HEATH

ResourceCenter

Freshmen

Disabilities

A Biennial Statistical Profile

with 

College 2001

American Council on Education

by

Cathy Henderson

Freshmen

Disabilities

A Biennial Statistical Profile

with

College 2001
College Freshmen with Disabilities: A Biennial

Statistical Profile was prepared under Cooperative

Agreement No. H326H980002, awarded to the

American Council on Education by the U.S.

Department of Education. The contents do not 

necessarily reflect the views of the U.S.

Government, nor does mention of products or

organizations imply endorsement by the U.S.

Government.

Copyright © 2001

American Council on Education

Single copies of this publication are available free of

charge. Multiple copies are available for costrecovery fees. Contact the HEATH Resource Center

for additional information.

HEATH Resource Center

American Council on Education

One Dupont Circle NW

Suite 800

Washington, DC 20036-1193

(202) 939-9320 (V/TTY)

(800) 544-3284 (V/TTY)

E-mail: heath@ace.nche.edu

www.heath-resource-center.org
Table of Contents

Introduction and Sources of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Highlights of the 2000 Freshman Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Personal and Family Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

High School Preparation and Matriculation to College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

College and Career Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Self-Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Opinions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Differences by Gender Among Full-Time College Freshmen 

with Disabilities Attending Four-Year Institutions: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Highlights of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Type of Disability: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Learning Disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Partially Sighted or Blind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Health-Related Disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Hearing Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Orthopedic Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Speech Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Summary: Recent Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Table A-1: Selected Characteristics of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Type of Disability: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Table A-2: Distribution of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Gender, Race/Ethnicity, and Disability Status: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Table A-3: Selected Characteristics of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Gender and Disability Status: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

HEATH Resource Center Advisory Board and Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

ACE Board of Directors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

List of Tables

Table 1: Percentage of Full-Time College Freshmen Reporting Disabilities at Four-Year Institutions:

Selected Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Table 2: Types of Disabilities Reported by Full-Time College Freshmen 

Attending Four-Year Institutions, by Percentage: Selected Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Table 3: Types of Disabilities Reported by Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Control of Institution: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Table 4: Race/Ethnicity of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Disability Status: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Table 5: Major Reasons for Attending College, by Disability Status of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending 

Four-Year Institutions: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Table 6: Reasons Why Full-Time Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions Chose Particular Colleges,

by Disability Status: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Table 7: Sources of Financial Support of Full-Time Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Disability Status: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Table 8: Self-Perceptions of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Disability Status: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Table 9: Use of Special Tutoring and Remedial Help by Full-Time College Freshmen Attending 

Four-Year Institutions, by Disability Status: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Table 10: Life Objectives of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Disability Status: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Table 11: Political Opinions/Orientation of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Disability Status: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Table 12: Differences Between Female and Male Full-Time College Freshmen Attending 

Four-Year Institutions, by Type of Disability: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Table 13: Percentage of Full-Time College Freshmen with Multiple Disabilities Attending 

Four-Year Institutions, by Type of Disability: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

List of Figures

Figure 1: Number of Full-Time College Freshmen with Disabilities Attending Four-Year Institutions:

Selected Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Figure 2: Full-Time College Freshmen with Disabilities Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Type of Disability and Type of Institution: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Figure 3: Full-Time College Freshmen with Disabilities Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Race/Ethnicity: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Figure 4: Difference Between Female and Male Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Disability Status: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Figure 5: Use of Special Tutoring and Remedial Help by Full-Time College Freshmen Attending 

Four-Year Institutions, by Disability Status: 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Introduction and Sources

of Data

I

n a strong economy, high school graduates have many options.

Some students use their secondary educational training to secure

an entry-level job with the possibility of advancement. Other graduates enroll in vocational schools to acquire specific occupational

training. The community college system also offers a wide variety of

curricula for recent high school graduates as well as for adults who are

starting postsecondary education or returning to college. 

Recent high school graduates who choose to enroll in four-year institutions face a variety of changes in their lives. Many students will be leaving

home and living in residence halls with a cross-section of students from

diverse backgrounds. As time passes, these students will find that they

often have a great deal in common. They are eager to take challenging

courses, to expand their social lives, and to become more independent. 

In addition to these changes, some students face additional challenges:

They have specific disabilities. About 6 percent of first-time, full-time

freshmen attending four-year institutions in fall 2000 self-reported a disability. These students may need disability-related accommodations such

as notetakers, interpreters, readers, or other accommodations to ensure

that the academic program is accessible to them.

This report describes students who reported disabilities and who enrolled

in fall 2000 as full-time freshmen at public and independent four-year colleges and universities. Since 1966, a national survey of college students

has been administered to a large sample of freshmen each year. This survey

is conducted by the Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) 1
2

and is cosponsored by the American Council on Education (ACE) and the

Graduate School of Education and Information Studies of the University of

California at Los Angeles (UCLA). The purpose of this survey is to provide

a profile of first-time, full-time freshmen at the beginning of their college

experiences. Sometimes follow-up surveys are administered to some of

these students to assess their progress through college or in their careers.

Typically, the survey sponsors administer the annual survey of freshmen in

early fall, gathering data on students’ personal background, high school

experiences, educational and career goals, and opinions. Administrators

collect survey responses from a stratified sample of accredited institutions

across the United States; these samples are weighted to reflect the national

cohort of freshmen for each specific year of the survey. For example, in fall

2000, survey administrators tabulated questionnaires from 269,413 students

at 434 baccalaureate colleges and universities. The responses were weighted

to represent the national enrollment patterns of the total 1.1 million firsttime, full-time freshmen attending four-year institutions in 2000.

In fall 2000, survey 

administrators tabulated

questionnaires from 

269,413 students at 

434 baccalaureate 

colleges and universities.

Note:

Until fall 2000, survey administrators had collected data yearly from two- and four-year institutions;

however, it has become increasingly difficult to tabulate survey responses from two-year colleges that

reflect the experiences of first-time, full-time freshmen. So many of these students are either (1) returning

to college and therefore are not first-time students, or (2) enrolled part time. The fall 2000 CIRP survey

was the prototype of a redesign intended to focus on students attending only four-year institutions.

As a result, data from this 2001 publication—which presents data collected in fall 2000 from fouryear institutions only—cannot be compared directly to data found in previous editions of this report.

(Data from past reports reflected responses from students attending both four-year and two-year institutions.) This 2001 edition of College Freshmen with Disabilities is the first report to reflect only the

survey responses of first-time, full-time freshmen at four-year institutions.

