985 
Scientific Instruments: 

1) neutral mass spectrometer

2) ion mass spectrometer

3) dust mass spectrometer

4) dust impact detector system

5) plasma analysis 1 experiment

6) plasma analysis 2 experiment

7) energetic-particle analyzer

8) magnetometer

9) optical probe experiment

10) color imaging system

Results: Giotto was the first deep space probe 

launched by the European Space Agency 

(ESA). Because the cylindrical spacecraft was 

designed to approach closer to Halley than 

any other probe, it was equipped with two 

dust shields separated by 23 centimeters; the 

first would bear the shock of impact and 

spread the impact energy over larger areas of 

the second, thicker rear sheet. The design 

of the spacecraft was based on the spinstabilized magnetospheric Geos satellites 

launched in 1977 and 1978. After course corrections on 26 August 1985, 12 February 

1986, and 12 March 1986, Giotto was put on 

a 500-kilometer flyby to the comet’s core. 

Data on its trajectory was based upon 

tracking information from the Soviet Vega 1 

and 2 probes. The spacecraft eventually 

passed by Halley on 14 March 1986. Closest 

encounter was at a range of 605 kilometers at 

00:03:02 UT. At a range of 137.6 million kilometers from Earth, just 2 seconds before 

closest approach, telemetry stopped due to 

impact with a heavy concentration of dust 

that probably knocked the spacecraft’s highgain antenna out of alignment with Earth. 

Fortunately, data transmission was restored 

within 32 minutes. On average, Giotto had 

been hit 100 times a second by particles 

weighing up to 0.001 grams. By the end of its 

encounter with Halley, the spacecraft was 

covered in at least 26 kilograms of dust. 

Giotto returned 2,000 images of Halley. After 

the encounter, ESA decided to redirect the 

vehicle for a flyby of Earth. The spacecraft 

was officially put in hibernation mode on 2 

April 1986. Course corrections on 19 March, 

20 March, and 21 March 1986, however, set it 

on a 22,000-kilometer flyby of Earth on 2 July 

1990 for a gravity-assist (the first time that 

Earth had been used for such a purpose) to 

visit a new target: Giotto successfully flew by 

Comet Grigg-Skjellerup at 15:30 UT on 10 

July 1992 at range of approximately 200 kilometers. Eight experiments provided extensive data on a wide variety of cometary 

phenomena during this closest ever flyby of a 

comet. After formal termination of the 

encounter on 23 July 1992, Giotto was put 

in hibernation. In September 1999, ESA scientists revealed that a second comet or 

cometary fragment may have been accompanying Grigg-Skjellerup during the encounter 

in 1992. The spacecraft repeated a flyby of 

Earth at 02:40 UT on 1 July 1999 at range of 

219,000 kilometers. 

170) 

Suisei 

Nation: Japan (2) 

Objective(s): Halley’s Comet flyby 

Spacecraft: Planet-A 

Spacecraft Mass: 139.5 kg 

Mission Design and Management: ISAS 

Launch Vehicle: Mu-3S-II (no. 2) 

Launch Date and Time: 18 August 1985 / 

23:33 UT 

Launch Site: Kagoshima / launch complex M1 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) ultraviolet imaging system

2) solar wind experiment

Results: Planet-A (named Suisei after 

launch), was the second of two Japanese 

probes launched towards Halley during the 

1986 encounter. The cylindrical spacecraft 

was launched directly on a deep space trajectory without entering intermediate-Earth 

orbit. The main payload of the spacecraft was 

an ultraviolet-based imaging system that 

could study the huge hydrogen corona 

around the comet. After a course correction 

on 14 November 1985, Suisei flew within 

152,400 kilometers of the comet’s nucleus on 

8 March 1986 at 13:06 UT, returning ultraviolet images of the 20-million-kilometerdiameter hydrogen gas coma. Even at that 

relatively large distance from the comet, the 

spacecraft was hit by at least two dust particles, each 1 millimeter in diameter. After the 

Halley Encounter, in 1987, ISAS decided to 

send the spacecraft through an elaborate 

trajectory for an encounter with the Comet 

Giacobini-Zinner on 24 November 1998, thirteen years after launch. Suisei performed a 

series of trajectory corrections between 5 and 

138 Deep Space Chronicle 
10 April 1987 in order to send it on a gravityassist around Earth on 20 August 1992 at a 

range of 60,000 kilometers. Unfortunately, 

hydrazine for further corrections had been 

depleted by 22 February 1991. The planned 

encounter with Giacobini-Zinner (as well as 

a far-distance flyby of Comet Tempel-Tuttle) 

had to be canceled on 28 February 1998; the 

cancellation formally ended the mission. 

1985 139 

171) 

Fobos 1 

Nation: USSR (104) 

Objective(s): Mars flyby, Phobos encounter 

Spacecraft: 1F (no. 101) 

Spacecraft Mass: 6,220 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NPO 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D-2 (Proton-K 

no. 356-02 / Blok D-2 no. 2L) 

Launch Date and Time: 7 July 1988 / 

17:38:04 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 200L 

Scientific Instruments: 

Planetary studies (on Orbiter): 

1) VSK videospectrometric system 

2) ISM infrared spectrometer 

3) GS-14 gamma-emission 

spectrometer 

4) IPNM neutron detector 

5) RLK radar system 

6) LIMA-D laser mass spectrometric 

analyzer 

7) DION secondary ion mass analyzer 

8) ISO optical radiation spectrometer 

Plasma studies: 

1) MAGMA magnetometer 

2) FGMM magnetometer 

3) APV-F plasma wave analyzer 

4) ASPERA scanning energy-mass 

spectrometer 

1988
 

5) SOVIKOMS energy-mass charge 

spectrometer 

6) TAUS proton and alpha-particle 

spectrometer 

7) HARP ion and electron 

spectrometer 

8) SLED energetic charged-particle 

spectrometer 

Solar studies: 

1) IPHIR solar photometer 

2) TEREK solar telescope/coronograph 

3) RF-15 x-ray photometer 

4) SUFR ultrasound spectrometer 

5) LILAS gamma-burst spectrometer 

6) VGS gamma-burst spectrometer 

Results: Fobos 1 and 2 were part of an ambitious 

mission to Mars and its 27-kilometer-diameter 

moon Phobos that was the culmination of a 

decade-long program of development. Each 

spacecraft comprised a Mars Orbiter for longterm studies of the planet and a Long-Term 

Automated Lander (DAS) that would land on 

Phobos to study its geological and climatic conditions. After each spacecraft entered orbit 

around Mars, it would make close flybys of 

Phobos, sample surface material using an 

innovative onboard laser spectrometer, and 

also deploy the Lander. Laser beams would 

prepare small samples of material for analysis. 

Each spacecraft, with a newly designed bus, 

carried twenty-four experiments provided by 

thirteen countries and the European Space 

1988 141 
Agency. Fobos 1 performed a course correction 

en route to Mars on 16 July 1988. On 29 

August 1988, due to a programming error, a 

command was issued to turn off the orientation 

and stabilization system (instead of a routine 

command to switch on the gamma-ray spectrometer). As a result, the spacecraft lost 

proper solar orientation and began to lose 

power. There was no word from Fobos 1 at the 

next scheduled communications session on 2 

September. Continuing attempts to establish contact failed, and on 3 November 1988, 

the Soviets officially announced that there 

would be no further attempts at contact. The 

spacecraft flew by Mars without entering orbit 

(scheduled for 23 January 1989) and eventually entered heliocentric orbit. 

172) 

Fobos 2 

Nation: USSR (105) 

Objective(s): Mars flyby, Phobos encounter 

Spacecraft: 1F (no. 102) 

Spacecraft Mass: 6,220 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NPO 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D-2 (Proton-K 

no. 356-01 / Blok D-2 no. 1L) 

Launch Date and Time: 12 July 1988 / 

17:01:43 UT 

Launch Site: NIIP-5 / launch site 200P 

Scientific Instruments: 

Planetary studies (on Orbiter): 

1) VSK videospectrometric system 

2) KRFM infrared radiometer/ 

spectrometer 

3) ISM infrared spectrometer 

4) Thermoscan scanning infrared 

radiometer 

5) GS-14 gamma-emission 

spectrometer 

6) RLK radar system 

7) LIMA-D laser mass spectrometric 

analyzer 

8) DION secondary ion mass analyzer 

9) ISO optical radiation spectrometer 

Plasma studies: 

1) MAGMA magnetometer 

2) FGMM magnetometer 

3) APV-F plasma wave analyzer 

4) ASPERA scanning energy-mass 

spectrometer 

5) SOVIKOMS energy-mass charge 

spectrometer 

6) TAUS proton and alpha-particle 

spectrometer 

7) HARP ion and electron 

spectrometer 

8) SLED energetic charged-particle 

spectrometer 

Solar studies: 

1) IPHIR solar photometer 

2) RF-15 x-ray photometer 

3) SUFR ultrasound spectrometer 

4) LILAS gamma-burst spectrometer 

5) VGS gamma-burst spectrometer 

Results: Fobos 2 had the same mission as its twin 

Fobos 1 but had an additional payload on board, 

a 110-kilogram “hopper” designed to make up to 

ten 20-meter jumps across the Phobos surface 

to gather surface data on the tiny Martian 

moon. The orbiter also had a slightly different 

instrument complement. Fobos 2 carried out 

two en route course corrections on 21 July 1988 

and 23 January 1989, despite some major problems. One of the two radio transmitters failed 

when there were spuriously generated commands in one channel of its computer. At 12:55 

UT on 29 January 1989, the spacecraft fired its 

engine to enter orbit around Mars. Initial 

orbital parameters were 819 x 81,214 kilometers at 1.5° inclination.After four further orbital 

corrections, its trajectory was put on an 

encounter course with Phobos. Fobos 2 took 

high-resolution photos of the moon on 23 

February (at a range of 860 kilometers), 28 

February (320 kilometers), and 25 March 1989 

(191 kilometers). Release of its lander was 

scheduled for 4–5 April 1989, but on 27 March, 

during a regularly planned communications 

session at 15:58 UT, there was no word from the 

spacecraft. A weak signal was received between 

17:51 and 18:03 UT, but there was no telemetry 

information. The nature of the signal indicated 

that the spacecraft had lost all orientation. 

Future attempts to regain communication were 

unsuccessful, and the mission was declared lost 

on 15 April 1989. The most probable cause of 

failure was simultaneous malfunctions in both 

channels of the onboard computer (due to insufficiently robust software) that put the spacecraft into an improper tumble. 

142 Deep Space Chronicle 
173) 

Magellan 

Nation: U.S. (63) 

Objective(s): Venus orbit 

Spacecraft: Magellan 

Spacecraft Mass: 3,445 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: STS-30R Atlantis 

Launch Date and Time: 4 May 1989 / 

18:47:00 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 39B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) synthetic aperture radar 

2) gravimetry experiment 

3) Magellan radio science occultation 

experiment 

Results: Magellan was the first deep space 

probe launched by the United States in 

almost eleven years, and it was also the first 

launched by the Space Shuttle. The spacecraft was designed to use a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) to map 70 percent of the 

Venusian surface down to a resolution of 120 

to 300 meters. Magellan was deployed by the 

STS-30R crew and released at 01:01 UT on 5 

May 1989 from the payload bay of Atlantis. 

One hour later, a two-stage Inertial Upper 

Stage (IUS) fired to send the spacecraft on a 

trajectory to rendezvous with Venus. After 

three en route trajectory corrections (the first 

two on 21 May 1989 and 13 March 1990), 

Magellan arrived in Venus orbit on 10 August 

1989
 

1990. Orbital parameters were 297 x 8,463 

kilometers at 85.5° inclination. Six days after 

entering orbit, Magellan suffered a communications outage lasting 15 hours. After a 

second 17-hour interruption on 21 August, 

the ground sent up new preventative software to reset the system in case of such 

anomalies. Beginning 15 September 1990, 

the spacecraft began returning high-quality 

radar images of the Venusian terrain that 

showed evidence of vulcanism, tectonic movement, turbulent surface winds, kilometers of 

lava channels, and pancake-shaped domes. 

Magellan completed its first 243-day cycle 

(the time it took for Venus to rotate once 

under Magellan’s orbit) of radar mapping on 

15 May 1991, providing the first clear views 

of 83.7 percent of the surface. The spacecraft 

returned 1,200 gigabits of data, far exceeding 

the 900 gigabits of data from all NASA planetary missions combined at the time. The 

spacecraft’s second mapping cycle, already 

beyond the original goals of the mission, 

ended on 15 January 1992, raising coverage 

to 96 percent. A third cycle that focused on 

stereo imaging ended on 13 September 1992 

and finished coverage at 98 percent. Further 

investigations focused on obtaining gravimetric data and performing aerobraking 

exercises (in 1993). Contact was lost after 

10:04 UT on 12 October 1994 as the spacecraft was commanded to plunge into the 

1989 143 
The hemispheric view of Venus, as revealed by more than a decade of radar investigations culminating in the1990–94 Magellan mission, is centered 

at 180° east longitude. The Magellan spacecraft imaged more than 98 percent of Venus at a resolution of about 100 meters; the effective resolution 

of this image is about 3 kilometers. A mosaic of the Magellan images (most with illumination from the west) forms the image base. Gaps in the 

Magellan coverage were filled with images from the Earth-based Arecibo radar in a region centered roughly on 0° latitude and longitude, and with 

a neutral tone elsewhere (primarily near the south pole). The composite image was processed to improve contrast and to emphasize small features, 

and it was color-coded to represent elevation. Gaps in the elevation data from the Magellan radar altimeter were filled with altimetry from the Venera 

spacecraft and the U.S. Pioneer Venus missions. An orthographic projection was used, simulating a distant view of one hemisphere of the planet. The 

Magellan mission was managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Pasadena, CA. 
atmosphere to gather aerodynamic data. The 

spacecraft burned up in the Venusian atmosphere the following day at about 08:00 UT, 

after one of the most successful deep space 

missions. Magellan found that at least 85 

percent of the Venusian surface is covered 

with volcanic flows. Despite the high surface 

temperatures (475°C) and high atmospheric 

pressures (92 atmospheres), the complete 

lack of water makes erosion an extremely 

slow process. As a result, surface features can 

persist for hundreds of millions of years. 

174) 

Galileo 

Nation: U.S. (64) 

Objective(s): Jupiter orbit and atmospheric 

entry, Venus flyby, two Earth flybys, flybys of 

Gaspra and Ida asteroids 

Spacecraft: Galileo 

Spacecraft Mass: 2,561 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: STS-34R Atlantis 

Launch Date and Time: 18 October 1989 / 

16:53:40 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 39B 

Scientific Instruments: 

Orbiter: 

1) imaging system 

2) near-infrared mapping spectrometer 

3) ultraviolet spectrometer 

4) photopolarimeter-radiometer 

5) magnetometer 

6) energetic-particles detector 

7) plasma detector 

8) plasma wave 

9) heavy ion counter 

10) radio system 

Atmospheric entry probe: 

1) atmospheric structure instrument 

2) neutral mass spectrometer 

3) helium abundance detector 

4) net flux radiometer 

5) nephelometer 

6) lightning/energetic-particles 

experiment 

Results: Galileo, one of NASA’s most ambitious 

deep space exploration projects, was the 

result of plans dating back to the early 1980s 

to deploy a Jupiter orbiter and probe. In its 

final configuration, the orbiter was a 4.6­

meter-tall spacecraft designed to operate for 

twenty-two months in Jovian orbit using ten 

instruments/experiments to study the 

planet’s atmosphere, satellites, and magnetosphere. Galileo carried a 337-kilogram 

probe designed to return data as it entered 

the Jovian atmosphere to identify atmospheric materials and conditions that cannot 

be detected from outside. Because of limitations of a Space Shuttle/IUS combination, 

NASA decided to use a complex multiplegravity-assist scheme that required three 

flybys (two of Earth and one of Venus) on its 

way to Jupiter. The STS-34R crew released 

the spacecraft 6.5 hours after launch; an hour 

later, the two-stage IUS fired to send Galileo 

on its way. Galileo flew past Venus at 

05:58:48 UT on 10 February 1990 at a range 

of 16,106 kilometers; as it did so, it conducted 

an extensive survey of the planet (including 

imaging). Having gained 8,030 kilometers 

per hour in speed, the spacecraft flew by 

Earth twice, the first time at a range of 960 

kilometers at 20:34:34 UT on 8 December 

1990, when it clearly detected traces of life in 

atmospheric trace elements on our home 

planet. The spacecraft also conducted lunar 

observations. A major problem occurred on 11 

April 1991, when the high-gain antenna 

failed to fully deploy, thus eliminating the 

possibility of data transmission during its 

flyby of the asteroid Gaspra. Becoming the 

first humanmade object to fly past an 

asteroid, Galileo approached the minor 

planet to a distance of 1,604 kilometers at 

22:37 UT on 29 October 1991. The encounter 

provided much data, including 150 images of 

the asteroid. Galileo then sped to its second 

encounter with the Earth-Moon system, with 

a flyby of Earth at 303.1 kilometers at 

15:09:25 UT on 8 December 1992, adding 3.7 

kilometers per second to its cumulative 

speed. Despite extensive attempts to salvage 

the high-gain antenna, ground controllers 

eventually had to restructure the mission to 

use only the low-gain antenna, which would 

allow about 70 percent of the originally 

planned scientific return (using software and 

hardware improvements on Earth). Galileo 

flew by a second asteroid, Ida, at 16:51:59 UT 

on 28 August 1993 at a range of 2,410 kilometers, thus providing further data on minor 

planets. Later, in July 1994, as it was 

speeding toward Jupiter, Galileo provided 

astronomers’ only direct observations of 

1989 145 
This is an image of a small region of the thin, disrupted ice crust in the Conamara region of Jupiter’s moon Europa. 

The lighter areas on the left of the image (actual color, white and blue) show areas that have been blanketed by 

a fine dust of ice particles ejected at the time of formation of the large crater PwyII, approximately 1,000 kilometers to the south. A few small craters of less than 500 meters in diameter can be seen associated with these regions. 

These craters were probably formed at the same time as the blanketing occurred, by large, intact blocks of ice 

thrown up in the impact explosion that formed PwyII. The areas on the right (actual color, reddish brown) constitute an unblanketed surface that has been painted by mineral contaminants carried and spread by water vapor 

released from below the crust. The image covers an area approximately 70 kilometers by 30 kilometers and combines data taken by the Solid State Imaging system on the Galileo spacecraft during three of its orbits through the 

Jovian system in September and December 1996 and February 1997. 

Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9’s impact with the 

Jovian atmosphere. 

Galileo’s atmospheric entry probe was finally 

released on 13 July 1995, when the spacecraft was still 80 million kilometers from 

Jupiter. The probe hit the atmosphere at 6.5° 

north latitude and 4.4° west longitude at 

22:04 UT on 7 December 1995 and returned 

valuable data for 57 minutes as it plunged 

into the Jovian cauldron. Data, originally 

transmitted to its parent craft and then later 

transmitted back to Earth, indicated an 

intense radiation belt 50,000 kilometers 

above Jupiter’s clouds, few organic compounds, and winds as high as 640 meters per 

second. The Galileo orbiter, meanwhile, fired 

its engine at 00:27 UT on 8 December, 

becoming Jupiter’s first humanmade satellite. Its orbital period was 198 days. Soon 

after, Galileo began its planned eleven tours 

over twenty-two months, exploring the 

planet and its moons, beginning with a first 

encounter with Ganymede on 27 June 1996 

and ending with a flyby of Europa on 6 

November 1997 (which also included flybys 

of Callisto). Having fulfilled the mission’s 

original goals, NASA implemented a twoyear extension (later extended four years to 

31 January 2000) with the Galileo Europa 

Mission (GEM), during which the spacecraft 

conducted numerous flybys of Jupiter’s 

moons, each encounter yielding a wealth of 

scientific data. These included flybys of 

Europa nine times (eight between December 

1997 and February 1999 and one in January 

2000), Callisto four times (between May 1999 

and September 1999), and Io three times (in 

October 1999, November 1999, and February 

2000). On the last flyby of Io, Galileo flew 

only 198 kilometers from the surface and 

sent back the highest resolution photos yet of 

the volcanically active moon. On 8 March 

2000, NASA announced plans to extend 

Galileo’s mission further to the end of the 

year, renaming the flight the Galileo 

Millennium Mission. Galileo coordinated 

investigations of Jupiter and its environs 

with the Cassini spacecraft (on its way to 

Saturn) in December 2000. Earlier, under 

the new Millennium Mission, Galileo flew by 

Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar 

146 Deep Space Chronicle 
This perspective view of Venus, generated by computer from Magellan data and color-coded with 

emissivity, is a look westward across the Fortuna 

Tessera toward the slopes of Maxwell Montes. The 

tessera terrain of both Fortuna and the slopes of 

Maxwell is characterized by roughly parallel northsouth trending ridges. With a maximum elevation of 

roughly 11 kilometers above the planetary reference surface (which has a radius of 6,051 kilometers), Maxwell is the highest mountain on Venus. 

The circular feature on the slope of Maxwell is the 

crater Cleopatra, which has a diameter of approximately 100 kilometers. Before the high-resolution 

Magellan images were available, Cleopatra was 

thought to be a volcanic feature because of its 

mountainous location and the visible lava flow emanating from the crater and flooding the troughs of 

the foreground terrain. The Magellan images, however, clearly show an ejecta blanket characteristic 

of an impact origin around Cleopatra. Other 

Venusian craters have associated outflow features, 

but these do not resemble the flow from Cleopatra. 

The difference may be the result of unique target 

conditions (high elevation, and perhaps high subsurface temperatures if Maxwell is still actively 

being supported by activity in the interior of Venus) or may simply be the consequence of the formation of 

the crater on an unusually steep slope. 

system, on 20 May 2000 at a range of 809 

kilometers. It completed a second flyby of the 

same moon on 28 December 2000. 

On 15 March 2001, NASA extended the 

Galileo mission a third time by planning five 

more flybys of the planet’s moons: Callisto (in 

May 2001), Io (in August and October 2001 

and January 2002), and Amalthea (in 

November 2002). During the 25 May 2001 

encounter with Callisto, a heavily cratered 

moon about the size of Mercury, the spacecraft flew by the surface at a scant 138 kilometers, closer than any previous encounter. 

In December 2000, the National Research 

Council of the National Academy of Sciences 

approved plans for ending the Galileo mission. 

After finishing its imaging mission in 2002, 

Galileo will continue studies of Jupiter’s massive magnetic field with seven instruments. 

After a final orbit shaped like an elongated 

loop, the spacecraft will hurtle back into the 

Jovian atmosphere in December 2003. 

In its six-year exploration of the Jovian 

system, Galileo has discovered far less lightning activity (about 10 percent of that found 

in an equal area on Earth) than anticipated, 

helium abundance in Jupiter very nearly the 

same as in the Sun (24 percent compared to 

25 percent), extensive resurfacing of Io’s surface due to continuing volcanic activity since 

the Voyagers flew by in 1979, and evidence 

for a liquid water ocean under Europa’s surface. Galileo has also discovered organic compounds on Callisto, Ganymede, Europa, and 

even Io. The spacecraft has also discovered 

the first internal magnetic field of a moon. 

Ganymede’s intrinsic magnetic field actually 

produces a “mini magnetosphere” embedded 

within Jupiter’s huge magnetosphere. By 

March 2000, the spacecraft had returned 

about 14,000 images back to Earth. 

1989 147 

175) 

Hiten/Hagomoro 

Nation: Japan (3) 

Objective(s): lunar flyby and lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: Muses-A and Muses-A subsatellite 

Spacecraft Mass: 197.4 kg 

Mission Design and Management: ISAS 

Launch Vehicle: Mu-3S-II (no. 5) 

Launch Date and Time: 24 January 1990 / 

11:46 UT 

Launch Site: Kagoshima / launch complex M1 

Scientific Instruments: 

Hiten: 

1) cosmic dust detector 

Results: This two-module Japanese spacecraft 

was designed to fly past the Moon and release 

an orbiter. It was the first Japanese lunar mission and also the first robotic lunar probe since 

the flight of the Soviet Luna 24 in 1976. 

Muses-A (for Mu-launched Space Engineering 

Satellite) was launched into a highly elliptical 

orbit that intersected the Moon’s orbit. After 

launch, the spacecraft, which was renamed 

Hiten, returned technical data on trajectory 

and optical navigation from an onboard computer. The cosmic dust experiment was jointly 

designed with Germany. On 19 March 1990, 

the spacecraft approached the Moon to a range 

of 16,472 kilometers and then released a small 

12-kilogram orbiter satellite named Hagomoro 

into lunar orbit. Initial orbital parameters 

were 22,000 x 9,000 kilometers. Although the 

1990
 

maneuver successfully demonstrated the use 

of the swingby technique to enter lunar orbit, 

communication with Hagomoro was lost 

shortly after release. Hiten, on the other hand, 

continued on its trajectory, simulating the 

orbital path of the proposed Geotail spacecraft. On 19 March 1991, Hiten flew by Earth 

at a range of 126 kilometers during a gravityassist maneuver that slowed it by 1.7 meters 

per second—the first aerobraking maneuver 

by a deep space probe. During its eleventh 

flyby of the Moon on 15 February 1992, Hiten 

swung into lunar orbit and eventually 

impacted on 10 April 1993. 

176) 

Ulysses 

Organization/Nation: ESA and U.S. (1) 

Objective(s): heliocentric orbit 

Spacecraft: Ulysses 

Spacecraft Mass: 371 kg 

Mission Design and Management: ESA and 

NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: STS-41 Atlantis 

Launch Date and Time: 6 October 1990 / 

11:47:16 UT 

Launch Site: ETR / launch complex 39B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) BAM solar wind plasma experiment 

2) GLG solar wind ion composition 

experiment 

3) HED magnetic fields experiment 

1990 149 
This montage of the nine planets and four large moons of Jupiter in our solar system are set against a falsecolor view of the Rosette Nebula. The light emitted from the Rosette Nebula results from the presence of 

hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Most of the planetary images in this montage were obtained by NASA’s planetary missions, which have dramatically changed our understanding of the solar system. 

4) KEP energetic-particle composition/ 

neutral gas experiment 

5) LAN low-energy charged-particle 

composition/anisotropy experiment 

6) SIM cosmic rays and solar particles 

experiment 

7) STO radio/plasma waves 

experiment 

8) HUS solar x-rays and cosmic 

gamma-ray bursts experiment 

9) GRU cosmic dust experiment 

Results: The Ulysses mission was an outgrowth of the abandoned International Solar 

Polar Mission (ISPM) that involved two 

spacecraft flying over opposite solar poles to 

investigate the Sun in three dimensions. 

Eventually, ESA built a single spacecraft for 

launch on the Space Shuttle. The vehicle was 

designed to fly a unique trajectory that would 

use a gravity-assist from Jupiter to take it 

below the elliptic plane, past the solar south 

pole, and then above the elliptic to fly over 

the north pole. Eventually, thirteen years 

after ESA’s science council had originally 

approved the mission, Ulysses was sent on its 

way via a Shuttle/PAM-S motor combination. 

Escape velocity was 15.4 kilometers per 

second, higher than had been achieved by 

either of the Voyagers or Pioneers, and the 

fastest velocity ever achieved by a humanmade object. After a midcourse correction on 

8 July 1991, Ulysses passed within 378,400 

kilometers of Jupiter at 12:02 UT on 8 

February 1992. After a seventeen-day period 

passing through and studying the Jovian 

system, the spacecraft headed downwards 

and back to the Sun. From about mid-1993 

on, Ulysses was constantly in the region of 

space dominated by the Sun’s southern pole, 

as indicated by the constant negative polarity 

measured by the magnetometer. South polar 

observations extended from 26 June to 6 

November 1994, when the vehicle was above 

70° solar latitude. It reached a maximum of 

150 Deep Space Chronicle 
80.2° in September 1994. Its instruments 

found that the solar wind blows faster at the 

south pole than at the equatorial regions. 

Flying up above the solar equator on 5 March 

1995, Ulysses passed over the north polar 

regions between 19 June and 30 September 

1995 (maximum latitude of 80.2°). The closest 

approach to the Sun was on 12 March 1995 at 

a range of 200 million kilometers. ESA officially extended Ulysses’s mission on 1 

October 1995, renaming this portion as the 

Second Solar Orbit. The spacecraft made a 

second pass over the south pole between 

September 2000 and January 2001, and it 

made a pass over the northern pole in 

October 2001. In October 2000, ESA 

announced that Ulysses had discovered the 

most distant gamma-ray burst yet recorded, 

about 11 billion light years from Earth. At 

that time, the Sun was at the peak of its 

eleven-year cycle. ESA’s Science Programme 

Committee, during a meeting on 5–6 June 

2000, agreed to extend the Ulysses mission 

from the end of 2001 to 30 September 2004. 

NASA was expected to approve the plan by 

mid-2001. 

1990 151 

177) 

Mars Observer 

Nation: U.S. (65) 

Objective(s): Mars orbit 

Spacecraft: Mars Observer 

Spacecraft Mass: 2,573 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Titan III (CT-4) 

Launch Date and Time: 25 September 1992 / 

17:05:01 UT 

Launch Site: ESMC / launch complex 40 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) imaging system 

2) thermal emission spectrometer 

3) pressure modulator infrared 

radiometer
 

4) laser altimeter
 

5) magnetometer/electron 


reflectometer
 

6) gamma-ray spectrometer
 

7) radio science experiment
 

8) Mars balloon relay receiver
 

Results: Mars Observer was designed to carry 

out a high-resolution photography mission of 

the Red Planet over the course of a Martian 

1992
 

year (687 days) from a 378 x 350-kilometer 

polar orbit. It carried a suite of instruments 

to investigate Martian geology, atmosphere, 

and climate in order to fill in gaps in our 

knowledge of planetary evolution. A mere 31 

minutes after launch, the new Transfer Orbit 

Stage (TOS) fired to boost the spacecraft on 

an encounter trajectory with Mars. After a 

725-million-kilometer voyage lasting eleven 

months, just two days prior to planned entry 

into Mars orbit, the spacecraft suddenly fell 

silent at 01:00 UT on 22 August 1993. 

Despite vigorous efforts to regain contact, 

Mars Observer remained quiet. When the 

spacecraft did not reestablish command as a 

result of a stored program that was designed 

to do so in case of five days of silence, mission 

planners finally gave up hope on salvaging 

the mission. The results of a five-month 

investigation proved to be inconclusive, but 

one likely cause of the catastrophic failure 

may have been a fuel line rupture that could 

have damaged the spacecraft’s electronics, 

throwing the vehicle into a spin. 

1992 153 

178) 

Clementine 

Nation: U.S. (66) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: Clementine 

Spacecraft Mass: 424 kg 

Mission Design and Management: BMDO and 

NASA 

Launch Vehicle: Titan IIG (no. 23G-11) 

Launch Date and Time: 25 January 1994 / 

16:34 UT 

Launch Site: WSMC / SLC-4W 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) ultraviolet/visible camera 

2) near-infrared camera 

3) long-wave infrared camera 

4) high-resolution camera 

5) two star tracker cameras 

6) laser altimeter 

7) bistatic radar experiment 

8) gravity experiment 

9) charged-particle telescope 

Results: Clementine was the first U.S. spacecraft launched to the Moon in over twenty 

years (since Explorer 49 in June 1973). The 

spacecraft, also known as the Deep Space 

Program Science Experiment (DSPSE), was 

designed and built to demonstrate a set of 

lightweight technologies such as smallimaging sensors for future low-cost missions 

flown by the Department of Defense. 

Clementine carried fifteen advanced flight-test 

1994
 

components and ten science instruments. After 

launch, the spacecraft remained in a temporary orbit until 3 February 1994, at which time 

a solid-propellant rocket ignited to send the 

vehicle to the Moon. After two subsequent 

Earth flybys on 5 February and 15 February, 

Clementine successfully entered an elliptical 

polar orbit on 19 February with a period of 5 

days and a perilune of 400 kilometers. In the 

following two months, it transmitted about 1.6 

million digital images of the lunar surface; in 

the process, it provided scientists with their 

first look at the total lunar landscape, 

including polar regions. After completing its 

mission goals over 297 orbits around lunar 

orbit, controllers fired Clementine’s thrusters 

on 3 May to inject it on a rendezvous trajectory 

in August 1994 with the asteroid 1620 

Geographos. Due to a computer problem at 

14:39 UT on 7 May that caused a thruster to 

fire and use up all propellant, the spacecraft 

was put into an uncontrollable tumble at about 

80 rpm with no spin control. Controllers were 

forced to cancel the asteroid flyby and return 

the vehicle to the vicinity of Earth. A power 

supply problem on 20 July further diminished 

the operating capacity of the vehicle. 

Eventually, lunar gravity took control of 

Clementine and propelled it into heliocentric 

orbit. The mission was terminated in June 

1994 when falling power supply levels no 

longer allowed clear telemetry exchange. On 

1994 155 
NASA’s Galileo spacecraft acquired its highest resolution images of Jupiter’s moon Io on 3 July 1999, during its 

closest pass to Io since orbit insertion in late 1995. This color mosaic uses the near-infrared, green, and violet 

filters (slightly more than the visible range) of the spacecraft’s camera and approximates what the human eye 

would see. Most of Io’s surface has pastel colors, punctuated by black, brown, green, orange, and red units near 

the active volcanic centers. A false-color version of the mosaic has been created to enhance the contrast of the 

color variations. The improved resolution reveals small-scale color units that had not been recognized previously 

and that suggest that the lavas and sulfurous deposits are composed of complex mixtures. Some of the bright 

(whitish), high-latitude (near the top and bottom) deposits have an ethereal quality like a transparent covering of 

frost. Bright red areas were seen previously only as diffuse deposits. However, they are now seen to exist as both 

diffuse deposits and sharp linear features like fissures. Some volcanic centers have bright and colorful flows, perhaps due to flows of sulfur rather than silicate lava. In this region, bright, white material can also be seen to 

emanate from linear rifts and cliffs. Comparison of this image to previous Galileo images reveals many changes 

due to the ongoing volcanic activity. North is toward the top of the picture, and the Sun illuminates the surface 

from almost directly behind the spacecraft. This illumination geometry is good for imaging color variations but 

poor for imaging topographic shading. However, some topographic shading can be seen here due to the combination of relatively high resolution (1.3 kilometers per picture element) and the rugged topography over parts 

of Io. The image is centered at 0.3° north latitude and 137.5° west longitude. The resolution is 1.3 kilometers 

per picture element. The images were taken on 3 July 1999 at a range of about 130,000 kilometers by the Solid 

State Imaging (SSI) system on NASA’s Galileo spacecraft during its twenty-first orbit. 

156 Deep Space Chronicle 
3 December 1996, DoD announced that 

Clementine data indicated that there was ice 

in the bottom of a permanently shadowed 

crater on the lunar south pole. Scientists 

estimated the deposit to be approximately 

60,000 to 120,000 cubic meters in volume— 

comparable to a small lake that is 4 football 

fields in surface area and 5 meters deep. This 

estimate was very uncertain, however, due to 

the nature of the data. 

179) 

Wind 

Nation: U.S. (67) 

Objective(s): orbit around L1 Libration Point, 

lunar flybys 

Spacecraft: Wind 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,250 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA GSFC 

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925-10 (no. D227) 

Launch Date and Time: 1 November 1994 / 

09:31:00 UT 

Launch Site: ESMC / launch complex 17B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) WAVES radio and plasma wave 

experiment 

2) three low-energy matrix telescopes 

3) electron isotope telescope 

4) suprathermal energetic-particle 

telescope 

5) solar wind experiment 

6) solar wind ion composition 

spectrometer 

7) high-mass-resolution spectrometer 

8) suprathermal ion composition 

spectrometer 

9) two fluxgate magnetometers 

10) 3-D plasma and energetic-particle 

analyzer 

11) transient gamma-ray spectrometer 

12) Konus gamma-ray burst studies 

experiment 

Results: Wind is part of the twelve-satellite 

Inter-Agency Solar-Terrestrial Physics 

(IASTP) Program, a joint project among the 

United States, Japan, Russia, the Czech 

Republic, and ESA to study the behavior of the 

solar-terrestrial system. The first of two 

NASA-sponsored Global Geospace Science 

Program vehicles, the Wind spacecraft carries 

eight instruments (including one each from 

France and Russia) to investigate the solar 

wind’s encounters with Earth’s magnetosphere and ionosphere in order to determine 

the origins and three-dimensional characteristics of the solar wind. Wind initially operated 

in a unique figure-eight-shaped elliptical orbit 

around Earth at 28,000 x 1.6 million kilometers, partially maintained by regular “double 

flybys” of the Moon. The closest of nineteen 

flybys of the Moon between 1 December 1994 

and 17 November 1998 was on 27 December 

1994, at a range of 11,834 kilometers. By 

November 1996, Wind was in a “halo orbit” 

around the Earth-Sun Libration Point, where 

the solar and terrestrial gravity are approximately equal. On 17 November 1998, it began 

to move into a series of “petal” orbits designed 

to take it out of the elliptical plane. Wind’s 

trips above and below the elliptic (up to 60°) 

allowed the spacecraft to sample regions of 

interplanetary space and the magnetosphere 

that had not been previously studied. All of its 

instruments were operational in July 2001. 

1994 157 

180) 

SOHO 

Organization/Nation: ESA and U.S. (2) 

Objective(s): L1 Libration Point 

Spacecraft: SOHO 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,864 kg 

Mission Design and Management: ESA and 

NASA 

Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur IIAS (AC-121 / 

Atlas IIAS no. 8206 / Centaur II) 

Launch Date and Time: 2 December 1995 / 

08:08:01 UT 

Launch Site: ESMC / launch complex 36B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) SUMER solar-ultraviolet emitted 

radiation experiment 

2) CDS coronal diagnostic 

spectrometer 

3) EIT extreme ultraviolet imaging 

telescope 

4) UVCS ultraviolet coronograph 

spectrometer 

5) LASCO white light/spectrometric 

coronograph 

6) SWAN solar wind anisotropies 

experiment 

7) CELIAS charge, element/isotope 

analysis experiment 

8) COSTEP suprathermal/energeticparticle analyzer 

9) ERNE energetic-particle analyzer 

1995
 

10) GOLF global oscillations at low frequencies experiment 

11) VIRGO variability of solar irradiance experiment 

12) MDI Michelson Doppler imager 

Results: The ESA-sponsored Solar and 

Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) carries 

twelve scientific instruments to study the 

solar atmosphere, helioseismology, and solar 

wind. Information from the mission allows 

scientists to learn more about the Sun’s 

internal structure and dynamics, the chromosphere, the corona, and solar particles. The 

SOHO and Cluster missions, part of ESA’s 

Solar Terrestrial Science Programme (STSP), 

are ESA’s contributions to the Inter-Agency 

Solar Terrestrial Physics (IASTP) program. 

NASA contributed three instruments on 

SOHO as well as launch and flight operations 

support. About two months after launch, on 

14 February 1996, SOHO was placed at a distance of 1.5 million kilometers from Earth at 

the L1 Libration Point. The spacecraft 

returned its first image on 19 December 1995 

and was fully commissioned for operations by 

16 April 1996. SOHO finished its planned twoyear study of the Sun’s atmosphere, surface, 

and interior in April 1998. Communications 

with the spacecraft were interrupted for four 

months beginning on 24 June 1998, but, after 

intensive search efforts, controllers managed 

to regain full control by 16 September. 

1995 159 
Barring three instruments, the spacecraft was 

functional and was declared fully operational 

once again by mid-October 1998. SOHO’s original lifetime was three years (to 1998), but 

ESA and NASA jointly decided to prolong the 

mission to 2003, thus enabling the spacecraft 

to compare the Sun’s behavior during low 

dark sunspot activity (1996) to the peak 

(around 2000). One of SOHO’s most important discoveries has been locating the origin 

of the fast solar wind at the corners of honeycomb-shaped magnetic fields surrounding the 

edges of large bubbling cells located near the 

Sun’s poles. SOHO remains in its halo orbit, 

circling L1 once every six months. 

160 Deep Space Chronicle 
181) 

NEAR 

Nation: U.S. (68) 

Objective(s): multiple asteroid flybys 

Spacecraft: NEAR 

Spacecraft Mass: 805 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA GSFC 

and Johns Hopkins University Applied 

Physics Laboratory 

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925-8 (no. D232) 

Launch Date and Time: 17 February 1996 / 

20:43:27 UT 

Launch Site: ESMC / launch complex 17B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) MSI multispectral imager 

2) MAG magnetometer 

3) NIS near infrared spectrometer 

4) XRS-GRS x-ray/gamma-ray 

spectrometer 

5) NLR laser rangefinder 

6) radio science and gravimetry 

experiment 

Results: Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous 

(NEAR) is the first mission flown under 

NASA’s new Discovery program, a series of 

low-cost (less than $150 million) planetary science projects. NEAR’s primary goal was to rendezvous with the minor planet 433 Eros (an 

S-class asteroid), approximately 355 million 

kilometers from Earth, and gather data on its 

composition and physical properties (mineralogy, morphology, internal mass distribution, 

1996
 

and magnetic field). The spacecraft is the first 

probe to rely on solar cells for power during 

operations beyond Mars orbit. On the way to 

its primary mission, NEAR performed a 25­

minute flyby of the asteroid 253 Mathilde on 

27 June 1997. The closest approach to 1,200 

kilometers was at 12:56 UT. During the 

encounter, the spacecraft photographed 60 

percent of the minor planet from a range of 

1,200 kilometers. The collected information 

indicated that the 4.5-billion-year-old asteroid 

is covered with craters and is less dense than 

previously believed. After a midcourse correction on 3 July 1997, NEAR flew by Earth on 23 

January 1998 at 07:23 UT for a gravity-assist 

on its way to Eros. The closest approach was 

540 kilometers. After the Earth flyby 

encounter, NEAR’s previously planned mission profile had to be revised in the light of an 

aborted engine burn on 20 December 1998 

that prevented a critical trajectory correction 

to meet up with Eros a month later. Instead, 

NEAR was put on a backup trajectory that 

afforded a different flyby than originally 

planned. As part of this new plan, the spacecraft first flew past Eros on 23 December 1998 

at 18:41:23 UT at a range of 3,827 kilometers 

(distance measured from the center of mass), 

at which time it observed about 60 percent of 

the asteroid and discovered that the minor 

planet was smaller than expected. NEAR also 

found that the asteroid has two medium-sized 

1996 161 
This map projection of NEAR Shoemaker images shows locations and sizes of landmarks surrounding the spacecraft’s planned landing site. Diameters of craters are shown in red, and diameters of boulders are shown in 

yellow. Diameters are given in units of meters (1 meter is about 3.3 feet). Coordinates along the left side of the 

map are degrees south latitude and coordinates along the bottom are degrees west longitude. The six yellow 

“footprint” boxes represent approximate image size at 500, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, 2,500, and 3,000 meters 

above the surface during descent. The spacecraft will take pictures continuously between spots. The arrow 

marks the estimated touchdown site. The mosaic is made from images taken 25 January 2001 from an altitude 

of about 25 kilometers. 

craters, a long surface ridge, and a density 

similar to that of Earth’s crust. After several 

more trajectory adjustments, NEAR finally 

moved into orbit around Eros at 15:33 UT on 

14 February 2000, roughly a year later than 

intended. Orbital parameters were 321 x 366 

kilometers. NEAR was the first humanmade 

object to orbit an asteroid. Through 2000, 

NEAR’s orbit has been shifted in stages to 

permit scientific research programs. There 

were a few problems before the landing on the 

asteroid. For example, on 13 May 2000, controllers had to turn off the NEAR Infrared 

Spectrometer because of an excessive power 

surge. By 30 April, the spacecraft was in its 

operational orbit at an altitude of about 50 

kilometers from the center of Eros. Later on 13 

July, Eros entered an even lower orbit at 35 

kilometers that brought the vehicle as close as 

19 kilometers from the surface. After about ten 

days, it moved back into a higher orbit. On 26 

October, NEAR performed another close flyby 

of the surface, this time to just 5.3 kilometers. 