Following the principles of responsible data analysis, this report is solely a data profile. Until a

future report contains only data generated from first-time, full-time freshmen at four-year institutions

only, comparisons of findings cannot be made. Correspondingly, this data profile cannot, and does not,

speculate on implications and/or recommendations that can be drawn from the data. Future implications and/or recommendations can only be made once there are at least two similar data profiles that

can be directly compared.

Readers of this 2001 edition of College Freshmen with Disabilities also should know that, for consistency, the author of this report uses language which directly mirrors that used in the CIRP survey.

For example, this report refers to “special programs offered by the college” and “special tutoring and

remedial services.” Due to the author’s desire for consistency, use of the word “special” within such

phrases directly reflects language used in the CIRP survey. “Special” does not imply any direct relationship between the K–12 special education system and the parameters of providing accommodative

services at the postsecondary level.
3

The survey results

revealed 66,197 freshmen

with disabilities—

this represents about 

6 percent of all 

first-time, full-time 

students enrolled 

during fall 2000 

at four-year institutions.

The CIRP provided the HEATH Resource Center with a special set of tabulations based on fall 2000 freshman answers to the following question:

Do you have a disability? (Mark all that apply.)

■ None

■ Hearing

■ Speech

■ Orthopedic

■ Learning disability

■ Health-related

■ Partially sighted or blind

■ Other

Students who respond to the CIRP question self-report their disabilities in

the fall of their freshman year. The survey does not provide definitions of

the disability categories listed. In addition, there is no information available

on how long the students have lived with their disability(ies) or whether the

disability(ies) have been formally diagnosed. When survey administrators

weighted the responses to reflect the national cohort of entering freshmen

across the United States, the survey results revealed 66,197 freshmen with

disabilities—this represents about 6 percent of all first-time, full-time students

enrolled during fall 2000 at four-year institutions.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which went into effect in

1977, prohibits discrimination based on disability in all institutions that

receive federal funds; this includes most colleges and universities. The

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 reaffirmed the Rehabilitation Act

and extended the protection of civil rights of people with disabilities to

include public and private entities. Of students surveyed at four-year institutions only, the proportion of freshmen reporting disabilities averaged 

6 to 8 percent between 1988 and 2000 (see Table 1).
4

Table 1

Percentage of Full-Time College Freshmen Reporting Disabilities at Four-Year

Institutions: Selected Years

Disability 1988 1991 1994 1996 1998 2000

(by percentage)

Hearing .8 .8 .8 .7 .7* .5

Speech .2 .3 .3 .3 .4 .2

Orthopedic .9 1.0 .8 .7 .7 .4

Learning disability 1.0 1.4 2.0 2.3 2.6 2.4

Health-related 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.5 .9

Partially sighted or blind 1.9 2.4 2.2 1.9 1.1 1.0

Other 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.0

Any 6.5 7.8 8.2 8.1 7.1** 6.0

*Hearing data were not collected in 1998; this figure reflects 1996 data.

**Estimated.

Notes: 

• Individuals were allowed to identify more than one disability.

• “Any” means students reporting any type of disability.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, selected years.)
5

Highlights of the 

2000 Freshman Survey

B

etween 1988 and 2000, “learning disability” was the fastest

growing category of reported disability among students. 

By 2000, two in five freshmen with disabilities (40 percent)

cited a learning disability (see Table 2); compare this with only 

16 percent in 1988. The actual number of freshmen with learning

disabilities also rose substantially during this 12-year period (see Figure 1). 

In 1988, students most commonly categorized their disability as “partially

sighted or blind,” but in 2000 it was the third most frequently reported

(after “learning disability” and “other”). Among freshmen reporting disabilities, the actual number of students with sight impairments declined from

1988 to 2000, and the percentage of students who were partially sighted or

blind decreased from 30 percent to 16 percent.

Slightly more than half of students reporting disabilities attended public

institutions (54 percent). Another 42 percent attended independent colleges and universities, and 4 percent chose Historically Black Colleges and

Universities (HBCUs) (see Table 3 and Figure 2).

The following sections examine how two groups of freshmen enrolled at

four-year institutions during fall 2000—those who reported disabilities and

those who did not—compared on a wide range of descriptors: personal and

family background, high school performance, preparation for college, 
6

The actual number of

freshmen with learning

disabilities also rose 

substantially during 

this 12-year period 

(see Figure 1). 

educational and career expectations, self-perceptions, and opinions. Later

sections compare women and men who have disabilities with students who

have specific types of disabilities as reported by freshmen. 

Note: Hearing data were not collected in 1998; this figure reflects 1996 data.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, selected years.)

Figure 1

Number of Full-Time College Freshmen with Disabilities Attending Four-Year

Institutions: Selected Years

Hearing

Speech

Orthopedic

Learning disability

Health-related

Partially sighted or 

blind

Other

■ 1988

■ 1991

■ 1994

■ 1996

■ 1998

■ 2000

0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000

For many characteristics, no substantial differences existed between students with and without disabilities; therefore, this report uses a single number, such as 8 percent, to describe both groups. When

discussing characteristics that did yield substantial differences, however, this report will present two

percentage comparisons, such as 19 percent versus 55 percent. In such a case, the first number

refers to students with disabilities and the second number applies to students who have not selfreported any disabilities in 2000. Detailed statistics by type of disability appear in Appendix A. 
7

Table 2

Types of Disabilities Reported by Full-Time College Freshmen 

Attending Four-Year Institutions, by Percentage: Selected Years

Disability 1988 1991 1994 1996 1998 2000

(by percentage)

Hearing 11.7 10.5 9.3 8.5 8.5* 8.6

Speech 3.6 4.2 3.3 3.2 3.0 2.9

Orthopedic 13.2 12.2 9.7 9.0 8.1 7.1

Learning disability 16.1 17.6 24.5 28.3 34.3 40.4

Health-related 15.8 15.4 17.6 17.4 16.4 15.4

Partially sighted or blind 30.0 31.3 27.3 23.7 19.9 16.1

Other 19.1 18.9 17.7 18.6 17.8 16.9

*Hearing data were not collected in 1998; this figure reflects 1996 data.

Notes: 

• Above data should be interpreted in the following way: For example, in 2000, 40.4 percent of 

students with disabilities reported a learning disability.

• Columns do not necessarily add to 100 percent because students could list more than one disability.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, selected years.)