In anticipation of the actual landing, the 

spacecraft conducted a flyby in January 2001 

down to a range of 2.7 kilometers and, in the 

process, returned more spectacular pictures. 

The historic landing phase began at 15:32 UT 

on 12 February 2001, when Eros fired its 

engines to begin controlled descent.After a total 

of four thruster firings, at 20:01: 52 UT on 12 

February, the spacecraft gingerly landed on the 

surface of Eros at a gentle 1.6 meters per 

162 Deep Space Chronicle 
This image from Mars Global Surveyor shows channeled aprons in a small crater within Newton Crater, a large 

basin formed by an asteroid impact that probably occurred more than 3 billion years ago. It is approximately 

287 kilometers across. The picture shown here (top) highlights the north wall of a specific, smaller crater located 

in the southwestern quarter of Newton Crater (above). The crater of interest was also formed by an impact; it is 

about 7 kilometers across, which is about 7 times bigger than the famous Meteor Crater in northern Arizona in 

North America. The north wall of the small crater has many narrow gullies eroded into it. These are to have been 

formed by flowing water and debris. Debris transported with the water created lobed and finger-like deposits at 

the base of the crater wall where it intersects the floor (bottom center). Many of the finger-like deposits have small 

channels, indicating that a liquid—most likely water—flowed in these areas. Hundreds of individual water and 

debris flow events might have occurred to create the scene shown here. Each outburst of water from higher up 

on the crater slopes would have constituted a competition among evaporation, freezing, and gravity. 

second. During its entire descent, NEAR 

snapped a series of 69 spectacular photographs, 

the last one being a mere 120 meters from the 

surface. Touchdown was in an area just outside 

a saddle-shaped depression known as Himeros. 

Eros was 196 million miles from Earth at the 

time. Although the NEAR spacecraft was not 

designed to survive landing, its instruments 

remained operational. Immediately after 

landing, NASA approved a ten-day extension 

that was lengthened to fourteen days in order to 

use the gamma-ray spectrometer. The last 

transmission from the spacecraft was at 00:00 

UT on 1 March 2001. During the mission, 

NEAR collected ten times more data than had 

been originally planned and returned approximately 160,000 images. On 14 March 2000, a 

month after entering asteroid orbit, NASA 

renamed the NEAR spacecraft NEAR 

Shoemaker in honor of renowned geologist 

Eugene Shoemaker. 

182) 

Mars Global Surveyor 

Nation: U.S. (69) 

Objective(s): Mars orbit 

Spacecraft: MGS 

Spacecraft Mass: 1,062.1 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925 (no. D239) 

Launch Date and Time: 7 November 1996 / 

17:00:49 UT 

1996 163 
Launch Site: ESMC / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) MOC Mars orbital camera 

2) MOLA Mars orbital laser altimeter 

3) TES thermal emission spectrometer 

4) MAG/ER magnetometer/electron 

reflectometer 

5) RS radio science experiment 

6) MR Mars relay antenna for future 

spacecraft 

Results: Mars Global Surveyor was the first 

spacecraft in NASA’s new Mars Surveyor program that was designed to inaugurate a new 

generation of American space probes to 

explore Mars every twenty-six months from 

1996 to 2005. The Mars Surveyor program 

(formulated in 1994) was intended to economize costs and maximize returns by involving 

a single industrial partner with the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory to design, build, and 

deliver a flightworthy vehicle for Mars every 

two years. The Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft carries five instruments similar to those 

carried by the lost Mars Observer probe that 

fell silent in 1993. After midcourse corrections 

on 21 November 1996 and 20 March 1997, 

Mars Global Surveyor entered orbit around 

Mars on 12 September 1997 after engine ignition at 01:17 UT. Initial orbital parameters 

were 258 x 54,021 kilometers. Commencement 

of its planned two-year mission was delayed 

because one of its two solar panels (-Y) had not 

fully deployed soon after launch, prompting 

mission planners to reconfigure the aerobraking process required to place the vehicle 

in its intended orbit. The solar panels were 

designed to act as atmospheric brakes to 

change orbit. The modified aerobraking 

maneuver altered the planned orbit from an 

afternoon pass over the equator to a nighttime 

pass and also delayed the mission by a year 

and shortened its projected lifetime. The 

spacecraft’s revised aerobraking maneuvers 

were finally completed on 4 February 1999 

with a major burn from its main engine. A subsequent firing on 19 February finally put Mars 

Global Surveyor into a Sun-synchronous orbit, 

and on 9 March 1999, its mapping mission formally began. Despite the early problems, Mars 

Global Surveyor began to send back impressive data and images of Mars during its movement to its new orbit. The spacecraft tracked 

the evolution of a dust storm, gathered information on the Martian terrain, found compelling evidence indicating the presence of 

liquid water at or near the surface (formally 

announced by NASA on 22 June 2000), and 

photographed the infamous “face on Mars” 

that some believed was an artificial formation. 

During its mission, the Mars Global Surveyor 

also produced the first three-dimensional profiles of Mars’s north pole using laser altimeter 

readings. By mid-2000, the spacecraft had 

taken tens of thousands of high-resolution 

photos of the Red Planet. Operations were 

expected to end by 31 January 2001, but the 

good health of onboard systems allowed scientists to continue the mission. All scientific 

instruments remain operational as of mid2001 and are expected to continue to at least 

April 2002. 

183) 

Mars 8 / Mars-96 

Nation: Russia (106) 

Objective(s): Mars orbit and landing 

Spacecraft: M1 (no. 520) 

Spacecraft Mass: 6,200 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NPO 

Lavochkin 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok D-2 (Proton-K 

no. 392-02) 

Launch Date and Time: 16 November 1996 / 

20:48:53 UT 

Launch Site: GIIK-5 / launch site 200L 

Scientific Instruments: 

Orbiter: 

1) ASPERA-C energy-mass 

experiment 

2) FONEMA omni non-scanning 

energy-mass ion analyzer 

3) DYMIO omni ionosphere energy 

mass spectrometer 

4) MARIPROB ionosphere plasma 

spectrometers 

5) MAREMF electron analyzer/ 

magnetometer 

6) ELISMA wave complex experiment 

7) SLED-2 low-energy charged-particle 

spectrometer 

8) PGS precision gamma spectrometer 

9) LILAS-2 cosmic and solar gammaburst spectrometer
 

10) EVRIS stellar oscillations 


photometer
 

11) RADIUS-MD dosimeter
 

164 Deep Space Chronicle 
12) MORION-S science data acquisition 

instrument 

13) ARGUS imaging system 

14) TERMOSCAN mapping radiometer 

15) SVET mapping spectrometer 

16) SPICAM multichannel spectrometer 

17) UVS-M ultraviolet spectrometer 

18) LWR longwave radar 

19) NEUTRON-S neutron spectrometer 

20) PFS infrared Fourier spectrometer 

21) PHOTON gamma spectrometer 

22) MAK quadruple mass spectrometer 

Small autonomous stations (each): 

1) MIS meteorology instrument 

system 

2) DPI three-component accelerometer 

3) APX alpha-particle proton and 

x-ray spectrometer 

4) OPTIMIZM seismometer/magnetometer/inclinometer 

5) PanCam panoramic camera 

6) DesCam descent phase camera 

Penetrators (each): 

1) TV camera 

2) MECOM meteorological unit 

3) PEGAS gamma-ray spectrometer 

4) ANGSTREM x-ray spectrometer 

5) ALPHA alpha/proton spectrometer 

6) NEUTRON-P neutron spectrometer 

7) GRUNT accelerometers 

8) TERMOZOND temperature probes 

9) Kamerton seismometer 

10) IMAP-6 magnetometer 

Results: Mars 8, the only Soviet/Russian lunar 

or planetary probe in twelve years (1988 to 

2000), was an ambitious mission to investigate the evolution of the Martian atmosphere, 

its surface, and its interior. The entire spacecraft comprised an orbiter, two small 

autonomous stations, and two independent 

penetrators. The three-axis stabilized orbiter 

carried two platforms for pointing several 

optical instruments for studying the Martian 

surface and atmosphere. After an initial 

period in low orbit lasting three to four weeks 

acting as a relay to the landers, the orbiter 

would have spent approximately two Earth 

years in a 250 x 18,000-kilometer orbit at 101° 

inclination mapping Mars. The orbiter would 

have released the two small autonomous stations four to five days before entering orbit. 

The small stations would have landed on the 

Martian surface, cushioned by an inflatable 

shell that was to split open after landing. The 

stations were to have transmitted data daily 

(initially) and then every three days for about 

20 minutes each session. The stations would 

have studied soil characteristics and taken 

photos on the surface. The two 75-kilogram 

(each) penetrators, meanwhile, would have 

impacted the Martian surface at a speed of 76 

meters per second to reach about 6 to 8 

meters in depth. The orbiter would have 

released them after entering Martian orbit 

(between seven and twenty-eight days after 

entering orbit). During the mission’s one-year 

lifetime, the penetrators would have served as 

nodes of a seismic network. The Proton-K 

launch vehicle successfully delivered the payload to Earth orbit (after the first firing of the 

Blok D-2 upper stage). At that point, the Blok 

D-2 was to fire once again to place Mars 8 into 

an elliptical orbit, after which the Fregat 

propulsion module would have sent the spacecraft on a Martian encounter trajectory. The 

Blok D-2 engine, however, shut down prematurely after only 20 seconds as a result of a 

command from the payload, thus putting its 

precious payload into an incorrect orbit of 

145.7 x 171.1 kilometers. Mars 8 and its 

Fregat module then automatically separated 

from the Blok D-2. The latter seems to have 

fired (as planned earlier), placing Mars 8 in 

an 87 x 1,500-kilometer orbit that deposited 

the planetary probe in Earth’s atmosphere. 

Reports at the time suggested that debris 

from Mars 8 may have fallen in Chile or 

Bolivia, contaminating areas with its plutonium power source. Mars 8 was scheduled to 

arrive in Mars orbit on 23 September 1997. 

184) 

Mars Pathfinder 

Nation: U.S. (70) 

Objective(s): Mars landing and roving operations 

Spacecraft: Mars Pathfinder 

Spacecraft Mass: 870 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7925 (no. D240) 

Launch Date and Time: 4 December 1996 / 

06:58:07 UT 

Launch Site: ESMC / launch complex 17B 

Scientific Instruments: 

Pathfinder lander: 

1) IMP imaging system (included magnets and wind socks) 

1996 165 
In the summer of 1997, the Mars Pathfinder excited 

people around the globe as its tiny Rover, “Sojourner,” 

set about exploring the Red Planet. 
2) APXS alpha/proton/x-ray 

spectrometer 

3) ASI/MET atmospheric 

structure/meteorology package 

Sojourner rover: 

1) imaging system (three cameras) 

2) laser stripers 

3) accelerometers 

4) potentiometers 

Results: Mars Pathfinder was an ambitious 

mission to send a lander and a separate, 

remote-controlled rover to the surface of 

Mars, the second of NASA’s Discovery missions. Launched one month after Mars Global 

Surveyor, Pathfinder was sent on a slightly 

shorter seven-month trajectory designed for 

earlier arrival. The main spacecraft included 

a 10.6-kilogram, six-wheeled rover known as 

Sojourner capable of traveling 500 meters 

from the main ship at top speeds of 1 centimeter per second. The mission’s primary 

goal was not only to demonstrate innovative, 

low-cost technologies, but also to return geological, soil, magnetic property, and atmospheric data. After a seven-month traverse 

and four trajectory corrections (on 10 

January, 3 February, 6 May, and 25 June 

1997), Pathfinder arrived at Mars on 4 July 

1997. The spacecraft entered the atmosphere 

and was then slowed by aerobraking, retrorockets, and a parachute before bouncing on 

the surface using cushioned landing bags 

that had deployed 8 seconds before impact. 

Pathfinder landed at 16:56:55 UT on 4 July 

1997 at 19.30° north latitude and 33.52° west 

longitude in Ares Vallis, about 19 kilometers 

southwest of the original target. Impact 

speed was about 10.5 meters per second; the 

spacecraft bounced several times before 

coming to a complete stop. The next day, 

Pathfinder deployed the Sojourner rover on 

the Martian surface via landing ramps. 

Sojourner was the first wheeled vehicle to be 

used on any other planet of the solar system. 

During its eighty-three-day mission, the 

rover covered hundreds of square meters, 

returned 550 photographs, and performed 

chemical analyses at sixteen different locations near the lander. The latter, meanwhile, 

transmitted more than 16,500 images and 8.5 

million measurements of atmospheric pressure, temperature, and windspeed. Data from 

the rover suggested that rocks at the landing 

site resembled terrestrial volcanic types with 

high silicon content, specifically a rock type 

known as andesite. Although the planned 

lifetimes of Pathfinder and Sojourner were 

expected to be one month and one week, 

respectively, these times were exceeded by 

three and twelve times, respectively. Final 

contact with Pathfinder was at 10:23 UT on 

27 September 1997. Although mission planners tried to reestablish contact for the next 

five months, the highly successful mission 

was officially declared terminated on 10 

March 1998. After landing, Mars Pathfinder 

was renamed the Sagan Memorial Station 

after the late astronomer and planetologist 

Carl Sagan. 

1996 167 

185) 

ACE 

Nation: U.S. (71) 

Objective(s): L1 Libration Point 

Spacecraft: ACE 

Spacecraft Mass: 752 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA GSFC 

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7920-8 (no. D247) 

Launch Date and Time: 25 August 1997 / 

14:39 UT 

Launch Site: ESMC / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) SWIMS solar wind ion mass 

spectrometer 

2) SWICS solar wind ion composition 

spectrometer 

3) ULEIS ultra-low-energy isotope 

spectrometer 

4) SEPICA solar energetic-particle 

ionic charge analyzer 

5) SIS solar isotope spectrometer 

6) CRIS cosmic-ray isotope 

spectrometer 

7) SWEPAM solar wind electron, 

proton, and alpha monitor 

8) EPAM electron, proton, and alphaparticle monitor
 

9) MAG magnetometer
 

10) RTSW real-time solar wind 


experiment 

Results: The Advanced Composition Explorer 

(ACE) spacecraft was designed to study space1997
 

borne energetic particles from the L1 

Libration Point, about 1.4 million kilometers 

from Earth. Specifically, the spacecraft was 

launched to investigate the matter ejected 

from the Sun to establish the commonality 

and interaction among the Sun, Earth, and the 

Milky Way galaxy. In addition, ACE also provides real-time space weather data and 

advanced warning of geomagnetic storms. 

ACE’s nine instruments have a collecting 

power that is 10 to 10,000 times greater than 

anything previously flown. After launch, the 

spacecraft’s Delta 2 launch vehicle’s second 

stage reignited (for 4 hours) to insert the satellite into a 177 x 1.37-million-kilometer orbit. 

After reaching apogee a month after launch, 

ACE inserted itself into its halo orbit around 

the L1 point. The spacecraft was declared 

operational on 21 January 1998, with a projected two- to five-year lifetime. With the 

exception of the SEPICA solar energeticparticle ionic charge analyzer, all instruments 

on ACE were operational as of June 2001. 

186) 

Cassini/Huygens 

Nation/Organization: U.S., ESA, and the ASI (1) 

Objective(s): Saturn orbit and Titan landing 

Spacecraft: Cassini and Huygens 

Spacecraft Mass: 5,655 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

and ESA 

1997 169 
Launch Vehicle: Titan 401B-Centaur (TC-21 /
 

Titan 401 no. 4B-33)
 

Launch Date and Time: 15 October 1997 / 


08:43 UT 

Launch Site: ESMC / launch complex 40 

Scientific Instruments: 

Cassini: 

1) VIMS visual infrared mapping 

spectrometer 

2) ISS imaging system 

3) RADAR instrument 

4) ion neutral mass spectrometer 

5) plasma/radio wave spectrometer 

6) plasma spectrometer 

7) ultraviolet spectrometer/imager 

8) magnetospheric imaging 

instrument 

9) dual technique magnetometer 

10) RF instrument subsystem 

11) composite infrared spectrometer 

Huygens: 

1) HASI atmospheric structure 

instrument 

2) GCMS gas chromatograph neutral 

mass spectrometer 

3) ACP aerosol collector/pyrolyser 

4) DISR descent imager/spectral 

radiometer 

5) SSP surface science package 

6) DWE Doppler wind experiment 

Results: The Cassini-Huygens project is the 

result of plans at NASA dating from the early 

1980s. The cooperative project with ESA 

involves a NASA-supplied spacecraft, 

Cassini, which is on a 3.2-billion-kilometer 

journey to Saturn orbit, and a lander, 

Huygens, supplied by ESA (with major participation by the Italian Space Agency), 

which will descend into the atmosphere of 

Titan, Saturn’s largest moon. During its 

scheduled four-year mission near Saturn, 

Cassini will use a large complement of 

instruments (including radar and optical 

imagers expected to return up to 300,000 

images) to explore both Saturn and its many 

moons. The 3,132-kilogram orbiter, with a 

design life of eleven years, is powered by 

three RTGs. The 335-kilogram probe, during 

its descent, will determine Titan’s atmosphere’s chemical properties and measure 

winds, temperature, and pressure profiles 

from 170 kilometers down to the surface. 

Although the probe is not designed to survive 

past landing, scientists hope that Huygens 

might return data after touchdown. Cassini’s 

trip to Saturn includes four gravity-assists. 

Seven months after launch, the spacecraft 

passed Venus on 26 April 1988 at a range of 

284 kilometers, gaining 26,280 kilometers 

per hour. Cassini performed a second flyby of 

Venus on 24 June 1999 at a range of 600 kilometers and one of Earth at 03:28 UT on 18 

August 1999 at a range of 1,171 kilometers; it 

then headed to Jupiter. During this portion of 

the traverse, Cassini passed by the asteroid 

2685 Masursky on 23 January 2000, coming 

close to a distance of 1.5 million kilometers at 

09:58 UT. During the encounter, Cassini used 

its remote-sensing instruments to investigate 

the asteroid’s size and dimensions and 

albedo. During the Jupiter encounter, on 30 

December 2000, Cassini performed simultaneous observations of the planet with the 

Galileo probe. Once past Jupiter, Cassini’s 

trajectory will be set up for a Saturn 

encounter beginning 1 July 2004. Cassini is 

scheduled to go into a 147-day orbit around 

Saturn eleven days later. Parameters are 

expected to be 1.3 x 176 RS with a 17° inclination. About four months after entering 

orbit, on 6 November 2004, Cassini will 

release the Huygens probe and continue on 

its numerous flybys. The orbiter is expected 

to fly by Titan during number 33 of its 63­

orbit mission with a closest approach of 950 

kilometers. The spacecraft will also perform 

close flybys of the other moons (including 

Iapetus, Enceladus, Dione, and Rhea) and 

more distant encounters with Tethys, Mimas, 

and Hyperion. The orbiter’s mission is scheduled to end formally on 30 June 2008. 

Meanwhile, the European Huygens probe 

will enter Titan’s atmosphere on 27 

November 2004. During its 2.5-hour descent, 

the spacecraft will deploy a main parachute 

for stabilization while it relays data back to 

the orbiter for subsequent transmission back 

to Earth. 

187) 

Asiasat 3 / “HGS 1” 

Organization: Asia Satellite 

Telecommunications Co. (1) 

Objective(s): geostationary orbit 

Spacecraft: Asiasat 1 

Spacecraft Mass: 3,465 kg 

170 Deep Space Chronicle 
Mission Design and Management: 

Launch Vehicle: 8K82K + Blok DM3 (Proton-


K no. 394-01 / Blok DM3 no. 5L)
 

Launch Date and Time: 24 December 1997 /
 

23:19 UT 

Launch Site: GIIK-5 / launch site 81L 

Scientific Instruments: none 

Results: Asiasat 3 was a communications 

satellite, launched by the Russians for Asia 

Satellite Telecommunications Company, that 

ended up in an incorrect orbit after a failure 

of the Blok DM3 upper stage. Because of the 

improper second firing of the Blok DM3, the 

satellite ended up in a useless 203 x 36,000­

kilometer orbit and was written off as a loss 

by Asiasat. Insurance underwriters subsequently signed an agreement with Hughes 

Global Systems (who also built the satellite) 

to salvage the vehicle and bring it to its originally intended geostationary orbit by using 

as little propellant as possible. Using eleven 

carefully planned burns beginning 12 April 

1998, controllers raised the orbit’s apogee to 

321,000 kilometers. Then, with the twelfth 

firing on 7 May 1998, the spacecraft was sent 

on a nine-day round trip around the Moon, 

approaching as close as 6,200 kilometers to 

its surface on 13 May. Using this gravityassist, Asiasat 3 hurtled back into a usable 

orbit. By 16 May 1998, perigee had been 

raised to 42,000 kilometers and inclination 

reduced from 51° to 18°. A second circumlunar mission began on 1 June and culminated in a 34,300-kilometer flyby of the 

Moon. After four more engine firings, the 

satellite was finally in a 24-hour orbit by 17 

June 1998, above 153°. The satellite, now 

owned by Hughes, has been renamed HGS 1. 

1997 171 

188) 

Lunar Prospector 

Nation: U.S. (72) 

Objective(s): lunar orbit 

Spacecraft: Lunar Prospector 

Spacecraft Mass: 300 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA ARC 

Launch Vehicle: Athena-2 (LM-004) 

Launch Date and Time: 7 January 1998 / 

02:28:44 UT 

Launch Site: WSMC / SLC-46 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) MAG magnetometer 

2) ER electron reflectometer 

3) GRS gamma-ray spectrometer 

4) NS neutron spectrometer 

5) APS alpha particle spectrometer 

6) DGE Doppler gravity experiment 

(using S-band antenna) 

Results: Lunar Prospector was the third mission selected as part of NASA’s Discovery program of low-cost missions. The spacecraft was 

designed to create the first complete compositional and gravity maps of the Moon during 

its one-year mission. After two midcourse corrections, Lunar Prospector entered orbit 

around the Moon 105 hours after launch. 

Initial parameters were 92 x 153 kilometers. 

After two further corrections on 13 and 15 

January, the spacecraft entered its operational 100- x 100-kilometer orbit at 90° inclination. Perhaps of most interest to scientists 

1998
 was continued investigation into the signs of 

water ice on the Moon as found by the 

Clementine probe. Lunar Prospector’s data 

showed an estimated six billion tons of water 

ice trapped in the shadows of lunar polar 

regions. The spacecraft also detected strong 

localized magnetic fields; mapped the global 

distribution of major rock types; and discovered signs of a tiny, iron-rich core. On 

10 December 1998, Lunar Prospector’s orbit 

was lowered to 40 kilometers to perform highresolution studies. A subsequent maneuver on 

28 January 1999 changed the orbit to 15 x 45 

kilometers and ended the space probe’s primary mission. Lunar Prospector was deliberately landed on a shadowed crater on the 

lunar surface at 09:52:02 UT on 31 July 1999. 

During the descent, the spacecraft failed to 

find any observable signature of water. The 

vehicle carried the cremated remains of geologist Eugene Shoemaker to the lunar surface. 

189) 

Nozomi 

Nation: Japan (4) 

Objective(s): Mars orbit, lunar flybys 

Spacecraft: Planet-B 

Spacecraft Mass: 536 kg 

Mission Design and Management: ISAS 

Launch Vehicle: M-5 (no. 3) 

Launch Date and Time: 3 July 1998 / 18:12 UT 

Launch Site: Kagoshima / launch complex M-5 

1998 173 
Scientific Instruments: 

1) MIC visible camera 

2) MGF magnetometer 

3) ESA energetic electrons experiment 

4) ISA energetic ions experiment 

5) IMI energetic ion mass experiment 

6) EIS high-energy particles 

experiment 

7) TPA thermal ion drift experiment 

8) PET electro, UVS ultraviolet 

spectrometer 

9) PWS sounder/HF waves experiment 

10) LFA plasma waves experiment 

11) NMS neutral gas mass spectrometer 

12) MDC dust counter 

13) XUV EUV spectrometer 

14) USO ultra-stable oscillator/radio 

science experiment 

Results: Nozomi, Japan’s fourth “deep space” 

probe, was also its first planetary spacecraft. 

The spacecraft was slated to enter a highly 

elliptical orbit around Mars on 11 October 

1999. Its mission is to conduct long-term 

investigations of the planet’s upper atmosphere and its interactions with the solar wind 

and to track the escape trajectories of oxygen 

molecules from Mars’ thin atmosphere. The 

spacecraft is expected to take pictures of the 

planet and its moons from its operational 

orbit of 300 x 47,500 kilometers. During 

perigee, Nozomi will perform remote sensing 

of the atmosphere and surface; while close to 

apogee, the spacecraft will study ions and 

neutral gas escaping from the planet. 

Although designed and built by Japan, the 

spacecraft carries a set of fourteen instruments from Japan, Canada, Germany, 

Sweden, and the United States. After 

entering an elliptical parking orbit around 

Earth, Nozomi was sent on an interplanetary 

trajectory that involved two gravity-assist 

flybys of the Moon on 24 September and 18 

December 1998 (at 2,809 kilometers), and one 

of Earth on 20 December 1998 (at 1,003 kilometers). Due to insufficient velocity imparted 

during the Earth flyby and two trajectory correction burns on 21 December 1998 that used 

more propellant than intended, Nozomi’s 

originally planned mission had to be completely reconfigured. The spacecraft, currently in heliocentric orbit, is now planned to 

arrive in Mars orbit in December 2003, four 

years after its original schedule. A nominal 

mission is planned for two Earth years but 

may be extended to three to five years 

depending on the state of the spacecraft. 

190) 

Deep Space 1 

Nation: U.S. (73) 

Objective(s): asteroid flyby 

Spacecraft: DS 1 

Spacecraft Mass: 489 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7326-9.5 (no. D261) 

Launch Date and Time: 24 October 1998 / 

12:08:00 UT 

Launch Site: ESMC / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) MICAS miniature integrated 

camera-spectrometer 

2) PEPE plasma experiment for planetary exploration technology 

Results: Deep Space 1 (DS 1) was designed to 

test innovative technologies appropriate for 

future deep space and interplanetary missions. It is the first in a new series of technology demonstration missions under NASA’s 

New Millennium program. The spacecraft’s 

main goals are to test such technologies as ion 

propulsion, autonomous optical navigation, a 

solar power concentration array, a miniature 

camera, and an imaging spectrometer during 

a flyby of the asteroid 1992 KD (renamed 

9969 Braille). A month after launch, on 24 

November 1998, controllers fired the Deep 

Space 1’s ion propulsion system (fueled by 

xenon gas) while the spacecraft was 4.8 million kilometers from Earth. The engine ran 

continuously for 14 days and demonstrated a 

specific impulse of 3,100 seconds, as much as 

ten times higher than possible with conventional chemical propellants. DS 1 passed by 

the near-Earth asteroid 9669 Braille at 04:46 

UT on 29 July 1999 at a range of only 26 kilometers at a speed of 15.5 kilometers per 

second. It was the closest asteroid flyby to 

date. Photographs taken and other data collected during the encounter were transmitted 

back to Earth in the following few days. DS 1 

found Braille to be 2.2 kilometers at its 

longest and 1 kilometer at its shortest. Once 

the very successful primary mission was over 

on 18 September 1999, NASA formulated an 

extended mission. Originally, the plan had 

been to make DS 1 fly by the dormant Comet 

174 Deep Space Chronicle 
This artist’s conception of the New Millennium Deep 

Space 1 mission illustrates the new technologies to be 

validated for future missions. 
Wilson-Harrington in January 2001 and the 

Comet Borrelly in September 2001, but the 

spacecraft’s star tracker failed on 11 

November 1999. Mission planners revised the 

manifest to include a flyby that would not 

require a star-tracker—a single flyby of 

Borrelly in September 2001. By the end of 

1999, the ion engine of DS 1 had expended 22 

kilograms of xenon to impart a total delta V of 

1,300 meters per second. On its way to 

Borrelly, it set the record for the longest operating time for a propulsion system in space. 

By 17 August 2000, the engine had been operating for 162 days as part of an eight-month 

run. On 22 September 2001, DS 1 flew past 

the coma of Comet Borrelly at 16.5 kilometers 

per second to obtain pictures and infrared 

spectra of the nucleus. NASA terminated contact with DS 1 on 18 December 2001, signaling the end to one of the more successful 

deep space missions in recent history. 

191) 

Mars Climate Orbiter 

Nation: U.S. (74) 

Objective(s): Mars orbit 

Spacecraft: MCO 

Spacecraft Mass: 629 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7427-9.5 (no. D264) 

Launch Date and Time: 11 December 1998 / 

18:45:51 UT 

Launch Site: ESMC / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) PMIRR pressure modulated 

infrared radiometer 

2) MARCI Mars color imaging system 

(two cameras) 

3) UHF communications system 

Results: Mars Climate Orbiter was the second 

probe in NASA’s Mars Surveyor program, 

which also included the Mars Global Surveyor 

(launched in November 1996) and Mars Polar 

Lander (launched in January 1999). Mars 

Climate Orbiter was designed to arrive at 

roughly the same time as Mars Polar Lander 

and conduct simultaneous investigations of 

Mars’s atmosphere, climate, and surface. 

Mars Climate Orbiter was also designed to 

serve as a communications relay for the latter. 

After the lander’s three-month mission, MCO 

would have performed a two-year independent mission to monitor atmospheric dust 

and water vapor and take daily pictures of the 

planet’s surface to construct an evolutionary 

map of climatic changes. Scientists hoped that 

such information would aid in reconstructing 

Mars’ climatic history and provide evidence of 

buried water reserves. The spacecraft was 

scheduled to arrive in Mars orbit on 23 

September 1999 and attain its operational 

near-circular Sun-synchronous orbit at 421 

kilometers by 1 December 1999. After the end 

of its main mapping mission on 15 January 

2001, Mars Climate Orbiter would have acted 

as a communications relay for future NASA 

missions to Mars. After launch, the spacecraft 

performed four midcourse corrections on 21 

December 1998, 4 March, 25 July, and 15 

September 1999. At 09:01 UT (received time) 

on 23 September 1999, the orbiter began its 

Mars orbit insertion burn as planned. The 

spacecraft was scheduled to reestablish contact after passing behind Mars, but no further 

signals were received from the spacecraft. An 

investigation indicated that the failure 

resulted from a navigational error due to 

commands from Earth being sent in English 

units without being converted into the metric 

standard. The error caused the orbiter to miss 

its intended 140- to 150-kilometer altitude 

orbit and instead fall into the Martian atmosphere at approximately 57 kilometers altitude 

and burn up. 

176 Deep Space Chronicle 
192) 

Mars Polar Lander/Deep Space 2 

Nation: U.S. (75) 

Objective(s): Mars landing 

Spacecraft: MPL 

Spacecraft Mass: 583 kg 

Mission Design and Management: NASA JPL 

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7425-9.5 (no. D265) 

Launch Date and Time: 3 January 1999 / 

20:21:10 UT 

Launch Site: ESMC / launch complex 17B 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) MVACS Mars volatile and climate 

surveyor instrument package 

a) SSI stereo surface imager 

b) RA robotic arm 

c) MET meteorology package 

d) TEGA thermal and evolved gas 

analyzer 

e) RAC robotic arm camera 

2) MARDI Mars descent imager 

3) LIDAR light detection and ranging 

instrument 

Results: The Mars Polar Lander (MPL) was one 

of NASA’s Mars Surveyor missions that called 

for a series of small, low-cost spacecraft for 

sustained exploration of Mars. MPL’s primary 

goal was to deploy a lander and two penetrators (known as Deep Space 2) on the surface of 

Mars to extend our knowledge on the planet’s 

past and present water resources. The objective was to explore the never-before-studied 

1999
 

carbon dioxide icecap about 1,000 kilometers 

from the south pole. The mission called for 

recording local meteorological conditions, analyzing samples of polar deposits, and taking 

multispectral images of local areas. MPL was 

to have performed its mission simultaneously 

with that of the Mars Climate Orbiter, which 

would have acted as a communications relay 

during its surface operations. MPL itself comprised a bus section (for power, propulsion, 

and communications during the outbound 

voyage) and a 290-kilogram lander that stood 

1.06 meters tall on the ground. The lander 

was equipped with a 2-meter-long remote arm 

to dig into the terrain and investigate the 

properties of Martian soil (using the thermal 

and evolved gas analyzer). MPL was supposed 

to arrive at Mars on 3 December 1999. After 

atmospheric entry, about 10 minutes prior to 

landing, the spacecraft was to jettison its 

cruise stage and solar panels and then release 

the two 3.572-kilogram (each) Deep Space 2 

microprobes. Unlike Mars Pathfinder, MPL 

was scheduled to make a completely controlled landing using retro-rockets all the way 

to the surface. Landing was scheduled for 

21:03 UT on 3 December 1999, with two-way 

communications planned to begin 20 minutes 

later. The two Deep Space 2 microprobes 

(renamed Amundsen and Scott on 15 

November 1999), meanwhile, would impact 

the ground at a speed of 200 meters per 

1999 177 
second at about 50 to 85 seconds prior to the 

lander’s touchdown about 100 kilometers 

away. Each penetrator was designed to obtain 

a small sample of subsurface soil using an 

electric drill for analysis. The microprobes’ 

mission was expected to last about 36 hours, 

while the lander mission would continue until 

1 March 2000. In the event, contact with MPL 

was lost at 20:00 UT on 3 December, about 6 

minutes prior to atmospheric entry. With no 

communications for over two weeks, on 16 

December 1999, NASA used the Mars Global 

Surveyor orbiting Mars to look for signs of the 

lander on the Martian surface, but the search 

proved fruitless. On 17 January 2000, NASA 

finally terminated all attempts to establish 

contact with the lost lander. An independent 

investigation into the failure, whose results 

were released publicly on 28 March 2000, 

indicated that the most probable cause of the 

failure was the generation of spurious signals 

when the lander’s legs deployed during the 

descent. These signals falsely indicated that 

the spacecraft had touched down on Mars 

when in fact it was still descending. The main 

engines prematurely shut down, and the 

lander fell to the Martian landscape. 

193) 

Stardust
 

Nation: U.S. (76)
 

Objective(s): comet sample return
 

Spacecraft: Stardust
 

Spacecraft Mass: 385 kg
 

Mission Design and Management:
 

Launch Vehicle: Delta 7426-9.5 (no. D266)
 

Launch Date and Time: 7 February 1999 /
 

21:04:15 UT 

Launch Site: ESMC / launch complex 17A 

Scientific Instruments: 

1) aerogel dust collectors 

2) CIDA cometary and interstellar 

dust analyzer 

3) NavCam navigation camera 

4) DFM Whipple shield flux monitors 

Results: Stardust is an ambitious mission, the 

fourth of NASA’s Discovery program of lowcost exploration missions (after NEAR, Mars 

Pathfinder, and Lunar Prospector). Its primary goal was to fly by the Comet Wild-2, collect samples of dust from the coma of the 

comet, and then return the samples to Earth. 

During flight, Stardust was to collect samples 

of interstellar dust grains. Scientists on 

Earth expect to perform detailed analyses of 

these samples, which represent primitive 

substances from the time the solar system 

was formed. Stardust collected the samples 

using a low-density microporous silica-based 

substance known as aerogel attached to 

panels on the spacecraft to “soft-catch” and 

preserve the cometary materials. The spacecraft was launched into heliocentric orbit and 

performed midcourse corrections on 28 

December 1999 and 18 January, 20 January, 

and 22 January 2000. Its first interstellar 

dust collection operation was carried out 

between 22 February and 1 May 2000. After 

approximately a year in heliocentric orbit, 

Stardust flew by Earth for a gravity-assist 

(closest approach to Earth was at 11:13 UT 

on 15 January 2001 at a range of 6,012 kilometers) to send it on a second sample-collection exercise between July and December 

2002. Stardust is expected to encounter 

Comet Wild-2 on 2 January 2004, when the 

spacecraft will pass as close as 150 kilometers while flying at a relative speed of 6.1 

kilometers per second. Apart from collecting 

samples, Stardust will also take photographs 

of the comet’s nucleus with a resolution of 30 

meters. On 15 January 2006, Stardust will 

release its spin-stabilized Sample Return 

Capsule (SRC), which is expected to descend 

by parachute over the U.S. Air Force Test and 

Training Range in Utah at approximately 

03:00 local time. The sample will be recovered 

by a chase aircraft. 

178 Deep Space Chronicle 
Deep Space Chronicle: 

Master Table of 

All Deep Space, 

Lunar, and 

Planetary Probes, 

1958–2000 

Official

Name 

Spacecraft /

No. 

Mass Launch Date /

Time 

Launch Place /

Pad 

Launch Vehicle / 

No. 

Nation /

Organization 

Design &

Operation 

Objective Outcome* 

1958“Pioneer” Able 1 38 kg 08-17-58 / 12:18 ETR / 17A Thor-Able I / 127 U.S. AFBMD lunar orbit U [Luna] Ye-1 / 1 c. 360 kg 09-23-58 / 09:03:23 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-3 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact U Pioneer Able 2 38.3 kg 10-11-58 / 08:42:13 ETR / 17A Thor-Able I / 130 U.S. NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit U [Luna] Ye-1 / 2 c. 360 kg 10-11-58 / 23:41:58 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-4 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact U Pioneer 2 Able 3 39.6 kg 11-08-58 / 07:30 ETR / 17A Thor-Able I / 129 U.S. NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit U [Luna] Ye-1 / 3 c. 360 kg 12-04-58 / 18:18:44 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-5 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact U Pioneer 3 - 5.87 kg 12-06-58 / 05:44:52 ETR / 5 Juno II / AM-11 U.S. NASA / ABMA lunar flyby U 1959Luna 1 Ye-1 / 4 361.3 kg 01-02-59 / 16:41:21 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-6 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact P Pioneer 4 - 6.1 kg 03-03-59 / 05:10:45 ETR / 5 Juno II / AM-14 U.S. NASA / ABMA lunar flyby P [Luna] Ye-1A / 5 c. 390 kg 06-18-59 / 08:08 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-7 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact U Luna 2 Ye-1A / 7 390.2 kg 09-12-59 / 06:39:42 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-7b USSR OKB-1 lunar impact S Luna 3 Ye-2A / 1 278.5 kg 10-04-59 / 00:43:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-8 USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby S “Pioneer” P-3 / Able IVB 169 kg 11-26-59 / 07:26 ETR / 14 Atlas-Able / 1 U.S. NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit U 1960Pioneer 5 P-2 / Able 6 43.2 kg 03-11-60 / 13:00:07 ETR / 17A Thor-Able IV / 4 U.S. NASA GSFC solar orbit S [Luna] Ye-3 / 1 N/A 04-15-60 / 15:06:44 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-9 USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby U [Luna] Ye-3 / 2 N/A 04-19-60 / 16:07:43 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-9a USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby U “Pioneer” P-30 / Able VA 175.5 kg 09-25-60 / 15:13 ETR / 12 Atlas-Able / 2 U.S. NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit U [Mars] 1M / 1 480 kg 10-10-60 / 14:27:49 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-4M USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby U [Mars] 1M / 2 480 kg 10-14-60 / 13:51:03 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-5M USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby U “Pioneer” P-31 / Able VB 176 kg 12-15-60 / 09:10 ETR / 12 Atlas-Able / 3 U.S. NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit U 

 Key *

U = UnsuccessfulP = Partial successS = Successful 

Master Table of All Deep Space, Lunar, and Planetary Probes 1958–2000 181 
Official

Name 

Spacecraft /

No. 

Mass Launch Date /

Time 

Launch Place /

Pad 

Launch Vehicle / 

No. 

Nation /

Organization 

Design &

Operation 

Objective Outcome 

1961[Venera] 1VA / 1 c. 645 kg 02-04-61 / 01:18:04 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-7 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact U [Venera] 1VA / 2 643.5 kg 02-12-61 / 00:34:37 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-6 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact U Ranger 1 P-32 306.18 kg 08-23-61 / 10:04 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 1 U.S. NASA JPL deep space orbit U Ranger 2 P-33 306.18 kg 11-18-61 / 08:12 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 2 U.S. NASA JPL deep space orbit U 1962Ranger 3 P-34 330 kg 01-26-62 / 20:30 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 3 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact U Ranger 4 P-35 331.12 kg 04-23-62 / 20:50 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 4 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact P Mariner 1 P-37 202.8 kg 07-22-62 / 09:21:23 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 5 U.S. NASA JPL Venus flyby U [Venera] 2MV-1 / 1 1,097 kg 08-25-62 / 02:18:45 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-12 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact U Mariner 2 P-38 203.6 kg 08-27-62 / 06:53:14 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 6 U.S. NASA JPL Venus flyby S [Venera] 2MV-1 / 2 c. 1,100 kg 09-01-62 / 02:12:30 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-13 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact U [Venera] 2MV-2 / 1 N/A 09-12-62 / 00:59:13 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-14 USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby U Ranger 5 P-36 342.46 kg 10-18-62 / 16:59:00 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 7 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact P [Mars] 2MV-4 / 1 c. 900 kg 10-24-62 / 17:55:04 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-15 USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby U Mars 1 2MV-4 / 4 893.5 kg 11-01-62 / 16:14:16 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-16 USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby P [Mars] 2MV-3 / 1 N/A 11-04-62 / 15:35:15 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-17 USSR OKB-1 Mars impact U 1963[Luna] Ye-6 / 2 1,420 kg 01-04-63 / 08:49 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-09 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U [Luna] Ye-6 / 3 1,420 kg 02-03-63 / 09:29:14 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / G103-10 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Luna 4 Ye-6 / 4 1,422 kg 04-02-63 / 08:16:37 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / G103-11 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Kosmos 21 3MV-1A / 2 c. 800 kg 11-11-63 / 06:23:35 NIIP-5 / 2 Molniya / G103-18 USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby U 

182 Deep Space Chronicle 
Official

Name 

Spacecraft /

No. 

Mass Launch Date /

Time 

Launch Place /

Pad 

Launch Vehicle / 

No. 