Table 3

Types of Disabilities Reported by Full-Time College Freshmen Attending

Four-Year Institutions, by Control of Institution: 2000

Disability Public Independent HBCU* Total

Hearing 3,397 2,208 57 5,662

Speech 965 753 212 1,930

Orthopedic 2,537 1,927 235 4,699

Learning disability 12,835 13,369 535 26,739

Health-related 6,104 3,561 509 10,174

Partially sighted or blind 6,085 4,164 427 10,676

Other 6,365 4,131 670 11,166

Total reporting a disability 38,288 30,113 2,645 71,046

Percentage Distribution

Hearing 60 39 1 100

Speech 50 39 11 100

Orthopedic 54 41 5 100

Learning disability 48 50 2 100

Health-related 60 35 5 100

Partially sighted or blind 57 39 4 100

Other 57 37 6 100

Total reporting a disability 54 42 4 100

*Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Note: This table shows the distribution of 71,046 disabilities reported by 66,197 freshmen.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

Slightly more than half 

of students reporting 

disabilities attended public

institutions (54 percent).

Another 42 percent

attended independent 

colleges and universities,

and 4 percent chose

Historically Black 

Colleges and Universities.
8

Personal and Family Background

The survey results revealed more similarities than differences in students’

personal and family characteristics, regardless of their disability status.

The percentage of all students who were individuals of color has changed

substantially since 1988, when results showed an average of one in five 

students (20 percent). By 2000, this figure increased to 28 percent, regardless of disability status (see Table 4 and Figure 3). The vast majority of 

students in 2000 were 18 or 19 years old when they entered college 

(95 percent versus 96 percent). However, the survey revealed striking differences related to gender: Students with disabilities were more likely to be

male than were students without disabilities (52 percent versus 45 percent)

(see Figure 4). In addition, compared to students without disabilities,

white/Caucasian men were overrepresented among freshmen with disabilities (38 percent reported a disability; 33 percent did not) (see Appendix B).

In contrast, white/Caucasian women were underrepresented among freshmen with disabilities (35 percent reported a disability; 39 percent did not).

Figure 2

Full-Time College Freshmen with Disabilities Attending Four-Year Institutions,

by Type of Disability and Type of Institution: 2000

Note: Data for this figure are included in Table 3. HBCUs are Historically Black Colleges and Universities.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

Hearing

Speech

Orthopedic

Learning disability

Health-related

Partially sighted or 

blind

Other

Any

■ Public

■ Independent

■ HBCU

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
9

Regardless of their disability status, nearly all students were U.S. citizens

(97 percent versus 96 percent) and spoke English as their native language

(95 percent versus 92 percent). At least seven in 10 students of each group

(72 percent versus 73 percent) were living with both parents. About one in

four students (24 percent versus 23 percent) was living with a divorced or

separated parent; a small proportion (4 percent) had parents who were

deceased. 

The survey also revealed similar demographic characteristics between 

parents of students with disabilities and parents of other students. For each

group, about 94 percent of both parents had at least graduated from high

school, and about half had completed a college degree. Likewise, parents’

careers were similar for students with and without disabilities. The four

most frequently cited occupations for mothers were business managers 

(15 percent), full-time homemakers (11 percent), elementary education

teachers (11 percent versus 10 percent) and nurses (9 percent). Among

fathers, the three most prevalent types of employment included business

managers (31 percent versus 29 percent), engineers (8 percent), and skilled

workers (7 percent versus 8 percent). 

Freshmen with disabilities were slightly more likely to come from higher

income families. The median family income of freshmen with disabilities

was $66,794, compared to $64,500 for other students’ families. 

Table 4

Race/Ethnicity of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year

Institutions, by Disability Status: 2000

Race/Ethnicity Any Disability None Reported

(by percentage)

White/Caucasian 72 72

African American 9 10

American Indian 3 2

Asian American 5 7

Mexican American 3 3

Puerto Rican 1 1

Other Latino 2 2

Other 5 3

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)
Compared to students

without disabilities,

white/Caucasian men 

were overrepresented

among freshmen with 

disabilities (38 percent 

reported a disability; 

33 percent did not).

10

Note: Data for this figure are included in Appendix, Table A-1.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

Figure 3

Full-Time College Freshmen with Disabilities 

Attending Four-Year Institutions, by Race/Ethnicity: 2000

Orthopedic

Learning disability

Health-related

Partially sighted or 

blind

Other

Any

None

■ White/Caucasian

■ African-American

■ American Indian

■ Asian American

■ Mexican American

■ Puerto Rican

■ Other Latino

■ Other

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Speech

Hearing

Figure 4

Difference Between Female and Male Full-Time College Freshmen Attending

Four-Year Institutions, by Disability Status: 2000

Note: Above data should be interpreted in the following way: For example, male students constituted

52 percent of students reporting disabilities, but only 45 percent of students not reporting disabilities.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

■ Any Disability

■ None Reported

48%

Women Men

55%

52%

45%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
11

High School Preparation and Matriculation to College

Students with and without disabilities shared many common experiences

during their high school years. Both groups typically spent four hours on

homework per week, and about three in four students had used a personal

computer during the year prior to the time of the fall 2000 survey administration. Yet differences arose in the level of academic performance: A smaller

share of students with disabilities than other students had earned “A” averages

(30 percent versus 44 percent), and a larger proportion had earned “C” and

“D” averages (12 percent versus 6 percent). In addition, students reporting

disabilities were more inclined to have asked their high school teachers for

advice (33 percent versus 23 percent). However, the survey results revealed

no significant difference in the average amount of time spent working for pay,

performing domestic chores, watching television, volunteering, or participating in sports or student clubs. 

Most students (98 percent), regardless of disability status, had graduated

from high school and enrolled in college during calendar year 2000. About

one in 10 students had attended college courses at another postsecondary

institution prior to enrolling as a full-time freshman. For both groups of

students, the vast majority (70 percent) were attending the college that had

been their first choice. When listing important factors that had influenced

their decisions to attend college, students responded with similar answers.

Table 5 lists the major reasons cited by both groups. However, two reasons

seemed more important to freshmen with disabilities than to freshmen who

did not report disabilities:

■ The desire to improve reading/study skills (45 percent versus 41 percent).

■ The encouragement of a role model /mentor (18 percent versus 

13 percent). 

When asked specifically why they had chosen their particular colleges, both

groups of students gave many similar responses, the top three being (1) the

college’s solid academic reputation, (2) the fact that graduates traditionally

got good jobs, and (3) the size of the college (see Table 6). However, students

with disabilities recognized that the size of the college and its special programs

were more important to them than to their classmates without disabilities.

The survey revealed no important differences between the average distance

from each of the group’s homes to their colleges. About half of each group

traveled 100 miles or fewer to enroll. Students with disabilities were as likely

as their peers to be living on campus (81 percent versus 78 percent) or to

be living with parents, with relatives, or in a private apartment (19 percent

versus 22 percent). 
Freshmen with 

disabilities received 

fewer college-based 

grants (28 percent) 

than their peers who did

not report disabilities 

(33 percent).