Nation /

Organization 

Design &

Operation 

Objective Outcome 

1964Ranger 6 Ranger-A / P-53 364.69 kg 01-30-64 / 15:49:09 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 8 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact P [Zond] 3MV-1A / 4A c. 800 kg 02-19-64 / 05:47:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-19 USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby U [Luna] Ye-6 / 6 c. 1,420 kg 03-21-64 / 08:15:35 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-20 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Kosmos 27 3MV-1 / 5 948 kg 03-27-64 / 03:24:42 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-22 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact U Zond 1 3MV-1 / 4 948 kg 04-02-64 / 02:42:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-23 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact U [Luna] Ye-6 / 5 c. 1,420 kg 04-20-64 / 08:08:28 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-21 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Ranger 7 Ranger-B / P-54 365.6 kg 07-28-64 / 16:50:07 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 9 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact S Mariner 3 Mariner-64C 260.8 kg 11-05-64 / 19:22:05 ETR / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 11 U.S. NASA JPL Mars flyby U Mariner 4 Mariner-64D 260.8 kg 11-28-64 / 14:22:01 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena D / 12 U.S. NASA JPL Mars flyby S Zond 2 3MV-4A / 2 996 kg 11-30-64 / 13:12 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby P 1965Ranger 8 Ranger-C 366.87 kg 02-17-65 / 17:05:00 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 13 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact S [Surveyor Model]

SD-1 951 kg 03-02-65 / 13:25 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 5 U.S. NASA JPL deep space orbit U 

Kosmos 60 Ye-6 / 9 c. 1,470 kg 03-12-65 / 09:30 NIIP-5 / Molniya / R103-25 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Ranger 9 Ranger-D 366.87 kg 03-21-65 / 21:37:02 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 14 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact S [Luna] Ye-6 / 8 c. 1,470 kg 04-10-65/ N/A NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / R103-26 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Luna 5 Ye-6 / 10 1,476 kg 05-09-65 / 07:49:37 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / U103-30 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Luna 6 Ye-6 / 7 1,442 kg 06-08-65 / 07:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / U103-31 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Zond 3 3MV-4A / 3 950 kg 07-18-65/ N/A NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby S Surveyor Model 1

SD-2 950 kg 08-11-65 / 14:31:04 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 6 U.S. NASA JPL deep space orbit S 

Luna 7 Ye-6 / 11 1,506 kg 10-04-65 / 07:56:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / U103-27 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Venera 2 3MV-4 / 4 963 kg 11-12-65/ N/A NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby S Venera 3 3MV-3 / 1 958 kg 11-16-65/ N/A NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR OKB-1 Venus impact S Kosmos 96 3MV-4 / 6 c. 950 kg 11-23-65/ N/A NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby U Luna 8 Ye-6 / 12 1,552 kg 12-03-65 / 10:46:14 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya / U103-28 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Pioneer 6 Pioneer-A 62.14 kg 12-16-65 / 07:31:21 ETR / 17A Thor-Delta E / 35 U.S. NASA ARC solar orbit S 

Master Table of All Deep Space, Lunar, and Planetary Probes 1958–2000 183 
Official

Name 

Spacecraft /

No. 

Mass Launch Date /

Time 

Launch Place /

Pad 

Launch Vehicle / 

No. 

Nation /

Organization 

Design &

Operation 

Objective Outcome 

1966Luna 9 Ye-6M / 202 1,538 kg 01-31-66 / 11:41:37 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / U103-32 USSR Lavochkin lunar landing S Kosmos 111 Ye-6S / 204 c. 1,580 kg 03-01-66 / 11:03:49 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-41 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit U Luna 10 Ye-6S / 206 1,582 kg 03-31-66 / 10:47 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-42 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S Surveyor Model 2 SD-3 784 kg 04-08-66 / 01:00:02 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 8 U.S. NASA JPL deep space orbit U Surveyor 1 Surveyor-A 995.2 kg 05-30-66 / 14:41:01 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 10 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing S Explorer 33 IMP-D 93.4 kg 07-01-66 / 16:02:25 ETR / 17A Thor-Delta E1 / 39 U.S. NASA GSFC lunar orbit P LunarOrbiter 1 LO-A 385.6 kg 08-10-66 / 19:26:00 ETR / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 17 U.S. NASA LaRC lunar orbit S Pioneer 7 Pioneer-B 62.75 kg 08-17-66 / 15:20:17 ETR / 17A Thor-Delta E1 / 40 U.S. NASA ARC solar orbit S Luna 11 Ye-6LF / 101 1,640 kg 08-24-66 / 08:03 NIIP-5 / Molniya-M / N103-43 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S Surveyor 2 Surveyor-B 995.2 kg 09-20-66 / 12:32:00 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 7 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing U Luna 12 Ye-6LF / 102 1,620 kg 10-22-66 / 08:42 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-44 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S LunarOrbiter 2 LO-B 385.6 kg 11-06-66 / 23:21:00 ETR / 13 Atlas Agena D/ 18 U.S. NASA LaRC lunar orbit S Luna 13 Ye-6M / 205 1,620 kg 12-21-66 / 10:17 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / N103-45 USSR Lavochkin lunar landing S 1967LunarOrbiter 3 LO-C 385.6 kg 02-05-67 / 01:17:01 ETR / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 20 U.S. NASA LaRC lunar orbit S Surveyor 3 Surveyor-C 997.9 kg 04-17-67 / 07:05:01 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 12 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing S LunarOrbiter 4 LO-D 385.6 kg 05-04-67 / 22:25:00 ETR / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 22 U.S. NASA LaRC lunar orbit S Kosmos 159 Ye-6LS / 111 N/A 05-17-67 / 21:43:57 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Ya716-56 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit P Venera 4 1V / 310 1,106 kg 06-12-67 / 02:39:45 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus impact S Mariner 5 Mariner-67E 244.9 kg 06-14-67 / 06:01:00 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena D / 23 U.S. NASA JPL Venus flyby S Kosmos 167 1V / 311 c. 1,100 kg 06-17-67 / 02:36:38 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus impact U Surveyor 4 Surveyor-D 1,037.4 kg 07-14-67 / 11:53:29 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 11 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing U Explorer 35 IMP-E 104.3 kg 07-19-67 / 14:19:02 ETR / 17B Thor-Delta E1 / 50 U.S. NASA GSFC lunar orbit S 

184 Deep Space Chronicle 
Official

Name 

Spacecraft /

No. 

Mass Launch Date /

Time 

Launch Place /

Pad 

Launch Vehicle / 

No. 

Nation /

Organization 

Design &

Operation 

Objective Outcome 

1967(continued)LunarOrbiter 5 LO-E 390 kg 08-01-67 / 22:33:00 ETR / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 24 U.S. NASA LaRC lunar orbit S Surveyor 5 Surveyor-E 1,006 kg 09-08-67 / 07:57:01 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 13 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing S [Zond] 7K-L1 / 4L c. 5,375 kg 09-27-67 / 22:11:54 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 229-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar U Surveyor 6 Surveyor-F 1,008.3 kg 11-07-67 / 07:39:01 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 14 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing S [Zond] 7K-L1 / 5L c. 5,375 kg 11-22-67 / 19:07:59 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 230-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar U Pioneer 8 Pioneer-C 65.36 kg 12-13-67 / 14:08 ETR / 17B Thor-Delta E-1 / 55 U.S. NASA ARC solar orbit S 1968Surveyor 7 Surveyor-G 1,040.1 kg 01-07-68 / 06:30:00 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 15 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing S [Luna] Ye-6LS / 112 N/A 02-07-68 / 10:43:54 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / 

Ya716-57 

USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit U 

Zond 4 7K-L1 / 6L c. 5,375 kg 03-02-68 / 18:29:23 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 231-01 USSR TsKBEM deep space P Luna 14 Ye-6LS / 113 N/A 04-07-68 / 10:09:32 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / 

Ya716-58 

USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S 

[Zond] 7K-L1 / 7L c. 5,375 kg 04-22-68 / 23:01:57 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 232-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar U Zond 5 7K-L1 / 9L c. 5,375 kg 09-14-68 / 21:42:11 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 234-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S Pioneer 9 Pioneer-D 65.36 11-08-68 / 09:46:29 ETR / 17B Thor-Delta E1 / 60 U.S. NASA ARC solar orbit S Zond 6 7K-L1 / 12L c. 5,375 kg 11-10-68 / 19:11:31 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 235-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S 

Master Table of All Deep Space, Lunar, and Planetary Probes 1958–2000 185 
Official

Name 

Spacecraft /

No. 

Mass Launch Date /

Time 

Launch Place /

Pad 

Launch Vehicle / 

No. 

Nation /

Organization 

Design &

Operation 

Objective Outcome 

1969Venera 5 2V / 330 1,130 kg 01-05-69 / 06:28:08 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Venera 6 2V / 331 1,130 kg 01-10-69 / 05:51:52 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S [Zond] 7K-L1 / 13L c. 5,375 kg 01-20-69 / 04:14:36 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 237-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar U [Luna] Ye-8 / 201 c. 5,700 kg 02-19-69 / 06:48:15 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 239-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar rover U [N1launch test]

7K-L1S / 3S 6,900 kg 02-21-69 / 09:18:07 NIIP-5 / 110P N1 / 3L USSR TsKBEM lunar orbit U 

Mariner 6 Mariner-69F 381 kg 02-25-69 / 01:29:02 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 20 U.S. NASA JPL Mars flyby S [Mars] M-69 / 521 c. 3,800 kg 03-27-69 / 10:40:45 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 240-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit U Mariner 7 Mariner-69G 381 kg 03-27-69 / 22:22:01 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 19 U.S. NASA JPL Mars flyby S [Mars] M-69 / 522 c. 3,800 kg 04-02-69 / 10:33:00 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 233-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit U [Luna] Ye-8-5 / 402 c. 5,700 kg 06-14-69 / 04:00:47 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 238-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U [N1test flight]

7K-L1S / 5L c. 6,900 kg 07-03-69 / 20:18:32 NIIP-5 / 110P N1 / 5L USSR TsKBEM lunar orbit U 

Luna 15 Ye-8-5 / 401 5,700 kg 07-13-69 / 02:54:42 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 242-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U Zond 7 7K-L1 / 11 c. 5,375 kg 08-07-69 / 23:48:06 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 243-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S Pioneer Pioneer-E 65.4 kg 08-27-69 / 21:59 ETR / 17A Thor-Delta L / 73 U.S. NASA ARC solar orbit U Kosmos 300 Ye-8-5 / 403 c. 5,700 kg 09-23-69 / 14:07:36 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 244-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U Kosmos 305 Ye-8-5 / 404 c. 5,700 kg 10-22-69 / 14:09:59 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 241-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U 1970[Luna] Ye-8-5 / 405 c. 5,700 kg 02-06-70 / 04:16:06 NIIP-5 / 81 Proton-K / 247-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U Venera 7 3V / 630 1,180 kg 08-17-70 / 05:38:22 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Kosmos 359 3V / 631 c. 1,200 kg 08-22-70 / 05:06:09 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus landing U Luna 16 Ye-8-5 / 406 5,727 kg 09-12-70 / 13:25:53 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 248-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample S Zond 8 7K-L1 / 14 c. 5,375 kg 10-20-70 / 19:55:39 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 250-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S Luna 17 Ye-8 / 203 5,700 kg 11-10-70 / 14:44:01 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 251-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar rover S 

186 Deep Space Chronicle 
Official

Name 

Spacecraft /

No. 

Mass Launch Date /

Time 

Launch Place /

Pad 

Launch Vehicle / 

No. 

Nation /

Organization 

Design &

Operation 

Objective Outcome 

1971Mariner 8 Mariner-71H 997.9 kg 05-09-71 / 01:11:02 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 24 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit U Kosmos 419 M-71 / 170 4,549 kg 05-10-71 / 16:58:42 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 253-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit U Mars 2 M-71 / 171 4,650 kg 05-19-71 / 16:22:44 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 255-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit / landing P Mars 3 M-71 / 172 4,650 kg 05-28-71 / 15:26:30 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 249-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit / landing P Mariner 9 Mariner-71I 997.9 kg 05-30-71 / 22:23:04 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 23 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit S Apollo15 Particle & Fields Sat

35.6 kg 08-04-71 / 20:13:19 Apollo 15 

CSM 112 

Saturn V / 510 U.S. NASA MSC lunar orbit S 

Luna 18 Ye-8-5 / 407 c. 5,750 kg 09-02-71 / 13:40:40 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 256-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U Luna 19 Ye-8LS / 202 c. 5,700 kg 09-28-71 / 10:00:22 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 257-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S 1972Luna 20 Ye-8-5 / 408 c. 5,750 kg 02-14-72 / 03:27:59 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 258-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample S Pioneer 10 Pioneer-F 258 kg 03-02-72 / 01:49:04 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 27 U.S. NASA ARC Jupiter flyby S Venera 8 3V / 670 1,184 kg 03-27-72 / 04:15:01 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Kosmos 482 3V / 671 c. 1,180 kg 03-31-72 / 04:02:33 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus landing U Apollo16 Particle & Fields Sat

42 kg 04-24-72 / 09:56:09 Apollo 16 

CSM 113 

Saturn V / 511 U.S. NASA MSC lunar orbit S 

[N1launch test] 

7K-LOK / 6A c.7,500 kg 11-23-72 / 06:11:55 NIIP-5 / 100L N1 / 7L USSR TsKBEM lunar orbit U 

Master Table of All Deep Space, Lunar, and Planetary Probes 1958–2000 187 
Official

Name 

Spacecraft /

No. 

Mass Launch Date /

Time 

Launch Place /

Pad 

Launch Vehicle / 

No. 

Nation /

Organization 

Design &

Operation 

Objective Outcome 

1973Luna 21 Ye-8 / 204 c. 5,950 kg 01-08-73 / 06:55:38 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 259-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar rover S Pioneer 11 Pioneer-G 258.5 kg 04-05-73 / 02:11 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 30 U.S. NASA ARC Jupiter, Saturn flyby S Explorer 49 RAE-B 330.2 kg 06-10-73 / 14:13:00 ETR / 17B Delta 1913 / 95 U.S. NASA GSFC lunar orbit S Mars 4 M-73 / 52S 3,440 kg 07-21-73 / 19:30:59 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 261-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit U Mars 5 M-73 / 53S 3,440 kg 07-25-73 / 18:55:48 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 262-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit S Mars 6 M-73 / 50P 3,260 kg 08-05-73 / 17:45:48 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 281-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars landing P Mars 7 M-73 / 51P 3,260 kg 08-09-73 / 17:00:17 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 281-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars landing U Mariner 10 Mariner-73J 502.9 kg 11-03-73 / 05:45:00 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 34 U.S. NASA JPL Mercury, Venus flyby S 1974Luna 22 Ye-8LS / 220 5,700 kg 05-29-74 / 08:56:51 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 282-02 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S Luna 23 Ye-8-5M / 410 c. 5,800 kg 10-28-74 / 14:30:32 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 285-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U Helios 1 Helios-A 370 kg 12-10-74 / 07:11:02 ETR / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 2 FRG DFVLR solar orbit S 1975Venera 9 4V-1 / 660 4,936 kg 06-08-75 / 02:38:00 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 286-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit / landing S Venera 10 4V-1 / 661 5,033 kg 06-14-75 / 03:00:31 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 285-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit / landing S Viking 1 Viking-B 3,527 kg 08-20-75 / 21:22:00 ETR / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 4 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit / landing S Viking 2 Viking-A 3,527 kg 09-09-75 / 18:39:00 ETR / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 3 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit / landing S [Luna] Ye-8-5M / 412 c. 5,800 kg 10-16-75 / 04:04:56 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 287-02 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U 1976Helios 2 Helios-B 370 kg 01-15-76 / 05:34:00 ETR / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 5 FRG DFVLR solar orbit S Luna 24 Ye-8-5M / 413 c. 5,800 kg 08-09-76 / 15:04:12 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 288-02 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample S 

188 Deep Space Chronicle 
Official

Name 

Spacecraft /

No. 

Mass Launch Date /

Time 

Launch Place /

Pad 

Launch Vehicle / 

No. 

Nation /

Organization 

Design &

Operation 

Objective Outcome 

1977Voyager 2 Voyager-2 2,020 kg 08-20-77 / 14:29:44 ETR / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 7 U.S. NASA JPL Jupiter, Saturn, 

Uranus, Neptune flyby 

S 

Voyager 1 Voyager-1 2,080 kg 09-05-77 / 12:56:01 ETR / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 6 U.S. NASA JPL Jupiter, Saturn flyby S 1978PioneerVenus 1 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter 

582 kg 05-20-78 / 13:13:00 ETR / 36A Atlas Centaur / 50 U.S. NASA ARC Venus orbit S 

PioneerVenus 2 

Pioneer Venus Multiprobe 

904 kg 08-08-78 / 07:33 ETR / 36A Atlas Centaur / 51 U.S. NASA ARC Venus landings S 

ISEE-3 ISEE-C 479 kg 08-12-78 / 15:12 ETR / 17B Delta 2914 / 144 U.S. NASA GSFC L1 S Venera 11 4V-1 / 360 4,450 kg 09-09-78 / 03:25:39 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 296-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Venera 12 4V-1 / 361 4,461 kg 09-14-78 / 02:25:13 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 296-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S 1981Venera 13 4V-1M / 760 4,363 kg 10-30-81 / 06:04 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 311-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Venera 14 4V-1M / 761 4,363.5 kg 11-04-81 / 05:31 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 311-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S 1983Venera 15 4V-2 / 860 5,250 kg 06-02-83 / 02:38:39 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 321-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit S Venera 16 4V-2 / 861 5,300 kg 06-07-83 / 02:32 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 321-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit S 1984Vega 1 5VK / 901 c. 4,920 kg 12-15-84 / 09:16:24 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 329-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing, 

Halley flyby 

S 

Vega 2 5VK / 902 c. 4,920 kg 12-21-84 / 09:13:52 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 325-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing, 

Halley flyby 

S 

Master Table of All Deep Space, Lunar, and Planetary Probes 1958–2000 189 
Official

Name 

Spacecraft /

No. 

Mass Launch Date /

Time 

Launch Place /

Pad 

Launch Vehicle / 

No. 

Nation /

Organization 

Design &

Operation 

Objective Outcome 

1985Sakigake MS-T5 138.1 kg 01-07-85 / 19:26 Kagoshima / M1 Mu-3S-II / 1 Japan ISAS Halley flyby S Giotto Giotto 960 kg 07-02-85 / 11:23:16 Kourou / ELA 1 Ariane 1 / V14 ESA ESA Halley flyby S Suisei Planet-A 139.5 kg 08-18-85 / 23:33 Kagoshima / M1 Mu-3S-II / 2 Japan ISAS Halley flyby S 1988Fobos 1 1F / 101 6,220 kg 07-07-88 / 17:38:04 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 356-02 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit /

Phobos flyby /landings 

U 

Fobos 2 1F / 102 6,220 kg 07-12-88 / 17:01:43 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 356-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit /

Phobos flyby /landings 

P 

1989Magellan Magellan 3,445 kg 05-04-89 / 18:47:00 KSC / 39B STS-30R / IUS U.S. NASA JPL Venus orbit S Galileo Galileo 2,561 kg 10-18-89 / 16:53:40 KSC / 39B STS-34R / IUS U.S. NASA JPL Jupiter orbit / entry S 1990Hiten/Hagoromo 

MUSES-A /MUSES-Asubsat 

197.4 kg 01-24-90 / 11:46 Kagoshima / 

M1 

Mu-3S-II / 5 Japan ISAS lunar flyby / orbit S 

Ulysses Ulysses 371 kg 10-06-90 / 11:47:16 KSC / 39B STS-41 / IUS ESA / U.S. ESA / NASA JPL solar orbit S 1992MarsObserver

Mars Observer 2,573 kg 09-25-92 / 17:05:01 ESMC / 40 Titan III / 4 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit U 

1994Clementine Clementine 424 kg 01-25-94 / 16:34 WSMC / SLC-4W Titan IIG / 11 U.S. BMDO lunar orbit S Wind Wind 1,250 kg 11-01-94 / 09:31:00 ESMC / 17B Delta 7925-10 / 227 U.S. NASA GSFC L1 S 

190 Deep Space Chronicle 
Official

Name 

Spacecraft /

No. 

Mass Launch Date /

Time 

Launch Place /

Pad 

Launch Vehicle / 

No. 

Nation /

Organization 

Design &

Operation 

Objective Outcome 

1995SOHO SOHO 1,864 kg 12-02-95 / 08:08:01 ESMC / 36B Atlas-Centaur IIAS /

121 

ESA / U.S. ESA / NASA L1 S 

1996NEAR NEAR 805 kg 02-17-96 / 20:43:27 ESMC / 17B Delta 7925-8 / 232 U.S. NASA GSFC asteroid orbit S Mars GlobalSurveyor

MGS 1,062.1 kg 11-07-96 / 17:00:49 ESMC / 17A Delta 7925 / 239 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit S 

Mars 8 M1 / 520 6,200 kg 11-16-96 / 20:48:53 GIIK-5 / 200L Proton-K / 392-02 Russia Lavochkin Mars landing U MarsPathfinder

Mars Pathfinder 870 kg 12-04-96 / 06:58:07 ESMC / 17B Delta 7925 / 240 U.S. NASA JPL Mars landing S 

1997ACE ACE 752 kg 08-25-97 / 14:39 ESMC / 17A Delta 7920-8 / 247 U.S. NASA GSFC L1 S Cassini/Huygens 

Cassini /Huygens 

5,655 kg 10-15-97 / 08:43 ESMC / 40 Titan 401B-Centaur / 

21 

U.S. / ESA NASA JPL / ESA Saturn, Titan in

progress 

Asiasat 3 HGS 1 3,465 kg 12-24-97 / 23:19 GIIK-5 / 81L Proton-K / 394-01 Asiasat Asiasat / Hughes lunar flyby S 1998LunarProspector

Lunar Prospector 300 kg 01-07-98 / 02:28:44 WSMC / SLC-46 Athena 2 / LM-004 U.S. NASA ARC lunar orbit S 

Nozomi Planet-B 536 kg 07-03-98 / 18:12 Kagoshima / M-5 M-5 / 3 Japan ISAS Mars orbit in

progress 

DeepSpace 1

DS-1 489 kg 10-24-98 / 12:08:00 ESMC / 17A Delta 7326-9.5 / 261 U.S. NASA JPL solar orbit S 

Mars Climate Orbiter 

MCO 629 kg 12-11-98 / 18:45:51 ESMC / 17A Delta 7425-9.5 / 264 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit U 

Master Table of All Deep Space, Lunar, and Planetary Probes 1958–2000 191 
Official

Name 

Spacecraft /

No. 