12

Regardless of their disability status, three in five freshmen reported at least

some level of concern about their ability to finance their college educations.

In general, both types of students were as likely to have received help from

major sources such as parents/family, savings, jobs, and loans/grants/

work-study subsidies from the federal government (see Table 7). However,

freshmen with disabilities received fewer college-based grants (28 percent)

than their peers who did not report disabilities (33 percent).

Table 5

Major Reasons for Attending College, by Disability Status of Full-Time

College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions: 2000

Reason Any Disability None Reported

(by percentage)

Learn more about things that interest me 79 76

Get a better job 69 72

Make more money 67 70

Receive a general education 65 65

Prepare for graduate/professional school 57 57

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

Table 6

Reasons Why Full-Time Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions Chose

Particular Colleges, by Disability Status: 2000

Reason Any Disability None Reported

(by percentage)

Good academic reputation 53 55

Good jobs after graduation 49 51

College size 39 35

Offers of financial assistance 31 32

Good social reputation 29 28

Special programs 29 21

Graduates go to top graduate/professional schools 27 30

Low tuition 19 20

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)
Table 7

Sources of Financial Support of Full-Time Freshmen Attending Four-Year

Institutions, by Disability Status: 2000

Source of Financial Support Any Disability None Reported

(by percentage)

Parents or family 81 83

Savings from summer work 46 49

Other savings 33 32

College grants 28 33

Stafford/Guaranteed Student Loan(s) 25 26

Part-time job on campus 25 26

Part-time job off campus 20 22

State scholarship or grant(s) 19 22

Pell grant(s) 16 17

College work-study subsidies 13 13

Private grants 12 12

Institutionally financed college loan(s) 11 12

Perkins loan(s) 9 10

Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants 6 6

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

College and Career Expectations

In the survey, freshman respondents were asked to describe their educational

and career goals, including their major field of study while in college and

their preferred occupation. The top field of study chosen by students without disabilities was business (17 percent). Students who did report disabilities listed business and arts/humanities as their top choices (15 percent for

each field). In general, more students with disabilities than other students

predicted that they would need extra time to complete their degree

requirements (10 percent versus 6 percent). 

The survey presented the freshmen with a list of more than 40 possible

occupations. Regardless of disability status, the top four career occupations

chosen were “business executive,” “engineer,” “elementary teacher/

administrator,” and “computer programmer or analyst” (5 percent to 

9 percent for each occupation).

13
Self-Perceptions

Students who completed this questionnaire already had achieved one measure of educational success: They had enrolled as first-time, full-time college

students. A certain level of intellectual competence and emotional maturity

was necessary for each student to have accomplished this important step;

however, the successful completion of educational and career goals may be

tied to students’ perceptions about their strengths and weaknesses.

One series of questions asked the students to compare themselves with

average persons of similar ages. At least 60 percent of the students, with

and without disabilities, considered themselves to be “above average or in

the top 10 percent of all people” on the ability to be understanding of

others and to possess leadership skills.

However, on most of these self-rated comparisons, a smaller share of students

with disabilities than other students ranked themselves at this high level of

ability. For example, a smaller share of freshmen with disabilities than

other students rated themselves as “above average or in the top 10 percent

of people” on most measures of self-esteem, academic ability, and physical

health (see Table 8). However, on two ability measures—artistic and creative—

a larger share of students who reported disabilities than students without

disabilities rated themselves high.

Students with disabilities predicted that they would use special tutoring

and remedial services for specific subjects more often than other students

(see Table 9). Also, higher proportions of students with disabilities had

used extra tutoring assistance in high school.

A smaller share of 

freshmen with disabilities

than other students 

rated themselves as

“above average or in the

top 10 percent of people”

on most measures of 

self-esteem, academic

ability, and physical health. 

14
Table 8

Self-Perceptions of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year

Institutions, by Disability Status: 2000

Ability Any Disability None Reported

(by percentage)

Cooperativeness 69 73

Drive to achieve 67 71

Understanding of others 67 66

Creative ability 64 57

Leadership ability 61 61

Intellectual self-confidence 57 61

Academic ability 57 68

Self-understanding 56 57

Competitiveness 53 57

Social self-confidence 50 52

Spirituality 46 45

Physical health 46 57

Emotional health 44 55

Writing ability 42 46

Public speaking ability 40 37

Popularity 39 41

Mathematical ability 38 45

Artistic ability 35 29

Note: Students were asked to rate themselves as “above average or in the top 10 percent of people”

on these measures of ability.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

15
Students with disabilities

predicted that they would

use special tutoring and

remedial services for 

specific subjects more

often than other students. 

16

Table 9

Use of Special Tutoring and Remedial Help by Full-Time College Freshmen

Attending Four-Year Institutions, by Disability Status: 2000

Subject Any Disability None Reported

(by percentage)

Have Had Special Tutoring or Remedial Help in High School

English 15.8 5.1

Reading 13.7 4.5

Mathematics 24.4 12.0

Social studies 7.3 3.5

Science 10.4 4.7

Foreign language 10.9 4.8

Expect to Need Special Tutoring or Remedial Help in College

English 19.1 8.2

Reading 11.4 3.7

Mathematics 35.6 23.5

Social studies 7.4 3.0

Science 16.7 10.1

Foreign language 19.5 10.6

Note: Columns do not necessarily add to 100 percent because students can receive help in more than

one subject.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

Opinions

These freshman surveys serve as annual barometers of the attitudes and

political opinions of college students. Similar proportions of those with

and without disabilities agree on the importance of achieving life objectives

such as raising a family, being successful, helping others, and obtaining

recognition from colleagues (see Table 10). However, freshmen with disabilities placed a higher priority than their peers on social concerns (such

as promoting racial understanding and being involved in environmental

clean-up efforts) and creative contributions (such as writing and the performing arts).
Generally, the results of the 2000 survey did not reveal important distinctions in the political opinions expressed by students based on disability

status (see Table 11). For example, at least half of each group of students

felt that (1) the federal government could do more to control handguns, 

(2) colleges should prohibit racist and sexist speech on campus, and 

(3) abortion should be legal. In addition, both groups of freshmen characterized their political views similarly across the political spectrum; about

one in two students, regardless of their disability status, classified themselves as “middle-of-the-road.”

Table 10

Life Objectives of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year

Institutions, by Disability Status: 2000

Life Objective Any Disability None Reported

(by percentage)

Raise a family 71 73

Be very well off financially 70 74

Help others in difficulty 64 62

Become an authority in one’s field 59 60

Obtain recognition from colleagues 52 51

Develop a philosophy of life 45 42

Be successful in one’s own business 40 39

Influence social values 40 37

Have administrative responsibility for the work of others 37 37

Promote racial understanding 35 30

Become a community leader 34 31

Keep up to date with political affairs 31 28

Participate in community action 26 22

Be involved in environmental clean-up efforts 21 17

Create artistic works 20 14

Write original works 20 14

Achieve recognition in a performing art 19 14

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

17
Generally, the results 

of the 2000 survey did 

not reveal important 

distinctions in the 

political opinions

expressed by students

based on disability status. 

18

Table 11

Political Opinions/Orientation of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending FourYear Institutions, by Disability Status: 2000

Any Disability None Reported

(by percentage)

Political Opinion Reported

Federal government should do more to control handguns. 80 82

Colleges should prohibit racist/sexist speech on campus. 59 62

Abortion should be legal. 57 54

The wealthy should pay more taxes. 53 52

Affirmative action in college admissions should be abolished. 50 50

Political Orientation Reported

Far right 2 1

Conservative 18 19

Middle-of-the-road 49 52

Liberal 26 25

Far left 5 3

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)
Differences by Gender

Among Full-Time College

Freshmen with Disabilities

Attending Four-Year

Institutions: 2000

I

n response to many questions in the freshman survey, gender

appeared to be a more significant characteristic of students than

disability status. For example, women with disabilities considered

themselves more similar to women without disabilities than to men

with them. Specifically, women (regardless of their disability status)

were more likely than men to have the following characteristics in common

(see Appendix C):

■ To come from a lower-income family.

■ To have a single parent.

■ To have earned excellent high school grades.

■ To have more interest in education, professional fields, and the social

sciences and less interest in engineering and business.

■ To have major concerns about financing their college educations.

However, among freshmen with disabilities, some important distinctions

surfaced between men and women. First, the types of disabilities reported

varied (see Table 12). Women were more likely to report health-related 

disabilities, while men reported higher incidences of learning disabilities.

19
Among freshmen with 

disabilities, fewer 

women than men 

thought that they ranked

high on measures of 

emotional and 

social skills.

20

In the process of choosing a college, more women than men (each with 

disabilities) based their choices on the academic reputation, size of the college,

low tuition, proximity to home, religious affiliation/orientation, and availability of special programs. Expectations also varied by gender. A higher 

proportion of women than men thought it was likely that they would get a job

to help offset college expenses, earn at least a “B” average, receive a bachelor’s

degree, volunteer for community service, seek personal counseling, and be

satisfied with their college experiences.

On measures of competence, a smaller proportion of women than men,

regardless of disability status, rated themselves above average on academic

ability, competitiveness, mathematical ability, and physical health. Among

freshmen with disabilities, fewer women than men thought that they ranked

high on measures of emotional and social skills. For example, women were

more likely to report that they often felt depressed or overwhelmed, and

they rated themselves lower than men on measures of popularity, selfconfidence, and self-understanding.

Table 12

Differences Between Female and Male Full-Time College Freshmen Attending

Four-Year Institutions, by Type of Disability: 2000

Type of Disability Women Men

(by percentage)

Hearing 9.2 7.9

Speech 1.7 4.1

Orthopedic 7.9 6.4

Learning disability 37.4 43.2

Health-related 19.0 12.0

Partially sighted or blind 16.4 15.9

Other 16.2 17.5

Notes:

• Above data should be interpreted in the following way: For example, 37.4 percent of women with

disabilities reported having a learning disability.

• Columns do not necessarily add to 100 percent because students could report more than one disability.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)
Highlights of Full-Time

College Freshmen

Attending Four-Year

Institutions, by Type of

Disability: 2000

When each different type of disability is examined, distinctive differences emerge in the characteristics of the

students who self-reported specific conditions. For

example, students with certain disabilities were more

likely to report more than one condition (see Table 13).

College students with each type of disability, as well as those who teach,

advise, or administer postsecondary support services for them, may be

especially interested in the following section.

Learning Disability

Among freshmen with disabilities attending four-year institutions, the

largest group (two in five, or 40 percent) reported a learning disability; in

1988, the comparable proportion was only 16 percent. In 2000, 45 percent

of those reporting a learning disability were women and 19 percent were

students of color. Compared to other freshmen with disabilities, students

with learning disabilities were the most likely to:

■ Be from white/Caucasian families (81 percent versus 72 percent).

■ Be 19 or older (45 percent versus 37 percent).

21
Among students with 

disabilities, those with

learning disabilities were

the least likely to have

been offered financial

assistance as an 

incentive to enroll.

22

■ Be from families whose income exceeded $100,000 (42 percent versus

30 percent).

■ Have parents who were college graduates (65 percent versus 55 percent).

■ Have earned “C” or “D” averages in high school (17 percent versus 

12 percent).

■ Expect that they will need special tutoring or remedial work in English

(28 percent versus 19 percent), reading (18 percent versus 11 percent),

and mathematics (41 percent versus 36 percent) (see Figure 5).

■ Consider majoring in arts and sciences (20 percent versus 15 percent).

(Note: They were the least likely to be interested in professional fields 

[4 percent versus 10 percent]).

■ Rank themselves lowest on math ability (31 percent versus 38 percent),

intellectual self-confidence (51 percent versus 57 percent), academic

ability (42 percent versus 57 percent), and writing ability (34 percent

versus 42 percent).

Table 13

Percentage of Full-Time College Freshmen with Multiple Disabilities

Attending Four-Year Institutions, by Type of Disability: 2000

Partially 

Ortho- Learning Health- sighted

Disability Hearing Speech pedic disability related or blind Other

(by percentage)

Hearing 100.0 15.0 1.7 1.6 2.1 2.9 1.7

Speech 5.1 100.0 .9 1.0 .7 1.0 .9

Orthopedic 1.4 2.2 100.0 .8 3.8 1.6 2.0

Learning disability 7.5 13.4 4.4 100.0 5.0 2.9 6.4

Health-related 3.8 3.9 8.2 1.9 100.0 2.8 4.3

Partially sighted or blind 5.4 5.3 3.6 1.2 3.0 100.0 1.9

Other 3.3 5.1 4.7 2.7 4.8 2.0 100.0

Note: This table explains multiple disabilities reported by students. The primary disability is listed

along the top and the secondary disability is listed along the left side. Above data should be interpreted in the following way: For example, 5.1 percent of students with a hearing impairment also

reported a speech impairment. The number of students reporting each type of disability varied.