Mass Launch Date /

Time 

Launch Place /

Pad 

Launch Vehicle / 

No. 

Nation /

Organization 

Design &

Operation 

Objective Outcome 

1999Mars Polar Lander /Deep Space 2

MPL / DS-2 583 kg 01-03-99 / 20:21:10 ESMC / 17B Delta 7425-9.5 / 265 U.S. NASA JPL Mars landing U 

Stardust Stardust 385 kg 02-07-99 / 21:04:15 ESMC / 17A Delta 7426-9.5 / 266 U.S. NASA JPL comet sample

return 

in

progress 

192 Deep Space Chronicle 
Deep Space Chronicle: 

Program Tables
 

Official Spacecraft / Mass Launch Date / Launch Place / Launch Vehicle / Nation / Design & Objective Outcome 

Name No. Time Pad No. Organization Operation UNITED STATES

Program Tables 195 

PIONEER“Pioneer” Able 1 38 kg 08-17-58 / 12:18 ETR / 17A Thor-Able I / 127 U.S. AFBMD lunar orbit U Pioneer Able 2 38.3 kg 10-11-58 / 08:42:13 ETR / 17A Thor-Able I / 130 U.S. NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit U Pioneer 2 Able 3 39.6 kg 11-08-58 / 07:30 ETR / 17A Thor-Able I / 129 U.S. NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit U Pioneer 3 - 5.87 kg 12-06-58 / 05:44:52 ETR / 5 Juno II / AM-11 U.S. NASA / ABMA lunar flyby U Pioneer 4 - 6.1 kg 03-03-59 / 05:10:45 ETR / 5 Juno II / AM-14 U.S. NASA / ABMA lunar flyby P “Pioneer” P-3 / Able IVB 169 kg 11-26-59 / 07:26 ETR / 14 Atlas-Able / 1 U.S. NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit U Pioneer 5 P-2 / Able 6 43.2 kg 03-11-60 / 13:00:07 ETR / 17A Thor-Able IV / 4 U.S. NASA GSFC solar orbit S “Pioneer” P-30 / Able VA 175.5 kg 09-25-60 / 15:13 ETR / 12 Atlas-Able / 2 U.S. NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit U “Pioneer” P-31 / Able VB 176 kg 12-15-60 / 09:10 ETR / 12 Atlas-Able / 3 U.S. NASA / AFBMD lunar orbit U Pioneer 6 Pioneer-A 62.14 kg 12-16-65 / 07:31:21 ETR / 17A Thor-Delta E / 35 U.S. NASA ARC solar orbit S Pioneer 7 Pioneer-B 62.75 kg 08-17-66 / 15:20:17 ETR / 17A Thor-Delta E1 / 40 U.S. NASA ARC solar orbit S Pioneer 8 Pioneer-C 65.36 kg 12-13-67 / 14:08 ETR / 17B Thor-Delta E-1 / 55 U.S. NASA ARC solar orbit S Pioneer 9 Pioneer-D 65.36 11-08-68 / 09:46:29 ETR / 17B Thor-Delta E1 / 60 U.S. NASA ARC solar orbit S Pioneer Pioneer-E 65.4 kg 08-27-69 / 21:59 ETR / 17A Thor-Delta L / 73 U.S. NASA ARC solar orbit U Pioneer 10 Pioneer-F 258 kg 03-02-72 / 01:49:04 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 27 U.S. NASA ARC Jupiter flyby S Pioneer 11 Pioneer-G 258.5 kg 04-05-73 / 02:11 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 30 U.S. NASA ARC Jupiter, Saturn flyby S PioneerVenus 1 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter 

582 kg 05-20-78 / 13:13:00 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 50 U.S. NASA ARC Venus orbiter S 

PioneerVenus 2 

Pioneer Venus Multiprobe 

904 kg 08-08-78 / 07:33 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 51 U.S. NASA ARC Venus landings S 

RANGERRanger 1 P-32 306.18 kg 08-23-61 / 10:04 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 1 U.S. NASA JPL deep space orbit U Ranger 2 P-33 306.18 kg 11-18-61 / 08:12 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 2 U.S. NASA JPL deep space orbit U Ranger 3 P-34 330 kg 01-26-62 / 20:30 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 3 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact U Ranger 4 P-35 331.12 kg 04-23-62 / 20:50 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 4 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact P Ranger 5 P-36 342.46 kg 10-18-62 / 16:59:00 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 7 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact P Ranger 6 Ranger-A / P-53 364.69 kg 01-30-64 / 15:49:09 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 8 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact P 
196 Deep Space Chronicle Official Spacecraft / Mass Launch Date / Launch Place / Launch Vehicle / Nation / Design & Objective Outcome Name No. Time Pad No. Organization Operation RANGER (continued) Ranger 7 Ranger-B / P-54 365.6 kg 07-28-64 / 16:50:07 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 9 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact S Ranger 8 Ranger-C 366.87 kg 02-17-65 / 17:05:00 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 13 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact S Ranger 9 Ranger-D 366.87 kg 03-21-65 / 21:37:02 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 14 U.S. NASA JPL lunar impact S 

MARINER

Mariner 1 P-37 202.8 kg 07-22-62 / 09:21:23 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 5 U.S. NASA JPL Venus flyby U Mariner 2 P-38 203.6 kg 08-27-62 / 06:53:14 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena B / 6 U.S. NASA JPL Venus flyby S Mariner 3 Mariner-64C 260.8 kg 11-05-64 / 19:22:05 ETR / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 11 U.S. NASA JPL Mars flyby U Mariner 4 Mariner-64D 260.8 kg 11-28-64 / 14:22:01 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena D / 12 U.S. NASA JPL Mars flyby S Mariner 5 Mariner-67E 244.9 kg 06-14-67 / 06:01:00 ETR / 12 Atlas-Agena D / 23 U.S. NASA JPL Venus flyby S Mariner 6 Mariner-69F 381 kg 02-25-69 / 01:29:02 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 20 U.S. NASA JPL Mars flyby S Mariner 7 Mariner-69G 381 kg 03-27-69 / 22:22:01 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 19 U.S. NASA JPL Mars flyby S Mariner 8 Mariner-71H 997.9 kg 05-09-71 / 01:11:02 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 24 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit U Mariner 9 Mariner-71I 997.9 kg 05-30-71 / 22:23:04 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 23 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit S Mariner 10 Mariner-73J 502.9 kg 11-03-73 / 05:45:00 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 34 U.S. NASA JPL Mercury, Venus flyby S SURVEYOR“AtlasCentaur 5”

SD-1 951 kg 03-02-65 / 13:25 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 5 U.S. NASA JPL deep space orbit U 

Surveyor Model 1

SD-2 950 kg 08-11-65 / 14:31:04 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 6 U.S. NASA JPL deep space orbit S 

Surveyor Model 2

SD-3 784 kg 04-08-66 / 01:00:02 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 8 U.S. NASA JPL deep space orbit U 

Surveyor 1 Surveyor-A 995.2 kg 05-30-66 / 14:41:01 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 10 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing S Surveyor 2 Surveyor-B 995.2 kg 09-20-66 / 12:32:00 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 7 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing U Surveyor 3 Surveyor-C 997.9 kg 04-17-67 / 07:05:01 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 12 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing S Surveyor 4 Surveyor-D 1,037.4 kg 07-14-67 / 11:53:29 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 11 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing U Surveyor 5 Surveyor-E 1,006 kg 09-08-67 / 07:57:01 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 13 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing S Surveyor 6 Surveyor-F 1,008.3 kg 11-07-67 / 07:39:01 ETR / 36B Atlas-Centaur / 14 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing S Surveyor 7 Surveyor-G 1,040.1 kg 01-07-68 / 06:30:00 ETR / 36A Atlas-Centaur / 15 U.S. NASA JPL lunar landing S 
Official Spacecraft / Mass Launch Date / Launch Place / Launch Vehicle / Nation / Design & Objective Outcome 

Name No. Time Pad No. Organization Operation EXPLORER

Program Tables 197 

Explorer 33 IMP-D 93.4 kg 07-01-66 / 16:02:25 ETR / 17A Thor-Delta E1 / 39 U.S. NASA GSFC lunar orbit P Explorer 35 IMP-E 104.3 kg 07-19-67 / 14:19:02 ETR / 17B Thor-Delta E1 / 50 U.S. NASA GSFC lunar orbit S Explorer 49 RAE-B 330.2 kg 06-10-73 / 14:13:00 ETR / 17B Delta 1913 / 95 U.S. NASA GSFC lunar orbit S LUNAR ORBITERLunarOrbiter 1

LO-A 385.6 kg 08-10-66 / 19:26:00 ETR / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 17 U.S. NASA LaRC lunar orbit S 

LunarOrbiter 2

LO-B 385.6 kg 11-06-66 / 23:21:00 ETR / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 18 U.S. NASA LaRC lunar orbit S 

LunarOrbiter 3

LO-C 385.6 kg 02-05-67 / 01:17:01 ETR / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 20 U.S. NASA LaRC lunar orbit S 

LunarOrbiter 4

LO-D 385.6 kg 05-04-67 / 22:25:00 ETR / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 22 U.S. NASA LaRC lunar orbit S 

LunarOrbiter 5

LO-E 390 kg 08-01-67 / 22:33:00 ETR / 13 Atlas-Agena D / 24 U.S. NASA LaRC lunar orbit S 

APOLLO PARTICLE AND FIELDS SUBSATELLITEApollo 15 Particle & Fields Sat

35.6 kg 08-04-71 / 20:13:19 Apollo 15 

CSM 112 

Saturn V / 510 U.S. NASA MSC lunar orbit S 

Apollo 16 Particle & Fields Sat

42 kg 04-24-72 / 09:56:09 Apollo 16 

CSM 113 

Saturn V / 511 U.S. NASA MSC lunar orbit S 

VIKINGViking 1 Viking-B 3,527 kg 08-20-75 / 21:22:00 ETR / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 4 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit / landing S Viking 2 Viking-A 3,527 kg 09-09-75 / 18:39:00 ETR / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 3 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit / landing S 
198 Deep Space Chronicle Official Spacecraft / Mass Launch Date / Launch Place / Launch Vehicle / Nation / Design & Objective Outcome Name No. Time Pad No. Organization Operation VOYAGER Voyager 2 Voyager-2 2,020 kg 08-20-77 / 14:29:44 ETR / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 7 U.S. NASA JPL Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune flyby S 

Voyager 1 Voyager-1 2,080 kg 09-05-77 / 12:56:01 ETR / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 6 U.S. NASA JPL Jupiter, Saturn flyby S ISEEISEE-3 ISEE-C 479 kg 08-12-78 / 15:12 ETR / 17B Delta 2914 / 144 U.S. NASA GSFC L1 S MAGELLANMagellan Magellan 3,445 kg 05-04-89 / 18:47:00 KSC / 39B STS-30R / IUS U.S. NASA JPL Venus orbit S GALILEOGalileo Galileo 2,561 kg 10-18-89 / 16:53:40 KSC / 39B STS-34R / IUS U.S. NASA JPL Jupiter orbit / entry S MARS OBSERVERMarsObserver

Mars Observer 2,573 kg 09-25-92 / 17:05:01 ESMC / 40 Titan III / 4 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit U 

CLEMENTINEClementine Clementine 424 kg 01-25-94 / 16:34 WSMC / SLC-4W Titan IIG / 11 U.S. BMDO lunar orbit S WINDWind Wind 1,250 kg 11-01-94 / 09:31:00 ESMC / 17B Delta 7925-10 / 227 U.S. NASA GSFC L1 S NEARNEAR NEAR 805 kg 02-17-96 / 20:43:27 ESMC / 17B Delta 7925-8 / 232 U.S. NASA GSFC asteroid orbit S MARS GLOBAL SURVEYORMars GlobalSurveyor 

MGS 1,062.1 kg 11-07-96 / 17:00:49 ESMC / 17A Delta 7925 / 239 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit S 
Official Spacecraft / Mass Launch Date / Launch Place / Launch Vehicle / Nation / Design & Objective Outcome 

Name No. Time Pad No. Organization Operation MARS PATHFINDERMars Mars Pathfinder 870 kg 12-04-96 / 06:58:07 ESMC / 17B Delta 7925 / 240 U.S. NASA JPL Mars landing S PathfinderACEACE ACE 752 kg 08-25-97 / 14:39 ESMC / 17A Delta 7920-8 / 247 U.S. NASA GSFC L1 S LUNAR PROSPECTORLunar Lunar Prospector 300 kg 01-07-98 / 02:28:44 WSMC / SLC-46 Athena 2 / LM-004 U.S. NASA ARC lunar orbit S ProspectorDEEP SPACEDeep Space 1 DS-1 489 kg 10-24-98 / 12:08:00 ESMC / 17A Delta 7326-9.5 / 261 U.S. NASA JPL solar orbit S MARS CLIMATE ORBITERMars Climate MCO 629 kg 12-11-98 / 18:45:51 ESMC / 17A Delta 7425-9.5 / 264 U.S. NASA JPL Mars orbit U OrbiterMARS POLAR LANDERMars Polar Lander /Deep Space 2

MPL / DS-2 583 kg 01-03-99 / 20:21:10 ESMC / 17B Delta 7425-9.5 / 265 U.S. NASA JPL Mars landing U 

STARDUSTStardust Stardust 385 kg 02-07-99 / 21:04:15 ESMC / 17A Delta 7426-9.5 / 266 U.S. NASA JPL comet sample return in

progress 

Program Tables 199 
200 Deep Space Chronicle Official Spacecraft / Mass Launch Date / Launch Place / Launch Vehicle / Nation / Design & Objective Outcome Name No. Time Pad No. Organization Operation SOVIET UNION / RUSSIA LUNA [Luna] Ye-1 / 1 c. 360 kg 09-23-58 / 09:03:23 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-3 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact U 

[Luna] Ye-1 / 2 c. 360 kg 10-11-58 / 23:41:58 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-4 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact U [Luna] Ye-1 / 3 c. 360 kg 12-04-58 / 18:18:44 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-5 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact U Luna 1 Ye-1 / 4 361.3 kg 01-02-59 / 16:41:21 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / B1-6 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact P [Luna] Ye-1A / 5 c. 390 kg 06-18-59 / 08:08 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-7 USSR OKB-1 lunar impact U Luna 2 Ye-1A / 7 390.2 kg 09-12-59 / 06:39:42 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-7b USSR OKB-1 lunar impact S Luna 3 Ye-2A / 1 278.5 kg 10-04-59 / 00:43:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-8 USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby S [Luna] Ye-3 / 1 N/A 04-15-60 / 15:06:44 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-9 USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby U [Luna] Ye-3 / 2 N/A 04-19-60 / 16:07:43 NIIP-5 / 1 Luna / I1-9a USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby U [Luna] Ye-6 / 2 1,420 kg 01-04-63 / 08:49 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-09 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U [Luna] Ye-6 / 3 1,420 kg 02-03-63 / 09:29:14 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / G103-10 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Luna 4 Ye-6 / 4 1,422 kg 04-02-63 / 08:16:37 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / G103-11 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U [Luna] Ye-6 / 6 c. 1,420 kg 03-21-64 / 08:15:35 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-20 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U [Luna] Ye-6 / 5 c. 1,420 kg 04-20-64 / 08:08:28 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-21 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Kosmos 60 Ye-6 / 9 c. 1,470 kg 03-12-65 / 09:30 NIIP-5 / Molniya / R103-25 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U [Luna] Ye-6 / 8 c. 1,470 kg 04-10-65/ N/A NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / R103-26 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Luna 5 Ye-6 / 10 1,476 kg 05-09-65 / 07:49:37 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / U103-30 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Luna 6 Ye-6 / 7 1,442 kg 06-08-65 / 07:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / U103-31 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Luna 7 Ye-6 / 11 1,506 kg 10-04-65 / 07:56:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / U103-27 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Luna 8 Ye-6 / 12 1,552 kg 12-03-65 / 10:46:14 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya / U103-28 USSR OKB-1 lunar landing U Luna 9 Ye-6M / 202 1,538 kg 01-31-66 / 11:41:37 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / U103-32 USSR Lavochkin lunar landing S Kosmos 111 Ye-6S / 204 c. 1,580 kg 03-01-66 / 11:03:49 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-41 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit U Luna 10 Ye-6S / 206 1,582 kg 03-31-66 / 10:47 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-42 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S Luna 11 Ye-6LF / 101 1,640 kg 08-24-66 / 08:03 NIIP-5 / Molniya-M / N103-43 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S Luna 12 Ye-6LF / 102 1,620 kg 10-22-66 / 08:42 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M / N103-44 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S Luna 13 Ye-6M / 205 1,620 kg 12-21-66 / 10:17 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / N103-45 USSR Lavochkin lunar landing S Kosmos 159 Ye-6LS / 111 N/A 05-17-67 / 21:43:57 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Ya716-56 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit P [Luna] Ye-6LS / 112 N/A 02-07-68 / 10:43:54 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Ya716-57 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit U 
Official Spacecraft / Mass Launch Date / Launch Place / Launch Vehicle / Nation / Design & Objective Outcome 

Name No. Time Pad No. Organization Operation LUNA (continued)

Program Tables 201 

Luna 14 Ye-6LS / 113 N/A 04-07-68 / 10:09:32 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M / Ya716-58 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S [Luna] Ye-8 / 201 c. 5,700 kg 02-19-69 / 06:48:15 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 239-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar rover U [Luna] Ye-8-5 / 402 c. 5,700 kg 06-14-69 / 04:00:47 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 238-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U Luna 15 Ye-8-5 / 401 5,700 kg 07-13-69 / 02:54:42 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 242-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U Kosmos 300 Ye-8-5 / 403 c. 5,700 kg 09-23-69 / 14:07:36 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 244-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U Kosmos 305 Ye-8-5 / 404 c. 5,700 kg 10-22-69 / 14:09:59 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 241-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U [Luna] Ye-8-5 / 405 c. 5,700 kg 02-06-70 / 04:16:06 NIIP-5 / 81 Proton-K / 247-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U Luna 16 Ye-8-5 / 406 5,727 kg 09-12-70 / 13:25:53 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 248-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample S Luna 17 Ye-8 / 203 5,700 kg 11-10-70 / 14:44:01 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 251-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar rover S Luna 18 Ye-8-5 / 407 c. 5,750 kg 09-02-71 / 13:40:40 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 256-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U Luna 19 Ye-8LS / 202 c. 5,700 kg 09-28-71 / 10:00:22 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 257-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S Luna 20 Ye-8-5 / 408 c. 5,750 kg 02-14-72 / 03:27:59 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 258-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample S Luna 21 Ye-8 / 204 c. 5,950 kg 01-08-73 / 06:55:38 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 259-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar rover S Luna 22 Ye-8LS / 220 5,700 kg 05-29-74 / 08:56:51 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 282-02 USSR Lavochkin lunar orbit S Luna 23 Ye-8-5M / 410 c. 5,800 kg 10-28-74 / 14:30:32 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 285-01 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U [Luna] Ye-8-5M / 412 c. 5,800 kg 10-16-75 / 04:04:56 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 287-02 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample U Luna 24 Ye-8-5M / 413 c. 5,800 kg 08-09-76 / 15:04:12 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 288-02 USSR Lavochkin lunar sample S MARS[Mars] 1M / 1 480 kg 10-10-60 / 14:27:49 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-4M USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby U [Mars] 1M / 2 480 kg 10-14-60 / 13:51:03 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-5M USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby U [Mars] 2MV-4 / 1 c. 900 kg 10-24-62 / 17:55:04 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-15 USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby U Mars 1 2MV-4 / 4 893.5 kg 11-01-62 / 16:14:16 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-16 USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby P [Mars] 2MV-3 / 1 N/A 11-04-62 / 15:35:15 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-17 USSR OKB-1 Mars impact U [Mars] M-69 / 521 c. 3,800 kg 03-27-69 / 10:40:45 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 240-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit U [Mars] M-69 / 522 c. 3,800 kg 04-02-69 / 10:33:00 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 233-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit U Kosmos 419 M-71 / 170 4,549 kg 05-10-71 / 16:58:42 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 253-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit U Mars 2 M-71 / 171 4,650 kg 05-19-71 / 16:22:44 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 255-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit / landing P Mars 3 M-71 / 172 4,650 kg 05-28-71 / 15:26:30 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 249-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit / landing P Mars 4 M-73 / 52S 3,440 kg 07-21-73 / 19:30:59 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 261-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit U 
202 Deep Space Chronicle Official Spacecraft / Mass Launch Date / Launch Place / Launch Vehicle / Nation / Design & Objective Outcome Name No. Time Pad No. Organization Operation MARS (continued) Mars 5 M-73 / 53S 3,440 kg 07-25-73 / 18:55:48 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 262-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit S Mars 6 M-73 / 50P 3,260 kg 08-05-73 / 17:45:48 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 281-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars landing P Mars 7 M-73 / 51P 3,260 kg 08-09-73 / 17:00:17 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 281-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars landing U 