Therefore, 15 percent of those students reporting a speech impairment also reported a hearing impairment. The 100 percent figures indicate the overlap of reporting a specific type of disability.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

Freshmen with learning disabilities particularly valued special programs

offered by colleges (35 percent versus 29 percent of peers without disabilities). Among students with disabilities, those with learning disabilities

were the least likely to have been offered financial assistance as an incentive to enroll (23 percent versus 31 percent).
Partially Sighted or Blind

About one in six freshmen with disabilities (16 percent) at four-year institutions reported being partially sighted or blind. This figure is almost half of

the 1988 proportion of 30 percent. In 2000, about half (49 percent) of the

freshmen who were partially sighted or blind were women, and 38 percent

were students of color.

23

Figure 5

Use of Special Tutoring and Remedial Help by Full-Time College Freshmen

Attending Four-Year Institutions, by Disability Status: 2000

Note: Data for this figure are included in Appendix, Table A-1.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from

the 2000 Cooperative Institutional Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

Hearing

Speech

Orthopedic

Learning disability

Health-related

Partially sighted or 

blind

Other

Any

None

■ English

■ Reading

■ Mathematics

■ Social Studies

■ Science

■ Foreign Language

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45%
The proportion of 

freshmen with disabilities

who cite health-related

conditions has remained

relatively stable at 

15 to 18 percent 

since 1988.

Among students reporting disabilities, students who were partially sighted

or blind were the most likely to:

■ Be 18 years or younger (71 percent versus 63 percent).

■ Have earned an “A” average in high school (43 percent versus 30 percent).

■ Have chosen the college because they had been offered financial assistance

(38 percent versus 31 percent).

■ Have rated themselves above average on measures of academic ability

(69 percent versus 57 percent) and mathematical ability (48 percent

versus 38 percent).

Health-Related Disability

Of students at four-year institutions, 15 percent described their disability

as “health-related.” These students may have conditions such as severe

allergies, cystic fibrosis, cancer, lupus, or multiple sclerosis. The proportion

of freshmen with disabilities who cite health-related conditions has remained

relatively stable at 15 to 18 percent since 1988. In 2000, three in five students

reporting a health-related disability (60 percent) were women, and about

one in three (34 percent) was a student of color.

Compared to other students with disabilities, students who reported

health-related disabilities were the most likely to:

■ Be women (60 percent versus 48 percent).

■ Get a job to help pay for college expenses (45 percent versus 38 percent).

■ Have received aid from state scholarships and grants (27 percent versus

19 percent).

■ Cite the good academic reputation of the college as a major reason for

having chosen it (59 percent versus 53 percent).

■ Rank themselves highest on writing ability (49 percent versus 42 percent)

and lowest on a comparison of physical health characteristics (30 percent

versus 46 percent).

■ Predict that they will earn a bachelor’s degree (79 percent versus 72 percent).

■ Value helping others who are experiencing difficulty as an important life

objective (70 percent versus 64 percent).

24
Hearing Impairment

Of freshmen attending four-year institutions, 9 percent reported having 

a hearing impairment; this is lower than the 1988 figure of 12 percent. 

In 2000, 52 percent of these freshmen were women and 26 percent were

persons of color.

Generally, the characteristics of freshmen with hearing impairments paralleled those of other students with disabilities. However, among students

with disabilities, they were the most likely to:

■ Rank themselves highest on the characteristic called “drive to achieve”

(72 percent versus 67 percent).

■ Have used savings from summer work to help offset college expenses 

(53 percent versus 46 percent).

Orthopedic Impairment

In 2000, 7 percent of the freshmen with disabilities at four-year institutions

reported having an orthopedic condition; this is almost half of the 1988

figure of 13 percent. In 2000, fewer than half were women (46 percent),

and 27 percent were persons of color.

Compared to their peers with other disabilities, freshmen with orthopedic

disabilities were the most likely to:

■ Have tutored other high school students (60 percent versus 51 percent).

■ Predict that they will earn at least a “B” average (60 percent versus 

51 percent).

■ Have used a personal computer (83 percent versus 77 percent).

■ Participate in volunteer or community service work (31 percent versus

25 percent).

■ Aspire to be a community leader (40 percent versus 34 percent) and an

authority in their chosen field (65 percent versus 59 percent).

■ Rank themselves the highest on leadership ability (68 percent versus 

61 percent), public speaking ability (47 percent versus 40 percent), and

intellectual self-confidence (63 percent versus 57 percent).

25
Speech Impairment

In 2000, relatively few freshmen with disabilities who enrolled at four-year

institutions (3 percent) reported that they had a speech impairment. This

is similar to the 1988 proportion of 4 percent. Because the number of cases

is small, caution should be used when comparing the characteristics of

these freshmen with others who reported disabilities.

Compared to any other group of freshmen with disabilities, those with

speech impairments were the most likely to:

■ Be men (72 percent versus 52 percent).

■ Be students of color (48 percent versus 28 percent).

■ Be citizens of other countries (10 percent versus 3 percent).

■ Speak a language other than English (11 percent versus 5 percent).

■ List additional disabilities (see Table 13).

■ Be a first-generation college student (41 percent versus 30 percent).

■ Expect that they will need special tutoring or remedial work in social

studies (15 percent versus 7 percent), science (21 percent versus 

17 percent), and foreign language (29 percent versus 20 percent).

■ Have received aid from Pell Grants (24 percent versus 16 percent) and

federal loans (43 percent versus 33 percent).

■ Be enrolled at HBCUs (11 percent versus 4 percent).

26
Summary: Recent Trends

Generally, the characteristics of the freshmen who participated

in the most recent CIRP survey were similar to those of 

students attending four-year institutions that CIRP surveyed

12 years earlier in 1988. However, several changes are worth

noting. The 2000 freshmen, regardless of disability status,

were more likely to have reported:

■ Being individuals of color.

■ Earning higher average high school grades.

■ Having parents with higher levels of education.

■ Giving lower ratings on measures of emotional health, leadership ability,

and social and intellectual self-confidence.

■ Expecting to make at least a “B” average and graduating with honors.

■ Considering financial assistance as a key factor in deciding to enroll at a

particular college.

■ Getting a job to help pay for college expenses.

The proportion of full-time college freshmen reporting disabilities at fouryear institutions remained stable (6 to 8 percent) between 1988 and 2000.

Students with learning disabilities continued to be the fastest growing group:

By 2000, two in five freshmen with disabilities (40 percent) reported having

a learning disability. 

It is impossible to determine if the overall proportion of students with disabilities (9 percent)—which was reported for all colleges and universities in the

1998 HEATH report, College Freshmen with Disabilities: A Biennial 27
Statistical Profile—would have remained the same, fallen, or risen if the

2000 CIRP survey had included the two-year sector. Until 1998, the proportion of students who enrolled in public two-year colleges had declined

steadily, while the percentage choosing four-year colleges and universities

had slowly increased. However, the 1998 figures suggested that a shift had

occurred among all freshmen—regardless of disability status—toward more

enrollment in community colleges. It is unclear if these shifts would have

continued in 2000 and how they would have affected the overall percentages of students with disabilities. The 2000 profile in this report does highlight the fact that students enrolled in baccalaureate colleges and universities

are younger and more affluent than their counterparts at community and

junior colleges.

28
Appendix

29
Table A-1

Selected Characteristics of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions, by Type of

Disability: 2000

Partially

Ortho- Learning Health- sighted

Characteristic None Hearing Speech pedic disability related or blind Other Any

(by percentage)

GENDER

Men 45 48 72 54 55 40 51 54 52

Women 55 52 28 46 45 60 49 46 48

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

AGE

17 or younger 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2

18 69 61 59 63 54 69 69 61 61

19 27 34 33 31 41 26 27 33 34

20 or older 2 4 6 4 4 3 2 4 3

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

RACE/ETHNICITY

White/Caucasian 72 74 52 73 81 66 62 64 72

African American 10 7 21 9 6 14 10 11 9

American Indian 2 3 5 3 2 4 3 4 3

Asian American 7 5 9 4 2 4 11 6 5

Mexican American 3 3 4 2 2 4 5 3 3

Puerto Rican 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 2 1

Other Latino 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2

Other 3 4 4 5 4 5 6 8 5

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

ESTIMATED PARENTAL INCOME

Less than $20,000 9 12 17 10 7 11 14 15 10

$20,000–$49,999 26 28 26 28 18 30 29 28 25

$50,000–$74,999 25 24 21 24 20 22 23 19 21

$75,000 and above 40 36 36 38 55 37 34 38 44

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Median Income $64,500 $60,805 $56,874 $61,080 $84,375 $58,406 $57,070 $58,720 $66,794

30
Table A-1 (continued)

Partially

Ortho- Learning Health- sighted

Characteristic None Hearing Speech pedic disability related or blind Other Any

(by percentage)

AVERAGE HIGH SCHOOL GRADES

A 44 42 32 39 16 40 43 31 30

B 50 52 56 52 67 52 50 57 58

C and D 6 6 12 9 17 8 7 12 12

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

EXPECT TO NEED SPECIAL TUTORING OR REMEDIAL HELP IN COLLEGE

English 8 17 24 10 28 12 13 17 19

Reading 4 9 17 6 18 6 6 10 11

Mathematics 24 30 28 34 41 34 29 36 36

Social studies 3 8 15 4 9 6 5 8 7

Science 10 16 21 13 20 16 14 17 17

Foreign language 11 17 29 14 23 18 16 21 20

MAJOR FIELD OF STUDY

Arts and humanities 12 17 17 18 20 18 19 19 15

Biological sciences 7 6 5 7 5 7 7 6 6

Business 17 14 18 16 15 12 14 15 15

Education 11 14 9 11 14 13 10 11 13

Engineering 9 8 10 6 6 7 9 7 7

Physical sciences 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2

Professional programs* 12 9 7 10 4 12 8 7 10

Social sciences 10 9 7 9 9 8 8 8 11

Technical fields** 2 6 9 5 6 5 8 8 3

Other fields*** 18 15 16 16 20 16 15 17 18

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

*Includes architecture or urban planning, home economics, health technology, library or archival science, nursing, pharmacy, pre-dental,

pre-medical, pre-veterinary, therapy (occupational, physical, and speech), and other professional programs.

**Includes building trades, data processing/computer programming, drafting or design, electronics, mechanics, and other technical fields.

***Includes agriculture, communications, computer science, forestry, law enforcement, military science, other fields, and undecided.

Note: “Any” means students reporting any type of disability.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from the 2000 Cooperative Institutional

Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

31
Table A-2

Distribution of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions, by Gender, Race/Ethnicity,

and Disability Status: 2000

Any Disability None Reported

Characteristic Number Percent Number Percent

White/Caucasian men 25,051 37.8 338,125 32.7

White/Caucasian women 22,830 34.5 403,653 39.0

African-American men 2,875 4.3 41,280 4.0

African-American women 3,230 4.9 60,605 5.8

American Indian men 890 1.4 7,421 .7

American Indian women 1,023 1.5 10,292 1.0

Asian-American men 1,711 2.6 33,395 3.2

Asian-American women 1,407 2.1 37,735 3.6

Mexican-American men 992 1.5 15,770 1.5

Mexican-American women 895 1.4 21,726 2.1

Puerto Rican men 376 .6 4,174 .4

Puerto Rican women 384 .6 5,717 .6

Other Latino men 582 .9 8,813 .9

Other Latino women 735 1.1 13,150 1.3

Other men 1,745 2.6 14,842 1.4

Other women 1,471 2.2 18,868 1.8

Total 66,197 100.0 1,035,566 100.0

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from the 2000 Cooperative Institutional

Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

32
Table A-3

Selected Characteristics of Full-Time College Freshmen Attending Four-Year Institutions, by Gender and

Disability Status: 2000

Women Men

None Any None Any

Characteristic Reported Disability Reported Disability

(by percentage)

AGE

17 or younger 2 2 2 1

18 74 67 64 56

19 23 29 32 39

20 or older 1 2 2 4

Total 100 100 100 100

RACE/ETHNICITY

White/Caucasian 70 72 73 73

African American 11 10 9 8

American Indian 2 3 2 3

Asian American 7 4 7 5

Mexican American 4 3 3 3

Puerto Rican 1 1 1 1

Other Latino 2 2 2 2

Other 3 5 3 5

Total 100 100 100 100

LIVING ARRANGEMENT OF PARENTS

Both alive and living with each other 71 70 75 74

Both alive, divorced or living apart 25 26 21 22

One or both deceased 4 4 4 4

Total 100 100 100 100

ESTIMATED PARENTAL INCOME 

Less than $20,000 11 12 7 9

$20,000–$49,999 28 28 24 23

$50,000–$74,999 24 21 25 21

$75,000 and above 37 39 44 47

Total 100 100 100 100

Median Income $60,971 $60,526 $68,334 $71,848

33
Table A-3 (continued)

Women Men

None Any None Any

Characteristic Reported Disability Reported Disability

(by percentage)

AVERAGE HIGH SCHOOL GRADES

A 48 34 38 26

B 48 57 53 59

C and D 4 9 9 15

Total 100 100 100 100

EXPECT TO NEED SPECIAL TUTORING OR REMEDIAL HELP IN COLLEGE*

English 7 17 9 21

Reading 3 10 4 13

Mathematics 27 41 19 31

Social studies 4 8 2 7

Science 12 20 7 4

Foreign language 10 20 11 19

MAJOR FIELD OF STUDY

Arts and humanities 15 17 15 14

Biological sciences 7 7 6 5

Business 14 10 21 19

Education 15 17 6 8

Engineering 3 2 16 12

Physical sciences 1 2 2 3

Professional programs** 13 13 5 7

Social sciences 10 15 4 7

Technical fields*** 3 1 10 4

Other fields**** 19 16 15 21

Total 100 100 100 100

34
Table A-3 (continued)

Women Men

None Any None Any

Characteristic Reported Disability Reported Disability

(by percentage)

CONCERN ABOUT FINANCING COLLEGE EDUCATION

None 31 33 43 43

Some 55 50 47 44

Major 14 17 10 13

Total 100 100 100 100

*Percentages do not necessarily add to 100 percent because students can receive help in more than one subject.