Mars 8 M1 / 520 6,200 kg 11-16-96 / 20:48:53 GIIK-5 / 200L Proton-K / 392-02 Russia Lavochkin Mars landing U VENERA[Venera] 1VA / 1 c. 645 kg 02-04-61 / 01:18:04 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-7 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact U [Venera] 1VA / 2 643.5 kg 02-12-61 / 00:34:37 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / L1-6 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact U [Venera] 2MV-1 / 1 1,097 kg 08-25-62 / 02:18:45 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-12 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact U [Venera] 2MV-1 / 2 c. 1,100 kg 09-01-62 / 02:12:30 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-13 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact U [Venera] 2MV-2 / 1 N/A 09-12-62 / 00:59:13 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T103-14 USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby U Venera 2 3MV-4 / 4 963 kg 11-12-65 / N/A NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby S Venera 3 3MV-3 / 1 958 kg 11-16-65 / N/A NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR OKB-1 Venus impact S Kosmos 96 3MV-4 / 6 c. 950 kg 11-23-65 / N/A NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby U Venera 4 1V / 310 1,106 kg 06-12-67 / 02:39:45 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus impact S Kosmos 167 1V / 311 c. 1,100 kg 06-17-67 / 02:36:38 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus impact U Venera 5 2V / 330 1,130 kg 01-05-69 / 06:28:08 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Venera 6 2V / 331 1,130 kg 01-10-69 / 05:51:52 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Venera 7 3V / 630 1,180 kg 08-17-70 / 05:38:22 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Kosmos 359 3V / 631 c. 1,200 kg 08-22-70 / 05:06:09 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus landing U Venera 8 3V / 670 1,184 kg 03-27-72 / 04:15:01 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Kosmos 482 3V / 671 c. 1,180 kg 03-31-72 / 04:02:33 NIIP-5 / 31 Molniya-M USSR Lavochkin Venus landing U Venera 9 4V-1 / 660 4,936 kg 06-08-75 / 02:38:00 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 286-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit / landing S Venera 10 4V-1 / 661 5,033 kg 06-14-75 / 03:00:31 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 285-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit / landing S Venera 11 4V-1 / 360 4,450 kg 09-09-78 / 03:25:39 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 296-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Venera 12 4V-1 / 361 4,461 kg 09-14-78 / 02:25:13 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 296-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Venera 13 4V-1M / 760 4,363 kg 10-30-81 / 06:04 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 311-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Venera 14 4V-1M / 761 4,363.5 kg 11-04-81 / 05:31 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 311-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing S Venera 15 4V-2 / 860 5,250 kg 06-02-83 / 02:38:39 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 321-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit S Venera 16 4V-2 / 861 5,300 kg 06-07-83 / 02:32 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 321-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus orbit S 
Official Spacecraft / Mass Launch Date / Launch Place / Launch Vehicle / Nation / Design & Objective Outcome 

Name No. Time Pad No. Organization Operation ZOND (early)Kosmos 21 3MV-1A / 2 c. 800 kg 11-11-63 / 06:23:35 NIIP-5 / 2 Molniya / G103-18 USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby U [Zond] 3MV-1A / 4A c. 800 kg 02-19-64 / 05:47:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-19 USSR OKB-1 Venus flyby U Kosmos 27 3MV-1 / 5 948 kg 03-27-64 / 03:24:42 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-22 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact U Zond 1 3MV-1 / 4 948 kg 04-02-64 / 02:42:40 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya / T15000-23 USSR OKB-1 Venus impact U Zond 2 3MV-4A / 2 996 kg 11-30-64 / 13:12 NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya USSR OKB-1 Mars flyby P Zond 3 3MV-4A / 3 950 kg 07-18-65 / N/A NIIP-5 / 1 Molniya USSR OKB-1 lunar flyby S ZOND (later)[Zond] 7K-L1 / 4L c. 5,375 kg 09-27-67 / 22:11:54 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 229-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar U [Zond] 7K-L1 / 5L c. 5,375 kg 11-22-67 / 19:07:59 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 230-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar U Zond 4 7K-L1 / 6L c. 5,375 kg 03-02-68 / 18:29:23 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 231-01 USSR TsKBEM deep space P [Zond] 7K-L1 / 7L c. 5,375 kg 04-22-68 / 23:01:57 NIIP-5 / 81P Proton-K / 232-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar U Zond 5 7K-L1 / 9L c. 5,375 kg 09-14-68 / 21:42:11 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 234-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S Zond 6 7K-L1 / 12L c. 5,375 kg 11-10-68 / 19:11:31 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 235-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S [Zond] 7K-L1 / 13L c. 5,375 kg 01-20-69 / 04:14:36 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 237-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar U Zond 7 7K-L1 / 11 c. 5,375 kg 08-07-69 / 23:48:06 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 243-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S Zond 8 7K-L1 / 14 c. 5,375 kg 10-20-70 / 19:55:39 NIIP-5 / 81L Proton-K / 250-01 USSR TsKBEM circumlunar S N1 LUNAR TESTS[N1launch test] 7K-L1S / 3S 6,900 kg 02-21-69 / 09:18:07 NIIP-5 / 110P N1 / 3L USSR TsKBEM lunar orbit U [N1test flight] 7K-L1S / 5L c. 6,900 kg 07-03-69 / 20:18:32 NIIP-5 / 110P N1 / 5L USSR TsKBEM lunar orbit U [N1launch test] 7K-LOK / 6A N/A 11-23-72 / 06:11:55 NIIP-5 / 100L N1 / 7L USSR TsKBEM lunar orbit U 

Program Tables 203 
204 Deep Space Chronicle Official Spacecraft / Mass Launch Date / Launch Place / Launch Vehicle / Nation / Design & Objective Outcome Name No. Time Pad No. Organization Operation VEGA Vega 1 5VK / 901 c. 4,920 kg 12-15-84 / 09:16:24 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 329-01 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing, Halley flyby S Vega 2 5VK / 902 c. 4,920 kg 12-21-84 / 09:13:52 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 325-02 USSR Lavochkin Venus landing, 

Halley flyby 

S 

FOBOSFobos 1 1F / 101 6,220 kg 07-07-88 / 17:38:04 NIIP-5 / 200L Proton-K / 356-02 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit /

Phobos flyby / landings

U 

Fobos 2 1F / 102 6,220 kg 07-12-88 / 17:01:43 NIIP-5 / 200P Proton-K / 356-01 USSR Lavochkin Mars orbit /

Phobos flyby / landings 

P 

INTERNATIONALHELIOSHelios 1 Helios-A 370 kg 12-10-74 / 07:11:02 ETR / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 2 FRG DFVLR solar orbit S Helios 2 Helios-B 370 kg 01-15-76 / 05:34:00 ETR / 41 Titan IIIE-Centaur / 5 FRG DFVLR solar orbit S PLANETSakigake MS-T5 138.1 kg 01-07-85 / 19:26 Kagoshima / M1 Mu-3S-II / 1 Japan ISAS Halley flyby S Suisei Planet-A 139.5 kg 08-18-85 / 23:33 Kagoshima / M1 Mu-3S-II / 2 Japan ISAS Halley flyby S Nozomi Planet-B 536 kg 07-03-98 / 18:12 Kagoshima / M-5 M-5 / 3 Japan ISAS Mars orbit in

progress 

GIOTTOGiotto Giotto 960 kg 07-02-85 / 11:23:16 Kourou / ELA 1 Ariane 1 / V14 ESA ESA Halley flyby S 
Official Spacecraft / Mass Launch Date / Launch Place / Launch Vehicle / Nation / Design & Objective Outcome 

Name No. Time Pad No. Organization Operation MUSES

Program Tables 205 

Hiten/Hagoromo 

MUSES-A /MUSES-Asubsat 

197.4 kg 01-24-90 / 11:46 Kagoshima / M1 Mu-3S-II / 5 Japan ISAS lunar flyby / orbit S 

ULYSSESUlysses S Ulysses 371 kg 10-06-90 / 11:47:16 KSC / 39B STS-41 / IUS ESA / U.S. ESA / NASA JPL solar orbit SOHOSOHO S SOHO 1,864 kg 12-02-95 / 08:08:01 ESMC / 36B Atlas-Centaur IIAS / 121 ESA / U.S. ESA / NASA L1 CASSINI/HUYGENSCassini/Huygens 

Cassini/Huygens 

5,655 kg 10-15-97 / 08:43 ESMC / 40 Titan 401B-Centaur / 21 U.S. / ESA NASA JPL / ESA Saturn, Titan in

progress 

ASIASATAsiasat 3 HGS 1 3,465 kg 12-24-97 / 23:19 GIIK-5 / 81L Proton-K / 394-01 Asiasat Asiasat / Hughes lunar flyby S 

Deep Space Chronicle: 

Appendices
 

Appendix 1 

Abbreviations 

AFBMD Air Force Ballistic Missile Division 

ARC Ames Research Center 

ASI Italian Space Agency 

AU astronomical unit 

DoD Department of Defense 

DSPSE Deep Space Program Science Experiment 

ESA European Space Agency 

ESMC Eastern Space and Missile Center 

ETR Eastern Test Range 

GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center 

GSMZ Lavochkin Lavochkin State Union Machine Building Plant 

IASTP Inter-Agency Solar-Terrestrial Physics (Program) 

ISAS Institute of Space and Astronautical Science 

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

KSC Kennedy Space Center 

LaRC Langley Research Center 

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NEAR Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous 

NIIP-5 Scientific-Research and Testing Range No. 5 (Baykonur) 

NPO Lavochkin Lavochkin Scientific-Production Association 

OKB-1 Experimental Design Bureau No. 1 

Appendix 1 209 
SETI Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 

SOHO Solar and Heliospheric Observatory 

SSI Solid State Imaging (system) 

STL Space Technology Laboratories 

STSP Solar Terrestrial Science Programme 

TETR-B Test and Training Satellite 

TsKBEM Central Design Bureau of Experimental Machine Building 

(formerly OKB-1) 

U.S. United States (of America)
 

USAF U.S. Air Force
 

USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union)
 

UT Universal Time
 

WSMC Western Space and Missile Center 

210 Deep Space Chronicle 
Appendix 2
 

Lunar, Planetary, and Deep Space “Firsts” 

Overall 

First lunar probe attempt: 

U.S. / Able 1 / 17 August 1958 

First probe to reach escape velocity: 

USSR / Luna 1 / 2 January 1959 

First probe to heliocentric orbit: 

USSR / Luna 1 / 2 January 1959 

First spacecraft to impact on another celestial body (Moon): 

USSR / Luna 2 / 14 September 1959 

First spacecraft to fly by the Moon: 

USSR / Luna 3 / 6 October 1959 

First photographs of the far side of the Moon: 

USSR / Luna 3 / 6 October 1959 

First Mars probe attempt: 

USSR / [Mars] / 10 October 1960 

First spacecraft to fly past Venus successfully: 

U.S. / Mariner 2 / 14 December 1962 

First spacecraft to fly past Mars successfully: 

U.S. / Mariner 4 / 15 July 1965 

Appendix 2 211 
First spacecraft to impact another planet (Venus): 

USSR / Venera 3 / 1 March 1966 

First spacecraft to make a survivable landing on the Moon: 

USSR / Luna 9 / 3 February 1966 

First spacecraft to orbit the Moon: 

USSR / Luna 10 / 2 April 1966 

First spacecraft to take pictures of Earth from the Moon: 

U.S. / Lunar Orbiter 2 / 23 August 1966 

First successful planetary atmospheric entry probe (Venus): 

USSR / Venera 4 / 18 October 1967 

First liftoff from the Moon: 

U.S. / Surveyor 6 / 17 November 1967 

First successful circumlunar mission: 

USSR / Zond 5 / 14–21 September 1968 

First transmission from the surface of another planet (Venus): 

USSR / Venera 7 / 15 December 1970 

First robotic spacecraft to recover and return lunar samples: 

USSR / Luna 16 / 12–21 September 1970 

First wheeled vehicle on the Moon: 

USSR / Lunokhod 1 / 17 November 1970 

First spacecraft to impact on Mars: 

USSR / Mars 2 / 27 November 1971 

First spacecraft to enter orbit around a planet (Mars): 

U.S. / Mariner 9 / 14 November 1971 

First spacecraft to fly through the asteroid belts: 

U.S. / Pioneer 10 / out in February 1973 

First spacecraft to fly past Jupiter: 

U.S. / Pioneer 10 / 4 December 1973 

First spacecraft to use gravity-assist to change its trajectory: 

U.S. / Mariner 10 / 5 February 1974 (at Venus) 

First spacecraft to fly past Mercury: 

U.S. / Mariner 10 / 29 March 1974 

First spacecraft to transmit photos from the surface of another planet (Venus): 

USSR / Venera 9 / 22 October 1975 

First spacecraft to orbit Venus: 

USSR / Venera 9 / 22 October 1975 

212 Deep Space Chronicle 
First spacecraft to take photos on the surface of Mars: 

U.S. / Viking 1 / 20 July 1976 

First spacecraft to orbit a libration point: 

U.S. / ISEE-3 / 20 November 1978 

First spacecraft to fly past Saturn: 

U.S. / Pioneer 11 / 1 September 1979 

First spacecraft to leave the solar system: 

U.S. / Pioneer 10 / 13 June 1983 

First spacecraft to fly past a comet (Comet Giacobini-Zinner): 

U.S. / ISEE-3 / 11 September 1985 

First spacecraft to fly past Uranus: 

U.S. / Voyager 2 / 24 January 1986 

First spacecraft to fly past Neptune: 

U.S. / Voyager 2 / 25 August 1989 

First spacecraft to use Earth for a gravity-assist: 

ESA / Giotto / 2 July 1990 

First spacecraft to use aerobraking to reduce velocity: 

Japan / Hiten / 19 March 1991 

First spacecraft to fly past an asteroid (Gaspra): 

U.S. / Galileo / 29 October 1991 

First spacecraft to enter Jupiter’s atmosphere: 

U.S. / Galileo Probe / 7 December 1995 

First spacecraft to orbit Jupiter: 

U.S. / Galileo Orbiter / 8 December 1995 

First wheeled vehicle on another planet (Mars): 

U.S. / Sojourner / 5 July 1997 

First spacecraft to orbit an asteroid (Eros): 

U.S. / NEAR / 14 February 2000 

First spacecraft to land on an asteroid (Eros): 

U.S. / NEAR Shoemaker / 12 February 2001 

Mercury 

First flyby: 

U.S. / Mariner 10 / 29 March 1974 

Appendix 2 213 
Venus 

First probe attempt: 

USSR / [Venera] / 4 February 1961 

First successful flyby: 

U.S. / Mariner 2 / 14 December 1962 

First impact: 

USSR / Venera 3 / 1 March 1966 

First successful atmospheric entry: 

USSR / Venera 4 / 18 October 1967 

First soft-landing: 

USSR / Venera 7 / 15 December 1970 

First surface photos: 

USSR / Venera 9 / 22 October 1975 

First orbiter: 

USSR / Venera 9 / 22 October 1975 

Moon 

First lunar probe attempt: 

U.S. / Able 1 / 17 August 1958 

First impact: 

USSR / Luna 2 / 14 September 1959 

First flyby: 

USSR / Luna 3 / 6 October 1959 

First photos of the far side: 

USSR / Luna 3 / 6 October 1959 

First survivable landing: 

USSR / Luna 9 / 3 February 1966 

First orbiter: 

USSR / Luna 10 / 2 April 1966 

First liftoff from the Moon: 

U.S. / Surveyor 6 / 17 November 1967 

First successful circumlunar mission: 

USSR / Zond 5 / 14–21 September 1968 

First robotic soil sample: 

USSR / Luna 16 / 12–21 September 1970 

214 Deep Space Chronicle 
First wheeled vehicle on the Moon: 

USSR / Lunokhod 1 / 17 November 1970 

Mars 

First probe attempt: 

USSR / [Mars] / 10 October 1960 

First successful flyby: 

U.S. / Mariner 4 / 15 July 1965 

First spacecraft to orbit: 

U.S. / Mariner 9 / 14 November 1971 

First impact: 

USSR / Mars 2 / 27 November 1971 

First surface photos: 

U.S. / Viking 1 / 20 July 1976 

First wheeled vehicle: 

U.S. / Sojourner / 5 July 1997 

Jupiter 

First flyby: 

U.S. / Pioneer 10 / 4 December 1973 

First atmospheric entry: 

U.S. / Galileo Probe / 7 December 1995 

First orbiter: 

U.S. / Galileo Orbiter / 8 December 1995 

Saturn 

First flyby: 

U.S. / Pioneer 11 / 1 September 1979 

Uranus 

First flyby: 

U.S. / Voyager 2 / 24 January 1986 

Neptune 

First flyby: 

U.S. / Voyager 2 / 25 August 1989 

Appendix 2 215 

Deep Space Chronicle: 

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222 Deep Space Chronicle 
Deep Space Chronicle: 

About the Author
 

Asif A. Siddiqi was born in Dhaka, Bangladesh, 

and educated in Bangladesh, the United 

Kingdom, and the United States. 

His award-winning book Challenge to Apollo: 

The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 

1945–1974 (NASA SP-2000-4408) was published in 2000. An earlier book of poems, 

About the Author
 

Politics, was published in Dhaka, Bangladesh 

in 1991. 

He is currently a Ph.D. candidate in the 

History Department at Carnegie Mellon 

University. 

About the Author 225 

Deep Space Chronicle: 

The NASA 

History Series 

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Ezell, Edward Clinton, and Linda Neuman Ezell. The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz
 

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232 Deep Space Chronicle 
Morgan, Clay. Shuttle-Mir: The U.S. and Russia Share History’s Highest Stage. NASA SP-2001­

4225, 2001. 

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Hartman, Edwin P. Adventures in Research: A History of Ames Research Center, 1940–1965. 

NASA SP-4302, 1970. 

Hallion, Richard P. On the Frontier: Flight Research at Dryden, 1946-1981. NASA SP-4303, 

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Muenger, Elizabeth A. Searching the Horizon: A History of Ames Research Center, 1940–1976. 

NASA SP-4304, 1985. 

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1917–1958. NASA SP-4305, 1987. 

Dawson, Virginia P. Engines and Innovation: Lewis Laboratory and American Propulsion 

Technology. NASA SP-4306, 1991. 

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NASA SP-4307, 1993. 

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Apollo. NASA SP-4308, 1995. 

Wallace, Lane E. Flights of Discovery: 50 Years at the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center. 

NASA SP-4309, 1996. 

Herring, Mack R. Way Station to Space: A History of the John C. Stennis Space Center. NASA 

SP-4310, 1997. 

Wallace, Harold D., Jr. Wallops Station and the Creation of the American Space Program. NASA 

SP-4311, 1997. 

Wallace, Lane E. Dreams, Hopes, Realities: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, The First Forty 

Years. NASA SP-4312, 1999. 

Dunar, Andrew J., and Stephen P. Waring. Power to Explore: A History of the Marshall Space 

Flight Center. NASA SP-4313, 1999. 

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SP-2000-4314, 2000. 

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Corliss, William R. NASA Sounding Rockets, 1958–1968: A Historical Summary. NASA 

SP-4401, 1971. 

Wells, Helen T., Susan H. Whiteley, and Carrie Karegeannes. Origins of NASA Names. NASA 

SP-4402, 1976. 

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SP-4403, 1981. 

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SP-4406, 1989. 

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Dwayne A. Day. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil 

Space Program, Volume I, Organizing for Exploration. NASA SP-4407, 1995. 

Logsdon, John M., ed., with Dwayne A. Day and Roger D. Launius. Exploring the Unknown: 

Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume II, Relations with 

Other Organizations. NASA SP-4407, 1996. 

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Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, 

Volume III, Using Space. NASA SP-4407, 1998. 

Logsdon, John M., gen. ed., with Ray A. Williamson, Roger D. Launius, Russell J. Acker, Stephen 

J. Garber, and Jonathan L. Friedman. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the 

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Logsdon, John M., gen. ed., with Amy Paige Snyder, Roger D. Launius, Stephen J. Garber, and 

Regan Anne Newport. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. 

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SP-2000-4408, 2000. 

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234 Deep Space Chronicle 
Waltman, Gene L. Black Magic and Gremlins: Analog Flight Simulations at NASA’s Flight 

Research Center. NASA SP-2000-4520, 2000. 

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Tucker, Tom. The Eclipse Project. NASA SP-2000-4523, 2000. 

NASA History Series 235 

Able 1, 9 

Able IVB, 23, 26 

Able VA, 26 

Able VB, 27 

accelerometer, 104, 109, 110, 129, 130 

ACP, aerosol collector/pyrolyser, 170 

Advanced Composition Explorer, ACE, 169 

Agena, B, D, 31, 32, 44, 47, 66 

Air Force, U.S., Test and Training Range, 17, 

178 

Aldebaran, Taurus constellation, 97 

Aldrin, Buzz, 78 

ALPHA, alpha/proton spectrometer, 165 

alpha-scattering instrument, 67, 69 

Alphonsus, crater, 48 

Amalthea, Jupiter moon, 117, 121, 147 

Ames Research Center, NASA ARC, 102 

aneroid barometer, 64, 65, 73, 74, 82, 87, 104, 

109, 110, 126 

ANGSTREM, x-ray spectrometer, 165 

Apollo, 4, 55, 56, 58, 61, 66, 71, 101 

Apollo 8, 74 

Apollo 11, 61, 78 

Apollo 12, 61, 62, 63, 83 

Apollo 15, 90 

Apollo 16, 98 

Apollo 17, 102 

Index
 

APXS, alpha particle proton and x-ray spectrometer, 165 

Ariel, Uranus moon, 120 

ARGUS, imaging system, 165 

Aristarchus, crater, 58 

Armstrong, Neil, 78 

Asiasat 1, 170 

Asiasat 3, 171 

ASPERA, energy mass experiment, 164 

Atlantis, Space Shuttle, 143, 145, 149 

Atlas, 24, 47 

Atlas-Able, 26, 27 

Atlas-Agena B, 33, 34, 41, 47, 48, 58 

Atlas-Agena D, 58, 61, 63 

Atlas-Centaur, 47, 61, 67, 69, 75, 76, 88, 93, 

94, 105, 123 

atomic hydrogen detector, 40, 41 

Austria, 133 

Automatic Interplanetary Station, AMS, 23 

Bean, Alan L., 62, 63 

Bulgaria, 133 

Callisto, Jupiter moon, 97, 117, 121, 146, 147 

Cape Canaveral, Florida, 7, 55 

Cassini-Huygens, 169, 9, 169, 170 

CDS, coronal diagnostic spectrometer, 159 

Deep Space Chronicle 237 
CELIAS, charge, element/isotope analysis 

experiment, 159 

Centaur, 54, 63, 85 

Centaur-Surveyor, 54 

Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the 

Space Race, 1945–1974,9 

charged-particle traps, detector, 29, 40, 41, 

45, 54, 64, 94, 98, 102, 123 

Cherenkov Effect, 19 

Chryse Planitia, 111 

CIDA, cometary and interstellar dust analyzer, 178 

Clementine, 103, 116, 155, 157, 173 

Comet Borrelly, 176 

Comet Wild-2, 178 

Control Computer and Sequencer, CC&S, 76 

Conrad, Charles, Jr., 62, 63 

Copernicus, crater, 57, 58 

cosmic dust detector, 43, 44, 68, 79, 103, 138, 

149, 174 

cosmic radio emission receivers, 51 

cosmic-ray-anisotropy detector, 52, 68, 71, 79, 

81, 82, 85, 87, 91, 97, 102, 104, 107, 108, 

115, 117, 129, 130, 131 

cosmic-ray gas-discharge counters, 50, 53, 54, 

65 

cosmic-ray telescope, 43, 44, 52, 68, 79, 94, 

120 

Cosmic Rocket, Luna 1, 21, 22 

CRIS, cosmic-ray isotope spectrometer, 169 

Czechoslovakia, 133, 157 

Deep Space Program Science Experiment, 

DSPSE, 155 

Deep Space 1, 174 

Deep Space 2, 177 

Delta 2, 169 

Department of Defense, DOD, 155 

DesCam, descent phase camera, 165 

Dione, Saturn moon, 122, 170 

DWE, Doppler wind experiment, 170 

DPI, three component accelerometer, 165 

DYMIO, omni ionosphere energy mass spectrometer, 164 

Earth, 8, 13, 18, 19, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 

35, 36, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 

55, 56, 58, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 73, 

74, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 90, 93, 

96, 97, 98, 102, 104, 106, 108, 109, 110, 

112, 113, 116, 119, 122, 123, 124, 134, 

137, 146, 147, 155, 157, 161, 162, 165, 

169, 170, 174, 178 

Eastman-Kodak, 56 

EIT, extreme ultraviolet imaging telescope, 

159 

electric field detector, 68, 79 

ELISMA, wave complex experiment, 164 

Enceladus, Saturn moon, 117, 170 

EPAM, electron, proton, and alpha particle 

monitor, 169 

ER, electron reflectometer, 173 

ERNE, energetic-particle analyzer, 159 

Eros, 8, 161, 163 

Europa, Jupiter moon, 8, 97, 117, 121, 146, 

147 

European Space Agency, ESA, 124, 138, 149, 

150, 151, 157, 160, 170 

EVRIS, stellar oscillations photometer, 164 

Explorer 33, 56, 66 

Explorer 35, 65, 90 

Explorer 49, 103 

Faraday-cup plasma probe, 56, 65 

Federal Aviation Administration, FAA, 52 

Fobos 1, 141, 142 

Fobos 2, 141, 142 

FONEMA, omni non-scanning energy-mass 

ion analyzer, 164 

Galileo, 7, 8, 9, 145, 146, 147, 156, 170 

Galileo Europa Mission, GEM, 146 

Ganymede, Jupiter moon, 8, 97, 117, 121, 146, 

147 

gas-analyzer cartridges, 64, 65, 73, 97, 102 

gas chromatograph, 129, 130 

Gaspra, 8 

GCMS, gas chromatograph neutral mass 

spectrometer, 170 

Geiger-Mueller tube, photon, counter, 25, 50, 

51, 65, 94, 102 

Germany, Federal Republic, West, 133, 149, 

174 

Giacobini-Zinner, comet, 125, 138, 139 

Giotto, comet, 137, 138 

238 Deep Space Chronicle 
Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA GSFC,
 

124
 

GOLF, global oscillations at low frequencies
 

experiment, 159
 

Grand Tour, 6, 7, 120
 

Grigg-Skjellerup, comet, 138
 

GRUNT, accelerometers, 165
 

Hagomoro, 149
 

Halley’s Comet, 57, 125, 130, 133, 134, 135,
 

137, 138
 

HASI, Huygens atmospheric structure 

instrument, 170
 

Helios 1, 108, 115
 

Helios 2, 115
 

Helios-B, 115
 

Hiten, Muses-A, 149
 

Hughes Aircraft Company, 67
 

Hughes Global Systems, 171
 

Hyperion, Saturn moon, 117, 170
 

Iapetus, 117, 170
 

IMAP-6, magnetometer, 165
 

Inertial Upper Stage, IUS, 143, 145
 

infrared camera, 17, 155
 

infrared radiometer, 57, 58, 76, 86, 88, 103,
 

107, 110, 153, 176
 

infrared spectrometer, 131
 

infrared thermal mapper, 110
 

Institute of Microbiology, National Academy 

of Sciences, 34
 

Institute of Space and Astronautical
 

Sciences, ISAS, 137, 138
 

Inter-Agency Solar-Terrestrial Physics 

Program, IASTP, Wind, 157
 

wind speed recorder, 98
 

International Cometary Explorer, ICE, 125
 

International Solar Polar Mission, ISPM, 150
 

International Sun-Earth Explorers, ISEE, 

124
 

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform, IMP,
 

108
 

Intrepid, 62, 63
 

Io, Jupiter moon, 117, 121, 146, 147
 

ionization chamber, traps, thrusters, densitometer, 21, 25, 43, 44, 49, 50, 51, 54, 64, 73,
 

74, 109, 110
 

ISA, energetic ions experiment, 174
 

ISS, imaging system, 170
 

Japan, 149, 157, 174
 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, JPL, 4, 5, 34, 36,
 

43, 144, 163, 169
 

Jupiter, 3, 7, 8, 9, 13, 93, 95, 97, 102, 103, 117,
 

120, 121, 122, 145, 146, 147, 150, 156, 170
 

Kamerton seismometer, 165
 

Kennedy Space Center, John F., NASA KSC,
 

5
 

Kepler, crater, 50
 

Kohoutek, Comet 52
 

Kosmos, 159, 13, 51, 54
 

Kosmos 300, 79, 80
 

Kosmos 305, 80
 

Kosmos 359, 82
 

Kosmos 419, 86
 

Kosmos 482, 98
 

LASCO, white light/spectrometric coronograph, 159
 

Lavochkin, design bureau, 53, 64, 76, 77, 87
 

LIDAR, light detection and ranging instrument, 177
 

LILAS-2, cosmic and solar gamma-burst
 

spectrometer, 164
 

Luna, 14,
 

Luna 3, 23, 24
 

Luna 5, 49
 

Luna 6, 49
 

Luna 7, 50
 

Luna 8, 52
 

Luna 9, 53
 

Luna 10, 54
 

Luna 11, 57
 

Luna 12, 58
 

Luna 13, 59
 

Luna 14, 70
 

Luna 15, 78
 

Luna 16, 82, 83, 90, 93, 108
 

Luna 17, 83, 84
 

Luna 18, 90, 93
 

Luna 19, 91
 

Deep Space Chronicle 239 
Luna 20, 93 

Luna 21, 101, 107 

Luna 22, 107 

Luna 23, 108, 113, 116 

Luna 24, 116 

Lunar Module, LM, 62 

Lunar Orbiter, 4 

Lunar Prospector, 173, 178 

Lunokhod 1, 83, 84, 91, 101 

Lunokhod 2, 101, 102, 107 

LWR, longwave radar, 165 

MAG, magnetometer, 17, 21, 25, 29, 40, 41, 43, 

44, 45, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 63, 

64, 65, 66, 71, 86, 87, 91, 93, 98, 101, 102, 

103, 104, 105, 107, 109, 115, 117, 123, 

126, 129, 130, 133, 137, 138, 145, 153, 

157, 161, 169, 173, 174 

Magellan, 4, 5, 143, 144, 145, 147 

MAK, quadruple mass spectrometer, 165 

MARCI, Mars color imaging system, 176 

Mare Crisium, crater, 78, 108, 115 

Mare Serenitatis, crater, 23, 101 

Mare Sirenum, crater, 88 

Mariner 1, 4, 35 

Mariner 2, 4, 25, 35 

Mariner 3, 44 

Mariner 4, 5, 34, 44, 64 

Mariner 5, 45, 64, 65 

Mariner 6, 76, 77, 89 

Mariner 7, 76, 89 

Mariner 8, 88 

Mariner 9, 5, 88, 89, 90, 104 

Mariner 10, 96, 106 

Mariner 71H, Mariner H, 85, 86 

Mariner R, 34, 35 

MARIPROB, ionosphere plasma spectrometer, 164 

Marius, crater, 53 

Mars, U.S.S.R., 2, 9, 14, 86, 87, 88, 91, 103, 

104, 105 

Mars, Red Planet, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 13, 34, 26, 27, 

36, 37, 40, 44, 45, 49, 50, 51, 75, 76, 77, 85, 

86, 87, 88, 89, 93, 103, 104, 105, 111, 112, 

141, 142, 153, 164, 165, 166, 174, 176, 

177, 178 

Mars Climate Orbiter, MCO, 176 

Mars descent imager, MARDI, 177 

Mars Global Surveyor, MGS, 6, 47, 50, 111, 

163, 164, 167, 176, 177, 178 

Mars Observer, 153, 164 

Mars Pathfinder, Sagan Memorial Station, 6, 

165, 166, 167, 178 

Mars Polar Lander, MPL, 176 

Maxwell Montes, Venus, 123, 147 

MDI, Michelson Doppler imager, 159 

MECOM, meteorological unit, 165 

Mercury, 13, 96, 106 

MET, meteorology package, 177 

meteoroid detectors, 49, 57, 58, 61, 91, 94, 

102, 104, 107 

Metis, Jupiter moon, 121 

MIC, visible camera, 174 

Milky Way, 7, 169 

micrometeoroid detector, spectrometer, 17, 

25, 56, 57, 58, 61, 63, 65, 66 

Mimas, Saturn moon, 122, 170 

Miranda, Uranus moon, 120 

MIS, meteorology instrument system, 165 

Moon, 5, 13, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 33, 

34, 36, 40, 41, 42, 43, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 

58, 62, 63, 65, 66, 69, 70, 71, 75, 76, 78, 79, 

81, 83, 84, 90, 91, 93, 98, 101, 102, 103, 

106, 108, 113, 116, 122, 149, 157, 171 

MORION-S, science data acquisition instrument, 165 

MSI, multispectral imager, 161 

Muses-A, Hiten, 149 

MVACS, Mars volatile and climate surveyor, 

177 

National Academy of Sciences, NAS, 147 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration, NASA, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 

14, 18, 26, 27, 34, 35, 44, 45, 55, 61, 64, 

65, 67, 68, 94, 97, 102, 103, 108, 111, 

116, 122, 125, 129, 137, 143, 144, 145, 

146, 151, 156, 157, 159, 160, 163, 164, 

167, 169, 170, 174, 176, 177, 178, 

National Research Council, NRC, NAS, 147 

NavCam, navigation camera, 178 

Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous, NEAR, 

NEAR-Shoemaker, 8, 161, 162, 163, 178 

nephelometer, 109, 126, 129, 130, 134, 145 

Neptune, 7, 9, 13, 97, 102, 119, 120 

neutral mass spectrometer, 138, 170, 174 

NEUTRON-S, neutron spectrometer, 165, 173 

240 Deep Space Chronicle 
NIS, near infrared mapping spectrometer, 

145, 161 

Nix Olympia, 5, 89 

NLR, laser rangefinder, 161 

Nozomi, 174 

Ocean of Storms, 55, 61, 62 

Oceanus Procellarum, 63 

Olympus Mons, 5, 88, 90 

OPTIMIZM, seismometer/magnetometer/ 

inclinometer, 165 

PanCam, panoramic camera, 165 

PEGAS, gamma-ray spectrometer, 165 

penetrometer, 58, 83, 87, 101 

PFS, infrared Fourier spectrometer, 165 

Phoebe, Saturn moon, 117 

Phobos, 77, 141 

photoelectric cell aspect indicator, 25, 73, 74 

photo-emulsion camera, 71 

PHOTON, gamma spectrometer, 165 

piezoelectric detector, 21, 40, 41, 45, 50, 51, 54 

Pioneer 0, 14, 150 

Pioneer 3, 19 

Pioneer 4, 22 

Pioneer 5, 25 

Pioneer 6, 52, 57, 68 

Pioneer 7, 52, 57, 68 

Pioneer 8, 52, 57, 68 

Pioneer 9, 52, 71, 95 

Pioneer 10, 7, 94, 95, 97, 102, 108, 120 

Pioneer 11, 7, 102, 108, 120 

Pioneer Venus 1, 4, 18, 123, 124, 131, 144 

Pioneer Venus 2, 4, 124 

plasma analyzer, 52, 56, 68, 71, 94, 105, 108, 

115, 123, 124, 125, 133, 137, 138, 145, 157 

Pluto, 6, 7, 13 

proportional counter, 25 

Pwyll, crater, 146 

radiation densitometer, 59, 87 

radiation detector, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 48, 

49, 50, 51, 53, 56 (dosimeters), 57, 58, 59, 

61, 63, 64, 66, 71, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83, 

91, 93, 101, 107, 115 

radio altimeter, 64, 73, 74, 91, 93, 97, 104, 

107, 109, 113, 115, 153, 155 

radio propagation detector, 79 

radiotelescope, 40, 41, 45, 49, 75, 86, 87, 103 

radioisotope thermoelectric generators, 

RTGs, 121 

radiometer, 76, 77, 87, 102, 123 

RADIUS-MD, dosimeter, 164 

Ranger, Block II, 4, 30, 33, 34, 36, 43, 48 

Ranger 1, 31, 32 

Ranger 2, 31, 32 

Ranger 4, 34 

Ranger 5, 36 

Ranger 6, 41 

Ranger 7, 43, 47, 48 

Ranger 8, 47, 48 

Ranger 9, 48 

Reiner, crater, 53 

resistance thermometer, 64, 73, 74, 81, 82, 97, 

104, 105, 109, 110 

Rhea, Saturn moon, 122, 170 

robotic arm, RA, 177 

robotic arm camera, RAC, 177 

RTSW, real-time solar wind experiment, 169 

Russia, Soviet Union, 3, 4, 5, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 

23, 24, 25, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 

48, 49, 64, 65, 68, 71, 78, 82, 83, 86, 90, 93, 

98, 105, 109, 110, 113, 129, 133, 137, 142, 

149, 157 

Sagan, Carl, 167 

Sakigake, 137 

Sample Return Capsule, SRC, 178 

Saturn, 7, 8, 9, 13, 97, 102, 117, 120, 122, 170 

scintillation counter, 21 

Sea of Fertility, crater, 90 

Sea of Rains, crater, 58, 84 

Sea of Tranquillity, 47, 61 

Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, 

SETI, 71 

seismometer, single-axis, 33, 130 

SEPICA, solar energetic particle ionic charge 

analyzer, 169 

Shoemaker, Eugene, 163, 173 

SIS, solar isotope spectrometer, 16 

SLED-2, low-energy charged particle spectrometer, 164 

Deep Space Chronicle 241 
Sojourner, 6, 9, 166, 167 

Solar and Heliospehric Observatory, SOHO, 

159, 160 

solar plasma probe, 64 

Solar System Log, 9, 14 

solar wind detector, 81, 83, 97, 129, 131, 137 

Solid State Imaging, 33, 39, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 

50, 51, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 65, 66, 67, 69, 

71, 75, 76, 79, 83, 85, 86, 87, 91, 93, 101, 

102, 103, 107, 109, 110, 113, 115, 117, 

120, 129, 130, 134, 145, 153 

Soyuz, 98 

Space Shuttle, 8, 143, 145, 150 

Space Technology Laboratories, 24 

SPICAM, multichannel spectrometer, 165 

Sputnik, 13, 18 

SSP, surface science package, 170 

Stardust, 178 

stereo surface imager, SSI, 77, 78, 79, 80, 177 

SUMER, solar-ultraviolet emitted radiation 

experiment, 159 

Sun, 6, 7, 8, 13, 21, 36, 53, 68, 103, 106, 108, 

115, 122, 147, 150, 151, 156, 159, 164, 169 

Surveyor 2, 57, 70 

Surveyor 3, 61, 62, 63, 65, 69 

Surveyor, 4, 13, 54, 55, 65 

Surveyor 5, 67, 69 

Surveyor 6, 68, 69 

Surveyor 7, 69 

Susei, 138 

SVET, mapping spectrometer, 165 

SWAN, solar wind anisotropies experiment, 

l59 

Sweden, 174 

SWEPAM, solar wind electron, proton, and 

alpha monitor, 169 

SWICS, solar wind ion composition spectrometer, 169 

SWIMS, solar wind ion mass spectrometer, 

169 

synthetic aperture radar, SAR, 143, 

Taurus, 97 

Taurus Mountains, 101 

temperature sensors, 17 

TERMOSCAN, mapping radiometer, 165 

Tethys, Saturn moon, 117, 122, 170 

Thebe, Jupiter moon, 121 

thermal and evolved gas analyzer, TEGA, 177 

Thor-Able, 19 

Thor-Able 1, 17, 18, 

Thor-Delta E, 52, 56, 65, 66, 68, 71 

Thor-Delta L, 79 

Titan, Saturn moon, 8, 117, 122, 170 

Titania, Uranus moon, 120 

Transfer Orbit Stage, TOS, 153 

Transvaal, South Africa, 26 

Triton, 7, 120 

Tycho, crater, 69 

ULEIS, ultra-low-energy isotope spectrometer, 

169 

ultraviolet and infrared spectrophotometer, 

49, 64, 65, 75, 86, 87, 103, 129, 130 

ultraviolet photometer, 85, 94, 101, 102, 103, 

110, 138, 155 

ultraviolet spectrograph, spectrometer, 49, 

76, 77, 85, 88, 91, 97, 101, 104, 109, 117, 

120, 124, 125, 133, 134, 145, 153, 174 

Ulysses, 150, 151 

Umbriel, Uranus moon, 120 

United States, U.S., 3, 4, 6, 14, 33, 34, 43, 115, 

137, 143, 155, 157 

Uranus, 7, 9, 13, 119, 120, 122 

UVCS, ultraviolet coronograph spectrometer, 

159 

UVS-M, ultraviolet spectrometer, 165 

Valles Marineris, 5 

Van Allen, 18 

variometer, 29 

Vega, 133 

Vega 1, 134, 135, 138 

Vega 2, 134, 135, 138 

Venera, 14, 39, 50, 51, 64, 65, 131, 135 

Venera 4, 74, 81 

Venera 5, 74, 81 

Venera 6, 74, 81 

Venera 7, 81, 91, 97 

Venera 8, 91, 97, 98 

Venera 9, 109, 110, 126 

Venera 10, 110, 126 

Venera 11, 126, 127, 130 

Venera 12, 126, 130 

Venera 13, 129, 130 

242 Deep Space Chronicle 
Venera 14, 129 

Venera 15, 131 

Venera 16, 131 

Venus, 3, 4, 5, 8, 24, 25, 29, 34, 35, 40, 42, 43, 

45, 50, 51, 64, 73, 74, 81, 82, 97, 98, 106, 

109, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 130, 131, 

132, 133, 134, 143, 144, 145, 147, 147, 170 

Viking 1, 5, 85, 103, 111, 112 

Viking 2, 5, 85, 103, 111 

Viking A, 111 

Viking B, 111 

VIMS, visual infrared mapping spectrometer, 

170 

VIRGO, variability of solar irradiance experiment, 159 

Voyager, 7, 118, 147 

Voyager Interstellar Mission, VIM, 120, 122 

Voyager 1, 7, 97, 102, 117, 121, 122, 150 

Voyager 2, 7, 102, 117, 119, 120, 121, 150 

Webb, crater, 82 

Weiler, Edward, 6 

Wilson, Andrew, 9, 14 

Wilson-Harrington Comet, 176 

XRS-GRS, x-ray/gamma-ray spectrometer, 

33, 53, 54, 57, 75, 77, 83, 87, 103, 109, 

110, 133, 134, 153, 161 

Ye-1, 22 

Ye-1A, 22 

Ye-2A, 25 

Ye-6, 39, 40, 41, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 69, 107 

Ye-8, 74, 75, 77, 78, 81, 90, 91, 93, 101, 107, 

115 

Zond, 14, 42, 70, 78, 98 

Zond 1, 43 

Zond 2, 45 

Zond 3, 49, 57 

Zond 6, 71, 72 

Zond 7, 79 

Zond 8, 83 

Deep Space Chronolgy 243 
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Cover photo: A montage of planetary images taken by Mariner 10, the Mars Global Surveyor Orbiter, Voyager 1, and Voyager 2, all managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. Included (from top to bottom) are images of Mercury, Venus, Earth (and Moon), Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and its Moon, and Mars) and the outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) are roughly to scale to each other.