**Includes architecture or urban planning, home economics, health technology, library or archival science, nursing, pharmacy, pre-dental,

pre-medical, pre-veterinary, therapy (occupational, physical, and speech), and other professional programs.

***Includes building trades, data processing/computer programming, drafting or design, electronics, mechanics, and other technical

fields.

****Includes agriculture, communications, computer science, forestry, law enforcement, military science, other fields, and undecided.

Source: HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education. (Based on unpublished data from the 2000 Cooperative Institutional

Research Program, UCLA, 2001.)

35

37

Acknowledgments

The HEATH Resource Center pays special tribute to the individuals 

who generously gave their time and energy to the development of this 

publication.

This report was written by Cathy Henderson. John Gugerty, Debra PriceEllingstad, Susan Quinby, and Marie Trottier helped fine-tune the content

and clarity of the material. ACE’s Division of External Affairs’ Publications

Staff assisted Vickie Barr in the editing and production of this publication. 

39

HEATH Resource Center

Advisory Board

Lynn Barnett

American Association of Community

Colleges

Sharman Davis Barrett

PACER Center

Lydia S. Block

Block Educational Consulting

Lynn Boyer

National Clearinghouse on Careers &

Professions Related to Early Intervention &

Education for Children with Disabilities

Robert Burns

Council of State Administrators 

of Vocational Rehabilitation

Norm Coombs

Project EASI

Kathleen Furlong-Norman

Center for Psychiatric Rehabilitation

John Gugerty

Center on Education and Work

Kathleen Nadeau

Chesapeake Psychological Services 

of Maryland

Debra Price-Ellingstad

U.S. Department of Education

Andrea Reeve

National TRIO Clearinghouse

Suzanne Ripley

National Information Center for Children

and Youth with Disabilities

Joyce Smith

National Association for College Admission

Counseling

HEATH Staff

Vickie M. Barr, Director

Mario D. Payne, Assistant Director

Daniel B. Gardner, Publications Manager

Dottie Jones, Program Coordinator

Marcus Griffin, Mail Production Technician

ACE Board of Directors

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Janet L. Holmgren,

President

Mills College, CA

Chair

Augustine P. Gallego,

Chancellor

San Diego Community

College District, CA

Vice Chair/Chair-elect

Michael F. Adams,

President

University of Georgia

Immediate Past Chair

William E. Troutt,

President

Rhodes College, TN

Secretary

Molly C. Broad, President

University of North Carolina

David G. Carter, President

Eastern Connecticut State

University

Lawrence J. DeNardis,

President

University of New Haven, CT

Peggy Williams, President

Ithaca College, NY

Stanley O. Ikenberry,

President

American Council on

Education

CLASS OF 2001

Michael F. Adams,

President

University of Georgia

Molly C. Broad, President

University of North

Carolina

David G. Carter, President

Eastern Connecticut State

University

E. Gordon Gee, Chancellor

Vanderbilt University, TN

Peter C. Ku, Chancellor

Seattle Community College

District, WA

Jerry Sue Thornton,

President

Cuyahoga Community

College, OH

William E. Troutt,

President

Rhodes College, TN

J. William Wenrich,

Chancellor

Dallas County Community

College District, TX

CLASS OF 2002

Nancy S. Dye, President

Oberlin College, OH

Wayne E. Giles, Chancellor

Metropolitan Community

Colleges, MO

James A. Hefner, President

Tennessee State University

Janet L. Holmgren,

President

Mills College, CA

Gladys Styles Johnston,

Chancellor

University of Nebraska at

Kearney

William E. Kirwan,

President

The Ohio State University

Michael S. McPherson,

President

Macalester College, MN

Peggy R. Williams,

President

Ithaca College, NY

41
42

CLASS OF 2003

Scott S. Cowen, President

Tulane University, LA

Norman C. Francis,

President

Xavier University, LA

Augustine P. Gallego,

Chancellor

San Diego Community

College District, CA

Zelema M. Harris,

President

Parkland College, IL

Robert E. Hemenway,

Chancellor

University of Kansas

M. Lee Pelton, President

Willamette University, OR

Steven B. Sample, President

University of Southern

California

Marlene Springer,

President

College of Staten Island, NY

ELECTED OFFICERS OF 

ASSOCIATIONS–

EX OFFICIO FOR 

THREE-YEAR TERMS

American Association of

Community Colleges

Carolyn Williams, President

Bronx Community College,

NY

American Association of

State Colleges & Universities

Julio S. Leon, President

Missouri Southern State

College

Association of American

Colleges & Universities

Thomas F. Flynn, President

Millikin University, IL

Association of American

Universities

Francis L. Lawrence,

President

Rutgers, The State

University of New Jersey

Association of Catholic

Colleges & Universities

Thomas Scanlan, FSC,

President

Manhattan College, NY

Association of Jesuit

Colleges & Universities

Edward Glynn, S.J.,

President

John Carroll University, OH

Council of Independent

Colleges

Margaret A. McKenna,

President

Lesley University, MA

National Association for

Equal Opportunity in

Higher Education

John T. Gibson, President

Alabama A&M University

National Association of

Independent Colleges &

Universities

Lawrence J. DeNardis,

President

University of New Haven, CT

National Association of

State Universities 

& Land-Grant Colleges

Lattie F. Coor, President

Arizona State University 

ELECTED OFFICERS OF 

ASSOCIATIONS–

EX OFFICIO FOR 

ONE-YEAR TERMS

American Association for

Higher Education

Leo M. Lambert, President

Elon University, NC

National Association of

Student Financial Aid

Administrators

Dallas Martin, President

National Association of

Student Financial Aid

Administrators, DC

Washington Higher

Education Secretariat

Judith S. Eaton, President

Council for Higher

Education Accreditation, DC

HEATH

ResourceCenter

American Council on Education